How  to  take  out  the  Old  

Pages  and  put  in  the  New  W^^9L 


1st— With  your  key  you  loosen  the  nut  at 
the  top  and  bottom  of  the  Volume  and  lift 
the  front  cover. 


2nd— Take  your  metal  transfer  frame  and 
insert  the  prong-s  into  the  post  of  the  Vol- 
ume; slide  the  pag-es  from  the  Volume  on 
to  the  transfer  frame;  remove  the  oldpag-es 
and  substitute  the  new. 


3rd— After  the  new  pag-es  have  been  in- 
serted, the  oldpag-es  can  be  thrown  away 
and  the  Volume  locked.  To  lock  the  Vol- 
ume fit  the  pins  of  the  upper  cover  into 
the  posts  as  shown  in  first  illustration,  close 
the  Volume,  press  it  down  tight  with  your 
left  hand  and  tighten  the  nut  at  the  top 
an     bottom.    THAT'S  ALL. 


The  person  charging  this  material  is  re- 
sponsible for  its  return  to  the  library  from 
which  it  was  withdrawn  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 

Theft,  mutilation,  and  underlining  of  books  are  reasons 
for  disciplinary  action  and  may  result  in  dismissal  from 
the  University. 

To  renew  call  Telephone  Center,  333-8400 

UNIVERSITY   OF    ILLINOIS   LIBRARY  AT  URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 


DUE:  1^ 


L161— O-1096 


NELSON'S 

PERPETUAL  LOOSE-LEAF 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

An  International  Work  of  Reference 

Complete  in  Twelve  Volumes,  with  7000  Illustrations,  Colored 
Plates,  Manikins,  Models,  Maps  and  Engravings 

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 
JOHN  H.  FINLEY,  LL.D. 

COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION  AND  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 

CANADIAN  EDITOR 

WILLIAM   PETERSON,  LL.D.,  C.M.G. 

PRINCIPAL  OF  McGILL  UNIVERSITY,  MONTREAL 
EUROPEAN  EDITOR 

GEORGE   SANDEMAN,  M.A. 

EDINBURGH,  SCOTLAND 
EDITOR  TO  THOMAS  NELSON  &  SONS 

SIR  EDWARD  PARROTT,  M.A.,LL.D.,  F.E.I.S. 


NEW  YORK 
THOMAS    NELSON    AND  SONS 

LONDON  EDINBURGH  TORONTO 


PUBLISHERS'  NOTE 


Nelson's  Encyclopaedia  was  first  published  in  1905  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  in  Great  Britain  in 
part  form.  In  1907  it  was  issued  in  Great  Britain  in  ten  volumes  and  has  had  the  largest  sale  of  any 
Encyclopaedia. 

Nelson's  Encyclopaedia,  published  in  New  York  in  1906,  was  edited  by  a  staff  of  American 
Scholars  and  Specialists  under  the  direction  of  Frank  Moore  Colby,  M.A.,  as  Editor-in-Chief  in  the 
United  States,  and  George  Sandeman,  M.A.,  in  Edinburgh. 

In  1909  the  Perpetual  Loose-Leaf  edition  was  issued  under  the  direction  of  John  H.  Finley,  LL.D., 
President  of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  Editor-in-Chief ;  Associate  Editors,  William 
Peterson,  LL.D.,  C.M.G.,  Principal  of  McGill  University,  Montreal,  Canada,  and  George  Sandeman, 
M.A.,  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  assisted  by  Scholars  and  Specialists  in  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
who  prepared  many  special  articles  that  are  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  Encyclopaedia. 


Volume  I 

Pages  481  to  640,  both  inclusive,  constitute  Nelson's  Encyclopedia  Part  IV 

Copyright,  1905,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York 
Copyright,  1906,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York 
Copyright,  1907,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York 
Copyright,  1909,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York 
Copyright,  1910,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York 
Copyright,  1911,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York 
Copyright,  1912,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York 
Copyright,  1913,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York 
Copyright,  1914,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York 
Copyright,  1915,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York 


bio 

^  V.I 


v) 

cv 
^ 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


|HE  publishing  firm  responsible  for  this  enterprise  has  aimed  at  producing 
a  complete,  up-to-date,  and  scholarly  Encyclopaedia  in  a  moderate 
compass. 

In  the  allotment  of  space  to  the  various  topics,  Nelson's  Encyclo- 
pedia differs  considerably  from  its  predecessors.  It  is  essentially  a 
modern  book.  While  topics  of  classical  or  antiquarian  interest  are 
not  neglected,  a  new  and  special  emphasis  has  been  laid  on  subjects 
which  are  of  wide  and  active  interest  to-day,  such  as  biographies 
of  living  persons,  recent  developments  in  science,  and  the  results 
of  modern  invention. 

By  judicious  condensation,  and  by  recognizing  the  needs  of  the  life  of  the  world  to- 
(  day,  and  especially  of  this  part  of  the  world,  the  publishers  have  succeeded  in  present- 
ing information  of  greater  practical  value  and  upon  a  larger  number  of  subjects  than 
^  has  ever  before  been  brought  within  the  same  compass. 

Within  the  available  space,  the  publishers  have  endeavored  to  insure  four  things: — 
(i.)  Accuracy. — This  applies  to  the  brief  summaries  and  illustrations  as  well  as  to 
the  longer  articles. 

(2.)  Completeness. — Every  topic  is  treated  so  as  to  present  all  the  facts  which  read- 
ers other  than  specialists  are  likely  to  require. 

(3.)  Clearness. — Even  the  most  technical  subjects  are  discussed  in  language  in 
telligible  to  such  readers. 

(4.)  Guidance  for  Students. — full  and  carefully  selected  bibliography  is  appended 
to  each  important  article,  to  guide  readers  to  the  best  sources  for  further  study.  This 
~  feature  of  the  work  places  it  in  the  front  rank  as  a  work  of  reference. 

The  result  is  that  Nelson's  Encyclopedia  contains  all  that  the  well-informed 
man  of  to-day  needs  to  know,  together  with  the  guidance  that  a  student  requires.  It 
is,  in  fact,  a  Complete  Library  of  Reference. 
^      In  the  illustration  of  the  work,  the  publishers  have  considered  utility  rather  than 


00 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


mere  ornament.  Technical  and  scientific  illustrations  are  introduced  to  elucidate 
the  text;  reproductions  of  paintings,  statuary,  etc.,  to  give  some  idea  of  the  art  of 
different  ages  and  schools,  or  the  character  of  scenery  in  different  lands.  In  fact, 
not  only  can  a  wider  range  of  subjects  than  is  customary  in  general  reference  works 
be  claimed,  but  also  a  greater  number  of  illustrations.  All  of  the  leading  cities  of  the 
world  with  their  famous  buildings  and  architectural  monuments  are  represented.  The 
reader  may  also  see  depicted  ancient  and  modern  civilization  as  well  as  nature  in  its 
many  aspects.  Portraits,  which,  owing  to  their  human  interest,  are  the  most  attrac- 
tive of  all  illustrations,  have  been  freely  inserted. 

This  work,  whose  most  distinguishing  feature  is  that  its  contents  are  kept  current 
with  changes  and  progress  from  year  to  year,  is  issued  by  Messrs.  Thomas  Nelson 
&  Sons,  and  has  been  prepared  and  edited  by  competent  scholars,  writers,  and 
practical  experts  of  the  day. 

Nelson's  Encyclopedia  rests  upon  the  reliability  of  its  information,  which  has 
been  thoroughly  tested,  the  wide  reach  of  its  contents,  and  the  unique  means  of  keep- 
ing the  material  accurate  to  date.  For  its  successful  completion  no  efforts  have  been 
spared  to  obtain  the  services  of  scholars  and  men  of  letters  of  both  the  Old  World  and 
the  New  who  are  not  only  masters  of  their  subjects  but  are  able  to  expound  them  in 
simple  language.  Moreover,  since  the  activities  of  the  publishers  are  maintained  in 
both  Great  Britain  and  America,  it  has  been  possible  to  unite  the  work  of  editors  in 
both  countries.  The  results  justify  the  claim  that  Nelson's  Encyclopedia  is  truly 
international.  The  American  articles  have  been  written  in  the  United  States  by 
leading  authorities,  while  those  dealing  with  European  countries  and  institutions  have 
been  prepared  in  the  Old  World  by  scholars  who  are  not  only  high  authorities  but 
have  had  unusual  opportunities  to  use  European  libraries  and  collections.  Further- 
more, all  articles  of  this  latter  class  have  undergone  the  scrutiny  of  American  authori- 
ties and  in  their  present  form  embody  the  results  of  American  criticism  and  revision. 

JOHN  H.  FINLEY, 

editor  in  chief. 


NELSON'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  THE  EDITORS  AND  SPECIALISTS 
WHO  HAVE  CONTRIBUTED  TO  THIS  WORK. 


Editor-in-Chief:  John  H.  Finley,  LL.D.,  President  of  the  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York.  Canadian  Editor:  William  Peterson,  LL.D.,  C.M.G., 
Principal  of  McGill  University,  Montreal,  Canada.  European  Editor: 
George  Sandeman,  M.A.,  Edinburgh,  Scotland. 

AERONAUTICS. 

ArtSSS'"*^*'         Kruckman,  Arnold,  Aeronautical  Editor  of  the  New  York 
''World." 

Ferris,  Richard,  B.S.,  C.E.,  Author  of  ''How  It  Flies." 


AGRICULTURE. 

ASicie""'*'  True,  Alfred  C,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  the  Office  of  Ex- 

Forestry,  periment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Kgrai^  wo^i?'"'"    Allen,  Edwin  West,  B.S.,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Director,  Editor  of 
"Experiment  Station  Record." 

Irrigation.  Mead,  Dr.  Elwood,  Chief  of  Irrigation  and  Drainage  Investi- 

gation. 


ffta^rm*MSn-  Beal,  W.  H.,  Editor  of  "Experiment  Station  Record." 

ery 


b?J?o,  wheTt,  Ind    ScHULTE,  J.  I.,  Associatc  Editor  of  "Experiment  Station  Record." 

other  Field  Crops. 


Horticulture. 


Smith,  C.  B.,  Associate  Editor  of  "Experiment  Station  Record." 


Animal  Diseases.     WiLCOX,  Dr.  E.  V.,  Associate  Editor  of  "Experiment  Station 
Record." 


Economic  Botany.    j?VANS,  Dr.  W.  H.,  Chief  of  Insular  Experiment  Stations. 


Meat  Packing  In- 
dustry. 


SoUs. 


Foreign 
Agriculture. 


MoHLER,  Dr.  John  R.,  Pathologist  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

HiLGARD,  Eugene  W.,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Agriculture, 
University  of  California. 

Wallace,  Robert,  F.R.S.E.,  F.L.S.,  Professor  of  Agriculture 
and  Rural  Economy,  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  Garton 
Lecturer  on  Colonial  and  Indian  Agriculture. 


An  thropological 
Articles. 


Ethnological  and 

Geographical 

Articles. 


Physical 
Anthropology. 


American 
Indians. 


ANTHROPOLOGY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

WissLER,  Clark,  Curator  of  Ethnology,  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  New  York. 

Haddon,  Alfred  C,  M.A.,  Sc.D.,  F.R.S.,  University  Lecturer 
in  Ethnology,  Cambridge;  Author  of  ''Studies  of  Man." 

Keane,  Augustus  H.,  LL.D.,  F.R.G.S.,  Emeritus  Professor 
of  Hindustani,  University  College,  London. 

Hepburn,  Prof.  David,  M.D.,  CM.,  M.R.C.S.,  F.R.S.E.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Anatomy  and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine, 
University  of  Wales. 

MooNEY,  James,  Ethnologist,  American  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


Egypt. 


Assyria,  Babylo- 
nia, ete. 


Phoenicia, 
Hittites, 
Semites,  etc. 

Gypsies, 
Iron  Age, 
Archaeology, 
Witchcraft,  etc. 

Antiquarian  Sub- 
jects. 


Petrie,  Wm.  Matthew  Flinders,  D.C,  Litt.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
Professor  of  Egyptology,  University  College,  London. 

Pinches,  Theoppiilus  Goldridge,  LL.D.,  Assyriologist,  Lec- 
turer in  Assyrian,  University  College,  London,  formerly 
Assistant  in  Department  of  Oriental  AAtiquities,  British 
Museum. 

Sayce,  Rev.  Archibald  H.,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Assyriology,  Oxford  University. 

MacRitchie,  David,  F.S.A.  Scot.,  Authority  on  Gypsy  Lore  and 
Archaeology;  Author  of  ''Fians,  Fairies,  and  Picts,"  etc. 

Coles,  F.  R.,  Assistant  Keeper,  Scottish  National  Museum  of 
Antiquities,  Edinburgh. 


American 
Biographies. 


BIOGRAPHY  (AMERICAN). 

Gladden,  George,  formerly  Editor  of  "Current  Literature." 

Hubert,  Philip  G.,  Jr.,  formerly  Dramatic  Editor,  New  York 
"Evening  Post." 

Haworth,  Paul  L.,  Lecturer  in  History,  Columbia  University. 


Southern 
Biographies. 


American  Biogra- 
phies— Franltlin, 
Washington,  etc. 

John  Marshall. 


U.  S.  Grant. 


James  Madison. 


Roosevelt, 
Taft. 


Martin  Van  Buren, 
John  W.  Tyler. 


Marquette, 
Pontiac. 


miliain  Penn. 


Derry,  Joseph  T.,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Atlanta,  Ga.; 
Author  of  historical  works  on  the  Southern  Confederacy. 

MacDonald,  William,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  History, 
Brown  University. 

Baldwin,  Simeon  E.,  A.M.,  LL.D.,  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Errors,  Connecticut. 

Church,  William  C,  Editor  ''Army  and  Nayy  Journal,'^ 
Brevet  Lieutenant-Colonel,  U.  S.  Army. 

Hunt,  Gaillard,  Chief  of  the  Passport  Bureau,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  State. 

Leupp,  Francis  E.,  A.M.,  LL.B.,  former  U.  S.  Commissioner  of 
Indian  Affairs;  Author  of  "The  Man  Roosevelt." 

Thompson,  Holland,  Professor  of  History,  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York. 

Thwaites,  Reuben  G.,  LL.D.,  Superintendent  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin State  Historical  Society,  Lecturer  on  American  History, 
University  of  Wisconsin. 

Fisher,  Sydney  G.,  L.H.D.,  LL.D.,  Author  of  "The  Making  of 
Pennsylvania,"  "The  Evolution  of  the  Constitution,"  "The 
True  WilHam  Penn,"  etc. 


Daniel  Webster. 


Wheeler,  Everett  P.,  of  the  New  York  Bar. 


BIOGRAPHY  (FOREIGN) 


Biographies. 


Revision  of 
Biographies. 


Literary 
Biographies. 


Sharp,  R.  Farquharson,  Assistant  Librarian,  British  Museum, 
London;  Author  of  ''Dictionary  of  Enghsh  Authors,"  ''Mak- 
ers of  Music,"  "Architects  of  English  History,"  etc. 

Stronach,  George,  M.A.,  Chief  Assistant  Librarian,  Advocates' 
Library,  Edinburgh. 

Macpherson,  Hector,  Editor  "Edinburgh  Evening  News"; 
Author  of  Lives  of  Gladstone,  Thomas  Carlyle,  Adam 
Smith,  Herbert  Spencer,  etc. 

PoLLAK,  GusTAV,  formerly  Editor  "Century  Dictionary  of 
Names." 

Smith,  David  Nichol,  M.A.,  Professor  of  English  Literature, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne ;  Editor  of  "Dryden's  Essay  on  Dramatic 
Poesy." 

Chambers,  Edmund  K.,  B.A.,  Acting  Assistant  Secretary,  Board 
of  Education,  England;  Editor  of  "Red  Letter  Edition  of 
Shakespeare." 


3 


French 

Literary 

Biographies. 


French  Historical 
Subjects  and  Biog- 
raphies. 


Duff,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Mountstuart  E.  G.,  G.C.S.I.,  M.A.,  P.C., 
F.R.S.,  D.L.,  formerly  Lord  Rector  of  Aberdeen  University; 
Under-Secretary  of  State  for  India  (1868-74);  Under-Secre- 
tary for  the  Colonies  (1880-81);  Governor  of  Madras  (1881- 
86) ;  formerly  President  of  the  Royal  Geographical  and  Royal 
Historical  Societies;  Editor  of  "Victorian  Anthology." 

Grant,  Arthur  J.,  M.A.,  Professor  of  History  and  Dean  of  the 
Faculty  of  Arts,  University  of  Leeds;  Author  of  ''The  French 
Monarchy,"  etc. 


Keary,  Charles  F.,  Novelist  and  Historical  Writer,  formerly 
Member  of  the  Staff  of  the  British  Museum. 


German  Literary 
Biographies. 


Scottish 
Biographies. 


Irish  Subjects  and 
Biographies. 


The  Coleridge 
Family,  etc. 


RippMANN,  Walter,  Professor  of  the  German  Language  at 
Queen's  College,  London. 

Crockett,  Rev.  William  S.,  Author  of  "The  Scott  Country," 
''Sir  Walter  Scott,"  "Robert  Burns,"  "Minstrelsy  of  the 
Merse,"  ''The  Border  Country,"  etc. 

Henderson,  T.  F.,  Author  of  many  Scottish  historical  works. 

Morris,  Judge  William  O'Connor,  formerly  Irish  County 
Court  Judge. 

Coleridge,  Ernest  Hartley,  M.A.,  formerly  Secretary  to  the 
late  Baron  Coleridge,  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England;  Editor 
of  "Letters  of  S.  T.  Coleridge,"  "Poetical  Works  of  Lord 
Byron,"  "Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Coleridge,"  etc. 


John 
Buskin. 


CoLLiNGWOOD,  WiLLiAM  G.,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  formerly  Secretary  to 
Ruskin;  Author  of  "Life  of  Ruskin." 


Saxo 

Grammatlcus. 


Elton,  Oliver,  M.A.,  Professor  of  English  Literature,  Univer- 
sity College,  Liverpool;  Author  of  "Mythical  Books  of  Saxo 
Grammaticus,"  "Historia  Danica,"  etc. 


George  Berkeley, 
John  Locke. 


Eraser,  Alexander  C,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  Litt.D.,  F.R.S.,  Edin- 
burgh, Emeritus  Professor  of  Logic  and  Metaphysics,  Edin- 
burgh University;  formerly  Editor  of  the  "North  British 
Review." 


William  Congreve. 


GossE,  Edmund,  LL.D.,  Author  and  Critic,  Librarian  to  the 
House  of  Lords;  Author  of  "Life  of  Congreve,"  etc. 


Charlotte  Bronte. 


George  Fox, 
Edward  Gibbon. 


Shorter,  Clement  K.,  Editor  of  "The  Sphere,"  London, 
founder  and  formerly  Editor  of  "The  Sketch." 

HoDGKiN,  Thomas,  D.C.L.,  Litt.D.,  Historian;  Author  of  "Italy 
and  Her  Invaders,"  "Life  of  Charles  the  Great,"  "Life  of 
George  Fox,"  and  "  PoHtical  History  of  England." 


4 


Leibniz, 
Erigena, 
Scliolasticism. 


Junius. 


Mlrabeau. 


Herbert  of 
Cherbury. 


Geo^e  Meredith. 


Latta,  Robert,  M.A.,  D.Phil.,  Professor  of  Logic  and  Rhetoric, 
University  of  Glasgow. 

Rae,  W.  Fraser,  Author  of  ''Notes  on  England,  from  the  French 
of  M.  Taine." 

Rose,  John  H.,  M.A.,  Litt.D.,  Historical  Writer,  University 
Extension  Lecturer,  Editor  of  the  Victorian  Era  Series,  and 
Author  of  ''The  Development  of  the  European  Nations, 
1870-1900,"  etc. 

SoRLEY,  William  R.,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Litt.D.,  Knightbridge  Pro- 
fessor of  Moral  Philosophy,  Cambridge  University;  Author 
of  "Ethics  of  Naturalism,"  etc. 

Erskine,  John,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct  Professor  of  English, 
Columbia  University. 


Biology, 
Embryology, 

Sex, 

Heredity,  etc. 


Biological  and 

Botanical 

Articles. 


Fisheries. 


Foreign 
Fisheries. 


Mosquitoes. 


Seals  and  Seal 
Fishery. 


Zoological 
Articles. 


BIOLOGY,  BOTANY,  AND  NATURE  STUDY. 

Thomson,  John  Arthur,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Natural  History, 
Aberdeen  University;  formerly  Lecturer  on  Zoology  and 
Biology,  School  of  Medicine,  Edinburgh. 

Ingersoll,  Ernest,  Naturalist,  Editor,  and  formerly  Lecturer 
on  Zoology,  University  of  Chicago. 

ScHERREN,  Henry,  F.Z.S.,  late  Editor  of  the  Encyclopjedic  Dic- 
tionary; Specialist  in  Zoology  and  Botany. 

Bristol,  Charles  L.,  B.S.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Biology,  New 
York  University. 

Fulton,  T.  Wemyss,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  Scientific  Superintendent, 
Fishery  Board  for  Scotland. 

Howard,  Leland  0.,  M.S.,  Ph.D.,  Chief  of  Bureau  of  Entomol- 
ogy, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture;  Curator  Department 
of  Insects,  U.  S.  National  Museum. 

Jordan,  David  Starr,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  Leland 
Stanford,  Jr.,  University;  Member  U.  S.  Seal  Commission. 

Newbigin,  Marion  L,  D.Sc,  Lecturer  on  Zoology,  College  of 
Medicine  for  Women,  Edinburgh;  Editor  of  the  ''Scottish 
Geographical  Magazine." 


CHEMISTRY. 

Coblentz,  Virgil,  Ph.D.,  Phar.M.,  A.M.,  F.C.S.,  Professor  of 
Chemistry,  Department  of  Pharmacy,  Columbia  University; 
Member  of  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia  Revision  Committee; 
Author  of  "Volumetric  Analysis,"  "The  Newer  Remedies," 
etc. 


5 


Chemistry. 


Curtis,  Robert  W.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  of  Chemistry,  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York. 


Marshall,  Hugh,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E.,  Lecturer  on  Chem- 
istry, Mineralogy,  Crystallography,  Edinburgh  University. 


Chemistry  of 
Cookery. 


Langworthy,  Charles  F.,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Editor  of  the  ''Ex- 
periment Station  Record,"  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  Chief  of  Nutrition  Investigation. 


Alchemy. 


Radium,  Radio- 
activity, etc. 


Food,  Foods, 
Preserved,  Meat. 


Ferguson,  John,  LL.D.,  F.S.A.,  Professor  of  Chemistry, 
Glasgow  University;  Author  of  ''Papers on  the  History  of 
Chemistry." 

Baskerville,  Charles,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  College 
of  the  City  of  New  York;  Author  of  "Radium  and  Its  Ap- 
plication in  Medicine." 

Wiley,  Harvey  W.,  A.M.,  M.D.,  formerly  Chief  Chemist,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


EDUCATION. 


Education, 
Universities,  etc. 


Education, 
Educational  Sys- 
tems, Infant 
Education,  etc. 


Industrial 
Education, 
manual  Training. 


Medical  Education, 
Medical  Practitioner. 


Monroe,  Paul,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Education,  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University. 

Adams,  John,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  F.C.P.,  Professor  of  Education,  Uni- 
versity of  London;  Lecturer  on  Education,  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity. 

Richards,  Charles  R.,  Director  of  Cooper  Institute,  New  York, 
and  former  Director  of  Manual  Training,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. 

Flexner,  Abraham,  Author  of  Carnegie  Foundation  Report, 
"Medical  Education  in  the  United  States  and  Canada." 


American  Colleges 
and  Universities. 


Arrowsmith,   Robert,   Ph.D.,   former   Professor  of  Latin, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


American 
Museums, 
Scientific  Societies. 

National 

Education 

Association. 


Benjamin,  Marcus,  Ph.D.,  Editor,  U.  S.  National  Museum. 

Shepard,  Irwin,  Secretary  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation. 


Library  of 
Congress. 

Smithsonian 
Institution. 


Carnegie  Institu- 
tion of  Wasliington. 


Putnam,  Herbert,  A.B.,  LL.D.,  Librarian  of  Congress. 

Walcott,  Charles  D.,  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Gilbert,  Walter  M.,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Carnegie  In- 
stitution. 

6 


Bowman,  John  G.,  Secretary  Carnegie  Foundation. 


Bather,  Francis  A.,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Assistant  Keeper, 
Department  of  Geology,  British  Museum. 

Wells,  Joseph,  M.A.,  Fellow  and  Tutor,  Oxford  University; 
Author  of  a  ^'History  of  Rome." 

Miller,  Frank  J.,  I*h.D.,  Associate  Professor  of  Latin  and  Dean 
of  Afhliations,  University  of  Chicago. 

Sewall,  M.  W.,  formerly  Principal  of  the  Girls'  Classical  School, 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Burr,  William  H.,  C.E.,  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Co- 
lumbia University;  formerly  Member  of  the  Panama  Canal 
Commission. 


ELECTRICITY. 

Kennelly,  Arthur  E.,  D.Sc,  F.R.A.S.,  Professor  of  Electrical 
Engineering,  Harvard  University. 

Sever,  George  F.,  formerly  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Electrical 
Engineering,  Columbia  University. 

Barker,  Harry,  Associate  Editor  of  "Engineering  News,"  New 
York. 

Baily,  Francis  G.,  Professor  of  Physics,  Heriot-Watt  College, 
Edinburgh. 

Hay,  Alfred,  D.Sc,  Head  of  Physics  and  Electrical  Engineering 
Department,  Hackney  Technical  Institute,  London. 

MacDonald,  Charles,  Lecturer  in  Leith  Technical  College. 

De  Forest,  Lee,  Ph.D.,  Inventor  of  De  Forest  System  of  Wire- 
less Telegraphy. 

Collins,  A.  Frederick,  Author  of  "Manual  of  Wireless  Teleg- 
raphy." 

Browne,  William  Hand,  Jr.,  Technical  Editor  of  "Electrical 
Review." 

Mayer,  William,  Jr.,  Electrical  Engineer  and  Writer  on  Tele- 
graph Practice. 

BosTwiCK,  Arthur  E.,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  Public  Libraries,  St. 
Louis,  Mo.;  writer  on  scientific  topics. 

7 


ENGINEERING,  CONSTRUCTION,  MECHANICS,  AND 
MACHINERY, 


Engineering 
Articles. 


Baker,  Moses  N.,  Ph.B.,  Editor  of    Engineering  News,"  New 
York. 


Burr,  William  H.,  C.E.,  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Colum- 
bia University;  formerly  Member  of  Panama  Canal  Com- 
mission. 

ScHMiTT,  Fred.  E.,  Jr.,  Associate  Editor  of  ''Engineering  News," 
New  York. 


Civil  Engineering. 


Mechanical  Engi- 
neering. 


Applied  Science 
and  Engineering. 


Hydrokinetics, 
Hydrostatics. 


Magnetism, 
Terrestrial. 


Motor  Cars, 
Motor  Boats, 
Motorcycles. 

Locomotives. 


Railroads. 


Steam  Engines, 
Steam  Turbines. 


Hydraulic  Ma- 
chinery. 

Bridges,  etc. 


Governors, 
Thermodynamics, 
Valves,  etc. 

Engines,  Boilers, 
etc. 


Morrison,  Charles  E.,  Instructor  in  Civil  Engineering,  Colum- 
bia University. 

Allanson-Winn,  Rowland  G.,  B.A.,  M.  Inst,  of  C.  E.  of  Ire- 
land, Author  of  ''Foreshore  Protection,"  etc. 

Trowbridge,  Amasa,  formerly  Adjunct  Professor  in  Columbia 
University. 

Gibson,  George  H.,  formerly  Associate  Editor  of  ''Engineering 
News." 

Wade,  Herbert  T.,  Author  (with  Professor  W.  Hallock)  of "  Out- 
lines of  the  Evolution  of  Weights  and  Measures  and  the 
Metric  System,"  etc. 

Peddie,  W.  D.,  Professor  of  Physics,  University  College,  Dundee; 
formerly  Assistant  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Edin- 
burgh University. 

Bauer,  Louis  A.,  Ph.D.,  A.M.  (Berlin),  Director  Department  of 
Terrestrial  Magnetism,  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington. 

Potter,  Rossiter,  Associate  Editor  of  "Engineering  News," 
New  York  City. 

Gordon,  Reginald,  Editor  of  "The  Master  Mechanics'  Asso- 
ciation Locomotive  Dictionary." 

HiTT,  Rodney  D.,  Associate  Editor  "Electric  Railway  Journal." 

Kent,  William,  A.M.,  M.E.,  formerly  Dean  of  College  of  Ap- 
plied Science,  Syracuse  University. 

Blaine,  R.  G.,  M.E.,  Lecturer  in  the  Technical  College,  London. 

FiDLER,  Prof.  T.  Claxton,  M.  Inst,  of  C.  E.,  Professor  of  Engi- 
neering and  Drawing,  University  of  St.  Andrews,  Scotland. 

Foster,  E.  D.,  Lecturer,  Municipal  School  of  Science,  Brighton. 

Stanfield,  Richard,  A.R.S.M.,  M.  Inst,  of  C.  E.,  Professor  of 
Engineering  at  Heriot-Watt  College,  Edinburgh. 
8 


Concrete. 


Mining 
Disasters 
and  Safety. 

New  York  State 
Barge  Canal. 


Andes  Tunnel, 
Brazil,  etc. 


Wight,  Frank  C,  Associate  Editor  of  ''Engineering  News," 
New  York. 

Fay,  Albert  H.,  Editorial  Staff  of  '' Mining  and  Engineering 
Journal." 

McElroy,  John  H.,  State   Engineering  Department,  New 
York. 

Hale,  Albert,  Special  Compiler,  Pan-American  Union. 


Art  and 
Architecture. 

Drama. 

Art  Subjects. 

Caricature. 
Heraldry. 


Sculpture, 
Painting, 
Painters, 
Biograptiies. 


Posters. 
Opera. 


FINE  ARTS  AND  MUSIC. 

Kriehn,  George,  Ph.D.,  Lecturer  on  Art,  Columbia  University. 

CoRBiN,  John,  A.M.,  Dramatic  Critic,  Literary  Manager  of  the 
New  Theatre;  Author  of  "The  Elizabethan  Hamlet,"  etc. 

Caw,  James  L.,  F.S.A.  Scot.,  Curator  of  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery,  Edinburgh. 

Maurice,  A.  B.,  Editor  of  "The  Bookman." 

Ross,  Andrew,  "Ross  Herald,"  Edinburgh,  Scotland;  Author  of 
"Old  Scottish  Regimental  Colors,"  "The  Nisbet  Plates," 
etc. 

Sharp,  E.  A.,  Art  Critic;  Author  of  "Women  Poets,"  "Sea  Mu- 
sic," "Heine's  Italian  Travel  Sketches,"  "A  Monograph  on 
Rembrandt,"  etc. 

Bradley,  Will,  Artist  and  Author. 

Joffe,  Judah  a.,  B.A. 


Supervision  of 
Gazetteer  Articles. 

American 
Gazetteer. 


American  Cities. 
Canadian  Articles. 


GAZETTEER. 

Heilprin,  Louis,  Editor  of  "Lippincott's  Gazetteer." 

Hasse,  a.  R.,  Librarian  of  Document  Department,  N.  Y.  Public 
Library;  Author  of  "Bibliography  of  Official  Publications 
of  Colonial  New  York,"  etc. 

Russell,  John  W.,  formerly  member  of  the  Editorial  Staff  of 
the  New  York  "Commercial  Advertiser." 

McConachie,  Lauros  G  ,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  New  York  State 
Library. 

Pierce,  John  A.,  Author  and  Journalist. 

Hemmeon,  J.  C,  Ph.D.  (Harvard),  Associate  Professor  of  Eco- 
nomics and  Political  Science,  McGill  University. 

Davidson,  John,  M.A.,  formerly  Professor  of  Political  Economy, 
University  of  New  Brunswick. 

9 


Ireland. 


Welsh  Topog- 
raphy. 


German  Topog- 
raphy. 


Russia  and 
Central  Asia. 


Japan, 
Korea. 


Chinese  and 

Korean 

Topography. 


Himalayas. 


Porto  BIco. 


Alps,  Bernese 
Oberland,  Mont 
Blanc,  etc. 


Cole,  Grenville  A.  J.,  Professor  of  Geology,  Royal  College  of 
Science  for  Ireland. 

Edwards,  Owen  M.,  M.A.,  Lecturer  on  Modern  History  at  Lin- 
coln College,  Oxford,  and  Author  of  Works  on  Welsh  Liter- 
ature, etc. 

Bealby,  John  T.,  Assistant  Editor  of  the  Times  Gazetteer"; 
formerly  Editor  of  the  ''  Scottish  Geographical  Magazine." 

Beazley,  Charles  R.,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.R.Hist.S.,  Fellow  of 
Merton  College,  Oxford;  Translator  and  Editor;  Member  of 
the  Lisbon  Geographical  Society,  the  Royal  Historical  So- 
ciety, the  African  Society,  and  the  Hakluyt  Society. 

Aston,  William  G.,  M.A.,  C.M.G.,  formerly  British  Consul- 
General  for  Korea ;  Author  of  Grammars  of  Japanese  Written 
and  Spoken  Languages,  ''History  of  Japanese  Literature," 
etc. 

Carles,  William  R.,  C.M.G.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.L.S.,  formerly  British 
Vice-Consul  in  Korea,  Consul- General  at  Tientsin  and 
Peking. 

Baines,  Sir  Jervoise  A.,  Kt.,  C.S.I.,  India  Civil  Service,  re- 
tired; Census  Commissioner  under  Government  of  India. 

WiLLOUGHBY,  WiLLiAM  F.,  former  Treasurer  of  Porto  Rico. 

CooLiDGE,  Rev.  William  A.  B.,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S.,  Life  Fellow  of 
Magdalene  College,  Oxford;  Editor  of  Murray's  "Handbook 
for  Switzerland." 


Queensland. 


South 
Africa. 


Critchell,  James  T.,  J.P.,  London  Correspondent  of  "Austral- 
asian Pastoralists'  Review,"  "Sydney  Morning  Herald,"  and 
"North  Queensland  Herald." 

Greswell,  Rev.  Wm.  Henry  P.,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S.,  Author  of  "A 
Geography  of  Africa  South  of  the  Zambesi,"  "Outlines  of 
British  Colonization,"  etc. 


Victoria  and 
Tasmania. 


Morocco. 


Cyprus,  Greece, 
etc. 


Mexico. 


Levey,  George  C,  C.M.G.,  London  Correspondent  of  the  "Mel- 
bourne Age,"  formerly  Editor  of  the  "Melbourne  Herald." 

Meakin,  Budgett,  formerly  Lecturer  on  Oriental  Life  and  Cus- 
toms, and  Editor  of  "The  Times  of  Morocco." 

Myers,  John  L.,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  Tutor  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford; 
Lecturer  on  Classical  Archaeology,  University  of  Oxford; 
Secretary  of  the  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland. 

Shepherd,  William  R.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History,  Columbia 
University;  Author  of  ''Latin  America." 

10 


West  Indian 
Topography. 


Armenia. 


Edinburgli. 


Hill,  Robert  T.,  Mining  Geologist,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
Author  of  ''Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,"  etc. 

Cook,  Stanley  A.,  M.A.,  Lecturer  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac,  Cam- 
bridge University;  Assistant  Editor  of  "Encyclopaedia 
Biblica." 

Geddie,  John,  Assistant  Editor  of  ''The  Scotsman,"  Edinburgh. 


Geological 
Articles. 


Geograplilcal 
Articles. 


Geology, 
Geography. 


Earthquakes. 


Messlna- 
Reggio  Earth- 
quake. 


GEOLOGY  AND  GEOGRAPHY. 

Berkey,  C.  p.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  Geology,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. 

Flett,  Dr.  John  S.,  Geological  Survey  and  Geological  Museum, 
London. 

Davis,  William  M.,  M.E.,  Professor  of  Geology,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. 

Herbertson,  Andrew  J.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  F.R.G.S., 

Reader  in  Geography,  Oxford  University;  Secretary  Geo- 
graphical Association;  Editor  ''Geographical  Teacher." 

Newland,  D.  H.,  Assistant  State  Geologist,  New  York  State 
Museum. 

Knott,  Car  gill  G.,  D.Sc,  Lecturer  on  Applied  Mathematics 
in  Edinburgh  University,  and  formerly  Professor  of  Physics, 
Imperial  University,  Japan,  and  Director  of  the  Magnetic 
Survey,  Japan. 

HovEY,  Edmund  O.,  Associate  Curator,  Geological  Department 
of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York. 


History, 
General. 


American 
History. 


HISTORY. 

Strunsky,  Simeon,  Editorial  Staff,  New  York  ''Evening  Post." 

Hassall,  Arthur,  M.A.,  Tutor  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  Au- 
thor of  "A  Handbook  of  European  History,"  "History  of 
France,"  etc. 

Lodge,  Richard,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  History,  Edinburgh 
University. 

Mullinger,  James  B.,  M.A.,  University  Lecturer  in  History, 
and  Librarian  and  Lecturer  in  History,  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge. 

Whinery,  C.  C,  Editor  and  Journalist. 

Thompson,  Holland,  Professor  of  History  in  the  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York. 

11 


American  History.  Haworth,  Paul,  Lccturer  in  History,  Columbia  University,  New 
York. 

A?ti?/e  ij!  f!^*"*^^'  Vincent,  John  M.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Associate  Professor  of  History, 
Johns  Hopkins  University. 

i9oo*t?mof'  Leupp,  Francis  E.,  A.M.,  LL.B.,  former  U.  S.  Commissioner  of 
Indian  Affairs. 

lilhts,  Fleming,  Walter  L.,  M.S.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History,  West 

Secession.  Virginia  University. 

American  Kevoiu-  y^^  jyne,  Claude  H.,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  American 
History,  University  of  Michigan. 

Russo-Japanese    '  Donald,  I.,  Assistant  Editor,    Edinburgh  Evening  Dispatch." 

War. 

cSifucius.*'*'''^'  Parker,  Edward  H.,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Chinese,  Victoria  Uni- 
versity, Manchester. 

India.  Warner,  Sir  William  L.,  K.C.S.I.,  M.A.,  Member  of  Council 

of  India;  formerly  Secretary  to  the  Government  of  Bombay, 
and  Under-Secretary  in  Foreign  Office  of  India. 

PCTicles,  Abbott,  Evelyn,  Writer  on  Classical  Literature  and  Philosophy, 

Sparta-*  Author  of  a  ''History  of  Greece." 

Scotland.  Brown,  Peter  H.,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Ancient  (Scottish) 

History  and  Palaeography,  Edinburgh  University;  Editor  of 
the  Register  of  the  Privy  Council  of  Scotland,  and  Author 
of ''History  of  Scotland." 

LAW. 

Legal  Articles.  KiRCHWEY,  George  W.,  Dean  of  School  of  Law,  Columbia 
University. 

Kaps,  John  D.,  formerly  Lecturer  School  of  Law,  Columbia 
University. 

Kemp,  John,  Barrister,  Lincoln's  Inn,  London. 

International  Law.  Mqore,  John  Bassett,  LL.D.,  Profcssor  of  International  Law, 
Columbia  University. 

Copyright  Putnam,  George  Haven,  A.M.,  Litt.D.,  Authority  on  Copy- 

right Law;  Author  of  numerous  works  on  copyright. 

LITERATURE  AND  PHILOLOGY. 

ISmaSce.""**"'^'  Saintsbury,  George  E.  B.,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  D.Litt.,  Professor  of 
Rhetoric  and  English  Literature,  Edinburgh  University; 
Author  of  "Essays  in  Enghsh  Literature,"  "Nineteenth 
Century  Literature,"  "A  History  of  Criticism,"  etc. 

12 


American  Litera- 
ture. 


Hale,  Edward  Everett,  Jr.,  Professor  of  English  Literature, 
Union  University,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 


English  Language. 


Philology. 


Pronunciation, 
Spelling  Reform, 
Dictionary. 


Dialogue. 


Pali,  Jainism, 
Sanskrit  Language 
and  Literature. 


Dra  vidian 
Language, 
Tamil,  Telugu. 


Gaelic  Language 
and  Literature. 


Welsh  Language 
and  Literature. 


Classical  Subjects. 


Encyclopaedia. 


Bradley,  Henry,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Joint  Editor  of  the  ''Oxford 
EngHsh  Dictionary,"  and  Editor  of  several  lexicographical 
and  philological  works. 

Gray,  Louis  H.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  formerly  Instructor  in  Indo- 
Iranian,  Princeton  University. 

Allen,  F.  Spurges,  A.B.,  LL.B.,  Chief  Ofhce  Editor  of  ''Web- 
ster's International  Dictionary." 

Baildon,  Henry  B.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  F.R.S.L.,  Lecturer 
on  English  Language  and  Literature,  University  College, 
Dundee  (University  of  St.  Andrews) ;  formerly  Lecturer  on 
EngHsh  in  Imperial  University  of  Vienna. 

Davids,  T.  W.  Rhys,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Comparative 
Religion,  Manchester  University;  Professor  of  Pali  and 
Buddhist  Literature,  University  College,  London. 

Frazer,  R.  W.,  LL.B.,  C.E.,  Indian  Civil  Service,  retired;  Lec- 
turer in  Tamil  and  Telugu,  University  College,  London; 
Librarian  and  Secretary,  London  Institution. 

MACKINNON,  Donald,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Celtic  Languages,  His- 
tory, and  Antiquities  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

Anwyl,  Edward,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Welsh  and  Comparative 
Philology,  University  College  of  Wales,  Aberystwyth. 

Green,  George  B.,  M.A.  (Oxon.),  Classical  Master,  Edinburgh 
Academy. 

Smith,  Benjamin  E.,  A.M.,  L.H.D.,  Editor  of  the  "Century 
Dictionary,"  "Dictionary  of  Names,"  and  "Atlas." 


Animism, 
Folk-Lore. 


Hartland,  Edwin  S.,  F.S.A.,  President  of  the  Folk-Lore  So- 
ciety, and  of  the  Anthropological  Section  of  the  British 
Association;  Author  of  "English  Fairy  and  Other  Folk 
Tales." 


Second  Sight, 
Ballad,  Epic, 
Fable,  Literary 
Biographies. 


Parody, 
Jane  Austen, 
Charles  and 
Mary  Lamb. 


Lang,  Andrew,  D.Litt.  (Oxon.),  Author  and  Critic;  Author  of 
"Ballads  in  Blue  China,"  "Books  and  Bookmen,"  "Blue 
Fairy  Tale  Book,"  "Essays  in  Little,"  "Homer  and  the 
Epic,"  etc. 

Lucas,  Edward  V.,  formerly  Staff  Contributor  to  "London 
Globe,"  Staff  Contributor  to  "Punch";  Author  of  "The Life 
of  Charles  Lamb,"  and  Editor  of  "The  Works  and  Letters 
of  Charles  and  Mary  Lamb." 

13 


Libraries, 
Bookbinding. 


Slang. 


Autographs, 
Bibliography, 
Book  Subjects, 
British  Museum. 


Nelson,  Charles  Alexander,  Reference  Librarian,  Columbia 
University. 

Peck,  Harry  Thurston,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  L.H.D.,  LL.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Latin,  Columbia  University;  formerly  Editor  of 
''The  Bookman." 

Pollard,  Alfred  W.,  M.A.,  BibHographer,  Assistant  in  the 
Library  of  the  British  Museum,  London;  Author  of  ''Early 
Illustrated  Books,"  and  Editor  of  "Books  About  Books," 
"BibUographica,"  etc. 


Mathematical  and 
Physical  Articles. 


Geometry. 


Mathematical 
Articles. 


MATHEMATICS. 

Knott,  Cargill  G.,  D.Sc,  Lecturer  on  Applied  Mathematics 
in  Edinburgh  University,  and  formerly  Professor  of  Physics, 
Imperial  University,  Japan,  and  Director  of  the  Magnetic 
Survey  of  Japan. 

TwEEDiE,  Charles  B.,  Science  Lecturer,  Edinburgh  University. 

Gibson,  James,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Logic  and  Philosophy,  Uni- 
versity of  North  Wales. 

HoRSBURGH,  Ellice  M.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  Associate  Professor  of 
Mathematics,  Edinburgh  University 


Medical  Articles. 


Surgery  and 
Surgical  Articles. 


Physical  Training. 


Tuberculosis. 


Deaf  and  Dumb. 


Blind. 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY. 

HuDDLESTON,  JoHN  H.,  A.M.,  M.D.,  Visiting  Physician, 
Gouverneur  Hospital,  New  York. 

Ferris,  Albert  W.,  A.B.,  M.D.,  Associate  Professor  of  the 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine,  New  York  University 
and  Bellevue  Medical  College. 

Denno,  W.  J.,  M.D.,  Acting  Director,  Division  of  Tuberculosis, 

New  York  State  Department  of  Health. 

Duncan,  Andrew,  M.D.,  B.S.,  F.R.C.S.,  F.P.C.P.,  Physician  of 
Seaman's  Hospital  Society;  Fellow  of  King's  College,  Strand, 
London;  Author  of  "The  Practitioner's  Guide,"  etc. 

Meylan,  George  L.,  Adjunct  Professor  of  Physical  Education, 
Columbia  University. 

Knopf,  S.  Adolphus,  M.D.,  Director  of  the  National  Association 
for  the  Study  and  Prevention  of  Tuberculosis,  New  York. 

Addison,  W.  H.,  Superintendent  of  the  Glasgow  Deaf  and  Dumb 
Institute. 

Allen,  Edward  E.,  M.D.,  Director  of  the  Perkins  Institution 
and  Massachusetts  School  for  the  Blind.  ^ 


14 


Meteorological 
Articles. 


Hydrography. 


METEOROLOGY  AND  HYDROGRAPHY. 

Stetson,  Frank  O.,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

LiTTLEHALES,  George  W.,  C.E.,  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  Hydro- 
graphic  Office. 


Army  Articles. 


Naval  Articles. 


Guns, 
Artillery, 
Coast  Defence. 


Sea  Power. 


Strategy  and 
Tactics. 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  SCIENCE. 

Shipton,  James  A.,  Major  Artillery  Corps,  U.  S.  Army. 

Cromie,  Captain  W.  H.,  Librarian  to  the  British  War  Office. 

Van  Duzer,  Lewis  S.,  formerly  Captain  U.  S.  Navy,  and  for- 
merly Editor  of  ''Journal  of  U.  S.  Naval  Institute." 

Nugent,  Major  George  A.,  Director  of  the  Department  of 
Artillery,  Coast  Artillery  School,  Fort  Monroe,  Va. 

Mahan,  Alfred  T.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  Captain,  U.  S.  N.,  retired; 
U.  S.  Delegate  to  Hague  Peace  Conference;  Author  of  ''In- 
fluence of  Sea  Power  on  History,"  "Life  of  Nelson,"  etc. 

Carter,  William  H.,  Brigadier-General,  U.  S.  Army. 


PHILOSOPHY,  PSYCHOLOGY,  AND  ETHICS. 


Spiritualism, 

Psychical 

Research. 


Hyslop,  James  H.,  Ph.D.,  formerly  Professor  of  Logic  and  Eth- 
ics, Columbia  University;  Secretary  of  the  American  Society 
for  Psychical  Research. 


Philosophical  Ar- 
ticles, Logic, 
Biographies. 


Ethics. 


Barker,  Henry,  M.A.,  Lecturer  on  Moral  Philosophy,  Edin- 
burgh University. 

Seth,  James,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy,  Edinburgh 
University,  and  formerly  Sage  Professor  of  Moral  Philos- 
ophy in  Cornell  University. 


Aristotle. 


Vol.  I.— 2 


Burnet,  John,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Greek,  St.  Andrews  Univer- 
sity; Editor  of  ''Plato"  in  "Oxford  Classical  Texts." 

15 


Psychology.  Stout,  George  F.,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Logic  and  Meta- 

physics, University  of  St.  Andrews;  Editor  of  "Mind/' 
Wilde  Reader  in  Mental  Philosophy,  Oxford  University,  and 
formerly  Lecturer  on  Comparative  Psychology,  Aberdeen 
University. 

Psychotherapy.  Parker,  William  B.,  A.B.,  Editor  of  ''Psychotherapy,"  for- 
merly Associate  Editor  of  the  ''Atlantic  Monthly,"  and 
General  Editor  for  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Company,  Boston. 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE,  SOCIOLOGY,  AND  ECONOMICS. 

Economic  Articles.  Laughlin,  J.  Laurence,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Profcssor  of  Political 
Economy,  University  of  Chicago;  Editor  of  the  "Journal  of 
PoUtical  Economy." 

Johnson,  A.  S.,  Professor  of  Political  Economy,  University  of 
Nebraska;  formerly  Professor  in  Columbia  University. 

Bastable,  C.  F.,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  PoHtical  Economy, 
Dublin  University;  Author  of  "Theory  of  International 
Trade,"  "Commerce  of  Nations,"  etc. 

Jenks,  Edward,  B.C.L.,  M.A.,  formerly  Editor  of  the  "Inde- 
pendent Review,"  Principal  and  Director  of  Legal  Studies  of 
the  Law  Society,  London;  Author  of  "EngHsh  Local  Gov- 
ernment," etc. 

Empi^yeTs^Liibm-  Gettemy,  Charles  F.,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Director  of  Massachusetts 
ty, Arbitration, etc.        Burcau  of  Statistics;  State  Director  of  Thirteenth  Census. 


Sociology.  Small,  Albion  W.,  Ph.D.,  Head  of  Department  of  Sociology, 

University  of  Chicago;  Editor  "American  Journal  of  So- 
ciology." 

Kic^JIio^t;*'  Fairlie,  John  A.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  PoHtical  Science, 
si»ip-  University  of  Illinois;  Author  of  "Local  Government  of  the 

United  States." 

citizenship?™^"*'  McCoNACHiE,  Lauros  G.,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  Member  New  York 
Elections,  etc.  gtatc  Library  Staff,  Legislative  Reference  Section;  Author 

of  "Congressional  Committees,"  "  National  Expansion." 

etc. 

c"mmi!sions!  Maltbie,  Milo  R.,  Member  of  the  New  York  PubHc  Service 
Subways.     '  Commission. 

c"ommerce  CoNNOLLY,  WiLLiAM  H.,  Chief  Clerk  of  the  Interstate  Com- 

SSoadf  etc.  "^erce  Commission. 

i6 


Conservation, 
Keclamation, 
Public  Lands, 
National  Parks,  etc. 


Poor  Law. 


Wells,  Philip  P.,  Ph.D.,  General  Counsel  of  the  National  Con- 
servation Association,  formerly  Lecturer  in  History,  Yale 
University. 

Folks,  Homer,  A.B.,  Secretary  of  the  State  Charities  Aid  Asso- 
ciation of  New  York. 


Public 

Accountancy. 


City  Planning. 


WiLDMAN,  John  R.,  Instructor  of  Accountancy,  New  York 
University. 

Howe,  Frederic  C,  Ph.D.,  Lecturer  on  Municipal  Administra- 
tion, University  of  Wisconsin;  Author  of  ''The  City,  the 
Hope  of  Democracy." 


Post  Office, 
Postal  Savings 
Banks. 

Cost  of 
Living. 


International 
Arbitration. 


Morgan,  Edward  M.,  U.  S.  Postmaster,  New  York  City. 

Clark,  Walter  E.,  Associate  Professor,  Department  of  Political 
Science,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

Moore,  John  Bassett,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  International  Law 
and  Diplomacy,  Columbia  University;  Author  of  ''History 
and  Digest  of  International  Arbitration,"  etc. 


Atlantic  Fisheries 
Arbitration,  Inter 
national  Prize 
Court. 

Constitution, 
Comparative 
Constitutions. 


Pan-American 
Conference. 


Peace. 


Money, 
Economics, 
Taxation, 
Prices,  etc. 


-  BoRCHARDT,  Edwin  M.,  United  States  Law  Librarian. 

KiRKPATRiCK,  John,  M.A.,  Dr.Jur.  (Heidelberg),  LL.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  History  in  Edinburgh  University. 

RowE,  Leo  S.,  LL.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  PoHtical  Science,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania;  U.  S.  Delegate  to  Pan-American 
Conferences. 

Short,  William  H.,  Executive  Secretary  of  the  New  York  Peace 
Society. 

Price,  Langford  L.,  F.R.,  M.A.,  F.R.E.S.,  F.S.S.,  Fellow  and 
Treasurer  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford;  Author  of  "History  of 
Political  Economy  in  England." 


Life 

Insurance. 


Cox,  Robert  L.,  LL.B.,  General  Counsel  and  Manager  of  Asso- 
ciation of  Life  Insurance  Presidents. 


Annuity, 
Insurance. 


Mitchell,  Thomas  W.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Finance,  School  of 
Commerce,  New  York  University. 


Merchant  Shipping 
of  the  U.  S. 

Criminology, 
Marriage. 


Eugenics. 


Chamberlain,  Eugene  T.,  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Navigation. 

Ellis,  Henry  H.,  L.S.A.,  Fellow  of  the  N.  Y.  Medico-Legal  Society, 
and  the  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great  Britain. 

Kelsey,  Carl,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Sociology,  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

17 


Speculation. 


Emery,  Henry  C,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Political  Economy, 
Yale  University;  Member  of  U.  S.  Tariff  Commission. 


s?c\aifettiements.  HAMILTON,  James  H.,  LL.B.,  Ph.D.,  Head  of  University  Settle- 
ment, New  York  City. 


Trade  Unions. 


Labor 

Organizations. 


Hollander,  Jacob  H.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  PoHtical  Economy, 
Johns  Hopkins  University. 

SoKALSKi,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  formerly  of  Johns  Hopkins  University. 


Banlcs  and 
Banliing. 


Cannon,  James  G.,  Vice-President  of  the  Fourth  National  Bank, 
New  York. 


stocic  Exchange.      Stevens,  Albert  C,  Financial  Editor  Newark  "  Evening  News." 

piaygJoun'ds'.*''''  GuLiCK,  LuTHER  H.,  M.D.,  President  Playgrounds  Association 
of  America;  Author  of  various  works  on  Physical  Culture 
and  Hygiene. 


RELIGION  AND  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 


Religions. 


Collins,  W.  R.,  Professor  of  Liturgies  and  Ecclesiastical  Polity, 
Seminary  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church. 


Sherman,  C.  C,  Assistant  Editor  of  the  ''Schaff-Herzog  Ency- 
clopaedia." 

GiLMORE,  George  W.,  A.B.,  B.D.,  Editorial  Staff  of  the  ''Schaff- 
Herzog  Encyclopaedia." 

Asceticism,  etc.  Addis,  Rev.  Wm.  E.,  M.A.,  Profcssor  of  Old  Testament  Criticism, 
Oxford;  Author  of  ''Christianity  and  the  Roman  Empire," 
etc. 

uSileJSK.*"'*  Atwood,  Dr.  I.  M.,  Secretary  of  the  UniversaHst  General  Con- 
vention. 


Methodism. 


Buckley,  James  M.,  A.M.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Editor  of  the  New  York 
' '  Christian  Advocate . " 


Salvation  Army.  ^^  jj   EdUoY  of  the  ''War  Cry,"  New  York. 


Young  Men's 

Christian 

Association. 


DoGGETT,  Lawrence  L.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  President  of  the  Inter- 
national Y.  M.  C.  A.  Training  School,  Springfield,  Mass. 


Roman  Catliolic 
Church, 
Sisterhoods, 
Editor  of 
Catbollc  Articles. 


Driscoll,  Rev.  James  F.,  President  of  St.  Joseph's  Seminary, 
Yonkers. 

i8 


Protestant 
Episcopal  Church. 


Hodges,  George,  A.M.,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  Dean  of  the  Episcopal 
Theological  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


Missions  and 

Missionary 

Societies. 


Johnson,  Rev.  A.  N.,  Home  Secretary  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society. 


Septuaglnt  and 
Biographies. 

Young  Women's 

Christian 

Association. 


Kennedy,  Rev.  J.,  Librarian  of  New  College,  Edinburgh. 

Wilson,  E.,  Secretary  of  the  Training  Department,  Y.  W.  C.  A. 
Chicago,  111. 


Sunday  Schoa!: 


ScHAUFFLER,  Rev.  A.  F.,  Secretary  of  the  International  Sunday 
School  Lesson  Committee.  . 


Biblical  subjects.    Qrieve,  Rev.  ALEXANDER,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Greyfriars,  Glasgow. 


SANITARY  SCIENCE. 


Articles  on 
Sanitation  and 
Public  Health, 
Salvarsan, 
Serum  Therapy, 
etc. 


WiNSLOW,  Charles-Edward  A.,  M.S.,  Associate  Professor  of 
Biology,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York;  and  Curator 
of  Public  Health,  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
New  York. 


SPORTS  AND  PASTIMES. 


Track  and  Field 
Athletics. 


Football. 
Sporting  Articles. 
Golf. 


Lacrosse. 


Anderson,  William  G.,  M.Sc,  M.D.,  Director  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Physical  Education,  Yale  University. 

Camp,  Walter,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Author  of  "American  Football." 

Sawyer,  C.  P.,  Sporting  Editor  of  the  New  York  "Evening  Post." 

Hutchinson,  Horatio  G.,  ex-Golf  Amateur  Champion;  Author 
of  "Hints  on  Golf,"  "The  Book  of  Golf  and  Golfers," 
''Cricketing  Saws  and  Stories,"  "Golf,"  in  Badminton 
Library,  etc. 

Barr,  James  ("Angus  Evan  Abbot  EngHsh  Journalist,  Author 
of  "The  Great  Frozen  North." 


Dogs,  Cricket, 
Swimming,  Deer 
Stalking,  Game 
Shooting,  etc. 


Fencing. 


Compton,  Herbert  E.,  NoveHst,  Biographer  and  Essayist; 
Author  of  ''A  Master  Mariner,"  ''A  King's  Hussar,"  "The 
Twentieth  Century  Dog,"  etc. 

Cook,  Theodore  A.,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  formerly  Editor  of  the  "St. 
James'  Gazette,"  Associate  Editor  of  the  ''Daily  Telegraph," 
and  Author  of  a  "History  of  the  English  Turf." 

19 


Ffihtfng  Elkington,  E.  Way,  F.R.G.S.,  Author  and  Essayist;  Author  of 

''The  Lucky  Shot,"  ''The  Rugged  Way,"  " The  South  Seas," 
etc. 

Angling.  Maxwell,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Herbert  E.,  Bart.,  P.C,  F.R.S., 

LL.D.,  formerly  Rhind  Lecturer  on  Archaeology,  Edinburgh; 
Author  of  "British  Fresh- Water  Fishes,"  "Salmon  and  Sea 
Trout,"  "The  Story  of  the  Tweed,"  etc. 

Falconry.  HoPKiNS,  TiGHE,  NovcHst  and  Essayist;  Author  of  "Nugents  of 

Carriconna,"  "An  Idler  in  Old  France,"  "Dungeons  of  Old 
Paris,"  etc. 


TECHNOLOGY,  MANUFACTURES,  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY, 


Bleaching, 
Dyeing, 

Calico  Printing. 


Flour. 


Woollen  Textiles, 
Fabrics,  Carpets. 


Glass. 
Gas. 


Metallurgy  of 
Gold,  Silver,  Lead, 
Iron,  Steel,  etc. 


Appleyard,  J.  R.,  Lecturer,  Royal  Technical  Institute,  Salford, 
England. 

Chamberlain,  J.  S.,  Expert  in  Chemistry  of  MilHng,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

Barker,  A.  F.,  Lecturer  in  the  Municipal  Technical  College;, 
Bradford,  England,  and  Author  of  several  works  on  textile 
subjects. 

Brookfield,  H.  M.,  President  of  the  Brookfield  Glass  Company. 

Brown,  E.  C,  Editor  of  the  ''Progressive  Age." 

HiORNS,  A.  H.,  Professor  of  Metallurgy,  Municipal  Technical 
School,  Birmingham;  Author  of  "Iron  and  Steel  Manufac- 
ture," ''Practical  Metallurgy  and  Assaying,"  etc. 


Mining,'iron,  and  Struthers,  Joseph,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Secretary  and  Editor  of 
"American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers";  Lecturer  in  the 
School  of  Mines,  Columbia  University. 


steel. 


Sugar. 


Technological 
Subjects. 


Soap. 


Printing. 


HoRNE,  William,  Ph.D.,  Chemist  of  the  National  Sugar  Refining 
Company. 

HoRSBURGH,  Ellice  M.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  Associate  Professor  of 
Mathematics,  Edinburgh  University. 

VuLTE,  H.  T.,  Ph.D.,  Lecturer  in  Chemistry,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University. 

Little,  Joseph  J.,  formerly  President  of  the  Board  of  Education, 
City  of  New  York. 


20 


Petroleum. 


Day,  David  T.,  A.B.,  Ph.D.,  U.  S.  Government  Expert. 


Pottery, 
Terra  Cotta. 


Whiskey- 
Paper. 


RiES,  Heinrich,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Economic  Geology,  Cornell 
University. 

ToLMAN,  L.  M.,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Internal  Revenue. 

Wheelwright,  H.  M.,  of  the  Wheelwright  Paper  Co.,  Boston, 
Mass. 


UNITED  STATES. 


United  States  and 
U.  S.  Topography, 
Philippine  Islands. 


Gannett,  Henry,  B.S.,  M.E.,  LL.D.,  Geographer  and  Statis- 
tician of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Geographer  of  the  U.  S. 
Census,  Chairman  of  the  U.  S.  Board  on  Geographic  Names. 


statistics, 
Commerce  and 
Commercial. 


Austin,  Oscar  P.,  Chief  of  Bureau  of  Statistics,  U.  S.  Treasury 
Department. 


Fauna  and 
Flora  under  U.  S. 


Revision  of  U.  S. 
Gazetteer. 


San  Francisco  and 
San  Francisco 
Earthquake. 


Gannett,  M.  C,  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Heilprin,  Louis,  Editor  of  Lippincott's  "Gazetteer.'' 

Hyde,  A.  E.,  formerly  Secretary  of  the  San  Francisco  Relief 
Committee. 


Geology  of  u.  s.      Merrill,  George  P.,  Ph.D.,  U.  S.  National  Museum. 


Geographical 
Articles. 


Newland,  D.  H.,  Assistant  State  Geologist,  New  York  State 
Museum. 


statistics  in 
U.  S.  Article. 


Berkey,  C.  p.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  Geology,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. 


New  York  City. 

Philadelphia. 
New  Orleans. 


Hubert,  P.  G.,  Jr.,  formerly  of  the  Editorial  Staff  of  the  New 
York    Evening  Post." 

Stirling,  Edmund,  Editorial  Staff,  Philadelphia  'TubKc  Ledger." 

Walker,  Norman,  Editorial  Staff,  New  Orleans  ''Times-Demo- 
crat." 


St.  Louis. 
State  Articles. 


Byars,  William  Vincent,  JournaKst  and  Author,  St.  Louis. 
Hankins,  F.  H.,  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 


U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Mines. 


Holmes,  Joseph  A.,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines. 

21 


MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTMENTS  AND  ARTICLES. 


nines. 


C'ollege 

i<Yaternities,  Free-   Stevens,  Albert  C,  Author  of  an    Encyclopaedia  of  Frater- 

masonry  and  '  '  J  r- 

other  Fraternal 
Organizations. 

U.  S.  Secret 
Service. 


Wilkie,  John  Elbert,  Chief  U.  S.  Secret  Service. 


Genealogy. 


Fire  Department. 


Youngs,  Mrs.  F.  E.,  Librarian,  New  York  Genealogical  and 
Biographical  Society. 

AcKLEY,  Rev.  C.  B.,  formerly  Chaplain,  New  York  Fire  Depart- 
ment. 


Daveen,  John,  Captain  in  the  New  York  Fire  Department. 


Arctic  Exploration,    _  ^      .  ^  «- 

Antarctic  Explora-    BRn)GMAN,  HERBERT  L.,  A.M. 
tion.  ' 


Discovery 
of  tlie 
North  Pole. 


Peary,  Commander  Robert  E.,  Arctic  Explorer;  Author  of 
Northward  Over  the  Great  Ice,"  etc. 


"Titanic*' 
Disaster. 


Nixon,  Lewis,  American  Shipbuilder,  Designer  of  thelJ.  S.  Battle- 
ships ''Oregon,"  ''Indiana,"  and  "Massachusetts." 


Pan-America. 


Barrett,  John,  Director-General  of  the  Pan-American  Union. 


LIST  OF  CONTRACTIONS  USED  IN  THIS  WORK. 


ac,  acres. 

agric,  agncnituraU 

Ala.,  Alabama. 

alt.,  altitude. 

Alta.,  Alberta. 

Amer.,  America  or  American. 

anc,  ancient. 

aun.,  annual. 

At.,  Arabic. 

Aram.,  Aramaic. 

Ariz.,  Arizona. 

Ark.,  Arkansas. 

arr.,  arrondissement. 

A,  S.,  Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  v.,  Authorized  Version, 
aver.,  average. 

b.  p.,  boiling  point, 
bor.,  borough. 

Brit.,  Britain  or  British. 

B.  C,  British  Columbia, 
bur.,  burgh. 

c.  (circa),  about. 

C.  centigrade. 
Cal.,  California, 
cap.,  capital, 
cf.,  compare. 
CO.,  county. 
Colo.,  Colorado. 
Com.,  Commission, 
comm.,  commune. 
Conn.,  Connecticut, 
cub,  ft.,  cubic  feet. 
Dan.,  Danish. 

D.  C,  District  of  Columbia. 
Del.,  Delaware. 

dep.,  department, 
dist.,  district, 
div.,  division. 
Du.,  Dutch. 

E.  ,  east. 

eccles.,  ecclesiastical. 

ed.,  edition;  edited. 

e.  g.,  for  example. 

Eng.,  England  or  English. 

episc,  episcopal. 

et.  seq.,  and  the  following. 

F.  ,  Fahrenheit. 
Fla.,  Florida. 

fort,  tn.,  forufied  town. 
Fr.,  French, 
ft.,  feet. 
Ga.,  Georgia. 
Ger.,  German. 

gov.,  goverument. 
r.,  Greek. 


Heb.,  Hebrew. 
I.,  isl.,  island, 
la.,  Iowa, 
ibid.,  the  same, 
i.  e.,  that  is. 
111.,  Illinois, 
in.,  inches. 

Ind.  T.,  Indian  Territory. 

Ind.,  Indiana. 

Ire.,  Ireland  or  Irish. 

Ital.,  Italian. 

Kan.,  Kansas. 

Ky.,  Kentucky. 

1.,  lake. 

La.,  Louisiana. 

Lat.,  Latin. 

lat.,  latitude. 

1.  bk.,  left  bank. 

lit.,  literally. 

long.,  longitude. 

m.,  miles. 

Man,,  Manitoba. 

Mass.,  Massachusetts. 

Md.,  Maryland. 

Me.,  Maine. 

M.  E.,  Methodist  Episcopal. 

Meth.,  Methodist. 

Mich.,  Michigan. 

Minn.,  Minnesota. 

Miss,,  Mississippi. 

Mo.,  Missouri. 

Mont.,  Montana. 

m.  jp,,  melting  point. 

mrkt.  tn.,  market-town. 

Mt.,  mts.,  mount,  mountain,  -s. 

munic,  municipal. 

K.,  north. 

Neb.,  Nebraska. 

N.  B,,  New  Brunswick. 

N.  C,  North  Carolina. 

N.  Dak,,  North  Dakota. 

Nev.,  Nevada. 

N.  H.,  New  Hampshire. 

N.  J.,  New  Jersey. 

N.  Mex.,  New  Mexico. 

N.  S.,  Nova  Scotia. 

N.  T.,  New  Testament. 

N.  W.  T.,  Northwest  Territories. 

N.  Y.,  New  York. 

0,,  Ohio. 

Okla.,  Oklahoma. 
Ont.,  Ontario. 
Ore.,  Oregon. 
0.  T.,  Old  Testament 
par.,  parish. 


pari.,  parliamentary. 

Pa.,  Pennsylvania. 

P.  E.,  Protestant  Episcopal. 

P.  E.  I.,  Prince  Edward  Island, 

Per.,  Persian. 

P.  I.,  Philippine  Islands. 

pop.,  population. 

Port.,  Portuguese. 

P.  R.,  Puerto  Rico. 

Presb,,  Presbyterian. 

prom,,  promontory. 

prov,,  province. 

pueb,,  pueblo. 

Que.,  Quebec. 

q.  v.,  which  see. 

R.,  riv.,  river. 

r.  bk.,  right  bank. 

R.  C,  Roman  Catholic. 

R.  R.,  or  ry.,  railroad  or  railway, 

R.  I.,  Rhode  Island. 

R.  v..  Revised  Version. 

R.  R.  jn.,  railroad  junction. 

S.,  south. 

Sans.,  Sanskrit. 

Sask.,  Saskatchewan. 

S.  C,  South  Carolina. 

Scot.,  Scotland  or  Scottish. 

S.  Dak.,  South  Dakota. 

seapt.,  seaport. 

£p,,  Spanish. 

sp.  gr.,  specific  gravity. 

sq.  m.,  square  miles. 

Stn.,  station. 

S.  v.,  under  the  word. 

Syr.,  Syriac. 

temp.,  temperature. 

Tenn.,  Tennessee, 

terr.,  territory. 

Tex,,  Texas. 

tn.,  town. 

trans.,  translated. 

trib.,  tributary. 

U.  S.,  United  States  of  America. 

Va.,  Virginia. 

vil.,  village. 

vol.,  volume. 

Vt.,  Vermont 

W.,  west. 

Wash.,  Washington. 
wat,-pl.,  watering-place. 
W.  Va.,  West  Virginia. 
Wis.,  Wisconsin. 
Wyo.,  Wyoming, 
yds.,  yards. 


Sample  Research  Article 


DEBATE  OUTLINE  ON  THE  MELLON  PLAN  EOR  REDUCTION  OE  TAXES 

AEEIRMATIVE 
INTRODUCTION:  ^ 

Meaning  of  the  question:  Mr.  Mellon  has  defined  the 

issue,  whether  we  will  have  our  taxes  reduced  to  the 
extent  of  $323,000,000  or  whether  this  great  sum 
shall  be  swallowed  up  "by  increasing  our  Government 
expenditures  to  pay  a  Soldiers'  Bonus. 

Importance  of  the  question. 

It  is  repeatedly  stated  in  current  oral  and  written 
comments  that  this  proposal  of  Mr.  Mellon' s  is  the 
most  important  question  now  iDefore  the  American 
people . 

I.  Our  Eederal  government  can  afford  to  lower  the  taxes 
all  along  the  line  for 

1.  The  fiscal  years  1922  and  1923  have  each  closed 
with  a  surplus  of  about  $310,000,000. 

2.  It  is  estimated  that  for  each  of  the  next  four 
or  five  years  there  will  be  a  surplus  of  over 
$300,000,000,  keeping  in  mind  certain  reductions 
in  expenditure. 

a.  This  provides  for  fixed  debt  charges  like 
the  sinking  fund. 

b.  It  provides  for  an  orderly  reduction  of  the. 
war  debt. 

c.  Ordinarily  government  expenditure  must  be 
kept  within  $3,500,000,000. 

d.  There  must  be  a  reduction  of  $170,000,000  in 
the  estimates  for  expenditures. 

e.  There  must  be  continued  pressure  all  along 
the  line  for  the  utmost  economy  and  effi- 
ciency in  the  operations  of  the  Government. 

II.  Modern  progress  requires  that  we  adopt  the  Mellon 
Plan  of  tax  reduction. 

1.  It  will  be  the  greatest  boon  to  industry  for 
a.  With  the  lowering  of  surtaxes  on  large 

incomes,   capital  will  be  tempted  back  into 
the  path  of  more  productive  business  enter- 
prises,  instead  of  remaining  in  tax-exempt 
securities . 

2.  It  will  in  the  end  bring  larger  revenue  to  the 
government  for 

a.  It  will  draw  vast  amounts  of  capital  from 
tax-exempt  securities  into  productive  busi- 
ness,  the  incomes  from  which  are  taxable. 

3.  More  capital  invested  in  business  enterprises 
means  a  lessening  of  the  number  of  unemployed 
and  better  salaries  and  wages. 

4.  The  present  high  taxes  in  the  last  analysis  come 
from  the  mass  of  the  people  in  higher  living 
costs  and  lower  wages. 


2 


III.  Our  present  plan  of  taxation  is  a  failure  for 

1.  The  man  with  smaller  incomes  cannot  avoid  taxes. 

2.  It  has  driven  vast  amounts  of  capital  into  tax- 
exempt  securities  to  the  detriment  of  business. 

3.  It  has  been  a  failure  in  practice  for 

a.  It  has  helped  the  rich  to  avoid  successfully 
their  taxes  with  the  help  of  the  most 
competent  advisers. 

b.  The  difference  in  taxation  between  corpora- 
tions and  individuals  alone  creates  an  almost 
insoluble  difficulty. 


IV.  The  Mellon  Plan  is  desirable. 

1.  It  taxes  more  highly  income  from  wages,  salaries 
and  professional  services  than  the  incomes  from 
business  or  investment. 

a.  This  is  fairer  since  the  first  is  uncertain, 
while  the  second  source  of  income  continues. 

2.  The  present  normal  tax  is  to  be  reduced  from  4^ 
to  3^  and  from  8^  to  6^. 

a.  This  is  fairer  since  it  affects  all  personal 
incomes  and  reduces  taxes  largely  for  the 
man  of  smaller  income. 

3.  It  reduces  the  surtaxes  by  commencing  their  ap- 
plication at  Jl0,000  instead  of  $6,000  and  scal- 
ing them  progressively  upwards  to  25^  at 
$100,000. 

a.  This  is  advisable  as  a  means  of  saving  the 
productivity  of  the  surtaxes. 

b.  It  is  advisable  as  a  means  of  establishing 
industry  and  trade  on  a  healthier  basis 
throughout  the  country. 

c.  It  is  advisable  to  stop  the  growth  of  tax- 
exempt  securities,   especially  the  state  and 
local  securities  which  will  ultimately  have 
to  be  paid,  principal  and  interest,   out  of 
taxes,   this  contributing  directly  to  the 
heavy  local  taxation  which  bears  so  heavily 
on  farmers  and  small  property  owners. 

4.  It  limits  capital  losses  to  12}/2^  of  the  loss, 
a.  This  is  the  policy  adopted  in  practically 

all  other  countries  having  income  tax  laws. 

5.  It  limits  the  deductions  from  gross  income  for 
interest  paid  during  the  year  and  for  losses  not 
of  a  business  character  to  the  amount  the  sum 

of  these  items  exceeds  tax-exempt  income  of  the 
taxpayer. 

a.  The  present  law  in  this  respect  is  defective. 

6.  It  taxes  community  property  income  to  the 
spouse . 

7.  It  repeals  the  tax  on  telegrams,   telephones,  and 
leased  wires,  which  are  inconvenient  and  were 

a  war  measure . 

8.  It  repeals  the  tax  on  admissions;   this  tax  is  on 
the  main  source  of  recreation  of  the  great  bulk 
of  the  people   .    .    .   i.   e.,   the  movies. 


3 


9.     Miscellaneous  taxes  should  "be  repealed. 

a.  These  are  inconvenient. 

b.  They  are  difficult  to  collect. 

V.     This  plan  will  "be  a  "benefit  and  its  advantages  can 
be  brought  to  the  masses  of  our  people  only  by 
avoiding  increased  expenditures. 

1.  Secretary  Mellon  especially  refers  here  to  the 
bonus,  which,   if  passed,  would  postpone  tax- 
reduction  for  many  years  to  come,  would  increase 
taxes  by  several  million  dollars,  would  result 
therefore  in  running  deeper  into  those  evils 
which  the  proposed  plan  especially  aims  to 
eliminate . 

2.  The  advantages  resulting  from  reduction  of  taxes 
will  benefit  the  soldiers  more  than  the  bonus. 

3.  When  the  bonus  money  is  gone  the  tax  will  still 
remain  with  them. 


NEGATIVE 

INTRODUCTION: 

The  negative  does  not  deny  the  merits  of  tax  reduction, 
but  would  apply  it  to  smaller  incomes  only. 
■The  negative  does  not  believe  that  tax  reduction  must 
exclude  the  Soldiers'  Bonus. 


I.     Our  Federal  government  cannot  afford  to  adopt  the  whole 
Mellon  Plan  if  it  denies  to  the  soldiers  their  bonus, 
for 

1.  Our  nation  cannot  afford  to  stand  before  the  world 
as  the  most  ungrateful  of  nations  in  rewarding  its 
fighting  men,  for 

a.  We  are  the  richest  nation  in  the  world  today. 

b.  We  are  behind  Italy,  J'rance,   and  England  in 
granting  a  bonus  to  soldiers. 

II.  Our  government  does  not  need  to  adopt  the  whole  Mellon 
Plan,  for 

1.  We  can  reduce  taxes  on  smaller  incomes,  without 
lowering  taxes  on  incomes  of  |6,000  a  year  and  up, 
for 

a.  The  men  of  larger  incomes  can  afford  to  pay 
larger  taxes. 

b.  Many  of  them  have  profited  by  the  war  and  it  is 
just  and  right  that  they  should  pay  the  adjusted 
compensation  to  the  soldiers. 

2.  We  can  keep  the  taxes  on  luxuries,   admissions,  etc. 

3.  From  these  sources  it  is  possible  to  raise  enough 
money  for  the  bonus. 


III.  Reduction  of  surtaxes  and  taxes  on  large  incomes  will 
not  benefit  the  soldiers,  for 

1.   The  men  of  larger  incomes  will  pocket  the  difference 

in  taxes  and  not  pass  it  on  to  others  in  lower 


4 


charges  for  food,   rent,   fuel,   etc.,  unless  some  new 
sort  of  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  upon  them. 

IV.   It  is  not  wise  to  reduce  taxes  just  now  for 

1.  The  coming  presidential  campaign  will  stir  up  enough 
disturbance  for  this  year. 

2.  Business  is  running  along  fairly  well  now  and  any 
plans  to  modify  taxes  on  larger  incomes  will  cause 
a  certain  amount  of  disturbance  to  business. 

V.  Mr.  Mellon' s  statement  that  we  cannot  have  tax  reduc- 
tion and  increased  expenditure  is  not  supportable  for 

1.  He  himself  advocates  applying  $28,000,000  to 
strengthen  our  navy  for  national  defense. 

2.  Each  high  government  official  likewise  will  have 
his  pet  scheme  for  making  new  appropriations. 

3.  If  Mr.  Mellon  thinks  $28,000,000  should  be  used  to 
strengthen  our  navy,   surely  there  is  no  surer  way  of 
strengthening  our  national  defense  than  .to  keep  up 
the  morale  of  our  veterans  by  the  granting  of  a 
bonus . 


REFERENCES 

Material  on  the  subject  may  be  had  by  referring  to  a 
number  of  current  periodicals  including:    'The  Budget'  for 
December  15,   1923,  which  is  practically  devoted  to  the 
discussion  of  the  Mellon  Plan  under  the  titles  "Editorial 
Comment,"   "Objections  to  Tax  Reduction,"  and  "Mr.  Mel- 
Ion's  Tax  Reduction  Plan"— the  latter  being  the  text  of  Mr. 
Mellon' s  letter  to  Mr.   Green;    'Congressional  Digest'  for 
November  1923;    'The  National  Income  Tax  Magazine,'  the 
December  1923  issue  of  which  has  a  resume  under  the  title, 
"Tax  Events  at  Washington;"   'American  Review  of  Reviews'  for 
December  1923,  which  prints,   on  page  578,   a  brief  statement 
as  to  the  amount  of  surplus  now  certain;   the  article  "Tax 
Reduction  or  Bonus?"  on  pages  7-9  of  the   'Literary  Digest' 
for  November  24,   1923;   and  "Tax  Reduction  in  Doubt"  on  page 
12  of  the   'Literary  Digest'   for  December  1,   1923.  Consult 
also : 

Adams,  Henry  C.  The  Science  of  Pinance,  p.  321-32. 
Beman.     Current  Problems  in  Taxation.     The  Handbook 

Series.     H.  W.  Wilson  Co.,  N.  Y. ,  1921. 
Mill,  John  Stuart.     Principles  of  Political  Economy, 

Book  V,   Chapter  2,   sections  1-3. 
Seligman,  Edwin,  R.  A.     Essays  in  Taxation.  Chapter 

entitled  "Recent  Reforms  in  Taxation." 
Smith,  Adam.     An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of 

the  Wealth  of  Nations.     Book  V,   Chapter  I,  pt. 

2. 

Walker,  Prancis  A.     Political  Economy,  p.  488-505. 


Nelson's  Perpetual  Loose-Leaf  Encyclopaedia 


A.  The  original  sound  in  Eng-  • 
lish  of  the  letter  A  was,  of  course, 
that  which  it  had  in  the  Greek 
and  Latin  tongues.  In  most  Eu- 
ropean languages  (French,  Ger- 
man, Welsh,  etc.)  it  has  retained 
this  value,  and  occasionally  also 
in  English  words  (e.g.,  'psalm'). 
This  should  always  be  its  value 
in  scientific  notation  (so  Murray's 
Dictionary);  it  is  phonetically 
described  as  the  mid-back  'wide' 
vowel.  Of  the  other  values  which 
A  has  now  acquired  in  English, 
that  in  the  word  'man'  is  a  charac- 
teristic English  sound  (symbol- 
ized by  Murray  as  n^).  The 
'rounding'  into  §,  (Murray, Q),  as 
in  'tall'  and  'water,'  has  many 
parallels.  Quite  unnecessary  con- 
fusion has  been  caused  by  al- 
lowing A  to  assume  the  value  of 
its  modern  name  (ei  in  Murray), 
which  properly  belongs  to  the 
symbol  e  (which  see).  In  the 
early  Semitic  alphabet  A  had  a 
slight  consonantal  sound,  known 
as  the  glottal  stop,  which  showed 
a  marked  tendency  to  disappear. 

A  is  the  standard  Greek  form 
transmitted  to  the  Latin  alpha- 
bet. The  Greek  uncial  is  no 
doubt  a  modification  of  this, 
although  more  like  the  old  Se- 
mitic form  a  is  its  Latin 
representative;  written  cursively, 
it  becomes  a.  The  early  Semitic 
form  has  changed  more  in  the 
Semitic  than  in  the  European 
alphabets.  The  horns  in  the 
Hebrew  >5  are  the  remains  of  the 
two  cross  strokes;  the  Arabic  | 
has  lost  even  these.  The  name 
aleph,  Greek  alpha,  means  an 
'ox.'  Some  think  the  original 
sign  represents  a  head  and  horns. 

A  is  in  musical  notation  the 
sixth  note  of  the  natural  diatonic 
scale  of  C,  and  the  first  note  of 
the  relative  minor  scale;  called 
la  in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain. 
In  concert  pitch,  A  has  about 
900  vibrations  per  second,  or  a 
multiple  of  that  number.  Con- 
tinental tuning  forks  are  set  to 
this  note.  Most  stringed  in- 
struments have  a  string  tuned  to 
it,  which  in  the  violin  is  the 
second  string,  in  the  viola  and 
violoncello  the  first,  and  in  the 
contrabasso  generally  the  third. 
It  is  the  note  given  for  tuning  the 
orchestra.  The  key  of  A  major 
has  three  sharps. 

A,  as  a  symbol  of  order  or  emi- 
nence, denotes  the  first  of  a  series, 
or  the  chief  of  a  class. 

A,  in  the  calendar,  is  the  first 
of  the  seven  dominical  letters. 


Vol.  I.— a 

In  old  books  of  which  only  the 
alternate  pages  are  numbered  it 
denotes  left-hand  pages. 

A  as  a  symbol  in  logic  is  the 
universal  affirmative.  A,  as  an  ab- 
breviation, denotes  many  words 
of  which  it  is  the  initial  letter — 
e.g.,  American  (a.a.a.s.),  anno 
(A.D.),  ante  (a.m.).  Antiquaries 
(f.s.a.),  artium  or  arts  (b.a.). 

In  medical  formulae  a  or  aa 
(Gr.  ana)  signifies  that  equal 
parts  of  each  ingredient  are 
to  be  taken;  in  Roman  anti- 
quities it  stands  for  absolve  ('I 
acquit')  on  the  judge's  tablet; 
in  textual  notes  on  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  it  denotes  the 
Codex  Alexandrinus.  See  Al- 
phabet. 

A  1,  a  term  used  in  the  classi- 
fication of  vessels  to  denote  first- 
class  condition  and  equipment 
after  inspection.   See  Lloyd's. 

Aa  ('water'  or  'stream'),  name 
of  many  rivers  in  France,  Swit- 
zerland, and  Russia.  Alternative 
forms  are  AcH,  Aach,  Achen. 

Aachen.     See  Aix  la  Cha- 

PELLE. 

Aal,  red  dye  obtained  from 
the  root  of  Morinda  citrifolia 
(allied  to  madder),  used  largely 
for  dyeing  cotton  cloth  in  India. 
The  centre  of  the  industry  is 
at  Gujarat. 

Aalborg,  city  and  port  in 
Northeast  Jutland,  Denmark, 
on  Liim  Fjord,  at  the  entrance  to 
the  Kattegat.  It  is  an  important 
railroad  and  commercial  centre, 
and  a  bishopric.  Two  bridges 
across  the  fjord  connect  it  with 
Norre  Sundby.  There  are  some 
seventeenth-century  stone 
houses  (notably  the  Apothecary's 
House) ,  but  the  town  as  a  whole  is 
modern  in  aspect.  There  are  large 
cement  works  and  a  nautical 
school.    Pop.  35,000. 

Aalen,  town,  Wurtemberg, 
Germany,  on  the  Kocher,  48  m. 
northeast  of  Stuttgart.  It  has 
iron  works,  woollen  mills,  etc. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Aalesund,  town  and  fishing 
port,  Romsdal  county,  Norway, 
on  two  islands  of  the  west  coast, 
Norvo  and  Aspo,  connected  by  a 
bridge.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor. 
It  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1904, 
but  has  been  practically  rebuilt 
in  stone.  Pop.  (1910)  13,836. 

Aali  Pasha,  Mehemet  Emin 
(1815-71),  Turkish  statesman, 
was  born  in  Constantinople; 
Turkish  ambassador  to  London 
(1840-4) ;  Foreign  Minister  (1846- 
52);  represented  Turkey  at  the 


Congress  of  Paris  (1856, ;  took 
part  in  suppressing  the  Cretan 
rebellion  (1867-8);  and  brought 
about  the  submission  of  the  Khe- 
dive of  Egypt  (1869).  He  was 
five  times  grand  vizier,  and  an 
ardent  advocate  of  reform. 

Aalst.    See  Alost. 

Aar,  or  A  are,  Swiss  river;  rises 
in  canton  Bern  in  the  Grimsel  at 
about  6,250  ft.  It  traverses 
Lakes  Brienz,  Thun,  and  Bienne, 
and  is  navigable  after  its  emer- 
gence from  the  Lake  of  Thun  at 
the  town  of  that  name.  It  flows 
past  Meiringen,  Interlaken,  Bern, 
Solothurn,  and  Aarau;  and  aug- 
mented by  the  waters  of  the 
Limmat  and  the  Reuss,  enters  the 
Rhine  near  Waldshut.  Its  length 
is  175  miles.  Canalization  work 
has  been  undertaken  in  several 
portions  of  the  course. 

Aarau,  capital  of  canton 
Aargau,  Switzerland,  on  the  Aar, 
50  miles  northeast  of  Bern,  1,300 
ft.  above  sea  level.  It  is  a  railroad 
junction,  a  military  station,  and 
an  important  manufacturing  cen- 
tre for  vsilk,  cotton,  tile,  ribbon, 
cement,  railroad  material,  bells, 
and  cannon.  After  the  French 
seizure  of  Switzerland  (1798), 
Aarau  was  the  capital  of  the 
Helvetic  Republic,  but  in  1803 
was  made  capital  of  the  newly 
constituted  Swiss  canton  of 
Aargau  (q.v.).  Pop.  (1910)  9,536. 

Aard-vark  ('earth-pig').  See 
Cape  Ant-eater. 

Aard-wolf  {Proteles  cristatus), 
a  burrowing,  nocturnal  animal, 
closely  related  to  the  hyaena.  It 
is  confined  to  South  Africa,  and 
feeds  on  carrion  and  insects. 

Aarestrup,  Carl  Ludwig 
Emil  (1800-56),  Danish  lyric 
poet,  was  born  in  Copenhagen; 
practised  as  a  doctor.  His  Efter- 
ladte  Digte  (1863)  created  a  sen- 
sation by  their  erotic  tone.  His 
Samlede  Digte  were  edited  by 
Georg  Brandes. 

Aargau  (French  Argovie),  a 
canton  of  Switzerland,  south  of 
the  Rhine.  Area,  542  sq.  m.,  of 
which  95  per  cent,  is  productive. 
There  are  extensive  vineyards 
and  fruit  is  largely  cultivated. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  cot- 
tons, silks,  straw  hats,  and 
tobacco.  At  Baden  and  Schinz- 
nach  are  noted  sulphur  springs, 
and  at  Windisch  (ancient  Vin- 
dinissa)  are  Roman  remains.  Its 
capital  is  Aarau  (q.  v.).  Pop. 
(1910)  229,850:  222,571  being 
Ger  man-speaki  ng. 


Aarhtis 


10 


Abartm 


Aarhus,  or  Aarhuus,  port 

on  east  coast  and  largest  city  of 
Jutland,  Denmark,  22  m.  south- 
east of  Randers,  with  a  good 
harbor,  generally  ice-free.  It  is 
a  railroad  junction  and  an  im- 
portant trading  centre,  and  has 
manufactures  of  machinery,  glass, 
and  cement.  There  are  steamer 
connections  with  Copenhagen 
and  England.  Exports  grain, 
flour,  butter,  cattle,  pork,  beef; 
imports  coal,  iron,  petroleum, 
and  maize.    Pop.  58,000. 

Aaron,  the  elder  brother,  col- 
league and  interpreter  of  Moses. 
According  to  the  Pentateuch, 
he  was  consecrated  to  the  high- 
priesthood  (Ex.  xxviii.,  xxix.; 
Lev.  viii.),  and  was  consequently 
regarded  as  the  ancestor  of  all 
lawful  priests  in  Israel,  Though 
always  second  to  Moses,  he  was 
joined  with  him  in  the  perform- 
ance of  miracles  (Ex.  vii.  19f. ; 
viii.  5f .) ;  his  budding  rod  was 
deposited  in  the  Ark  (Heb.  ix.  4). 
His  great  sin  was  the  making  of 
the  golden  calf  (Ex.  xxxii.  4) ; 
for  a  subsequent  fault  he  was 
denied  entrance  into  Canaan 
(Num.  XX.  8-13),  and  died,  aged 
123,  on  Mount  Hor,  in  Edom 
(Num.  XX.  23-29),  being  suc- 
ceeded by  his  third  son,  Elea- 
zar.   See  Moses. 

Aaron's  Beard,  the  name  of 
two  different  plants —  Hypericum 
calycinum  ('rose  of  Sharon'),  so 
named  because  of  the  tufted, 
beardlike  stamens  of  its  yellow 
flowers;  and  Saxifraga  sarmen- 
tosa  ('mother  of  thousands'),  a 
Chinese  plant,  often  seen  hang- 
ing at  cottage  windows. 

Aaron's  Tomb  (  Kabr  Harun), 
on  east  peak  (4,360  feet)  of  Mount 
Hor,  is,  according  to  ancient  tra- 
dition, the  place  where  Aaron 
was  buried.  It  is  alluded  to  by 
Josephus  {Antiquities,  iv.  4),  and 
is  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  See  Hor. 

Aasen,  Ivar  Andreas  (1813- 
96),  Norwegian  philologer  and 
author,  was  of  peasant  origin,  and 
self-educated.  In  1848  his  A^ors^e 
Folkesprogs  Grammatik  was  pub- 
lished, and  his  Ordbog  over  del 
Norske  Folkesprog  in  1850. 
Aasen  reconstructed  an  eclectic 
'national'  language  (Landsmaal) 
out  of  the  existing  Norwegian 
dialects;  his  efforts  in  this  direc- 
tion being  chiefly  concentrated 
upon  a  grammar  ( Norsk  Gram- 
matik. 1864),  a  dictionary  ( Norsk 
Ordbog,  1873),  which  has  been 
supplemented  by  the  Norsk 
Ordbog  (1890-2)  of  Hans  Ross.and 
the  publication  of  original  poems. 

Aasviir  Islands,  near  the 
Arctic  Circle,  west  of  Norway 
about  10  miles.  It  has  impor- 
tant herring  fisheries. 

A.B.,  Bachelor  of  Arts*  See 
Degree. 


Ab,  in  Jewish  calendar,  fifth 
month  of  the  ecclesiastical  and 
eleventh  of  the  civil  year;  part 
of  our  July  and  August.  The  9th 
of  Ab  was  set  aside  to  commem- 
orate the  destruction  of  the  Tem- 
ple (586  B.C.  and  70  A.D.) 

Ababdeb,  pastoral  Arab  Mo- 
hammedan tribe  living  in  the 
hilly  district  about  the  frontiers 
of  Upper  Egypt  and  Nubia,  be- 
tween the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile. 
They  are  Hamites,  and  in  color 
are  deep  brown  to  black. 

Abaca,  or  Abaka.  See  Ma- 
nila Hemp. 

Abaco,  Great,  or  Lucaya  (80 
m.  by  20  m.),  one  of  the  Bahama 
Islands,  east  of  Great  Bahama. 
Pop.  3,314.  Little  Abaco  is 
northwest  of  Great  Abaco.  See 
Bahamas. 

Abaculi,  small  cubes  of  col- 
ored glass,  enamel,  stone,  or 
other  material,  used  in  mar- 
quetry and  mosaic  work. 

Abacus,  an  instrument  to 
facilitate  calculation,  used  by 
the  ancient  Greeks,  Romans, 
Egyptians,  Hindus,  and  Mexi- 
cans. It  consists  of  a  board  in 
which  parallel  grooves  are  cut  to 
contain  pebbles,  or  a  rectangular 
frame  of  wires  on  which  beads 
are  strung.  The  latter  form  ex- 
ists in  the  tschotii  of  Russia  and 
the  suan-pan  of  China,  and  is 
used  for  teaching  arithmetic. 

Abacus,  in  architecture,  a  flat 
stone,  square,  octagonal,  or  cir- 
cular, and  either  plain  or  va- 
riously ornamented,  placed  above 
the  capital  of  a  column. 

Abaddon,  Hebrew  word  for 
'ruin'  or  'destruction.*  Though 
sometimes  used  in  this  general 
sense  (Job  xxxi.  12),  it  is  often 
equivalent  to  Sheol,  the  place  of 
the  dead  (Prov.  xv.  11),  or, 
more  particularly,  that  of  the 
lost.  Sometimes  it  is  personified, 
as  in  Job  xxviii.  22;  while  in 
Rev.  ix.  1  it  is  the  name  of  the 
'angel  of  the  abyss,'  and  is  inter- 
preted as  Apollyon  ('the  de- 
stroyer'), made  familiar  by 
Bunyan  in  his  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

Abakansk,  town,  Yeniseisk, 
Siberia,  near  the  junction  of  the 
Abakan  with  the  Yenisei  River. 
There  are  coal  mines  and  iron 
works,  and  ancient  tombs.  The 
town  has  considerable  trade  in 
furs.    Pop.  2,000. 

Abalone,  a  flatly  coiled  mol- 
lusk  (Haliotidac)  of  the  sea-coast; 
numerous  in  Southern  California. 
The  shell  is  used  as  mother-of- 
pearl,  and  the  flesh  is  dried  and 
eaten.  Many  species  occur  in 
all  warm  seas. 

Abana  (Amanah)  and  Phar- 
PAR,  rivers  of  Damascus  (2  Kings 
V.  12),  now  the  Barada  (a  branch 
of  which  is  still  called  the  Banias), 


flowing  through  the  city,  and  the 
Awaj,  to  the  south  of  the  Da- 
mascus plain.  Some  identify  the 
Pharpar  with  the  Barbar,  a  south 
tributary  of  the  Barada. 

Abancay,  town,  in  a  silver- 
mining  district  in  Peru,  the  chief 
city  in  Apurimac  department, 
about  40  m.  southwest  of  Cuzco. 
on  the  Abancay  River.  Its  chief 
industry  is  sugar  refining,  as  it  is 
situated  in  a  rich  sugar-growing 
district.  Other  products  are 
maize,  fruit,  barley,  potatoes, 
and  vegetables.    Pop.  5,000. 

Abancourt,  Charles  Xavier 
Joseph  d'  (1758-92),  a  supporter 
of  Louis  XVI.  in  the  French 
Revolution.  He  was  made  Minis- 
ter of  War  (June,  1792),  and  was 
killed  at  Versailles  by  the  pop- 
ulace. 

Abandonment.   The  leaving 

of  a  person  or  persons  to  whom 
one  is  legally  bound,  or  the 
relinquishment  of  property  or 
rights,  with  the  intention  of  not 
returning  to  such  person  or  per- 
sons, or  of  not  reclaiming  such 
property  or  rights.  Abandon- 
ment or  exposure  of  an  infant 
with  intent  to  cause  its  death  is 
murder,  if  death  ensues;  and  in 
general  a  desertion  which  results 
in  injury  to  the  person  aban- 
doned is  punishable  as  a  mis- 
demeanor, both  at  common  law 
and  under  modern  statutes. 
Abandonment  ot  wife  and  family 
has  in  many  of  the  United  States 
been  made  a  penal  off"ence,  and 
is  in  most  States  a  ground  for 
divorce.  Abandonment  of  pat- 
ent occurs  when  an  inventor 
fails  either  to  punish  infringe- 
ments or  to  obtain  a  patent  for 
his  invention.  The  term  is  also 
used  in  connection  with  mining 
claims,  easements,  and  public 
rights  of  way.    See  Desertion. 

Abano,  watering  place,  prov. 
Padua,  Italy,  foot  of  Euganean 
Hills,  6  m.  southwest  of  Padua. 
Its  hot  saline  springs  (98  to  181° 
F.)  were  known  to  the  Romans. 
A  statue  of  Hercules  or  Nero 
was  excavated  here.    Pop.  5,000. 

Abano,  Pietro  di  (1250- 
1316),  physician,  was  born  in 
Padua.  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  at  Padua.  He  was  a 
disciple  of  Averrhoes,  and  given 
to  the  study  of  alchemy  and 
astrology.  He  was  brought 
before  the  Inquisition  on  a  charge 
of  heresy,  and  condemned  to 
death,  but  died  before  the  sen- 
tence could  be  carried  out.  His 
most  famous  work  is  Conciliator 
Diff erentiarum  quce  inter  Philo- 
sophos  et  Medicos  versantur  (1472). 

Abarbanel.  See  Abravanel. 

Abarlm  ('those  on  the  other 
side'),  a  range  of  highlands  east 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  containing 
Pisgah,  where  Moses  viewed  the 


Abasa 


11 


Abbas  Hllml 


Promised  Land  (Num.  xxi.  20; 
xxiii.  14;  Deut,  xxxiv.  1);  and, 
2  miles  to  the  east,  Mount  Nebo, 
'the  lonely  mountain,'  where 
Moses  died  and  was  buried 
(Deut.  xxxii.  49;  xxxiv.  1). 

Abasa,  or  Abasins,  Circassian 
tribe,  of  Indo-European  origin, 
akin  to  the  people  of  Abkhasia. 
They  were  originally  Christians. 

Abasia.    See  Abkhasia. 

Abatement,  in  law,  is  the  in- 
terruption or  suspension  of  a  legal 
claim.  Abatement  of  suit  is  the 
suspension  of  a  proceeding  at  law 
or  in  equity  owing  to  the  lack, 
from  death  or  otherwise, of  proper 
parties  to  go  on  with  it.  The 
defect  may  be  cured  by  the  sub- 
stitution of  the  legal  representa- 
tive of  the  defaulting  party,  \vhen 
the  action  revives. 

Abatement  of  nuisance  is  the 
forcible  removal  by  the  injured 
party  of  an  inconvenience  consti- 
tuting an  infringement  of  his 
property  rights.  Such  removal  is 
legally  permissible  if  accomplish- 
ed without  unnecessary  damage 
or  disturbance. 

Abatement  of  freehold  is  the 
suspension  of  a  lawful  seisin  of 
land  through  the  wrongful  entry 
of  a  stranger  thereon  in  the  in- 
terval between  the  death  of  the 
owner  and  the  entry  of  his  lawful 
successor  to  the  inheritance.  It 
is  terminated  by  the  entry  of  the 
latter. 

Abatement  of  legacies  or  debts  is 
the  scaling  down  of  legacies  or 
debts,  owing  to  the  insufficiency 
of  the  assets  of  a  testator  to 
discharge  them  in  full. 

A  plea  in  abatement,  in  the 
common-law  system  of  pleading, 
involves  not  the  merits  of  the 
case,  but  the  completeness  or 
correctness  of  the  writ.  If  suc- 
cessful, such  plea  quashes  or 
abates  the  action,  and  compels 
the  plaintiff  to  begin  over  again. 

Abatis,  a  fortification  made  by 
felling  trees,  stripping  them  of 
their  smaller  branches,  and  secur- 
ing them  with  the  sharpened 
trunks  in  the  earth  and  the 
branches  pointing  upward  and 
outward  toward  the  enemy. 

Abattoir  ( French  abattre,  'to 
slaughter'),  a  slaughter-house 
for  cattle  and  other  animals  used 
for  food.  An  abattoir  should  be 
on  the  outskirts  of  a  city  or  othef 
location  that  will  allow  for  ex- 
tension; and  should  be  close  to  a 
plentiful  water  supply,  main 
thoroughfares,  and  railroads.  It 
must  include  accommodation  for 
penning,  killing,  dressing,  cool- 
ing, inspection  of  suspected 
animals  and  meat;  offices,  and 
various  buildings  for  the  treat- 
ment of  the  feet,  intestines,  and 
blood.  The  slaughter  room  and 
the  pen  should  be  so  arranged 


that  living  animals  shall  not  be 
frightened  by  the  smell  of  blood, 
and  that  animals  led  in  for 
slaughter  shall  not  see  traces  of 
those  just  killed.  The  walls  and 
floors,  therefore,  should  be 
smooth  and  impervious,  to  pre- 
vent absorption,  and  to  admit  of 
thorough  cleansing.  The  offal  is 
usually  removed  in  trucks  or  in 
barges,  to  be  used  as  manure; 
and  in  the  best  conducted  estab- 
lishments, practically  every  part 
of  the  animal  is  used.  A  public 
health  officer  and  a  veterinary 
surgeon  always  supervise  the 
operation  of  a  good  abattoir, 
and  in  the  United  States,  gov- 
ernment officials  inspect  meat 
for  interstate  or  foreign  trade. 

In  Europe,  abattoirs  are  com- 
monly owned  or  controlled  by 
the  public  authorities;  in  the 
United  States,  by  private  com- 
panies. The  first  abattoirs  were 
those  of  Paris,  established  in 
1818,  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  Commission  of  1810.  In 
Austria,  the  movement  was 
begun  in  1850  with  the  erection 
of  a  large  abattoir  in  Vienna; 
and  Prussia  followed  in  1868 
with  a  law  requiring  such  build- 
ings, which  had  considerable 
effect  on  legislation  in  the  other 
German  states.  Public  abattoirs 
are  now  common  in  France, 
Germany,  Austria,  Belgium, 
Switzerland,  and  Russia;  but  it 
is  only  recently  that  they  have 
been  actively  promoted  in  Great 
Britain.  Typical  abattoirs  are 
those  in  Chicago,  in  Paris  (105 
acres),  and  in  Dresden  (1910; 
68  separate  buildings).  See 
Meat;  Packing  Industry. 
Consult  Schwarz'  Abattoirs  and 
Cattle  Markets  (1903) ;  Cash's  Our 
Slaughter- House  System  (1907); 
Ayl'mgs  Public  Abattoirs  (1908). 

Abauzit,  Firmin  (1679-1767), 
was  born  in  Uzes,  France.  He 
fled  to  Geneva  on  the  Revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes;  assisted 
in  translating  the  New  Testament 
into  French  (1726),  and  became 
librarian  at  Geneva  (1727).  He 
was  a  great  scholar,  much  esteem- 
ed by  Newton,  Voltaire,  and 
Rousseau. 

Abba  (Aram,  'father'),  a  devo- 
tional expression  for  the  Divine 
Father,  and  apparently  the  chief 
appellation  of  God  used  by  Jesus 
in  prayer,  occurs  four  times  in 
the  New  Testament  (Mark  xiv. 
36;  Matt.  xxvi.  39;  Rom.  viii. 
15;  Gal.  iv.  6),  accompanied  by 
its  Greek  equivalent.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  used  as  a 
sacred  proper  name;  servants 
were  forbidden  to  use  it  to  their 
masters. 

Abbadle,  Antoine  Thomson 
d'  (1810-97),  French  savant  and 
explorer,  of  French-Irish  parent- 


age, was  born  at  Dublin.  He 
was  educated  in  France,  whither 
his  parents  removed  in  1818. 
He  was  sent  by  the  Academie  des 
Sciences  on  a  mission  to  Brazil 
(1835);  occupied  with  the  explo- 
ration of  Abyssinia  (1837-48);  a 
member  of  the  Academie  des 
Sciences  (1867),  and  of  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes  (1878); 
received  the  Arago  medal,  along 
with  Lord  Kelvin  (1896).  He 
bequeathed  his  estate  of  Abbadie 
to  the  Academie  des  Sciences,  on 
condition  of  its  publishing  a  cata- 
logue of  500,000  stars  in  50  years. 

Abbadie,  Arnaud  Michel  d' 
(1815-93),  accompanied  his 
brother  Antoine  to  Abyssinia, 
and  wrote  Douze  Ans  dans  la 
Haute-Ethiopie  (1868). 

Abba(lie,jACQUEs(i654-1727), 
Protestant  theologian,  a  native  of 
Nay,  in  Bearn,  France.  He  was 
pastor  of  a  French  Protestant 
church  in  Berlin  (1676),  and  in 
1688  pastor  of  the  French  church 
of  the  Savoy  in  London.  Wil- 
liam III.  nominated  him  dean  of 
Killaloe,  Ireland.  His  best- 
known  work  is  Traite  de  li 
Verite  de  la  Religion  Chretienne 
(1684),  an  apologetic  work  in- 
spired by  the  Cartesian  philos- 
ophy. Other  noteworthy  books 
are  U Art  de  se  connattre  soi- 
meme  (1692);  Defense  de  la  Na- 
tion Britannique  (1692);  La 
Grande  Conspiration  d'Angle- 
terre  (1696). 

Abbas  (c.  566-652),  uncle  of 
Mohammed,  was  taken  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  Bedr,  and  after- 
ward became  the  leading  sup- 
porter of  the  faith.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Abbassides,  who  were  califs  of 
Bagdad  from  750  until  the  Mon- 
gol conquest  in  1258.  See  Calif; 
Califate. 

Abbas  I.,  'The  Great'  (1557- 
1628),  Persian  monarch,  ascend- 
ed the  throne  in  1586.  He 
defeated  the  Uzbegs  at  Herat 
(1579),  and  the  Turks  in  many 
battles  (1601-9),  and,  with  Brit- 
ish assistance,  drove  the  Por- 
tuguese from  Ormuz  (1622). 
His  dominion  extended  from  the 
Tigris  to  the  Indus.  He  estab- 
lished the  capital  at  Ispahan, 
and  was  the  author  of  many  im- 
portant reforms. 

Abbas    Effendi.     See  Ba- 

HAISM. 

Abbas  Hilmi  (1874),  Khedive 
of  Egypt,  son  of  Mohammed 
Tewfik,  was  educated  in  Vienna, 
and  is  an  accomplished  linguist, 
speaking  French,  German,  Eng- 
lish, and  Arabic.  He  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1892.  At  first  antago- 
nistic to  British  influence,  he 
has  in  recent  years  given  his  sup- 
port to  the  improvements  in- 


Abbas  Mirza 


Abbey 


itiated  by  the  British.  He  owns 
extensive  farm  lands  near  Cairo, 
Alexandria,  and  Koubbeh,  some 
of  which  were  reclaimed  by- 
drainage;  and  he  is  interested 
in  horse  and  camel  breeding. 

Abbas  Mirza  (1783-1833), 
Prince  of  Persia,  son  of  Shah 
Feth-Ali,  was  commander  in  the 


the  Earth's  Atmosphere  (vol. 
1877,  II.  1891,  III.  1909); 
The  Altitudeof  the  Aurora  (1896); 
Physical  Basis  of  Long- Range 
Forecasting  (1902).  He  edited 
the  monthly  Weather  Review 
(1892-1909.)  and  now  edits  the 
quarterly  Bulletin  of  the  Research 
\   Observatory  at  Mount  Weather. 


Russian  campaigns  of  1811-13  \A  Abbe,  Robert  (1851),  Amer 
and  1826-8,  in  which  Persia  lost  ^can  surgeon,  brother  of_  Cleve 
her  Caucasian  territories.  He 


was  recognized  as  Shah  by  the 
treaty  of  1828. 

Abbas  Pasha(1813-54), grand- 
son of  Mehemet  Ali,  succeeded 
his  uncle,  Ibrahim  Pasha,  as  vice- 
roy of  Egypt  (1848).  He  aided 
the  Sultan  of  Turkey  in  the 
Crimean  War.  His  rule  was 
wasteful  and  reactionary. 
Abbassldes.  See  Abbas, 
Abbate,  Niccolo  dell'  (1512- 
71),  Italian  painter,  was  born  in 
Modena.  He  studied  under  Cor- 
reggio,  and  assisted  Primaticcio 
in  decorating  the  palace  of  Fon- 
tainebleau.  His  best  works  are 
the  altar  piece  of  San  Pietro  (Mo- 
dena), and  Execution  of  the  Apos- 
tles Peter  and  Paul  (Dresden). 

Abbates  Milites,  Abbato- 
COMITES,  or  Abbacomites,  lay 
abbots  from  the  ninth  to  the 
eleventh  century,  who  deputed 
deans  or  priors  to  the  spiritual 
oversight  of  their  abbeys. 

Abbazia,  health  resort  in 
Istria,  Austria,  at  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Fiume,  9  m.  west  of 
Fiume,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  boat  and  rail.  It  is 
well  sheltered  at  the  foot  of 
Monte  Maggiore;  mean  summer 
temperature,  77°;  winter,  50°  F. 
It  is  known  as  the  Nice  of  the 
Adriatic.    Pop.  about  2,000. 

Abbe,  at  first  meaning  abbot, 
was  early  applied  in  France  to 
any  ecclesiastic,  a  sense  which 
the  word  still  holds.  See  Abbot. 

Abbe,  Cleveland  (1838), 
American  astronomer  and  me- 
teorologist, was  bor.n  in  New 
York  City,  and  was  educated 
first  at  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  He  studied  as- 
tronomy at  the  University  ot 
Michigan,  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
and  at  Pulkova,  Russia.  In 
1868  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  Cincinnati  Observatory, 
where  he  organized  for  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  a  system 
of  daily  telegraphic  meteoro- 
logical reports  and  weather  pre- 
dictions for  the  benefit  of  the 
whole  city.  In  1871  he  became 
professor  of  meteorology  at  the 
Signal  Office,  and  subsequently 
at  the  Weather  Bureau  at  Wash- 
ington. His  works  on  meteor- 
ology are  of  high  authority. 
His  best-known  works  include 
Meteorological  Apparatus  and 
Methods  (1887);  The  Mechanics 


land  Abbe  (q.  v.),  was  born  in 
New  York  City.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York  (1870),  and  at  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons (1874).  He  was  attending 
surgeon  at  the  New  York  Hos- 
pital (1877-84),  and  at  the  New 
York  Babies'  Hospital  (1892-7); 
and  has  been  surgeon  to  St. 
Luke's  Hospital  since  1884,  and 
to  the  New  York  Cancer  Hos- 
pital since  1893.  He  was  for  two 
years  professor  of  didactic  sur- 
gery in  the  Women's  Medical 
College,  professor  of  surgery  in 
the  New  York  Post-Graduate 
Medical  School  (1889-97);  and 
since  1898  has  lectured  on  sur- 
gery at  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons.  He  is  eminent 
both  as  a  surgeon  and  for  his 
researches  in  radium. 

Abbess,  female  superior  of  a 
nunnery,  chosen  by  the  secret 
votes  of  the  nuns.  She  must  be 
over  forty  years  old,  and  have 
kept  the  vows  of  the  order  for  at 
least  eight  years.  She  is  installed 
by  episcopal  benediction,  and 
exercises  the  temporal  and  spir- 
itual duties  of  an  abbot,  except 
confession  and  preaching. 

Abbeville  (Abbatis  Villa). 
town,  dept.  Somme,  France,  on 
an  island  and  both  banks  of  the 
Somme  River,  15  m.  from  its 
mouth  in  the  English  Channel. 
Exports  grain,  fodder,  flour, 
cloth,  and  rope;  imports  tar,  coal, 
salt,  wool,  wine,  and  cattle. 
There  are  a  communal  library 
(50,000  volumes),  a  museum,  and 
colleges  for  boys  and  girls.  It 
is  noted  for  its  Church  of  St. 
Wolfram. 

Abbeville  was  founded  in  the 
ninth  century,  was  fortified  by 
Charlemagne  and  Hugh  Capet, 
and  later  became  the  residence 
and  capital  of  the  courts  of 
Ponthieu.  It  was  occupied  by 
the  English  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  and  was  the 
scene  of  English-French  treaties 
in  1259  and  1527.  It  was  taken 
by  Germany  in  1870.  Pop. 
22,000. 

Abbeville,  town,  South  Caro- 
lina, county  seat  of  Abbeville 
county,  on  the  Southern  and 
other  RRs.,  107  m.  west  by 
north  of  Columbia.  Cotton  and 
other  agricultural  products  are 
raised  in  the  neighborhood,  and 


in  the  town  are  cotton  gins, 
manufactories  of  cottonseed  oil 
and  fertilizers,  and  flour  mills. 
Pop.  (1910)  4,459. 

Abbey,  the  abode  of  a  commu- 
nity of  monks  or  nuns.    As  a 
Christian  institution  it  originated 
among  the  early  Christian  her- 
mits of  the  Egyptian  desert  as  a 
cluster  of  separate   huts  built 
round  that  of  an  anchorite  of  dis- 
tinguished piety;  anticipated  as  a 
form  of  community  by  the  Bud- 
dhists, Essenes,  and  Therapeutae; 
it  is  a  natural  corollary  of  the 
ascetic  principle.  As  the  monastic 
system  became  organized,  there 
arose   a   form   of  architecture 
suited  to  its  needs.    The  prin- 
ciple adopted  by  the  Benedic- 
tines, that  an  abbey  should  be 
entirely   self-contained,   led  to 
great  complexity  in  the  many 
thousand  buildings  erected  by 
that  order  throughout  Western 
Europe.     These    included  the 
church,  the  centre  of  the  whole 
monastic  life;  the  chapter-house; 
abbot's  house;  common  room  of 
the  monks;   the  refectory;  dor- 
mitories; cloisters;  buildings  de- 
voted to  the  reception  of  guests; 
the    almonry;     infirmary  and 
physician's  residence;  library  and 
writing-room;  house  and  schools 
for  novices  and  children,  etc.  (See 
diagram  under  Monastery.)  The 
whole  abbey  was  surrounded  by 
a  wall.     Among  British  abbeys 
are    Westminster,  Canterbury, 
York,  Tewkesbury  (Benedictine), 
Durham,  Fountains  (Cistercian), 
Bolton,  Bristol,  Holyrood  (Au- 
gustinian).     The   first  English 
abbey  was  founded  at  Bangor  in 
560.      Henry    viii.  suppressed 
many  of  the  smaller  foundations 
in  1525  and  following  years,  and 
abolished  all  institutions  of  this 
kind  in  1539-40.    See  Priory; 
Monastery;  Monasticism.  Con- 
sult Wishart's  Short  History  of 
Monks  and  Monasticism  (1900); 
Cram's  Ruined  Abbeys  of  Great 
Britain  (1905);  Dixon's  Abbeys 
of  Great  Britain  (1908) ;  Gasquet's 
Greater     Abbeys     of  England 
(1908);  Hibbert's  Dissolution  of 
the  Monasteries  (1910). 

Abbey,  Edwin  Austin  (1852- 
1911),  American  illustrator  and 
figure  painter,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia. After  studying  at  the 
Philadelphia  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  he  went  to  New  York  (1871), 
and  was  for  several  years  an  il- 
lustrator for  Harper  and  Broth- 
ers. In  1878  the  firm  commis- 
sioned him  to  go  to  England  in 
search  of  local  color  for  illustra- 
tions to  Herrick's  poems;  and 
he  subsequently  made  his  home 
in  that  country.  He  transferred 
his  attention  from  pen  and  ink 
to  the  brush,  and  his  first  acade- 
my picture  was  A  May  Day 


SOME  OF  THE  MOST  PICTURESQUE  OF  THE  RUINED  ABBEYS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 
I.  Bolton.  2.  Kiikstall.  3.  BristoL  4.  Holyrood.   5.  i'ountains. 


Abbey 


14 


Abbot 


Morning  (1890).  In  1896  he  was 
elected  a.r.a.,  in  the  year  of  his 
fine  picture  Richard  III.  and 
Lady  Anne  (etching  by  M.  L. 
Flameng) ;  and  r.a.  in  1898,  his 
diploma  picture  being  A  Lute 
Player.  Abbey  is  best  known  to 
Americans  for  the  frescoes — 
fifteen  panels  telling  the  story  of 
the  Holy  Grail — in  the  Boston 
Public  Library  (1901),  and  for 
the  eight  immense  paintings  in 
the  dome  of  the  Pennsylvania 
capitol  at  Harrisburg  (1908) ; 
and  to  the  English  for  the  pic- 
ture of  King  Edward's  coro- 
nation (1904),  now  in  Windsor 
Castle.  Other  paintings  are 
Hamlet  (1897);  King  Lear's 
Daughters  (1898);  Crusaders 
Sighting  Jerusalem  (1901);  Co- 
lumbus in  the  New  World  (1906). 

In  general.  Abbey's  works  are 
story  pictures,  and  show  remark- 
able ability  to  enter  into  and 
interpret  the  conceptions  of 
other  minds  and  bygone  ages. 
It  was  this  fineness  of  dramatic 
imagination  that  made  him  such 
a  good  illustrator.  His  ideal  fig- 
ures are  characterized  by  great 
purity  of  feeling,  as  well  as  by 
delicacy  of  drawing;  while  the 
compositions  abound  in  histori- 
cally accurate  detail,  and  are 
rich  in  masses  of  vivid  color. 

Abbiategrasso,  town,  prov- 
ince Milan,  Italy,  17  m.  south- 
west of  Milan,  on  the  Naviglio 
Grande  Canal.  It  has  a  castle,  a 
convent,  and  a  hospital.  There 
is  considerable  trade  in  rice. 
Pop.  14,000. 

Abbot,  the  head  of  a  monas- 
tery. The  name  was  first  given 
as  a  title  of  honor  to  any  monk, 
then  to  aged  or  distinguished 
monks,  finally  to  the  superior 
alone.  In  the  East  the  corre- 
sponding title  is  archimandrite  or 
hegumenos.  In  the  West,  in 
orders  founded  after  the  eleventh 
century,  superiors  are  known, 
not  as  abbots,  but  as  priors, 
guardians,  rectors,  provosts,  etc. 
An  abbot  may  be  chosen  tor  life 
or  for  three  years;  must  be  at 
least  twenty-five  years  old,  and  a 
priest;  the  choice  is  made  by  the 
professed  monks  who  are  in  holy 
orders,  and  confirmed  by  the 
bishop,  or,  in  case  of  exempt 
monasteries,  by  the  superior  ab- 
bot or  by  the  Pope;  must,  as  a 
rule,  receive  solemn  benediction 
for  his  office  at  the  hands  of  a 
bishop;  he  may  empower  priests 
to  absolve  his  subjects,  etc.;  in 
important  cases  he  must  obtain 
the  consent  of  the  community. 
He  may  preside  over  one  house, 
or  over  many;  he  may  be  exempt 
from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and 
be  subject  directly  to  the  Pope ;  he 
may  possess  quasi-episcopal  juris- 
diction over  a  whole  district;  he 


may  be  mitred— i.e.,  have  the 
right  to  wear  the  insignia  of  a 
bishop;  he  may  hold  political 
rank,  like  the  prince-abbots  of 
Germany,  or  the  twenty-eight 
English  abbots  who  sat  in  the 
House  of  Lords  before  the  disso- 
lution of  the  monasteries. 

Commendatory  abbots  are  per- 
sons who  enjoy  the  revenues  of 
an  abbey  without  necessarilv 
being  monks.  Originally  ap- 
pointed for  the  protection  of  the 
monasteries  in  troublous  times, 
they  were  afterward  appointed 
as  a  mark  of  royal  favor.  Hence 
the  French  courtesy  title  of  abbe 
or  the  Italian  abbate,  given  to 
secular  unbeneficed  clerics. 

Abbot,  Benjamin  (1762- 
1849).  American  educator,  was 
born  in  Andover,  Mass..  and  was 
educated  at  Harvard  University. 
For  fifty  years  he  was  a  teacher, 
most  of  the  time  being  principal 
of  Exeter  Academy  at  Exeter. 
N.  H.,  where  he  numbered  among 
his  pupils  Bancroft,  Edward  and 
Alexander  H.  Everett,  Jared 
Sparks,  and  Daniel  Webster. 

Abbot,  Charles.  See  Col- 
chester, Lord. 

Abbot,  Ezra  (1819-84),  Bib- 
lical scholar,  was  born  in  Jackson, 
Me.,  and  educated  at  Bowdoin. 
From  1872  to  1884  he  was  Bussey 
professor  of  New  Testament 
criticism  at  the  Harvard  Divin- 
ity School.  He  edited  Hudson's 
New  Testament  Concordance 
(1870),  and  assisted  the  Amer- 
ican committee  for  New  Testa- 
ment revision  (1871-81).  He 
edited  Smith's  Bible  Dictionary 
(1867-70);  wrote  Literature  of  the 
Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life  (1864) 
and  Authorship  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel,  and  revised  Schaff's  Com- 
panion to  the  New  Testament 
(1883)  and  Mitchell's  Critical 
Handbook  to  the  New  Testament 
(1881).    Consult  Barrows'  Life. 

Abbot,  Francis  Ellingwood 
(1836-1903).  American  leligious 
and  philosophical  writer,  was  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  University  and 
Meadville  Theological  School. 
He  had  charge  of  several  Uni- 
tarian churches  and  was  instruc- 
tor of  philosophy  at  Harvard 
(1887-8).  He  also  edited  The 
Index,  a  religious  liberal  weekly. 
He  was  the  author  of  Scientific 
Theism  {lSS&)\The  Way  Out  of 
Agnosticism  (1890);  Syllogistic 
Philosophy  (1906). 

Abbot,  George  (1562-1633), 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
born  in  Guilford.  He  gained  a 
fellowship  at  Oxford  (1583),  and 
became  master  of  University 
College,  dean  of  Winchester,  and 
vice-chancellor  (1600)  of  Oxford. 
He  was  bishop  of  Coventry  and 
Lichfield  (1609),  then  of  London 


(1610),  succeeding  Bancroft  as 
archbishop  in  1611.  As  piesident 
of  the  Essex  Divorce  Commis- 
sion, he  incurred  the  king's  dis- 
pleasure by  opoosing  the  peti- 
tion (1613).  Ill-health  and  the 
accession  of  Charles  I.  (who  fa- 
vored Laud)  crippled  his  influ- 
ence, and  in  1627  he  was  deprived 
of  authority.  An  ardent  Calvin- 
ist,  he  did  not  scruple  to  employ 
torture  and  the  stake.  He  as- 
sisted in  the  translation  of  the 
Bible.  Consult  Hook's  Lives  of 
the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury. 

Abbot,  Henry  Larcom(1831), 
American  engineer  officer,  was 
born  in  Beverly,  Mass.  He 
received  his  military  education 
at  West  Point,  Under  General 
Humphreys  he  took  part  in  the 
hydrographic  survey  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi delta,  of  which  he  wrote 
(with  Humphreys)  an  elaborate 
report.  Physics  and  Hydraulics 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  saw  service  in 
the  Manassas  campaign;  was 
wounded  at  Bull  Run,  and  took 
part  in  constructing  the  defences 
of  Washington,  He  also  served 
in  the  Virginia  Peninsula  Cam- 
paign (1862),  and  in  the  opera- 
tions before  Richmond  in  1864-5. 
In  1865  he  was  chief  of  artillery 
in  the  operations  before  Fort 
Fisher,  and  in  the  Department  of 
Virginia.  He  attained  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general.  After  the 
war  he  was  engaged  in  the  mili- 
tary and  scientific  duties  of  the 
Corps  of  Engineers,  until  his 
retirement  from  active  service  in 
1895.  He  received  the  degree 
of  LL.D.  from  Harvard  in  1886. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Board 
of  Consulting  Engineers  which 
formed,  in  1896,  the  adopted 
plan  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

Abbot,  Joseph  Hale  (1802- 
73) ,  American  educator,  was  born 
in  Wilton,  N.  H.,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Bowdoin  College.  He 
taught  mathematics  and  modern 
languages  at  Phillips  Academy, 
Exeter,  and  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  Transactions  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences.  He  was  one  of  the 
editorial  staff  in  the  compilation 
of  Worcester's  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language  (1860). 

Abbot,  Samuel  (1732-1812), 
American  merchant  and  philan- 
thropist, was  born  in  Andover, 
Mass.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
and  its  generous  friend.  He  gave 
the  institution  $20,000  in  his 
lifetime,  and  left  it  $100,000  by 
his  will. 

Abbot,  Willis  John  (1863\ 
formerly  editor  of  The  Pilgrim, 
and  writer  of  story  books  for  the 
young,  was  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn ,   and  was  educated  at 


Abbot  of  Unreason 


15 


Abbott 


the  University  of  Michigan.  He 
was  managing  editor  of  the  Chi- 
cago Times  (1892-3),  and  served 
on  the  staff  of  the  New  York 
Journal  (1896-8).  He  is  best 
known  for  his  stories  for  boys, 
including  the  Blue  Jackets  series; 
Battle  Fields  and  Camp  Fires; 
Battle  Fields  of  i86i;  Story  of 
Our  Navy  for  Young  Americans 
(1910);  Panama  arid  the  Canal 
in  Picture  and  Prose  (1913). 

Abbot  of  Unreason,  also  Lord 
OF  Misrule,  the  master  of  the 
revels  at  the  season  of  Christmas, 
the  former  being  his  title  in  Scot- 
land, the  latter  in  England.  At 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  the  part 
was  filled  by  a  Master  of  Arts, 
who  superintended  the  annual 
representation  of  Latin  plays  by 
the  students,  and  took  charge  of 
their  Christmas  diversions.  His 
'reign'  lasted  from  All-Hallows 
Eve  to  Candlemas  Day.  The 
revels  of  the  London  Inns  of 
Court  {e.g..  Inner  Temple  and 
Gray's  Inn)  were  presided  over 
by  a  Lord  of  Misrule. 

Abbotsford,  the  home  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott  from  1812  to  1832, 
is  an  estate  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Tweed,  3  miles  from  Melrose. 
In  1811  Scott  bought  a  farm  of 
110  acres,  called  Cartleyhole  (not 
Clartyhole,  as  Lockhart  terms  it) , 
and  named  it  Abbotsford.  In 
1813  he  added  the  hilly  tract 
from  the  Roman  road  near  Turn- 
again  to  Cauldshiels  Loch;  in 
1815,  Kaeside,  'a  large  lump  of 
wild  land';  and,  in  1817,  the 
lands  of  Toftfield,  which  he 
bought  for  .f50,000.  The  house 
stands  on  a  terrace  between  the 
river  and  the  road  from  Melrose 
to  Selkirk,  and  is  a  picturesque, 
irregular  building  in  the  vScottish 
baronial  style.  Abbotsford,  com- 
pleted only  in  1825,  was  involved 
in  the  collapse  of  1826,  and  was 
not  liberated  till  1847,  on  the 
death  of  Scott's  son.  The  vScott 
collection  of  books,  paintings, 
and  relics  is  held  in  trust  by  the 
Dean  and  Council  of  the  Faculty 
of  Advocates,  who  leave  it  in  the 
keeping  of  Scott's  representa- 
tives. See  Scott,  Sir  Walter. 
Consult  Smith  and  Crockett's 
Abbotsford  (1905). 

Abbott,  Austin  (1831-96), 
American  lawyer,  son  of  Jacob 
Abbott  (q.  V.) ,  was  born  in  Boston, 
and  wasgraduatedfrom  New  York 
University  (1851).  He  attained 
eminence  in  the  legal  profession, 
and  was  dean  of  the  faculty  of 
law  of  New  York  University 
from  1891  till  his  death.  He 
aided  his  brother  Benjamin  in 
the  publication  of  the  latter's 
legal  compilations;  and  he  was 
counsel  for  Theodore  Tilton  in 
his  celebrated  suit  against  Henry 
Ward  Beecher. 

Abbott,  Benjamin  Vaughan 
(1830-90),  American  lawyer,  son 
of  Jacob  Abbott  (q.v.),  was  born 

Vol.  I.— 3. 


in  Boston,  Mass.,  and  was  grad- 
uated from  New  York  University 
(1850).  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1852;  was  associated  with 
his  brothers  Lyman  and  Austin 
in  legal  practice;  and  in  collabo- 
ration with  the  latter  compiled 
many  legal  works.  He  draught- 
ed the  present  penal  code  of  New 


Pennsylvania  (1865),  and  was  a 
surgeon  in  the  Union  Army  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War.  While  assist- 
ant curator  of  the  Peabody 
Museum,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  he 
gathered  a  fine  collection  of 
20,000  archaeological  specimens, 
which  he  presented  to  that 
museum.    His   published  writ- 


Abbotsford  House. 


Sir  Walter  Scott's  Library. 


York  vState;  and  was  one  of  the 
three  commissioners  that  revised 
the  U.  S.  statutes  in  1870-73. 
His  legal  compilations  include: 
Digest  of  New  York  Statutes;  Di- 
gest of  U.  S.  Court  Reports  and 
Acts  of  Congress;  National  Digest; 
Patent  Laws  of  All  Nations;  and 
a  Law  Dictionary. 

Abbott,  Charles  Conrad 
(1843),  American  archaeologist 
and  naturalist,  was  born  in  Tren- 
ton, N.  J.  He  was  graduated  in 
medicine  from  the  University  of 


ings  include:  Primitive  Indus- 
try (1881);  Cyclopaedia  of  Nat- 
ural History  (1886);  Wasteland 
Wonders  (1887);  Days  Out  of 
Doors  (1889);  When  the  Century 
was  New  (1897);  Clear  Skies  and 
Cloudy  (1898) ;  In  Nature's  Realm 
(1900);  Rambles  of  an  Idler 
(1906);  Ten  Years'  Diggings  in 
Lenape  Land,  iqoi-ii  (1912), 

Abbott,  Edward  (1841-1908), 
American  clergyman,  son  of  Ja- 
cob Abbott  (q.v.),  was  born  in 
Farmington,  Me.    He  was  grad- 


Abbott 


16 


Abbreviations 


uated  from  New  York  University 
(1860),  and  studied  theology  at 
Andover  Seminary.  He  was  or- 
dained in  the  Congregational 
ministry,  and  was  pastor  of  the 
Pilgrim  Church  at  Cambridge 
(1865-9);  in  1879  he  was  or- 
dained in  the  Episcopal  Church, 
and  became  rector  of  St.  James' 
parish,  Cambridge.  He  was  edi- 
tor of  The  Congregationalist  and 
of  The  Literary  World,  Boston. 
His  works  include  a  Memoir  of 
Phillips  Brooks  (1900)  and  of  his 
father,  Jacob  Abbott  (1882); 
Paragraph  History  of  the  United 
States  (1875);  Paragraph  History 
of  the  American  Revolution 
(1876). 

Abbott,  Emma  (1849-91), 
American  soprano  singer,  was 
born  in  Chicago,  111.  After  singing 
in  New  York  churches,  she  studied 
abroad  under  San  Giovanni  and 
Mme.  Marchesi,  and  made  her 
operatic  debut  at  Covent  Garden, 
London,  as  Maria  in  La  Fille  du 
Regifnent.  Three  years  later  she 
returned  to  the  United  States, 
where  she  headed  the  Emma 
Abbott  Opera  Company  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  attained 
nation-wide  success.  Her  reper- 
toire included  the  works  of  Verdi, 
Bellini,  and  Donizetti,  Martha, 
Faust,  Les  Huguenots,  and  The 
Chimes  of  Normandy.  In  1878 
she  married  E.  J.  Wetherell,  of 
New  York. 

Abbott,  Frank  Frost  (1860), 
American  educator,  was  born  in 
Redding,  Conn.,  and  was  grad- 
uated from  Yale  (1882;  ph.d. 
1891;  Hon.  A.M.  1912).  From 
1891  to  1908  he  was  associate 
professor  and  professor  of  Latin 
in  the  University  of  Chicago; 
and  since  1908  has  been  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  at  Princeton. 
He  has  written:  History  of 
Roman  Political  Institutions 
(1901);  The  Toledo  Manuscript 
of  the  Germania  of  Tacitus  (1903) ; 
A  History  of  Rome  (1906) ;  Society 
and  Politics  in  Ancient  Rome 
(1909);  The  Common  People  of 
A  ncient  Rome  ( 1 9 1 1 ) ;  and  articles 
in  American  and  foreign  periodi- 
cals. 

Abbott,  Jacob  (1803-79), 
American  clergyman  and  writer, 
was  born  in  Hallowell,  Me.,  and 
was  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College  (1820).  He  was  or- 
dained in  the  Congregational 
ministry;  was  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy  at 
Amherst  (1825-9);  organized  the 
Eliot  Church  at  Roxbury  (1834); 
and  after  1840  devoted  himself 
to  writing,  spending  his  life  in 
New  York  City  and  in  foreign 
travel.  He  was  a  prolific  and 
popular  writer  of  stories  for  the 
young,  and  published  over  200 
volumes,  including  Harper's  Story 
Books  (36  vols.),  the  Rollo  Books 
(36  vols.),  the  Franconia  Stories 
(10  vols.),  the  American  Histories 


for  Youth  (8  vols.),  and  His- 
tories for  the  Young  (19  vols.). 

Abbott,  Sir  John  Joseph 
Caldwell  (1821-93),  Canadian 
public  official,  was  born  in  St. 
Andrews,  Quebec.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  McGill  University,  stud- 
ied law,  and  in  1847  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Canadian  As- 
sembly from  1859  until  the 
union  in  1867,  when  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Dominion 
Parliament.  In  1867  he  joined 
the  Cabinet  of  Sir  John  A.  Mac- 
donald,  and  on  the  latter's 
death,  in  June,  1891,  succeeded 
him  as  Premier,  resigning  in 
November,  1892.  He  was  also 
a  member  of  the  Cabinet  of  his 
successor.  Sir  John  Thomson. 
He  was  dean  of  the  faculty  of 
law  of  McGill  University  for  ten 
years,  and  was  knighted  in  1892. 

Abbott,  John  Stevens  Cabot 
(1805-  77),  American  writer, 
brother  of  Jacob  Abbott  (q.v.), 
was  born  in  Brunswick,  Me. 
He  was  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College  (1825);  studied  theology 
at  Andover;  was  ordained  in  the 
Congregational  ministry  (1830); 
and  held  pastorates  at  Worcester, 
Roxbury,  and  Nantucket,  Mass. 
After  1844  he  devoted  himself  to 
Hterature,  and  wrote  many  his- 
torical works,  including:  Ameri- 
can Pioneers  (12  vols.);  The 
French  Revolution;  History  of 
Napoleon;  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena; 
History  of  Napoleon  IIP;  His- 
tory of  the  Civil  War;  History  of 
Frederick  the  Great. 

Abbott,  Lyman  (1835),  Ameri- 
can minister  and  editor,  son  of 
Jacob  Abbott  (q.v.),  was  born  in 
Roxbury,  Mass.,  and  was  grad- 
uated from  New  York  Univer- 
sity (1853).  He  practised  law 
with  his  brothers  Austin  and 
Benjamin;  studied  theology  with 
his  uncle  John  S.  C,  and  was 
ordained  in  the  Congregational 
ministry;  and  became  pastor  of 
a  church  at  Terre  Haute,  Ind., 
and  of  the  New  England  Church, 
New  York.  After  1869  he  edited 
the  Literary  Record  of  Harper  s 
Weekly.  In  1871  he  became 
editor  of  The  Illustrated  Christian 
Weekly,  and  in  1876  associate 
editor,  with  Henry  Ward  Beech- 
er,  of  The  Christian  Union.  In 
1888  he  succeeded  Beecher  as 
pastor  of  Plymouth  Church, 
Brooklyn,  retaining  the  editor- 
ship of  The  Christian  Union,  of 
which  he  had  then  become  editor- 
in-chief.  He  continued  the  double 
work  of  preacher  and  editor  for 
eleven  years,  during  which  time 
The  Christian  Union  changed  its 
name  to  The  Outlook.  In  1899  he 
resigned  his  pastorate  to  devote 
himself  to  the  editorship  of  The 
Outlook  and  to  literary  work. 

Dr.  Abbott's  numerous  pub- 
lished works  include:  Diction- 
ary of  Religious  Knowledge  (with 


the  late  T.  J.  Conant,  1876) ;  A 
Study  in  Human  Nature  (1885); 
In  Aid  of  Faith  (1891);  Life  of 
Christ  (1894);  Evolution  of  Chris- 
tianity (1895) ;  The  Theology  of  an 
Evolutionist  (1897);  Christianity 
and  Social  Problems  (1897);  Life 
and  Letters  of  Paul  (1898);  The 
Life  That  Really  Is  (1899);  Prob- 
lems of  Life  (1900);  Life  and 
Literature  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews 
(1900) ;  The  Rights  of  Man  (1901) ; 
Henry  Ward  Beecher  (1903);  The 
Great  Companion  (1904);  Chris- 
tian Ministry  (1905);  Personality 
of  God  (1905);  Industrial  Prob- 
lems (1905);  Christ's  Secret  of 
Happiness  (1907);  The  Home 
Builder  (1908);  The  Temple 

(1909)  ;  The  Spirit  of  Democracy 

(1910)  ;  America  in  the  Making 

(1911)  ;  Letters  to  Unknown 
Friends  (1913). 

Abbott,  Nathan  (1854), 
American  educator,  was  born  in 
Norridgewock,  Me.  He  was 
graduated  from  Yale  (1877),  and 
studied  law  at  Boston  Univer- 
sity. After  practising  for  some 
time  in  Boston,  he  became  Tap- 
pan  professor  of  law  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  (1891),  pro- 
fessor of  law,  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity (1892-4),  and  professor  of 
law  and  dean  of  the  law  school, 
Leland  Stanford  University 
(1895-1907).  Since  1907  he  has 
been  a  member  of  the  law  faculty 
of  Columbia  University. 

Abbott,  Wilbur  C.  (1868), 
American  educator,  was  born  in 
Kokomo,  Ind.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Wabash  College 
(1892),  and  studied  abroad  at 
Oxford  and  on  the  Continent. 
Since  1897  he  has  been  instructor 
in  history  at  the  University  of 
Michigan,  assistant  professor  of 
history  at  Dartmouth  College, 
professor  of  European  history  at 
the  University  of  Kansas,  and 
professor  of  history  at  the  Shef- 
field Scientific  School,  Yale  (since 
1908).  He  wrote  Colonel  Blood, 
Crotvn  Stealer  (1911). 

Abbre'viations  are  portions  of 
a  word,  generally  the  first  letter 
or  syllable,  used  in  place  of  the 
word  to  save  time  and  space. 
In  ancient  Greek  and  Roman 
inscriptions,  in  the  rabbinical 
writings,  and  in  the  manuscripts 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  abbrevia- 
tions were  especially  abundant 
(see  Paleography)  ;  but  with 
the  invention  of  printing  these 
became  largely  unnecessary. 
Along  with  abbreviations  are 
usually  grouped  Contractions,  in 
which  one  or  more  letters  are 
elided,  and  Symbols,  such  as  & 
for  'and,'  $  for  'dollars,'  etc. 
(see  Symbols).  Some  of  the 
more  common  of  these  are 
included  in  the  accompanying 
list,  which  contains  most  of  the 
important  abbreviations  in  gen- 
eral use.  Many  obvious  abbrevi- 
ations— e.g.,  those  of  the  months, 


Abbreviations 


17 


Abbreviations 


States  of  the  United  States, 
countries,  societies — are  omitted, 
as  well  as  special  forms  employed 
in  geography,  grammar,  mathe- 
matics, and  other  technical  sub- 
jects. For  exhaustive  lists  con- 
sult Dobbs'  Abbreviations,  British 
and  Foreign  (1911);  Rogers'  Dic- 
tionary of  Abbreviations  (1913). 
A.B.    Artium  Baccalaureus 

(Bachelor  of  Arts). 
Ab  init.    Ab  initium  (from  the 

beginning) . 
A.C.    Ante     Christum  (before 

Christ). 

Accel.  Accelerando  (more  quick- 
ly) • 

A.D.  Anno  Domini  (in  the 
year  of  our  Lord) . 

A.D.C.  Aide-de-camp. 

Ad  fin.    Ad  finem  (to  the  end). 

Ad  inf.  Ad  infinitem  (to  infin- 
ity). 

Ad  lib.    Ad  libitum  (at  pleasure) . 
Ads.    Ad  sectam  (at  the  suit  of). 
Adv.  Advertisement. 
Ad  val.    Ad  valorem  (according 

to  value). 
JEt.    jEtatis  (of  his  or  her  age). 
A.H.    Anno  Hegirce  (in  the  year 

of  the  Hegira). 
A.M.    Ante    meridiem  (before 

noon) ;   anno   mundi    (in  the 

year  of  the  world) ;  Artium 

Magistcr  (Master  of  Arts). 
A.R.A.    Associate  of  the  Royal 

Academy. 
A.U.C.    Ab  urbe  condita  (from 

the   founding   of   the   city — 

Rome,  753  B.C.). 

A.  V.  Authorized  Version  (of  the 
Bible). 

Av.  Avoirdupois. 
Ave.    Avenue;  average. 

B.  Born. 
B.A.    See  A.B. 
Bart.  Baronet. 
Bbl.  Barrel. 

B.C.    Before  Christ. 

B.C.L.    Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.D.    Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

Bibl.    Biblical;  bibliography. 

B.L.    Bachelor  of  Letters. 

B/L.    Bill  of  lading. 

B.M.    Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

B.Mus.    Bachelor  of  Music. 

B.Sc.    Bachelor  of  Science. 

Bu.  Bushel. 

B.  V.M.    Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 

C.  Chapter;  centum  (a  hun- 
dred); century;  Centigrade; 
circa  (about). 

Cantab.  Cantabrigiensis  (of 
Cambridge). 

Cap.    Capitulum  (chapter). 

Cath.    Cathedral;  Catholic. 

C.B.    Companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.E,    Civil  Engineer. 

Cent.    A  hundred;  century. 

Cf.  or  Cp.    Confer  (compare). 

Circ.    Circa  (about). 

C.M.G.  Companion  of  St.  Mi- 
chael and  St.  George. 

Co.    Company;  county. 

C/O.    Care  of. 

C.O.D.    Cash,  or  collect,  on  de- 
livery. 
Cod.  Codex. 
Con.    Contra  (against). 


C.P.A.      Certified    Public  Ac- 
countant. 
Cr.  Creditor. 

Cresc.  Crescendo  (increase  of 
tone) . 

C.  S.A.  Confederate  States  of 
America. 

Cwt.  Hundredweight. 

D.  Delete  (erase);  died;  penny, 
pence;  500. 

D.A.R.  Daughters  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution. 

D.C.  Da  capo  (from  the  begin- 
ning) . 

D.C.L.    Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 
D.D.    Doctor  of  Divinity. 
D.D.S.    Doctor  of  Dental  Sur- 
gery. 

D.G.  Dei  gratia  (by  the  grace 
of  God) ;  Deo  gr alias  (thanks 
be  to  God). 

Dim.  Diminuendo  (decrease  of 
tone) . 

D.L.    Doctor  of  Laws. 

D.Litt.    Doctor  of  Letters  or 

Literature. 
Do.    Ditto  (the  same). 
D.O.M.    Deo  Optimo  maximo  (to 

God  the  best  and  greatest). 
Dr.    Debtor;  doctor. 
D.Sc.    Doctor  of  Science. 
D.T.    Doctor  of  Theology. 

D.  V.  Deo  volente  (God  willing). 
Dwt.  Pennyweight. 

Ed.    Edited;  edition;  editor. 

E.  g.  Exempli  gratia  (for  ex- 
ample). 

Est.  Established. 
Et  Al.    Et  alia,  alii  (and  others) . 
Etc.    Et  cetera,  ceteri  (and  the 
rest) . 

Et.  seq.    Et  sequentes,  sequentia 

(and  the  following). 
Ex.  Late. 

Ex.  p.    Ex  parte  (on  behalf  of). 

F.  Fahrenheit;  the  following; 
forte  (loud). 

F.  and  A.  M.  Free  and  Ac- 
cepted Masons. 

F.D.  Fidei  Defensor  (Defender 
of  the  Faith). 

Fee.    Fecit  (he  made  it). 

Ff.  The  following  (plural); 
fortissimo  (very  loud). 

Fl.    Floruit  (he  flourished). 

F.M.    Field  Marshal. 

F.O.B.    Free  on  board. 

F.R.C.P.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians. 

F.R.C.S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons. 

F.R.G.S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Geographic  Society. 

F.  R.S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society. 

G.  C.B.  Grand  Cross  of  the 
Bath. 

G.  P.    Graduate  in  Pharmacy. 
Hab.    Habitat  (dwelling). 

H.  M.S.  His  or  her  Majesty's 
Ship. 

H.P.    Horse  Power. 

L    Imperator,   imperatrix  (F2m- 

peror,  EmprCvSs). 
lb.  or  ibid.    Ibidem  (in  the  same 

place) . 
Id.    Idem  (the  same). 
Le.    Id  est  (that  is). 


I.H.S.  From  first  three  letters  of 
Greek  IH20Y2,  Jesus;  taken 
also  for  in  hoc  signe  (by  thi'i 
sign) ;  in  hoc  salus  (in  this  {  •; 
salvation) ;  Jesus  hominum  sal- 
vator  (Jesus  saviour  of  men). 

Imp.  Imperator  (Emperor) ;  Im- 
perial. 

Inc.  Incorporated. 

Incog.    Incognito  (unknown). 

Inf.    Infra  (below). 

In  loc.  cit.  In  loco  citato  (in  the 
place  mentioned). 

I. N.R.I.  Jesus  Nazarenus  Rex 
ludceorum  (Jesus  of  Nazareth. 
King  of  the  Jews). 

Inst.  Inst  ante  (mense)  (this 
month) ;  Institute. 

I.O.O.F.  Independent  Order  of 
Odd  Fellows. 

I.O.U.    I  owe  you. 

I.W.W.  International  Workers 
of  the  World. 

J. CD.  Juris  Civ  His  Doctor 
(Doctor  of  Civil  Law). 

J. P.    Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Jr.  Junior. 

Kal.    Kalendce  (Kalends). 

K.C.    King's  Counsel. 

K.C.B.    Knight  Commander  of 

the  Bath. 
K.G.    Knight  of  the  Garter. 
K.G.C.    Knight  of  the  Grand 

Cross. 

K.G.C. B.  Knight  Grand  Cross 
of  the  Bath. 

Kilo.  Kilogramme. 

K.K.K.    Ku  Klux  Klan. 

L.  Fifty. 

£.    Pound  sterling. 

Lb.    Libra  (pound  weight). 

L.C.  Loco  citato  (in  the  place 
mentioned) ;  lower  case. 

Leg.    Legato  (connected). 

Litt.D.,  L.H.p.  Litterarum  Doc- 
tor (Doctor  of  Letters  or  Liter- 
ature) . 

LL.B.    Legum  baccalaureus 

(Bachelor  of  Laws). 
L.D.    Legum  Doctor  (Doctor  of 

Laws) . 

Loc.  cit.    Loco    citato    (in  the 

place  mentioned). 
Loq.    Loquitur  (speaks). 
L.S.    Locum  sigilli  (the  place  ot 

the  seal). 
L.S.D.    Pounds,  shillings,  pence. 
Ltd.  Limited. 

M.  Mer idles  (noon);  monsieur; 
1,000. 

M.A.  Magister  Artium  (Master 
of  Arts). 

M.B.  M  edicince  Baccalaureus 
(Bachelor  of  Medicine). 

M.C.    Member  of  Congress. 

M.D.  M edicince  Doctor  (Doctor 
of  Medicine). 

Mdse.  Merchandise. 

M.E.  Methodist  Episcopal; 
Mining  or  Mechanical  En- 
gineer. 

Mf.  Mezzo  forte  (moderately 
loud). 

M.F.H.    Master  of  Fox  Hounds. 
M.I. C.E.    Member  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Civil  Engineers. 
Mile.  Mademoiselle. 
MM.  McvSsieurs. 
Mme.  Madame. 


Abbreviations 


17A 


Abdication 


M.P.    Member  of  Parliament. 

MS.  Manuscript. 

M.Sc.    Master  of  Science. 

MSS.  Manuscripts. 

Mus.B.     Musicce  Baccalaureus 

(Bachelor  of  Music). 
Mus.D.    Musical  Doctor  (Doc- 
tor of  Music). 
N.A.    National  Academician. 
N.B.    Nota  bene  (Mark  well). 
Nem.  con.    Nemine  contradicente 
(no  one  opposing;  unanimously). 
No.  Number. 
N.S.    New  Style. 
N.T.    New  Testament. 
Ob.    Obiit  (he  died). 
O.K.    All  correct. 
Op.    Opus  (work). 
O.P.    Ordinis  prcBdicatorum  (of 

the  Dominican  Order). 
Op.  cit.    In  the  work  cited. 
O.S.    Old  Style. 

O.S.A.    Order  of  St.  Augustine. 
O.S.B.    Order  of  St.  Benedict. 
O.S.F.    Order  of  St.  Francis. 
O.T.    Old  Testament. 
Oxon.    Oxoniensis  (of  Oxford). 
Oz.  Ounce. 

P.    Piano  (softly) ;  page. 
P.C.    Privy  Councillor. 
P.E.    Protestant  Episcopal. 
Per  an.      Per   annum   (by  the 
year) . 

Ph.B.  Philosophice  Baccalaureus 
(Bachelor  of  Philosophy). 

Ph.D.  Philosophice  Doctor  (Doc- 
tor of  Philosophy). 

Ph.G.    Graduate  in  Pharmacy. 

P.M.  Post  meridiem  (after  noon) ; 
Postmaster. 

P.O.    Post  Office. 

Pp.  Pages. 

Pro.  tem.  Pro  tempore  (for  the 
time). 

Prox.  Proximo  (mense)  (next 
month) . 

P.S.  Postscript. 

Q.    Query;  question. 

Q.C.    Queen's  Counsel. 

Q.E.D.  Quod  erat  demonstran- 
dum (which  was  to  be  proved) . 

Q.E.F.  Quod  erat  faciendum 
(which  was  to  be  done). 

Q.M.G.  Quartermaster-General. 

Q.s.  Quantum  sufficit  (A  suffi- 
cient quantity). 

Q.v.    Quod  vide  (which  see). 

I^.    Recipe  (take). 

R.  Rex,  regina  (king,  queen); 
Reaumur. 

R  A.  Royal  Academician;  Royal 
Artillery. 

RA.M,  Royal  Academy  of  Mu- 
sic. 

R.C.  Roman  Catholic. 
R.E.  Royal  Engineers. 
R.I. P.    Requiescat  in  pace  (May 

he  rest  in  peace). 
Rit.    Ritardando  (more  slowly). 
R.M.    Royal  Marines. 
R.N.    Royal  Navy. 
R..S.V.P.  Repondez  s'il  vous  plait 

(Kindly  reply). 
R.V.    Revised  Version  (of  the 

Bible). 
S.    .Shilling;  saint. 
Sc.    Scilicet    (namely);  sculpsit 

(he  sculptured  it). 
Sf.  _  Sforzando  (with  emphasis). 


S.J.    Society  of  Jesus. 

S.p.    Sine  prole  (without  issue). 

S.P.C.A.  Society  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Cruelty  to  Animals. 

S.P.C.C.  Society  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Cruelty  to  Children. 

S.P.Q.R.  Senatus  Populusque 
Romanus  (the  Senate  and 
People  of  Rome). 

Sq.  Sequens  (the  following) ; 
sqq.  (plural). 

SS.  Saints. 

S.S.    Steamship,  Sunday  school. 

St.    Saint;  street. 

Stacc.    Staccato  (distinct). 

S.T.B.  Sanctce  Theologies  Bac- 
calaureus (Bachelor  of  Sacred 
Theology) . 

S.T.D.  Sanctce  Theologice  Doctor 
(Doctor  of  Sacred  Theology). 

S.T.P.  Sanctce  Theologice  Pro- 
fessor (Professor  of  Sacred 
Theology) . 

Sup.    Supra  (above). 

S.v.  Sub  voce  (under  the  head- 
ing). 

Temp.    Tempore  (in  the  time  of) . 

Tr.    Trillo  (trill). 

Trem.  .Tremolo  (q.v.). 

U.K.    United  Kingdom. 

Ult.  Ultimo  {mense)  (last 
month) . 

U.P.    United  Presbyterian. 

U.S.    United  States. 

U.S.A.  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica; United  States  Army. 

U.S.N.    United  States  Navy. 

U.S.S.    United  States  ship. 

Ut  sup.    Ut  supra  (as  above). 

v..  Vs.    Versus  (against). 

V.C.  Victoria  Cross;  vice-chan- 
cellor. 

V.G.  Vicar-general. 

Vid.    Vide  (see). 

Viz.    Videlicet  (namely). 

V.S.    Veterinary  Surgeon. 

W.C.T.U.  Women's  Christian 
Temperance  Union. 

Xmas.  Christmas. 

Y.M.C.A.  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association. 

Y.W.C.A.  Young  Women's 
Christian  Association. 

&  And. 

&c.    Et  cetera  (and  the  rest). 
$    Dollar,  dollars. 
%    Per  centum   (by  the  hun- 
dred). 

Abbreviators,  the  draughtsmen 
of  papal  bulls,  etc.     See  Bull. 

Abd  (Arabic,  'slave,'  'servant,' 
'worshipper'),  in  Mohammedan 
countries,  forms,  in  composition 
with  Allah  (God)  and  with  other 
names  or  attributes  of  deity, 
many  of  the  common  Arabic 
personal  names — e.g.,  Abdullah, 
Abd-el-Kader. 

Abd  -  el  -  Aziz,  abd'  -  el  -  azez', 
MuLAi  (1878),  sultan  of  Moroc- 
co, succeeded  in  1894  to  the 
throne  of  his  father,  Mulai  Has- 
san, and  attempted  to  introduce 
European  customs  and  methods 
of  government.  During  the  re- 
ligious uprising  which  ensued, 
France  established  a  dominating 
influence;  and  at  the  Algeciras 
Convention  (190G)  gained  with 


Spain  the  right  to  maintain  order 
in  Morocco.  In  1907  Mulai 
Hafiid  (q.v.),  elder  brother  of 
Abd-el-Aziz,  was  proclaimed  sul- 
tan; and  in  1908,  after  futile 
opposition,  Abd-el-Aziz  surren- 
dered the  throne.  See  Morocco, 
History. 

Abd-el-Kader,  abd'-el-ka'der, 
or  Abdul-Kadir,  Emir  (1807- 
83) ,  Algerian  patriot,  was  the  son 
of  a  marabout  of  Mascara,  with 
whom  he  twice  performed  the 
hajj,  and  visited  the  shrine  of 
Sidi  Abdul-Kadir  at  Bagdad. 
Preaching  a  jihad  (holy  war) 
against  the  French,  he  opened 
the  campaign  at  Oran  in  1833. 
Concluding  a  treaty  with  the 
French,  he  was  recognized  as 
emir  in  1834;  but  war  was  soon 
resumed,  and  Abd-el-Kader  fled 
to  Morocco  in  1843.  In  1847  he 
gave  himself  up  to  General 
Lamoriciere,  and  was  sent  to 
Toulon.  Released  by  Louis  Na- 
poleon in  1852,  he  received  a 
pension  of  $20,000  (1863),  and 
finally  resided  at  Damascus.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  the  Consolations 
of  Philosophy  (translated  into 
French  under  the  title  Rappel  a 
V Intelligent:  Avis  a  F Indifferent) . 
Consult  Lives  by  Churchill  and 
Pichon. 

Abdera,  ab-de'ra,  town,  which 
stood  in  ancient  Thracia,  on  the 
^gean  Sea.  Although  the  birth- 
place of  such  distinguished  men 
as  the  philosophers  Democritus, 
Protagoras,  Anaxarchus,  and  the 
historian  Hecataeus,  Abdera  was 
the  Gotham  of  antiquity,  and 
'Abderite'  was  a  proverbial  name 
for  a  simpleton. 

A  bd-er- Rahman.  See  Abdur 
Rahman. 

Ab'dica'tion,  the  resignation 
of  office  by  a  ruler  or  sovereign, 
may  result  from  various  causes. 
It  was  from  being  wearied  with 
dominion  that  Diocletian  (305 
A.D.)  and,  in  more  modern  times, 
Christina  of  Sweden  (1654)  re- 
signed their  sovereignty.  Charles 
V.  laid  down  the  crown  (1556) 
chiefly  from  ill  health.  Philip  v. 
of  Spain  abdicated  (1724)  in  a  fit 
of  melancholy.  Louis  Bonaparte 
resigned  the  crown  of  Holland 
(1810)  because  he  would  not  con- 
sent to  treat  that  country  as  a 
province  of  France.  Charles 
Emmanuel  of  Sardinia  in  1802, 
and  Victor  Emmanuel  in  1821, 
abdicated  because  they  felt 
themselves  unable  to  cope  with 
an  existing  crisis.  William  i.  of 
the  Netherlands  resigned  (1840) 
as  his  policy  had  become  impos- 
sible from  the  turn  of  affairs  in 
Belgium.  Foreign  force  com- 
pelled the  abdication  of  Augustus 
of  Poland  (1704),  and  later,  that 
of  Stanislaus  Leszczynski  (1735) 
and  of  Poniatowski  (1795);  as 
well  as  that  of  Charles  iv.  of 
Spain  (1808),  and  of  Napoleon 
(1814  and  1815). 


Abdiel 


17  B 


Abdul-Kadir 


Insurrections  have  been  a  fre- 
quent cause  of  abd'cations.  In 
England  there  was  the  compul- 
sory abdication  of  Richard  ii. 
(1399);  in  Scotland  that  of  Mary 
at  Lochleven  (1567).  Modern 
times  have  seen  Charles  x.  of 
France  (1830),  Louis-Philippe 
of  France  (1848),  Abdul- Azez  of 
Turkey  (1876);  Abdul-Hamid  ii. 
of  Turkey  (1907),  Ali  Mirza 
of  Persia  (1909),  Manuel  ii.  of 
Portugal  (1910),  Hsuan-Tung  of 
China  (1912)  and  Nicholas,  Czar 
of  Russia,  (1917)  retire  before  the 
storm  of  revolution;  have  seen, 
too,  the  abdication  of  Ferdinand 
of  Austria  (1848),  of  Louis  of 
Bavaria  (1848),  of  Charles  Albert 
of  Sardinia  (1849),  of  Amadeus 
of  Spain  (1873),  of  Prince  Alex- 
ander of  Bulgaria  (1866),  of  King 
Milan  of  Servia  (1889),  of  King 
Constantine  of  Greece  (1917),  of 
Emperor  William  ii.  of  Ger- 
many (1918),  of  Ferdinand  of 
Bulgaria  (1918),  of  Charles  v.  of 
Austria  (1918),  of  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey  (1922),  and  of  King 
George  of  Greece  (1924). 

Although  it  is  not  the  custom 
to  apply  the  term  abdication  to 
the  withdrawal  from  office  of  the 
head  of  a  republic,  the  resigna- 
tion in  1895  of  the  presidency  of 
the  French  Republic  by  Casimir- 
Perier  was  in  effect  an  abdication. 
In  the  United  States,  provision 
is  made,  under  the  Tenure  of 
Office  Act  (q.v.),  for  the  en- 
forced retirement  or  abdication 
of  a  President,  after  conviction 
by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  of 
treason,  bribery,  or  other  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanors.  Had 
the  impeachment  (q.v.)  of  An- 
drew Johnson  been  followed  by 
his  conviction,  his  removal  from 
office  would  have  fallen  within 
the  category  of  enforced  abdica- 
tions. 

Abdiel,  ab'di-el  ('servant  of 
God'),  a  Gadite  chief  mentioned 
in  1  Chr.  v.  15;  also  the  faithful 
angel  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 
who  opposed  Satan's  revolt  in 
heaven. 


..  DIAPHRAGM 


...SPLtCN 
...  PANCRtA* 


The  Abdomen 

Abdo'men,  in  vertebrates,  is 
the  cavity  supported  by  the 
pelvis,  separated  from  the  thorax 


by  the  diaphragm,  and  sur- 
rounded by  muscular  body  walls. 
It  contains  the  stomach,  intes- 
tines, liver,  bladder,  and  internal 
genital  organs.  A  delicate  serous 
membrane,  the  PerUoneum,  lines 
the  abdomen  and  covers  its  vis- 
cera, permitting  a  smooth,  glid- 
ing movement  of  the  organs  (see 
peritoneum).  For  abdominal 
surgery,  see  Surgery.  See  also 
Intestines;  Liver;  Stomach. 

In  Systematic  Zoology  the 
term  Abdomen  is  used  to  describe 
the  posterior  region  of  the  body 
in  insects,  crustaceans,  arach- 
nids, and  other  arthropods  which 
have  the  body  divided  into  re- 
gions. The  abdomen  in  arthro- 
pods is  typically  segmented,  or 
divided  into  rings;  but  the  seg- 
ments tend  to  disappear  in 
parasitic  or  much-modified  forms. 

Abduc'tlon,  a  term  meaning 
the  unlawful  taking  away  of  a 
free  person,  or  of  a  slave  belong- 
ing to  another.  Thus,  the  buying 
of  a  free  person  was  punishable  by 
the  criminal  law  of  Rome  under 
the  name  of  plagium.  In  the 
United  States,  abduction  is  the 
taking  and  carrying  away  of  a 
child,  a  ward,  a  wife,  or  other 
relative,  by  fraud,  persuasion,  or 
open  violence.  Any  one  who  takes 
away  any  female  under  the  age 
of  eighteen  years  from  her  father, 
mother,  guardian,  or  other  per- 
son having  the  legal  charge  of  her 
person,  without  her  consent  for 
the  purpose  of  prostitution,  is 
guilty  of  a  felony.  The  gist  of 
the  offence  is  the  enticing  and 
carrying  away.  In  abduction 
for  the  purpose  of  marriage,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  use  physical 
force  or  violence,  nor  is  it  any 
defence  that  the  abductor  really 
believed,  or  had  reason  to  be- 
lieve, the  girl  to  be  over  sixteen. 
Abduction  throughout  the 
United  States  is  a  felony,  and  in 
some  States  may  be  punished  by 
fine,  not  exceeding  $10,000,  and 
by  separate  or  solitary  confine- 
ment at  labor  for  a  period  not 
exceeding  twenty-five  years.  See 
Kidnapping. 

Abdul-Aziz,  abd'ool-ii-zez' 
(1830-76),  the  thirty-second  sul- 
tan of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  the 
younger  son  of  Sultan  Mahmud 
II.,  succeeded  his  brother,  Abdul- 
Medjid,  in  1861.  His  reign  was 
marked  by  risings  in  Crete,  Rou- 
mania,  Servia,  Bosnia,  Herze- 
govina, and  Bulgaria,  chiefly  the 
outcome  of  continuous  misgov- 
ernment.  A  conspiracy  forced 
him  to  abdicate  the  throne;  and 
four  days  later  he  was  found 
dead. 

Abdul-Hamld  I.,  abd'dol-ha- 
med',  or  Ahmed  iv.  (1725-89), 
sultan  of  Turkey,  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne  in  1774.  In 
the  first  year  of  his  reign  Tur- 
key, disunited  by  revolts  in 
Egypt  and  Syria,  and  defeated 
by  Russia,  was  compelled  to  sign 


the  Treaty  of  Kuchuk-Kainardji 
(1774),  by  which  the  questions  of 
the  Near  East  definitely  enter 
into  European  diplomacy.  By 
this  treaty  Russia  secured  some 
fortresses,  important  rights  in  the 
Black  Sea,  the  independence  of 
the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea,  and  be- 
came the  protector  of  the  Chris- 
tian populations  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula.  War  broke  out  again 
in  1786,  and  Turkey  again  sus- 
tained reverses  at  Jassy,  Kholm, 
and  Ochakov,  which  brought 
about  the  death  of  the  sultan. 

Abdul-Hamid  11.(1842-1918), 
second  son  of  Abdul-Medjid,  suc- 
ceeded his  brother,  Amurath  v., 


Abdul-Hamid  II. 

as  sultan  of  Turkey  in  1876. 
His  long  reign  was  marked  by 
reactionary  measures,  misgovern- 
ment,  and  foreign  interference. 
He  was  thought  to  be  progres- 
sive, but  soon  showed  his  real 
aims  by  exiling  Midhat  Pasha, 
the  author  of  a  constitution. 
The  following  events  marked 
his  reign:  Servian  war  and  Bul- 
garian atrocities  (1876);  Russo- 
Turkish  war  (1877-8);  Treaty  of 
Berlin  (1878);  union  of  Bulgaria 
and  East  Roumelia  (1885);  Ar- 
menian atrocities  (1895-6);  Grae- 
co-Turkish  War  (1897);  and  the 
rise  of  the  Young  Turk  Party, 
the  declaration  of  independence 
by  Bulgaria,  and  the  completion 
of  Austrian  control  over  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  (1908).  Com- 
pelled to  grant  a  constitution  and 
an  amnesty  to  exiles  in  1908,  he 
opened  the  first  Turkish  Parlia- 
ment in  the  same  year,  but  next 
year  was  forced  to  abdicate  in 
favor  of  his  brother,  Reshid 
Effendi,  known  as  Mohammed 
V.  (q.v.).  Abdul-Hamid  was  sent 
to  Salonika,  whence  in  Novem- 
ber, 1912,  he  was  brought  to 
Constantinople  by  a  German 
warship,  and  imprisoned  in  a 
palace  on  the  Bosporus.  In  1915 
he  was  removed  to  Magnesia 
near  Smyrna. 

Abdul-Kadir.  See  Abd-el- 
Kader. 


Vol. 


-March  '28 


Abdul-Latif 


18 


Abelard 


Abdul-Latif,  la-tef  (1162- 
1231),  noted  Arabian  writer, 
was  born  in  Bagdad.  He  studied 
and  taught  medicine  and  philos- 
ophy at  Cairo  and  Damascus. 
His  best  known  book  is  a  valu- 
able descriptive  work  on  Egypt. 

Abdul-Medjid,  me-jed'(1823- 
61),  sultan  of  Turkey,  succeeded 
his  father,  Mahmud  ii.  (1839), 
and  in  1841  concluded  peace  with 
Mehemet  Ali  of  Egypt.  He  fol- 
lowed up  the  reforms  of  his 
father  by  the  organic  statute  of 
Gulhana  (Nov,  3,  1839),  securing 
the  rights  of  person  and  property 
to  all  his  subjects  without  dis- 
tinction of  religion;  and  he  intro- 
duced many  reforms,  which 
form  part  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
(1856).  In  1853  he  resisted 
those  claims  of  Russia  to  a  pro- 
tectorate over  his  orthodox  sub- 
jects which  led  to  the  Crimean 
War.  He  instituted  the  Im- 
perial Order  of  the  Medjidieh 
(1852). 

Abdur-Rahman,  abd'obr-rah- 
man',  Arab  chief,  fought  at  the 
battle  of  Toulouse  (721);  in- 
vaded Aquitaine  in  732,  sacked 
Bordeaux,  and  carried  destruc- 
tion as  far  as  Burgundy.  In 
732,  however,  after  seven  days' 
fighting,  he  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  Charles  Martel,  leader 
of  the  Franks. 

Abdur-Rahman  (?1830- 
1901),  ameer  of  Afghanistan.  On 
the  death  of  his  uncle,  Shere  Ali 
(1879),  he  succeeded  in  over- 
throwing that  ruler's  son,  Yakub 
Khan,  and  after  1800  was  him- 
self recognized  as  ameer  by  the 
leading  chiefs  and  by  the  Anglo- 
Indian  government.  He  showed 
masterly  skill  and  energy  in  con- 
solidating his  power,  and  in  pro- 
moting European  arts  and  manu- 
factures and  was  considered  a 
wise  and  intelligent  ruler. 

Abdur-Rahman  I.  (731-787), 
founder  (755)  of  the  Ommiad 
dynasty  of  Cordova,  Spain,  was 
born  in  Damascus.  He  was 
engaged  in  almost  constant  war- 
fare, and  conquered  the  Iberian 
peninsula  northward  to  the 
Pyrenees. 

Abdur-Rahman  II.  (788- 
852),  fourth  Ommiad  ruler  of 
Cordova,  and  son  and  successor 
of  Al-Hakim  i.  (822).  His  reign 
was  disturbed  by  wars  at  home 
and  abroad.  He  wrote  Annals  of 
Spain  in  Arabic. 

Abdur-Rahman  III.,  or  Ab- 
DERAME  (891-961),  eighth  and 
greatest  ruler  of  the  Ommiad 
dynasty  in  Spain,  ascended  the 
throne  in  912.  His  wars  against 
the  Christian  princes  Alfonso 
III.  of  Leon  and  Sancho  of  Na- 
varre culminated  in  the  defeat  of 
their  combined  forces  in  918.  He 
was  defeated  by  Ramiro  ii.  of 
Leon  at  Aljandega  (939) ;  but  on 
Ramiro's  death  assisted  the  de- 
posed Sancho  i.  to  regain  his 
throne.     He  did  much  to  pro- 

VoL.  I. — March  '28 


mote  Mohammedan  unity  in 
Spain. 

A'beceda'rians,  a  small  sect 
among  the  Anabaptists  in  Ger- 
many in  the  sixteenth  century, 
noted  for  their  dislike  to  learn- 
ing. They  thought  it  best  not 
even  to  learn  to  read,  as  a 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  was 
all  that  was  necessary,  and  this 
was  communicated  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  direct  to  the  believer 
without  the  medium  of  the 
written  word. 

A  Becket,  Thomas.  See 
Becket. 

A  Beckett,  Gilbert  Abbott 
(1811-56),  English  barrister, 
magistrate,  and  man  of  letters, 
was  born  in  London.  He  founded 
Figaro  in  London,  the  forerunner 
of  Punch  and  also  wrote  the 
comic  Blackstone  and  the  comic 
Histories  of  England  and  Rome — 
the  first  illustrated  by  Cruik- 
shank,  the  last  two  by  Leech. 

A  Beckett,  Gilbert  Arthur 
(1837-91),  English  journalist  and 
dramatist,  son  of  Gilbert  Abbott 
a  Beckett,  was  born  in  London. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
studied  law  but  was  never  called 
to  the  bar.  In  1879  he  became 
one  of  the  regular  staff  of  Punch 
and  also  wrote  several  plays  and 
libretti,  among  which  are  The 
Happy  Land,  in  collaboration 
with  Sir  W.  S.  Gilbert,  Savona- 
rola, The  Canterbury  Pilgrims 
and  La  Cigale. 

Abeel,  a-bel',  David  (1804- 
46),  American  missionary,  was 
born  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 
He  w  s  educated  at  Rutgers 
College,  and  was  for  a  time  pas- 
tor of  a  church  in  Athens,  N.  Y. 
Later  he  became  a  missionary 
to  China,  founded  the  Amoy 
Mission,  and  travelled  widely  in 
the  Far  East.  Throughout  his 
life  he  was  hindered  by  ill  health, 
but  he  was  indefatigable  in  his 
zeal  for  missions.  He  published 
Journal  of  a  Residence  in  China. 

A'bel,  the  second  (perhaps 
twin)  son  of  Adam;  a  shepherd, 
who,  having  offered  to  God  a 
more  acceptable  sacrifice  than 
his  brother  Cain,  was  slain  by 
the  latter  out  of  jealousy  (Gen. 
iv.  1-8).  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment 'righteous  Abel'  is  re- 
garded as  the  first  martyr,  and 
as  a  hero  of  faith  (Matt,  xxiii.  35; 
Heb.  x.  4).  Around  his  name 
many  Jewish  and  Mohammedan 
legends  have  gathered. 

Abel,  Sir  Frederick  Augus- 
tus (1827-1902),  English  chem- 
ist, was  born  in  London.  He 
was  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
Royal  Military  Academy  (1851- 
5) ;  chemist  to  the  War  Depart- 
ment (1854-88);  and  president 
of  the  British  Association  (1890). 
He  was  an  authority  on  explo- 
sives, and  especially  improved 
the  manufacture  of  guncotton. 
He  was  part  inventor  (with  Pro- 
fessor Dewar)  of  cordite,  and 


invented  the  close-test  apparatus 
for  determining  the  flash  point 
of  petroleum.  His  published 
works  include  Guncotton  (1866); 
Modern  History  of  Gunpowder 
(1866);  On  Explosive  Agents 
(1872);  Researches  in  Explosives 
(1875);  Electricity  Applied  to 
Explosive  Purposes  (1884). 

Abel,  John  Jacob  (1857-  ), 
American  pharmacologist  and 
chemist,  was  born  in  Cleveland, 
O,  He  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  and  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  thereafter 
studying  in  Germany.  Since 
1893  he  has  been  professor  of 
pharmacology  in  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  He  has  also  made 
valuable  contributions  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  fluids  and  tis- 
sues of  the  body,  and  to  the 
action  of  drugs  and  poisons. 

Abel,  a'bel,  Niels  Henrik 
(1802-29),  Norwegian  mathe- 
matician, was  born  in  Findo. 
He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
able  development  of  the  theory 
of  elliptical  functions  and  alge- 
braic equations. 

Abelard,  or  Abailard,  a-ba- 
lar';  Eng.  ab'e-lard  (Latin  Ahce- 
lardus),  Pierre  (1079-1142), 
theologian  and  scholastic  philoso- 
pher, was  born  in  Pallet  (Palais) 
near  Nantes,  whence  he  received 
the  epithet  'Doctor  Palatinus.' 
He  lived  when  the  controversy 
of  the  scholastic  philosophy  be- 
tween Nominalism  and  Realism 
was  at  its  height;  studied  under 
Roscellin,  and  then  under  Wil- 
liam of  Champeaux,  the  cham- 
pions, respectively,  of  the  oppos- 
ing principles.  He  became,  at 
thirty-six  years  of  age,  the  most 
famous  teacher  in  Europe,  and 
his  school  at  Notre  Dame  was 
crowded  by  students  from  every 
land.  He  rose  above  the  abstract 
controversy  of  the  schools,  and 
taught  a  critical  as  opposed  to 
the  prevalent  dogmatic  method. 

Abelard  is  best  remembered 
for  the  story  of  the  love  of  He- 
loise.  Within  the  precincts  of 
Notre  Dame  lived  Heloise,  the 
niece  of  the  canon  Fulbert,  then 
seventeen  years  of  age,  and  al- 
ready remarkable  for  her  beauty 
and  accomplishments.  They 
fled  together  to  Brittany,  where 
with  the  consent  of  her  uncle 
Heloise  was  privately  married  to 
Abelard  and  bore  him  a  son. 
Not  long  after,  Heloise,  with 
singular  devotion,  denied  the 
marriage,  that  her  love  might 
be  no  hindrance  to  Abelard's 
advancement  in  the  church. 
Abelard  became  a  monk  and 
Heloise  took  the  veil. 

Having  suffered  imprisonment 
for  heresy,  by  judgment  of  the 
synod  of  Soissons  in  1121,  Abe- 
lard retired  to  a  hermitage — the 
'Paraclete' — where  eager  students 
surrounded  him;  and  later  he 
was  called  to  preside  over  the 
abbey  of  St.  Gildas-de-Rhuys  in 


AbeUn 


Id 


Aberdeen 


Brittany,  while  Heloise  directed 
a  sisterhood  at  Paraclete.  Leav- 
ing the  abbey  after  ten  years, 
Abelard  again  became  a  teacher 
of  great  influence;  but  his  ene- 
mies accused  him  of  heresy,  and 
Abelard  set  out  for  P.ome,  to  die 
in  the  priory  of  St.  Marcellus, 
near  Chalon-sur-Saone.  His  body 
was  taken  to  Paraclete,  where 
Heloise  was  laid  beside  him  in 
1163.  In  1817  their  remains 
were  placed  in  one  tomb  within 
the  churchyard  of  Pere-la-Chaise 
in  Paris. 

Abelard  did  more  than  any 
other  to  develop  and  fix  that 
method  of  joint  philosophizing 
and  theologizing  which  was  char- 
acteristic of  the  great  Scholastics; 
it  was  he  who  made  Aristotle 
the  almost  exclusive  basis  of 
theological  dialectics.  In  oppo- 
sition not  merely  to  the  unrea- 
soning devotion  of  Bernard  and 
the  mystics,  but  as  against  the 
systematic  dogmatism  of  An- 
selm,  he  taught  that  only  that 
faith  is  well  assured  which  is 
founded  on  reason.  'Under- 
stand that  thou  mayest  believe' 
was  his  motto. 

The  best  collective  edition  of 
Abelard's  work  is  that  of  Victor. 
Cousin.  The  story  of  his  life 
forms  the  subject  of  a  drama  by 
the  Comte  de  Remusat.  Con- 
sult also  works  by  Wilkens,  Car- 
riere,  Deutsch,  and  Gingold 
(1906);  Gabriel  Compayre's 
Abelard  and  the  Origin  and  Early 
History  of  Universities  ('  Great 
Educators  '  Series) ;  Pope's  Epis- 
tle of  Eloisa  to  Abelard;  Life  by 
Joseph  McCabe;  Wright's  Lives 
and  Letters  of  Abelard  and  Helo- 
ise; Richardson's  Abelard  and 
Heloise. 

Abelin,  a-b'lah',  Johann  Phil- 
ipp  (d.  c.  1635),  German  historian 
— better  known  by  the  pseudo- 
nym Johann  Ludwig  Gott- 
fried, or  GoTHOFREDUs — was 
born  in  Strassburg.  He  founded 
the  Theatrum  Europceum;  and 
wrote  Arma  Suecica  (1631),  In- 
ventarium  Suecice  (1632),  His- 
toria  Antipodum  (1655),  etc. 

Abelites,  a'bel-its,  a  Christian 
sect  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies, living  in  North  Africa, 
whose  principal  distinction  was 
their  refusal  to  propagate  chil- 
dren, holding  it  to  be  the  original 
sin,  although  they  accepted  mat- 
rimony, and  adopted  children. 

Abenaki.    vSee  Abnaki. 

Abenakis  Springs,  a-be-na'- 
kiz,  Quebec,  Canada,  summer  re- 
sort, with  mineral  springs,  on  the 
St.  Francis  River;  18  miles  from 
St.  Guillaume. 

Abencerrages,  a-ben'se-ra-jez; 
Span,  a-ben-the-ra'hes,  an  an- 
cient and  powerful  Moorish  fam- 
ily of  Granada,  who  were  at  feud 
with  the  family  of  Zegris,  and 
were,  it  is  traditionally  said, 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


massacred  within  the  hall  of  the 
Abencerrages  in  the  Alhambra 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  Their 
story  is  found  in  Gines  Perez  de 
Hita's  Guerras  Civiles  de  Granada, 
on  which  Chateaubriand's  Aven- 
tures  du  dernier  des  Abencerages 
and  Cherubini's  opera  are  based, 

Aben-Ezra.    See  Ibn-Ezra, 

Abeokuta,  or  Abbeokuta, 
a-be-6-kob'ta  ('under  a  rock'), 
city,  Lagos  province.  Southern 
Nigeria,  on  the  Ogun  River;  60 
miles  by  rail  north  of  Lagos. 
The  city  is  spread  over  a  wide 
area,  and  most  of  its  inhabitants 
are  artisans,  weavers,  or  traders. 
Commerce  in  European  goods  is 
carried  on  with  the  surrounding 
district.    Pop.  275,000. 

Aberavon,  ab'er-a'von,  or  Ab- 
erafon,  town,  Glamorganshire, 
Wales,  on  the  River  Avon.  It 
has  tin,  copper,  and  steel  works. 
Pop.  (1911)  10,506. 

Aberbrotliwick.  See  Ar- 
broath. 

Ab'ercarn,  village,  England,  10 
miles  northwest  of  Monmouth. 
It  has  collieries  and  iron  works. 
Pop.  (1911)  16,445. 

Abercrombie,  ab'er-krum-bi, 
John  (1780-1844),  Scottish  phy- 
sician, was  born  in  Aberdeen.  He 
became  one  of  the  foremost  con- 
sulting physicians  in  Edinburgh, 
and  was  appointed  physician  to 
the  king  in  Scotland  (1824).  His 
papers  in  the  Edinburgh  Medical 
and  Surgical  Journal  (1816-24) 
formed  the  basis  of  his  later 
works.  Diseases  of  the  Brain 
(1828)  and  Diseases  of  the  Stom- 
ach (1828).  He  also  published 
The  Intellectual  Powers  (1830) 
and  The  Moral  Feelings  (1833). 

Abercrombie,  John  Joseph 
(1802-77),  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Tennessee,  and  was  grad- 
uated from  West  Point  (1822). 
He  served  on  the  Western  fron- 
tier in  the  Black  Hawk,  Seminole, 
and  Mexican  Wars.  He  was 
wounded  at  Monterey,  and  was 
bre vetted  lieutenant-colonel  for 
gallantry.  During  the  Civil  War 
he  served  in  the  Peninsula  and 
Shenandoah  campaigns,  and  was 
wounded  at  the  Battle  of  Fair 
Oaks.  In  1865  he  retired  from 
active  service  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general. 

Abercrombie,  John  William 
(1866),  American  educator  and 
legislator,  was  born  in  vSt.  Clair 
County,  Ala.,  and  was  graduated 
from  Oxford  College  (1886)  and 
the  law  school  of  the  University 
of  Alabama  (1888;  ll.d.  1904). 
He  was  president  of  Ashland 
High  School  (1886-7)  and  prin- 
cipal of  Cleburne  Institute 
(1888-9),  Alabama;  president  of 
Bowdoin  College,  Georgia  (1890- 
91);  superintendent  of  schools 
in  Anniston,  Ala.  (1891-7);  presi- 
dent of  the  Southern  Female 
Seminary  (1897-8);  Alabama 


State  superintendent  of  educa- 
tion (1898-1902);  and  president 
of  the  University  of  Alabama 
(1902-11).  In  1896-8  he  was  a 
member  of  the  State  senate ;  and 
in  1913  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  for  the  State  at  large, 
and  re-elected  in  1915.  He  has 
been  active  in  educational  affairs 
in  the  South,  and  was  president 
of  the  Southern  Educational  As- 
sociation. 

Abercromby,  James  (1706-81), 
British  soldier,  was  born  in 
Glassbaugh,  Scotland.  He  was 
sent  to  America  in  1756,  and 
two  years  later  became  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  British 
and  Colonial  forces.  On  July  8, 
1758,  he  Jed  an  army  of  15,000 
men  against  Ticonderoga  (q.  v.),' 
but  was  repulsed  with  the  loss 
of  2,000;  and  in  September, 
1758,  he  was  superseded.  Sub- 
sequently he  became  a  Member 
of  Parliament,  and  supported 
George  iii.'s  colonial  policy. 

Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph  (1734- 
1801),  British  soldier,  was  born 
near  Tullibody,  Scotland.  He 
fought  under  Prince  Ferdinand 
of  Brunswick  in  Germany  (1758) ; 
served  under  the  Duke  of  York 
in  Flanders  (1793-5);  and  was 
knighted  on  his  return  to  Eng- 
land. In  1795-6  he  conducted  a 
successful  campaign  in  the  West 
Indies.  In  1799  he  commanded 
the  first  division  in  the  expedi- 
tion to  Holland;  and  in  1801 
landed  at  Aboukir  Bay,  in 
Egypt.  On  March  21,  at  Alex- 
andria, he  repulsed  the  attack  of 
the  French  under  General  Menou, 
but  was  himself  wounded,  and 
died  on  March  28.  Abercromby 
did  much  to  improve  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  British  army,  and 
was  universally  respected  for  his 
courage,  uprightness,  and  per- 
sonal charm.  Consult  Memoir 
by  his  son  James,  Lord  Dun- 
fermline. 

Aberdare,  ab-er-dar',  town, 
Glamorganshire,  Wales;  4  miles 
southwest  of  Merthyr-Tydfil.  It 
has  coal  mines  and  iron  and  tin 
works.     Pop.  (1911)  50,844. 

Aberdeen,  ab-er-den',  the  chief 
city  and  seaport  of  North  Scot- 
land, on  the  North  Sea;  130 
miles  northeast  of  Edinburgh  by 
rail  (Tay  and  Forth  bridges).. 
The  municipal  borough  comprises 
the  district  between  the  Dee  and 
the  Don,  embracing  Old  Aber- 
deen, Woodside,  Cults,  and 
Torry.  Aberdeen  is  a  handsome 
town,  built  mainly  of  granite, 
and  so  called  'the  Granite  City.' 
Of  modern  edifices,  the  chief  are 
the  fine  Municipal  Offices  in  the 
Scottish  Baronial  style,  the  Post 
Office  and  Parish  Council  Offices 
in  Renaissance  style,  Marischal 
College  in  Gothic,  and  the 
United  Free  Church  College  in 
Tudor;  the  new  Market,  Tradgg 


Aberdeen 


20 


Abcrncthy 


Hall,  Royal  Infirmary,  Asylum, 
Grammar  School,  Theatre,  Art 
Gallery  and  School,  and  Gor- 
don's College.  Of  its  churches, 
the  most  noteworthy  are  the 
East  and  West,  which  have  a 
spire  in  common,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  pro-Cathedral,  with  a 
beautiful  spire  200  feet  high. 
Mention  may  be  made  of  the 
Market  Cross  (1686);  the  Wal- 
lace, Gordon  Pasha,  Prince  Con- 
sort, and  King  Edward  statues; 
and  the  Duthie  Public  Park  of 
47  acres.  King's  College  and 
University,  founded  in  Old  Aber- 
deen in  1494,  and  Marischal  Col- 
lege and  University,  founded  in 
New  Aberdeen  in  1593,  were  in 
1860  united  as  the  University  of 
Aberdeen  (q.  v.). 

The  city  has  an  excellent  har- 
bor, and  steamer  connection  with 
Leith,  Newcastle,  Hull,  and 
London.  The  chief  industries 
are  quarrying  and  working  in 
granite,  salmon  and  herring  fish- 
eries, fish  curing,  engineering, 
chemical  tanning,  brewing,  paper 
making,  and  shipbuilding;  and 
manufactures  of  woollens,  linen, 
jute,  and  combs.  The  trade  of 
the  port  is  valued  at  over  $7,- 
500,000  annually,  of  which  two- 
thirds  are  imports. 

Aberdeen  rose  into  importance 
in  the  twelfth  century,  when  it 
became  the  see  of  the  north,  and 
received  its  charter  as  a  royal 
borough  from  William  the  Lion 
in  1179.  It  took  an  active  part 
on  behalf  of  the  Bruce.  Its 
present  prosperity  dates  from 
the  rise  of  the  granite-polishing 
industry  of  1818.  Pop.  (1901) 
153,114;  (1911)  163,084. 

Aberdeen,  city.  South  Dakota, 
county  seat  of  Brown  county,  on 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St. 
Paul,  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western, the  Minneapolis  and 
St.  Louis,  and  the  Great  North- 
ern Railroads;  280  miles  west 
of  Minneapolis.  It  has  a  fine 
municipal  building  and  a  Federal 
building,  and  is  the  site  of  a 
State  normal  and  industrial 
school.  Its  artesian  wells  fur- 
nish valuable  water  power,  and 
there  are  manufactures  of  flour, 
chemicals,  brick,  clothing,  and 
artesian  well  supplies,  also  grain 
elevators  and  creameries.  Pop. 
(1900)  4,087;  (1910)  10,753. 

Aberdeen,  city,  Chehalis  coun- 
ty, Washington,  at  the  head  of 
Gray's  Harbor,  on  the  Northern 
Pacific  and  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
and  St.  Paul  Railroads,  with 
steamship  connections;  50  miles 
west  of  Olympia.  It  has  exten- 
sive lumber  industries,  including 
mills,  cooperages,  and  shipyards, 
and  fish  and  clam  packing  houses. 
Pop.  (1900)  3,747;  (1910)  13,660. 

Aberdeen,  city,  Mississippi, 
county  scat  of  Monroe  county, 
on  the  Tombigbce  River,  and 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


the  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco, 
the  Illinois  Central,  and  the 
Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroads;  140 
miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Mem- 
phis. It  is  a  cotton  mart,  with 
mills  and  gins,  and  has  manufac- 
tures of  cottonseed  oil,  clothing, 
wagon  spokes,  and  barrel  staves. 
Pop.  (1900)  3,434;   (1910)  3,708. 

Aberdeen,  George  Hamilton 
Gordon,  Fourth  Earl  of 
(1784-1860),  British  statesman, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh,  and  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.  In  1813 
he  was  appointed  minister  to 
Vienna,  and  conducted  the  nego- 
tiations which  led  to  the  alliance 
of  that  power  with  Great  Britain. 
At  this  time  he  formed  a  close 
friendship  with  Prince  Metter- 
nich,  which  decidedly  influenced 
his  subsequent  policy  as  a  states- 
man. In  1828  he  took  ofiice  in 
the  new  Wellington  ministry; 
and  the  general  principle  which 
guided  his  policy  as  Foreign 
Secretary  was  that  of  non- 
interference in  the  internal  affairs 
of  foreign  states.  He  was  Co- 
lonial Secretary  in  1834-5.  In 
1841  he  again  became  Foreign 
Secretary  in  Peel's  administra- 
tion, his  chief  services  as  such 
being  the  conclusion  of  the 
Chinese  War,  the  Ashburton 
Treaty  (1842),  and  the  Oregon 
Treaty  (1846).  In  1852  Aber- 
deen became  head  of  a  popular 
coalition  ministry,  which  lost 
credit  owing  to  mismanagement 
in  the  Crimean  War.  He  wrote 
an  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of 
Beauty  in  Grecian  Architecture 
(1822).  His  Correspondence  was 
privately  printed.  Consult  Life 
by  his  son.  Sir  A.  Gordon. 
I  Aberdeen,  Sir  John  Campbell 
Hamilton  Gordon,  Seventh 
Earl  of  (1847),  British  ad- 
ministrator, grandson  of  the 
fourth  earl,  succeeded  to  the  title 
in  1870.  He  has  served  as  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  (1886), 
Governor-General  of  Canada 
(1893-8),  and  again  as  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  (since 
1905).  The  honorary  degree  of 
ll.d.  was  conferred  on  him  by 
Princeton  University  in  1897, 
and  by  Harvard  in  1898.  His 
wife,  Isabel  Maria,  daughter  of 
the  first  Baron  Tweedmouth,  is 
devoted  to  social  questions,  es- 
pecially to  the  prevention  of  con- 
sumption in  Ireland.  She  has 
published  Through  Canada  with 
a  Kodak. 

Aberdeenshire,  maritime  coun- 
ty in  the  northeast  of  Scotland, 
bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by 
the  North  Sea.  Toward  the  sea 
the  land  is  fertile  and  compara- 
tively level,  but  a  great  portion 
lies  in  the  mountainous  region  of 
the  Grampians,  which  form  in  the 
southwest  the  group  of  the  Cairn- 
gorms. About  37  per  cent,  of 
the  area  is  cultivated,  the  chief 


crops  being  oats,  barley,  and 
turnips,  while  nearly  8  per  cent, 
is  under  wood.  Aberdeenshire 
is  famous  for  its  cattle,  the  prin- 
cipal breed  being  the  hornless 
variety  known  as  Polled  Angus. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Deveron,  Ythan,  Don  with  the 
Urie  (82  miles),  and  the  Dee  (87 
miles).  They  are  all  noted  sal- 
mon rivers.  Minerals  are  gran- 
ite, manganese,  plumbago,  rock 
crystal  (cairngorms),  and  ame- 
thysts. The  coast  fisheries  are 
very  productive.  The  county 
town  is  Aberdeen.  Area,  1,980 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1901)  304,- 
439;  (1911)  311,350. 

Aberdeen,  University  of,  com- 
prises the  two  separate  founda- 
tions of  King's  College  and 
Marischal  College,  which  were 
united  in  1860.  The  former, 
originally  the  College  of  St. 
Mary,  was  founded  in  1494-5, 
at  Old  Aberdeen,  by  Bishop  El- 
phinstone.  Marischal  College 
was  founded  at  New  Aberdeen 
in  1593  by  George  Keith,  fifth 
earl  marischal.  Under  the  five 
faculties  of  arts,  science,  divinity, 
law,  and  medicine  are  conferred 
the  honorary  degrees  of  d.d.  and 
LL.D.,  and  twelve  degrees  in 
course.  In  1914  the  faculty 
numbered  26;  instructors,  125; 
students,  1,050,  of  whom  318 
were  women.  The  library  con- 
tained 200,000  volumes. 

Abergavenny,  ab-er-gen'i  or 
ab-er-ga-ven'i  (the  Roman  Goban- 
nium),  market  town,  Monmouth- 
shire, England;  16  miles  west  of 
Monmouth.  It  vStands  on  an 
eminence  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Usk.  Its  Castle,  still  partly  in- 
habited, was  the  scene  of  the 
treacherous  murder  of  Welsh 
princes  by  William  de  Braose 
(1176).  There  are  collieries  and 
iron  works.    Pop.  (1911)  8,511. 

Abernethy,  ab'er-ne-thi,  John 
(1680-1740),  Irish  clergyman, 
was  born  in  Colerain.  He  be- 
came minister  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  in  Antrim  (1703),  and 
was  called  to  Dublin,  but  refused 
to  go  at  the  bidding  of  the  synod. 
This  led  to  a  schism  iij  the  Irish 
Presbyterian  Church.  Subse- 
quently, in  1730,  he  went  to 
Dublin,  and  was  afterward  a 
strong  opponent  of  the  Test  Act 
(1731).  He  left  a  manuscript 
diary.  His  Discourses  on  the 
Divine  Attributes  (1740-2),  Post- 
humous Sermons  (1748-51),  and 
Tracts  (1751)  show  advanced 
principles. 

Abernethy,  John  (1764-1831), 
eminent  English  surgeon,  was 
born  and  studied  in  London. 
He  was  surgeon  of  St.  Barthol- 
omew's Hospital  (1815-27),  and 
lecturer  on  anatomy  at  the  Col- 
ege  of  vSurgeons  (1814-29). 
His  insistence  on  the  connection 
of  local  diseases  with  disorders 


Aberration 


21 


Abhedananda 


of  the  digestive  system  deeply- 
influenced  English  medical  prac- 
tice. His  writings  were  collected 
in  the  Works  (4  vols.,  1830). 
Consult  Brodie's  Autobiography. 

Aberration  of  Light,  an  ap- 
parent displacement  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies,  due  to  the  combined 
effects  of  the  earth's  orbital  mo- 
tion and  of  the  finite  velocity  of 
light.  Each  star,  consequently, 
describes  about  its  true  position 
a  small  ellipse,  the  semi-major 
axis  of  which  represents  the  arc 
traversed  by  the  earth  during  the 
interval  of  light  transmission 
from  the  sun,  and  is  known  as 


Apparent  Annual  Path  of  a  Star 
Due  to  Aberration  of  Light. 

the  'constant  of  aberration.'  Its 
accepted  value  is  20.47".  And 
since  it  stands  for  the  ratio  of 
luminous  to  terrestrial  speed,  the 
distance  of  the  sun  can  thence  be 
deduced  when  the  velocity  of 
light  has  been  independently  de- 
termined. This  explanation  is 
very  simple  on  the  old  corpuscu- 
lar theory  of  light,  but  presents 
great  difficulties  on  the  wave 
theory  of  light.  (See  Ether.)  A 
similar  but  much  smaller  effect, 
depending  upon  the  earth's  axial 
movement,  is  known  as  'diurnal 
aberration.'  A  third  variety, 
called  'planetary  aberration,' 
arises  from  the  delay  in  the  visi- 
bility of  a  moving  luminous  body 
caused  by  the  progressive  trans- 
mission of  light.  The  aberra- 
tion of  light  was  discovered  by 
the  English  astronomer  Bradley 
in  1727,  while  seeking  to  deter- 
mine the  parallax  of  certain  fixed 
stars.    See  parallax. 

Aberration,  Spherical  and  Chro- 
matic, in  optical  instruments, 
means  the  deviation  of  part  of  a 
pencil  of  rays  from  the  point 
through  which  every  component 
ray  of  the  pencil  should  pass,  if 
the  theoretical  conditions  for  dis- 
tinct vision  are  to  be  rigorously 
fulfilled. 

Spherical  Aberration  results 
from  the  sphericity  of  the  lens 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


surfaces,  or  of  the  mirror  used  to 
produce  the  image  of  the  object, 
distant  or  near  according  as  the 
instrument  is  a  telescope,  camera, 
or  microscope.  Consider  in  par- 
ticular the  case  of  a  convex  lens. 
(See  Lens.)  Parallel  rays  pass- 
ing through  the  lens  are  brought 
very  nearly  to  a  focus;  but  no 
lens  with  spherical  surfaces  will 
bring  all  rays  exactly  to  this 
focus,  even  though  these  rays  are 
of  the  same  color  and  refrangi- 
bility.  The  amount  o{  deviation 
of  any  particular  ray  from  the 
focus  will  depend  upon  which 
part  of  the  lens  it  passes  through. 
Lenses  might  be  ground  with 
suitable  forms  of  surface  to  pro- 
duce perfect  focussing  for  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  light  from  a  source 
at  a  definite  distance;  but  these 
would  not  have  the  same  accurate 
focussing  effect  upon  other  kinds 
of  light,  or  upon  rays  coming 
from  sources  at  different  dis- 
tances. For  ordinary  use  of 
telescopes  and  microscopes  this 
imperfection  is  not  of  great  sig- 
nificance, and  in  high-class  types 
of  instruments  other  causes 
operate  which  are  as  effective  as 
spherical  aberration  in  diminish- 
ing definition. 

Chromatic  Aberration  is  due  to 
quite  a  different  cause — viz.,  the 
different  refrangibilities  of  the 
colored  components  of  white 
light.  When  a  single  lens  is 
used,  the  different  colored  rays 
from  a  given  source  are  brought 
to  different  foci,  thereby  pro- 
ducing an  image  fringed  with 
color.  (See  Dispersion.)  This 
defect — a  much  more  serious  one 
than  any  that  practically  arises 
from  spherical  aberration — is  al- 
most entirely  removed  by  means 
of  achromatic  combinations  of 
lenses.  These  are  compound 
lenses  formed  of  lenses  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  glass;  and  their  ac- 
tion depends  upon  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  necessary  relation 
between  refraction  and  disper- 
sion.   See  Telescope. 

Abersychan,  ab'er-suk'an, 
town,  Monmouthshire,  England; 
11  miles  north  of  Newport.  It 
is  situated  in  a  mountainous 
region,  near  the  coal  deposits  of 
Monmouthshire  and  Glamorgan- 
shire, and  has  collieries,  iron 
foundries,  and  establishments  for 
the  manufacture  of  sheet  steel 
and  tin  plate.  Pop.  (1901)  17,- 
7G8;    (1911)  24,656. 

Ab'ert,  John  James  (1788- 
1863),  American  military  en- 
gineer, was  born  in  Shepherds- 
town,  Va.,  was  graduated  from 
West  Point  (1811),  and  served 
in  the  War  of  1812.  In  1814  he 
joined  the  U.  S.  corps  of  engin- 
eers, and  in  1829  became  colonel 
in  charge  of  the  topographical 
bureau.  For  many  years  he  was 
actively    engaged    in  national 


works  of  an  engineering  char- 
acter.   He  retired  in  1861. 

Ab'ertil'lery,  town,  Mon- 
mouthshire, England;  16  miles 
northwest  of  Newport.  It  is 
located  in  the  Monmouthshire 
and  Glamorganshire  coal  district, 
and  has  recently  experienced 
rapid  growth  under  the  stimulus 
of  mining,  its  chief  industry. 
Pop.  (1901)  21,945;  (1911)  35,- 
415. 

Aberystwyth,  ab-er-ist'with, 
port  and  watering  place,  Cardi- 
ganshire, Wales,  on  the  River 
Ystwith;  245  miles  northwest  of 
London  by  rail.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  University  College  of 
Wales  and  of  the  Welsh  National 
Library.  Its  fine  situation  and 
climate  combine  with  its  marine 
terrace  and  promenade  pier  to 
make  Aberystwyth  a  favorite 
bathing  place.  Industries  are 
slate  enamelling  and  the  manu- 
facture of  lead-mining  machin- 
ery. Exports,  lead  and  blende 
ore.  Pop.  (1901)  8,005;  (1911) 
8,412. 

Abet'tor.  See'AccESSORY. 

Abey'ance,  an  English  law 
term  importing  that  a  heredita- 
ment, dignity,  or  office  is  not 
vested  in  any  one,  but  is  sus- 
pended, until  the  true  owner  ap- 
pears, or  the  right  thereto  is  de- 
termined. 

In  the  United  States,  personal 
property  may  be  in  a  state  of 
legal  sequestration  or  abeyance. 
A  parsonage,  a  vessel  captured  at 
sea,  until  condemned  as  a  prize, 
may  be  in  abeyance.  The  re- 
mainder or  reversion  in  fee,  where 
there  is  a  tenant  of  the  freehold, 
may  for  a  time  be  said  to  be  in 
abeyance  when  without  any  par- 
ticular owner.  The  right  of  a 
citizen  to  vote  may  be  held  in 
abeyance  when  he  is  not  allowed 
to  exercise  that  right. 

Ab'gar,  the  titular  name  of 
twenty-eight  kings  of  Osroene 
(in  Mesopotamia,  of  which  Edes- 
sa  was  the  capital),  one  of  whom 
was  said  to  have  sent  a  letter  to 
Jesus,  asking  Him  to  share  his 
kingdom  and  cure  his  disease, 
and  to  have  received  ,a  reply 
from  Christ.  These  letters,  trans- 
lated into  Greek  from  the  Syriac 
by  Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  were 
denounced  as  spurious  by  Pope 
Gelasius  in  494,  and  lost  all 
credit. 

Abhedananda,  ab'ha-da'nan- 
da,  SwAMi  (18G6),  Indian  lecturer 
and  author,  was  born  in  Calcutta, 
and  was  educated  at  Calcutta 
University.  He  was  a  disciple 
of  Sri  Ramakrishna  Parama- 
hansa,  and  entered  the  order  of 
vSanyasins.  Coming  to  the 
United  States  in  1897,  he  organ- 
ized the  Vcdanta  Society  of  New 
York,  of  which  he  became  the 
head,  and  other  groups  for  the 
study   of   Vedanta  philosophy. 


Abhorrcrs 


2lA 


Ablngton 


At  present  he  makes  his  head- 
quarters at  West  Cornwall, 
Conn.,  where  in  1907  he  estab- 
lished 'Vedanta  Ashrama,'  a 
summer  school  for  the  study  of 
this  philosophy.  His  lectures 
and  publications  have  made  him 
a  leading  exponent  of  monistic 
Vedanta  in  America.  Among  his 
publications  are:  Reincarnation 
(1899);  Spiritual  Unfoldment 

(1901)  ;     Philosophy    of  Work 

(1902)  ;  How  to  Be  a  Yogi  (1902) ; 
Divine  Heritage  of  Man  (1903); 
Self-Knowledge  (1905);  India 
and  Her  People  (1906);  Human 
Affection  and  Divine  Love  (1911); 
Great  Saviors  of  the  World  (vol. 
I.,  1911). 

Abhor'rers,  in  English  history, 
a  name  given  (1679-80)  to  the 
Court  or  Prerogative  Party,  who 
signed  addresses  to  Charles  ii. 
'  abhorring'  the  petitions  of  the 
'  Petitioners.'  The  latter  be- 
sought the  crown  not  to  pro- 
rogue Parliament  further,  in 
order  that  the  Exclusion  Bill 
against  the  Duke  of  York,  after- 
ward James  ii.,  might  be  pro- 
ceeded with,  and  that  measures 
might  be  taken,  in  the  Protestant 
interest,  '  to  smite  the  king 
through  the  duke's  side.  '  The 
Abhorrers  later  received  the 
nickname  of  '  Tories,'  and  the 
Petitioners  that  of  '  Whigs.' 

Abi'athar  ('Father  of  Plenty'), 
son  of  Ahimelech  or  Ahijah  the 
high  priest,  escaped  when  Doeg 
slaughtered  the  priests  at  Saul's 
command  (1  Sam.  xx.  20),  and 
joined  David  at  Keilah.  Ap- 
pointed high  priest  with  Zadok 
(1  Chron.  xv.  11),  he  became 
David's  counsellor  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  34),  and  remained  faithful 
to  him  during  Absalom's  rebel- 
lion (2  Sam.  XV.  24),  but  later 
joined  Adonijah  in  his  revolt  (1 
Kings  i.  7,  19),  and  was  therefore 
deposed  from  the  priesthood  by 
Solomon  (1  Kings  ii.  26). 

A'bib,  in  the  Jewish  calendar, 
the  first  month  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical year,  on  the  14th  of  which 
the  feast  of  the  Passover  is  cele- 
brated; later  named  Nisan,  and 
corresponding  nearly  to  April. 

Abich,  a'bic/t,  Wilhelm  Her- 
mann (1806-86),  German  geolo- 
gist, was  born  in  Berlin.  In 
1842  he  became  professor  of 
mineralogy  at  Dorpat,  and  in 
1877  went  to  Vienna.  He  ex- 
plored the  Caucasus,  Russian 
Armenia,  Northern  Persia,  and 
Daghestan,  and  published  Geo- 
logische  Forschungen  in  den  Kau- 
kasischen  Ldndern  (3  vols.  1878- 
88);  Ueber  die  Geologische  Na- 
tur  des  Armenischen  Hochlandes 
(1893.) 

Abies,  a'bi-ez.    See  Fir. 

Ab'lgall  ('Father  has  rejoiced'), 
wife  of  Nabal  the  Carmelite,  who 
by  her  tactful  speech  and  gifts 
dissuaded    David    from  taking 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


revenge  upon  her  churlish  hus- 
band (1  Sam.  XXV.  18-35).  After 
Nabal's  death  she  became  the 
wife  of  David  (39-42),  and,  after 
a  short  period  of  captivity  among 
the  Amalekites,  resided  at  He- 
bron, where  she  bore  David  a 
son,  named  Chileab  or  Daniel 
(2  Sam.  iii.  3;  1  Chron.  iii.  1). 
In  speaking  to  David  she  called 
herself  'thine  handmaid,'  and  her 
name  has  thus  come  to  be  collo- 
quially used  for  a  waiting  maid 
or  servant. 

Abi'jah,  the  name  of  several 
individuals  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  of  whom  the  most  notable 
are  the  following:  (1.)  A  king 
of  Judah  {c.  920-917),  also  called 
Abijam,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Rehoboam.  The  meagre  account 
of  him  given  in  1  Kings  xiv.  31- 
XV.  8  is  supplemented  by  2 
Chron.  xiii.,  according  to  which 
he  gained  an  overwhelming  vic- 
tory over  Jeroboam,  of  whose 
army  no  fewer  than  half  a  million 
were  slain,  near  Mount  Zemar- 
aim,  in  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraim.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Asa.  (3.)  A  son  of 
Jeroboam  I.,  who  died  in  child- 
hood (1  Kings  xiv.).  (3.)  One 
of  the  descendants  of  Eleazar, 
son  of  Aaron,  who  was  chief  of 
the  eighth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  of  David's  priests  (1 
Chron.  xxiv.  10;  cf.  Luke  i.  5, 
'Abia').  (4.)  Second  son  of  Sam- 
uel (1  Sam.  viii.  2,  R.  V.),  whose 
corrupt  administration  of  justice 
gave  the  elders  of  Israel  a  color- 
able plea  for  their  demand  for  a 
king.  For  other  bearers  of  the 
name,  see  1  Chron.  ii.  24  (Abiah) ; 
vii.  8  (R.  V.) ;  2  Chron.  xxix.  1 
(mother  of  Hezekiah). 

Abilene,  ab'i-le'ne,  a  district  of 
the  ancient  kingdom  of  Iturea, 
formed  into  one  of  four  tetrarch- 
ies  by  the  Romans  (36  B.C.-23 
B.C.).  The  chief  town  was  Abila 
on  the  Abana  River.  It  was  in- 
corporated in  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Syria  (100  B.C.).  Abilene 
is  referred  to  in  Luke  iii.  1. 

Abiiene,  ab'i-len,  city,  Kansas, 
county  seat  of  Dickinson  county, 
on  the  Kansas  River,  and  the 
Union  Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island,  and  Pacific,  and  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe 
Railroads;  160  miles  west  of 
Kansas  City.  The  city  has 
grain  mills,  machine  shops,  man- 
ufactories of  carrousels,  and  is  a 
shipping  point  for  live  stock. 
Here  is  Mount  Saint  Joseph 
Academy.  The  commission  form 
of  government  was  adopted  in 
1911.  Pop.  (1900)  3,507;  (1910) 
4,118. 

Abilene,  city,  Texas,  county 
seat  of  Taylor  county,  on  the 
Texas  and  Pacific  and  other 
railroads;  160  miles  southwest  of 
Fort  Worth.  Here  is  located  a 
State  epileptic  colony.  Indus- 


tries include  grist,  flour,  and 
planing  mills,  cotton  gins  and 
a  cottonseed  oil  mill.  The  city 
has  commission  government. 
Pop.  (1900)  3,411;  (1910)  9,204. 

Abimelech,  a-bim'e-lek  ('My 
father  is  king'  or  'is  Molech'). 
(1.)  A  king  of  Gerar,  who,  owing 
to  Abraham's  misrepresentation, 
took  Sarah  into  his  harem;  but 
being  warned  in  a  dream,  restored 
her  to  her  husband  (Gen.  xx.). 
What  is  regarded  as  a  variant  of 
the  same  story  is  told  in  connec- 
tion with  Isaac  and  Rebekah 
(Gen.  xxvi.).  (2.)  Son  of  Gideon 
and  a  Shechemite  woman,  who 
persuaded  the  Shechemites  to 
make  him  their  king,  and  by 
assassination  got  rid  of  his 
seventy  half-brothers  except  Jo- 
tham  (Judg.  ix.).  The  Shechem- 
ites ultimately  rebelled  against 
his  authority,  and  while  assault- 
ing Thebez  he  was  struck  by  a 
piece  of  a  millstone  cast  from  the 
wall  by  a  woman;  and,  to  save 
himself  from  the  disgrace  of 
having  died  by  female  hands,  he 
ordered  his  armor  bearer  to  kill 
him. 

Ab'ingdon,  market  town,  Berk- 
shire, England;  6  miles  south  of 
Oxford,  It  dates  from  about 
675,  when  a  Benedictine  monas- 
tery was  founded.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  ready-made  clothing 
and  carpets.  Pop.  (1901)  6,480; 
(1911)  6,810. 

Abingdon,  city,  Knox  county, 
Illinois,  on  the  Chicago,  BurUng- 
ton,  and  Quincy  and  the  Iowa 
Central  Railroads;  50  miles  west 
of  Peoria.  Here  are  situated 
Hedding  College  (Methodist  Epis- 
copal) and  Abingdon  College. 
Industries  include  an  animal- 
trap  factory  (claimed  to  be  the 
largest  in  the  world),  and  manu- 
factories of  wagons,  brick,  tile, 
cement,  and  shirts  and  overalls. 
Pop.  (1900)  2,022;  (1910)  2,464. 

Abingdon,  town,  Virginia, 
county  seat  of  Washington  coun- 
ty, on  the  Norfolk  and  Western 
and  the  Virginia-Carolina  Rail- 
roads; 205  miles  southwest  of 
Lynchburg.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  academy  and 
convent,  of  the  Stonewall  Jack- 
son Institute  (Methodist),  and 
the  Martha  Washington  College 
(Presbyterian)  for  girls.  De- 
posits of  salt,  plaster,  iron  ore, 
and  gypsum  are  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Industries  are  iron  fur- 
naces and  forges,  brick  works, 
canning  and  wagon  factories,  and 
flour  and  lumber  mills.  Pop. 
(1900)  1,306;  (1910)  1,757. 

Ab'ington,  town,  Massachu- 
setts, county  seat  of  Plymouth 
county,  on  the  Plymouth  Divi- 
sion of  the  New  York,  New  Ha- 
ven, and  Hartford  Railroad;  20 
miles  southeast  of  Boston.  Boots 
and  shoes  are  manufactured,  and 
there  are  machine  shops.  The 


Ablngton 


Abo 


town  was  settled  about  1680.  In 
1912  a  memorial  arch  to  the 
veterans  of  the  Civil  War  was 
erected.  Pop.  (1900)  4,489; 
(1910)  5,455. 

Abington,  Mrs.  Fanny  (1737- 
1815),  English  actress,  was  born 
in  London,  the  daughter  of  a 
soldier.  She  was  a  flower  girl 
at  the  theatres,  and  made  her 
first  appearance  at  the  Haymar- 
ket  as  Miranda  in  The  Busybody. 
During  her  career  on  the  stage 
(1755-99)  she  created  thirty- 
original  characters,  her  most 
famous  being  Lady  Teazle. 

Abiogenesis,  ab-i-6-jen'e-sis. 
See  Biogenesis. 

Abi pones,  a-be-po'nas,  South 
American  aborigines  who  for- 
merly inhabited  the  Gran  Chaco, 
Argentina,  between  the  Bermejo 
and  Rio  Grande.  They  were  a 
fine  tall  race,  with  black  eyes, 
aquiline  nose,  and  long  black 
hair,  and  were  the  bitter  foes  of 
the  Spaniards.  In  1780  the 
tribe  numbered  about  5,000,  but 
it  is  now  extinct.  Consult 
Church's  Aborigines  of  South 
America  (1912). 

Abishai,  a-bish'a-i,  nephew  of 
King  David,  and  one  of  his  most 
daring  and  faithful  followers  (1 
Sam.  xxvi.  6).  He  assisted  in 
the  night  expedition  to  the  camp 
of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  6-9).  After 
David's  accession  he  took  part 
with  Joab  in  numerous  wars  (2 
Sam.  ii.  18,  24;  iii.  30),  was  faith- 
ful to  the  king  in  Absalom's  re- 
bellion, and  became  one  of  the 
captains  of  the  kingdom  (2  Sam, 
xxiii.  18). 

Abitibi,  Lake,  a-bi-tib'i,  near 
the  boundary  of  the  provinces 
of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  in  lat. 
48°  30'  N.,  long.  80°  w.  It  is 
drained  to  the  west  and  north  by 
the  Abitibi  River,  which,  joining 
the  Moose  River,  flows  north- 
ward into  Hudson  Bay  at  Moose 
Factory,  James  Bay. 

Ab'Jad  is  the  first  of  eight 
mnemonic  words  which  give  the 
numerical  order  of  the  Arabic 
alphabet  from  1  to  1,000.  It  is 
also  the  name  for  the  alphabet,  as 
in  the  phrase  hurufu-'l-abjad,  'the 
letters  of  the  alphabet.'  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  first 
four  characteristic  letters  of 
the  Arabic  alphabet,  a,  b,  j, 
and  d. 

Abjuration.  The  Oath  of  Ab- 
juration was  imposed  in  1701 
•  upon  members  of  the  British 
Parliament  and  all  holders  of 
public  offices,  including  clergy- 
men, teachers,  barristers,  etc. 
It  was  a  declaration  in  favor  of 
King  William  and  the  Revolu- 
tion Settlement,  and  against  the 
'late  King  James,'  and  concluded 
with  the  words,  'upon  the  true 
faith  of  a  Christian.'  It  has  by 
subsequent  enactments  been 
merged  in  a  general  oath  of 
Vol.  I. — Oct.  '15 


allegiance  to  the  person  of  the 
reigning  sovereign. 

Abjuration  of  the  Realm,  in  old 
English  law,  was  a  means  of 
avoiding  the  death  penalty  for 
felony  by  voluntary  expatriation. 
It  was  open  to  any  person  ac- 
cused of  crime  (except  in  cases 
of  treason  or  sacrilege)  who  took 
sanctuary  and  thereafter  con- 
fessed his  guilt  and  took  oath 
abjuring  the  realm.  See  Sanc- 
tuary. 

Abkhasia,  ab-ka'shi-a,  or  Ab- 
asia, district,  Kutais,  Asiatic 
Russia,  along  the  Black  Sea 
littoral.  It  is  mountainous,  with 
deep,  well-watered,  and  fertile 
valleys;  produces  wheat  and 
wine.  Chief  town,  Sukhum  Kale. 
It  became  Russian  in  1809-10, 
but  was  not  pacified  till  1864. 
Pop.  30,000. 

Ab'lative  Case,  a  grammatical 
inflection  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
used  to  denote  the  place,  person, 
or  thing  from  which  something 
is  taken  away.  It  is  found  in 
Indo-European  languages,  par- 
ticularly Latin,  in  which  it  also 
expresses  other  relations;  Sans- 
krit, Oscan,  and  Umbrian.  In 
Greek  its  functions  have  been 
diverted  to  the  genitive  case; 
and  in  other  languages,  as  Eng- 
lish, it  is  usually  replaced  by  the 
prepositions  in,  with,  by,  from,  etc. 

Ablaut,  ab'lout.  The  use  of 
the  term  ablaut  in  philology  is 
due  to  Jacob  Grimm  (Deutsche 
Grammatik);  the  word  gradation 
is  frequently  employed  as  its 
equivalent  in  English.  It  finds 
special  application  in  the  com- 
parative grammar  of  the  Indo- 
Germanic  languages,  especially 
in  the  Germanic  so-called  'strong 
verbs,'  where,  as  in  Anglo-Saxon, 
for  example,  there  are  six  dis- 
tinct classes,  differentiated  by 
varying  but  regular  ablaut  rows 
(compare  English sang, sung; 
write,  wrote,  written). 

Ablaut  is  an  inheritance  from 
the  hypothetical  Indo-Germanic 
parent  speech,  and  is  connected 
there  with  the  influence  of  the 
accent  (compare  Greek  narrip, 
evnoLTup).  The  differentiation  at 
first  was  phonetic  only;  after- 
ward it  was  utilized  in  the  ex- 
pression of  differences  of  mean- 
ing— as  in  strong  or  'irregular' 
verbs  of  the  Germanic  languages, 
where  the  ablaut  serves  to  mark 
difference  of  tense.  The  exist- 
ing types  of  tense  gradation  may 
be  distributed  into  seven  classes, 
which  are  exemplified  in  the 
English  verbs  fall,  shake,  bear, 
give,  drink,  drive,  choose  (Skeat's 
examples).  The  regularity  of 
vsequence  has  been  obliterated  in 
many  verbs  by  phonetic  changes. 
Consult  Skeat's  English  Ety- 
mology. 

Ab'legate,  a  special  papal  en- 
voy, sent  to  confer  the  symbols 


of  office  upon  a  newly  appointed 
cardinal  or  other  dignitary.  Ab- 
legates are  classed  as  apostolic 
and  pontifical,  the  former  having 
the  higher  rank. 

Ablu'tlon,  a  rite  symbolizing 
the  purification  of  the  soul  by 
the  cleansing  of  the  body.  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the 
word  indicates  the  washing  of  the 
chalice  and  the  priest's  fingers 
with  water  and  wine  after  mass. 

Abnaki,  ab-na'ke,  Abenaki,  or 
Abnakis,  an  Indian  tribe  of  the 
Algonquin  Confederacy,  formerly 
inhabiting  the  State  of  Maine, 
in  the  region  of  the  St.  John 
Valley  and  the  sources  of  the 
Kennebec  and  St.  Croix  Rivers. 
In  the  struggle  on  the  Acadian 
border  between  the  French  and 
English  colonists,  just  before  the 
era  of  Queen  Anne's  War  (1702- 
14),  the  Abnaki  were  the  allies 
of  the  French  in  Canada,  and 
greatly  harassed  the  'Boston- 
nais'  or  New  Englanders.  After 
the  fall  of  French  dominion  in 
America,  most  of  the  Abnaki 
withdrew  to  Canada.  They  now 
number  less  than  2,000  persons, 
located  in  New  Brunswick,  Que- 
bec, and  Maine. 

Abner  ('Father  is  Ner'),  a 
Hebrew  warrior,  son  of  Ner  (1 
Sam.  xiv.  51),  cousin  of  Saul,  and 
captain  of  the  army.  He  pro- 
claimed Ish-bosheth  king  (2 
Sam.  ii.  8),  abandoned  him  for 
David  (2  Sam.  iii.  12),  and  was 
killed  by  Joab  (2  Sam.  iii.  27). 

Ab'ney,  Sir  William  de 
Wiveleslie  (1844),  English 
chemist  and  physicist,  was  born 
in  Derby,  and  was  educated  at 
the  Royal  Military  Academy, 
Woolwich.  He  became  instruc- 
tor in  chemistry  to  the  Royal 
Engineers,  Chatham;  adviser  to 
the  Board  of  Education  in  1003, 
and  a  member  of  Council  for 
Education  to  the  War  Office. 
In  1900  he  was  knighted  in  recog- 
nition of  his  scientific  attain- 
ments. His  researches  in  light, 
including  stellar  photometry,  in 
photography,  and  in  spectros- 
copy are  of  great  value.  His 
writings  include:  Instruction  in 
Photography  (11th  ed.  1905); 
Treatise  on  Photography  (1875); 
Color  Vision,  Color  Measurement 
and  Mixture  (1893);  and  many 
papers  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions and  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Royal  Society.  Among  his 
works  in  other  fields  are:  Thebes 
and  Its  Five  Great  Temples  (1876) ; 
The  Pioneers  of  the  Alps  (with 
C.  D.  Cunningham,  1888). 

Abo,  o'bob  or  6'boo,  port, 
Finland,  Russia;  125  miles  north- 
west of  Helsingfors,  50  miles 
from  the  open  sea.  It  is  a  coal- 
ing station,  and  has  exports  of 
timber,  paper,  wood  pulp,  fruit, 
eggs,  and  hides.  It  has  ship- 
yards, cotton  mills,  tobacco  fac- 


Abo 


22 


Abortion 


tories,  sugar  refineries,  and  ma- 
chine shops.  Here  was  signed 
the  Peace  of  Abo  between  Swe- 
den and  Russia  in  1743.  Pop. 
(1897)  34,964;    (1910)  49,377. 

Abo,  I  BO,  or  Eboe,  town. 
Southern  Nigeria,  on  the  River 
Niger  (Quorra);  80  miles  from 
the  sea.  Exports  palm  oil.  Pop. 
8,000. 

Abo  -  Bjorneborg,  byur-ne- 
bor'y',  government  Finland, 
Russia,  on  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia 
and  Finland.  Its  principal  in- 
dustries are  agriculture,  cattle 
raising,  and  fishing.  It  is  the 
most  important  manufacturing 
province  of  Finland,  its  manu- 
factures including  brewing  and 
distilling,  wood  and  metal  work- 
ing, and  the  manufacture  of 
paper,  sugar,  leather,  and  to- 
bacco. Mining  products  include 
granite,  black  marble,  iron,  and 
clay.  Area,  9,333  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1910)  499,332. 

Ab'oli'tionists,  a  term  applied, 
broadly,  in  the  United  States  to 
those  who,  before  the  Civil  War, 
advocated  the  abolition  of  slav- 
ery; but  especially  applied  to 
those  who  urged  immediate  abo- 
lition, without  compensation  to 
the  slave  owners,  and  who,  dis- 
avowing the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion as  a  pro-slavery  document, 
endeavored  to  attain  their  object 
by  moral  agitation  rather  than 
by  political  action. 

What  is  distinctively  known  in 
American  history  as  the  Abo- 
lition Movement  began  in  1831 
with  the  establishment  by  Wil- 
liam Lloyd  Garrison  (q.  v.)  of 
an  intensely  anti-slavery  journal, 
The  Liberator,  devoted  to  agita- 
tion for  the  immediate  and  un- 
conditional emancipation  of  all 
slaves  in  the  United  States. 
This  movement  found  expression 
not  only  through  the  press  and 
from  the  platform — various  anti- 
slavery  journals  co-operating  with 
The  Liberator,  and  innumerable 
anti-slavery  lectures  and  'ad- 
dresses being  delivered — but  also 
through  effective  anti-slavery  or- 
ganizations such  as  the  New  Eng- 
land Anti-Slavery  Society  (formed 
1832)  and  the  American  Anti- 
Slavery  Society  (formed  1833). 
These  societies  and  the  move- 
ment generally  gained  the  sym- 
pathy even  of  many  conserva- 
tives when  Congress  in  effect 
denied  to  Abolitionists  the  right 
of  petition,  and  when  President 
Jackson  denied  to  them  the  right 
to  use  the  United  States  mails 
in  furthering  their  propaganda. 

The  Abolititionists  were  a 
united  body  until  1839-40,  and 
then  came  a  division.  The  seeds 
of  discord  lay  in  the  extreme 
views  of  Garrison,  who  was  an 
idealist  in  his  thinking,  not  alone 
on  slavery,  but  also  on  other 
political  and  social  questions. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


He  countenanced  the  activity 
of  women  in  the  cause,  and  even 
appointed  them  to  lecture;  he 
believed  in  the  political  equality 
of  the  sexes;  he  opposed  all 
political  systems  based  on  force; 
he  denounced  churches  for  com- 
plicity in  slavery,  thus  obtaining 
the  stigma  of  being  unorthodox. 
Moreover,  believing  the  Consti- 
tution to  be  a  pro-slavery  docu- 
ment, he  called  it  immoral,  a 
covenant  with  death  and  hell, 
and  so  concluded  it  was  wrong  to 
take  the  oath  to  support  it. 
Others  who  were  more  conserv- 
ative realized  the  difficulty,  and 
either  explained  away  the  Consti- 
tutional clauses  or  decided  to 
support  the  Constitution  at  any 
cost,  lest  greater  evils  should 
result. 

While  the  radical  Abolition- 
ists under  Garrison  would  not 
countenance  political  activity  to 
attain  their  ends,  a  strong  senti- 
ment for  such  activity  developed 
among  the  members  of  the  Amer- 
ican Anti-Slavery  Society.  This 
feeling  grew  until  in  1840,  at  a 
test  vote,  the  Society  was  cap- 
tured for  Garrison,  and  became 
unavailable  as  a  party  organiza- 
tion. As  many  high-minded  and 
noble  men  differed  from  Garrison 
and  the  radical  element,  a  divi- 
sion resulted,  and  this  led  to  the 
formation  of  a  new  National 
Anti-Slavery  Society.  James  G. 
Birney  (q.  v.)  of  Kentucky,  for 
years  an  ardent  worker  for  Aboli- 
tion, became  leader  of  the  new 
society,  and  under  him  the  'Con- 
stitutional Abolitionists'  launch- 
ed the  Liberty  Party  (q.  v.),  with 
Birney  as  its  nominee  for  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  Twice 
(1840  and  1844)  the  party  failed 
to  elect  Birney,  and  in  1848  was 
virtually  absorbed  by  the  Free 
Soil  Party  (q.  v.),  which  in  turn 
was  one  of  the  political  elements 
fused  into  the  Republican  Party 
(q.  v.),  in  1854-6. 

Under  Garrison,  with  his  Lib- 
erator, the  Abolitionists  continued 
their  moral  agitation  for  im- 
mediate abolition  with  vehement 
and  even  rancorous  language 
until  the  Emancipation  Proclam- 
ation. In  1865  Garrison  dis- 
continued The  Liberator,  and 
counselled  the  dissolution  of  the 
American  Anti-Slavery  Society. 
Among  other  prominent  Aboli- 
tionists may  be  mentioned  Wen- 
dell Phillips,  Theodore  Parker, 
Samuel  May,  Lucretia  Mott,  and 
Gerrit  vSmith  (qq.  v.). 

The  radical  Abolitionists  were 
a  stern,  unyielding,  uncompro- 
mising, and  high-minded  group 
of  idealists,  who  devoted  them- 
selves, with  remarkable  fervor 
and  singleness  of  purpose,  to 
their  cause.  In  the  vSouth  they 
were  naturally  regarded  with 
intense  and  bitter  hatred.  The 


practical  effects  of  their  agitation 
were  the  arousing  of  the  con- 
science of  a  large  part  of  the 
North,  the  antagonizing  of  nu- 
merous conservatives,  and  the 
solidifying  of  the  South,  which 
became  more  and  more  sensitive 
to  any  outside  interference.  See 
Slavery. 

Consult  Garrison's  William 
Lloyd  Garrison;  William  Birney 's 
Life  and  Times  of  James  G. 
Birney;  Hume's  The  Abolitionists 
(1905);  Herbert's  The  Abolition 
Crusade  and  Its  Consequences 
(1912). 

Abomey,  a-bo-ma',  town,  Da- 
homey, French  West  Africa;  70 
miles  northwest  of  Porto  Nova, 
65  miles  north  of  Whydah.  The 
former  capital  of  Dahomey,  it 
was  occupied  by  the  French  on 
Nov.  17,  1892.  Trade  in  ivory, 
palm  oil,  and  gold.    Pop.  12,000. 

Abony,  o'bony,  town.  Pest 
county,  Hungary;  50  miles  south- 
east of  Budapest.    Pop.  15,000. 

Aborigines,  ab'o-rij'i-nez.  This 
word  was  first  used  of  the  original 
inhabitants  of  Italy;  it  was  after- 
ward extended  to  the  inhabitants 
of  other  countries  when  first 
known;  now  it  generally  means 
the  natives  found  in  a  country  by 
European  colonists — as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  North  American  In- 
dians. The  word  is  also  used  of 
plants  and  animals,  to  denote  the 
flora  and  fauna  indigenous  to  a 
place. 

All  civilized  nations  have  now 
passed  acts  for  the  protection  of 
the  aborigines  within  their  terri- 
tories. The  British  North  Amer- 
ica Act,  1807,  gives  exclusive 
legislative  authority  with  regard 
to  Indians  to  the  Dominion  (of 
Canada)  Parliament.  The  Gen- 
eral Act  of  the  Brussels  Con- 
ference, signed  July  2,  1890,  sets 
out  what  the  Powers  declare  to  be 
the  most  effective  means  of 
counteracting  the  slave  trade 
in  the  interior  of  Africa,  and 
contains  restrictive  measures  con- 
cerning the  drink  traffic,  intended 
to  protect  the  native  population 
from  the  abuse  of  it. 

For  Australian  aborigines,  see 
Australia. 

Abor'tion,  in  medicine,  de- 
notes the  expulsion  of  the  prod- 
uct of  conception  (the  impreg- 
nated ovum)  from  the  womb 
before  the  sixth  month  of  preg- 
nancy. If  the  expulsion  takes 
place  after  that  date,  and  before 
the  proper  time,  it  is  termed  a 
premature  labor  (q.  v.)  or  mis- 
carriage. In  law,  however,  no 
such  distinction  is  made. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  abor- 
tion may  depend  ui)on  the  health 
of  the  foetus,  or  on  that  of  the 
mother.  Illness  of  the  mother 
during  pregnancy,  cither  by 
lowering  the  general  health  or  by 
a  more  direct  action,  may  induce 


Abortion 


23 


Abraham 


abortion  or  miscarriage.  Among 
predisposing  causes  are  a  dis- 
eased condition  of  either  parent, 
especially  a  syphilitic  taint,  and 
most  fevers.  Among  the  direct 
causes  of  abortion  may  be  placed 
blows  on  the  abdomen,  falls,  any 
violent  muscular  efforts,  and 
severe  mental  shock.  Moreover, 
the  death  of  the  foetus  from  any 
cause  is  sure  to  occasion  abortion. 

Symptoms. — Abortion  is  some- 
times preceded  by  feverishness, 
shiverings,  a  feeling  of  weight  in 
the  abdomen,  or  other  discom- 
fort. But  the  first  certain  indi- 
cation of  threatened  abortion  is 
usually  hemorrhage,  followed,  if 
not  arrested,  by  pain,  which  after 
the  second  month  more  or  less 
resembles  the  pain  attending  nor- 
mal labor. 

Treatment.  —  Preventive 
treatment  means  in  the  average 
case  merely  the  living  of  a  sane 
life,  not  inactive,  but  quiet,  regu- 
lar, and  healthy,  with  special 
care  to  avoid  exhaustion,  excite- 
ment, and  crowded  rooms,  and 
the  pressure  of  tight  clothes. 
Should  abortion  be  threatened, 
the  patient  must  at  once  go  to 
bed,  and  send  for  medical  assist- 
ance. Cold  compresses,  changed 
before  they  grow  warm,  will  help 
to  check  the  hemorrhage  tempo- 
rarily; but  for  this  purpose  it  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  lie 
quiet.  Should  abortion  take 
place,  and  skilled  assistance  be 
unobtainable,  absolute  quiet, 
complete  rest,  and  cleanliness  are 
the  most  important  points.  Un- 
less a  woman  treats  herself  as  care- 
fully after  an  abortion  or  a  mis- 
carriage as  she  would  after  a  con- 
finement, she  runs  not  only  grave 
immediate  danger,  but  also  risks 
chronic  invalidism  later. 

Intentional  abortion,  except 
when  judged  necessary  by  medi- 
cal men  in  consultation,  and  per- 
formed by  them  with  the  care 
necessary  for  any  surgical  opera- 
tion, is  not  only  always  criminal, 
but  often  proves  suicidal. 

Criminal  Abortion,  —  In  law, 
procuring,  or  attempting  to  pro- 
cure, abortion,  whether  by  the 
woman  herself  or  by  another,  is 
a  felony  in  most  of  the  States  of 
the  United  States,  unless  the  act 
be  necessary  to  preserve  the 
mother's  life.  The  mere  solici- 
taticm  or  advice  given  to  a  preg- 
nant woman  that  she  attempt  to 
produce  a  miscarriage  is  a  mis- 
demeanor, if  the  woman  follows 
the  advice.  It  is  a  misdemeanor 
for  any  person  knowingly  to  de- 
po  ',it  for  mailing  or  delivery  any 
article  or  thing  designed  or  in- 
tended to  procure  abortion.  Al- 
though to  procure  abortion  with 
consent  of  the  woman  is  not  in- 
dictable at  common  law,  it  is  a 
felony,  and  punished  with  severe 
I)enalties. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


In  England  procuring  or  at- 
tempting to  procure  an  abortion 
is  a  felony,  and  in  Scotland  a 
crime,  punishable  by  penal  servi- 
tude for  life,  or  by  imprisonment. 
If  the  woman  dies,  or  if  the  child 
is  born  alive  but  dies  because  of 
premature  birth  or  the  means 
used,  it  is  murder.  In  England, 
to  supply  any  poison  or  instru- 
ment, knowing  that  it  is  intended 
to  be  used  to  procure  abortion,  is 
a  misdemeanor  punishable  by 
penal  servitude  not  exceeding 
five  years,  or  by  imprisonment. 

It  cannot  be  too  generally 
known  that  all  attempts  at  pro- 
curing criminal  abortion,  either 
by  the  administration  of  power- 
ful drugs  or  the  application  of 
instruments,  are  accompanied 
with  extreme  danger  to  the  preg- 
nant woman.    See  Infanticide. 

Aboukir,  or  Abukir,  a-bob- 
ker'  (ancient  Kanohos),  village, 
Aboukir  Bay,  Egypt;  13  miles 
northeast  of  Alexandria.  Abou- 
kir Bay,  16  miles  wide,  was  the 
scene  of  the  Battle  of  the  Nile 
(Aug.  1,  1798)  in  which  Nelson 
defeated  the  French.  At  Abou- 
kir, Bonaparte,  with  6,000  men, 
defeated  an  army  of  18,000  Turks 
(July  25,  1799);  and  there  Sir 
Ralph  Abercromby  landed  in 
face  of  the  French,  whom  he  de- 
feated (March  21,  1801),  and 
compelled  them  to  quit  Egypt. 
In  the  vicinity  are  many  ancient 
remains.  _  _ 

Abousambul,  a-boo-sam-bool'. 
See  Ipsambui.. 

About,  a-bob',  Edmond  Fran- 
cois Valentin  (1828-85),  French 
novelist  and  dramatist,  was  born 
in  Dieuze,  Lorraine.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  fiction  and  jour- 
nalism, and  produced  La  Grece 
Contemporaine  (1854),  the  first  of 
a  long  list  of  works.  In  the 
Franco-German  War  he  accom- 
panied Macmahon's  army  as 
special  correspondent  of  the  Soir; 
after  1875  he  was  editor  of  the 
XIX^  Steele,  which  he  founded 
with  Sarcey;  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  (1884), 
but  died  (in  Paris)  before  his  re- 
ception. His  fame  rests  prin- 
cipally upon  his  novels,  such  as 
Roman  d'lin  Brave  Homme  (1880) ; 
Le  Nez  d'un  Notaire  (1862);  Le 
Roi  des  M^ontagnes  (1856);  Made- 
Ion  (1863);  L' Homme  a  I'Oreille 
Cassee  (1862);  Trente  el  Quaranle 
(1865) — all  of  which  have  been 
translated  into  English. 

Abra,  ii'bra,  river  and  province, 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands.  The 
river,  navigable  for  boats,  and 
rising  in  the  Caballeros  Cordil- 
lera, finds  outlet  through  many 
branches  on  the  west  coast.  To- 
bacco is  the  main  product  of 
the  province,  which  is  volcanic 
and  mountainous.  Copper  is 
found,  but  the  resources  are 
as  yet  undeveloped.  Industrial 


schools  with  American  and  native 
teachers  have  been  established. 
Area,  1,484  square  miles.  Pop. 
55,000. 

Ab'racadab'ra,  a  cabalistic 
word  or  formula  constructed 
from  the  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
used  by  Basilidian  Gnostics  of 
the  second  century,  and  later  as 
a  spell  to  secure  the  assistance 
of  good  spirits  against  evil;  sup- 
posed, when  written  in  the  form 
of  a  triangle  and  worn  round  the 
neck  for  nine  days,  to  act  as  a 
charm  against  fevers,  etc.  It 
first  occurs  in  a  poem  by  Sam- 
monicus  (second  century).  See 
Abraxas. 

A'braham.  The  account  of 
Abraham  given  in  Gen.  xi.  31  ff. 
is  less  a  connected  biography 
than  a  series  of  tableaux.  As 
Abram,  the  son  of  Terah,  he 
comes  before  us  a  noble  figure, 
great  in  moral  and  religious  char- 
acter, as  also  in  material  posses- 
sions. A  native  of  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees  (in  Mesopotamia,  or, 
less  likely,  Uru,  now  Mugheir,  in 
Babylonia),  married  to  his  half- 
sister  Sarai,  he  migrates  to  Haran 
in  Upper  Mesopotamia;  thence, 
in  obedience  to  a  divine  com- 
mand, to  Canaan,  which  land  is 
thereupon  promised  to  his  seed 
(Gen.  xii.  1-6).  Thenceforward 
he  lives  the  life  of  a  nomad  chief, 
wandering  mainly  in  the  districts 
around  Shechem,  Beth-el,  and 
Hebron.  While  sojourning  in 
Egypt,  he  imperils  Sarai's  honor 
by  misrepresenting  her  as  only 
his  sister  (cf.  the  similar  action 
in  Gerar,  Gen.  xx.  1-11)  ;  but  he 
shows  true  self-denial  in  giving 
the  choice  of  pasture  land  to  his 
nephew  Lot,  and  true  courage  in 
his  successful  attack  upon  the 
victorious  Chedorlaomer;  while 
the  tenderness  of  his  nature  is 
evinced  in  his  unwillingness  to 
expel  Hagar  and  Ishmael  from 
his  tent  at  Sarai's  instigation, 
and  in  his  pathetic  intercession 
on  behalf  of  Sodom. 

The  promises  grow  ever  in 
splendor;  Jehovah  makes  a  cove- 
nant with  him,  ordaining  the 
rite  of  circumcision,  and  chang- 
ing his  name  from  Abram  to 
Abraham  (and  Sarai's  to  Sarah), 
as  the  credentials  thereof;  heav- 
enly messengers  are  commis- 
sioned to  visit  him,  and  his  pray- 
ers have  power  on  high  (Gen. 
xvii.,  xviii.).  At  length  Isaac  is 
born,  and  the  crowning  expres- 
sion of  Abraham's  faith  is  given 
in  his  willingness  to  obey  God 
even  to  the  extent  of  offering  up 
the  son  of  promise  as  a  sacrifice 
(Gen.  xxi.,  xxii.).  After  Sarah's 
death  Abraham  marries  Keturah, 
and  has  six  sons  by  her;  and  at 
last,  at  the  age  of  175,  he  is 
laid  to  rest  beside  .Sarah  in  the 
cave  of  Machpelah  (Gen.  xxv. 
1-10). 


Abraham-a-Santa-Clai'a 


24 


Abraias 


The  patriarch  plays  a  great 
role  in  later  Judaism,  as  also  in 
the  New  Testament;  many  re- 
markable legends  have  gathered 
round  his  name;  and  to  the 
Arabs  he  is,  as  Ibrahim,  the  first 
and  greatest  Moslem.  The  Mo- 
hammedans bring  Abraham  to 
Mecca  to  build  the  Kaaba,  and 
believe  his  remains  to  have  been 
covered  by  the  famous  mosque 
near  Hebron.  He  was  regarded 
as  the  ancestor  not  merely  of  the 
Israelites  and  the  Ishmaelite 
Arabs,  but  of  the  Edomites 
(through  Esau)  and  Midianites. 
The  date  of  his  arrival  in  Canaan 
has  been  variously  computed. 
Bunsen  put  it  as  2866  B.C.,  and 
Lipsius  as  1730-1700  B.C.  If 
Assyrian  scholars  are  right  in 
identifying  Arioch,  the  king  of 
Ellasar,  defeated  by  Abraham, 
with  Eri-aku,  king  of  Larsa,  who 
reigned  in  2120  B.C.  according  to 
the  inscriptions,  then  the  date 
of  Abraham's  coming  into  Ca- 
naan would  be  very  near  that 
proposed  by  Hales,  2153  B.C. 

On  the  more  debatable  or 
extra-Biblical  points,  the  com- 
mentaries {e.  g.,  Dillmann,  De- 
litzsch.  Driver)  and  the  recent 
Bible  dictionaries  (e.  g.,  Hastings' 
and  Cheyne's)  may  be  con- 
sulted. For  Assyrian  relations, 
consult  Tomkins'  Studies  on  the 
Times  of  Abraham,  and  Sayce's 
Patriarchal  Palestine;  for  Abra- 
ham's place  in  Biblical  history 
and  theology,  Schultz's  Old 
Testament  Theology  (Eng.  trans.), 
and  Kittel's  History  of  the  He- 
brews (Eng.  trans.).  There  is  a 
late  apocryphal  book,  The  Testa- 
ment of  Abraham,  published  in 
Texts  and  Studies  (1892). 

Abraham-a- Santa- Clara — 
family  name,  Ulrich  Megerle 
— (1644-1709),  a  great  pulpit 
orator  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church;  born  near  Messkirch  in 
Baden.  He  joined  the  Barefooted 
Augustinians  (1662);  was  court 
preacher  (1677);  from  1682-9 
worked  at  Graz;  but  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  at  Vienna.  His 
style  was  fearless,  humorous, 
and  racy.  The  sermon.  Up,  up, 
ye  Christians!  (1683),  against  the 
Turkish  menace,  was  used  by 
Schiller  in  Wallenstein's  Lager. 
His  most  typical  book  is  Judas 
der  Ertz-Schelm  (1686-95). 

Abraham,  Heights  of,  or 
Plains  of  Abraham,  southwest 
of  Quebec,  along  the  St.  Law- 
rence River,  the  scene  of  the  battle 
between  Wolfe  (q.  v.)  and  Mont- 
calm (Sept.  13,  1759),  which 
added  Canada  to  the  British 
empire.  Both  Wolfe  and  Mont- 
calm were  killed  in  the  battle. 
Wolfe  ascended  the  heights  at 
Anse  du  Foulon  (Wolfe's  Cove), 
IV2  miles  above  Quebec.  In 
1908  the  Plains  were  made  a 
Canadian  National  Park. 
Vol.  I. — Oct.  '15 


Abrahamites,  a  Syrian  sect  in 
the  ninth  century  who  denied 
the  divinity  of  Christ.  Also  ap- 
plied to  a  deistic  sect  in  Bohemia 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  who 
professed  to  be  followers  of  Huss; 
they  were  expelled  from  Bohemia 
in  1783. 

Abraham-men,  a  class  of 
sturdy  beggars  who  simulated 
lunacy,  and  wandered  about 
Great  Britain  in  a  disorderly 
manner;  at  one  time  working  on 
the  sympathy,  and  at  another  on 
the  fears  of  women,  children,  and 
domestics.  They  were  common 
in  Shakespeare's  time,  and,  it 
would  seem,  existed  even  as  late 
as  the  period  of  the  civil  wars. 
The  term  is  a  cant  one,  as  old  at 
least  as  1561.  A  verbal  relic 
of  this  class  is  still  preserved  in 
the  slang  phrases,  'Abraham 
cove'  and  'to  sham  Abraham.' 

Abraham's  Bosom,  a  term  ap- 
plied by  the  Jews  to  the  abode 
of  the  righteous  after  death.  As 
a  metaphor,  it  is  borrowed  from 
the  custom  of  reclining  at  meals, 
the  head  of  each  guest  leaning 
toward  the  breast  of  his  left-hand 
neighbor;  to  be  next  the  host  was 
to  lie  in  his  bosom — i.  e.,  to  oc- 
cupy the  place  of  distinction. 
By  some  it  is  supposed  that 
Abraham's  bosom  —  otherwise 
the  Garden  of  Eden  and  Para- 
dise— denoted  one  of  the  com- 
partments of  the  intermediate 
state  in  which  all  must  sojourn 
for  a  time  before  entering  the 
abode  of  final  weal  or  woe.  It  is 
certain  that  the  Jews  of  our 
Lord's  time  believed  in  an  inter- 
mediate state  with  two  localities; 
but  it  is  questionable  whether  the 
term  'Abraham's  bosom'  was 
then  used  of  the  intermediate 
resting  place  of  the  righteous, 
and  not  rather  of  the  higher  para- 
dise or  heaven  itself.  The  latter 
seems  the  more  probable,  from 
the  fact  that  in  the  only  Scrip- 
tural passage  in  which  the  phrase 
^occurs  (Luke  xvi.  22  /.)  its  cor- 
'  relative  Hades  is  plainly  the 
place  of  torment.  Consult  Sal- 
mond's  Christian  Doctrine  of  Im- 
mortality. 

Abrantes,  a-bran'tes,  town, 
province  Estremadura,  Portugal, 
at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
River  Tagus;  88  miles  northeast 
of  Lisbon.  Strongly  fortified. 
It  has  trade  in  grain,  olive  oil, 
wine,  and  fruit.    Pop.  8,000. 

Abra'sives,  substances  pro- 
ducing wear  by  friction,  used  for 
grinding,  polishing,  and  scouring 
in  the  arts  and  in  manufacture. 
The  abrasives  commonly  found 
in  scouring  soaps  and  powders 
are  tripoli,  kieselguhr,  and  pumice 
(qq.  v.).  Lapidaries  use  the  dia- 
mond, hardest  of  known  abra- 
sives, in  solid  and  powdered  form, 
and  jeweller's  rouge,  a  peroxide 
of  iron.    For  finishing  wood  in 


carriage  and  furniture  manufac- 
ture, and  for  leather  polishing, 
garnet  is  regularly  employed, 
powdered  and  applied  with  glue 
to  paper  or  cloth. 

The  economic  importance  of 
abrasives  results  largely  from 
their  function  in  the  manufacture 
of  tools  and  machinery.  Sand, 
grindstones  of  hard  sandstone, 
and  rotary  stones  of  other  natu- 
ral rocks  have  long  been  used. 
Grinding  machines  of  many 
varieties  are  now  made.  The 
principal  natural  abrasives  are 
corundum  (q.  v.),  a  crystalline 
aluminum  oxide  of  about  90  per 
cent,  purity,  and  emery  (q.  v.), 
of  about  65  per  cent,  purity. 
More  reliable  in  quality  are  the 
artificial  abrasives:  carbide  of 
silicon,  known  as  carborundum 
(q.  V.)  or  by  other  trade  name; 
alundum  (q.  v.),  an  aluminum 
hydrate,  manufactured  from 
bauxite,  much  used  in  the  grind- 
ing of  steel;  and  crushed  steel. 
These  abrasives  are  either  pow- 
dered for  use  on  cloth  or  paper, 
or  crushed  into  particles  of 
graded  sizes  which  are  amalga- 
mated into  the  desired  shapes  by 
the  addition  of  a  cohesive  sub- 
stance called  a  bond. 

In  1913  the  total  value  of 
natural  abrasives  produced  and 
consumed  in  the  United  States 
was  $1,648,578;  of  artificial 
abrasives,  $2,017,458.  In  addi- 
tion, abrasives  to  the  value  of 
$916,913  were  imported.  Con- 
sult U.  S.  Geological  Survey's 
annual  report.  Mineral  Resources 
of  the  United  States. 

Abravanel,  a-bra-va-nel',  or 
Abarbanel,  Isaac  ben  Jehuda 
(1437-1508),  minister  of  state  to 
King  Alfonso  v.  of  Portugal,  and 
from  1483  to  1492  chancellor  to 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  king  of 
Castile;  subsequently  lived  at 
Naples,  in  Corfu,  and  at  Venice. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  high 
intellectual  and  moral  qualities; 
author  of  a  number  of  philo- 
sophical and  exegetical  treatises, 
his  chef-d' ceuvre  being  probably 
his  exposition  of  the  Messianic 
belief  among  the  Jews  in  his 
Spring  of  Salvation,  Salvation  of 
his  Anointed,  and  Herald  of 
Salvation. 

Abravanel,  or  Abarbanel, 
Leo  HEBRiEus,  physician  at  the 
court  of  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova, 
and  friend  of  Pico  de  Mirandola. 
His  principal  work  is  the  Dialoghi 
di  Amore  (written  1502;  pub- 
lished 1535).  In  philosophy  he 
was  an  eclectic,  trying  to  combine 
Plato,  Aristotle,  and  the  Arabic 
philosophy  into  a  harmonious 
system. 

Abrax'as,  a  mystic  word  of 
Eastern  origin,  thought  by  the 
Basilidian  Gnostics  to  signify  the 
365  spiritual  orders  of  the  divine 
manifestation,  because  in  Greek 


Abridgment 


26 


Abscess 


notation  the  equivalents  of  its 
letters  yield  that  number.  This 
sect,  and  later  theosophists,  cut 
the  word  on  gems  {abraxas 
stones) ,» t,ibgether  with  monstrous 
figures— e.g.,  a  man  with  a  cock's 
head  and  serpentine  limbs.  See 
BasiliDes. 

Abridgement,  a  shortened  or 
condensed  form  of  a  book,  usually 
for  the  benefit  of  those  who  do 
not  desire  a  profound  knowledge 
of  the  subject  under  discussion. 
This  is  usually  accomplished  by 
the  omission  of  detail  and  the 
exclusion  of  controversial  ques- 
tions. At  law  a  fairly  made 
abridgment  is  deemed  a  new 
work,  and  is  not  an  infringement 
of  copyright.  If  the  text  of  the 
work  is  reproduced  in  part,  the 
production  is  legally  not  an 
abridgment,  but  a  compilation, 
and  is  held  to  be  an  infringement 
of  copyright.    See  Copyright. 

Ab'roga'tlon  is  a  term  derived 
from  the  Canon  Law,  where  it 
meant  the  total  as  opposed  to 
the  partial  repeal  of  a  pre- 
existing law.  In  modern  times 
it  denotes,  strictly  speaking,  the 
tacit  nullification  of  a  rule  of 
law,  which  is  generally  brought 
about  through  the  adoption  by 
the  courts,  or  enactment  by  the 
legislature,  of  a  new  rule  incon- 
sistent therewith.  The  express 
nullification  of  a  statute  by 
subsequent  legislation  is  desig- 
nated the  'repeal'  of  the  former, 
but  in  popular  language  the 
distinction  between  the  two 
terms  is  not  maintained.  The 
abrogation  of  legal  rules  through 
non-us^e  or  contrary  usage  is 
a  matter  on  which  different  sys- 
tems conflict.  The  theory  of 
English  law  is  that  one  statute 
can  only  be  abrogated  or  repealed 
by  another;  but  rules  of  com- 
mon law  may,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, fall  into  desuetude. 

Abrolhos,  a-brol'yos,  a  group 
of  low,  rocky  islands,  5  miles 
east  of  Brazil  (lat.  17°  58'  s.; 
long.  38°  42'  w.),  forming  part  of 
Bahia,  Brazil,  the  largest,  Santa 
Barbara,  having  a  lighthouse. 
Another  group  called  Abrolhos  lie 
off  the  west  coast  of  Australia, 
separated  by  Geelvink  Channel. 

A'brus  Prec'ato'rius  (Greek 
hahros,  'elegant'),  wild  licorice,  a 
leguminous  plant  having  seeds 
like  small  peas,  of  a  scarlet  color, 
with  a  black  patch  on  one  side. 
These  arc  used  in  India  as  weights 
(rati),  and  are  .strung  together  to 
form  rosaries,  whence  their  name 
'prayer  beads.'  They  are  said  to 
have  given  origin  to  the  carat, 
the  jeweller's  unit  of  weight. 

AbruzzI,  a-brmj'tsi,  Prince 
LiJiGi  Amadeo,  Duke  of  the 
(187.*^),  Italian  Arctic  explorer 
and  geographer,  third  son  of 
Amadeo,  Duke  of  Aosta,  and 
cousin  of  the  king  of  Italy,  was 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


born  in  Madrid.  He  ascended 
Mount  St.  Elias,  Alaska,  on  July 
31,  1897,  when  he  determined  its 
altitude  and  geological  origin. 
From  his  Arctic  expedition  (1899- 
1900)  a  sledge  party,  commanded 


Abrus  Precatorius  and  Fruit. 


by  Capt.  Umberto  Cagni,  reached 
the  highest  recorded  latitude,  86° 
33'  N.  He  established  the  north- 
ern limits  of  Franz-Josef  Land, 
and  proved  the  geographical  non- 
existence of  Petermann's  Land. 
In  1906  he  reached  the  summit  of 
Ruwenzori  in  Africa;  and  in 
1909  conducted  an  expedition  to 
the  Karakoram  Range  of  North- 
west India,  ascending  Mount 
Godwin-Austen  to  a  height  of 
24,600  feet — the  highest  point 
on  the  earth's  surface  ever  at- 
tained by  man.  On  Sept.  30, 
1911,  he  commanded  the  squad- 
ron which  attacked  Preveza,  the 
first  action  of  the  Italian-Turkish 
War.  Consult  Filippi's  Ascent 
of  Mount  St.  Elias  (Eng.  trans.); 
On  the  'Polar  Star'  in  the  Arctic 
Sea  (Eng.  trans.);  Ruwenzori 
(1908). 

AbruzzI  and  M olisc,  a-brob'tsi, 
mo'le-za,  a  territorial  division 
(compartimento)  of  Central  Italy, 
occupies  the  half  of  the  peninsula 
on  the  Adriatic  side,  to  the  cast 
of  the  province  of  Rome.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  two  main  ranges 
of  the  Central  Apennines,  Idc- 
tween  which  lie  the  high  valley 
of  the  Aterno  (2,300  feet)  and 
the  plateau  basin  of  the  now 
drained  Lake  Fucino  (2,165  feet). 
The  jagged  mountain  groups 
reach  in  the  Gran  Sasso  (1' Italia 
an  elevation  of  9,600  feet.  On 
the  Adriatic  side  the  eastern 
range  goes  down  abruptly  to  the 
sea,  and  its  flanks  are  seamed 
with  numerous  short,  .swift 
streams.  In  the  higher  parts  the 
climate  is  severe.  Forestry  and 
pasturage  are  the  chief  occupa- 


tions; cereals  and  wine  are  pro- 
duced in  the  fertile  lower  valleys; 
saffron  in  Aquila.  Asphalt  is 
found  in  Chieti.  The  territory 
embraces  the  provinces  of  Aquila, 
Chieti,  Teramo,  and  Campobasso 
— the  last  named  corresponding 
to  Molise,  and  the  first  three  to 
the  Abruzzi.  Area,  6,565  sq.  m. 
Pop.  (1901)  1,442,365;  (1911) 
1,427,642. 

Ab'salom,  King  David's  third 
son,  born  at  Hebron.  Because  of 
his  personal  charms,  Absalom  be- 
came a  universal  favorite,  and 
his  ambition  made  him  a  danger 
to  the  realm.  Though  forgiven 
by  his  father  for  the  murder  of 
his  half-brother  Amnon,  he 
stirred  up  sedition,  and  raised  a 
formidable  insurgent  force.  His 
army  was  routed  by  the  royal 
troops  in  the  wood  of  Ephraim, 
and  Absalom,  fleeing  upon  a 
mule,  was  caught  by  his  hair  in 
a  tree,  and  killed  by  Joab,  to  the 
great  sorrow  of  the  king.  See  2 
Sam.  xiii.-xviii. 

Absalom  and  Achitophel, 
a-kit'o-fel,  Dryden's  greatest  po- 
litical satire,  published  (first  part, 
1681)  on  introduction  of  the 
English  Exclusion  Bill.  It  is  an 
allegory  of  the  history  of  King 
David,  thinly  veiling  the  real 
theme — the  attempt  by  the  court 
party,  led  by  Shaftesbury  (Achit- 
ophel),  to  secure  the  succession 
of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  (Ab- 
salom), Charles'  illegitimate  son. 
For  a  criticism  thereof,  consult 
Ward's  English  Poets. 

Absalon,  iib'sa-lon,  or  Axel, 
archbishop  of  Lund  (1128-1201), 
was  born  in  Sja^lland,  Denmark. 
From  1157  onward  he  energeti- 
cally assisted  King  Valdemar  to 
reconstruct  the  Danish  state; 
took  an  active  part  in  the  strug- 
gle with  the  heathen  Wends;  and 
became  successively  bishop  of 
Roeskilde  and  archbishop  of 
Lund  (1178).  After  Valdemar's 
death  (1182)  Absalon's  influence 
became  still  stronger,  and  he  was 
of  essential  service  to  young 
King  Canute  in  his  successful 
struggle  with  Bogislav  of  Pom- 
erania  (1184).  Absalon  was  of 
the  best  type  of  the  mediaeval 
warrior  priests,  one  of  the  great- 
est of  Danish  statCvsmen,  yet 
pious  and  conscientious.  A 
scholar  himself,  he  supplied  his 
clerk,  Saxo  Grammaticus  (q.  v.), 
with  the  materials  for  his  great 
hivStory. 

Ab'scess  (Apostema),  a  circum- 
scribed collection  of  pus  formed 
within  some  tissue  or  organ  of 
the  body,  through  the  presence 
of  specific  organisms,  such  as 
streptococci  or  staphylococci. 
The  vessels  supplying  the  area 
dilate  so  tliat  there  is  an  increased 
flow  of  blood  into  the  part;  the 
organisms  multiply,  and  throw 
out   certain   poisons   or  toxins 


Absciss  Layer 


27 


Absolution 


which,  attacking  the  tissue  cells 
and  white  blood  corpuscles,  de- 
stroy them,  and  thereby  produce 
the  pus  corpuscles.  Once  formed, 
this  pus  may  either  become  dried 
up  to  form  a  caseous  or  cheesy 
mass,  or  it  may  escape  by  burst- 
ing through  the  skin  or  into  a 
canal  such  as  the  rectum,  urethra, 
etc. 

Treatment.  —  In  abscesses  su- 
perficially seated — either  in  or 
close  under  the  skin — the  early 
treatment  consists  chiefly  in  pro- 
moting the  formation  of  pus  by 
the  application  of  moist  and 
warm  bandages  or  poultices.  The 
next  step  is  the  removal  of  the 
pus.  When  this  is  too  long  de- 
layed, serious  disturbance  of  the 
organ  and  destruction  of  sur- 
rounding structures  may  ensue. 
After  the  abscess  has  been  emp- 
tied the  wound  is  dressed  anti- 
septically  until  healed,  and,  if 
deep,  is  drained  by  a  tube. 
Recently,  vaccine  therapy  (q.  v.) 
has  been  employed. 

Absciss  Layer,  a  layer  of  cork 
formed  in  autumn  between  the 
base  of  the  leaf  and  the  stem  in 
many  deciduous  trees.  It  di- 
vides across  the  middle,  and 
causes  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  half 
,of  the  cork  remaining  to  cover 
the  leaf  scar.    See  Cork. 

Abscond'ing  is  fleeing  or  re- 
maining away  from  one's  usual 
residence,  or  the  place  where  one 
is  generally  found,  in  order  to 
avoid  legal  proceedings.  In  crim- 
inal cases,  absconding  is  generally 
an  aggravation  of  the  offence. 
In  the  case  of  a  debtor  it  is  an 
act  of  bankruptcy,  and  exposes 
his  estate  to  the  attack  of  credi- 
tors; and  in  some  States  renders 
him  liable  to  arrest  if  he  should 
be  found  within  the  jurisdiction. 

Ab'sentee',  a  term  applied,  by 
way  of  reproach,  to  landlords  who 
derive  their  rent  from  one  coun- 
try, and  spend  it  in  another.  It 
has  been  especially  used  in  dis- 
cussions on  the  social  condition 
of  Ireland. 

Absintlie,  ab'sinth;  Fr.  ab- 
sant',  a  liquor  made  by  distilla- 
tion, containing  alcohol  and  a 
number  of  essential  oils,  the 
chief  among  the  latter  being  the 
oil  of  wormwood  or  absinthum 
(Artemisia  absinthum),  to  which 
the  deleterious  properties  of  the 
liquid  are  in  great  measure  due. 
The  green  color  of  absinthe 
should  be  due  to  chlorophyll, 
which  is  usually  introduced  by 
the  maceration  of  the  liquor  with 
spinach  or  parsley;  but  various 
artificial  coloring  matters — e.g., 
indigo,  turmeric,  or  copper  sul- 
phate— are  frequently  employed. 
The  average  composition  of  ab- 
sinthe is  as  follows:  Alcohol, 
50.00;  oil  of  wormwood,  O.'.VA; 
other  essential  oils,  2.. '32;  sugar, 
1..5;  chlorophyll,  traces;  water, 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


45.65.  Absinthe  is  principally 
made  and  consumed  in  France 
and  Switzerland  (especially  in 
Neuchatel),  and  in  some  parts  of 
the  United  States.  It  was  first 
introduced  as  a  febrifuge  in  the 
Algerian  army  (1844),  but  is 
now  prohibited  in  the  French 
service. 

When  about  to  be  drunk,  the 
greenish  liquor  is  usually  mixed 
with  water;  whereupon  the  pre- 
cipitation of  the  contained  vola- 
tile oil  causes  the  mixture  to 
cloud  or  whiten.  The  essential 
oil — derived  from  the  wormwood 
— combined  with  the  spirit,  pro- 
duces rapid  intoxication.  Ab- 
sinthism,  caused  by  excess  in 
absinthe,  is  common  in  France. 
The  symptoms  are  distinct  from 
those  of  alcoholic  poisoning.  Ab- 
sinthe seems  to  act  directly 
through  the  higher  nerve  centres, 
nervous  symptoms  being  the 
most  prominent  throughout,  ap- 
pearing first  in  the  forms  of  ex- 
citation, giddiness,  hallucinations, 
and  terrifying  dreams,  and  end- 
ing in  epilepsy.  (See  Alcohol- 
ism.) 

Attempts  to  decrease  the  use 
of  absinthe  were  first  successful 
in  Belgium,  where  in  1906  its 
manufacture,  transportation,  and 
sale  were  forbidden.  In  Switzer- 
land a  law  was  passed  in  1908, 
making  illegal  the  manufacture, 
sale,  and  importation  of  absinthe. 
In  France  no  decisive  action  was 
taken  until  prohibition  gained 
general  attention  through  the 
European  War.  In  November, 
1914,  the  sale  and  consumption  of 
absinthe  and  similar  liquors  were 
forbidden  by  the  government, 
and  in  January,  1915,  the  decree 
was  extended  to  forbid  their 
transportation.  Efforts  are  be- 
ing made  to  have  the  prohibition 
extend  beyond  the  duration  of 
the  war. 

Ab'solute,  that  which  is  freed 
from  relation,  limitation  or  de- 
pendence. As  an  adjective  it  is 
therefore  applied  (1)  to  the  es- 
sence of  a  thing  apart  from  its 
relations  or  appearances,  and  (2) 
to  the  complete  or  perfect  state 
of  being.  Hence  comes  its  sub- 
stantival meaning  of  'The  Abso- 
lute' as  the  self-existent,  self- 
sufficient  Being,  that  which  is 
free  from  all  limitation,  the  all- 
inclusive  Reality.  The  absolute 
in  one  form  or  another  is  a  cen- 
tral feature  in  the  philosophical 
systems  of  Spinoza,  vSchelling, 
and  Hegel.  The  absolute  was 
made  a  theme  of  discussion  in 
British  philosophy  by  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  whose  denial  of  the 
possibility  of  knowing  the  abso- 
lute gave  rise  to  much  contro- 
vensy. 

In  its  general  sense,  absolute  is 
opposed  to  relative:  thus,  in  phys- 
ics, in  speaking  of  the  motion  of 


one  body  through  space,  we  refer 
to  its  absolute  velocity;  in  com- 
paring the  motion  of  two  or 
more  bodies,  we  speak  of  their 
relative  velocity.  In  music,  abso- 
lute is  used  to  denote  the  definite 
pitch  of  a  musical  note,  which 
does  not  vary  with  the  pitch  to 
which  an  instrument  may  have 
been  tuned,  but  depends  on  a 
definite  number  of  sound  vibra- 
tions per  second.  For  absolute 
monarchy,  see  Absolutism.  For 
absolute  alcohol,  see  Alcohol. 
For  absolute  zero  of  temperature, 
see  Temperature. 

Absolu'tion,  originally  a  legal 
term,  was  adopted  by  the  pre-, 
latical  churches  to  express  the 
remission  of  sin,  or  of  certain  con- 
sequences of  sin,  in  virtue  of 
power  committed  by  Christ  to 
His  Church.  The  claim  to  this 
power  is  usually  based  on  Matt, 
xviii.  18  and  John  xx.  19-23.  In 
the  former  of  these  passages 
Christ  empowers  the  Church  to 
enact  conditions  of  fellowship: 
what  it  binds  (i.e.,  forbids)  or 
looses  (i.e.,  pronounces  lawful) 
on  earth  shall  be  bound  or  loosed 
in  heaven.  The  second  passage 
goes  further.  There  the  risen 
Christ  confers,  not  merely  on  His 
apostles,  but  upon  all  His  dis- 
ciples (cf.  Luke  xxiv.  47),  the 
Holy  Ghost;  and  then,  having 
thus  endowed  them  with  spiritual 
discernment,  he  gives  them  au- 
thority to  remit  or  retain  sin 
(i.e.,  to  declare  the  true  condi- 
tions of  forgiveness). 

From  the  latter  part  of  the 
second  century  the  Church  spe- 
cially exercised  the  power  in  the 
case  of  persons  excluded  from  its 
communion  because  of  notorious 
and  enormous  sins — viz.,  mur- 
der, adultery,  robbery,  and 
apostasy  from  the  Christian 
faith.  Such  persons  were  sub- 
jected to  long  and  severe  pen- 
ance, but  might  be  absolved 
by  the  bishop,  who  restored 
them  to  the  Church  by  imposi- 
tion of  hands  and  prayer.  Great 
changes  occurred  in  the  custom 
of  confession.  The  list  of  mortal 
or  capital  sins  was  extended; 
secret  sins  were  secretly  con- 
fessed; the  penitent  confessed 
sins  of  thought  to  the  priest,  after 
the  example  of  the  monks,  who 
confessed  such  sins  to  thoir  su- 
perior, though  he,  as  a  rule,  was 
not  a  priest. 

But  down  to  the  thirteenth 
century  absolution  was  simply  a 
petition  for  the  forgiveness  of  the 
penitent.  Such  is  at  this  day 
the  only  form  used  in  the  Eastern 
churches.  The  doctors  of  the 
Church  regarded  the  priestly  ab- 
solution as  declaratory,  like  the 
absolution  of  the  daily  service; 
or  precatory,  like  that  in  the 
Anglican  communion  office. 
Largely  under  the  influence  of  a 


Absolution,  Day  of 


28 


Absorption 


treatise  ascribed  to  St.  Augus- 
tine, the  view  obtained  that  God 
forgives  through  the  priest,  and 
the  modern  form,  'I  absolve  thee 
from  thy  sins,'  was  introduced. 
Absolution  was  then  regarded  as 
the  one  appointed  means  for  re- 
mission of  mortal  sin  after  bap- 
tism. In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  absolution  from  sin  can 
be  given  only  by  a  priest  em- 
powered to  do  so  by  his  bishop 
or  by  the  Pope.  Absolution 
from  the  censures  of  the  Church 
may  be  given  by  any  cleric  au- 
thorized duly.  The  Council  of 
Trent  defines  absolution  from  sin 
as  a  judicial  act  on  the  part  of  the 
priest,  who,  as  judge,  passes  sen- 
tence on  the  penitent,  and  who 
acts  in  the  name  of  God, 

The  word  absolution  is  also 
used  of  certain  prayers  said  over 
a  corpse  before  it  is  taken  from 
the  church  to  the  cemetery. 

Absolution,  Day  of.  In  the 
early  Church  public  absolutions 
were  pronounced  on  Good  Fri- 
day, or  on  the  previous  day, 
Thursday,  on  which  our  Lord 
was  betrayed.  So  St.  Ambrose 
{Ep.  xxxiii..  Ad  Marcellin  Soro- 
rem)  says  that  'the  day  on  which 
the  Lord  gave  Himself  for  us  was 
that  on  which  penances  are  re- 
mitted in  the  Church.'  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  in  the 
time  of  Pope  Innocent,  penitents 
were  absolved  only  on  Thursday 
before  Good  Friday,  unless  great 
urgency,  such  as  imminent  death, 
required  otherwise.  The  Em- 
peror Valentinian  introduced  the 
practice  of  civil  absolution  at  the 
Paschal  festival,  granting  pardon 
to  criminals.  The  monks  who 
pleaded  for  Eutyches  at  the  Sec- 
ond Council  of  Ephesus  evidently 
refer  to  both  the  ecclesiastical 
and  civil  customs  in  the  granting 
of  absolutions. 

Ab'solutism  is  the  term  ap- 
plied to  that  form  of  government 
in  which  no  constitutional  checks 
are  imposed  on  the  power  of  the 
monarch.  Perfect  absolutism 
can,  however,  never  be  realized. 
No  man  can  hold  absolute  au- 
thority unless  with  the  acquies- 
cence of  the  most  powerful  sec- 
tion of  the  people — as  a  rule, 
the  army.  The  great  mediaeval 
absolute  monarchies  arose  out  of 
the  ruins  of  the  feudal  system, 
and  constituted  a  necessary  stage 
in  the  evolution  of  the  modern 
state.  The  breaking  up  of  the 
power  of  the  semi-independent 
nobility  was  an  indispensable 
preliminary  to  the  establishment 
of  representative  institutions. 
Louis  XIV.  of  France  was  the 
great  champion  of  absolutism  on 
the  continent  of  Europe.  His 
famous  dictum  was  L'etat,  c'est 
moi  (T  am  the  state').  Henry 
VIII.  of  England  was  practically 
an  absolute  monarch,  though  he 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


preferred  to  keep  up  constitU» 
tional  forms.  Russia  is  the  most 
noteworthy  example  in  modern 
times  of  a  country  governed  ab- 
solutely, although  in  Germany 
and  Austria  the  Emperor  pos- 
sesses great  personal  authority. 
The  tendency  in  democratic 
states  toward  greater  centraliza- 
tion— in  the  United  States  the 
preponderance  of  Federal,  as 
opposed  to  State  rights — is  the 
modern  counterpart  of  mediaeval 
absolutism.  See  Government; 
Sovereignty. 

Absolutists,  a  name  given  to  a 
Spanish  political  party  which  in 
1819  wished  to  abrogate  the  con- 
stitution of  1812,  and  to  restore 
the  absolute  power  of  the  throne. 
Their  opponents — the  Exaltados 
— favored  the  constitution  which 
was  afterward  abrogated  (in 
1814). 

Absor'bents.  In  medicine,  the 
term  absorbents  is  applied  to 
such  substances  as  magnesia, 
chalk,  etc.,  which  absorb  or  neu- 
tralize acid  fluids  in  the  stomach; 
in  chemistry,  to  anything  that 
takes  up  into  itself  a  gas  or  a 
liquid  {e.g.,  to  such  a  drying 
agent  as  caustic  soda,  which  with- 
draws moisture  from  the  air); 
and  in  physiology  (animal  and 
vegetable),  to  the  vessels  by 
which  the  processes  of  absorption 
are  carried  on,  such  as  the  lym- 
phatics in  animals  and  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  roots  in  plants. 
See  Lymphatics. 

Absorp'tion  in  Plants  can  only 
take  place  when  the  substance  to 
be  absorbed  has  been  changed 
into  the  liquid  form  of  solution; 
for  all  food  has  to  pass  through 
the  actual  cell  walls  by  a  process 
of  osmosis.  In  the  case  of  the 
higher  plants,  the  greater  part  of 
the  water  and  dissolved  sub- 
stances which  enter  the  plant  do 
so  by  way  of  the  roots,  the  root 
hairs  and  the  uncuticularized 
epidermal  cells  of  the  younger 
roots  being  the  actual  absorbing 
parts.  In  the  case  of  ordinary 
terrestrial  plants,  the  roots  pene- 
trate among  the  minute  air 
spaces  between  the  small  par- 
ticles of  solid  earth.  Each  of 
these  particles  is  covered  with  a 
layer  of  water  adherent  by  at- 
traction. This  water  is  absorbed 
by  the  root  hairs,  as  also  are  any 
salts  which  it  has  in  solution. 
Moreover,  by  force  of  capillary 
attraction,  the  water  covering 
the  neighboring  particles  is  con- 
tinuously sucked  in,  as  oil  is 
sucked  up  by  the  wick  of  a  lamp. 
In  the  case  of  plants  with  aerial 
roots,  moisture  drops  or  is  de- 
posited on  the  roots,  and  is  ab- 
sorbed together  with  the  dis- 
solved dust  previously  deposited 
on  the  roots'  external  surface. 
Parasitic  plants,  again,  send  their 
roots  into  the  substance  of  an- 


other plant,  and  thence  derive 
both  their  water  and  dissolved 
food. 

But  plants  do  not  absorb  all 
the  soluble  matter  brought  into 
contact  with  their  roots.  They 
exercise  a  selective  power;  and 
plants  of  a  given  species  absorb 
definite  foods  approximately  in  a 
definite  proportion  only.  The 
principal  elements  required  by 
plants  are  carbon  (see  Aeration), 
nitrogen  (in  the  form  of  nitrates), 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  (in  the 
form  of  water);  oxygen  also  in 
the  form  of  mineral  salts  (also 
in  aeration),  sulphur  (as  sul- 
phates), phosphorus  (as  phos- 
phates), silicon  (as  silica),  chlo- 
rine (as  chlorides),  potassium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  and  iron. 
See  Plants,  Nutrition. 

Absorption  of  Gases  by  liquids 
depends  on  the  pressure,  the 
temperature,  and  the  nature  of 
the  particular  gas  and  liquid.  If 
the  temperature  remains  con- 
stant, and  the  pressure  is  altered, 
the  amount  of  gas  absorbed  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  pres- 
sure (Henry's  Law):  thus,  one 
volume  of  water  at  15.5°  c,  and 
under  ordinary  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, takes  up  one  volume  of 
carbon  dioxide;  while  under  a 
pressure  of  two  atmospheres  it 
absorbs  an  equal  volume  at  that 
pressure,  but,  in  accordance  with 
Boyle's  Law,  twice  as  great  a 
mass  of  the  gas.  In  the  case  of 
mixed  gases,  Dalton  discovered 
that  the  quantity  of  each  gas 
dissolved  was  such  as  if  the  others 
were  absent,  the  pressure  of  each 
component  being  that  which 
would  obtain  if  it  were  spread 
over  the  whole  volume.  The 
volume  of  a  gas  dissolved  dimin- 
ishes with  the  temperature.  Thus 
at  0°  c.  one  volume  of  water  ab- 
sorbs 1.8  volumes  carbon  dioxide, 
at  20°  c.  half  that  amount;  while 
on  boiling,  this  gas  is  entirely 
expelled.  The  coefficients  of  ab- 
sorption of  some  common  gases 
are  as  follows:  one  volume  of 
water  at  15.5°  c.  absorbs  .015 
volume  of  nitrogen,  .03  of  oxy- 
gen, 3.25  of  hydrogen  sulphide, 
450  of  hydrogen  chloride,  and 
727  of  ammonia.  Many  solid 
bodies  also  absorb  gases:  thus, 
iron  and  platinum  take  up  hy- 
drogen, palladium  absorbs  936 
times  its  volume  of  the  same  gas, 
and  wood  charcoal  will  condense 
90  volumes  of  ammonia.  In 
such  cases  the  gas  may  be  'oc- 
cluded,' and  form  a  solid  solu- 
tion; or  'absorbed,'  when  it  is 
likely  held  by  an  effect  of  sur- 
face tension;  or  it  may  even 
enter  into  chemical  union.  See 
Occlusion;  Gases,  Laws  of. 

Absorption  of  Light  occurs 
whenever  light  falls  upon  a  ma- 
terial surface  and  suffers  refrac- 
tion and  reflection.    Neither  of 


Absorption  Lines  and  Bands 


29 


Abu-Bekr 


these  phenomena  could  be  pro- 
duced unless  the  light  penetrated 
some  distance  into  the  substance. 
The  vibrations  in  ether  which 
constitute  light  act  upon  the 
particles  of  the  substance  and 
set  them  in  motion,  which  is 
partly  irregular,  and  produces 
heat.  This  involves  an  expendi- 
ture of  energy,  and  hence  the 
light  loses  part  of  its  original 
energy;  and  this  we  call  absorp- 
tion. Opaque  bodies  absorb  more 
light  than  transparent  bodies; 
and  yet  it  is  the  very  opaque 
bodies  like  metals,  which  absorb 
a  great  proportion  of  the  light 
falHng  upon  their  surface,  that 
also  behave  as  good  reflectors. 
That  great  absorptive  power 
should,  in  certain  cases,  be  ac- 
companied by  great  reflective 
power  is  not  so  paradoxical  as  it 
might  seem.  For  absorption  im- 
plies a  taking  in  of  vibratory 
energy  from  the  disturbed  ether; 
and  the  molecules  being  then  set 
into  vibration,  may  well  become 
centres  from  which  energy,  in  the 
form  of  light,  may  pass  back 
again  into  the  ether. 

Most  substances  exert  a  general 
absorption,  so  that  all  kinds  of 
radiation  suffer  diminution  in 
passing  through  them;  but  they 
also  exert  a  selective  absorption, 
certain  rays  being  more  freely 
absorbed  than  others.  It  is  this 
selective  absorption  which  gives 
rise  to  the  varied  tints  and  colors 
of  bodies,  the  color  of  any  body 
being  determined  by  the  excess  of 
the  corresponding  kind  of  light  in 
the  radiations  sent  back  from  it  or 
transmitted  through  it.  A  great 
law,  first  recognized  in  some  of 
its  applications  by  Prevost,  and 
established  independently  by 
Balfour  Stewart  in  Great  Britain, 
and  by  Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen  in 
Germany,  asserts  that  a  sub- 
stance absorbs  what  it  radiates, 
and  the  emissive  and  absorptive 
powers  of  any  substance  for  each 
kind  of  ray  are  equal.  The  phe- 
nomena of  fluorescence  form  an 
exception  to  this  so-called  law 
of  exchanges.  Some  of  the  most 
striking  instances  of  the  law  will 
be  found  discussed  under  Spec- 
trum. See  also  Color;  Dis- 
persion. 

Absorption  Lines  and  Bands. 
When  sunlight  falls  upon  a  prism 
the  emergent  rays  are  split  up 
into  a  band  of  color  called  the 
Solar  Spectrum.  Closely  exam- 
ined, this  color  band  is  found  to 
be  crossed  by  a  large  number  of 
dark  lines.  If  the  source  of  light 
be  changed  the  spectrum  changes 
with  it.  In  the  spectrum  of  the 
white  light  of  a  candle,  for  in- 
stance, or  that  of  the  oxyhydro- 
gen  limelight,  the  dark  lines  van- 
ish, and  we  have  a  continuous 
spectrum.  Again,  if  light  from 
an  incandescent  gas  or  vapor  be 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


examined,  we  get,  in  general,  a 
spectrum  consisting  of  a  definite 
number  of  bright  lines  on  a  dark 
background.  Further,  every  gas 
or  vapor  yields  a  different  and 
quite  characteristic  spectrum. 
Thus,  if  any  salt  or  sodium  be 
burned  in  a  Bunsen  flame,  the 
flame  becomes  yellow,  and  the 
spectrum  consists  of  two  narrow 
Hues  of  yellow  light.  Whenever 
these  two  lines  appear  sodium  is 
present  in  the  flame.  Similarly 
potassium  gives  a  violet  flame, 
and  two  bright  lines  in  the  red 
and  one  in  the  violet  of  the  solar 
spectrum,  while  strontium  colors 
the  flame  red,  and  has  a  number 
of  lines  in  the  red,  one  in  the 
orange,  and  one  in  the  blue. 
Now,  these  bright  lines  exactly 
correspond  in  position  to  certain 
of  the  dark  lines  of  the  solar 
spectrum,  and  it  has  been  estab- 
lished that  the  dark  lines  also 
indicate  the  presence  of  the 
metals  in  question  in  the  sun. 
See  Spectrum. 

Abstemii,  ab-ste'mi-I,  a  name 
formerly  given  to  those  who  re- 
fused to  partake  of  the  cup  of 
the  eucharist  because  of  their 
aversion  to  wine.  Calvinists 
considered  that  such  persons 
might  be  permitted  merely  to 
touch  the  cup;  this  the  Luther- 
ans strenuously  opposed.  The 
controversy  has  recently  been 
revived  in  regard  to  the  use  of 
unfermented  wine. 

Ab'stinence.  See  Temper- 
ance; Fasting. 

Ab'stract  and  Ahslrac'tion. 
An  abstract  term  or  idea,  in  the 
logical  sense,  is  one  which  ex- 
presses a  quality  or  essence  re- 
garded apart  from  the  individuals 
or  particular  objects  of  which  it 
may  be  predicated — e.  g.,  color, 
man,  wisdom.  (See  Nominal- 
ism.) Abstraction  is  the  selec- 
tive process  by  which  such  ideas 
are  formed :  for  example,  in  form- 
ing the  abstract  idea  of  Man,  the 
particular  differences  which  dis- 
tinguish one  man  from  another 
are  disregarded,  and  only  the 
qualities  common  to  all  men,  or 
those  that  belong  lo  man  as  such, 
are  retained.  Abstraction  in  this 
sense  is  one  aspect  of  generaliza- 
tion. The  terms  abstract  and 
abstraction  are  also  used  in  a 
depreciatory  sense  to  signify  a 
partial  or  limited  view  of  a  thing, 
in  which  the  thing,  being  more  or 
less  isolated  from  its  proper  con- 
text or  surroundings,  is  therefore 
imperfectly  understood.  But 
thinking  may  involve  abstraction 
in  the  former  sense,  without  be- 
ing abstract  in  the  latter — i.  e., 
it  may  abstract  from  what  is 
trivial,  to  fasten  upon  what  is 
real  and  essential. 

Abstract,  in  Law,  means  a 
concise  summary  of  the  contents 
of  a  document,  and  corresponds 


to  a  precis  in  diplomacy.  It  is 
most  commonly  employed  in 
connection  with  titles  to  landed 
property  (see  Abstract  of 
Title).  An  Abstract  of  Indict- 
ment is  a  summary  of  the  charge 
against  a  prisoner  prepared  by 
the  clerk  of  the  court  or  prose- 
cutor for  the  use  of  the  judge. 

In  Arithmetic  the  term  is  ap- 
plied to  numbers  considered  by 
themselves,  without  reference  to 
any  objects  enumerated.  Thus, 
9,  12,  are  abstract  numbers,  9 
dogs,  12  dollars  are  concrete 
numbers. 

Abstract  of  Title  is  a  concise 
statement  of  the  instruments  and 
events  under  and  by  means  of 
which  a  person  derives  his  title 
to  property.  It  is  prepared  by 
the  owner's  solicitor  on  the  oc- 
casion of  a  sale  or  mortgage  of 
land,  and  delivered  to  the  pur- 
chaser's or  mortgagee's  solicitor, 
for  the  purpose  of  enabling  him 
to  judge  whether  the  title  is 
satisfactory.  It  may  be  a  bare 
enumeration  of  the  various  links 
in  the  chain  of  title;  but  it 
should  in  all  cases  contain  a 
sufficient  description  of  the  items 
set  forth,  with  dates,  the  names 
of  parties,  the  amount  of  prop- 
erty conveyed,  and  the  various 
conditions  and  covenants  in- 
volved. In  England,  where  all 
attempts  to  establish  public  reg- 
isters have  practically  failed,  the 
title  deeds  themselves  are  the 
source  of  information  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  abstract.  In  the 
United  States,  the  abstract  is 
usually  compiled  from  the  public 
records,  though  the  original  in- 
struments should,  if  possible,  be 
compared. 

Absur'dum,  Rcduc'iio  ad.  See 
Reductio  ad  Absurdum. 

Abt,  apt,  Franz  (1819-85), 
musical  composer,  was  born  in 
Eilenburg,  Prussia.  He  was  Ka- 
pellmeister at  Zurich  (from  1841) 
and  at  the  Hof  Theatre,  Bruns- 
wick (from  1852).  He  visited 
the  United  States  in  1872.  He 
wrote  many  popular  songs,  such 
as  'When  the  Swallows  Home- 
ward Fly,'  'Good  Night,  My 
Child,'  and  'Sleep  Well,  Sweet 
Angel.' 

Abu,  a'boo,  is  much  used  in 
Arabic  in  the  formation  of  per- 
sonal and  topographical  names. 
The  common  view  is  that  'pa- 
ternity' is  the  primary  meaning; 
but  W.  Robertson  Smith  assigns 
'possession'  as  the  primary  and 
'paternity'  as  the  secondary 
meaning. 

Abu-Abdallah,  ab-dal'la.  See 
Al-Battani;  Boabdil. 

Abu-Bekr,  bek'r  ('father  of 
the  maiden')  (573-634),  received 
this  name  in  allusion  to  his 
daughter  Ayesha,  the  only  maid- 
en among  the  wives  whom 
Mohammed  married.    A  man  of 


Abu-Hamld 


30 


Abydos 


wealth  and  position  among  the 
Koreish,  as  well  as  a  native  of 
Mecca,  he  was  one  of  the  first  to 
believe  in  the  Prophet,  and  was 
his  sole  companion  in  the  Hejira; 
and  on  the  death  of  Mohammed 
(June  8,  632)  was  elected  head 
of  the  Moslems,  with  the  title  of 
Calif  {khalifa,  'successor').  He 
reigned  two  years.  He  was  bur- 
ied at  Medina,  near  the  grave  of 
Mohammed.    See  Calif. 

Abu-Hamld,  ha-med',  or  Abu- 
Hammed,  town,  Egyptian  Sudan, 
on  the  Nile,  199  miles  by  rail  south 
of  Wady  Haifa,  where  the  caravan 
highway  from  Berber  crosses  the 
Bishari  Desert  (240  miles)  to 
Korosko.  It  was  taken  from 
the  Mahdists  on  Aug.  7,  1897. 

Abukir.    See  Aboukir. 

Abu-Klea,  kla'a,  wells  on  the 
caravan  highway  across  the 
Bayuda  Desert,  between  Korti 
and  Metammah,  from  which  it 
is  25  miles  distant.  Here  Sir  H. 
Stewart  defeated  the  Mahdists 
(Jan.  17,  1885). 

Abulfaraj,  a-bool'fa-raj'  (Lat- 
in Abulfaragius),  Mar  Gregory 
John  (1226-86),  called  by  the 
Syrians  Bar  'Ebhraya,  'the  son 
of  the  Hebrew,'  but  commonly 
known  by  his  Latinized  sur- 
name Bar-Hebr^us,  was  born 
at  Malatia,  in  Armenia.  After 
studying  Greek,  Arabic,  and 
Syriac,  he  devoted  himself  to 
philosophy,  divinity,  and  medi- 
cine, completing  his  studies  at 
Antioch,  where  he  began  his 
monastic  life.  Ordained  bishop 
of  Gubos,  near  Malatia,  Sept.  4, 
1246,  he  was  successively  bishop 
of  Lakabhin  and  of  Aleppo,  and 
was  maphrian,  or  primate,  of 
Taghrith  and  the  East  from  1264 
until  his  death  at  Maragha.  He 
was  'one  of  the  most  learned  and 
versatile  men  that  Syria  ever 
produced'  (Wright) .  Of  his  many 
works,  the  most  celebrated  is  the 
Chronicum  Syriacum,  or  Univer- 
sal History.  Consult  Wright's 
Syriac  Literature;  Budge's  Laugh- 
able Stories  of  Bar-HebrcEUS. 

Abulfeda,  a-bool'fed-a,  or 
Abulfida  (1273-1331),  born  at 
Damascus,  early  achieved  dis- 
tinction in  the  field  (against 
Crusaders  and  Mongols)  and  by 
his  pen.  He  was  sultan  of  Ha- 
mah,  but  a  vassal  of  the  Mame- 
luke sultan  of  Egypt,  from 
1310  till  his  death.  Of  his  many 
works  the  most  celebrated  are  a 
Universal  History  down  to  his 
own  day,  and  a  Geography.  The 
History  has  been  edited  (with 
Latin  translation)  by  Reiske;  the 
Geography  has  been  edited  by 
Reinaud  and  De  Slane,  and 
translated  into  French  by  Rei- 
naud and  Guyard. 

Abul  Ghazl  Bahadur,  ga'ze 
ba-h6'd()br  (1605-63),  gave  up 
the  khanate  of  Khiva  in  favor  of 
his  son,  and  devoted  himself  to 
Vol.  L— Oct.  '15 


writing  a  history  of  the  dynasty 
of  Jenghiz  Khan,  since  translated 
into  German  and  French. 

Abulug,  a-boo'ldog,  pueblo, 
Cagayan  province,  Luzon,  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  on  the  Abulay 
River;  14  miles  northwest  of 
Aparri.  There  is  a  fishing  trade, 
and  tobacco,  rice,  and  corn  are 
raised.    Pop.  8,500. 

Abu,  Mount,  in  Southwest 
Rajputana,  India,  a  detached 
granite  mass  rising  like  an  island 
from  the  plain  of  Marwar,  near 
the  Aravalli  ridge,  and  in  its 
highest  point  reaching  5,650  ft. 
above  the  sea.  It  is  a  celebrated 
place  of  pilgrimage,  especially  for 
the  Jains,  who  have  a  magnificent 
group  of  five  temples  at  Delwara. 
The  mountain  contains  a  beauti- 
ful lake,  called  the  Nakhi  Talao 
('Gem  Lake'),  iK  by  34  miles, 
about  4,000  feet  above  the  sea; 
and  the  region  is  a  hot-weather 
resort. 

Abu-Nuvas,  a-bdb  noo'-was 
(762-810),  lyric  and  Bacchic 
poet,  was  born  at  Al-Ahwaz,  in 
Susiana.  His  mother  was  a  Per- 
sian washerwoman  employed  in 
a  fuller's  yard.  He  was 'educated 
at  Bassora  by  the  poet  Waliba 
and  by  Abu-'Ubaida;  spent  a 
year  in  the  desert  to  acquire  the 
Bedouin  tongue;  and  at  Bagdad 
was  a  favorite  of  the  Califs 
Haroun  and  Amin.  Composed 
elegies,  humorous  verse,  satires, 
etc.,  and,  in  later  life,  religious 
poems.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
murdered  in  consequence  of  a 
lampoon  written  on  Ali,  son-in- 
law  of  the  Prophet. 

Aburl,  a-boo'ri,  town,  West 
Africa,  in  the  British  colony  of 
the  Gold  Coast;  20  miles  north- 
east of  Accra.  It  has  a  govern- 
ment botanical  station  and  san- 
atorium. Altitude,  1,400  feet; 
rainfall,  42  inches. 

Abuse  of  Process  is  the  im- 
proper exercise  of  the  general 
right  of  instituting  and  carrying 
on  legal  proceedings.  Every 
court  has,  in  virtue  of  its  inherent 
jurisdiction,  the  right  to  stop  or 
restrain  at  any  stage  proceedings 
which  appear  to  be  vexatious  or 
unreasonable.  It  is  a  jurisdic- 
tion which  ought  to  be  very 
sparingly  exercised,  but  in  ex- 
ceptional cases  it  is  indispensable 
that  a  court  should  have  the 
power  to  protect  itself  from  the 
abuse  of  its  procedure.  Plead- 
ings which  are  frivolous,  or  which 
disclose  no  good  or  reasonable 
ground  of  action  or  defence,  may 
be  ordered  to  be  struck  out. 
When  the  machinery  of  the 
courts  is  put  in  motion  mali- 
ciously, and  without  reasonable 
and  probable  cause,  the  party 
injured  has  at  common  law  an 
action  of  damages.  In  England 
the  attorney-general  has  the 
statutory  power  of  showing  to 


the  court  that  a  certain  person 
has  habitually  and  persistently 
instituted  vexatious  proceedings, 
and  of  obtaining  an  order  re- 
straining him  from  bringing  fur- 
ther actions  unless  he  satisfies 
the  court  that  he  is  not  abusing 
its  process.  See  Malicious  Prose- 
cution. 

Abushehr,  a'boo-sher'.  See 
Bushire. 

Abu-Sim'bel.    See  Ipsambul. 

Abu-Thubi,  thoo'be,  town, 
Arabia,  on  an  island  in  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  west  of  Oman,  princi- 
pal town  of  the  Banu  Yas.  It 
sends  600  boats  to  the  pearl 
banks.    Pop.  20,000. 

Abu-Tig,  or  Abutige,  town, 
Upper  Egypt,  on  the  River  Nile; 
13  miles  southeast  of  Siut.  Pop. 
11,000. 

Abu'tilon,  or  Flowering  Ma- 
ple, a  genus  of  shrubs  belonging 
to  the  order  Malvaceae,  with 
maple-like  leaves  and  bell-shaped 
flowers,  usually  drooping.  They 


Abutilon. 


a,  Flower,  one  sepal  removed. 

are  desirable  garden  and  window 
plants,  although  tender.  The 
Velvet  Leaf,  or  Indian  Mallow, 
has  become  naturalized  from 
Asia,  in  the  warmer  portions  of 
the  United  States,  and  is  a  pest 
in  meadow  lands.  It  contains  a 
fibre  which  is  exported  from 
China  as  'China  jute,'  and 
which  resembles  jute;  it  can  be 
used  for  cordage,  and  takes  dyes 
readily. 

Abut'ment,  in  architecture 
and  engineering,  that  portion  of 
a  pier,  bridge,  or  wall  constructed 
to  receive  the  thrust  of  an  arch 
or  vault.  The  word  is  applied 
particularly  to  the  terminal  piers 
of  a  bridge;  the  lower  part  of  a 
bridge  pier  or  dock  which  divides 
water  or  ice  in  a  stream;  and 
the  outer  .section  of  a  wall  com- 
monly called  a  buttress  (q.  v.). 

Aby'dos,  ancient  city.  Upper 
Egypt,  near  the  modern  Arabat- 


Abydos 


31 


Abyssal  Animals 


el-Madfuneh,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Nile.  During  the  nineteenth 
dynasty  it  was  a  place  of  great 
commercial  importance;  later  it 
declined,  and  in  early  Christian 
times  was  in  ruins. 

Abydos  was  the  seat  of  a  fa- 
mous oracle  of  the  god  Bes.  In 
1899-1900  Prof.  Flinders  Petrie 
made  discoveries  during  excava- 
tions which  add  thousands  of 
years  to  the  world's  history; 
among  others,  the  tombs  of  the 
kings  of  the  first  dynasty.  Here 
was  also  the  tomb  of  Osiris,  one 
of  the  holiest  places  of  pilgrimage 
in  ancient  Egypt;  discovered  in 
1898  by  Amelineau.  The  ex- 
plored ruins  show  that  a  series  of 
ten  temples  were  built  here,  as 
indicated  by  their  foundations: 
in  some  cases  overlapping,  but 
generally  the  new  temple  re- 
placed the  old,  on  a  larger  scale. 
The  oldest  bit  of  human  history 
is  the  fact  that  ten  kings  reigned 
in  Abydos,  from  4900  B.  c. 
Here  also  are  the  ruins  of  the 
temple  built  by  Seti  i.,  during  the 
nineteenth  dynasty,  and  frag- 
ments of  another  temple,  built 
by  Rameses  ii.  The  temple  of 
Seti  was  built  half  a  mile  south 
of  the  site  of  the  ten  early  tem- 
ples, and  is  known  as  the  Great 
Temple  of  Abydos. 

The  neighborhood  is  filled 
with  private  tombs,  which  in  the 
early  part  of  1909  yielded  many 
objects  of  ornament;  vases,  the 
oldest  in  existence,  and  small 
engraved  tablets  of  ivory  and 
ebony  inscribed  with  history  of 
events  of  the  time  from  4700 
B.C.  onward.  The  most  recent 
discovery  (1911)  is  of  a  series  of 
twelve  sealed  limestone  cofifins, 
in  perfect  condition,  belonging 
to  the  Roman  period. 

Consult  Amelineau's  Les  Nou- 
velles  Fouilles  d' Abydos  (3  vols., 
1899-1904) ;  Caulfeild's  Temple  of 
the  Kings  at  Abydos  (1902);  Pe- 
tx'i^'s  Abydos  (1902-4);  Murray's 
Osireion  at  Abydos  (1904). 

Abydos,  ancient  town  near  Ka- 
le-i-Sultaniye,  Asia  Minor,  on 
the  Hellespont  (Dardanelles), 
here  less  than  one  mile  wide, 
opposite  to  ancient  Sestos.  Here 
Xerxes  crossed  (480  B.C.)  by  a 
bridge  of  boats.  It  is  associated 
with  the  tradition  of  Hero  and 
Leander. 

Abyla.    vSee  Ceuta. 

Abyssal  Animals.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  discoveries  of 
the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  the  fact  that  the 
animal  life  of  the  ocean  extends 
down  to  its  greatest  depths,  and 
is  not,  as  was  once  supposed,  con- 
fined to  its  upper  strata  and  in 
shallow  water.  Scientific  ex- 
ploration with  delicate  and  trust- 
worthy  instruments,  recording 


the  conditions  they  encounter  at 
any  designated  depths,  have 
proved  that  the  great  abysses  of 
the  ocean  support  a  varied  popu- 
lation. All  the  large  groups  of 
marine  animals  are  represented 


there,  but  the  fauna  is  not  of  a 
primitive  type,  ancient  forms 
such  as  the  trilobites  being  un- 
known in  the  deep  sea.  In  other 
words,  the  deep-sea  animals  show 
clear  signs  of  having  been  de- 
rived from  shallow  water  or  sur- 
face forms  which  have  wandered 
into  the  depths  chiefly  since  cre- 
taceous times;  and  they  do  not 
shed  any  light  on  the  origin  of 
life  in  the  sea.  Further,  as  was 
only  to  be  expected  from  the 


great  un'rormity  of  the  physical 
conditions,  deep-sea  animals  tend 
to  be  widely  distributed,  the  tem- 
perature, pressure,  and  other 
conditions  not  being  affected  by 
geographical  position;  but  their 


vertical  range  is  limited,  chiefly 
by  the  pressure  conditions. 

At  great  depths  the  water, 
even  under  the  equator,  is  only 
slightly  above  the  freezing  point; 
the  sun's  light  cannot  penetrate; 
the  pressure  is  enormous,  being 
9,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch 
at  a  depth  of  3,000  fathoms— 
this  being  about  the  average 
depth  of  the  floor  of  the  Pacific; 
above  all,  plants,  the  basal  food 
supply  elsewhere,  are  here  neces- 


Types  of  Deep-Sea  or  Abyssal  Animals. 

1.  Gastrostomus  Bairdii.  2.  Chlasmodon  niger.  3.  Cottus  bathyblus.  4.  Bathy- 
teuthis  abyssicola.  5.  Octopus  pictus.  6.  Ibaccus  Verdi.  7.  Thaumastocheles  za- 
lenca.    (All  half  natural  scale  except  No.  1.  which  is  20  in.  long.) 


Abyssal  Animals 


32 


Abyssinia 


sarily  absent,  save  for  certain 
bacteria,  which  may,  however, 
play  a  minor  role  in  food  supply. 
It  follows  that  the  animals  must 
all  be  carnivorous,  and  must 
ultimately  depend  upon  the  dead 
organisms  which  drop  downward 
from  the  surface  waters.  Again, 
the  striking  peculiarities  of  form 
are  associated  with  the  peculiar 
conditions  under  which  the  ani- 
mals are  found.  A  few  deep-sea 
animals,  especially  fishes  and 
crustaceans,  are  blind,  while 
others  have  exceptionally  large 
eyes,  as  though  to  catch  the  faint 
gleams  of  phosphorescent  light. 
The  many  forms  with  large  eyes 
among  deep-sea  animals  leads 
one  to  suspect  that  a  faint  light 
may  penetrate  to  the  floor  of  the 
deep  ocean;  for  were  it  wholly 
dark  one  would  expect  deep-sea 
animals  to  be  characteristically 
blind,  as  are  those  of  caves. 
Correlated  with  the  reduction  or 
absence  of  eyes  in  abyssal  fish, 
we  have  a  great  development  of 
delicate  tactile  organs,  these 
being  often  produced  by  the 
elongation  of  some  of  the  fin- 
rays.  Many  abyssal  animals 
possess  phosphorescent  organs, 
but  it  is  still  uncertain  whether 
the  power  of  emitting  light  is 
commoner  in  deep-sea  or  in 
surface-swimming  pelagic  forms. 

A  striking  characteristic  of 
virtually  all  abyssal  animals  is 
the  uniformity  of  the  body  color. 
Though  the  colors  are  most 
diverse  when  a  collection  from 
one  locality  is  studied,  they  are 
quite  uniform  if  the  individuals 
themselves  be  considered.  The 
crustaceans,  for  example,  are 
often  a  bright  uniform  scarlet,  or 
dark  red,  and  the  latter  color 
also  occurs  among  the  jelly-fishes. 
Blue  is  a  rare  color  among  deep- 
sea  invertebrates,  while  dark  red 
is  characteristic  in  many  orders 
of  such  animals.  This  fact  has 
led  some  naturalists  to  assume 
that  the  red  rays  of  sunlight  may 
penetrate  to  the  depths.  Among 
fish  dark  tints  are  prevalent,  and 
no  brilliantly  colored  fish,  such 
as  abound  among  coral  reefs, 
have  been  found  in  the  deep  sea. 
Another  common  peculiarity  is 
the  feeble  development  of  the 
hard  parts,  the  bones  of  deep-sea 
fish  and  the  shells  of  molluscs  and 
crustaceans  being  deficient  in 
salts  of  lime,  while  the  corals  are 
small  and  usually  fragile. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  deep- 
sea  life  is  derived  from  creatures 
whose  ancestors  once  lived  in 
shallow  water,  the  common  eel 
is  exceptional  in  that  it  is  a  deep- 
sea  fish  which  has  migrated  into 
the  rivers,  but  still  returns  to  the 
ocean  depths  to  lay  its  eggs. 

Deep-sea  animals  are  abun- 


dant only  under  the  great  ocean 
currents  or  along  the  continental 
slopes  where  the  food  supply  is 
plentiful.  Over  the  floor  of  the 
outer  Pacific  there  is  but  little 
life,  the  concentration  of  deep- 
sea  forms  being  dependent  chiefly 
upon  conditions  of  the  surface 
whence  the  food  is  derived. 

The  last  volume  of  the  Chal- 
lenger monographs,  entitled  Sum- 
mary of  Results,  gives  a  historical 
account  of  deep-sea  dredging. 
For  American  work  in  this  field, 
consult  the  publications  of  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries; 
Agassiz'  Three  Cruises  of  the 
Blake;  Goode  and  Bean's  Oceanic 
Ichthyology. 

Abyssinia  (Amhar,  Hahasha  or 
Ahasa),  or  Ethiopia  (Ethiopian 
and  Amhar,  Ityopya;  Latin, 
^Ethiopia),  an  independent  em- 
pire of  Northeast  Africa,  lying, 
roughly,  between  6°  and  15°  n. 
lat.,  and  35°  and  43°  e.  long.  It 
is  composed  of  the  former  king- 
doms of  Tigre,  with  Lasta,  in  the 
north  and  northeast;  Amhara, 
with  Gojam,  in  the  centre  and 
west,  and  Shoa  in  the  south;  also 
portions  of  Somaliland  and  Galla 
in  the  southeast  and  south.  It 
is  wholly  an  inland  country, 
being  cut  off  from  the  Red  Sea 
by  the  Italian  colony  of  Eritrea; 
from  the  Gulf  of  Aden  by  French 
Somaliland  and  British  Somali- 
land,  and  from  the  Indian  Ocean 
by  Italian  Somaliland.  It  has 
Nubia  on  the  northwest,  the 
Sudan  (British)  on  the  west,  and 
British  East  Africa  on  the  south. 
The  area  of  the  empire  is  esti- 
mated at  about  400,000  square 
miles,  and  the  population  vari- 
ously from  5,000,000  to  11,000,- 
000.  The  largest  cities  are  Harar 
(.50,000)  and  the  capital,  Adis 
Abeba  (35,000).  - 

Abyssinia  consists  chiefly  of 
an  elevated,  irregular  table-land, 
with  a  general  elevation  of  6,500 
feet,  rising  in  parts  to  8,000  and 
10,000  feet,  and  in  summits  to 
15,000  feet.  The  eastern  scarp, 
running  south  to  Ankober,  and 
thence  southwest,  and  rising 
abruptly  from  the  low,  arid,  and 
hot  coastlands  to  a  height  of 
8,000  to  10,000  feet,  forms  a  vast 
retaining  wall,  along  the  coping 
of  which  are  many  of  the  chief 
towns.  The  western  scarp  is  less 
elevated,  but  both  in  the  north- 
west and  southwest  there  is  a 
rapid  descent  of  several  thousand 
feet.  This  massif  is  divided  by 
deep  ravines — in  some  instances 
3,000  feet  in  depth — into  many 
subordinate  table-lands,  above 
which,  as  bases,  rise  giant  moun- 
tain ranges,  groups,  and  isolated 
peaks  of  fantastic  form,  and  im- 
mense table  mountains,  exhibit- 
ing a  level  sky  line  reaching  for 


many  miles.  There  are  many 
forest  tracts  of  magnificent  trees, 
with  a  dense  undergrowth  of 
ferns  and  parasitic  creepers. 
The  predominant  formations  are 
gneiss  and  schist,  basalt  and 
trachyte;  columnar  basalt  in 
Lasta,  Amhara,  and  Shoa;  lime- 
stone and  marble  in  Geralta, 
Enderta,  and  Harar;  sandstone, 
chiefly  red,  in  Temben.  The  de- 
termining physical  agency  has 
been  volcanic,  with  subsequent 
erosion.  Earthquakes  are  common 
in  the  northern  section,  and  there 
are  hot  springs.  The  main  slope 
in  the  north  is  drained  by  the 
system  of  the  Nile,  to  which  be- 
long the  Atbara,  Abai,  and  Sobat. 
In  the  southeast  are  the  systems 
of  the  Webi  Shebeli  and  Juba. 
The  largest  lake  is  Tsana,  occu- 
pying the  great  northern  basin. 
It  is  45  miles  in  length  and  37 
miles  in  width,  and  lies  at  an 
altitude  of  6,372  feet  above  sea 
level.  It  is  the  source  of  the 
Blue  Nile,  which  makes  a  long 
detour  (130  miles)  to  the  south 
before  turning  northwest  to  join 
the  White  Nile  at  Khartum. 

The  climate  is  determined  by 
altitude,  according  to  which  a 
native  division  recognizes  three 
zones.  These  are  lowlands  be- 
low 4,000  feet,  uplands  up  to 
7,000  feet,  and  highlands  above 
7,000  feet.  There  are  two  sea- 
sons— the  rainy,  which  lasts  from 
June  to  September,  and  the  dry. 

The  lowlands  are  unhealthful, 
hot,  and  humid.  Their  vegetable 
life  is  tropical,  comprising  sugar- 
cane, cotton,  coffee,  indigo,  aloe, 
baobab,  tamarind,  banana,  syca- 
more, fig,  tamarisk,  and  acacia: 
the  total  loss  of  foliage  during 
the  dry  season  is  characteristic. 
The  climate  of  the  middle  zone 
is  quite  pleasant;  the  uppermost 
region  is  subject  to  bitter  north 
winds.  Among  the  products  of 
the  middle  zone  are  the  vine, 
bamboo,  oil  palm,  banana,  wheat, 
teff,  dagusa,  tobacco,  pome- 
granate, orange,  lemon,  olive,  and 
peach.  In  the  highlands,  which 
are  chiefly  pastoral,  wheat,  barley, 
and  oats  are  grown  up  to  12,000 
feet,  above  which  the  vegetation 
is  alpine.  In  general  the  soil  is 
extremely  fertile.  In  the  northern 
country  the  slopes  of  the  valleys 
are  laid  out  in  terraces  and  irri- 
gated, and  three  crops  annually 
may  be  harvested  from  the  same 
ground. 

In  the  lowlands  are  found 
the  elephant,  two-horned  rhi- 
noceros, hippopotamus,  zebra, 
giraffe,  gazelle,  and  many  birds, 
reptiles,  and  insects;  in  the  high- 
lands, the  buffalo,  antelope, 
wolf,  jackal,  lynx,  hyaena,  lion, 
leopard,  and  ibex.  Monkeys  and 
baboons  are  found  up  to  ele- 


Abyssinia 


32  A 


Abyssinia 


vations  of  10,000  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  minerals  comprise  iron, 
gold,  coal,  saltpetre,  sulphur, 
copper  and  silver,  platinum, 
potash,  and  there  are  numerous 
mineral  springs.  Precious  stones 
are  plentiful,  especially  emeralds 
and  agates.  Some  diamonds 
have  been  found. 

The  dominant  race  is  Semitic 
(Tigre  or  Agazi  in  the  north  and 
Amhara  in  the  south).  The 
Hamitic  is  the  aboriginal  race, 
and  is  represented  in  the  north 
by  the  Agau  and  Falasha;  in  the 
south  by  the  Oromo  (or  Galla), 


metals  and  leather.  The  chief 
exports  are  gold,  civet,  ivory, 
rubber,  hides,  goat  skins,  coffee, 
wax,  and  native  butter.  The 
roads  in  Abyssinia  are  mere 
tracks,  and  transport  is  by  pack 
animals,  with  an  expensive 
change  to  porters  in  regions  in- 
fested with  the  tsetse  fiy.  Camels 
are  used  from  the  coast  through 
the  lowlands;  mules,  horses, 
ponies,  and  donkeys  in  the  high- 
lands. A  railway  (488  miles)  has 
been  built  from  Jibutil,  on  the 
coast  of  French  Somaliland,  to 
Addis  Ababa,  the  capital.  The 


the  subordinate  states,  and  the 
governors  (ras)  of  the  chief  prov- 
inces. These  constitute  a  council 
of  state.  The  administration  of 
justice  lies  with  the  governors, 
but  there  is  an  appeal  to  the 
emperor.  The  legal  code  is  of 
Byzantine  origin,  with  additions 
from  the  Mosaic  code.  The 
standing  army  is  about  100,000 
strong,  and  with  the  state  troops 
can  be  increased  to  300,000.  It 
is  well  armed  with  modern 
weapons. 

The  national  religion  is  Mono- 
physite  Christianity,  but  Juda- 


@Ewing  Galloway,  N 


A  Country  Home  in  Abyssinia,  with  Typical  Thatched  Roof. 


the  Sidama,  and  Gonza;  and  in 
the  east  by  the  Afar  (or  Danakil), 
Faltal,  and  Somali.  The  Negritic 
people  are  known  as  Shankela  or 
Shangalle.  Others  occur  spo- 
radically, as  the  Adone  (Bantu), 
on  the  Shcbeli,  and  the  Wato  (or 
Waito).  Pigmies  are  met  with 
south  of  Kaffa  and  the  Oromo, 
as  in  the  Doko.  The  Habashi 
or  Makadi  slaves,  prized  in  the 
Moslem  East  for  their  good  looks 
and  intelligence,  are  Galla  or 
Sidama.  The  profession  of  arms 
is  most  esteemed.  The  court  or 
official  language  is  Amharic,  but 
Geez  or  Ethiopic  is  that  of  the 
church  and  literature;  Tigrai  is 
the  language  of  the  Tigre. 

The  native  industries  are  the 
weaving  of  cotton  and  mohair 
fabrics,    and    the    working  of 


telegraph  lines  (2,000  miles)  are 
under  French  control.  The  unit 
of  currency  is  the  Maria-Theresa 
dollar  (value  about  50  cents), 
which  is  divided  into  16  parts  to 
make  the  Menelik  piastre. 

Abyssinia  has  commercial 
treaties  with  Great  Britain 
(1897),  Italy  (1897),  the  United 
States  (1903),  Germany  (1905), 
and  France  (1908).  The  annual 
value  of  the  imports  and  exports 
is  about  $12,000,000. 

The  government  is  a  despotic 
monarchy,  based  on  a  system 
partly  federal,  but  chiefly  feudal, 
and  tempered  by  the  power  of 
the  clergy.  At  its  head  is  the 
emperor,  whose  full  title  is  Ne- 
gusa  Nagast  za-Ityopya,  'King 
of  Kings  of  Ethiopia.'  Next  to 
him  come  the  princes  {negus)  of 


ism  is  found  among  the  Agau  or 
Falasha;  Islam  is  the  faith  of  the 
Afar,  Somali,  and  most  of  the 
Galla.  At  the  head  of  the  Abys- 
sinian Church  is  the  abuna  ('our 
father'),  who  is  a  Coptic  monk 
nominated  by  the  patriarch  of 
Alexandria.  His  influence  is 
modified,  however,  by  the  Itchege, 
who  is  an  Abyssinian,  and  who 
controls  the  religious  orders, 
numbering  100,000  ecclesiastics. 
Education  is  restricted  to  the 
teaching  of  the  secular  and  regu- 
lar clergy.  A  cabinet  formed  on 
European  lines  was  introduced  in 
1919  but  is  somewhat  vague  in 
function. 

History. — By  the  evidence  of 
speech,  the  Abyssinians — i.e.,  the 
dominant  Semitic  race — are  im- 
migrants from  Southern  Arabia, 


Vol.  I. — March  '29 


Abyssinia 


32  B 


Acacia 


where  to  this  day  a  cognate  dia- 
lect quite  distinct  from  Arabic  is 
spoken.  The  Abyssinian  empire 
dates  from  the  first  century  B.C. 
or  the  first  century  a.d.,  when 
these  colonists  founded  the  king- 
dom of  Aksum,  or  Axum,  on  the 
downfall  of  the  empire  of  the 
Ptolemies.  The  chief  events  of 
this  period  were  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  (c.  330)  by  Fru- 
mentius;  the  introduction  of 
monachism  from  Egypt  (c.  480) 
by  the  'nine  saints';  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  into  Geez;  the 
invasion  of  Yemen  by  Kaleb  in 
522,  at  the  request  of  the  Em- 
peror Justinian,  to  avenge  and 
protect  the  Christians  of  Najran; 
and  the  defeat  of  the  Abyssinians 
at  Mecca  in  570.  After  the 
seventh  century  the  kingdom  of 
Aksum  declined,  and  came  to  an 
end  about  925,  when  an  insur- 
rection of  the  Agau  or  Falasha 
led  to  the  revolution.  Then  fol- 
lowed a  dynasty,  known  as  the 
Zague,  which  held  sway  till  1270; 
its  most  celebrated  member  was 
Lalibala  (c.  1200),  who  threat- 
ened to  deprive  Egypt  of  the  At- 
bara  flood  by  diverting  it  into 
the  Marab,  and  had  the  ten 
rock-hewn  churches  excavated  at 
the  capital  of  Lasta. 

Modern  history  begins  with 
Yekuno  Amlak  (1270-85),  who 
had  his  capital  at  Taguelat  in 
Shoa,  and  made  Amharic  the 
language  of  court  and  state.  His 
successors,  to  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  were  occupied 
in  repelling  the  advance  of  Islam, 
which  had  invaded  the  lowlands 
in  the  seventh  century,  and  by 
the  fourteenth  had  become  domi- 
nant in  the  southeast  from  Zeila 
to  Harar.  The  Moslem  aggres- 
sion culminated  in  the  reign  of 
Lebna  Deugel  (1508-40),  when 
Grafi,  in  a  succession  of  cam- 
paigns, gained  possession  of 
nearly  the  whole  of  Abyssinia. 
In  this  extremity  aid  was  sought 
from  Portugal.  But  the  saving 
of  the  state  (1543)  was  at  the 
cost  of  the  church,  which,  to- 
gether with  the  dynasty,  has 
been  the  main  cohesive  strength 
of  the  nation.  The  Jesuits,  who 
came  with  the  Portuguese,  were 
expelled  by  Fasilidas  (1632-7). 

Abyssinia  suffered  heavily  from 
the  Galla  or  Oromo,  who,  at  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
gained  possession  of  Amhara 
and  the  person  of  the  sover- 
eign. Shoa  had  become  inde- 
pendent. Kasa,  chief  of  Kuara, 
succeeded  in  making  him.self 
master  of  the  whole  of  Abyssinia 
between  1852-5,  when  he  was 
crowned  as  Theodore  ii.  Neguse, 
who  had  seized  Tigre  during 
Theodore's  campaign  against  the 
Galla  and  Shoa  in  1855,  and  was 
recognized  king  of  Abyssinia  by 
the  French,  was  taken  prisoner 
and  put  to  death  in  1861.  After 
Theodore's  death  (1868),  on  the 

Vol.  I. — March  '29 


taking  of  Magdala  by  Sir  Robert 
Napier,  Ras  Kasa  of  Tigre  suc- 
ceeded against  his  rivals,  Gobaze 
of  Lasta  and  Menelik  of  Shoa, 
and  was  crowned  at  Aksum 
(1872)  as  Johannes,  or  John.  He 
repelled  the  aggression  of  the 
Khedive  by  his  defeat  of  the 
Egyptians  at  Gura  (1876),  but 
was  killed  in  battle  with  the 
Mahdists  at  Galabat  (1889),  and 
Menelik  ii.  of  Shoa,  aided  by  the 
Italians,  was  crowned  at  Antotto. 
Having  denounced  the  Uchali 
treaty  of  May  2,  1889,  under 
which  Italy  claimed  a  protecto- 
rate, he  assumed  sovereign  posi- 
tion by  the  Addis  Ababa  conven- 
tion with  Italy  (Oct.  26,  1896), 
after  the  Italian  defeat  at  Adua 
(March  1,  1896).  He  also  con- 
cluded the  Anglo-Abyssinian 
treaty  (May  14,  1897),  under 
which  Great  Britain  ceded  to 
Abyssinia  about  8,000  square 
miles  of  British  Somaliland. 

On  Dec.  13,  1906,  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Italy  signed 
a  mutual  agreement  to  respect 
and  endeavor  to  preserve  the 
integrity  of  Abyssinia  as  an  in- 
dependent nation.  In  1907  the 
boundary  line  between  Abyssinia 
and  British  East  Africa  and 
Uganda  was  established. 

In  June,  1908,  Menelik,  having 
no  son,  decreed  as  his  successor 
to  the  throne  his  grandson. 
Prince  Lidj  Jeassu,  then  sixteen 
years  of  age.  The  powerful  Ras 
Tassamma  was  appointed  his 
guardian.  Upon  the  serious  ill- 
ness of  Menelik  in  August,  1908, 
Ras  Tassamma  was  appointed 
regent  during  the  minority  of 
Lidj  Jeassu.  The  regency  was 
brief,  however,  as  Menelik  re- 
covered. The  arrangement  for 
the  succession  aroused  the  negus 
of  Tigre  to  revolt.    In  October, 

1909,  Menelik  sent  Ras  Michael, 
the  father  of  Lidj  Jeassu,  to 
crush  the  uprising.  He  was  suc- 
cessful, and  became  the  recog- 
nized successor  to  the  throne, 
instead  of  his  son.  Menelik  was 
stricken  with  paralysis,  early  in 

1910,  and  died  in  1913,  and  mean- 
while Ras  Tassamma  seized  the 
throne  as  regent  for  Lidj  Jeassu, 
and  Queen  Taitu  and  the  chiefs 
who  acted  with  her  were  impris- 
oned. In  1911  Ras  Tassamma 
died,  and  Lidj  Jeassu  assumed 
the  reins  of  government,  but  his 
mismanagement  and  dissolute 
conduct  and  his  support  of  Islam 
estranged  his  subjects  and  in 
1916  he  was  excommunicated, 
deposed,  and  Zanditu,  a  daughter 
of  Menelik,  was  proclaimed  em- 
press with  Ras  Tafari,  her  cousin, 
regent  and  heir  to  the  throne. 
After  a  period  of  desultory  fight- 
ing with  the  followers  of  Lidj 
Jeassu,  who  himself  was  at 
length  captured  in  1921,  order 
and  improvement  in  government 
were  finally  achieved  and  in  1923 
Abyssinia  was  admitted  to  the 


League  of  Nations,  subject  to 
certain  conditions  regarding  the 
control  of  slavery  and  of  the 
arms  traffic.  Educational  ad- 
vance has  been  made,  roads 
opened  up  and  hospitals  built  and 
progress  in  the  last  few  years, 
although  slow,  has  been  real  and 
lasting. 

Consult  Skinner's  Abyssinia  of 
To-day;  Rey's  Unconquered  Abys- 
sinia as  it  is  Today  (1923). 

Acacia,  a-ka'sha,  a  genus  of 
usually  thorny  trees  and  shrubs, 
belonging  to  the  bean  family 
(order  Leguminosae,  sub-order 
Mimosacese),  of  which  over  400 
species  are  found  in  tropical  and 
subtropical  regions  throughout 
the  world,  but  more  extensively 
in  Australia  and  Africa.  They  are 
evergreen,  and  have  small  flowers 
crowded  into  round  or  elongated 
heads,  white,  pink,  purple,  or 
yellow,  the  latter  predominating; 
the  leaves  are  bipinnate  (doubly 
feathered),  except  in  species 
adapted  to  desert  life,  in  which 
the  leaf  for  the  most  part  dis- 
appears, its  functions  being  per- 
formed by  a  flat  and  spiny  leaf 
stalk.  The  acacias  vary  in  form 
from  furze  and  heath-like  shrubs 
to  trees  60  feet  in  height. 
Stunted  acacias  form  the  scrub 
('wattles')  of  Australia  and  of 
the  Sudan,  where  zerebas  (en- 
closures) are  formed  of  them. 
The  wattle  bark  is  used  in  tan- 
ning, and  its  cultivation  for  this 
purpose  has  proved  profitable 
where  land  and  labor  are  cheap. 
Most  Australian  species  have  no 
leaflets,  but  the  leaf  stalk  be- 
comes flattened  into  a  phyllode, 
which  presents  its  thin  edge  to 
the  light,  and  thus  the  tree  gives 
little  shade. 

A.  vera  yields  the  true  gum 
arable.  A.  arabica,  or  babul  tree, 
much  cultivated  in  India,  gives  a 
hard  timber;  the  bark  is  used  in 
dyeing  and  tanning;  its  leaves 
form  an  important  fodder;  and 
the  red  babul  gum  is  used  as  a 
substitute  for  true  gum  arable, 
and  is  eaten  by  the  natives  in 
times  of  famine.  A.  catechu 
yields  a  resinous  extract,  catechu, 
used  in  medicine  as  a  powerful 
astringent.  A.  Senegal,  growing 
in  Western  Africa  and  India,  is 
valuable  for  a  gum  nearly  ap- 
proaching gum  arable.  A .  filicu- 
loides  is  a  thornless  shrub  found 
on  the  Western  prairies,  and  the 
fragrant  opoponax  (A.  Farne- 
siana),  from  which  the  Italian 
perfume  cassie  is  obtained,  with 
other  species,  has  entered  the 
Southern  United  States,  sup- 
posedly from  the  West  Indies. 

The  acacias  of  Mexico  and 
tropical  America  are  valuable  for 
their  very  hard  and  fine  grained 
timber,  used  in  furniture,  billiard 
tables,  piano  sounding  boards 
and  veneered  work.  The  wood 
takes  a  high  polish. 

The  name  acacia  is  often  ap- 


^cademle  Fran^alse 


33 


Academy 


plied,  erroneously,  to  the  Robinia 
(q.v.)  or  flowering  locust. 

Academie     Fran^aise.  See 

Academy. 

Academy,  an  institution  for 
the  cultivation  of  learning,  of 
letters,  or  of  art.  The  name  has 
been  applied  to  many  and  vari- 
ous organizations,  such  as  schools, 
universities,  colleges  for  instruc- 
tion in  particular  arts  and 
sciences,  and  societies  of  scholars, 
literary  men,  and  artists.  The 
present  article,  however,  confines 
itself  to  academies  which  have 
for  their  object  the  promotion 
of  learning  and  of  letters. 

The  Platonic  Academy  origi- 
nated in  a  gymnasium  and  pleas- 
ure garden  about  one  mile  north 
of  Athens,  called  after  the  hero 
Academus,  and  presented  by 
Cimon  to  the  Athenian  public. 
It  was  frequented  by  Plato  and 
his  disciples  for  nearly  fifty  years; 
and  the  successive  'schools' 
which  developed  the  doctrine 
after  his  death  (348  b.c.)  derived 
the  name  Academies  from  the 
place  where  their  common  master 
taught.  The  first  or  'old'  Acad- 
emy (347-270  B.C.),  which  was 
led  by  Speusippus,  Xenocrates, 
Polemo,  Grantor,  and  Crates  suc- 
cessively, was  Pythagorean  in 
tendency.  Cicero  calls  it  'the 
workshop  of  every  artist,'  and 
says  that  the  teaching  of  its  fol- 
lowers comprised  all  liberal  learn- 
ing, all  history,  and  polite  dis- 
course. The  second  or  'middle' 
Academy  (316-241  B.C.),  founded 
by  Arcesilaus,  insisted  on  the 
sceptical  element  in  the  Platonic 
teaching;  and  this  method  was 
further  developed  by  the  third 
or 'new 'Academy  (214-129  B.C.), 
led  by  Carneades,  who  denied  all 
knowledge  of  reality,  and  set  up 
the  doctrine  of  probability  as  a 
practical  guide  in  life.  Some  dis- 
tinguished a  fourth  Academy,  of 
Philo  of  Larissa,  and  a  fifth,  of 
Antiochus,  both  of  whom  were 
teachers  of  Cicero;  these  later 
schools  were  more  dogmatic  in 
method. 

Although  not  bearing  the  name 
of  Academy,  the  school  of  learn- 
ing which  had  its  centre  at  the 
museum  in  Alexandria  (300  b.c- 
500  A.D.)  was  essentially  an  in- 
stitution of  the  same  kind. 
Charlemagne's  Palatine  Acad- 
emy, founded  before  the  year 
800,  was  devoted  to  the  study  of 
mathematics,  history,  and  letters; 
and  the  University  of  Oxford  had 
its  origin  in  the  Academy  of 
Alfred  the  Great  in  that  city. 

In  529  A.D.  all  the  Platonic 
academies  were  abolished  by 
Justinian;  and  from  that  time  to 
the  fourteenth  century,  traces  of 
such  societies  practically  disap- 
pear.   But  it  has  been  plausibly 


surmised  that  clubs  of  some  sort, 
necessarily  secret,  possibly  work- 
ing through  the  trade  guilds, 
connected  the  old  academic  tra- 
dition with  the  active  founding 
of  academies  of  the  modern  type 
at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance. 

The  Accademia  della  Crusca, 
founded  in  Florence  in  1582,  had 
as  its  object  the  purification  of 
the  Italian  language.  For  that 
purpose  it  published,  in  1612,  the 
Vocabulario  della  Crusca,  which 
has  gone  through  many  editions, 
and  is  comparable  in  its  influence 
to  the  Dictionary  of  the  French 
Academy.  There  are  12  active 
and  30  corresponding  members. 
It  publishes  Transactions. 

Institut  de  France. — The  old 
French  academies  were  abolished 
during  the  Revolution,  but  in 
1795  the  Institut  de  France  was 
founded  with  three  sections,  re- 
organized with  four  in  1803  and 
1816,  and  enlarged  in  1832  by 
the  admission  of  the  Academie 
des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques. 
The  Institute  has  a  fund  and 
library  (455,000  volumes)  com- 
mon to  all  of  its  academies,  and 
is  under  the  general  supervision 
of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion; but  the  academies  are 
autonomous.  Each  member  of 
the  Institute  gets  a  government 
pension  of  |240  (1,200  francs). 

The  Academie  Francaise, 
most  famous  of  the  five,  'origi- 
nated (1630)  as  the  informal 
weekly  meetings  of  a  few  literary 
friends.  Though  assemblies  of 
any  kind  were  illegal  at  that 
time,  Richelieu  offered  his  pat- 
ronage, and  the  society  was  in- 
corporated in  1637  as  the  Acad- 
emic Frangaise.  Like  its  Italian 
prototype,  it  announced  for  its 
purpose  the  purification  of  the 
language,  its  immediate  task 
being  the  compilation  of  a  dic- 
tionary. The  Dictionary  was 
first  published  in  1694;  the  eighth 
edition  is  in  preparation  (1912). 
A  Dictionnaire  historique  de  la 
Langue  Francaise  was  started  in 
1858,  but,  after  four  volumes  de- 
voted to  the  letter  A,  was  aban- 
doned in  1894.  The  Academy 
has  included  most  of  the  French 
writers  of  high  rank,  although, 
from  various  causes,  Moliere, 
Pascal,  Rousseau,  Diderot,  Bal- 
zac, and  others  have  not  been 
Academicians.  The  Academy 
has  retained  its  original  member- 
ship of  40,  and  each  member, 
after  his  election  by  ballot,  must 
be  sanctioned  by  the  govern- 
ment. Its  famous  Dictionary 
has  furnished  an  authoritative 
national  standard  of  orthography 
and  accuracy  of  language. 

A  committee  of  the  Academie 
Francaise,  entrusted  by  Colbert 
in  1663  with  the  editing  of  the 


legends  on  public  monuments 

and  similar  tasks,  was  increased 
to  a  membership  of  forty,  and  in- 
corporated as  the  Academie  des 
Inscriptions  et  Medailles  (1706). 
The  name  was  changed  to  Aca- 
demie des  Inscriptions  et 
Belles  Lettres  (1716),  and  later 
it  became  a  section  of  the  Insti- 
tut de  France.  It  has  40  regular 
members,  10  members  at  large 
(from  whom  future  members  are 
chosen) ,  8  foreign  associates,  and 
70  corresponding  members.  It 
has  conducted  important  anti- 
quarian researches.  Memoirs 
and  reports  of  sessions  are  pub- 
lished. Among  its  works  are 
Histoire  Litteraire  de  la  France; 
Recueil  des  Historiens  de  France; 
Corpus  Inscriptionum  Semitica- 
rum.  , 

The  Academie  des  Sciences, 
founded  by  Colbert  in  1666, 
formed  the  basis  of  the  Institute 
as  constituted  in  1795.  It  is 
divided  into  eleven  sections,  each 
with  six  members,  and  has 
10  members  at  large,  10  honorary 
members  (French),  12  foreign 
associates,  and  1 1 6  corresponding 
members.  It  publishes  Memoirs 
and  Reports.  , 

The  Academie  des  Beaux- 
arts  (1655)  was  united  with  the 
Academy  of  Architecture  as  the 
fourth  section  of  the  Institute. 
It  has  5  sections,  including.  40 
members,  besides  10  members  at 
large,  10  foreign  associates,  and 
50  corresponding  members.  Five 
volumes  and  two  parts  (one- 
half)  of  the  sixth  volume  of  the 
Dictionnaire  de  V Academie  des 
Beaux-arts  have  been  published 
(1912). 

The  Academie  des  Sciences 
Morales  et  Politiques,  fifth 
class  of  the  Institute  (1832),  has 
40  active  members,  10  members 
at  large,  8  foreign  associates,  and 
60  corresponding  members.  It 
publishes  Memoirs  and  Reports. 

France  possesses  numerous 
other  academies  in  the  principal 
provincial  towns,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  the  acade- 
mies of  Lyons  (1700),  Marseilles 
(1726),  and  Toulouse  (1782). 

Royal  British  Academy. — 
It  was  not  until  June  28,  1901, 
that  the  British  Academy  was 
founded,  having  for  its  object  the 
promotion  of  the  study  of  moral 
and  political  science,  including 
history,  philosophy,  law,  politics 
and  economics,  archaeology  and 
philology.  A  royal  charter  was 
granted  by  the  King  in  August, 
1902.  The  maximum  number  of 
members  is  100.  The  Acad- 
emy embraces  four  divisions — 
History  and  Archaeology,  Philol- 
ogy, Philosophy,  Jurisprudence, 
and  Economics.  The  Royal  So- 
ciety of  London   (q.v.)  is  also 


Academy 


34 


Academy  of  Arts  and  Letters 


a  member  of  the  International 
Association  of  Academies.  The 
Royal  Irish  Academy  in  Dublin 
was  founded  by  royal  charter  in 
1786.  The  Royal  Society  of 
Literature  has  announced  its  in- 
tention (1911)  of  forming  from 
its  membership  an  Academy  of 
Literature  of  40  members. 

The  Akademie  der  Wissen- 
SCHAFTEN  (Academy  of  Sciences) 
is  the  oldest  academy  in  Ger- 
many—  founded  in  Berlin  in 
1700  by  Frederick  I.,  after  the 
plan  of  Leibniz.  It  is  divided 
into  two  sections — science  and 
philosophy.  The  membership  is 
64  active,  20  foreign,  and  200 
corresponding  and  honorary 
members.  There  are  15  sub- 
sidiary organizations.  Transac- 
tions have  been  published  since 
1811,  and  Acta  Borussica  {Me- 
moirs of  the  Prussian  Government) 
since  1892.  Other  important 
German  academies  are  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciencesat  Munich  (1759), 
the  Association  of  Sciences  at 
Gottingen  (1742),  the  Royal 
Society  of  Sciences  at  Leipzig 
(1846),  and  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Heidelberg  (1909). 

In  Holland  there  are  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Leyden, 
the  oldest  in  the  country ;  another 
at  Haarlem,  founded  in  1752;  and 
another  at  Amsterdam  (1855). 
Each  of  these  publishes  Ver- 
handelingen  (Transactions). 

The  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Vienna,  founded  in 
1847,  is  divided  into  two  sections 
— philosophical  and  scientific. 
Besides  Memoirs,  it  has  pub- 
lished many  valuable  books, 
chiefly  connected  with  the  his- 
tory of  Austria.  The  oldest  acad- 
emy of  the  empire  is  the  Bohe- 
mian Society  of  Sciences  in 
Prague,  founded  in  1769,  and  in- 
corporated by  charter  in  1785. 
The  Hungarian  Academy  was 
founded  at  Budapest  in  1825. 
It  is  divided  into  three  sections 
and  has  an  active  membership  of 
84.  It  has  a  valuable  library  of 
150,000  volumes. 

Belgium  has  the  Academic 
Royale  des  Sciences  at  Brussels 
and  Academic  Royale  d'Archeolo- 
gie  at  Antwerp.  The  former  was 
founded  in  1773,  and  divided  in- 
to three  sections — science,  litera- 
ture, and  arts.  In  1909  it  had 
published  twenty  volumes  (Aa- 
Rythovius)  of  a  dictionary  of 
national  biography. 

Italy  has  numerous  influential 
academies,  besides  the  Accade- 
mia  delta  Crusca,  which  is  still  of 
great  importance.  The  Reale 
Accademia  dei  Lincei  (Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences)  at  Rome 
(1603,  revived  1807)  has  92  reg- 
ular and  nearly  250  Italian  and 
foreign  corresponding  members. 


The  Reale  Accademia  das  Sci- 
encias,  the  Institute  of  Bologna 
(1714),  has  in  its  division  of 
physical  sciences  24  active,  24 
honorary,  and  90  corresponding 
members;  in  its  division  of  moral 
sciences,  added  by  royal  decree 
in  1907,  16  active,  14  honorary, 
and  60  corresponding  members. 
It  publishes  Memorie  (Memoirs). 
The  Milan  Academy,  removed 
there  in  1820  from  Bologna,  is 
styled  the  Istituto  Lombardo  di 
Scienze,  and  has  published  Me- 
morie since  1820. 

In  Portugal  there  is  the  Aca- 
demia  Real  das  Sciencias  at  Lis- 
bon, founded  in  1779,  reorganized 
in  1851.  It  has  40  active  mem- 
bers and  publishes  Memorias. 
A  Portuguese  Society  of  the 
Natural  Sciences,  founded  in 
1907,  has  61  regular  members 
and  publishes  a  Bulletin. 

In  Russia  the  most  important 
academy  is  the  Imperial  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, founded  in  1725  by  the 
Empress  Catharine  i.  It  pos- 
sesses a  rich  and  valuable 
collection  of  manuscripts,  a 
large  library,  museum,  etc.  Its 
studies  in  Oriental  languages 
and  customs  are  of  great  value. 
It  publishes  Memoires.  There 
are  34  regular  members,  who  are 
salaried  state  officials,  50  honor- 
ary, and  238  corresponding. 

The  Real  Academia  Espanola 
(Royal  Spanish  Academy),  at 
Madrid,  was  founded  by  PhiUp  v. 
in  1713.  It  has  published  Mewo- 
rias  since  1793,  and  since  1870 
it  has  admitted  as  corresponding 
sections  academies  founded  in 
Mexico  City,  Bogota,  Lima,  and 
Caracas.  It  has  36  regular  and 
124  Spanish  and  foreign  corre- 
sponding members.  Its  Diction- 
ary has  been  the  great  national 
authority. 

The  Royal  Academy  of  Scien- 
ces (Svenska  Vetenskapsakade- 
mien)  in  Stockholm  (1741)  is 
divided  into  seven  classes,  and 
numbers  90  members.  A  com- 
mittee of  the  Academy  awards 
the  Nobel  Prizes  (q.v.)  for 
Physics  and  for  Chemistry.  In 
1893  it  began  the  publication  of 
a  national  Dictionary  of  Swedish. 
The  Swedish  Academy  (1786) 
has  eighteen  members,  a  com- 
mittee of  whom  award  the  Nobel 
Prize  for  Literature.  There  is  an 
academy  at  Upsala  (1719),  which 
has  published  Acta  since  1740. 

Other  academics  of  Europe 
are  the  Academia  Romdna  (Rou- 
manian Academy)  in  Bucharest 
(1866);  the  Videnskabs  Selskab 
(Society  of  Sciences)  in  Christi- 
ania  (1857);  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  Copenhagen  (1742) ; 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences 
in   Belgrade    (1886),   and  the 


Society  of  Sciences  in  Helsing- 
fors,  Finland  (1838). 

In  Asia  the  most  important 
academy  is  the  Asiatic  Society 
at  Calcutta,  founded  in  1784. 
which  publishes  valuable  Asiatic 
Researches. 

United  States. — In  the 
United  States  the  tendency  has 
been  to  form  learned  societies  of 
unlimited  membership,  rather 
than  academies  in  the  restricted 
sense  in  which  that  term  is  gen- 
erally used  on  the  Continent. 
Of  the  latter  type  of  academies, 
however,  the  United  States  has 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Letters  (1780),  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  (1863),  and 
the  National  Institute  of  Arts 
and  Letters  (1898),  with  the 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Letters 

(1904)  .  The  American  Philo- 
sophical Society,  founded  by 
Franklin  in  Philadelphia  (1743), 
is  the  oldest  scientific  society  in 
the  United  States.  It  has  522 
members  and  a  library  of  50,000 
volumes.  It  publishes  Proceed- 
ings. A  list  of  American  learned 
societies  is  included  in  the  article 
Societies  (q.v.). 

An  interesting  phase  of  the 
development  of  academies  in 
recent  years  has  been  the  found- 
ing of  several  institutions  that 
are  international  in  scope.  The 
Institute  of  International  Law 
(1875)  has  58  regular  members 
(limited  to  60),  58  associate 
members  (limited  to  60),  and 
12  honorary  members.  The  In- 
ternational Institute  of  Statistics 
(membership  limited  to  100), 
the  International  Institute  of 
Sociology  (1893;  membership 
limited  to  100),  and  the  Inter- 
national  Agricultural  Institute 

(1905)  may  also  be  mentioned. 
Significant  of  the  modern  ten- 
dency to  federation  is  the  Inter- 
national Association  of  Academies 
(1900),  composed  in  1910  of  21 
national  societies. 

Consult  Handbook  of  Learned 
Societies  and  Institutions  of 
America  (Carnegie  Institution  of 
Washington,  Publication  No.  39; 
1908) ;  Matthew  Arnold's  '  Liter- 
ary Influence  of  Academies,'  in 
Essays  in  Criticism  (First  Series) ; 
Harnack's  Geschichte  der  Preussis- 
chen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften 
(4  vols.,  1901);  Rosengarten's 
American  Philosophical  Society 
(1909) ;  Robertson's  History  of  the 
French  Academy  (1910);  Minerva, 
an  admirable  annual  guide,  in 
German,  to  all  universities, 
museums,  libraries,  and  societies; 
Official  Year  Book  of  the  Scientific 
and  Learned  Societies  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

Academy  of  Arts  and  Letters, 
American,  was  founded  in  1904 
by  the  National  Institute  of  Arts 


Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences 


35 


Acanthus 


and  Letters  (See  Institute  of 
Arts  and  Letters)  as  an  inner 
circle  of  the  latter  society,  its  aim 
being  'to  represent  and  further 
the  interests  of  the  fine  arts  and 
literature.'  The  membership, 
at  first  thirty,  was  increased  to 
fifty  in  1908,  and  vacancies  are 
filled,  by  a  majority  vote  of  the 
Academy,  from  the  membership 
of  the  National  Institute  (q.v.). 
Regular  meetings  are  held  for 
the  discussion  of  literary  and 
artistic  topics.  The  members  of 
the  Academy  on  March  1,  1928, 
were: 


Adams,  Herbert 
Alderman,  Edwin  A. 
Baker,  George  P. 
Blashfield,  Edwin  H. 
Brownell,  William  C. 
Bruch,  George  deF. 
Butler,  Nicholas  M. 
Chadwick,  George  W, 
Channing,  Edward 
Cole,  Timothy 
Cortissoz,  Royal 
Cross,  Wilbur  L. 
Finley,  John  H. 
Eraser,  James  Earle 
French,  Daniel  C. 
Garland,  Hamlin 
Gibson,  Charles  D. 
Gilbert,  Cass 
Gillette,  William 
Grant,  Robert 
Hadley,  Arthur  T. 
Hadley,  Henry 
Hassam,  Childe 
Hastings,  Thomas 
Hazen,  Charles  D. 


Hill,  David  Jayne 
Huntington,  A.  M. 
Johnson,  Robert  U. 
Lowell,  Abbott  L. 
MacMonnies,  F. 
MacNeil,  Hermon  A. 
Matthews,  Brander 
Mead,  William  R. 
Melchers,  Gari 
More,  Paul  Elmer 
Perrv,  Bliss 
Piatt,  Charles  A. 
Pope,  John  Russell 
Robinson,  Edwin  A. 
Root,  Elihu 
Shorey,  Paul 
Sloane,  William  M. 
Taft,  Lorado 
Tarkington,  Booth 
Tnomas,  Augustus 
Van  Dyke,  Henry 
Van  Dyke.  John  C. 
Whitlock,  Brand 
Wister,  Owen 
Woodberry,  G.  E. 


Academy  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences, American,  an  institution 
founded  in  Boston  in  1780. 
There  are  three  classes.  The 
membership  in  1926  (limited  to 
600)  was  574  resident  fellows,  16 
associate  fellows,  and  60  foreign 
honorary  members  (limited  to 
75) .  From  the  Rumf ord  Fund  are 
awarded  gold  and  silver  medals 
($300)  to  the  author  of  'any 
important  discovery  of  a  useful 
improvement  in  light  or  heat 
which  shall  have  been  made  and 
published  in  America';  and  from 
the  Warren  Fund,  prizes  for 
work  in  chemistry.  The  Acad- 
emy has  published  Memoirs  since 
1785  and  Proceedings  since  1846. 

Academy  of  Design,  Na- 
tional. See  National  Academy 
OF  Design. 

Academy  of  Medicine, 
American.  See  Medicine, 
American  Academy  of. 

Academy  of  Natural  Scien- 
ces, an  institution  founded  in 
Philadelphia  in  1812,  the  oldest 
natural  science  society  in  the 
United  States.  There  are  seven 
sections,  comprising  benefactors, 
who  make  a  contribution  of 
$10,000,  sustaining  members, 
life  members,  annual  members, 
associate  members,  and  junior 
members.  There  are  also  a 
number  of  correspondents.  There 
is  a  library  of  about  70,000 
volumes.  A  Journal  has  been 
published  since  1817,  and  Pro- 
ceedings since  1841. 


Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  American.  See 

Political  and  Social  Science, 
American  Academy  of. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  Na- 
tional. See  National  Acad- 
emy OF  Sciences. 

Academy  (the  Royal)  of 
Arts,  London,  was  founded  in 
1768,  with  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds 
as  its  first  president.  It  usually 
consists  of  40  members,  about  30 
associates,  and  a  few  foreign 
honorary  members.  An  annual 
exhibition  of  painting  and  sculp- 
ture is  held  in  Burlington  House, 
Piccadilly,  lasting  from  May  till 
August.  In  connection  with  the 
Royal  Academy  are  the  schools 
which  give  instruction  in  art  to 
students  who  pass  the  entrance 
examination  (held  on  Jan.  1  and 
July  1  of  each  year).  There  are 
many  prizes,  the  chief  being  the 
gold  medals  and  travelling  stu- 
dentships of  £200  each  for 
historical  painting,  sculpture, 
and  architecture,  and  the  Turner 
gold  medal  and  scholarship  of 
£50  for  landscape,  all  tenable  for 
two  years. 

Academy,  U.  S.  Military. 
See  Military  Academy. 

Academy,  U.  S.  Naval.  See 
Naval  Academy. 

Acadia,  a-ka'di-a,  or  Acadie, 
a  name  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  a  Micmac  expression  mean- 
ing 'abounding  in.'  It  is  first 
found  in  a  petition  of  De  Monts 
to  the  king  of  France  asking  for 
permission  to  colonize  a  part  of 
the  New  World.  The  territory 
which  was  granted  to  De  Monts 
was  of  uncertain  limits,  and  so 
extensive  as  to  include  within  its 
borders  the  present  cities  of 
Montreal  and  Philadelphia.  La- 
ter, its  bounds  were  defined  and 
limited  to  the  province  of  New 
Brunswick,  the  peninsula  of 
Nova  Scotia,  and  part  of  Maine. 
The  first  settlement  and  most 
important  town  was  Port  Royal, 
founded  in  1604,  now  known  as 
Annapolis  Royal,  and  situated  on 
Annapolis  Basin,  an  arm  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy.  In  1621  Acadia, 
enlarged  by  the  addition  of  the 
island  of  Ca.pe  Breton  and  the 
Gaspe  peninsula,  was  granted  to 
Sir  William  Alexander,  who 
named  it  Nova  Scotia.  Then 
followed  a  long  struggle  between 
England  and  France  for  the 
possession  of  the  coveted  terri- 
tory, which  was  eventually 
brought  under  English  control 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1763. 
See  Nova  Scotia. 

Acadia  University,  '  a  co- 
educational institution  situated 
in  Wolfville,  Nova  Scotia.  It 
was  founded  in  1838  by  the 
Baptist  Church  in  the  maritime 
provinces.  For  recent  statistics 
see  Table  under  the  heading 
College. 

Acajutla,  a-ka-hoot'la,  port  of 
Sonsonate  (12^  miles)  and  San 


Salvador  (50  miles),  Salvador, 
Central  America.  It  is  connected 
with  the  cities  named  and  Santa 
Ana  by  a  narrow-gauge  railway, 
and  is  the  gateway  for  a  con- 
stantly increasing  trade.  The 
new  port  is  in  a  more  sheltered 
location  than  the  old  one,  a 
mile  farther  north.  Excellent 
sea-bathing  adds  to  its  attrac- 
tions. 

Acamapichtli,  a-ka-ma-pesh'- 
tie,  an  Aztec  chieftain  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  the  ruler  of  a 
limited  territory  in  Mexico.  He 
maintained  peace,  and  was  in- 
strumental in  constructing  the 
Lake  Tezcoco  canals,  and  in 
embellishing  with  stone  edifices 
his  capital  of  Tenochtitlan,  the 
site  of  the  present  City  of 
Mexico. 

Acantha'cese,  a  family  of 
dicotyledons  belonging  to  the 
group  Tubiflorae  or  Sympetalae. 
It  comprises  nearly  150  genera, 
with  more  than  2,000  species, 
which  are  found  chiefly  in  the 
tropics.  Some  species,  however, 
occur  in  the  United  States,  in  the 
Mediterranean  region,  and  in 
Australia.  The  leaves  are  gener- 
ally thin  and  entire,  the  flowers 
usually  have  united  petals  of 
four  or  five  parts.  Among  the 
genera  are  Nelsonia,  Ruellia, 
Justicia  and  Acanthus. 

Acan'thite,  a  mineral  form 
of  silver  sulphide  (AgjS),  nearly 
related  to  argentite.  It  occurs  in 
slender,  iron-black,  prismatic 
crystals  of  the  -  normal  ortho- 
rhombic  type.  Acanthite  is 
found  with  other  ores  of  silver 
in  Freiberg,  Saxony,  and  in  other 
German  localities. 

Acan'thus,  or  Bear's-breech, 
a  genus  of  about  20  tall,  herba- 
ceous plants  in  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and 
Australia.    The  varieties  native 


Acanthus 

to  the  country  about  the  Medi- 
terranean have  large,  thorny- 
toothed  leaves,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  have  suggested  the 
acanthus  (q.v.)  of  ancient  archi- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '28 


Acanthus 


36 


Accession 


tecture.  They  are  mostly 
weeds,  but  some  are  cultivated 
for  their  foliage.  Only  a  few 
species  of  acanthus  grow  wild  in 
North  America,  mainly  in  the 
South  and  Sou.thwest.  Among 
them  are  Ruellia,  Calophanes, 
Dianthera,  and  Phryma.  The 
varieties  familiar  m  the  United 


'  Composite  Capital,  with 
"         Acanthus  Ornament 

States  are  chiefly  tender  garden 
or  hothouse  plants,  such  as 
Justicia,  or  Thunbergia. 

Acanthus,  in  architecture,  a 
conventionalized  leaf  decoration 
believed  to  have  been  designed 
after  the  leaf  of  the  acanthus 
spinosus.  It  is  seen  in  charac- 
teristic form  in  the  Corinthian 
capital  of  ancient  Grecian  archi- 
tecture. The  Roman  acanthus 
is  more  of  the  type  of  leaf  of  the 
acanthus  mollis.  In  modified 
forms  the  acanthus  also  served 
for  the  decoration  of  furniture, 
laces,  vases,  and  personal  orna- 
ments.   See  Architecture. 

A  Cappella,  a  ka-pel'la,  or 
Alla  Cappella,  a  musical  term 
implying  that  a  composition  is  to 
be  sung  as  ecclesiastical  music. 
Frequently  it  means  that  the 
voices  are  unaccompanied,  or 
accompanied  only  by  an  instru- 
ment (usually  the  organ)  played 
in  unison  with  the  voices. 

Acapulco,  a-ka-pool'ko,  sea- 
port, Mexico,  in  Guerrero,  on 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  230  miles 
southwest  of  Mexico  City.  It 
lies  among  low  hills,  and  the 
climate  is  hot  throughout  the 
year.  It  has  one  of  the  finest 
harbors  in  the  world,  a  semi- 
circular bay  covering  about  8 
square  miles  and  with  16  fathoms 
of  water.  The  region  is  subject 
to  earthquakes,  and  Acapulco 
\Vas  partly  destroyed  by  a  series 
of  shocks  in  1909.  Exports  in- 
clude hides,  cedar,  and  fruits. 
Pop.  about  7,000. 

Acarina,  an  order  of  arach- 
nids.   vSee  Mites;  Tick. 

Acarnania,  ak-iir-na'ni-a,  dis- 
trict. Northwest  Greece;  with 
/Etolia  it  forms  the  province 
(nomarchy)  of  Arcanania  and 
^tolia,  stretching  north  from 
the  (}ulf  of  Patras,  and  including 
part  of  the  Gulf  of  Arta;  area, 

Vol.  I. —Oct.  '28 


3,034  square  miles.  The  western 
part  is  well  wooded,  and  the  soil 
is  rich.  There  are  many  fruit 
orchards.  The  finest  tobacco 
country  of  Greece  is  the  plain  of 
Agrinion  in  Acarnania.  Lake 
Trichonis  lies  in  a  famous  region. 
Pop.  175,000. 

A'carus  (Demodex)  Follic'- 
ulo'rum,  the  pimple  mite,  a 
minute  parasitic  mite  which 
infests  the  hair  follicles  and 
sebacious  glands  in  man.  It  is 
very  common  in  comedones 
('black  heads')  and  seems  to 
have  no  deleterious  influence. 
The  size  varies  from  one-fiftieth 
to  one-hundredth  of  an  inch; 
and  as  in  mites  in  general,  four 
pairs  of  legs  are  present,  heie 
rudimentary.    See  Mites. 

Acatalec'tic  Measures,  metres 
which  do  not  allow  of  the  excision 
of  an  unaccented  syllable  at  the 
beginning  or  the  end  of  the  line. 
See  Catalectic. 

Accad.  See  Akkad. 

Accault,  a-ko',  Michel,  a 
Frenchman  who,  with  an  ex- 
plorer named  Du  Gay,  accom- 
panied Father  Hennepin,  at  the 
instance  of  La  Salle,  in  Henne- 
pin's discoveries  in  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Mississippi.  In 
1680  all  three  were  made  prison- 
ers by  a  wandering  band  of 
Sioux. 

Accelerando,  at-cha-la-ran'- 
do  (Italian),  a  musical  term  in- 
dicating that  the  tempo  is  to  be 
gradually  increased. 

Accel'eration,  the  rate  at 
which  the  velocity  of  a  moving 
body  changes.  It  is  positive 
when  the  velocity  is  increasing, 
negative  (with  the  minus  sign) 
when  it  is  decreasing.  The  ac- 
celeration of  a  falling  body,  due 
to  gravity,  amounts  to  32.2  feet 
per  second.  If  the  body  in- 
fluenced by  gravity  is  moving 
upward,  as  a  ball  thrown  into  the 
air,  its  acceleration  by  gravity  is 
negative,  and  is  represented  by 
-32.2  feet  per  second.  See 
Kinematics;  Kinetics. 

Ac'cent,  the  stress  laid  in  pro- 
nunciation upon  one  syllable  of 
a  word — corresponding  to  empha- 
sis, the  stress  laid  in  elocution 
upon  a  word  or  words  in  a  phrase. 
In  Indo-Germanic  languages  ac- 
cent is  either  musical  (con- 
sisting of  higher  or  lower  tones, 
as  in  Sanskrit  and  Greek)  or 
expiratory  (consisting  of  simple 
stress,  as  in  English).  In  Old 
English  the  first  syllable  of 
simple  words  bore  the  accent, 
and  the  inflectional  parts  re- 
mained unaccented,  as  now — 
e.g.,  love,  lovable,  loveliness. 
Again,  nouns  compounded  with 
a  prefix  threw  the  accent  back 
on  the  prefix;  but  verbs  similarly 
compounded  retained  their  form- 
er accent.  Thus  in  modern 
English  we  say  outcome  (noun), 
but  outdo  (verb).  This  principle 
was  extended  to  words  borrowed 


from  other  languages,  and  hence 
we  have  such  pairs  as  accent 
(noun)  and  accent  (verb),  per- 
fume (noun)  and  perfume  (verb). 
Words  taken  from  other  lan- 
guages generally  conform  to  the 
same  principles  as  native  Ger- 
manic words — i.e.,  they  throw 
the  accent  as  far  back  as  possible 
toward  the  beginning  of  the 
word. 

Most  English  words  have  only 
one  accent,  but  in  the  case  of 
long  words,  like  dissimulation, 
we  may  also  have  a  secondary 
accent.  This  accent  is  scarcely 
perceptible  in  ordinary  speech, 
but  is  of  considerable  importance 
for  metrical  purposes. 

The  English  habit  of  slurring 
over  the  unaccented  syllables  of 
a  word  has  given  us  some  of  our 
most  curious  derivations,  such  as 
'proxy,'  from  French  procuracie, 
and  'alms,'  from  Greek  elee- 
mosyne.  In  like  manner,  accent 
has  been  one  of  the  chief  factors 
in  inflectional  and  phonetic 
decay,  and  is  probably  one  of  the 
chief  factors  of  ablaut  (q.v.). 

For  accent  in  its  metrical 
aspect,  see  Verse. 

Accent,  a  grammatical  sign 
used  to  distinguish  the  varying 
sounds  of  the  same  vowel.  They 
are  three  in  number — viz.,  grave 
C),  acute  ('),  and  circumflex  C), 
as  exhibited  in  the  French  words 
pere,  ete,  tete. 

Accent,  in  music  the  regular 
recurrence  of  stress  or  emphasis 
upon  certain  notes — always  (un- 
less syncopated)  upon  the  first 
note  of  a  bar;  while  a  slighter 
accent  falls  on  the  third  note  of 
a  bar  in  common  time,  or  the 
fourth  in  a  bar  of  Vs  time. 

Acceptance.  See  Bills  and 
Notes. 

Access,  Right  of,  a  legal 
right,  in  the  nature  of  an  ease- 
ment, which  a  riparian  owner 
possesses,  of  uninterrupted  access 
to  the  sea  or  navigable  river. 
This  is  a  right  of  property,  and 
cannot  be  cut  off  through  the 
grant  by  the  state  of  the  shore  to 
a  railroad  company  or  other 
private  owner.  See  Riparian 
Rights. 

Accession,  in  law  the  mode  of 
acquiring  property  by  the  nat- 
ural or  artificial  increase,  addi- 
tion to,  or  improvement  of  things 
already  ours.  Thus  the  owner 
of  land  becomes  entitled  to  plants 
and  trees  growing  upbn  it,  and 
to  the  increase  or  addition  to  it 
arising  from  accretion  and  allu- 
vion; the  offspring  of  animals 
belong  to  the  owner  of  the 
mother.  When  the  increase 
or  improvement  is  artificial,  as  by 
the  addition  to  our  property  of 
the  property  or  work  of  others 
(houses  built  on  our  land,  or  em- 
broidery worked  on  our  cloth), 
the  owner  of  the  principal  thing 
is  entitled  to  what  was  accessory 
to  it,  subject  generally  to  the 


Accessories 


37 


Accidents  Industrial 


payment  of  compensation,  and 
subject  also  to  certain  exceptions. 
For  example,  when  the  result  of 
expending  work  upon  another's 
goods  is  the  production  of  a  new 
thing,  the  rule  is  reversed — as 
when  a  man  makes  wine  from  an- 
other's grapes,  he  keeps  the  wine 
and  pays  for  the  grapes;  or  when 
an  artist  paints  a  picture  on  the 
canvas  of  another,  he  keeps  the 
picture  and  pays  for  the  canvas. 
These  doctrines  were  fully  worked 
out  in  the  Roman  law.  English 
and  American  law  differs  from 
the  Roman  only  in  making  a 
distinction  between  the  innocent 
and  the  wilful  transformation  of 
a  man's  property  by  accession, 
permitting  him  in  the  case  of 
wilful  accession  to  recover  his 
goods  even  though  they  have 
been  changed  by  the  wrongdoer 
into  something  of  a  different  na- 
ture— as  grain  into  whiskey.  A 
not  uncommon  source  of  diffi- 
culty is  the  determination  as  to 
which  of  two  objects  is  the 
principal  and  which  the  acces- 
sory. 

Acces'sorles,  the  parapher- 
nalia, other  than  the  shield,  of  a 
heraldic  achievement — viz.,  the 
helm,  wreath,  crest,  cap,  crown, 
mantling,  badge,  scroll,  etc.  See 
Heraldry. 

Accessory  (Latin  accessarius) , 
a  term  derived  from  scholastic 
logic,  and  used  by  lawyers  to 
distinguish  certain  classes  of 
accomplices  from  the  chief  actors 
in  the  commission  of  felonies. 
An  accessory  before  the  fact  is  one 
who  deliberately  instigates  oth- 
ers to  commit  a  felony,  but  who 
does  not  himself  take  a  direct 
part  in  its  commission.  An  ac- 
cessory after  the  fact  is  one  who, 
knowing  that  a  felony  has  been 
committed,  takes  active  steps  to 
shelter  the  felon  from  justice,  or 
to  enable  him  to  escape.  Whether 
accession  after  the  fact  should  in 
the  ordinary  case  be  considered  a 
crime  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  A 
distinction  is  generally  made  be- 
tween accessories  and  principals 
in  the  second  degree,  that  is,  per- 
sons who,  though  not  the  actual 
committers  of  the  crime,  were 
nevertheless  present  as  aiders 
and  abettors.  The  tendency  of 
modern  legislation,  however,  es- 
pecially in  the  United  vStates,  is 
to  abolish  the  formal  distinction 
between  principals  and  acces- 
sories before  the  fact.  It  is 
thought  preferable  that  the 
degree  of  punishment  meted  out 
to  each  of  a  number  of  co- 
delinquents  should  be  deter- 
mined not  in  accordance  with 
technical  subtleties,  but  with  the 
facts  of  each  individual  case. 
See  Crime. 

Ac'cho.  See  Acre. 

Acclaccatura,  at-chiik-ka-too'- 
ra.  See  Appoggiatura. 

Acciajuoll)  a-cha-yoo-o'le,  Do- 


NATO  (1428-78).  Italian  scholar 
and  mathematician,  was  born  in 
Florence,  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Argyropulus.  Like  other  scholars 
of  the  Renaissance,  he  was  sent 
on  several  important  embassies, 
dying  at  Milan  while  on  his  way 
to  France  to  seek  aid  of  Louis  xi. 
on  behalf  of  the  Florentines 
against  Pope  Sixtus  iv.  His  body 
was  carried  back  to  Florence  and 
buried  in  the  Church  of  the 
Carthusians  at  public  expense. 
Besides  commentaries  on  Aris- 
totle's Ethics  and  Politics,  in 
which  he  was  aided  by  Argyro- 
pulus, he  wrote  biographies  of 
Hannibal,  Scipio,  and  Charle- 
magne and  translated  parts  of 
Plutarch's  Lives. 

Ac'cidence,  that  part  of  gram- 
mar which  deals  with  inflections, 
or  changes  in  the  form  of  words 
produced  by  the  declension  of 
nouns  and  adjectives  or  the  con- 
jugation of  verbs.  See  Gram- 
mar; Inflection. 

Ac'cident,  in  the  narrower  and 
stricter  sense  an  occurrence  which 
is  due  neither  to  design  nor  to 
neglience;  in  its  wider  sense,  any 
casualty  whether  caused  by  fault 
or  not.  According  to  the  first  of 
these  definitions,  an  injury 
caused  by  anything  which  comes 
under  the  category  of  vis  major 
or  'act  of  God' — e.g.,  lightning, 
tempest,  or  flood — is  accidental, 
and  therefore  not  actionable. 
Similarly,  the  sudden  and  un- 
explained bolting  of  a  horse  is 
accidental,  as  is  anything  that 
can  be  called  a  damnum  fatale. 
Primitive  systems  of  law  held 
the  owner  of  property  responsible 
for  any  accidental  injury  caused 
through  its  instrumentality  {e.g., 
by  the  fall  of  a  tree),  however  in- 
nocent of  intention  or  negligence 
he  might  be.  Such  liability  was, 
however,  satisfied  by  the  sur- 
render of  the  offending  property 
(see  Deodand). 

In  its  broader  sense,  the  word 
accident  is  applied  to  a  wide 
range  of  disavSters,  many  of  them 
due  to  negligence  if  not  to  actual 
intention.  (See  Accidents,  In- 
dustrial; Aircraft  Disasters; 
Fire  Disasters;  Marine  Dis- 
asters; Mining;  Railroads, 
Accidents.) 

In  criminal  jurisprudence  an 
effect  is  said  to  be  accidental 
when  'the  act  by  which  it  is 
caused  is  not  done  with  the  in- 
tention of  causing  it,  and  when  its 
occurrence  as  a  consequence  of 
such  act  is  not  so  probable  that  a 
person  of  ordinary  prudence 
ought,  under  the  circumstances 
in  which  it  is  done,  to  take 
reasonable  precautions  against  it.' 
See  Insurance,  Accident. 

Accident,  in  logic,  a  predicate 
which  neither  is  contained  in  nor 
can  be  inferred  from  the  defini- 
tion of  its  subject — e.g.,  the 
predicate  black  as  applied  to  the 


subject  crow.  If  all  crows  without 
exception  were  black,  blackness 
would  be  an  'inseparable  acci- 
dent' of  the  subject  crow;  other- 
wise it  is  a  'separable  accident.' 
See  Predicables. 

Accidental  Colors,  the  imagin- 
ary complementary  colors  which 
are  seen  when,  after  looking 
fixedly  at  a  bright-colored  object, 
the  eye  is  turned  to  a  white  or 
hght-colored  surface.  If  the 
object  was  red,  the  accidental 
color  is  green.  Blue  corresponds 
in  like  manner  to  yellow.  See 
Color. 

Accidentals,  in  music,  are 
signs  of  chromatic  alterations  of 
the  notes,  differing  from  the  sig- 
nature in  applying  only  to  par- 
ticular notes,  and  not  extending 
their  effect  beyond  the  bar  in 
which  they  occur,  or  according 
to  others,  the  first  note  of  the 
next  bar.  They  indicate  a  tem- 
porary change  of  key.  They  are 
five  in  number:  the  sharp  (#), 
the  double  sharp  (X),  the  flat 
(b),  the  double  flat  (bb),  and  the 
natural  iS). 

Accident  Indemnity.  See  Em- 
ployers' Liability. 

Accident  Insurance.  See  In- 
surance, Accident. 

Accidents,  Industrial.  The 
term  'industrial  accident,'  as 
ordinarily  used,  connotes  a  per- 
sonal injury  sustained  by  an 
employee  in  the  course  of  his 
employment,  and  includes  both 
fatal  and  non-fatal  injuries.  The 
term  'accident'  generally  im- 
plies a  fortuitous  or  unexpected 
happening,  but  industrial  acci- 
dents, so-called,  are  so  character- 
istic, and  their  number  so  often 
more  or  less  constant,  in  many  in- 
dustries, that  the  usual  meaning 
of  the  term  is  in  this  case  lost 
sight  of. 

The  speeding  up  of  industrial 
processes  in  the  interests  of  in- 
creased production  was  not  at 
once  accompanied  by  adequate 
consideration  of  the  human 
equation.  Men,  women,  and 
even  children,  in  the  earlier  days 
of  the  factory  system,  spent  long 
working  hours  in  badly  con- 
structed buildings,  surrounded 
by  unguarded  machinery,  with 
the  result  that  when  rush  periods 
came,  with  consequent  fatigue 
and  loss  of  alertness  on  the  pArt 
of  the  workers,  accidents  oc- 
curred, bringing  suffering  and 
loss  both  to  the  individual  and  to 
the  industry. 

The  problem  presented  by  in- 
dustrial accidents  is  a  three-fold 
one,  affecting  the  employer,  the 
worker,  and  the  public.  From  the 
point  of  view  of  the  employer  the 
problem  is  one  of  efficiency. 
Accidents  interfering  with  the 
stability  of  his  working  force 
constitute  a  form  of  industrial 
waste,  reflected  in  increased 
costs  of  production.       For  the 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Occidents  Industrial  37A  Acclimatization 


wage  earner  the  problem  involves 
his  own  physical  and  mental 
well-being;  the  consequences  of 
accident  to  him  are  personal 
and  irreparable.  For  the  public, 
which  ultimately  pays  the  price 
both  for  the  increased  produc- 
v.ion  cost  and  the  laborer's  lost 
time,  the  problem  assumes  a  fi- 
nancial and  humanitarian  aspect. 

As  the  number  of  accidents 
multiplied,  therefore,  and  similar 
accidents  recurred  with  increas- 
ing frequency,  some  action  was 
inevitable.  This  took  the  form 
largely  of  legislation  requiring 
safety  devices  and  better  labor- 
ing conditions  and  of  employers' 
liability  and  workmen's  compen- 
sation laws.  Besides  the  provision 
of  safety  devices  (for  which  see 
Safety,  Industrial),  correct 
ventilation  and  proper  lighting 
contribute  much  toward  the 
prevention  of  industrial  acci- 
dents. A  workman  laboring  in  a 
place  of  high  temperature,  where 
ventilation  is  slight  and  spas- 
modic, may  easily  grow  faint  and 
fall  into  some  rapidly  moving 
machinery.  One  such  injured 
workman  may  cost  an  employer 
more  than  an  entire  system  of  cor- 
rect ventilation.  The  importance 
of  good  illumination  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  the  rate  of  acci- 
dents increases  during  the  winter 
months  when  artificial  lighting  is 
more  in  use.  The  prevention  of 
accidents,  however,  does  not 
rest  wholly  with  the  employer,  for 
the  carrying  into  effect  of  any 
plans  for  accident  prevention  is 
largely  dependent  on  the  co- 
operation of  the  wage  earner. 

Among  the  causes  of  accidents 
common  to  industry  the  follow- 
ing may  be  cited  as  perhaps  the 
more  usual:  falling  objects;  flying 
objects;  careless  handling  of 
materials,  machines,  or  tools; 
burns;  tripping  and  falling. 

In  Europe  for  many  years  the 
compilation  of  accident  statistics 
has  formed  a  definite  branch  of 
statistical  research;  but  in  the 
United  States,  no  machinery  for 
collecting  adequate  and  reliable 
reports  for  industrial  accidents 
exists.  Those  States  which  have 
no  workmen's  compensation  laws 
do  not  report  accidents;  other 
States  report  compensable  acci- 
dents only;  still  others  report 
coal-mining  accidents  alone. 

Estimates  place  the  number  of 
industrial  accidents  in  the  United 
States  at  2,453,418  annually, 
causing  the  loss  of  more  than 
225,000,000  working  days  and 
more  than  $1,000,000,000  in 
wages.  It  is  further  estimated, 
by  the  National  Safety  Council, 
that  of  the  100,000  blind  persons 
in  the  United  States,  15,000  have 
been  blinded  in  industry.  The 
accompanying  table  summarizes 
the  number  of  fatalities  by  in- 
dustries. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


In  Great  Britain  and  Northern 
Ireland  the  number  of  working 
people,  other  than  seamen,  re- 
ported as  killed  in  1924,  in  the 
course  of  employment,  was  2,487, 
as  compared  with  2,445  in  1923. 
Of  this  number,  1,201  were  killed 
in  the  coal  mines,  where  195,423 
workers  were  also  more  or  less 
seriously  injured.  In  1923  the 
death  rate  per  1,000  of  those 
employed  in  coal  mines  was  1.20 


for  those  working  underground 
and  0.49  for  those  on  the  surface; 
for  those  employed  in  quarries  it 
was  1.06,  and  for  railway  workers 
it  was  .35. 

For  the  prevention  of  industrial 
accidents  see  Safety, Industrial. 
See  also  Employers'  Liability; 
Insurance,  Accident;  Trades, 
Dangerous. 


Consult  Eastman's  Work  Ac- 
cidents and  the  Law  (1910); 
Schwedtman  and  Emery's  Acci- 
dent Prevention  and  Relief  (1911); 
Report  of  the  Massachusetts 
Commission  on  Compensation 
for  Industrial  Accidents  (1912); 
Kendall's  Safety;  Methods  for 
Preventing  Occupational  and  Other 
Accidents  and  Diseases  (1913); 
American  Labor  Year  Book  (an- 
nual). 


Accip'ltr6s,  a  term  applied  by 
Linnaeus  to  birds  of  prey,  such 
as  the  hawk  (Accipiter).  See 
Prey,  Birds  of. 

Accii'matiza'tion,  the  process 
whereby  animals  or  plants  be- 
come adapted  to,  and  so  thrive 
in,  a  climate  different  from  that 
in  which  they  are  indigenous. 
Biologically  considered,  acclima- 


Industrial  Fatalities  in  the  United  States  (1923)  by  Industry  Groups. 


Industry 

Number  of 
Fatalities 

Number  of 
Employees 

Rates  per 
1000 

1             ii           r         J.  J  ;  1   „J_., 

2,359 

2,335,761 

1.02 

Gardening,  fruit  growing,  etc  

30 

160,083 

.20 

903 

205,315 

5.00 

Extraction  of  minerals 

2,370 

*7Qf\  007 

('o0,8o7 

no 

4.08 

151,792 

3  66 

135 

77,960 

2.04 

177 

91,022 

2.05 

Manufacturing 

247 

494,523 

.67 

2 

191,526 

.01 

OA 

11 ,001 

1  no 

31 

308,141 

13 

467 

753,806 

.70 

178 

257,942 

.78 

113 

3o8,209 

.32 

187 

113,620 

1  76 

2 

25,508 

.08 

324 

1  AO  AAA 

198,990 

1.76 

137 

1,021,864 

.20 

44 

1  Q7  OOA 

137, 32U 

.34 

43 

71A  1  AA 

719,109 

.07 

32 

161,530 

.23 

571 

>IA7  OOA 

497,331) 

1.35 

200 

ICC  Oco 

166,862 

1.33 

1,532 

2,393,957 

.72 

106 

459,201 

.26 

Miscellaneous   

773 

1,309,909 

.66 

Construction 

170 

129,829 

1.54 

1.773 

2,162,268 

1.46 

Transportation 

384 

96,067 

4.00 

113 

85,928 

1.76 

Road  and  street  (chauffeurs,  delivery  men,  etc.).. 

1,625 

878,669 

2.05 

2,591 

1,280,137 

2.25 

303 

177,146 

1.90 

229 

343,879 

.74 

13 

29,414 

.50 

Public  utilities 

160 

31,366 

5.73 

104 

146,418 

.79 

Trade 

453 

1,968,373 

.26 

333 

131,442 

2.84 

Clerical  and  professional  service 

708,167 

.18 

99 

89 

2,950;769 

.04 

99 

1,655,337 

.08 
.74 

Care  and  custody  of  grounds  and  buildings  

250 

373,160 

178 

2,546,739 

.08 
1.76 

80 

50,771 

431 

116,621 

4.10 

244 

387,283 

.66 

21,232 

29,679,763 

Acclimatization 


37B 


Accommodation 


tization  is  part  of  the  general 
process  of  modification  of  organ- 
ism by  environment.  When  the 
conditions  in  the  new  home  are 
approximately  similar,  no  fresh 
changes  will  be  imprinted  on  the 
organism,  and  the  survival  of 
the  imported  form  is  obviously 
natural.  Such  cases  are  instances 
simply  of  dispersion,  generally 
by  human  selection,  and  hardly 
of  acclimatization  in  the  strict 
sense.  At  the  other  extreme, 
the  sum  of  the  external  forces,  or 
'natural  selection,'  may  be  pre- 
dominantly adverse,  the  conse- 
quent changes  pathological,  the 
result  non-survival.  The  term 
acclimatization  should  thus  be 
restricted  to  cases  between  these 
two  extremes,  where  the  plastic 
organism  becomes  actively  and 
passively  adapted  to  the  new 
environment. 

All  organisms  are  capable  of 
physiological  and  of  morphologi- 
cal variation;  and  if  the  climatic 
conditions  change  slowly,  they 
can  adjust  themselves  to  these, 
and  become  acclimatized.  Such 
acclimatization  has  been  very 
extensively  practiced  by  man,  as 
in  the  case  of  domestic  animals; 
but  it  also  occurs  without  his 
aid.  Almost  all  the  domestic  ani- 
mals now  commonly  spread  over 
Europe,  and  even  in  high  north- 
ern latitudes,  were  originally  na- 
tives of  warm  climates.  The 
change  produced  by  the  accli- 
matizing of  animals  may  be 
either  an  improvement  or  a  de- 
terioration; of  the  latter,  we 
have  an  instance  in  the  Shetland 
pony;  of  the  former,  we  see  an 
example  in  the  merino  sheep  of 
Spain. 

There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the 
effect  of  a  mere  change  of  tem- 
perature upon  organisms;  but  it 
seems  certain  that  in  the  majority 
of  cases  transference  from  an 
equable  climate  to  one  in  which 
there  is  a  great  annual  range  of 
temperature  is  rapidly  fatal. 
Thus,  many  plants  from  South- 
ern Europe  will  live  out  of  doors 
in  the  mild  uniform  climate  of 
the  west  coast  of  England,  but 
will  not  live  in  localities  on  the 
Continent  where  the  mean  an- 
nual temperature  is  the  same,  but 
where  the  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold  are  greater.  Similarly, 
many  marine  organisms  are 
widely  distributed  in  both  warm 
and  cold  seas,  apparently  be- 
cause in  both  cases  the  range  of 
temperature  is  small,  and  the 
power  of  adaptation  to  a  new  but 
constant  temperature  is  readily 
acquired. 

In  America  some  interesting 
experiments  in  naturalization 
have  been  made.  Many  Euro- 
pean birds  have  been  set  at  lib- 
erty by  local  societies,  and  a  few 
species  promise  to  become  Amer- 
icanized.   The  camel  breeds  well 


in  a  half-wild  state  in  Nevada 
and  Arizona;  while  alpacas, 
though  repeatedly  tried,  have 
nowhere  thriven.  Ostrich  farm- 
ing (q.v.)  has  been  successful  in 
the  Western  United  States,  as 
well  as  in  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic. Australasian  trees,  notably 
the  eucalyptus,  thrive  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  successful  experi- 
ments have  been  made  with  them 
in  the  cotton-growing  States;  the 
tea  plant  also  grows  well  in 
various  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  introduction  of  cof- 
fee into  the  West  Indies  and  of 
cinchona  into  India  offer  further 
examples  of  successful  acclima- 
tization. 

American  zoologists  have  found 
that  European  earthworms  have 
become  naturalized  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and 
are  often  much  more  abundant 
than  the  native  species.  They 
ascribe  this  in  part  to  the  fact 
that  the  European  species  has  a 
long  breeding  season,  and  the 
American  a  very  short  one. 

Associated  with  the  fact  of  the 
frequent  great  fertility  of  an  in- 
troduced species  is  the  fact  that 
a  parasitic  or  semi-parasitic  form 
often  inflicts  far  greater  injury  on 
its  host  in  a  new  country  than  in 
the  old.  Thus,  the  vine  phyllox- 
era, introduced  into  Europe  from 
America,  has  worked  serious 
havoc  in  vineyards  in  the  former 
continent,  while  it  produced  rela- 
tively little  injury  in  its  native 
habitat. 

A  great  obstacle  to  the  colo- 
nization of  various  parts  of  the 
world  by  the  white  man  is  his 
liability  to  parasitic  diseases  to 
which  the  natives  are  almost  or 
entirely  immune — notably  ma- 
laria. On  the  contrary,  the 
coming  of  the  white  man  often 
results  in  the  decimation  of  the 
natives,  owing  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  micro-organisms  to  whose 
action  the  white  man  is  at  least 
partially  immune,  while  the  na- 
tives are  peculiarly  susceptible 
to  such  action — e.g.,  smallpox 
among  the  Indians.  White  men 
settling  in  tropical  parts  are 
liable  to  disease  of  the  liver; 
while  natives  of  tropical  lands, 
when  resident  in  colder  latitudes, 
are  exposed  to  pulmonary  dis- 
ease. These  facts  show  that  or- 
ganisms are  adapted  to  their 
surroundings,  not  only  by  their 
structure,  but  also  by  functional 
peculiarities  which  are  equally 
real,  but  are  less  capable  of  exact 
description.  Such  functional  pe- 
culiarities are  hereditary,  but  in 
the  case  of  dominant  stocks,  at 
least,  are  capable  of  slow,  cumu- 
lative modification,  so  that  the 
descendants  may  ultimately  be- 
come habituated  to  surroundings 
which  would  have  been  rapidly 
fatal  to  the  original  stock.  Ac- 
climatization is  thus  a  proof  of 


the  occurrence  of  physiological 
variation  in  organisms. 

Consult  Darwin's  Animals  and 
Plants  under  Domestication;  Wal- 
lace's The  Geographical  Distribu- 
tion of  Animals;  Ireland's  Trop- 
ical Colonization;  Peschel's  The 
Races  of  Man  and  Their  Distri- 
bution; Semple's  Influences  of 
Geographical  Environment  (1911). 

Accolade,  ak'ko-lad'.  (1)  The 
ceremony  by  which  knighthood 
is  conferred:  formerly  an  em- 
brace round  the  neck,  now  the 
touch  of  a  sword  on  the  shoulder. 
The  king,  or  his  representative, 
touches  both  shoulders  of  the 
kneeling  knight-elect  with  the 
flat  of  a  drawn  sword,  addresses 
him  with  'Sir'  prefixed  to  the 
Christian  name,  and  finally 
proffers  his  hand  to  be  kissed. 
(2)  In  musical  score,  the  brace 
connecting  the  staves.  (3)  In 
architecture  an  ornamental 
moulding  over  a  window  or 
doorway,  characterized  by  re- 
verse curves  tangent  to  the 
curves  of  the  arch,  rising  to  a 
finial  or  other  ornament  above. 

Accolti,  ak-kol'te,  Benedetto 
(1415-66),  Italian  jurist  and  his- 
torian, was  born  in  Arezzo, 
Tuscany.  He  was  for  a  time  pro- 
fessor of  law  in  the  University  of 
Florence,  and  in  .  1459  became 
chancellor  of  the  Florentine 
republic,  a  position  he  retained 
until  his  death.  In  collaboration 
with  his  brother  Leonardo  he 
wrote  in  Latin  a  history  of  the 
first  crusade,  De  Bello  e  Chrisli- 
anis  contra  Barbaros  gesto  pro 
Chrisli  Sepulchro  et  Judaea  re- 
cuperandis  libri  tres  (1432),  which 
was  translated  into  Italian  and 
French  and  is  said  to  have  been 
used  by  Tasso  as  the  basis  for  his 
Jerusalem  Delivered.  He  also 
wrote  De  Praestantantia  Virorum 
sui  Aevi. 

His  son  Bernardo  (1465- 
1536)  was  a  poet  of  some  talent, 
noted  especially  as  the  reciter  of 
impromptu  verse.  Another  son, 
PiETRO  (1455-1532),  became  car- 
dinal of  Ancona.  As  abbreviator 
under  Leo  x.  he  drew  up  the  bull 
against  Luther. 

Accom'moda'tion,  in  com- 
merce, is  either  a  loan  of  money 
directly,  or  the  service  rendered 
when  one  becomes  security  for  a 
sum  advanced  to  another  by  a 
third  party,  as  by  a  banker. 

Accommodation,  a  theological 
term  for  the  use  in  Scripture  of 
methods  by  which  abstract 
spiritual  truths  are  conveyed  to 
human  understanding  by  means 
of  fannliar  natural  phenomena 
and  ordinary  experiences;  con- 
cessions to  the  limited  spiritual 
understanding  of  man.  Thus 
Christ  kept  back  from  his  dis- 
ciples many  things  which  they 
could  not  then  understand  (John 
xvi.  12)  and  Paul  (I.  Cor.  vii.  17) 
did  not  exact  the  same  require- 

VOL.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Accommodation  Bill 


38 


Account 


ments  from  all  members  of  the 
churches  under  his  care. 

Accommodation  Bill.  See  Bill 
OF  Exchange. 

Accommodation  of  Vision. 
When  parallel  rays  from  a 
distant  object  fall  upon  the  nor- 
mal eye,  they  pass  through 
the  lens,  and  are  brought  to  a 
focus  upon  the  retina  which  lines 
the  eyeball  internally  and  com- 
municates with  the  optic  nerve. 
To  secure  clear  vision  it  is  essen- 
tial that  rays  should  be  focussed 
exactly  on  the  retina.  But  the 
laws  of  optics  show  that  diver- 
gent rays  falling  on  a  lens  are 
not  brought  to  the  same  focus  as 
parallel  rays.  Objects  upward 
of  70  yards  away  may  be  re- 
garded as  sending  practically  par- 
allel rays  to  the  eye;  hence  those 
rays  are  focussed  on  the  retina, 
and  the  objects  are  clearly  seen. 
But  it  is  also  possible  to  see 
clearly  objects  within  that  dis- 
tance, so  long  as  they  are  at 
least  4  inches  from  the  eye.  It 
follows  that  the  eye  must  in  some 
way  accommodate  itself  to  vary- 
ing distances.  That  it  does  so 
readily  is  proved  by  experience; 
for  if,  from  a  distance  of  a  few 
feet,  we  look  through  a  railing  at 
a  spire,  we  can  see  either  the 
spire  or  the  railing  distinctly, 
according  as  we  fix  our  attention 
on  the  one  or  the  other,  but  we 
cannot  see  both  distinctly  at 
once. 

The  theory  of  the  accommoda- 
tion of  vision  was  advanced  by 
Thomas  Young  (1773-1829),  but 
to  Helmholtz  belongs  the  credit 
of  proving  that  it  is  accomplished 
by  a  temporary  alteration  in 
the  curvature  of  the  lens  which 
corrects  for  the  divergence  of 
non-parallel  rays,  so  as  still  to 
focus  the  image  on  the  retina. 
In  the  normal  condition  the  lens, 
which  is  elastic,  is  kept  habitu- 
ally at  tension  by  the  pressure 
of  the  suspensory  ligament.  It 
has  consequently  a  flatter  form 
than  it  would  take  if  left  to 
itself.  When  we  look  at  a  near 
object,  the  ciliary  muscle  of  the 
eye  contracts  by  reflex  mechan- 
ism. This  contraction  relieves 
the  tension  of  the  suspensory 
ligament,  and  the  lens  bulges  out 
by  its  own  elasticity,  thereby 
automatically  accommodating  it- 
self to  the  shorter  distance.  As 
soon  as  the  ciliary  muscle  ceases 
to  contract,  the  lens  resumes  its 
former  shape.  See  Eye;  Vision. 
Consult  Helmholtz'  Physiological 
Optics  (Eng.  trans.  1924). 

Accom'paniment,  in  music,  the 
instrumental  or  subservient  vocal 
parts  assisting  a  solo  part.  It  is 
either  ad  libitum,  when  it  may  be 
omitted  at  pleasure,  or  ohligato, 
when  it  forms  an  integral  part 
of  the  composition.  It  serves  to 
support  and  beautify  the  solo 
part,     and     therefore  should 


not  predominate,  but  merely 
enhance  the  charm  of  the  solo. 
The  prime  requisites  for  a  good 
accompanist  are  the  ability  to 
read  quickly  and  correctly,  an 
ample  technique,  and  a  wide 
repertoire. 

Accompanying  first  became  a 
matter  of  importance  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  days  of 
Bach  and  Handel.  In  the  scores 
of  these  earlier  masters,  frequent- 
ly very  faint  indications  are 
given  of  the  parts  of  the  accom- 
paniment beyond  a  'figured 
bass' — i.e.,  the  bass  part  with 
certain  recognized  figures  written 
above  it — indicating  the  har- 
mony to  be  played  to  each  note. 
At  that  time  the  art  of  playing 
from  such  scores  was  in  general 
practice  among  musicians;  but 
it  is  now  necessary  to  have  the 
accompanying  parts  written  out. 
The  work  of  supplying  additional 
accompaniments  to  these  scores, 
adapted  for  the  modern  orches- 
tra, has  been  performed  by 
numerous  eminent  musicians,  as 
Mozart,  Mendelssohn,  and  Rob- 
ert Franz. 

Accom'plice,  any  person  who 
in  any  way  is  associated  with 
another  in  the  commission  or 
attempted  commission  of  a  crim- 
inal offence.  An  accomplice  is 
punishable  with  his  associates 
either  as  principal  in  the  first  or 
second  degree  or  as  accessory 
(q.v.).  He  is  a  competent  witness 
either  against,  or  under  certain 
conditions  for,  his  associates  at 
every  stage  of  the  proceedings. 
His  evidence,  however,  being 
given,  as  a  rule,  under  a  promise 
or  in  the  expectation  of  pardon  or 
immunity,  is  usually  regarded 
with  suspicion,  and  it  is  a  well- 
established  practice  for  the  judge 
to  direct  the  jury  to  acquit  where 
the  prosecutor's  case  rests  solely 
on  the  testimony  of  an  accom- 
plice. 

Accoramboni,  ak'ko-ram-bo'- 
ne,  Virginia,  or  Vittoria  (1557- 
1585),  a  beautiful  Italian  woman 
sought  in  marriage  by  the  duke 
of  Bracciano,  but  married  by  her 
father  to  Francesco  Peretti, 
nephew  of  Cardinal  Montalto 
(later  Pope  Sixtus  v.).  Peretti 
was  murdered  (1581),  but  Pope 
Gregory  xiii.  for  a  time  pre- 
vented the  widow's  marriage 
with  the  duke,  the  supposed 
assassin.  Ultimately  the  mar- 
riage took  place  and  after  the 
duke's  death,  his  widow  was 
murdered  in  Padua  by  a  relative 
of  her  husband.  Her  tragedy 
forms  the  subject  of  various  plays 
and  novels. 

Accord'  and  Satisfac'tion,  a 
term  signifying  a  discharge  of  an 
obligation  arising  out  of  contract 
or  tort  by  a  new  agreement  based 
upon  a  good  and  sufficient  con- 
sideration. The  claimant  must 
undertake   to  accept   and  the 


debtor  undertake  to  pay  or  do 
something  to  satisfy  the  cause  of 
action — this  is  the  accord;  and 
actual  payment  or  fulfilment  of 
the  newly  constituted  debt  or 
obligation  must  follow — this  is 
the  satisfaction.  It  is  the  latter 
which  makes  the  'accord'  effec- 
tive, and  takes  the  case  out  from 
the  operation  of  the  rule  that 
a  debt  is  not  discharged  by  an 
agreement  to  forego  it.  A  cardi- 
nal part  of  the  doctrine  is  that  the 
satisfaction  must  constitute  a 
good  and  sufficient  consideration 
for  the  'accord.'  It  follows,  there- 
fore, that  payment  of  a  lesser  sum 
in  satisfaction  of  a  greater  can- 
not be  any  satisfaction  for  the 
whole,  because  the  promise  to 
waive  the  unpaid  part  of  the 
debt  is  a  'bare  fact,'  being  with- 
out consideration.  But  the  prom- 
ise and  performance  of  something 
different  from,  not  merely  a  part 
of,  what  was  due  under  the  for- 
mer obligation  is  good,  because 
the  courts  will  not  consider  the 
adequacy  of  the  consideration  for 
a  contract.  In  England,  and  in 
most  of  the  States  of  the  United 
States,  these  rules  are  strictly 
enforced.  But  in  some  States  the 
contrary  doctrine,  held  in  Scot- 
land and  in  most  European 
countries,  has  been  introduced, 
that  a  receipt  in  full  is  a  valid 
discharge  of  a  debt,  though  no 
consideration  has  been  given. 
See  Contract. 

Accor'dion,  a  portable  musical 
instrument,  with  keyboard  and 
mechanical  contrivance  for  wind, 
invented  by  Damian  at  Vienna 
in  1829.  Each  key  gives  two 
notes,  one  in  expanding,  the 
other  in  compressing  the  bellows. 
The  right  hand  manipulates  the 
keyboard,  while  the  left  works 
the  bellows,  on  the  lower  side  of 
which  are  usually  two  keys  that 
admit  wind  to  other  reeds,  thus 
furnishing  a  simple  harmony, 
generally  chords  of  the  tonic  and 
dominant.  The  concertina  (q.v.) 
is  based  on  the  same  principle. 

Accosted,  in  heraldry,  a  term 
often  applied  to  a  bend,  chevron, 
or  fess,  placed  between  two 
cotises. 

Accoucheur.  See  Obstetrics. 

Account,  a  statement  in  writ- 
ing of  the  debits  and  credits,  or 
either,  existing  with  respect  to 
the  transactions  between  persons, 
or  associations  of  persons,  or 
with  respect  to  things  of  value, 
costs  of  operation  of  business 
enterprises  or  commercial  or 
other  undertakings,  or  the  cost 
of  production  of  goods  or  other 
things  of  value,  or  the  rendering 
of  service.  An  account  is  a 
record  of  transactions,  acts,  re- 
ceipts, or  payments  involving 
things  of  value.  It  is  usually 
kept  or  prepared  as  an  aid  to 
determining  the  status  or  result 
of  business  dealings,  commercial, 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Accountancy 


39 


Accumulator,  Electric 


fiscal,  or  fiduciary  acts  or  rela- 
tions. The  varieties  of  accounts 
are  practically  innumerable.  Sale, 
cash,  property,  stores,  expense, 
proprietorship,  cost,  appropria- 
tion, and  fund  accounts  are  types 
of  accounts  customarily  main- 
tained by  divers  kinds  of  enter- 
prise. 

An  account  is  legally  demand- 
able  in  actions  at  law  based  upon 
a  series  of  transactions,  and  in 
all  cases  involving  a  fiduciary 
relation,  as  between  principal 
and  agent,  trustee  and  benefici- 
ary, executor  and  creditor  or 
legatee,  assignee  in  bankruptcy 
and  creditors  of  the  bankrupt, 
and  in  the  dissolution  of  partner- 
ships and  the  winding  up  of 
companies.  Private  corporations, 
as  well  as  public  officials  and 
other  persons  acting  in  a  fiduci- 
ary capacity,  are  generally  re- 
quired by  law  to  keep  accurate 
books  of  account.  A  current  ac- 
count may  be  legally  closed  by 
rendering  it  to  the  party  in- 
debted, and  by  its  acceptance  by 
the  latter.  It  then  becomes  an 
account  stated,  and  the  bal- 
ance may  thereafter  be  sued  for 
without  proving  the  items  upon 
which  it  is  based,  though  it  may 
be  impeached  for  fraud  or  mutual 
mistake.  An  accounting  could 
be  had  at  common  law  through 
the  form  of  action  known  as  an 
Action  of  Account,  but  the  cum- 
bersome character  of  the  pro- 
ceeding has  caused  it  to  be  gen- 
erally superseded,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States,  by  a 
Proceeding  in  Equity  instituted 
by  Bill  of  Account.  See  Ac- 
countant; Bookkeeping. 

Accountancy.  See  Account- 
ant; Bookkeeping;  Cost  Keep- 
ing; Public  Accountancy. 

Accountant,  a  person  trained 
and  skilled  in  the  science  of  ac- 
countancy. His  work  may  be 
roughly  divided  into  two  classes 
— the  devising  and  installing  of 
systems  oi  accounts,  and  the 
audit  and  examination  of  ac- 
counts. The  first  class  is  con- 
tructive,  the  second  analytical. 
An  accountant  should  be  versed 
not  only  in  the  art  of  bookkeep- 
ing, but  in  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  finance,  commercial  law, 
and  in  scientific  principles  of  or- 
ganization and  business  manage- 
ment. The  profession  of  ac- 
countancy, of  long  standing  in 
Scotland  and  England,  since 
1896  has  rapidly  acquired  wide- 
spread recognition  in  America. 
The  degree  of  Certified  Public 
Accountant  (c.p.a.)  is  now  con- 
ferred after  examination  by  each 
of  the  States.  See  Public  Ac- 
countancy. 

Account  Current,  a  periodical 
statement  of  the  debit  and  credit 
transactions  between  parties,  in 
order  of  date;  usually  made  up 
in  such  a  form  as  to  show  the  in- 
terest charged  or  allowed  on  each 


item  at  the  date  of  rendering. 
See  Bookkeeping. 

Account  Sales,  a  statement 
sent  by  an  agent  or  a  broker  to 
the  consignor  of  goods  when  sold, 
giving  particulars  of  weight, 
price  obtained,  etc.,  and  showing 
the  net  proceeds  after  deduction 
of  expenses.   See  Bookkeeping. 

Ac'cra,  or  Akkra,  seaport, 
West  Africa,  capital  of  the 
British  colony  of  Gold  Coast. 
The  most  important  town  on  the 
coast,  it  lies  slightly  to  the  west 
of  the  longitude  of  Greenwich, 
It  is  a  healthful  place,  much  at- 
tention being  paid  to  the  drain- 
age and  water  supply.  Features 
of  interest  are  the  old  English, 
Dutch,  and  Danish  forts.  Rub- 
ber, cocoa,  and  ivory  are  ex- 
ported.   Pop.  38,000. 

Accrescimento,  ak-kresh-i- 
men'to,  in  music,  the  prolonga- 
tion of  a  note  for  another  half  of 
its  value,  by  a  dot  placed  after  it. 

Accre'tion,  the  addition  made 
to  riparian  land  by  the  gradual 
action  of  the  water.  Such  addi- 
tion, if  imperceptible  in  its  prog- 
ress, becomes  the  property  of  the 
owner  of  the  land  to  which  it  is 
added,  whether  it  be  due  to  allu- 
vion (q.v.) — the  deposit  of  sand 
and  soil  by  the  action  of  the 
tides,  the  washing  of  waves  or 
the  current  of  a  stream — or  by 
reliction — the  gradual  withdraw- 
al or  drying  up  of  a  water  course. 
For  the  corresponding  principle 
in  law  of  personal  property,  see 
Accession. 

Ac'crington  (ancient  Akering- 
ton),  town,  Lancashire,  England; 
23  miles  north  of  Manchester. 
Industries  include  cotton  spin- 
ning, weaving,  calico  printing, 
and  manufacture  of  textile  ma- 
chinery. In  the  district  are  coal 
mines  and  quarries.  Pop.  (1921) 
43,610. 

Accu'mula'tlon  is  the  increase 
of  a  fund  through  the  periodical 
addition  of  the  interest  accruing 
thereto.  The  policy  of  the  law 
is  against  accumulation  for  more 
than  a  strictly  limited  period, 
but  a  certain  indulgence  is  al- 
lowed in  a  few  exceptional  cases, 
as  where  provisions  are  made  for 
the  payment  of  debt.  The  most 
important  statute  dealing  with 
this  matter  is  the  English  Thel- 
lusson  Act  of  1800,  which  has 
been  the  model  for  similar  stat- 
utes in  the  United  States  and 
other  countries. 

Accu'mulator,  Electric,  or 
Storage  Battery.  When  an  elec- 
tric battery  is  discharged,  there 
occur  chemical  changes  in  the 
liquids  and  electrodes,  caused  by 
the  passage  of  the  currents 
through  the  cell.  In  some  forms 
of  cell  all  the  products  of  the 
change  remain  in  the  cell,  and  in 
contact  with  the  electrodes, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the 
passage  of  a  current  in  the 
reverse  direction  will  produce 


the  reverse  action  and  restore  the 
original  conditions.  Such  a  bat- 
tery acts  as  a  reservoir  or  ac- 
cumulator of  electric  energy;  for 
after  each  discharge,  electric  en- 
ergy is  again  stored  in  it  by  driv- 
ing a  reverse  current  through  it 
from  some  other  source  of  electric 
energy. 

In  the  process  of  charging,  the 
voltage  developed  by  the  cell 
must  be  overcome,  and  the  re- 
sistance of  the  cell  (as  a  conduc- 
tor) absorbs  additional  pressure. 
On  discharging,  there  is  likewise 
a  loss  of  pressure,  due  to  the  re- 
sistance of  the  cell,  and  the 
pressure  when  discharging  is 
therefore  materially  lower  than 
when  charging  (Figs.  1  and  2). 
The  quantity  of  chemical  action 
taking  place  is  proportional  to 
the  quantity  of  electricity  passing 
in  either  direction;  and  in  a  per- 
fect cell,  with  no  irregular  actions 
and  no  resistance,  the  same  quan- 
tity of  electricity  could  be  de- 
rived as  is  put  in;  but  in  prac- 
tice this  is  not  completely  real- 
ized, though  under  favorable 
conditions  the  loss  from  second- 
ary chemical  reactions  is  not 
more  than  about  5  per  cent.  The 
ordinary  efficiency,  including 
heat  losses,  is  about  75  per  cent. 

Though  many  forms  of  battery 
allow  a  reversal,  few  of  them  are 
satisfactory.  The  simple  collec- 
tion of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  at 
the  poles  is  impracticable,  since 
they  pass  off  as  gases,  and  the 
only  batteries  that  have  proved 
successful  are  (1)  the  acid  lead 
type  developed  by  Plante,  Faure, 
and  Brush,  and  (2)  the  alkaline 
nickel-iron  type  of  Edison. 

Theory  of  the  Lead  Cell. — In  the 
first  batteries,  devised  by  Plante, 
a  lead  plate  covered  with  spongy 
lead  formed  the  negative  elec- 
trode, and  a  plate  covered  with 
a  layer  of  lead  peroxide  formed 
the  positive  electrode;  these 
were  immersed  in  sulphuric  acid 
and  water.  The  heavy  weight 
and  large  size  of  the  Plante  bat- 
tery led  to  the  development  of 
the  Faure  or  'pasted-plate'  form, 
in  which  stiff  lead-alloy  grids  are 
filled  with  lead  oxide  paste;  and 
on  the  first  charge  the  plates  as- 
sume the  spongy  lead  and  per- 
oxide conditions  of  the  Plante 
form.  As  a  consequence,  both 
negative  and  positive  plates  may 
be  constructed  of  porous,  spongy 
material,  presenting  an  enormous 
surface  to  the  acid,  and  solid 
metal  is  used  only  as  a  frame- 
work or  carrier.  Certain  modi- 
fied forms  of  the  Plante  bat- 
tery, with  stiff  frames  and  thin 
lead  insets  'formed'  into  active 
material  by  repeated  charging 
and  discharging,  have  aKso  been 
successful. 

On  discharging  these  batteries 
the  lead  is  converted  into  sul- 
phate of  lead,  and  the  hydrogen 
conveyed  to  the  positive  plate  is 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '20 


Accumulator,  Electric 


40 


Accumulator,  Electric 


oxidized  by  the  peroxide  of  lead. 
The  lower  oxide  thus  formed  is 
attacked  by  the  acid,  so  that  sul- 
phate of  lead  is  produced  on  both 
plates,  and  a  part  of  the  acid  is 
removed  from  the  liquid.  On 
reversing  the  current,  hydrogen 


effect  is  modified  by  the  fact 
that  the  resistance  of  the  cell 
changes  with  the  state  of  charge. 
For  example,  as  the  cell  becomes 
more  fully  charged  gassing  be- 
gins; the  gas  bubbles  on  the 
surface  of  the   plates  increase 


2.55 

2.50 

ZA5 
2.40 
235 
2.30 
225 
2.20 
2.15 
2.10 
2.05 
2.00 


VOLTS 


/ 

i 

UR 

S 

H 

OU 

2.05 
2.00 
7.95 
I.90 
1.85 
1.80 
1.75 


1    2    3   4^   5    6   7   8    9  10  II    12  13  14-  15  16  17  18  19  20  21  i? 

Fig.  1. — Typical  Charging  Curve  of  Lead  Battery 

VOLTS 


HO 

\- 

HOI 

RS 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

S 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

Fig.  2. — Typical  Discharging  Curve  of  Lead  Battery 


is  carried  to  the  negative  plate, 
and  reduces  the  sulphate  of  lead 
back  to  metallic  lead,  while  the 
oxygen  converts  the  sulphate  on 
the  positive  plate  to  peroxide; 
and  the  sulphate  in  both  cases 
returns  to  the  liquid  as  sulphuric 
acid. 

THscharqe: — Pb02  (positive  plate) -f2H2S04 

+Pb  (negative  plate)  = 

PbS04  (positive  plate)  +  2H2O 

4-  PbS04  (negative  plate), 
aarffe.— PbS04  +  2H2O  +  PbS04  = 

Pb  +  2H2SO4  +  Pb02. 

The  acid  becomes  continually 
weaker  as  the  discharge  proceeds, 
and  its  strength  indicates  the 
state  of  the  reservoir.  So  long 
as  any  portion  of  unchanged 
material  remains  in  contact 
with  the  acid,  the  voltage  of  the 
cell  is  maintained  at  just  above 
2.00  volts,  provided  no  current  is 
flowing.  The  voltage  of  a  cell  at 
no  load  is  the  same  when  fully 
charged  as  when  practically  dis- 
charged. But  when  current  is 
flowing,  the  internal  resistance  of 
the  cell  affects  the  terminal 
voltage;  vSO  that  while  a  charging 
current  is  flowing,  the  terminal 
voltage  rises  (the  larger  the 
current  the  greater  the  voltage 
rise) ;  and  while  discharge  current 
is  flowing  the  voltage  drops,  pro- 
portional to  the  current.  This 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  *26 


the  resistance;  hence  the  voltage 
must  rise.  While  discharging,  the 
deposits  of  lead  sulphate  on  the 
plates  and  the  decrease  of  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  acid  in- 
crease the  resistance  as  the  cell 
becomes  more  and  more  dis- 
charged, and  the  terminal  volt- 
age drops. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  typical  curve  of 
discharge  in  which  horizontal  dis- 
tances represent  ampere  hours. 
The  cell  is  practically  discharged 
at  1.8  volts.  On  charging  (Fig.  1), 
the  E.M.F.  rises  rapidly  to  nearly 
2.1  volts,  then  more  slowly  to 
2.5.  volts.  These  curves  hold 
only  while  the  current  is  con- 
tinuously flowing.  Both  curves 
are  for  one  particular  current 
value.  With  other  currents,  the 
curves  would  change  in  magni- 
tude, but  have  the  same  general 
character.  At  any  point,  if  the 
current  were  stopped,  the  voltage 
would  return  to  just  above  2.00 
volts,  regardless  of  the  state  of 
charge. 

The  action  of  the  cell  in  the 
secondary  battery  is  similar  to 
that  of  an  ordinary  primary  bat- 
tery (see  Cell,  Voltaic),  but 
there  are  important  differences. 
By  the  use  of  lead  instead  of 
zinc  there  is  formed  the  insoluble 
lead  sulphate  in  place  of  the  sol- 
uble zinc  sulphate  or  chloride. 


Arrangement  of  Lead  Cell. — A 

lead  cell  contains  two  groups  of 
plates,  positive  and  negative, 
arranged  alternately.  If  the 
positive  and  negative  plates  of  a 
battery  touch,  it  is  short- 
circuited  and  so  disharges  itself. 
To  prevent  the  plates  from  com- 
ing in  contact  with  each  other, 
insulating  separators  of  some 
kind  are  generally  employed, 
usually  thin  sheets  of  wood. 
These  wooden  separators  are 
treated  chemically  to  remove  all 
injurious  substances,  and  are 
grooved  vertically  to  allow  gases 
to  escape  and  electrolyte  to 
circulate  freely.  Thin  hard- 
rubber  sheets,  perforated  with 
small  holes,  or  made  with  im- 
bedded threads,  are  also  used. 
The  separator  must  be  very- 
porous,  so  that  acid  may  readily 
diffuse  through  it,  otherwise  the 
resistance  of  the  battery  is  in- 
creased; at  the  same  time  it 
must  prevent  particles  of  solid 
material  from  bridging  across 
from  one  plate  to  another  and  so 
short-circuiting  the  cell.  The 
acid  is  specially  prepared,  free 
from  metals,  with  a  density  of 
1,15  to  1.30  depending  upon  the 
type  of  service.  If  it  is  too 
strong,  the  lead  and  separators 
are  slowly  attacked;  if  too  weak, 
the  resistance  of  the  cell,  and 
hence  the  drop  in  voltage  when 
current  is  drawn,  is  increased. 

The  plates  are  usually  con- 
tained in  ebonite  boxes  which 
fit  the  plate  and  separator  as- 
sembly tightly.  The  plates  rest 
upon  ribs  projecting  above  the 
bottom  of  the  box.  The  space 
between  these  ribs  allows  any 
loosened  material  to  fall  clear  of 
the  plates  and  rest  on  the  bottom 
of  the  box.  The  tops  of  the 
boxes  are  sealed  on,  and  have  a 
small  cap  for  filling,  and  a  vent 
hole.  Glass  jars  and  lead- 
lined  wooden  boxes  are  some- 
times employed  for  large  sta- 
tionary batteries. 

Care  of  Lead  Cells. — Batteries 
deteriorate  but  little  if  they  are 
not  discharged  to  the  full  extent, 
and  charged  immediately  after 
discharge.  But  if  allowed  to 
stand  for  some  time  after  a 
discharge,  the  spongy  electro- 
lytic lead  sulphate  crystallizes 
into  hard  precipitated  lead  sul- 
phate which  is  not  easily  decom- 
posed by  an  electric  current. 
This  is  difficult  to  convert,  and 
the  material  thus  'sulphated' 
is  apt  to  split  off  and  be  lost. 
The  life  may  be  anything  from 
six  months  to  ten  years,  accord- 
ing to  treatment.  Frequent  ex- 
haustion, heavy  currents,  and 
leaving  uncharged  shorten  the 
life.  When  the  plates  are  worn 
out,  new  ones  can  be  inserted. 

While  being  charged,  as  the 
plates  approach  the  fully  charged 
condition,  or  during  over-charg- 
ing, some  of  the  charging  current. 


Accumulator,  Electric 


41 


Accumulator,  Electric 


instead  of  carrying  on  the  above 
reaction,  will  dissociate  water 
in  the  electrolyte  into  hydrogen 
and  oxygen,  the  hydrogen  ap- 
pearing at  the  negative  plate 
and  the  oxygen  at  the  positive 
plate  as  gases.  These  gases 
bubble  to  the  surface  and  escape. 
Provision  must  be  made  for  the 
escape  of  these  gases  from  the 
container  and  since  they  form 
an  explosive  mixture,  precau- 
tions against  explosion  must  be 
taken.  Because  of  the  loss  of 
water  in  this  manner,  distilled 
or  rain  water  is  added  as  soon  as 
the  tops  of  the  plates  emerge. 
Hard  water  produces  a  skin  on 
the  plates.  Fresh  acid  is  rarely 
needed.  It  will  be  found  that 
when  gas  is  evolved  from  the 
cells  a  fine  mist  of  acid  rises,  and 
the  room  must  be  well  ventilated. 
Also  all  metal  and  woodwork 
should  be  kept  well  painted,  to 
prevent  corrosion. 

Theory  of  the  Edison  Cell— As 
shown  in  Fig.  4,  the  negative 
plate  (left)  is  a  nickel-plated 
steel  grid  into  which  are  pressed 
steel  pockets  packed  with  iron 
oxide  bearing  a  little  mercury; 
the  positive  plate  (right)  •  is  a 
nickel-plated  grid  to  which  are 
fastened  perforated  nickelled 
steel  tubes  filled  with  alternate 
layers  of  nickel  hydrate  and  thin 
nickel  flakes.  These  plates  are  ar- 
ranged alternately,  there  being 
one  more  negative  than  positive, 
and  all  the  like  plates  in  a  cell 
are  bolted  to  one  steel  terminal. 
The  nested  set  is  placed  in  a 
nickel-plated  steel  jar,  which 
then  has  its  top  welded  on.  The 
electrolyte  is  a  21-per-cent.  solu- 
tion of  potassium  hydrate  plus  a 
little  lithium  hydrace.  The  first 
charge  changes  the  nickel  hy- 
drate to  oxide  and  the  iron  oxide 
to  metallic  form.  With  every 
cycle  of  use  thereafter,  on  dis- 
charge the  iron  becomes  oxidized, 
and  the  nickel  oxide  goes  from  a 
higher  to  a  lower  form;  while  on 
charge,  metallic  iron  and  high 
oxide  of  nickel  are  produced. 
The  following  equation,  when 
read  from  left  to  right,  shows 
discharge  changes;  when  read 
from  right  to  left,  indicates 
charge: 

2Ni02  -I-  2KOH  +  Fe  =  Ni203 
-f  2KOH  +  FeO. 

The  net  result  is  a  transfer  of 
oxygen  from  iron  to  nickel,  and 
back  again;  hence  the  Edison 
has  been  called  an  'oxygen  lift' 
cell.  It  develops  1.4  volts  at 
completion  of  charge,  and  is  nor- 
mally recharged  when  its  e.m.f. 
has  dropped  from  1.0  to  0.8  volt. 

Care  of  Edison  Cell  —  An 
Edison  cell  may  be  charged  or 
discharged  at  any  rate,  so  long 
as  the  internal  temperature 
does  not  exceed  about  45°c. 
It  may  remain  completely  dis- 
charged for  any  length  of  time 
without  injury.    The  same  ex- 


plosive mixture  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  as  that  of  a  lead  cell  is 
given  off  on  charging,  and  must 
be  disposed  of,  but  these  gases 
contain  no  acid  fumes,  and  are 
non-corrosive.  Distilled  water 
must  be  added  from  time  to 
time  to  make  up  for  this  loss. 
The  specific  gravity  of  the 
electrolyte  is  the  same'  at  all 
times,  and  gives  no  indication  of 
the  state  of  charge.  The  cell 
voltage  is  the  best  indication  of 
this  state. 


Capacity. — The  capacity  of  a 
cell  is  determined  by  the  quan- 
tity of  electricity  it  will  deliver, 
usually  reckoned  in  ampere 
hours.  This  depends  on  the 
construction  and  size  of  the 
plates;  but  instead  of  using  very 
large  plates,  several  of  each  kind 
may  be  used,  with  positive  and 
negative  placed  alternately.  The 
capacity,  particularly  of  the  lead 
cell,  is  not  a  constant  quantity, 
for  with  a  large  current  the  acid 
in  the  pores  of  the  plate  is  so 
rapidly  weakened  that  fresh  elec- 
trolyte from  outside  cannot  dif- 
fuse into  the  plate  quickly 
enough.  Hence  the  interior  por- 
tions are  not  fully  discharged, 
unless  the  cell  is  given  a  period 
of  rest. 

Comparison. — The  Edison  bat- 
tery is  mechanically  rugged  and 
can  stand  jarring.     It  w'^ig'hs 


from  one-half  to  one-third  as 
much  as  a  similar  lead  battery, 
and  the  space  occupied  is  about 
the  same.  The  Edison  battery 
may  be  allowed  to  remain  dis- 
charged indefinitely.  It  forms 
very  little  sediment.  In  general 
it  has  a  longer  life.  The  lead 
battery  is  cheaper.  The  internal 
resistance  of  a  lead  battery  is 
less,  so  that  heavy  currents  may 
be  drawn  with  a  smaller  drop 
in  voltage  at  the  battery  ter- 
minals.   This  makes  a  lead  bat- 


tery preferable  for  automobile 
starting  service.  For  this  reason, 
also,  the  energy  efficiency  of  a 
lead  battery  is  slightly  greater. 

Uses. — Storage  batteries  are 
used  for  the  starting,  lighting, 
and  ignition  of  automobiles, 
motor  boats,  and  airplanes. 
They  furnish  the  energy  supply 
for  radio  sets.  The  glass  jar 
types  are  used  for  farm  lighting, 
and  in  power  plants  and  sub- 
stations for  emergency  operation 
of  auxiliary  devices.  The  very 
large  lead-lined  wood-box  types 
are  used  for  energy  supply  to 
telephone  systems. 

Bibliography. — ConsultPlante's 
Storage  of  Electrical  Energy; 
Treadwell's  Storage  Battery ; 
Wade's  Secondary  Batteries ; 
Holland's  Edison  Storage  Battery; 
Lyndon's  Storage  Battery  Engi- 
neering; Jansky  and  Wood's  Ele- 

VOL.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Accumulator,  Heat 


41A 


Accumulator,  Heat 


tnenis  of  Storage  Batteries  (1923); 
Vinal's  Storage  Batteries  (1924). 

Accumulator,  Heat,  has  for  its 
purpose  (1)  the  accumulation  of 
heat  deUvered  continuously,  so 
that  it  may  be  expended  during 
short  intervals,  or  (2)  the  storing 
of  heat  delivered  intermittently. 


so  that  it  may  be  available  for 
continuous  use.  In  engineering 
practice  the  heat-storing  medium 
is  usually  water,  which  is  not 
only  generally  available,  but  has 
the  highest  specific  heat  per  unit 
of  weight  of  all  common  sub- 
stances, and  readily  transfers  its 
heat  to  or  absorbs  it  from  steam 
by  evaporation  or  condensation 
of  the  latter. 

(1)  An  example  of  accumula- 
tors of  the  first  class  is  found 
in  special  heat-storage  boilers 
adapted  to  receive  steam  at  high 
pressure  from  steam  boilers  oper- 
ated continuously,  and  then  to 
■give  off  steam  during  short  peri- 
ods of  great  demand,  as  during 
the  rush  hours  in  electric  trac- 
tion power  plants.  The  steam 
pressure  carried  in  the  accumu- 
lator, which  is  simply  a  large  and 
strong  steel  tank,  must  be  con- 
siderably higher  than  the  work- 
ing power  of  the  engines,  as  it  is 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '2G 


only  by  allowing  the  pressure 
(and  therefore  the  temperature  of 
the  mass  of  water  in  the  heat 
storage  tank)  to  fall  that  the  lat- 
ter is  able  to  supply  heat  and 
steam.  For  instance,  if  the  work- 
ing pressure  of  the  engines  is  150 
pounds  per  square  inch,  corre- 


sponding to  a  steam  temperature 
of  365.6°  F.,  the  maximum  pres- 
sure in  the  accumulators  may  be 
300  pounds  per  square  inch,  cor- 
responding to  a  temperature  of 
421.8°  F.  During  the  period  of 
withdrawal,  steam  will  be  allowed 
to  flow  from  the  storage  tanks 
through  a  pressure  reducing 
valve,  and  each  100  pounds  of 
water  in  the  storage  tank  will  be 
capable  of  giving  up  56  heat 
units  in  cooling  421.8°  to  365.6° 
F.,  and  further  of  evaporating  .07 
lb.  of  steam.  During  the  period 
of  charging  the  boilers  are  in  free 
communication  with  the  accumu- 
lator, but  during  the  period  of 
discharge  of  the  accumulator  the 
boilers  supply  steam  directly  to 
the  engines.  This  class  of  heat 
accumulator  has  found  only  lim- 
ited application,  chiefly  in  Eu- 
rope. The  advantages  claimed 
for  it  are  that  it  enables  a  large 
maximum  load  to  be  carried  by 


a  moderate-sized  equipment  of 
boilers,  and  that  it  permits  the 
boilers  to  be  operated  at  a  uni- 
form and  efficient  rating  through- 
out the  day.  The  disadvantage 
is  the  extra  cost  of  apparatus. 

(2)  The  other  type  of  heat  ac- 
cumulator, in  which  heat  from 
an  intermittent  source  is  stored 
for  continuous  use,  is  found  in 
low  pressure  steam  turbine  prac- 
tice. Consider,  for  instance,  steel 
mills,  where  large  volumes  of 
steam  are  exhausted  at  irregular 
intervals  by  powerful  engines 
used  for  driving  the  rolls,  or  in 
collieries  where  the  same  is  true 
of  the  winding  engines.  A  steam 
turbine  receiving  this  steam  from 
the  engines  at  atmospheric  pres- 
sure and  exhausting  into  a  high 
vacuum  produced  by  a  condenser 
will  generate,  roughly,  about  as 
much  more  power  as  has  already 
been  produced  in  the  main  en- 
gine. As  steam  turbines  are 
usually  employed  to  drive  elec- 
tric generators,  and  must  run 
constantly,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  store  the  steam  and  heat  ex- 
hausted by  the  main  engine. 
This  is  accomplished  by  the  fol- 
lowing methods:  first,  by  direct- 
ing the  exhaust  steam  into  large 
chambers  or  tanks  filled  with 
scrap  iron,  as  old  rails,  etc.;  sec- 
ond, by  directing  the  steam  into  a 
chamber  filled  with  a  multitude 
of  small  trays,  each  containing 
water;  third,  by  blowing  the  ex- 
haust steam  in  under  the  surface 
of  water  contained  in  suitable 
closed  tanks;  fourth,  by  direct- 
ing the  steam  into  a  tank  above 
a  large  body  of  water,  and  by 
mechanical  means  throwing  the 
water  up  into  the  steam. 

In  all  four  methods,  it  will  be 
noted,  the  object  aimed  at  is  to 
bring  the  exhaust  steam  into  in- 
timate contact  with  the  whole 
mass  of  water  or  other  material 
which  is  to  store  the  heat.  In 
order  to  prevent  dangerous  ac- 
cumulations of  pressure  in  the 
heat  accumulator,  a  direct  con- 
nection to  the  atmosphere  is 
usually  provided  through  a  'back 
pressure'  valve.  On  the  other 
hand,  to  supply  steam  continu- 
ously to  the  turbine,  in  case  the 
main  engine  should  be  shut  off 
for  an  exceptionally  long  time,  a 
pressure  reducing  valve  admit- 
ting live  steam  from  the  boilers 
is  necessary.  Suppose  the  back 
pressure  valve  be  set  to  open  at 
ten  pounds  above  atmospheric 
pressure,  and  the  reducing  valve 
to  begin  admitting  live  steam  at 
three  pounds  below  atmospheric 
pressure;  we  thus  have  a  total 
pressure  range  of  thirteen  pounds, 
and  a  temperature  range  of  38° 
F.  Under  these  conditions  one 
pound  of  water  in  the  accumu- 
lator is  capable  of  condensing 
.04  pound  of  exhaust  steam, 
thereby  storing  29  heat  units, 
and  of  giving  up  equal  quantities 


Accamulafor,  Hydraulic 


41B 


Acetone 


of  steam  and  heat  when  the  pres- 
sure falls  again. 

Accumulator,  Hydraulic. 

See  Hydraulic  Machinery. 

Accu'satlve  Case.  See  De- 
clension. 

Aceldama,  a-seVda-ma,  or 
Akeldama  (Aramaic,  'the  field  of 
blood'), so  named  either  because 
it  was  bought  with  the  money 
with  which  Judas  had  been 
bribed  (Matt,  xxvii,  7,  8),  or 
because  it  was  the  scene  of  the 
traitor's  tragic  death  (Acts  i.  18, 
19).  It  is  traditionally  identified 
with  Hakk-ed-Dumm,  near  the 
Pool  of  Siloam,  south  of  Jerusa- 
lem. 

Acephalous,  a-sef'a-lus,  a  rhe- 
torical term  applied,  in  scanning 
verse,  to  a  line  that  is  short  of 
a  syllable  at  the  beginning. 
Thus,  'A  sea  that  is  stranger 
than  death'  would  be  called 
'anapaestic  trimeter  acephalous,' 
because  the  first  foot  is  an  in- 
complete anapaest. 

A'cer,  Acceraceae.  See  Ma- 
ple. 

Acerra,  a-cher'ra  (ancient 
Acerroe),  town  and  episcopal  see, 
Italy,  province  of  Caserta;  9 
miles  northeast  of  Naples.  It 
has  a  cathedral,  rebuilt  in  1788 
after  an  earthquake,  and  a 
seminary.  There  are  sulphur 
springs.    Pop.  17,000. 

Acetab'ulum  (Latin  acetum, 
'vinegar'),  an  ancient  Roman 
sauce  vessel;  thence  an  ancient 
liquid  measure,  about  half  a  gill. 
The  word  is  applied  in  anatomy 
to  the  cavity  of  the  os  innomi- 
natum,  or  hip  bone,  which  re- 
ceives the  head  of  the  femur, 
called  also  the  cotyloid  cavity. 
Similar  cup-like  structures  in 
animals  and  plants  receive  the 
same  name. 

Ac'etal,  C2H4(OC2H6)2,  is  a 
colorless  liquid  of  an  agreeable 
odor,  and  a  flavor  resembling 
that  of  the  hazel  nut.  It  is  one 
of  the  products  of  the  slow  oxi- 
dation of  alcohol  under  the  in- 
fluence of  finely  divided  plati- 
num, or  of  chlorine.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  0.821,  and  it  boils  at 
104°  c. 

Acetal'dehyde,  or  Acetic  Al- 
dehyde, CHsCHO,  a  volatile 
liquid  produced  by  the  oxidation 
of  ethyl  alcohol  and  theoretically, 
at  least,  by  the  reduction  of  acetic 
acid.  The  method  of  laboratory 
preparation  consists  in  distilling 
a  mixture  of  alcohol,  water,  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  manganese 
dioxide.  The  distillate  contains 
the  aldehyde,  which  is  further 
purified  by  distillation  over 
calcium  chloride  and  subsequent 
precipitation  of  acetaldehyde 
ammonia  by  saturating  a  solu- 
tion of  the  aldehyde  in  ether  with 
gaseous  ammonia.  The  aldehyde 
is  recovered  from  this  compound 
by  distillation,  after  acidifying 
with  sulphuric  acid.  Commer- 
cially large  quantities  of  acetalde- 
hyde are  prepared  as  the  first 


step  in  the  manufacture  of  acetic 
acid  by  the  oxidation  of  acety- 
lene in  the  presence  of  mercury 
salts  by  air.  The  aldehyde  is  a 
thin,  colorless  liquid,  burning 
with  a  blue  flame  and  having  a 
specific  gravity  of  0.778,  a 
boiling  point  of  20.8°c.,  and  a 
melting  point  of  —  120. 7°c.  It 
has  a  sharp,  suffocating  odor. 
Like  all  aldehydes,  it  forms  a 
crystalline  compound  with  am- 
monia and  with  bisulphites,  and 
it  is  easily  oxidized  to  acetic  acid 
or  reduced  to  ethyl  alcohol. 

Acetaldehyde  has  antiseptic 
properties;  it  is  used  to  some  ex- 
tent in  photographic  developers, 
and  in  the  form  of  vapor  or  a 
solution  in  alcohol  possesses  the 
property  of  hardening  gelatin 
films.  Its  greatest  use  is  as  an 
intermediate  step  in  the  manu- 
facture of  synthetic  acetic  acid 
and  a  number  of  other  com- 
pounds, as  the  aldols.  Small 
amounts  are  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  certain  dyes. 

Acetamide,  as-et-am'Id,  CHs- 
CO.NH2,  is  a  white  crystalline 
solid  prepared  by  the  reaction 
of  acetyl  chloride  and  ammonia. 
It  melts  at  83°  c,  boils  at  222° 
c,  and  is  easily  soluble  in  water. 
When  heated  with  a  dilute  min- 
eral acid  it  hydrolyzes,  yielding 
acetic  acid  and  the  ammonium 
salt  of  the  mineral  acid.  When 
it  is  boiled  with  a  strong  base, 
ammonia  is  evolved,  and  an 
acetate  formed  in  solution. 

Acetanilide,  as-et-an'il-id, 
Antifebrin,  or  Phenylaceta- 
MIDE,  CH3CONHC6H5.  is  pre- 
pared by  boiling  aniline  with 
glacial  acetic  acid.  It  is  a  color- 
less crystalline  powder,  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  and  with  a 
pungent  taste.  Its  melting 
point  is  113°  c.  It  is  employed 
in  medicine  as  an  antipyretic  and 
analgesic,  in  place  of  quinine,  and 
is  a  common  ingredient  of  so- 
called  'headache  powders.'  It  is 
also  used  in  large  quantities  in 
the  preparation  of  para-nitro- 
aniline,  an  important  interme- 
diate for  dye  manufacture. 

Acetates,  as'i-tats,  salts  of 
acetic  acid,  consisting  of  the 
characteristic  group  of  that  acid, 
CH3  •  COO,  combined  with  a  posi- 
tive element  or  group — as  NaC2- 
H3O2  (sodium  acetate)  or  C2H5- 
C2H3O2  (ethyl  acetate).  They 
may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  a 
metal,  a  metallic  oxide,  hydrox- 
ide, or  carbonate  in  acetic  acid, 
and  evaporating  to  crystalliza- 
tion, or  in  the  reaction  of  an 
alcohol  and  acetic  acid  in  the 
presence  of  a  dehydrating  agent, 
as  sulphuric  acid. 

Acetates  are  generally  soluble 
in  water,  and  react  with  acids 
to  yield  acetic  acid  and  a  salt 
of  the  positive  element  or  group. 
To  test  for  an  acetate,  a  mixture 
of  the  substance  with  a  little 
alcohol  and  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid  is  heated  gently. 


Ethyl  acetate  is  evolved,  recog- 
nized by  its  fruity  odor. 

Important  metallic  acetates 
are:  aluminum  acetate,  used  by 
dyers  in  mordanting;  calcium 
acetate,  largely  used  as  a  source 
of  acetone;  basic  copper  acetate, 
verdigris;  copper  aceto-ar  senile, 
the  chief  constituent  of  emerald 
green,  Paris  green,  or  Schwein- 
furt's  green;  lead  acetate,  sugar 
of  lead.  Many  organic  acetates 
are  found  in  nature,  and  a  con- 
siderable number  are  manufac- 
tured as  artificial  fruit  essences- 
Acetic  Acid,  a-set^ik  or  -se'- 
tik,  CH3CO.OH,  is  formed  by  the 
oxidation  of  alcohol,  but  is 
chiefly  prepared  from  the  com- 
plex mixture  obtained  in  the 
destructive  distillation  of  wood, 
called  Pyroligneous  Acid;  it  is 
purified  by  neutralization  with 
lime,  and  subsequent  distillation 
of  resulting  calcium  acetate  with 
sulphuric  acid.  It  is  also  made  by 
exposing  poor  wine  to  the  air, 
oxidation  of  the  alcohol  taking 
place  in  the  presence  of  the  micro- 
organism Mycoderma  aceti 
('mother-of-vinegar').  Large 
quantities  of  acetic  acid  are 
manufactured  synthetically  from 
acetylene.  The  process  consists 
in  condensing  acetylene  with 
water  vapor  in  the  presence  of  a 
catalyst  (mercury  salts)  to  form 
acetaldehyde  and  oxidizing  this 
with  air. 

Acetic  acid  is  a  colorless  liquid, 
having  a  penetrating  odor,  sharp 
sour  taste,  and  caustic  action  on 
the  skin.  It  boils  at  118°  c,  and 
solidifies,  when  pure,  at  about 
16.7°  c.  into  a  crystalline  solid 
known  as  Glacial  Acetic  Acid,  of 
specific  gravity  1.057  at  15°  c. 
It  mixes  with  water  in  all  pro- 
portions. It  is  very  stable,  and 
acts  as  a  monobasic  acid,  form- 
ing a  series  of  salts  called  Ace- 
tates (q.v.).  Other  derivatives 
of  acetic  acid  may  be  formed  by 
substitution,  as  mono-chlor  (CH2- 
CICO.OH),  di-chlor  (CHCI2CO.- 
OH),  and  tri-chlor  (CCI3CO.OH) 
acetic  acids,  which  are  made  by 
replacing  successive  portions  of 
hydrogen  by  chlorine. 

Acetic  acid  is  used  in  dilute 
water  solution  as  vinegar,  which 
contains  3  to  6  per  cent,;  as  a 
solvent  for  gelatin,  albumin,  res- 
ins, oils,  etc.;  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  acetates;  in  the  manu- 
facture of  acetanilide  and  of 
white  lead;  and  in  medicine. 

Acetic  Ether,  or  Ethyl  Ace- 
tate, CH3CO.O.C2HS,  prepared 
by  the  reaction  of  sodium  ace- 
tate, sulphuric  acid,  and  alcohol, 
is  a  colorless  liciuid  with  a  re- 
freshing, penetrating,  fruity  odor; 
specific  gravity,  0.905  at  0°; 
boiling  point,  77°  c.  It  is  used 
as  a  solvent  and  flavoring  agent, 
and  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant. 

Acetone,  as'i-ton,  dimethyl- 
ketone,  CH3CO.CH3,  is  the 
simplest  of  the  class  of  organic 
compounds  called  ketones  (q.v.). 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


Acetophenone 


42 


Achsemenlans 


It  is  present  in  the  urine  nor- 
mally in  small  quantities;  in 
certain  diseases,  especially  dia- 
betes, in  larger  quantities.  It  is 
obtained  from  the  products  of 
the  destructive  distillation  of 
wood,  or  by  heating  calcium 
acetate.  Large  quantities  are 
also  made,  in  the  United  States, 
as  a  by-product  of  the  manu- 
facture of  butanol  from  corn- 
starch by  the  fermentation  proc- 
ess. This  process,  which  consists 
in  the  fermentation  of  a  solution 
of  cornstarch  containing  a  part  of 
the  protein  of  the  grain,  by 
Clostridium  acetohutylicum,  yields 
a  mixture  of  30  parts  of  acetone, 
60  parts  of  normal  butanol,  and 
10  parts  of  ethyl  alcohol  as  a  2.5 
per  cent,  solution  in  water. 
This  mixture  is  subjected  to 
fractional  distillation  and  yields  a 
very  high  grade  acetone.  The 
production  of  acetone  by  this 
process  in  the  United  States 
amounts  to  over  30  tons  a  day. 

Acetone  is  a  colorless,  volatile 
liquid  of  penetrating,  pleasant, 
ethereal  odor;  boiling  point, 
56.1°  c;  specific  gravity,  .792 
at  20°  c.  It  mixes  with  water 
and  alcohol,  and  is  a  useful  sol- 
vent for  gums,  resins,  fats,  etc. 
It  is  used  in  the  preparation  of 
chloroform,  iodoform,  sulphonal, 
and  smokeless  powders. 

Ac'etophe'none,  or  HypNone, 
phenyl-methyl-ketone,  CeHsCO.- 
CHa,  is  a  yellowish,  oily  liquid 
which  boils  at  199°-202°  c.  and 
is  crystalline  at  low  temperatures; 
specific  gravity  1.028  (15°  c). 
It  is  used  as  a  hypnotic  in  doses 
of  5  grains.  When  taken  in  large 
doses  it  causes  coma  and  death. 

Acetyl,  as'i-til,  CH3CO,  is  a 
univalent  group  or  radical,  of 
which  acetic  acid,  acetyl  chlo- 
ride, etc.,  are  compounds;  the 
former  being  the  hydroxide 
(CH3COOH),  and  the  latter  the 
chloride  (CH3COCI). 

Acetylene,  a-set'i-len,  C2H2, 
a  gaseous  hydrocarbon,  discov- 
ered by  Berthelot  in  1862,  is 
readily  prepared  by  the  reaction 
between  calcium  carbide  and 
water,  calcium  hydroxide  (slaked 
lime)  being  formed  at  the  same 
time.  One  pound  of  carbide 
yields  about  5  cubic  feet  of 
acetylene  at  ordinary  tempera- 
ture (15°  c.)  and  normal  baro- 
metric pressure  (760  mm.). 

The  gas  is  colorless,  and  when 
pure  has  an  ethereal  odor  which 
is  not  unpleasant;  the  disagree- 
able odor  of  the  gas,  as  usually 
prepared,  being  due  to  small 
quantities  of  impurities.  It  is 
poisonous,  and  produces  head- 
ache. For  numerical  properties, 
see  Gases.  Acetylene  burns  in 
air,  one  volume  requiring  12>< 
volumes  of  air,  and  yielding  two 
volumes  of  carbon  dioxide  (gas) 
and  a  ([uantity  of  water  vapor. 
A  mixture  of  acetylene  and  air 
in  the  same  ratio  by  volume  is 
highly  explosive. 

Vol.  I.— March  '27 


The  flame  of  burning  acetylene 
is  luminous  and  smoky,  but  if 
burned  from  a  jet  of  very  fine 
aperture,  with  a  proper  admix- 
ture of  air,  an  exceedingly  lumi- 
nous fiame  is  produced,  yielding 
nearly  white  light.    A  form  of 


Acetylene  Burner 


burner  from  which  the  gas  issues 
in  two  small  jets  striking  against 
each  other,  forming  a  flat  flame 
not  easily  displaced  by  air  cur- 
rents, is  in  common  use. 

The  high  luminosity  may  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  when 
acetylene  is  heated  carbon  read- 
ily separates,  and  that  in  the 
combustion  of  acetylene  an 
exceptionally  large  amount  of 
heat  is  liberated. 

On  account  of  its  ease  of 
preparation  and  great  lumi- 
nosity, acetylene  is  extensively 


Acetylene  Lamp 

used  in  lamps  for  bicycles,  auto- 
mobiles, and  other  vehicles,  for 
lighthouses  and  buoys  (see 
Buoy),  and  for  home  lighting  in 
places  remote  from  the  regular 
supplies  of  illuminating  gas. 

The  most  approved  form  of 
generator  consists  principally  of 
a  chamber  containing  water,  into 
which  calcium  carbide  is  dropped 
automatically  as  required.  This 
arrangement  has  the  advantage 
that  the  heat  of  the  reaction  is 
dissipated  in  the  comparatively 
large  mass  of  water.  From  the 
generator  the  gas  passes  to  a 
gas  holder,  weighted  to  give  a 


moderate  pressure,  as  three  or 
four  inches  of  water;  and  thence 
to  a  purifier,  in  which  the  gas  is 
exposed  to  a  large  surface  of 
bleaching  powder. 

In  the  oxy-acetylene  blowpipe 
the  flame  is  produced  by  burning 
a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  acety- 
lene gases  delivered  under  pres- 
sure. At  the  apex  of  the  small 
central  cone  of  this  flame  a  tem- 
perature of  about  3,000°  c.  is 
attained,  which  is  sufficient  to 
melt  iron  and  steel.  The  instru- 
ment is  therefore  used  for  weld- 
ing these  metals  under  condi- 
tions where  it  would  be  otherwise 
impracticable;  for  welding  alu- 
minum castings;  and  for  cutting 
steel  beams  in  the  repairing  or 
wrecking  of  structures.  The 
temperature  of  this  flame  (2,400° 
c.)  is  said  to  exceed  that  of  any 
other  blowpipe.  (See  Oxy-acety- 
lene Flame.) 

In  storing  the  gas  a  pressure  of 
30  lbs.  per  square  inch  must  not 
be  exceeded,  because  of  liability 
to  explosion  even  by  shock.  Ace- 
tone dissolves  24  times  its  vol- 
ume at  one  atmosphere  pressure, 
in  ordinary  temperature,  which 
provides  a  convenient  method  of 
storage.  Acetylene  forms  ex- 
plosive compounds  with  copper, 
and  should  not  be  passed  through 
copper  or  brass  pipes  or  fixtures. 

Chemically,  acetylene  is  an 
unsaturated  hydrocarbon,  add- 
ing on  chlorine,  bromine,  and 
halogen  acids.  When  heated  it 
polymerizes  to  benzene,  CeHs. 
In  the  presence  of  mercuric  salts 
it  combines  with  water  to  form 
aldehyde.  The  manufacture  of 
acetaldehyde  from  acetylene  by 
the  action  of  water  in  the  pres- 
ence of  salts  of  mercury  reached 
large  proportions  in  Canada 
during  the  World  War,  and  since 
then  has  continued  to  flourish. 
Recently  (1926)  a  plant  has  been 
started  at  Niagara  Falls,  New 
York,  to  develop  this  process 
further.  Immense  quantities  of 
pure  acetic  acid  are  made  by  the 
oxidation  of  this  acetaldehyde, 
and  from  this,  acetone  may  be 
prepared  by  the  dry  distillation 
of  calcium  acetate. 

Achsei,  a-ke'i,  or  Ach^eans,  a 
name  applied  by  Homer  to  the 
whole  of  the  Greek  nation,  and  so 
used  also  by  later  poets.  It 
probably  represents  the  popula- 
tion of  Greece  before  the  admix- 
ture of  races  caused  by  the 
Dorian  invasion.  In  historical 
times  the  name  is  restricted  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  north  coast 
of  the  Peloponnesus  (Achaia), 
who  were  united  in  a  league  of 
twelve  towns,  the  AcHiEAN 
League,  which  after  251  b.c. 
became  the  chief  power  of  Greece. 
Finally,  the  league  declared  war 
against  the  Romans,  and  was 
crushed  by  them  (146  B.C.).  See 
Greece,  History. 

Achieinenians,  ak-i-me'ni- 
ans,  or  Ach^menides,  a  dynasty 


Achala 


43 


Achillea 


of  ancient  Persia;  it  occupied 
the  throne  from  about  730  B.C. 
to  333  B.C.,  and  counted  among 
its  kings  Cyrus  the  Great,  Cam- 
byses,  and  Darius  the  Great.  In 
old  Persian  inscriptions  Darius 
proudly  traces  his  lineage  back 
to  Achsemenes,  the  founder  of 
the  line.    See  Persia,  History. 

Achaia,  a-ka'y«-  With 
Elis,  a  province  (nomarchy)  of 
modern  Greece,  extending  from 
east  to  west  along  the  south  side 
of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  It  is 
mountainous;  coast  low;  and 
the  chief  currant-producing  re- 
gion of  the  mainland.  Area, 
2,028  square  miles.  Pop.  260,000. 
The  chief  town  and  port  is  Patras. 

(2.)  In  New  Testament  times 
the  southern  province  of  Greece, 
the  northern  being  Macedonia. 
Gallio  was  Roman  'deputy'  or 
proconsul  of  Achaia  (Acts  xviii. 
12). 

Achamoth,  ak'a-moth,  or 
-moth,  AcAMOTH,  the  (Valen- 
tinian)  Gnostic  name  for  a 
lower  or  imperfect  manifesta- 
tion of  Wisdom,  mother  of  the 
Demiurge  (q.v.) ;  the  form  in 
which  spirit  becomes  subservient 
to  matter,  and  thus  the  basis  of 
the  material  world. 

Achaquas,  a-cha'kwaz,  or 
AcHAGUAS,  a  savage  Indian  tribe, 
of  Arawakan  stock,  who  formerly 
inhabited  the  waters  of  the  upper 
Orinoco,  on  the  boundary  be- 
tween Colombia  and  Venezuela. 

Achar,  a'char,  used  by  Hindu 
philosophers  to  signify  the  all-in- 
all,  the  source  of  all  matter,  and 
the  ultimate  end  to  which  matter 
will  return — matter  and  all  its 
phenomena  being  merely  sensible 
manifestations  of  Achar. 

Achard,  a-shar',  Franz  Karl 
(1753-1821),  German  chemist, 
was  born  in  Berlin.  He  was  the 
first  to  manufacture  sugar  from 
beet  root  (in  1801,  at  Kunern,  in 
Silesia).  Consult  his  Europdische 
Zuckerfabrikation  aus  Runkel- 
ruben  (1812). 

Achard,  Louis  Amedee 
Eugene  (1814-75),  French  nov- 
elist, was  born  in  Marseilles. 
He  adopted  journalism,  and  was 
a  war  correspondent  in  Spain 

(1846)  and  with  the  French 
armies  (1870).  The  chief  of  his 
fourteen  novels  are:  Belle  Rose 

(1847)  ;  Madame  de  Sarens  ( 1 865) ; 
Marcelle  (1868);  La  Cape  et 
L'Epee  (1875). 

Achates,  a-ka'tez,  the  constant 
companion  of  .^neas  in  his  long 
and  varied  wanderings.  He  is 
always  styled  by  Virgil  'fidus 
Achates,'  hence  the  name  has 
become  a  synonym  for  a  trusty 
companion. 

Ache,  Caran  d'.  See  Poire, 
Emmanuel. 

Ache,  a-sha'.  Count  d'  (c. 
1700-75),  a  French  vice-admiral 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


who  lost  to  the  British  the  French 
possessions  on  the  Malabar  and 
Coromandel  coasts  of  India 
(1757). 

Ache,  Robert  Francois,  Vi- 
COMTE  d'  (1757-1809),  son  of  the 
above,  during  the  French  revolu- 
tion was  a  leader  of  the  royalist 
Chouans  of  Brittany.  He  escaped 
to  England,  returned  to  France 
in  1809,  and  fell  in  the  Chouan 
insurrection  of  that  year. 

Achelous,  ak-el-6'us  (modern 
name,  Aspropotamo)  ,  largest 
river  of  ancient  Greece,  rises  in 
Mount  Pindus,  flows  south,  and, 
dividing  ^Etolia  and  Acarnania, 
falls  into  the  Ionian  Sea  opposite 
the  Echinades  Island,  after  a 
course  of  about  130  miles.  In 
Greek  mythology  the  god  of  this 
river  was  the  oldest  of  the  river 
gods. 

Achenbach,  aK'en-baK,  An- 
dreas (1815  -  1910),  German 
painter  of  the  Diisseldorf  school, 
was  born  in  Cassel.  He  was  a 
leader  of  the  realistic  movement 
in  German  landscape  painting — 
especially  sea  pieces.  Typical 
works:  Foundering  of  the  S.  S. 
'President'  (1842);  Hardanger 
Fjord  (1843);  Pontine  Marshes 
(1846);  Fish  Market  in  Ostend 
(1866) ;  Flooding  of  Lower  Rhine 
(1876).  Several  of  his  canvases 
are  in  the  United  States. 

Achenbach,  Oswald  (1827- 
1905),  German  landscape  paint- 
er, brother  of  Andreas  (q.v.), 
was  born  in  Diisseldorf.  From 
1866  to  1872  he  taught  landscape 
painting  at  the  Diisseldorf  Acad- 
emy. He  has  painted  chiefiy  in 
the  mountainous  parts  of  South- 
ern Europe.  Several  of  his  works 
are  in  the  United  States. 

Achene,  a-ken',  a  one-celled, 
one-seeded  fruit,  dry,  indehis- 
cent,  and  with  a  closely  fitting 
pericarp  about  the  seed.  The 
name  is  usually  applied  to  the 
fruit  of  Compositae  and  allied 
families. 

Achensee,  aK'en-za,  Lake,  or 
Achen;  20  miles  northeast  of 
Innsbruck,  Tyrol,  Austria,  at  an 
altitude  of  3,050  feet.  It  meas- 
ures 5  miles  by  K  mile,  and  is 
surrounded  by  mountains  5,000 
to  6,000  feet  high. 

Achenwall,  aK'm-val,  Gott- 
fried (1719-72),  German  statis- 
tician, was  born  in  Elbing.  He 
was  lecturer  in  Marburg  (1746); 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Got- 
tingen  (1748);  and  professor  of 
law  there  later.  He  first  form- 
ulated the  treatment  of  statistics 
as  a  distinct  science  in  Abriss  der 
neueslen  Staatswissenschaft  der 
Vornehmsten  Europdischen  Reiche 
und  Republiken  (1749). 

Achernar=a  Eridani,  a  white 
star  of  0.5  photometric  magni- 
tude, showing  a  spectrum  in- 
termediate between  the  Sirian 


and  solar  types.  The  small  par- 
allax of  0.043",  determined  for 
Achernar  by  Sir  David  Gill  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  Observatory, 
corresponds  to  a  light  journey  of 
seventy-six  years,  and  implies 
that  the  star  exceeds  three  hun- 
dred times  the  lustre  of  our  sun. 

Acheron,  iik'^-ron,  the  name 
given  to  several  rivers  by  the 
ancients,  always  with  reference 
to  some  peculiarity,  such  as  black 
or  bitter  waters,  or  mephitic 
gases.  The  Acheron  in  Epirus, 
flowing  through  Lake  Acherusia 
into  the  Ionian  Sea;  another 
river  of  the  same  name  in  Elis, 
now  called  Sacuto;  and  several 
streams  in  Egypt  were  all  sup- 
posed to  have  some  communica- 
tion with  the  infernal  world. 

Acherusia,  ak'i-roo'shi-a, 
name  given  to  several  lakes, 
swamps,  and  caverns  which  were 
supposed  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
to  communicate  with  the  lower 
world — e.g.,  one  near  Cumae,  in 
Italy,  now  the  Lake  of  Fusaro 
(q.v.). 

Acheson,  ach'^-son,  Edward 
Goodrich  (1856),  American 
chemist  and  inventor,  was  born 
in  Washington,  Pa.,  and  received 
an  academic  education.  In  1880 
he  became  assistant  to  Thomas 
A.  Edison,  and  helped  to  perfect 
the  incandescent  lamp.  In  1881 
he  invented  the  abrasive  car- 
borundum (q.v.);  in  1899  he 
perfected  his  process  for  making 
'Acheson-graphite,'  an  artificial 
graphite  that  is  far  superior  to 
the  natural  for  industrial  pur- 
poses; and  in  1907  invented 
'Aquadag'  and  'Oildag,'  graphite 
lubricants.  He  has  been  awarded 
the  Rumford  Medal  (1908)  and 
the  Perkin  Medal  in  recognition 
of  his  services  in  applied  chem- 
istry. 

Acheval    Position,  a-sh'val', 

a  position  taken  up  by  an  army 
on  both  banks  of  a  river. 

Achievement,  or  Hatchment, 
in  heraldry,  the  shield  and  ac- 
cessories fully  represented;  in 
a  restricted  sense,  a  representa- 
tion of  those  of  a  deceased  per- 
son, exhibited  at  his  obsequies, 
and  framed  in  black. 

Achillas,  a-kil'as,  Greek  gen- 
eral and  minister  of  Ptolemy 
Dionysius,  king  of  Egypt.  With 
L.  Septimius  he  murdered  Pom- 
pey  (48  B.C.),  and  was  assassi- 
nated by  Ganymede,  instigated 
by  Arsinoe,  sister  of  Ptolemy 
(47  B.C.). 

Achillea,  ak-i-le'a.  Milfoil,  or 
Yarrow,  hardy  plants,  two  to 
four  feet  high,  with  yellow, 
white,  or  pink  flowers,  widely 
naturalized  in  Europe  and  Asia. 
Achillea  is  highly  astringent. 
There  are  many  species,  all 
easily  cultivated,  and  spreading 
very    freely — some,    of  alpine 


Achilles 


44 


Acids 


-  habit  (A .  tomentosa,  rupestris, 
aizoon),  suitable  for  rock  gar- 
dens; others  {A.  ptarmica,  eupa- 

,  torium)  for  borders.  A.  ptarmica 
has  become  naturalized  in  the 
United  States.     A.  millefolium 

-  is  a  native  species  of  the  West, 
and  has  also  been  introduced 
from  Europe  into  the  Eastern 
States. 

Achilles,  a-kil'es,  the  hero  of 
Homer's  Iliad,  was  the  son  of  the 
r;  nereid  Thetis  and  Peleus,  son  of 
,  iEacus,  and  king  of  the  Myrmi- 
dons at  Phthia  in  Thessaly.  He 
was  taught  by  Phoenix,  and  by 
the  centaur  Chiron.    He  led  his 
Myrmidons  in  fifty  ships  to  Troy. 
Homer's  Iliad  opens  with  his  fa- 
mous quarrel  with  King  Aga- 
memnon, who  had  robbed  him 
of  his  cherished  slave  girl  Briseis. 
.  Achilles  retired  in  anger  to  his 
tent,  and  took  no  further  part 
in  the  war  until  his  friend  Patro- 
:  clus  was  slain  by  Hector.  He 
t  then  re-entered  the  field,  and  at 
once  turned  the  tide  against  the 
Trojans.     He  slew  Hector,  and 
;  dragged  his  body  at  the  tail  of 
,  his  chariot.   The  Iliad  closes  with 
the  burial  of  Hector.  Achilles 
,  himself  fell  in  a  later  battle,  and 
was  buried  with  Patroclus  on  the 
.  coast  of  the  Hellespont.  His 
.  mother  Thetis  is  said  to  have 
.  dipped  him  into  the  River  Styx, 
..  so  that  he  became  invulnerable 
except  at  the  spot  where  she  held 
•  him  by  the  heel.  Foreknowing 
,.  his  doom  before  Troy,  she  hab- 
i^^ited  him  as  a  girl,  but  he  was 
.^discovered    by  UlyvSses  at  the 
.  court  of    Lycomedes  and  per- 
,^uaded  to  join  the  heroes.  He 
,  was  mortally  wounded   in  the 
i  ixeel  by  Paris.   (vSee  Homer.)  In 
,;^the  Odyssey  he  is  one  of  the  he- 
,  j.Q^s  of  the  under  world  visited 
by  Odysseus;  and  he  is  also  one 
,'pf  the  characters  in  vShakespcare's 
'  Troilus  and  Cressida. 

Achilles  Tatius,  ta'shi-us.  See 
,-Tatius. 

Achilles  Tendon.  See  Ten- 
,  DON  OF  Achilles. 
=  1  1  Achill  Island,  ak'il,  county 
.  Mayo,  Ireland,  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  Achill  Sound, 
which  is  crossed  by  a  bridge.  It 
.;js  16  milts  long,  7  miles  wide;  is 
v^O^jky,;  with  precipitous  coasts; 
jiha$  fisheries,  cromlechs,  and  the 
.  Btonef  fort  of  Dun  xEngus.  Pop. 
-i4,§00. 

I  , ;  Achimenes,  a-kim'i-nez,  a  genus 

V  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
"Gesneraceae  (q.v.).    The  species 

"i,a;:e  numerous,  and  are  natives  of 
oltropical  America, 
/f'/r  Achin,  a-chen'.  See  Atjeh.  ' 
'^J  , '  Achlsh,  a'kish,  probably  a  gen- 
,;f4-fil  title  l)ornc  by  certain  rulers 
jfif  ,  the  Philistines,  but  applied 
['.specifically  to  the  king  of  Gath 

V  (Who  sheltered  Pavid  when  he  fled 
:  Jfrorn  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxi.  10/.).  A 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


second  Achish  was  contemporary 
with  Solomon  (1  Kings  ii.  39). 
Achmet,  aK'met.  See  Ahmed. 
Achondroplasia,  a-kon-dro-pla'- 
zhi-a  or  -zi-a,  imperfect  develop- 
ment of  cartilage,  with  resulting 
stunting  of  bones;  a  disease  of  the 
embryo,  in  which  the  bones  fail 
to  develop,  leading  to  excessive 
shortness  of  limbs  and  other  de- 
formities. 

Acho'rion.    See  Favus. 

Achray,  Loch,  aK-ra',  Perth- 
shire, Scotland  (I1/4  miles  by 
mile);  7  miles  southwest  of  Cal- 
lander. Its  beauties  have  been 
described  by  Scott,  Coleridge, 
and  Dorothy  Wordsworth. 

Achroite,  ak'r5-it,  a  colorless 
variety  of  the  mineral  tourmaline 
(q.v.),  found  chiefly  on  the  island 
of  Elba. 

Achromat'ic  Lens.  See  Achro- 
matism. 

Achro'matism,  the  property  in 
virtue  of  which  certain  combi- 
nations of  lenses,  etc.,  refract 
a  beam  of  light  without  pro- 
ducing colored  fringes.  Any 
arrangement  of  lenses  or  prisms 
which  refract  light  without  dis- 
persion (q.  V.)  is  achromatic.  For 
example,  by  properly  combining 
a  convex  lens  of  crown  glass  with 
a  concave  one  of  flint  glass,  a 
compound  achromatic  lens  can 
be  produced.  The  achromatism 
in  the  above  arrangement,  and  in 
every  other  arrangement  yet 
tried,  is  not  absolutely  perfect. 
The  reason  is  that  such  media 
do  not  give  exactly  similar 
spectra  (see  Spectrum) — i.e.,  the 
ratio  of  the  distances  between 
any  two  pairs  of  rays  is  not  quite 
the  same  for  the  different  media. 
A  combination  of  three  lenses, 
or  prisms,  gives  a  better  approxi- 
mation to  absolute  achromatism 
than  a  combination  of  two. 
Blair,  in  1791,  constructed  an 
achromatic  telescope  with  a  com- 
pound lens  consisting  of  two 
glass  lenses  enclosing  a  liquid. 
See  Lenses. 

Achro'matop'sia.  See  Color 
Blindness. 

Achsah,  ak'sa,  daughter  of 
Caleb.  She  was  promised  in 
marriage  to  whosoever  would 
take  Debir.  Othnicl  performed 
the  task,  and  received  her  hand 
(Josh.  XV.  16-19). 

Acida'lius,  Valens  (1567-95), 
philologist  and  Latin  poet;  na- 
tive of  Wittstock,  Brandenburg; 
known  for  his  commentaries  on 
Quintus  Curtius,  Plautus,  and 
other  Latin  authors,  which  gained 
him  great  reputation  as  a  critic. 

Acidaspis,  as-i-das'pis,  a  genus 
of  trilobites  of  rather  small  size, 
found  in  Silurian  and  Devonian 
strata.  The  genus  is  distin- 
guished by  an  indistinctly  lobat- 
ed  head  shield,  a  thorax  of  nine 
or  ten  segments,  and  a  small  tail, 


each  segment  of  the  thorax  ter- 
minating in  long  spines.  See 
Trilobite. 

Ac'idim'etry,  the  process  of 
estimating  the  quantity  of  a  free 
acid.  Several  methods  of  deter- 
mination are  in  use.  (1)  When 
acids  are  mixed  with  water  only, 
the  strength  may  be  determined 
by  taking  the  specific  gravity;  (2) 
by  measuring  volumetrically  the 
weight  of  alkali  required  to  neu- 
tralize the  acid;  (3)  by  a  gravi- 
metric process  adapted  to  the 
particular  acid;  (4)  by  loss  of 
weight,  after  expelling  the  acid — 
this  method  is  generally  applied 
in  the  estimation  of  carbonic  acid. 
See  Analysis,  Chemical. 

Acid'ity.  The  incomplete  oxi- 
dation of  organic  substances  in 
the  body  results  in  the  production 
of  various  acids,  such  as  lactic, 
oxalic,  uric  acid,  etc.  A  healthy 
adult  excretes  by  the  lungs  and 
skin  about  28  ounces  of  carbonic 
acid  daily,  and  the  acids  excreted 
by  the  kidneys  are  equivalent  to 
about  30  grains  of  oxalic  acid. 
The  excess  of  acid  in  the  body,  or 
acidity,  depends  mainly  on  two 
causes — (1)  excessive  formation, 
the  result  of  incomplete  oxida- 
tion of  the  food  and  the  tissues; 
and  (2)  deficient  elimination  of 
the  acid  formed.  These  result 
from  overfeeding,  insufficient  ex- 
ercise, sedentary  habits,  or  dis- 
ease. The  skin  and  mucous 
membranes  are  affected  by  acid- 
ity, which  shows  itself  in  the  skin 
by  attacks  of  eczema,  urticaria, 
and  erythema,  and  in  the  mucous 
membranes  by  catarrh.  In  acid 
dyspepsia  there  is  a  regurgitation 
from  the  stomach  of  acid  liquid, 
consisting  chiefly  of  lactic,  buty- 
ric, and  acetic  acids.  Abnormal 
acidity  of  the  urine  irritates  the 
urinary  passages,  and  causes  a 
deposit  of  insoluble  uric  acid  in 
them,  leading  to  the  formation  of 
calculi.  Similar  deposits  may 
occur  in  the  middle  coat  of  the 
blood  vesvscls  and  in  the  joints. 

Treatment. —  The  treatment 
of  acidity  includes  active  open-air 
exercise  and  careful  regulation  of 
the  diet.  Pastry  and  fermented 
liquors  are  particularly  hurtful; 
starchy  and  saccharine  foods 
should  be  used  sparingly;  meat, 
fish,  and  poultry  may  be  eaten 
slowly  and  in  moderation;  and 
skim  milk  and  lime  water  may  be 
drunk.  See  Digestion;  Dys- 
pepsia. 

Acids,  in  chemistry,  a  class  of 
substances  having  the  following 
characteristics:  (1)  The  element 
hydrogen  is  a  constituent  of  all 
acids;  they  are  therefore  some- 
times called  'salts  of  hydrogen.' 
All  organic  acids,  but  a  few,  con- 
tain the  group  CO.OH  (called 
Carboxyl).  (2)  If  soluble  in  wa- 
ter— as  most  are — acids  affect 


Acids 


45 


Aci  Reale 


many  coloring  matters  (called 
'indicators'):  e.g.,  litmus,  a  pur- 
ple dye  obtained  from  certain 
lichens,  is  turned  red.  (3)  Acids 
have  a  sour  taste.  (4)  Acids  re- 
act readily  with  bases,  forming  a 
salt  and  water;  thus,  sulphuric 
acid  and  sodium  hydroxide  react, 
and  sodium  sulphate  and  water 
are  formed.  Such  a  reaction  is 
called  neutralization,  and  the  acid 
is  said  to  neutralize  the  base, 
or  conversely.  (5)  Acids  react 
readily  with  some  metals,  hydro- 
gen being  frequently  set  free, 
and  a  salt  forming;  for  example, 
sulphuric  acid  and  zinc  yield 
hydrogen  and  zinc  sulphate. 
When  applied  superficially,  the 
acid  is  said  to  corrode  or  'eat' 
the  metal. 

Acids  are  found  in  nature,  the 
sourness  of  fruits  being  due  to 
their  presence,  as  in  the  lemon, 
apple,  currant,  etc.  Acetic  acid, 
present  to  the  extent  of  from  3 
to  6  per  cent.,  gives  to  vinegar 
its  agreeable  sour  taste.  Many 
acids  are  formed  during  fermen- 
tation, as  lactic  acid  in  sour  milk. 
Hydrochloric  acid,  present  in  the 
gastric  juice  of  the  stomach,  per- 
forms an  important  part  in  the 
process  of  digestion.  Mineral 
waters  frequently  contain  car- 
bonic acid. 

Most  of  the  common  acids  are 
liquids;  some  are  solids,  though 
generally  used  in  solution — e.g., 
boric,  citric,  salicylic,  etc.  The 
halogen  acids,  of  which  hydro- 
chloric (or  muriatic)  is  the  best 
known,  and  some  others,  are 
solutions  of  gases  in  water;  the 
gases  themselves,  however,  in 
the  absence  of  water,  showing  no 
acid  properties. 

A  common  method  suitable  for 
the  preparation  of  a  number  of 
acids  is  the  reaction  between  a 
less  volatile  acid  and  the  salt  of 
a  more  volatile  acid.  Thus,  sul- 
phuric acid  and  sodium  nitrate 
yield  nitric  acid  and  sodium  sul- 
phate. Some  oxides  react  with 
water  to  form  acids,  as  carbonic 
acid  in  water  charged  with  carbon 
dioxide  (plain  soda  water). 

Some  acids  are  spoken  of  as 
'stronger'  than  others;  or  one 
solution  of  an  acid  in  water  is 
said  to  be  'stronger'  than  another 
solution  of  the  same  acid  in 
water.  In  the  second  case,  it 
is  preferable  to  express  the  dif- 
ference in  terms  of  concentration, 
this  being  defined  as  the  ratio 
of  the  weight  of  the  acid  to  the 
weight  of  the  solution,  usually 
denoted  in  per  cent.  Thus,  a 
solution  consisting  of  10  grams 
of  an  acid  dissolved  in  100  grams 
of  water  would  be  9.09  per  cent, 
acid.  To  find  the  volume  occu- 
pied by  such  a  solution,  as  there 
is  no  known  simple  mathematical 
relation,  reference  must  be  had 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


to  well-known  tables,  one  for 
each  acid. 

A  strong  acid,  then,  in  the  sense 
of  a  concentrated  acid,  is  one 
containing  a  high  percentage  of 
acid;  and  a  weak  or  dilute  acid  is 
one  containing  a  low  percentage 
of  acid.  These  are  relative 
terms,  and  no  definite  line  can 
be  drawn  between  them;  but  in 
general,  concentrated  acids  are 
70  to  100  per  cent,  acid,  and 
dilute  acids  10  per  cent,  and  less. 
The  branch  of  chemistry  devoted 
to  the  determination  of  the  con- 
centrations or  strengths  of  acids 
is  called  Acidimetry  (see  Acid- 
imetry)  . 

Turning  now  to  the  relative 
strength  of  acids  of  the  same 
concentration — as,  for  example, 
the  comparative  strength  of  60- 
per-cent.  sulphuric  acid  and  60- 
per-cent.  nitric  acid,  it  may  be 
said  that  some  confusion  exists  in 
the  use  of  the  term.  In  forming 
a  judgment  from  observation, 
one  may  be  misled  by  the  vigor- 
ousness  of  a  reaction  of  the  acid, 
or  the  velocity  of  the  reaction, 
or  the  difference  in  behavior  of 
the  two  acids  with  a  given  metal, 
the  comparisons  of  which  do  not 
lead  to  consistent  conclusions. 
For  example,  as  mentioned,  sul- 
phuric acid  produces  nitric  acid 
when  reacting  with  its  salts, 
from  which  it  might  be  con- 
cluded it  is  the  'stronger'  acid; 
but  nitric  acid  reacts  much  more 
readily  and  vigorously  with  cop- 
per than  sulphuric  acid  does, 
which  lead  to  the  opposite  con- 
clusion. 

A  number  of  methods  of  com- 
parison have  been  devised  to 
avoid  these  difficulties,  and  sub- 
stitute terms  proposed,  such  as 
'avidity.'  The  method  most  in 
favor  at  the  present  time  is  based 
upon  considerations  derived  from 
the  Theory  of  Electrolytic  Dissoci- 
ation. In  this  theory  it  is  as- 
sumed that  an  acid,  when  placed 
in  water,  dissociates  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  into  'ions'  (q.v.). 
The  extent  of  this  dissociation  is 
taken  to  be  proportional  to  the 
electrical  conductivity  of  the  so- 
lution, which  can  be  readily 
measured  by  appropriate  appa- 
ratus. According  to  this  view, 
that  acid  is  strongest  which  is 
most  highly  dissociated  when  put 
in  water.  The  relative  strength 
of  the  common  acids,  determined 
in  this  way,  is  as  follows:  hydro- 
chloric, 100;  nitric,  99.6;  sul- 
phuric, 65.1;  phosphoric,  7.3; 
acetic,  0.4. 

An  acid  is  defined  in  terms  of 
the  Electrolytic  Theory  as  a  sub- 
stance that  yields  hydrogen  ions 
when  put  in  water,  or  in  a  few 
other  solvents;  and  the  acid 
properties,  as  taste,  eff^ect  on 
coloring  matters,  etc.,  are  at- 


tributed to  the  hydrogen  ions. 
(See  Electrolysis.) 

Acids  find  a  wide  field  of  use- 
fulness. For  example,  the  com- 
mon sulphuric  acid,  or  oil  of 
vitriol,  is  used  in  almost  all  in- 
dustries, and  is  required  in  large 
quantities  in  the  manufacture  of 
fertilizers,  alkalies,  dyes,  explo- 
sives, and  in  the  refining  of 
petroleum.  Etching  depends 
upon  the  action  of  acids,  nitric 
being  used  with  metals,  and  hy- 
drofluoric with  glass.  Gold  is 
attacked  by  no  single  acid,  but 
dissolves  readily  in  aqua  regia,  a 
mixture  of  hydrochloric  and 
nitric  acids  (3:1  by  volume). 

Acids  are  brought  into  the 
market  in  carboys,  large  glass 
bottles  holding  about  twelve 
gallons,  encased,  all  but  the 
mouth,  in  wooden  boxes,  and 
are  commonly  sold  by  weight. 

To  counteract  the  injurious  ac- 
tion of  acids  on  objects  an  alkali 
is  applied.  In  case  a  large 
quantity  is  spilled,  marble  dust, 
whiting,  slaked  lime,  or  lime  may 
be  used.  Ammonia  water  is 
best  for  the  clothing  or  hands. 
A  solution  of  sodium  bicarbonate 
(baking  soda)  or  sodium  carbon- 
ate (washing  soda)  is  a  good  anti- 
dote for  internal  administration. 

As  used  in  Medicine,  acids  dif- 
fer widely  in  their  action.  Ex- 
ternally applied,  some  of  them, 
such  as  sulphuric,  nitric,  and 
hydrochloric  acids,  act  as  caus- 
tics, and  are  never  given  inter- 
nally, except  in  a  very  diluted 
form.  If  swallowed  pure — as 
they  sometimes  are  in  error — 
they  act  as  corrosive  poisons. 
(See  Poisons.)  Internally,  the 
above  acids,  much  diluted,  stim- 
ulate first  the  flow  of  saliva,  and 
next  that  of  the  gastric  juice, 
which  itself  contains  hydrochloric 
acid.  Nitric  acid  is  also  much 
used  as  a  cholagogue.  Insuffi- 
ciently diluted,  when  not  strong 
enough  to  act  as  corrosives,  these 
acids  are  gastric  irritants,  and  so 
interfere  with  digestion.  Other 
acids,  such  as  carbolic  and  sul- 
phurous acids,  are  disinfectants. 
Carbonic  and  hydrocyanic  acids 
are  gastric  sedatives,  the  latter 
being  also  the  most  rapid  of 
poisons.  Tannic  acid  is  an  as- 
tringent, coagulating  albumin. 
Salicylic  acid  is  a  valuable  anti- 
pyretic. 

For  information  about  indi- 
vidual acids,  see  the  separate 
articles,  as  Acetic  Acid;  Bo- 
RACic  Acid;  Hydrochloric 
Acid;  Sulphuric  Acid;  etc. 

Acl  Rcale,  ii'che  ra-ii'la,  or 
AciREALE  (vSicilian  J^ci),  town 
and  episcopal  see,  Catania,  vSicily, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Mtna; 
9  miles  northeast  of  Catania.  It 
has  warm  sulphur  baths,  and  i|8 
visited  for  sea  bathing.  Linen, 


Acts 


45  A 


Acne 


cotton,  and  filigree  work  are 
manufactured.    Pop.  36.000. 

Acis,  a'sis,  a  Sicilian  youth, 
beloved  by  the  nymph  Galatea, 
was  crushed  under  a  huge  rock 
by  the  Cyclops  Polyphemus,  who 
was  his  rival.  His  blood  was 
changed  by  the  nymph  into  the 
River  Acis,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
iEtna.  Handel  composed  an 
opera  on  the  subject. 

Ackermann,  ak'er-man,  KoN- 
RAD  (1712-71),  German  actor,  is 
generally  regarded  as  one  of  the 
founders  of  German  drama.  His 
new  theatre  at  Hamburg  was 
opened  in  1765,  and  was  con- 
ducted with  the  highest  artistic 
success.  Ultimately  it  passed 
into  the  hands  of  a  syndicate, 
and  was  known  as  the  Deutsches 
Nationaltheater. 

Ackermann,  Rudolph  (1764- 
1834),  a  native  of  Saxony,  opened 
a  print  shop  in  the  Strand,  Lon- 
don, 1795.  He  introduced  lithog- 
raphy as  a  fine  art  into  Eng- 
land, and  was  the  originator  of 
the  'Annuals,'  which  he  com- 
menced by  his  Forget-Me-Not, 
published  in  1823  and  the  follow- 
ing years.  Among  the  illustrated 
works  published  by  him  were  his 
Repository  of  Arts,  L  terature,  and 
Fashions  (1809-28),  and  works 
illustrating  London,  Westminster 
Abbey,  Oxford,  and  Cambridge. 

Acklin,  or  Acklin's  Island 
(45  miles  by  1  to  2  miles),  one  of 
the  South  Bahamas  (largest  of 
the  Crooked  Island  group). 

Acknowl'edgment,  in  law,  is 
the  act  of  avowing  before  a 
proper  officer  or  a  court  that  one 
has  executed  a  legal  instrument, 
and  of  obtaining  a  certificate 
thereto  appended  which  admits 
the  instrument  as  evidence 
without  further  proof  of  its 
genuineness.  In  England,  all 
deeds  purporting  to  dispose  of 
the  land  of  a  woman  married  be- 
fore 1883  must  in  general  be 
executed  by  her  and  her  husband, 
and  acknowledged  by  her  in  ac- 
cordance with  statutory  forms. 
In  the  United  States,  acknowl- 
edgment is  the  regular  mode  of 
authentication  of  a  deed  or 
instrument  for  purposes  of  evi- 
dence, though  not  in  general 
necessary  to  its  formal  validity. 
The  Recording  Acts,  however, 
usually  require  the  due  acknowl- 
edgment of  a  deed  as  essential  if 
it  is  to  obtain  priority  on  the 
record.  A  commissioner  of  deeds 
or  a  notary  public  is  the  regular 
officer  before  whom  acknowledg- 
ments are  made,  though  judges, 
clerks  of  court,  mayors  of  cities, 
and  in  some  vStates  aldermen  and 
justices  of  the  peace,  are  suffi- 
cient for  the  purpose.  In  all 
cases  the  acknowledgment  must 
be  signed  by  the  person  in  whose 
presence  it  is  made. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


The  term  is  also  applied  to  an 
admission  of  indebtedness,  which 
must  generally  be  in  writing, 
made  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
alive  an  obligation  which  would 
otherwise  fall  within  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Statutes  of  Limita- 
tions (q.v.). 

Ac'land,  Lady  Christian 
Henrietta  Caroline  (1750- 
1815),  commonly  called  Lady 
Harriet,  was  famous  for  her 
devotion  to  her  husband.  Major 
John  Dyke  Acland,  an  English 
officer,  during  the  Revolutionary 
War.  She  accompanied  him  dur- 
ing the  Burgoyne  campaign, 
nursed  him  when  he  was  seriously 
ill  in  Canada,  and  after  he  was 
wounded  at  Hubbardtown  (1777). 
Again,  after  the  second  battle  of 
Saratoga,  where  he  was  seriously 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  she 
fearlessly  sought  him  out  within 
the  American  lines — where  she 
was  received  with  all  courtesy  by 
the  American  officers — and  re- 
mained with  him  until  he  had 
recovered. 

Acland,  Sir  Henry  Went- 
worth  Dyke  (1815-1900),  Eng- 
lish physician,  was  born  in  Exe- 
ter, and  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
where  he  was  Radcliffe  librarian 
for  more  than  forty  years,  and 
regius  professor  of  medicine 
(1857-94).  The  formation  of 
the  Oxford  University  Museum 
was  largely  due  to  his  labors. 
He  came  to  the  United  States 
with  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1860. 
Among  his  works  are:  Oxford 
Museum,  with  letters  from  Rus- 
kin  (1859);  Memoir  on  the  Chol- 
era in  1854;  Village  Health  (1884). 

Acland,  John  Dyke  (d.  1778), 
English  soldier,  the  husband  of 
Lady  Acland  (q.v.).  In  1775  he 
accompanied  Burgoyne's  expedi- 
tion to  America.  He  died  from 
the  results  of  exposure  incident 
to  a  duel  he  fought  on  the  ques- 
tion of  the  valor  of  American 
soldiers.  His  portrait  was  paint- 
ed by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 

Aclln'ic  Line,  or  Magnetic 
Equator,  an  irregular  and  vary- 
ing line  passing  through  those 
points  on  the  globe  at  which 
there  is  no  inclination  or  devia- 
tion from  the  horizontal  position. 
See  Magnetism;  Dipping  Nee- 
dle. 

Acne  (according  to  Littre  a 
corruption  of  the  Greek  a/c/u,ij, 
'a  point')  is  a  functional  disturb- 
ance of  the  sebaceous  glands  and 
hair  follicles  of  the  skin  (q.v.). 
The  ducts  of  the  glands  become 
clogged  by  inspissated  sebum, 
or  by  the  action  of  invading 
micro-organisms.  Their  natural 
secretion  accumulates  within  the 
glands,  and  there  is  at  the  same 
time  a  tendency  to  inflammation 
of  the  follicle  and  surrounding 
tissue.    The  characteristic  erup- 


tion, either  papular  or  pustular, 

usually  appears  upon  the  face, 
neck,  back,  or  chest  of  young 
people  at  or  near  the  age  of 
puberty;  and  when  once  estab- 
lished, may  persist  for  many 
years. 

While  generally  admitted  that 
the  disease  is  of  parasitic  origin, 
there  is  less  unanimity  in  regard 
to  the  cause.  Unna,  Sabou- 
raud,  and  Gilchrist  have  each 
described  organisms  as  constant- 
ly present  in  cases  of  acne;  and 
the  latter  succeeded  in  cultivat- 
ing a  bacillus  which  he  called 
Bacillus  acnes,  and  with  it  in- 
oculated mice  and  guinea  pigs. 

Two  varieties  of  acne  are  usu- 
ally described:  Acne  vulgaris  or 
simplex,  and  A .  indurata.  In  A . 
vulgaris  the  lesions  may  be  either 
papular  or  pustular,  but  usually 
both  are  present  at  the  same 
time.  Comedones  or  'Blackheads' 
may  be  few  or  many,  but  are 
usually'  part  of  the  clinical  pic- 
ture. Comedones  are  collections 
of  thickened  sebaceous  matter 
retained  in  the  glands  whose 
mouths  are  closed  by  black- 
topped  plugs.  They  appear  as 
pin-point  papules  in  the  skin,  are 
not  accompanied  by  inflamma- 
tory symptoms,  and  are  spoken 
of  as  acne  punctata.  Pressure 
at  the  base  occasions  the  expul- 
sion of  an  elongated,  spiral  white 
mass  with  a  black  point  at  its 
outer  end,  commonly  but  errone- 
ously regarded  as  a  worm; 
though  in  the  midst  of  the  white 
mass  of  sebaceous  matter,  a  par- 
asite, the  Acarus  folliculorum 
(q.v.),  is  occasionally  found. 
Interspersed  are  the  red  inflam- 
matory papules  about  the  ori- 
fices of  the  glands  and  follicles, 
many  of  which  go  on  to  pustula- 
tion.  Sometimes  deeper  and 
larger  areas  of  inflammation  ap- 
pear, and  these  are  known  as 
A .  indurata.  These  areas  usually 
suppurate,  and  may  leave  scars. 

Treatmeni.  — T  he  primary 
cause  must  first  be  looked  for  in 
each  case;  and  may  be  gastro- 
intestinal disturbance  in  one, 
anaemia  and  debility  in  another, 
or  disease  of  sexual  origin  in  a 
third.  Treatment,  both  internal 
and  local,  appropriate  to  the  con- 
dition should  then  be  instituted. 
Diet  and  hygiene  will  accomplish 
more  than  drugs.  Locally,  as 
long  as  there  is  no  inflammation, 
the  treatment  aims  at  favoring 
the  escape  of  the  contents  of  the 
follicles  by  rubbing  the  aff'ected 
parts  with  cold  cream  at  bed- 
time, washing  thoroughly  next 
morning  with  soap  and  water, 
and  applying  vigorous  friction 
with  a  towel.  The  tops  of  super- 
ficial pustules  should  be  removed 
with  a  skin  curette,  and  deep 
pustules  should  be  incised.  In 


Acne  Rosacea 


45  B 


Acollas 


recent  years,  the  Roentgen  rays 
and  vaccine  therapy  (q.v.)  have 
been  employed  with  marked  suc- 
cess.   See  Acne  Rosacea. 

Acne  Rosacea  is  a  reflex  flush- 
ing of  the  central  region  of  the 
face,  due  to  vasomotor  disturb- 
ance. This  passive  congestion 
of  the  region  eventually  results 
in  a  permanent  redness,  accom- 
panied by  dilatation  of  the  blood 
vessels  and  a  secondary  acne  of 
the  sebaceous  glands.  Although 
commonly  called  acne  rosacea, 
the  disease  is  in  no  sense  a  true 
acne,  and  should  better  be  called 
Rosacea.  It  is  also  known  as 
Gutta  Rosea. 

Rosacea,  in  most  cases,  is  lim- 
ited to  the  middle  third  of  the 


bluish  purple  lines  running  down 
onto  the  face. 

The  second  stage  is  character- 
ized by  the  development  of 
papules  and  pustules.  The  pus- 
tules are  usually  smaller  and 
more  superficial  than  those  of 
acne  simplex  (see  Acne)  .  Come- 
dones may  also  be  present,  but 
the  whole  condition  is  secondary 
to  the  chronic  hyperaemia. 

While  the  majority  of  cases 
never  progress  beyond  the  second 
stage,  certain  heavy  drinkers, 
especially  if  much  exposed  to  the 
cold,  develop  the  third  stage  of 
the  disease.  In  these  cases  the 
follicles  on  the  nose  become  very 
large,  and  the  tip  and  sides  be- 
come converted  into  a  lobulated 


degree  by  the  reflex  flushing  of 
the  face  that  occurs  during  men- 
struation, and  especially  during 
the  menopause. 

Treaiment  should  be  both  lo- 
cal and  general,  but  the  latter 
is  the  more  important.  The  re- 
flex cause  must  be  found  and 
corrected.  The  diet  must  be 
planned  with  great  care,  elimi- 
nating such  articles  as  are  found 
by  experience  to  cause  flushing. 
Alcohol  should  be  strictly  for- 
bidden. Locally,  the  patient 
should  protect  his  face  from  ex- 
tremes of  heat  or  cold,  and  cold 
water  should  never  be  put  on  the 
face. 

In  the  first  and  second  stages 
a  calamine  lotion,  a  mild  ich- 


Aconcagua,  the  Highest  Summit  of  the  Andes  and  of  the  New  World  (23,080  Feet). 


face,  and  usually  first  appears  at 
or  near  the  end  of  the  nose, 
which  in  many  cases  is  the  only 
portion  of  the  face  involved.  In 
others  it  may  extend  to  the 
cheeks,  forehead,  and  chin,  and 
rarely  over  the  whole  face. 

Rosacea  has  three  stages.  In 
the  initial  stage  the  skin  of  the 
part  affected  assumes  a  deep  red 
color,  usually  transient  at  first, 
but  returning  either  on  no  spe- 
cial provocation,  or  in  conse- 
quence of  some  digestive  or 
uterine  disorder.  The  redness 
slowly  becomes  permanent,  and 
dilatation  of  the  capillaries  and 
veins  takes  place.  These  dilated 
blood  vessels  are  most  commonly 
seen  on  the  nose,  and  look  like 

Vol.  I,— Qgt.  '15 


mass  of  tissue,  the  hypertrophy 
in  some  cases  being  so  great  as 
to  form  pendulous  tumors  hang- 
ing down  over  the  mouth.  This 
condition  is  known  as  Rhino- 
phyma.  It  may  also  occur  in 
persons  of  regular  habits  of  life. 

Disorder  of  the  digestive  sys- 
tem is  so  often  associated  with 
rosacea  as  to  exclude  the  idea 
that  the  combination  is  acci- 
dental. In  women,  the  disease 
is  frequently  associated  with  dis- 
order of  the  menstrual  functions. 
It  is  five  times  as  common  in 
women  as  in  men,  due  in  part  to 
the  tight  clothing  worn  about 
the  neck,  chest,  and  abdomen, 
which  tends  to  produce  hyper- 
aemia of  the  face,  and  to  a  greater 


thyol  cream,  or  a  powder  such 
as  cornstarch  may  be  used.  Di- 
lated vessels  are  best  destroyed 
by  electrolysis.  In  the  third 
stage,  multiple  scarification,  or 
even  better,  a  plastic  operation 
to  restore  the  nose  to  its  original 
shape  and  size,  gives  most  satis- 
factory results. 

Accemetse,  a-sem'e-te,  or  Accem- 
ETi  ('the  Sleepless  Ones'),  com- 
munities of  monks  who  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  in  Con- 
stantinople and  elsewhere,  car- 
ried on  devotions  without  ceas- 
ing day  or  night.  They  were 
excommunicated  in  534. 

Acollas,  a-ko-la',  Emile  (1862- 
91),  French  professor  of  law,  was 
born  in  La   Chatr?.      Hq  ?^4- 


Acolytes 


46 


Acosta 


yocated  extreme  revolutionary 
ideas;  was  appointed  president 
of  the  legal  faculty  by  the 
Paris  Commune  of  1871;  and  in 
1880  became  inspector-general 
of  penitentiaries.  Chief  works: 
Manuel  de  Droit  Civil  (1869-74); 
Les  Droits  du  Peuple,  Cours  de 
Droit  Politique  (1873);  Philoso- 
phie  de  la  Science  Politique  (1877). 

Acolytes,  ak'o-llts,  in  the  early 
Church,  were  youths  in  holy 
orders  who  assisted  in  the  ritual 
of  the  Church.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  aspirants  to 
the  priesthood  still  pass  through 
this  order.    See  Orders,  Holy. 

Aconcagua,  a-kon-ka'gwa,  a 
presumably  extinct  volcano,  the 
highest  summit  of  the  Andes  and 
of  the  New  World,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Mendoza,  Argentina; 
lat.  32°  39' s.;  long.  70°  w.  Alti- 
tude, 23,080  feet.  The  first  as- 
cent was  made  in  1897,  by  Zur- 
briggen.  The  Aconcagua  River 
rises  on  its  slopes,  and  flows  200 
miles  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Aconcagua,  a  central  province 
of  Chile,  lying  between  the  Pa- 
cific and  the  crest  of  the  Andes; 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Co- 
quimbo,  and  on  the  south  by 
Valparaiso  and  Santiago.  It  is 
mostly  mountainous,  although 
the  valleys  are  fertile  and  pro- 
duce fruit,  hemp,  grain,  and 
wine.  Area,  5,487  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1910)  132,730.  Capital, 
San  Felipe. 

Ac'onite  (Aconitum),  Monks- 
hood, Wolfsbane,  or  Blue 
Rocket,  a  genus  of  the  order 
Ranunculaceae,  common  in  tem- 
perate regions.  A .  napellus,  often 
cultivated  in  gardens,  is  a  peren- 
nial plant  from  two  to  six  feet 
high,  and  has  dark  green,  deeply 
cleft  leaves,  and  a  long  branched 
head  of  deep  blue  flowers;  the 
sepals  are  petaloid,  and  resemble 
a  hood,  whence  the  popular  name. 
All  parts  of  the  plant  are  very 
poisonous.  The  root  has  often 
been  mistaken  for  horse  radish; 
but  while  the  latter  is  cylindrical, 
and  is  often  branched,  the  aconite 
root  is  tapering,  pointed,  and  un- 
branched.  A.  columbianum,  the 
species  native  to  the  Western 
United  States,  is  dangerous  to 
grazing  live  stock. 

Aconite  applied  to  the  skin 
and  mucous  membranes  pro- 
duces first  tingling,  then  numb- 
ness. In  medicinal  doses  it  acts 
as  an  antipyretic,  lessening  the 
force,  frequency,  and  volume  of 
the  pulse,  and  causing  perspira- 
tion. It  is  also  Uvsed  externally 
and  internally  for  neuralgia, 
lumbago,  and  rheumatic  pains. 
Its  effects  are  due  to  the  three 
alkaloids,  aconitine(q.v.),benzaco- 
nine,  and  aconine,  each  of  which 
possesses  some  quality  peculiar 
to  itself,  and  sometimes  antag- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  '15 


onistic  to  those  of  the  other  two. 
The  symptoms  of  poisoning  are 
first  tingling  of  the  tongue  and 
general  numbness  of  the  mouth, 
then  cold  sweats  and  giddiness, 
followed  perhaps  by  insensibility, 
with  failing  circulation  and  res- 
piration. Treatment  consists  in 
first  emptying  the  stomach  with 
either  a  stomach  tube  or  an 
emetic.  Stimulants  should  be 
given  freely  afterward,  and  the 
sufferer  put  to  bed,  with  hot 
bottles  to  the  extremities  if  they 


Aconite,  with  Flower  and  Fruit. 


are  cold.  Artificial  respiration 
with  friction  must  be  employed, 
if  necessary,  and  the  medical 
man  will  use  hypodermic  in- 
jections of  strychnine  or  digitalis. 

Winter  Aconite  (Eranthis 
hyemalis),  a  small  herbaceous 
plant  of  the  order  Ranunculaceae, 
with  buttercup-like  flowers,  grows 
freely  in  gardens,  thrives  well 
under  the  shade  of  trees,  and 
flowers  with  the  snowdrop. 

Acon'itlne  (C33H43NO12),  the 
active  principle  of  aconite  (q.v.), 
is  one  of  the  most  potent  poisons 
known,  so  small  a  quantity  as 
Veoth  of  a  grain  of  the  pure  alka- 
loid having  nearly  proved  fatal. 
Its  recognition  in  poisoning  cases 
is  a  matter  of  difficulty,  owing  to 
the  small  amount  necessary  for 
the  purpose.  When  applied  to 
the  eye  in  even  very  dilute  solu- 
tion it  causes  a  sensation  of  in- 
tolerable heat  and  tingling,  the 
pupil  at  the  same  time  contract- 
ing. This  tingling,  associated 
with  numbness,  is  felt  when  a 
piece  of  aconite  root  is  chewed; 
hence  its  use  in  the  treatment  of 


neuralgia,  toothache,  and  rheu- 
matism. 

Acorn.    See  Oak. 

Acorn-shells  (Balanus),  a  ge- 
nus of  Cirripedes.  in  the  class 
Crustacea.    They  occur  in  abun- 


Acorn-shell  and  Section. 


dance  incrusting  the  rocks  be- 
tween high  and  low  water  mark, 
and  are  exceedingly  familiar  ob- 
jects. At  first  sight,  and  in  their 
adult  form,  all  cirripeds  are  so 
unlike  crustaceans  that  even 
Cuvier  regarded  them  as  mol- 
luscs. The  body  is  enveloped  in 
a  fold  of  skin,  or  mantle,  which 
forms  round  about  the  animal 
a  conical  protective  shell  of  six 
pieces,  and  a  fourfold  movable 
lid.  When  the  animal  is  active 
(under  water),  six  pairs  of  curl- 
like double  legs  may  be  seen  al- 
ternately protruded  and  retract- 
ed through  the  valvular  opening 
of  the  shell.  These  are  borne  on 
the  thorax  of  the  animal,  and 
serve  to  brush  the  floating  food 
down  to  the  moutK,  where  it  is 
seized  and  masticated  by  the 
three  pairs  of  jaws.  - 

The  acorn-shells  feed  on  small 
marine  animals.  They  are  at- 
tached not  only  to  rocks,  but  to 
floating  objects,  and  to  other 
animals.  Numerous  species  are 
known.  Some  of  the  larger 
species  of  balanus  were  esteemed 
by  the  Romans,  and  are  still 
eaten  by  Chinese  and  others. 
See  Barnacle. 

Ac'orus,  a  genus  belonging 
to  the  order  Araceae.  A.  Cala- 
mus, popularly  known  as  Sweet 
Flag,  of  wide  geographic  distri- 
bution in  the  north  temperate 
zone,  resembles  bulrushes,  with 
tall  linear  leaves,  sharp  edged  and 
sharp  pointed,  about  an  inch 
wide.  The  flowers,  small  and 
greenish  yellow,  are  arranged 
like  a  spike  on  a  naked  spadix, 
the  spathe  being  elongated  above 
it.  The  plant  spreads  by  long 
horizontal  and  branched  root 
stocks,  called  Calamus  i?oo^,which 
are  fleshy  and  warmly  aromatic. 
Calamus  root  is  candied  and  used 
as  a  sweetmeat  in  Europe;  it  also 
furnishes  a  stimulative,  carmina- 
tive drug,  called  Calamus. 

Acosta,  ii-kos'tii,  Gabriel,  or 
Uriel  d'  (1594-1640),  a  Portu- 
guese of  noble  Jewish  birth,  was 
born  in  Oporto.  Brought  up  a 
Roman  Catholic,  he  early  re- 
verted to  Judaism,  of  which  he 
later  became  a  critic.  A  charge 
of  atheism,  following  his  Exami- 


Acosta 


47 


Acquisition 


nation  of  Pharisaic  Traditions 
(1624),  subjected  him  to  humili- 
ating penance.  He  at  last  shot 
himself.  His  autobiography  was 
published  in  Latin  and  German. 
Gutzkow  made  him  the  hero  of 
a  tragedy. 

Acosta,  JoAQUiM  (1790-1852), 
South  American  explorer  and 
geographer,  was  born  at  Guaduas, 
Colombia.  He  penetrated  the 
northern  districts  of  South  Amer- 
ica (1834-45),  giving  special  at- 
tention to  the  history  of  the 
early  Spanish  settlements.  He 
published :  Compendio  Historico 
del  Descuhrimiento  y  Colonizacion 
de  la  Nueva  Granada  (1848); 
Semenario  de  la  Nueva  Granada 
(1849). 

Acosta,  Jose  d''  (1539-1600), 
Spanish  Jesuit  and  historian,  was 
born  at  Medina  del  Campo.  He 
was  a  missionary  in  Peru  for  sev- 
eral years.  On  his  return  to 
Spain  in  1587  he  became  superior 
of  the  Jesuits  at  Valladolid,  and 
rector  of  the  Jesuit  college  at 
Salamanca.  His  famous  Historia 
Natural  y  Moral  de  las  Indias, 
written  originally  in  Latin,  has 
been  translated  into  Spanish, 
English,  French,  and  other  lan- 
guages. 

Acouchy.   See  Agouti. 

Acoustics,  a-koos'tiks  or  -kous'- 
tiks,  strictly  speaking,  is  the 
science  of  sound  in  relation  to 
hearing.  The  conditions  under 
which  an  aerial  disturbance  is 
audible  as  sound  cannot  be  de- 
scribed with  accuracy.  If  we 
confine  our  attention  to  musical 
sounds,  or  sounds  of  definite  pitch, 
we  know  that  the  number  of  vi- 
brations per  second  must  lie  be- 
tween two  limits;  but  the  limits 
of  hearing  differ  for  different  ears. 
Roughly  speaking,  the  lower  limit 
may  be  set  at  from  20  to  30  vibra- 
tions per  second,  and  the  upper 
limit  at  about  70,000.  Cases 
have  been  observed  in  which  the 
ear  was  not  sensitive  to  a  certain 
range  of  high-pitched  notes,  but 
could  hear  notes  both  of  lower 
and  of  higher  pitch.  When  the 
sound  has  no  definite  pitch,  the 
condition  of  audibility  seems  to 
be  a  certain  abruptness  of  change 
of  pressure,  such  as  we  have  in  a 
tap  or  a  blow.  The  change  may 
be  very  slight,  but  it  must  be 
sufficiently  abrupt. 

In  judging  of  the  direction 
from  which  a  sound  comes,  we 
require  the  ears  to  be  at  different 
distances  from  the  source  of 
sound;  or,  to  express  it  more 
accurately,  the  ears  must  be 
affected  simultaneously  by  the 
same  disturbance  in  different 
phase.  For  example,  if  a  sound 
be  produced  at  a  point  in  the 
plane  which  passes  medially 
through  the  head  and  bisects  at 
right  angles  the  line  joining  the 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


ears,  it  is  impossible  for  the 
hearer  to  say  whence  the  sound 
comes.  Noises  and  musical  notes 
form  two  distinct  classes  of 
sound,  as  received  by  the  ear,  and 
are  distinguished  by  their  abrupt- 
ness, or  by  the  regular  succession 
with  which  they  occur.  The 
'velocity  of  sound,'  as  it  travels 
through  air  or  other  media,  de- 
pends upon  the  density  of  the 
medium  and  upon  its  elasticity. 

Marin  Mersenne  in  1636,  Brook 
Taylor  in  1715,  and  Daniel  Ber- 
noulli in  1755  all  made  valuable 
discoveries  in  relation  to  the  the- 
ory of  vibrations.  Experimenta- 
tion in  the  vibration  of  plates  was 
carried  on  by  the  German  physi- 
cist Chladni;  while  Poisson,  the 
French  mathematician,  contrib- 
uted to  the  mathematical  side  of 
the  problem. 

An  important  practical  branch 
of  acoustics  is  the  construction 
of  musical  instruments,  the  aim 
being  to  produce  tones  pleasing 
to  the  ear.  It  is  here  that  the 
far-reaching  principle  .of  reso- 
nance finds  its  earliest  and  most 
familiar  illustrations.  By  suit- 
ably constructed  cavities  or  tubes, 
within  which  the  column  of  air  vi- 
brates naturally  in  definite  peri- 
ods, sounds  having  those  periods 
are  powerfully  reinforced.  In 
this  way  we  produce  the  various 
qualities  of  tone  associated  with 
trumpet,  organ  pipe,  flute,  and 
wind  instruments  generally. 

It  is  well  to  distinguish  between 
true  resonance,  in  which  the  body, 
sympathetically  vibrating  to  the 
original  sound,  absorbs  energy 
and  gives  it  forth  again,  and  ordi- 
nary reflection  or  echoing,  in 
which  the  sound  is  thrown  back 
unchanged  from  a  hard  surface, 
such  as  the  walls  of  a  hall,  a  rock, 
or  a  forest. 

The  application  of  acoustic 
principles  in  the  construction  of  a 
large  hall  is  only  partly  under- 
stood. The  quality  of  the  acous- 
tics of  a  room  or  hall  is  based 
upon  the  duration  of  the  rever- 
beration, or  re-echoing,  of  the 
sounds  produced.  In  turn,  rever- 
beration is  dependent  upon  the 
cubic  metres  included  in  the  room ; 
the  acoustic  absorption,  or  the 
receiving  of  the  energy  of  'sound 
waves';  the  materials  of  which 
the  room  is  constructed,  and  with 
which  it  is  furnished;  the  degree 
of  intensity  of  the  sound;  and 
other  considerations.  Experience 
has  led  to  the  construction  of 
rectangular  halls,  and  the  reason 
is  obvious.  A  hall  with  part  of 
its  walls  in  a  circular  form  must 
of  necessity  give  rise  to  focal  con- 
centration of  rays  of  sound  after 
reflection;  and  if  the  hall  is  large, 
a  person  placed  at  such  a  focus 
will  hear  the  original  sound  and  an 
echo  separated  distinctly  in  time. 


For  a  discussion  of  the  physi- 
cal characteristics  of  the  aerial 
vibrations  which  produce  the  sen- 
sation of  noise,  see  Sound;  for  the 
physiological  side  of  the  question, 
see  Ear. 

Lord  Rayleigh's  Theory  of 
Sound  is  the  most  complete  treat- 
ise on  the  subject  of  acoustics, 
Helmholtz'  Tonempfindungen,  or 
Sensations  of  Tone  (Eng.  trans.), 
is  one  of  the  classics  of  scientific 
literature,  and  discusses  in  a  mas- 
terly manner  many  of  the  most 
profound  problems  connected 
with  the  sense  of  hearing.  Con- 
sult also  J.  H.  Poynting  and  J.  J. 
Thomson's  Text  Book  of  Science 
(vol.  II.,  'Sound');  W.  C.  Sabine's 
Architectural  Acoustics  (1906); 
Alexander  Saeltzer's  Treatise  on 
Acoustics  in  Connection  with 
Ventilation  (1908). 

Acoyapa,  or  San  Sebastian, 
town,  Chontales  department,  Nic- 
aragua, Central  America.  Pop. 
6,000. 

Acq  ua  pendente,  ak-wa-pen- 
den'ta,  town,  Rome  province, 
Italy;  25  miles  northwest  of  Vi- 
terbo.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral. 
Pop.  6,200. 

Acquaviva  delle  Fonti,  ak-wa- 
ve'va  del'la  fon'te,  town,  Apulia, 
Italy,  at  the  foot  of  the  Apen- 
nines; 18  miles  southwest  of  Bari. 
Pop.  11,000. 

AcquI,  iik'kwe,  town  and  epis- 
copal see,  province  Alessandria, 
Italy,  on  the  Bormida;  21  miles 
southwest  of  Alessandria.  It  has 
hot  sulphur  springs;  temperature 
115°-167°  F.  The  Gothic  Cathe- 
dral dates  from  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. Wine  and  silk  are  pro- 
duced.  Pop.  14,000. 

Ac'qules'cence  denotes  an  im- 
portant principle  of  equity  other- 
wise known  as  'laches'  (q.v.), 
'standing  by,'  or  'delay.'  It  is 
constituted  by  the  fact  that  a 
person  has  by  his  conduct  led 
others  to  believe  that  he  has 
waived  or  abandoned  his  rights. 
This  being  so,  he  is  precluded  or 
'estopped'  by  the  principle  in 
question  from  asserting  those 
rights. 

Acquired  Characters.  See  He- 
redity. 

Acquisition  by  a  state  usually 
comes  about  in  one  or  other  of 
three  ways:  (1)  Occupation  con- 
fers a  title  to  newly  discovered 
territory;  but  for  this  purpose 
mere  discovery  is  not  sufficient, 
nor  is  it  enough  that  it  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  formal  act  of  annexa- 
tion. An  actual  settlement  must 
be  made  in  the  country,  and  a 
regular  administration  set  up. 
The  question  of  title  by  occupa- 
tion was  formerly  of  great  prac- 
tical importance  in  connection 
with  the  settlement  of  America, 
and  has  in  modern  times  bieen 
revived  by  the  colonization  of 


Acquittal 


48 


Acromegaly 


Africa.  In  the  latter  case,  inter- 
national conflict  has  been  avoided 
by  the  delimitation  of  tracts  of 
land  as  within  the  'sphere  of 
influence'  (q.v.)  of  a  nation, 
which  is  then  entitled,  without 
interference  from  other  nations,  to 
acquire  by  occupation  any  terri- 
tory lying  therein. 

(2)  Treaties  and  conventions 
may  include  the  settling  of  fron- 
tiers and  boundaries,  or  the  ces- 
sion of  territory  by  one  state  to 
another  in  consideration  of  a  sale 
or  otherwise,  or  the  exchange  of 
territories  by  different  states. 

(3)  Conquest  (q.v.),  which  is 
the  forcible  appropriation  by  one 
nation  of  territory  belonging  to 
another,  when  followed  by  a  dec- 
laration of  annexation,  vests  the 
title  of  sovereignty  in  the  con- 
quering state.  Such  matters  are, 
however,  usually  settled  by  a 
treaty  of  peace.  Other  modes  of 
acquisition  are  accession  (e.  g., 
of  an  island  formed  within  the 
territorial  waters  of  a  state), 
prescriptive  possession,  and  in- 
heritance by  will  or  by  succes- 
sion. Occupation,  accession,  and 
prescriptive  possession  are 
termed  'original'  titles,  all  others 
are  'derivative.' 

Property  is  also  said  to  be  ac- 
quired by  private  individuals 
when  the  ownership  of  it  is 
gained  in  any  manner  recognized 
by  law. 

Acqult'tal,  the  judgment  of  a 
court  of  criminal  jurisdiction 
absolving  a  person  accused  of 
crime.  The  term  applies  to  a  fa- 
vorable decision  on  a  technical  de- 
fence (that  the  act  charged  does 
not  constitute  a  crime,  or  that  the 
prosecution  is  barred  by  pardon 
or  by  the  statute  of  limitations), 
as  well  as  to  a  verdict  of  'not 
guilty'  after  a  full  trial;  but  not 
to  a  discharge  by  a  committing 
magistrate,  nor  to  the  failure  of  a 
grand  jury  to  find  an  indictment. 
An  acquittal  upon  a  verdict  after 
a  full  trial  is  both  at  the  common 
law  and  under  the  Federal  and 
State  constitutions  of  the  United 
States  a  bar  to  a  second  prosecu- 
tion for  the  same  offence.  See 
Autrefois  Acquit;  Jeopardy. 

Acquittance,  a  written  dis- 
charge of  a  debt  or  other  money 
obligation.  To  be  effectual,  an 
acquittance,  if  based  upon  part 
payment  only,  must  be  by  release 
under  seal,  or  by  accord  and  satis- 
faction (see  Accord  and  Satis- 
faction). Where  full  payment 
is  made,  an  ordinary  receipt  or 
any  other  written  acknowledg- 
ment of  payment  is  a  sufficient 
acquittance. 

A'cre,  a  word  (from  Anglo-Sax- 
on cBcer)  which  is  identical  with 
Gothic  akr-s,  German  Acker, 
Latin  ager,  Greek  agros,  Sanskrit 
ajras — a  measure  nearly  corre- 
VOL,  I.— Oct,  '15 


sponding  to  the  quantity  which 
one  plough  could  plough  in  a  day. 
The  American  and  English  stat- 
ute acre  consists  of  4,840  square 
yards.  The  chain  with  which 
land  is  measured  is  22  yards  long, 
and  a  square  chain  will  contain 
22  X  22,  or  484  yards;  so  that  10 
square  chains  make  an  acre,  or 
4  roods-,  or  160  perches,  or  4,840 
square  yards.  Before  the  fixing 
of  the  statute  acre  in  England,  in 
the  reign  of  George  iv.,  the  acre 
varied  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  and  still  survives  locally 
in  several  counties — varying  in 
size  from  2.115  statute  acres  in 
Cheshire  to  0.477  in  Leicester- 
shire. The  old  Scotch  acre  is 
larger  than  the  English,  the  Irish 
than  the  Scotch;  23  Scotch  acres 
=  29  imperial  acres;  'SOH  Irish 
acres  =  40  imperial.  640  acres 
=  1  square  mile. 

The  hectare  (nearly  2}^  acres; 
see  Are)  of  the  French  metric 
system  has  superseded  on  the 
Continent  almost  all  the  ancient 
local  measures  corresponding  to 
the  acre.'  See  Weights  and 
Measures. 

Acre,  a'kra,  former  territory  of 
Bolivia,  now  part  of  Brazil.  See 
Bolivia;  Brazil. 

Acre,  a'ker  or  a'ker,  St.  Jean 
d'  (Turkish  a  ^^a;  Old  Testament 
Accho;  New  Testament  Ptolemais; 
the  Ace  of  Strabo),  city  and  sea- 
port, Syria,  on  a  promontory  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Carmel;  80 
miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem, 
and  27  miles  south  of  Tyre.  The 
harbor  is  partly  sanded  up,  yet  is 
one  of  the  best  on  the  coast.  A 
railroad  has  recently  been  con- 
structed from  Haifa  and  Acre  to 
Damascus.  The  older  fortifica- 
tions, much  breached,  may  be 
traced  outside  later  ones.  Pop. 
11,000  (8,000  Moslems;  3,000 
Christians,  Jews,  and  others). 

The  city  is  famous  for  its  many 
sieges:  (1)  1104,  taken  by  first 
Crusaders,  and  retaken  by  Sara- 
cens (1187);  (2)  1191,  taken  by 
third  Crusaders,  under  Richard 
Cceur  de  Lion  and  Philip  Augus- 
tus, and  handed  over  to  Knights 
of  St.  John  (Fr.  St.  Jean,  whence 
its  modern  name),  and  retaken 
by  Saracens  (1291);  (3)  1517, 
captured  by  the  Turks;  (4)  1799, 
besieged  for  sixty-one  days  by 
Bonaparte,  who  failed  to  take  it 
owing  to  the  heroic  defence  made 
by  Sir  Sidney  Smith  and  Jezzar 
Pasha;  (5)  1832,  taken  by  Ibra- 
him Pasha,  and  held  by  him  for 
eight  years;  (6)  1840,  captured  by 
combined  British,  Austrian,  and 
Turkish  fleej:s. 

Acrl,  a'kre,  town  and  province, 
Calabria,  Italy.  The  town  is  on 
the  River  Mucone;  20  miles 
northeast  of  Cosenza.  Pop.  13,- 
500. 

Acridildse,  See  Grasshopper. 


Acrisfus,  a-krish'i-us,  king  of 
Argos,  and  father  of  Danae,  whom 
he  shut  up  in  a  tower,  because  an 
oracle  had  foretold  that  her  child 
would  kill  him.  See  Danae; 
Perseus. 

Ac'robat,  literally  one  who 
walks  on  tiptoe,  but  commonly 
applied  to  a  person  who  practises 
feats  of  personal  agility,  such  as 
tumbling,  vaulting,  and  partic- 
ularly walking,  dancing,  etc.,  on 
rolling  balls,  pyramids  of  chairs, 
etc.,  and  especially  on  the  slack  or 
tight  rope,  a  feat  which  was  popu- 
lar among  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans.  The  Chiarinis  and 
Kolter  were  famous  in  this  line, 
and,  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
Farioso,  Madame  Saqui,  Diav- 
olo,  and  Blondin.  Consult  Le 
Roux  and  Garnier's  Acrobats  and 
Mountebanks  (Eng.  trans.) ;  Tum- 
bling for  Amateurs  (Spalding's 
Athletic  Library). 

Acroceraunian,  ak-ro-se-ro'ni- 
an,  or  Ceraunian  Mountains, 
Albania,  on  the  Adriatic  coast, 
lat.  40°  15'  N.;  highest  peak, 
Tchika  (6,300  ft.).  Acrocerau- 
NiA  is  the  modern  Cape  Lin- 
guetta  or  Glossa,  40  miles  north- 
east of  Otranto. 

Acrolein.,  a-kro'le-in,  or  Acryl- 
ic Aldehyde,  C2H3COH,  is  a 
colorless,  limpid,  strongly  re- 
fracting liquid,  lighter  than  wa- 
ter; boiling  i)oint,  52,4°  c.  It 
is  the  acrid  constituent  pro- 
duced in  the  destructive  distil- 
lation of  fatty  substances,  and 
is  in  part  due  to  the  decomposi- 
tion of  glycerin.  It  may  be  pre- 
pared by  distilling  a  mixture  of 
glycerin  and  anhydrous  phos- 
phoric acid,  the  object  of  the 
latter  being  to  effect  the  removal 
of  water  from  the  glycerin.  Its 
vapor  is  extremely  irritating  to 
the  eyes,  nostrils,  and  respir- 
atory organs.  When  mixed  with 
a  solution  of  potash  or  soda,  the 
irritating  odor  disappears;  cer- 
tain oxidizing  agents,  as  oxide  of 
silver,  convert  it  into  Acrylic 
Acid,  C2H3COOH. 

Acroliths  (Greek  akron,  'ex- 
tremity,' and  lithos,  'a  stone'), 
the  oldest  works  of  Greek  plastic 
art,  in  which  wood  carving  is 
seen  in  transition  into  marble 
statuary.  The  trunk  of  the 
figure  is  still  of  wood,  but  the 
head,  arms,  and  feet,  which  are 
meant  to  appear  outside  the 
drapery,  are  of  stone.  See  Chrys- 
elephantine. 

Ac'romeg'aly,  a  disease  causing 
general  enlargement  of  the  bones, 
especially  those  of  the  head,  feet, 
and  hands;  usually  occurring  be- 
tween the  ages  of  twenty  and  forty, 
most  frequently  in  females,  and 
lasting  for  ten  or  twenty  years 
before  death.  The  cause  is  still 
uncertain,  though  disease  of  the 
pituitary  body  (q.v.)  is  generally 


Acromion 

found  associated  with  it;  and  no 
very  effective  treatment  has  been 
discovered.  It  is  often  associated 
with  some  nerve  lesion — e.g., 
atrophy  of  the  optic  nerve — but 
the  intellect  is  generally  unim- 
paired. It  is  probable  that  the 
giants  of  the  olden  times  were 
cases  of  acromegaly.  See  Giants. 

Acro'mion,  the  summit  of  the 
shoulder  blade  which  articulates 
with  the  clavicle  or  collar  bone, 
and  gives  attachment  to  part  of 
the  deltoid  and  trapezius  mus- 
cles. It  is  commonly  called  the 
Acromial  Process. 

Acroph'ony,  a  term  applied  to 
a  stage  in  the  development  of 
alphabetical  writing — viz.,  to  the 
use  of  a  picture  of  an  object,  or  of 
a  symbolical  picture  of  an  object, 
to  represent  the  first  syllable  of 
the  name  of  that  object,  and, 
later,  to  represent  the  first  sound 
of  that  syllable. 

Acrop'olis  (Greek  akros,  'lofty' ; 
poUs,  'a  city')  was  the  name  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  the  fortified 
eminences  around  which  many 
of  their  towns  were  built.  The 
acropolis  served  also  as  a  sacred 
enclosure,  in  which  were  placed 
the  principal  temples  and  works 
of  art.  Among  the  most  famous 
were  those  of  Mycenae,  Tiryns, 
Argos,  Corinth,  Thebes,  Per- 
■gamum,  and  in  particular  Athens, 
the  last  being  generally  referred 
to  ac,  the  Acropolis. 

The  Acropolis  of  Athens 
(called  also  Cecropia,  from  its 
reputed  Pelasgian  founder.  King 
Cecrops)  is  a  rocky  eminence, 
precipitous  on  all  sides  except 
the  west,  rising  about  150  feet 
from  the  Attic  plain,  and  enclos- 
ing on  its  summit  a  plateau  of  an 
irregular  oval  shape,  measuring 
from  east  to  west  1,150  feet,  and 
from  north  to  south  500  feet. 
Prior  to  the  fifth  century  B.C.  an 
ancient  Pelasgian  wall  surround- 
ed the  plateau;  but  this  had 
fallen  into  ruin,  except  on  the 
north  side,  and  was  replaced 
along  the  south  escarpment  by 
the  wall  of  Cimon.  Round  the 
base  to  the  hill,  especially  on  the 
south,  were  grouped  numerous 
temples  and  theatres,  the  chief 
of  these  being  the  Temple  of 
^sculapius,  the  Theatre  of  Dio- 
nysus, and  the  Odeon  of  Herod 
Atticus.  The  whole  area  of  the 
summit  was  occupied  by  a  series 
of  edifices,  the  most  famous  and 
the  most  important  artistically 
in  the  world  s  history.  These 
were  the  outcome  of  the  creative 
spirit  of  Athens  when  at  the 
height  of  her  fame.  Pericles 
gave  the  impetus;  Phidias,  and 
a  band  of  architects — Mnesicles, 
Ictinus,  Callicrates,  and  others — 
were  the  creators.  Among  these 
buildings  were  the  Propylaea,  the 
Pinacotheca,  the  Temple  of  Nike 


49 


Act 


Apteros,  the  Erectheum,  the 
Parthenon,  etc.  See  Athens. 
Consult  Penrose's  Principles  of 
Athenian  Architecture;  Burnouf's 
L'Acropole;  Botticher's  Die  Ak- 
ropolis  von  A  then. 

Acros'tic,  a  verse  or  verses  in 
which  the  initial  letters  of  the 
lines,  when  read  in  order,  spell  a 
name,  word,  or  phrase.  Some- 


Act  has  various  technical 
meanings,  legal  and  other;  fre- 
quently a  document  in  writing, 
as  when  a  person  executing  a 
legal  instrument,  declares  it  to 
be  his  act  and  deed.  Or  it  may  be 
the  record  of  an  act  or  proceeding 
of  a  public  nature,  as  an  Act  of 
Congress.  In  the  United  States, 
an  act  signifies  something  done 


0       200      20a  300 


Plan  of  the  A  cropolis. 


times  the  final  letters  spell  words 
as  well  as  the  initial,  and  this  pe- 
culiarity may  even  run  down  the 
middle  of  the  poem.  The  acros- 
tic is  of  ancient  origin,  known 
specimens  dating  back  to  the 
fourth  century.  Some  sacred 
Greek  verses,  quoted  by  Euse- 
bius,  bishop  of  Csesarea,  in  the 
fourth  century,  are  written  so 
that  the  initial  letters  spell  the 
phrase  'Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of 
God,  the  Saviour.'  The  first 
letters  of  the  five  Greek  words  of 
this  phrase  spell  the  word  ichthus, 
'a  fish' ;  hence  the  use  of  the  fish 
as  a  symbol  for  the  Saviour.  The 
Hebrew  form  of  acrostic,  as  seen 
in  several  of  the  Psalms,  is  alpha- 
betical. In  the  119th  Psalm, 
each  of  the  eight  verses  of  the  first 
division  begins  with  aleph;  each 
of  the  eight  verses  of  the  second 
division  begins  with  the  second 
letter,  beth;  and  so  on,  through 
the  twenty-two  letters  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet.  The  best 
known  English  acrostics  are  an 
ingenious  collection  by  Sir  John 
Davies,  called  Astrcea,  written  to 
Queen  Elizabeth,  the  initial  let- 
ters of  each  forming  the  words 
'Elizabetha  Regina.' 

Ac'rote'ria,  or  Acroters, 
small  pedestals  on  buildings,  on 
which  are  placed  statues  or  orna- 
mental finials;  also  the  statues 
or  ornaments  thus  placed. 


for  which  the  person  doing  is 
responsible;  something  done  by 
an  individual  in  his  private  ca- 
pacity, or  as  an  officer;  or  by  a 
body  of  persons,  as  an  associa- 
tion, corporation,  legislature,  or 
court.  It  includes  not  only 
physical  acts,  but  also  decrees, 
orders,  resolutions,  and  laws.  An 
act  indicates  intention.  In  crim- 
inal matters  an  act  does  not  make 
the  actor  criminal  unless  the  in- 
tention was  criminal.  An  act  is 
also  an  instrument  in  writing  to 
verify  facts.  A  Public  Act  is  one 
that  has  public  authority,  made 
public  by  authority,  or  attested 
by  a  public  seal,  and  one  per- 
taining to  the  whole  community ; 
while  a  Private  A  ct  operates  upon 
particular  persons  and  private 
concerns. 

In  the  Drama,  an  act  is  a  dis- 
tinct section  of  a  play,  in  which  a 
definite  and  coherent  part  of  the 
plot  is  represented.  It  is  gener- 
ally subdivided  into  smaller  por- 
tions, called  scenes.  Every  dra- 
matic plot  naturally  divides  itself 
into  three  parts,  but  it  has  often 
been  found  inconvenient  to  en- 
close extended  plots  in  such  lim- 
its, and  since  the  earliest  days  of 
tragedy  five  acts  have  generally 
been  considered  necessary  for  its 
satisfactory  development. 
Shakespeare  never  departed  from 
that  number;  but  modern  plays 
Vol.  T.— Mar.  '20 


Acta 


50 


Acting 


have  three,  four,  five,  or  even 
more. 

Ac'ta  (Latin  'transactions') 
was  a  title  given  to  various  rec- 
ords, memorials,  or  minutes  pub- 
lished in  Roman  times.  They 
may  be  treated  under  the  follow- 
ing heads:  (1)  Acta  Populi,  or 
Acta  Diurna,  an  official  journal  of 
important  events,  both  public 
and  private,  which  was  published 
daily  in  ancient  Rome  after  59 
B.C.  The  original  acta  were  de- 
posited in  the  state  archives  after 
a  certain  time.  They  contained 
imperial  and  magisterial  notices 
and  decrees,  resolutions  and  dis- 


A.D,  have  been  found,  and  edited 
by  Henzen. 

Actse'a.    See  Baneberry. 

Actae'on,  in  classic  mythology 
a  famous  hunter,  whom  the  god- 
dess "Artemis  (Diana)  changed 
into  a  stag,  because  he  saw  her 
bathing;  in  this  form  his  dogs  tore 
him  to  pieces. 

Ac'ta  Pila'ti,  or  Gesta  Pilati 
('Acts  of  Pilate'),  the  name  of  an 
apocryphal  work  giving,  by  way 
of  an  official  report  purporting 
to  have  been  drawn  up  under  the 
orders  of  Pontius  Pilate  (q.v.),  an 
account  of  the  trial,  crucifixion, 
and  resurrection  of  Jesus.    It  is, 


close  of  the  fourth  century,  it  has 
no  claim  to  authenticity,  but  is 
probably  connected  in  its  origin 
both  with  the  heathen  acts  (by 
way  of  confutation)  and  with  the 
earlier  narrative  alluded  to  by 
Justin.  It  now  forms  chaps, 
i-xvi.  of  the  Gospel  of  Nicode- 
mus. 

Acta  Sanctorum.    See  Bol- 

LANDISTS. 

Acte  additionelle,  akt  a-de-syo- 
nel'.  L'Acte  Additionnel  aux 
Constitutions  de  I'Empire  was  is- 
sued by  Napoleon  on  April  23, 
1815,  during  the  'Hundred  Days,' 
as  a  concession  to  Liberal  poli- 


The  Acropolis  of  Athens  (as  It  Was  in  the  Time  of  Pericles). 


cussions  of  the  senate,  possibly 
the  results  of  chariot  races,  adver- 
tisements of  births,  marriages, 
divorces,  and  deaths.  No  genuine 
acta  are  extant,  though  fifteen 
spurious  fragmcMits  have  been 
published  by  Pighius  (1615).  (2) 
Acta  Senalus,  the  minutes  of  the 
transactions  in  the  senate,  first 
published  by  Julius  Caesar  as 
consul  in  59  B.C.  They  were  kept 
in  the  imperial  archives,  being 
accessible  only  to  vsenators;  or  in 
separate  parts  of  public  libraries, 
being  then  accessible  only  by 
special  permission  of  the  city 
prefect.  (.3)  Acta  Fratrum  ALva- 
lium,  minutes  of  the  JEva.\  broth- 
erhood, a  priestly  college  in  an- 
cient Rome.  Important  frag- 
ments covering  the  period  14-241 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


of  course,  by  no  means  improb- 
able that  Pilate  furnished  the 
Emperor  Tiberius  with  some  rec- 
ord of  his  dealings  with  Jesus; 
but  as  it  is  extremely  unlikely 
that  such  ever  became  public 
property,  the  references  made  by 
Justin  and  Tertullian  probably 
refer  to  some  spurious  composi- 
tion designed  to  fill  up  the  blank. 
Eusebius  speaks  of  heathen  Acta 
Pilati  circulated  in  the  Galerian 
persecution,  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  the  Christian  passion 
story  into  divsrepute,  but  seems 
to  know  nothing  of  a  Christian 
writing  under  that  title.  The 
extant  Acts  of  Pilate  is  written 
from  a  Christian  standpoint;  and 
although  it  was  known  in  some 
form  to  Epiphanius  toward  the 


ticians.  It  contained  provisions 
for  individual  liberty  and  free- 
dom of  the  press,  and  was  an 
advance  upon  'The  Charter'  of 
Louis  xviii. 

Actian  Games,  ak'shi-an.  The, 
were  instituted  by  Octavius  in 
commemoration  of  his  great 
naval  victory  over  Antony  and 
Cleopatra  (b.c.  31)  at  Actium 
(q.v.).  They  included  musical 
contests,  wrestling,  horse  racing, 
and,  in  memory  of  the  battle, 
sea  fights.  They  were  held  every 
fifth  year. 

Acting  and  Actors.  In  the  evo- 
lution of  dramatic  art,  the  actor 
preceded  both  the  playwright 
and  the  theatre,  and  still  remains 
the  most  essential  factor. 

Acting  first  emerged  in  Greece, 


Acting 


51 


Acting 


when  the  leaders  of  the  choric 
dances  in  honor  of  Dionysus 
began  to  distinguish  themselves 
from  the  other  participants.  As 
this  distinction  became  more  and 
more  emphasized,  a  dramatist 
became  necessary  to  prepare 
parts  for  these  leaders.  Later, 
as  the  religious  revels  took  on 
more  and  more  the  form  of  what 
we  know  as  drama,  the  demand 
arose  for  a  theatre  to  accommo- 
date the  spectators.  The  drama 
can  never  exist  without  actors; 
that  it  can  still  exist  without  a 
theatre,  is  proved  when  plays  are 
given  on  a  lawn  or  in  a  drawing- 
room;  it  can  also  exist  without  a 
dramatist,  since  in  certain  peri- 
ods, like  that  of  the  Italian 
commedia  del  arte  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  the 
actors  have  improvised  their  own 
lines  in  the  presence  of  the  public. 

Acting,  by  its  very  nature,  is 
a  compound  art,  appealing  si- 
multaneously to  the  eye,  like 
sculpture  and  painting,  and  to 
the  ear,  like  poetry  and  music. 
In  different  periods,  the  pro- 
portion to  each  other  of  these  two 
appeals — the  visual  and  the 
auditory — has  differed  greatly. 
In  ancient  Greece,  acting  was 
mainly  auditory;  in  the  modern 
drama,  it  has  become  mainly 
visual;  in  Elizabethan  drama,  it 
stood  midway  between  these  two 
extremes. 

Despite  the  vast  size  of  the 
open-air  theatres  of  the  Greeks 
(the  theatre  of  Dionysus  in 
Athens  seated  over  twenty  thou- 
sand people),  it  was  not  difficult 
to  hear  in  them,  as  is  demon- 
strated by  acoustic  experiments 
conducted  in  such  of  them  as 
remain  extant;  on  the  other 
hand,  it  was  difficult  to  see 
minutely.  The  actors  wore 
stilted  boots,  not  to  make  them- 
selves look  heroic  in  stature,  but 
that  they  might  appear  of  normal 
height  to  the  thousands  of 
spectators  gazing  down  on  them 
from  the  hillside.  Their  ges- 
tures, in  order  to  carry  meaning 
to  their  vast  audience,  had  to  be 
hinged  from  the  shoulder.  Facial 
expression  could  not  be  distin- 
guished; and  for  this  reason 
masks  were  worn,  of  exaggerated 
size,  to  convey  a  conventional 
suggestion  of  the  dominant  mood 
of  a  scene.  ^Eschylus  used  only 
two  actors,  Sophocles  and  Eurip- 
ides three;  but  each  actor,  dis- 
guised in  different  masks,  played 
several  parts  in  the  same  play. 
In  such  a  theatre,  the  actor 
relied  for  his  effect  mainly  on 
his  voice.  Greek  tragedy  de- 
manded recitation  of  the  highest 
o-der  but  required  little  else 
than  oratorical  eloquence. 

In  the  modern  theatre  acting 
has  become  mainly  a  visual  art, 
owing  chiefly  to  the  invention  of 
the  electric  light,  which  makes  it 
possible  for  the  remotest  spec- 


tator to  see  clearly  any  minutest 
portion  of  the  stage  to  which 
the  director  wishes  to  attract 
his  attention.  Gestures  are  no 
longer  hinged  from  the  shoulder, 
but  mainly  from  the  wrist,  and 
often  only  from  the  knuckles. 
Facial  expression  has  become  of 
paramount  importance,  and  vocal 
prowess  is  no  longer  the  sine  qua 
non  of  the  actor. 

The  Elizabethan  theatre  stood 
midway  between  these  two  ex- 


tremes. It  was  an  open-air 
theatre,  without  artificial  light- 
ing; but  it  was  not  nearly  so 
vast  as  the  ancient  theatre. 
Gestures  hinged  from  the  elbow 
could  carry  easily  to  the  specta- 
tors; and,  whereas  an  oratorical 
use  of  the  voice  remained  appro- 
priate in  many  passages,  it  was 
possible,  in  others,  to  drop  to  a 
comparatively  quiet  tone  of 
intimacy. 

The  ancient  actor  performed 
for  spectators  who  encompassed 
him  on  all  sides  except  the  one 
cut  off  by  the  rear  wall  of  the 


stage.  On  the  stage  of  Shake- 
speare, and  also  on  the  stage  of 
Moliere,  privileged  persons  were 
permitted  to  sit  on  stools  to  the 
right  and  left  of  the  performers; 
and,  even  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury theatres  of  Sheridan  and 
Beaumarchais,  the  arrangement 
of  the  boxes  placed  a  good  many 
spectators  on  either  hand  of  the 
actors  (see  Theatre  for  illustra- 
tion). In  all  these  theatres,  the 
actor  was  required  to  imagine 


himself  in  three  dimensions  and 
to  handle  his  body  in  terms  of 
sculpture.  As  he  stood  or  moved 
about  the  stage,  he  had  to  povse 
as  a  statue,  to  be  viewed  simul- 
taneously from  three  different 
directions.  In  the  modern  theatre, 
on  the  other  hand,  where  all  the 
spectators  sit  in  front  of  a  pic- 
ture-frame proscenium,  the  actor 
has  come  to  imagine  himself  in 
two  dimensions  and  to  handle 
his  body  in  terms  of  painting. 
He  plays  in  profile,  as  it  were, 
because  he  can  be  viewed  from 
only  one  direction.    He  no  longer 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


A  View  of  the  Early  English  Stage,  with  Spectators  on  All  Sides 


0.  OF  JLL  LIB. 


Acting 


51  A 


Acting 


poses  as  a  statue,  but  comports 
himself  unobtrusively  as  a  com- 
ponent part  of  an  ever-moving 
picture  hung  within  a  picture- 
frame. 

In  the  history  of  the  theatre, 
the  periods  of  great  authors  and 
the  periods  of  great  actors  have 
never  coincided,  probably  be- 
cause the  public  cannot,  at  the 
same  time,  take  an  equal  interest 
in  the  creative  art  of  authorship 
and  in  the  representative  art  of 
acting.  In  Greece,  the  names  of 
the  prize-winning  dramatists  be- 
came immortal;  but  little  was 
said  of  the  performers.  In  the 
Elizabethan  period,  when  so 
many  dramatists  besides  Shake- 
speare became  famous,  only  two 
actors  stood  out  notably, — 
Edward  Alleyn,  the  leading  actor 
of  Marlowe's  company,  the  Lord 
Admiral's  men,  and  Richard 
Burbage,  the  leading  actor  of 
Shakespeare's  company,  the  Lord 
Chamberlain's  men.  But  the 
greatest  of  all  English  actors, 
David  Garrick,  and  the  greatest 
of  all  French  actors,  Talma,  each 
flourished  in  a  period  when  dra- 
matic authorship  in  his  country 
was  at  its  lowest  ebb.  In  Eng- 
land and  in  the  United  States, 
the  theatre  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  dominated  by  a 
long  line  of  great  actors — Mrs. 
Siddons,  John  Philip  Kemble, 
Edmund  Kean,  William  Charles 
Macready,  Henry  Irving,  Ellen 
Terry,  in  the  older  country,  and 
Junius  Brutus  Booth,  Edwin 
Forrest,  Charlotte  Cushman,  Ed- 
win Booth,  Lawrence  Barrett, 
Helena  Modjeska,  Ada  Rehan, 
Richard  Mansfield,  in  the  young- 
er country;  but  they  acted  little 
else  than  Shakespeare  and  imi- 
tations of  Shakespeare.  When, 
however,  the  new  English  drama 
arose  at  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  and  the  domi- 
nance of  the  theatre  passed  into 
the  hands  of  such  dramatists 
as  Pinero,  Jones,  Shaw,  Gals- 
worthy, Barker,  Fitch,  Thomas, 
and  C)'Neill,  the  race  of  great 
actors  appeared,  temporarily  at 
least,  to  pass  away. 

In  Greece,  the  actor,  though 
little  celebrated,  seems  to  have 
been  a  person  of  good  class.  It 
is  known,  for  instance,  that 
^schylus  acted  in  his  own 
plays;  and,  while  Sophocles  was 
still  in  his  early  teens,  he  was 
accorded  the  high  honor  of 
leadership  in  the  choric  dances 
held  in  celebration  of  the  victory 
of  Salamis.  In  Rome,  however, 
where  the  audience  for  the 
comedies  of  Plautus  was  made 
up  mainly  of  the  rabble,  the  act- 
ing was  done  by  slaves  who  were 
trained  up  for  the  profession. 
Roscius,  by  his  extraordinary 
prowess,  succeeded  in  winning 
his  freedom;  but,  in  the  main, 
the  actors  never  rose  above  the 
social  status  of  slavery. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


When  the  Christian  religion 
overwhelmed  the  ancient  world, 
in  the  fourth  century,  a.d.,  the 
drama  was  abolished,  and  for 
nearly  a  thousand  years  it  re- 
mained a  dead  art.  Throughout 
these  dark  centuries,  however, 
acting  was  kept  more  or  less 
alive  by  strolling  mimes,  who 
performed  their  comic  antics  in 
the  market-places. 

It  was  in  the  Christian  church 
itself  that  the  drama  was  born 
again,  emerging  slowly  from  the 
liturgical  dialogues  of  the  twelfth 
century  into  the  mysteries  and 
miracle  plays  of  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries.  So 
long  as  this  new  embryonic 
drama  remained  a  part  of  the 
religious  service,  it  was  per- 
formed within  the  church,  in 
the  Latin  language,  by  the 
clergy;  but  when  it  expanded 
to  such  proportions  as  to  out- 
grow the  church  which  housed 
it  and  was  moved  out  of  doors, 
it  was  performed  in  the  vernacu- 
lar by  laymen.  In  several  English 
cities,  long  cycles  of  these  mys- 
tery plays  were  acted  annually 
by  members  of  the  various 
trade-guilds;  but  in  France  a 
travelling  company  of  profes- 
sional actors,  known  as  the  Con- 
frerie  de  la  Passion,  was  organ- 
ized to  carry  the  mystery  and 
miracle  plays  from  town  to 
town. 

It  was  not  until  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century 
that  professional  acting  com- 
panies were  organized  in  Eng- 
land. The  actors  had  no  social 
standing;  under  the  laws  of 
the  time,  they  were  classed  as 
rogues  and  vagabonds,  and  to 
be  allowed  to  practise  their 
craft,  they  were  obliged  to  seek 
the  protection  of  some  great 
nobleman.  Even  in  Shake- 
speare's day,  women  were  not 
permitted  to  engage  in  so  dis- 
reputable a  profession,  and  fe- 
male parts  were  played  by  boys. 

A  generation  later  than  Shake- 
speare, Moliere,  in  France,  found 
himself  in  a  somewhat  superior 
position.  Although  he  had  be- 
gun life  as  a  strolling  player,  he 
served,  after  establishing  his 
troupe  in  Paris  under  the  patron- 
age of  the  king's  brother-in-law, 
as  one  of  the  valets  de  chamhre  of 
the  king  himself.  It  should  be 
said,  however,  that  this  honor 
was  inherited  from  his  bourgeois 
father,  who  had  been  an  up- 
holsterer. Although  Louis  xiv. 
was  very  friendly  with  Moliere, 
he  expressed  astonishment  when 
Boileau  told  him  that  this  actor- 
dramatist  was  the  foremost  man 
of  letters  of  his  reign;  and  when 
Moliere  died,  he  was  denied 
Christian  burial,  because  his 
prowess  as  a  poet  was  out- 
weighed, in  the  eyes  of  the 
Church,  by  the  ignominy  of  his 
profession  as  an  actor. 


It  was  not  till  after  the  Res- 
toration, in  1660,  that  women 
were  first  introduced  upon  the 
English  stage,  by  Thomas  KilH- 
grew,  at  the  Theatre  Royal, 
Drury  Lane.  The  dissoluteness 
of  the  times  expressed  itself 
light-heartedly  in  an  exceed- 
ingly licentious  theatre;  and 
though  an  actress,  like  Nell 
Gwynne,  might  rise  to  be  a 
king's  mistress,  neither  actresses 
nor  actors  were  countenanced  in 
good  society.  In  the  eighteenth 
century,  such  actors  as  Colley 
Cibber  and  more  particularly 
David  Garrick  managed  by  sheer 
personal  worth  to  associate  on 
terms  of  equality  with  the  lead- 
ing people  of  their  times,  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  very 
greatest  actors  of  the  nineteenth 
century;  but  it  was  not  until 
the  end  of  that  century,  when 
the  signal  honor  of  knighthood 
was  conferred  upon  Sir  Henry 
Irving,  that  actors  and  actresses 
were  generally  received  into  good 
society  as  ladies  and  gentlemen. 
Fortunately  for  the  theatre, 
actors  are  now  at  last  regarded 
as  the  social  equals  of  painters, 
sculptors,  architects,  authors, 
and  all  other  artists. 

The  question  whether  or  not 
acting  can  be  taught  is  no  more 
problematical  than  the  same 
question  applied  to  any  of  the 
other  arts.  Many  of  the  quali- 
ties enabling  an  aspirant  to 
excel  in  the  art  may  undoubtedly 
be  acquired  from  example  and 
improved  by  dint  of  study  under 
good  instruction.  Grace  of 
carriage,  appropriateness  of  ges- 
ture, the  management  of  the 
voice,  may  well  be  learned  by  an 
apprentice  from  his  elders  and 
betters;  but  the  dramatic  in- 
stinct, the  spark  of  histrionic 
personality,  without  which  these 
things  are  as  nothing,  is  a  gift 
of  nature.  Like  the  poet,  the 
actor  is  born,  not  made;  but, 
like  the  great  poet,  the  great 
actor  needs  a  long  and  arduous 
experience. 

The  French  government  has 
maintained  for  centuries  a  school 
of  acting  from  which  the  Comedie 
Francaise,  the  world's  most 
noted  company  of  actors,  draws 
its  material;  and  most  of  the 
best  actors  and  actresses  on  the 
French  stage  have  passed  through 
this  Paris  conservatoire.  In 
England  dramatic  schools  have 
never  prospered;  and  mainly  for 
this  reason,  the  traditions  of  the 
classic  English  drama  have  not 
been  passed  down  unbroken 
from  Shakespeare's  actors  to  our 
own,  as  the  traditions  of  the 
classic  French  drama  have  been 
passed  down  from  Moliere's  own 
company  through  the  many  suc- 
ceeding generations  of  the  Come- 
die Francaise.  In  the  United 
States,  the  American  Academy 
of  Dramatic  Arts,  founded  in 


Actinia 


51  B 


Actinium 


New  York  City  in  1884  by 
Franklin  H.  Sargent,  has  gradu- 
ated many  students  who  have 
subsequently  achieved  success 
upon  the  stage. 

While  it  is  obvious  that  an 
actor  must  feel  his  part  while 
he  is  studying  it  and  composing 
it,  opinions  differ  as  to  whether 
or  not  he  should  feel  it  while  he 
is  performing  it  before  an  audi- 
ence. According  to  Constant 
Coquelin,  the  true  actor,  regard- 
less of  his  own  feelings  at  the 
time,  can  assume  his  role  at  a 
moment's  notice.  He  has  no 
need  to  attune  his  mind  to  it  by 
preliminary  meditation.  Whether 
it  is  Romeo  or  Lear,  provided 
only  he  is  word  perfect,  he  can 
step  on  to  the  stage  and  produce 
the  impression  he  desires.  In 
brief,  Coquelin  held  with  Diderot 
and  against  Horace,  that  an 
actor  should  not  feel  his  part 
while  he  is  playing  it. 

Many  other  great  actors  and 
actresses,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  stated  that,  in  order  to 
produce  their  greatest  effects, 
they  must  identify  themselves 
emotionally  with  the  characters 
impersonated.  Mrs.  Siddons 
prepared  herself  for  her  great 
scene  as  Constance  by  deliber- 
ately concentrating  her  mind  on 
her  imaginary  woes,  and  Mac- 
ready  used  to  shake  and  rattle 
a  ladder  violently  off  stage  in 
order  to  work  himself  up  to  the 
frenzy  of  Shylock's  scene  with 
Tubal.  Salvini  deliberately  de- 
voted several  hours  to  solitary 
brooding  before  his  appearance 
on  the  stage;  and  once,  on  being 
asked  at  a  social  gathering  in 
America,  to  render  a  short  scene 
from  Othello,  was  obliged  to 
refuse  on  the  ground  that  he 
could  not  do  so  acceptably 
without  living  through  the  entire 
play. 

See  Drama;  Moving  Pic- 
Pictures;  Opera;  Theatre. 
Consult  Diderot's  The  Paradox  of 
Acting;  Lewes'  Actors  and  the 
Art  of  Acting;  Hamerton's  The 
Art  of  Acting;  Archer's  Masks 
and  Faces;  Jefferson's  Autobiog- 
raphy; Symons'  Plays,  Acting 
and  Music;  Calvert's  Problems 
of  the  Actor. 

Actinia.    See  Sea  Anemone. 

Actln'ic  Rays,  or  Ultra-vio- 
let Rays,  are  those  radiations 
which  are  found,  by  suitable 
means,  as  one  passes  from  the 
red  light  through  yellow,  green, 
blue,  and  violet,  on  out  into  the 
region  where  no  light  is  visible 
to  the  eye.  They  are  of  shorter 
wave  length  than  the  visible 
waves  of  light,  have  a  greater 
frequency  of  vibration,  and 
therefore  are  more  refrangible. 
Being  invisible  to  the  eye,  they 
must  be  detected  by  other  means 
than  vision.  They  were  first 
observed  through  the  photo- 
graphic   actions    produced  by 


them.  Photographic  plates 
which  were  known  never  to  have 
been  exposed  to  visible  light  were 
found  to  be  'light  struck'  when 
placed  in  the  part  of  the  spectrum 
iDcyond  the  violet,  where  nothing 
could  be  seen  by  the  eye. 

A  more  striking  way  of  detect- 
ing and  displaying  actinic  or 
ultra-violet  Hght  is  by  means  of 
the  phosphorescence  which  is 
brought  about  by  such  light  in 
various  substances,  as  uranium 
glass,  salts  like  platinum-barium 
cyanide,  certain  ores  like  the 
zinc  ores,  Franklinite,  Willemite, 
and  sulphate  of  quinine.  To 
accomplish  this,  a  spectrum  is 
produced  by  passing  a  ray  of 
sunlight  through  a  quartz  prism; 
any  of  the  several  phosphorescent 
substances  mentioned  is  placed 
in  the  several  colors,  beginning 
with  the  red,  and  then  carried 
on  out  into  the  region  where 
there  is  no  color  at  all.  At  once 
the  substances  begin  to  glow 
with  ghostly  colors,  varying  with 
the  nature  of  the  substance. 

Still  another  means  of  detec- 
tion is  by  means  of  the  ionizing 
effect  of  ultra-violet  rays.  When 
Heinrich  Hertz  was  carrying  on 
the  famous  researches  which  led 
him  to  the  discovery  of  the  wire- 
less telegraph  in  its  earliest  form, 
he  made  use  of  a  small  electric 
spark  across  a  small  gap.  He 
found  this  very  variable:  some- 
times he  obtained  sparks  easily; 
again,  under  apparently  the  same 
conditions,  he  got  none  at  all. 
He  showed  convincingly  that  the 
variations  were  caused  by  the 
variations  of  the  ultra-violet 
light  from  the  main  spark.  When 
these  rays,  the  ultra-violet,  illumi- 
nated the  gap,  sparks  passed 
easily,  but  when  the  ultra-violet 
or  actinic  rays  were  cut  off, 
sparks  passed  only  with  diffi- 
culty, if  at  all.  If  a  beam  of 
ultra-violet  rays  is  made  to  fall 
upon  an  electrically  charged 
body,  the  air  will  be  ionized  and 
made  conducting,  and  will  carry 
the  charge  off  from  the  body. 

Glass  is  transparent  to  visible 
light  but  quite  opaque  to  the 
ultra-violet.  Quartz  is  trans- 
parent to  ultra-violet  rays  as 
well  as  to  visible  light.  There- 
fore, for  photographic  purposes, 
the  lenses  will,  with  marked 
advantage,  be  made  of  quartz. 

Red  light  has  a  wave  length  of 
about  7,600  Angstrom  units; 
violet  light  has  a  length  of  about 
3,800,  while  the  ultra-violet  rays 
have  wave  lengths  down  to 
about  2,000.  Rays  of  shorter 
wave  lengths  are  well  known,  but 
are  not  ordinarily  spoken  of  as 
actinic  rays. 

There  are  various  sources  of 
ultra-violet  light,  as  sunlight,  the 
electric  arc  between  zinc  or  iron 
electrodes,  and  the  mercury 
vapor  lamp. 

Actinotherapy. — Because  of 


their  germicidal  and  stimulative 
properties,  the  actinic  rays  have 
found  important  applications  in 
the  treatment  of  disease,  and 
actinotherapy  has  become  an 
accepted  branch  of  therapeutics. 
The  principal  source  of  ultra- 
violet rays  for  medical  applica- 
tion is  the  mercury  vapor  lamp, 
in  which  the  essential  feature  is  a 
quartz  tube  containing  mercury 
vapor,  through  which  an  electric 
current  is  made  to  pass.  The 
light  produced  by  the  mercury 
lamp  contains  about  28  per  cent, 
ultra-violet  rays  as  compared 
with  7  per  cent,  in  ordinary  sun- 
light, but  this  amount  may  be 
modified  by  dust,  moisture,  and 
organic  matter  in  the  air,  as  well 
as  by  the  voltage  of  the  current 
used. 

The  mercury  vapor  lamp  comes 
in  two  main  types:  the  water 
cooled  and  air  cooled.  The  first 
issues  a  larger  proportion  of 
the  short  ultra-violet  wave- 
lengths, which  possess  germi- 
cidal activity.  The  second  radi- 
ates more  of  the  longer  wave- 
lengths, which  have  greater 
power  of  penetration,  stimulate 
metabolism,  and  are  absorbed  in 
larger  amounts.  The  reasons 
for  the  effect  of  ultra-violet 
rays  on  cellular  or  bodily  activity 
are  still  not  definitely  known,  but 
in  general  it  is  agreed  that  the 
blood  is  stimulated  to  an  increase 
in  hemoglobin,  red  blood  cells 
and,  eventually,  white  blood 
cells.  Resistance  to  infection  is 
increased.  A  sedative  action 
results,  and  pain  is  relieved, 
due,  perhaps,  to  a  selective 
action  on  the  (sensory)  nerve 
endings.  Metabolism  and  elimi- 
nation are  promoted,  and  there 
is  an  increase  in  the  calcium  and 
phosphorus  in  the  blood.  To 
the  latter  action  is  attributed 
the  beneficial  effect  of  sunlight  in 
rickets. 

The  dosage  is  roughly  classified 
as  mild  (stimulative),  medium 
(regenerative),  and  severe  (de- 
structive), depending  upon  the 
effect  sought.  The  stimulative 
is  the  degree  usually  employed. 
The  regenerative  is  used  in 
widespread  inflammatory  skin 
diseases,  and  the  destructive 
in  infective  and  hypotrophic 
skin  lesions.  The  rays  are  bene- 
ficial in  deep-seated  localized 
infections,  sluggishly  healing 
wounds,  sinuses,  chronic  ulcers, 
burns,  almost  all  skin  infections, 
simple  anemia,  and  conditions 
with  disturbed  metabolism.  They 
should  not  be  administered  in 
diabetes,  hemophilia,  acute  pul- 
monary tuberculosis,  or  in  in- 
dividuals with  very  sensitive  skin. 

See  Fluorescence;  Light; 
Radiant  Energy;  Spectrum. 

Actin'ium,  a  radioactive  chem- 
ical clement  discovered  by  Debi- 
erne  in  1899,  soon  after  the  dis- 
covery of  polonium  and  radium. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Actinograph 


52 


Action 


It  is  present  in  all  uranium 
minerals,  but  in  an  amount  rela- 
tively much  smaller  than  radium. 
It  is  probable  that  actinium  is  a 
disintegration  product  of  urani- 
um, but  its  formation  therefrom, 
directly  or  indirectly,  has  not 
been  detected.  It  is  prepared 
from  pitchblende  residues  left 
from  the  extraction  of  radium. 

Actinium  disintegrates  into 
the  following  products,  in  the 
order  named:  rad^o-actinium, 
actinium  x,  actinium  emanation, 
actinium  a,  actinium  b,  actinium 
c,  actinium  C2  (?),  actinium  D, 
actinium  e.  The  analogy  of  this 
series  to  the  corresponding  series 
of  thorium  products  is  striking. 

Actinium  undergoes  a  slow- 
disintegration.  Its  period  of 
half  life  is  taken  to  be  about 
twenty  years.  If  there  is  any 
radiation  from  actinium,  it  is 
very  feeble.  Rutherford  studied 
the  emanating  power  of  aged 
actinium  by  placing  a  highly 
active  sample  of  this  substance 
on  a  screen  of  phosphorescent 
zinc  sulphide.  The  screen  phos- 
phoresced and  showed  the  char- 
acteristic scintillation.  If,  then, 
a  jet  of  air  was  blown  over  the 
specimen,  the  phosphorescence 
was  displayed  in  the  direction  of 
motion  of  the  current.  The 
emanation  of  the  actinium  had 
been  displaced.  When  the  air 
current  ceased,  the  emanation 
diffused  and  caused  the  reappear- 
ance of  the  phosphorescence. 

Some  uncertainty  still  exists 
as  to  the  atomic  weight  of  actin- 
ium; it  vseems  probable  that  its 
value  should  be  taken  as  226. 
Chemically,  the  element  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  group  of  rare- 
earth  elements,  and  occupies,  in 
the  opinion  of  Auer  von  Wels- 
bach,  a  position  between  lantha- 
num and  calcium. 

Actin'ograph,  a  self-recording 
actinometer  (q.v.),  in  which  the 
record  is  being  made  by  the 
chemical  effect  of  the  sun's 
rays  on  vsensitized  paper. 

Actin'olite,  a  variety  of  amphi- 
bole  (q.v.)  containing  calcium, 
magnesium,  and  iron,  and  char- 
acterized by  a  dark  green  or  gray 
green  color.  It  occurs  in  bladed 
crystals  or  in  fibrous  or  granular 
masses.  It  is  found  in  serpentine 
rocks,  and  in  crystalline  schists, 
of  which,  in  the  case  of  actinolite 
schist,  it  forms  the  essential  min- 
eral. A  hard  dense  sub-variety 
of  actinolite,  known  as  Nephrite 
(q.v.),  which  is  included  with  a 
similar  variety  of  pyroxene  (see 
Jadeite)  under  the  generic  name 
of  jade,  is  much  used  for  carved 
ornaments  and  utensils  through- 
out Eastern  Asia. 

Actlnom'eter,  an  instrument 
for  determining  the  amount  of 
heat  received  from  the  sun  on 
a  surface  of  definite  size  in  a 
given  time.  vSir  John  Herschel's 
actinometer,     invented  about 


1824,  consists  of  a  large  cylindri- 
cal thermometer  bulb  with  a  very 
open  scale,  so  that  small  changes 
may  be  readily  observed.  The 
bulb  is  of  transparent  glass  filled 
with  a  deep  blue  liquid,  which  is 
expanded  when  the  sun's  rays 
fall  on  it.  When  an  observation 
is  taken,  the  instrument  is 
shaded  for  one  minute  and  read 
off;  it  is  then  placed  for  one 
minute  in  sunshine,  and  its  indi- 
cation recorded;  it  is  finally 
shaded  again,  and  another  read- 
ing made.  The  average  of  the 
two  readings  in  the  shade,  sub- 
tracted from  that  in  the  sun, 
indicates  the  expansion  of  the 
liquid  produced  by  the  sun's 
rays  in  one  minute  of  time. 

In  other  forms  of  apparatus, 
such  as  those  of  Draper,  Bunsen, 
Roscoe,  and  Abney,  the  chemical 
action  of  radiation  is  used.  In 
the  most  practical  form  there  is 
exposed  to  the  sunlight  a  strip  of 
paper  sensitized  with  chloride  of 
silver,  the  action  of  the  rays 
being  measured  by  the  blacken- 
ing of  the  paper.  The  best 
modern  instruments  for  measur- 
ing solar  radiation  are  con- 
structed on  quite  a  different  plan 
— the  absorbing  body  being  a 
blackened  wire,  whose  change  of 
temperature  is  measured  by  its 
change  in  electric  resistance.  The 
generic  name  for  this  type  of 
instrument  is  bolometer;  so  called 
by  Langley,  who  has  used  it  with 
great  skill  in  the  measurement 
of  solar  radiation.  See  Bolom- 
eter. 

The  pyrheliometer  (q.v.)  is 
really  a  form  of  actinometer. 

Ac'tinomyco'sis  (Greek  olktLs, 
ray,  fxvKrjs,  fungus),  a  disease 
of  man  and  certain  domestic 
animals,  manifested  by  abscess 
formation  and  the  production 
of  inflammatory  tissue,  and 
characterized  by  the  presence 
in  the  lesions  of  a  vegetable 
parasite,  Actinomyces  bovis.  Its 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  jaw 
and  tongue  has  led  to  its  being 
known  in  Great  Britain  as 
Woody  Tongue,  and  in  the 
United  States  as  Lumpy  Jaw. 
The  true  nature  of  the  disease 
had  been  overlooked  up  to  1876, 
when  Bollinger  accurately  de- 
scribed and  identified  the  char- 
acteristic micro-organism  from 
which  its  name  is  derived.  In 
1877,  J.  Israel  described  cases 
in  man,  identifying  the  micro- 
organism, but  failed  to  recognize 
its  identity  with  that  described 
by  Bollinger.  It  remained  for 
Ponfick,  in  1879,  to  show  that 
the  human  and  the  bovine  dis- 
ease are  due  to  the  same  causa- 
tive agent.  The  symptoms  in 
cattle  and  in  man  are  essentially 
the  vsame — a  chronic  inflamma- 
tory process  characterized  by 
the  formation  of  tumors  which 
tend  to  undergo  suppuration, 
fibrosis,  or  calcification. 


It  is  generally  believed  that 
the  micro-organism  is  widely 
distributed  on  grains  and  vege- 
table material,  and  that  it  is 
carried  into  the  tissues  by  the 
penetration  of  these  sharp  for- 
eign bodies,  75  per  cent,  of  the 
recorded  cases  in  man  having 
been  in  farmers,  millers,  farm 
laborers,  grooms,  and  others 
who  deal  with  cereals.  Accord- 
ing to  another  theory,  the  causa- 
tive organism  exists  normally  in 
the  alimentary  tract,  whence  it 
may  gain  entrance  to  the  tissues 
through  wounds  or  lesions  due  to 
carious  teeth. 

The  seat  of  infection  in  man 
and  in  animals  is  the  mouth 
or  the  neighboring  passages, 
although  almost  any  tissue  and 
any  organ  of  the  body  may 
be  affected.  The  disease  ex- 
tends by  a  gradual  invasion  of 
the  contiguous  tissues,  regard- 
less of  their  anatomical  bound- 
aries, so  that  a  focus  of  disease 
in  the  liver  may  spread  to  the 
diaphragm,  and  thence  invade 
the  base  of  the  lung.  It  may 
also  spread  by  metastasis,  al- 
though this  is  less  common. 
When  the  tumor  masses  break 
down,  they  discharge  a  thick, 
gelatinous  pus  of  a  greenish  or 
yellowish  tinge,  odorless  as  a 
rule,  which  together  with  the 
tumors  is  almost  pathognomonic. 

In  actinomycosis  of  the  mouth 
and  pharynx,  the  fungus  is 
believed  to  penetrate  the  tissues 
through  carious  teeth.  The 
lower  jaw  is  more  frequently 
affected,  but  the  disease  may 
extend  to  any  of  the  neighboring 
tissues.  In  the  tongue,  actino- 
mycotic nodules  are  formed 
under  the  mucous  membrane, 
which  becomes  ulcerated.  The 
muscular,  bony,  and  other  tis- 
sues of  the  head  and  neck  may 
be  extensively  replaced  by  gran- 
ulation and  connective  tissue, 
enclosing  abscess  cavities  and 
sinuses. 

The  mortality  of  actinomy- 
cosis depends  largely  upon  the 
region  involved.  It  ranges  from 
10  per  cent,  in  the  more  super- 
ficial lesions  of  the  head  and 
neck,  to  100  per  cent,  where  the 
liver,  brain,  and  spinal  cord  are 
involved.  The  disease  is  nearly 
always  chronic,  lasting  for 
months  or  even  years. 

Treatment  is  largely  surgical, 
with  care  of  the  general  health. 
Iodide  of  potassium  is  con- 
sidered by  some  to  have  a  specific 
action.    Recurrence  is  frequent. 

Actinother'apy.  See  Actinic 
Rays. 

Actinozo'a.  See  Anthozoa. 

Action,  as  generally  under- 
stood, means  any  civil  proceeding 
in  a  court  of  justice.  Formerly 
the  term  was  applied  solely  to 
proceedings  in  the  courts  of 
common  law,  'action  at  law' 
being  contrasted  with  'suit  in 


Vol.  I. — Mar.  '26 


Actium 


53 


Acton  Yale 


equity.'  In  New  York  and  a  few 
other  States  it  includes  criminal 
proceedings  also,  and  excludes 
non-litigious  matters  (termed 
'special  proceedings'),  such  as 
the  probate  or  the  interpretation 
of  a  will.  In  the  action  is  em- 
braced every  step  in  the  judicial 
procedure,  from  the  service  of  the 
summons  to  the  final  judgment, 
but  not  the  means  subsequently 
taken  for  enforcing  such  judg- 
ment. The  various  steps  in  an 
ordinary  action  are  as  follows:  (1) 
the  service  of  the  writ  by  which 
the  party  sued  is  brought  into 
court;  (2)  the  ascertainment  by 
written  or  oral  pleadings  of  the 
actual  question  at  issue;  (3)  the 
ascertainment  of  the  merits  of 
the  case  presented  by  either 
party;  (4)  the  judgment  of  the 
court,  whether  given  in  accord- 
ance with  the  verdict  of  a  jury 
or  otherwise;  and  (5)  the  ap- 
peal to  a  higher  judicatory 
where  such  is  competent.  When 
the  matter  is  non-litigious  the 
course  of  procedure  will  be 
modified.  In  particular,  no  writ 
of  summons  will  be  issued,  and 
in  place  thereof  intimation  will 
be  given  to  all  parties  interested 
that  they  may  take  such  steps 
as  are  necessary  to  protect  their 
rights. 

Formerly,  the  progress  of  an 
action  was  characterized  by  much 
formality  and  technicality;  but 
the  trend  of  modern  legislation  is 
all  in  the  direction  of  greater 
simplicity,  and  the  removal  of 
legal  fictions  and  subtleties.  The 
main  division  of  actions  used  to 
be  into  'real'  and  'personal,'  the 
former  dealing  with  disputes  as 
to  land,  the  latter  with  money 
claims  against  persons — e.g.,  for 
breach  of  contract.  With  the 
growth  of  the  science  of  jurispru- 
dence, the  classification  has  be- 
come more  various,  and  the  old 
formal  division  is  now  obsolete. 
Most  modern  actions  range  them- 
selves under  one  or  another  of  the 
following  heads:  (a)  contract 
actions;  (b)  tort  actions;  (c)  ac- 
tions for  the  recovery  of  real 
property;  (d)  actions  for  the 
recovery  of  personal  property;  (e) 
suits  in  equity;  (/)  matrimonial 
actions;  (g)  probate  and  adminis- 
trative actions;  (h)  statutory  ac- 
tions— a  numerous  class,  varying 
in  different  jurisdictions,  and 
therefore  difficult  of  more  ac- 
curate classification.  See  Law. 

Actium,  ak'shi-um,  a  promon- 
tory on  the  west  coast  of  Greece, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Ambracian 
Gulf,  memorable  for  the  naval 
victory  of  Octavian  (afterward 
the  Emperor  Augustus)  over 
Mark  Antony  and  Cleopatra, 
which  decided  the  fate  of  Rome 
and  of  the  world  (Sept.  2,  ,31, 
B.C.).  Octavian  had  2.50  ships  of 
Vol.  I. — Oct.  '15 


war;  Antony,  500  ships.  An- 
tony's ships  were  large,  and  well 
provided  with  engines  for  throw- 
ing missiles,  but  clumsy  in  their 
movements;  Octavian's  were 
smaller  and  more  agile.  Octa- 
vian's fleet,  by  a  skilful  manoeuvre, 
induced  Antony  to  extend  his  line 
of  battle,  and  broke  through  and 
scattered  his  ships.  In  com- 
memoration of  this  victory,  an- 
nual games,  consisting  of  wres- 
tling, horse  racing,  and  mimic  sea 
fights,  were  instituted  (31  B.C.). 
They  were  known  as  the  Actian 
Games  (q.v.). 

Act  of  Bankruptcy.  See 
Bankruptcy. 

Act  of  Congress.  See  Con- 
gress. 

Act  of  Faith,  or  Auto-da-Fe. 
See  Inquisition. 

Act  of  God,  as  a  legal  ex- 
pression, signifies  any  occur- 
rence not  caused  by  human 
negligence  or  intervention;  such 
as  storms,  lightning,  tempests, 
the  consequences  of  which  no 
party  under  any  circumstances 
(independently  of  special  con- 
tract) is  bound  to  make  good  to 
another.  The  chief  applications 
of  the  term  are  in  insurance, 
where  Act  of  God  is  an  exception 
to  the  liability  of  the  insurer; 
and  in  the  law  of  contract,  where 
Act  of  God  often  excuses  from 
performance. 

Act  of  Parliament.  See  Par- 
liament. 

Act  of  Settlement,  or  Succes- 
sion Act,  settling  the  crown  in 
the  present  royal  family  of  Great 
Britain,  was  passed  by  Parlia- 
ment in  1701.  The  succession  to 
the  crown  was  an  urgent  question, 
owing  to  William  and  Mary  hav- 
ing had  no  issue,  and  owing  to  the 
death  (July,  1700)  of  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  the  Princess  (later 
Queen)  Anne's  sole  surviving 
child.  The  act  cut  away  the 
hereditary  claim  of  the  elder 
house  of  Stuart,  and  vested  the 
succession  in  the  house  of  Han- 
over, by  providing  that,  on  the 
death  of  Anne,  and  in  the  absence 
of  issue,  the  crown  should  go  to 
the  Electress  Sophia  of  Hanover, 
granddaughter  of  James  i.,  and 
her  descendants,  'being  Protes- 
tants.' A  number  of  other  provi- 
sions were  included  in  the  Act, 
most  of  which  have  since  been 
repealed,  however.    See  Crown. 

Act  of  Toleration.  See  Toler- 
ation. 

Act  of  Union.  See  Scotland, 
History. 

Ac'ton,  residential  suburb  of 
London,  England;  7  miles  west  of 
St.  Paul's,  Pop.  (1911)  57,523. 
Sec  London. 

Acton,  village,  Middlesex 
county,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven,  and 
Hartford    Railroad;    13  miles 


southwest  of  Lowell.  It  is  a 
manufacturing  town.  Pop.  (1900) 
2,120;  (1910)  2,136. 

Acton,  John  Emerich  Ed- 
ward Dalberg,  First  Baron 
(1834-1902),  English  historian, 
was  born  in  Naples.  He  was 
educated  at  Oscott  under  Dr. 
(afterward  Cardinal)  Wiseman, 
and  at  Munich  under  Dollinger, 
who  imbued  him  with  a  love 
of  historical  research  and  a  deep 
sense  of  the  value  of  historical 
criticism.  In  1869  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Acton.  The 
relationship  of  Gladstone  and 
Acton  was  well  summed  up  by 
Matthew  Arnold:  'Gladstone  in- 
fluences all  round  him  but  Acton; 
it  is  Acton  who  influences  Glad- 
stone.' On  the  death  of  vSir  John 
Seeley  he  was  appointed  Regius 
Professor  of  History  at  Cam- 
bridge— the  first  Catholic  to 
hold  the  chair  since  the  Reforma- 
tion (1895).  Lord  Acton  was  a 
historian  of  almost  incomparable 
learning,  and  had  profound  influ- 
ence, as  a  liberal  Catholic,  upon 
English  religious  thought.  His 
writings  include:  The  War  of 
1870;  Wolsey  and  the  Divorce  of 
Henry  VIII.  (1877);  Schools  of 
History  in  Germany  (1886);  pub- 
lished posthumously — Lectures  in 
Modern  History  (1906),  Historical 
Essays  and  Studies  (1907),  Lec- 
tures on  the  French  Revolution 
(1910).  He  planned  The  Cam- 
bridge Modern  History  (1903  et 
seq.),  written  by  several  scholars 
in  co-operation,  but  which  he  did 
not  live  to  see  completed.  After 
his  death  his  vast  library  was 
bought  by  Andrew  Carnegie,  who 
presented  it  to  Lord  Morley,  by 
whom  it  was  handed  over  to  the 
University  of  Cambridge.  Con- 
sult Letters  of  Lord  Acton  to  Mary 
Gladstone  (1904) ;  Gasquet's  Lord 
Acton  and  His  Circle. 

Acton,  Sir  John  Francis  Ed- 
ward (1736-1811),  was  born  at 
Besangon,  where  his  father  (an 
Englishman)  was  a  physician. 
He  served  first  in  the  French, 
then  in  the  Tuscan  navy,  and 
was  generalissimo  and  prime 
minister  at  Naples  during  the 
French  Revolution.  After  Napo- 
leon's successes  in  the  north  of 
Italy,  in  1798,  Acton  fled  with  the 
king  and  queen  to  Palermo.  He 
was  soon  restored  to  power,  but 
his  arbitrary  rule  caused  a  reac- 
tion against  the  royal  family.  On 
the  demand  of  France  he  was 
removed  in  1804,  but  shortly 
afterward  was  reinstated.  When 
the  French  entered  Naples  (1806) 
he  fled  with  the  royal  family  to 
Sicily,  and  died  at  Palermo. 

Acton  Vale,  town,  Bagot  coun- 
ty, Qucl)ec  province,  Canada,  a 
junction  of  the  Grand  Trunk  and 
Canadian  Pacific  Railways;  55 
miles  east  of  Montreal.  Nearby 


Actors*  Church  Alliance  of  America 


53  A 


are  copper  mines.  The  town  has 
manufactories  of  bricks,  doors 
and  window  sashes,  and  a  tan- 
nery. Pop.  (1901)  1,175;  (1911) 
1,402. 

Actors*  Church  Alliance  of 
America,  organized  June  19, 
1899,  by  Rev.  Walter  E.  Bentley, 
a  clergyman  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  and  a  former 
actor.  Its  chief  aims  are  that  the 
church  and  the  stage  may  each 
justly  appreciate  the  other;  that 
those  on  the  stage  may  enjoy 
Sunday  as  a  day  of  rest;  and  that 
Sunday  performances  may  be 
suppressed.  Actors  and  actresses, 
church  members,  and  others 
who  are  interested  in  the  work  are 
eligible  to  membership.  The 
chaplains  are  of  all  denomina- 
tions. There  are  chapters  in  New 
York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Pitts- 
burgh, Albany,  and  other  cities. 
Membership,  about  5,000.  It  is 
affiliated  with  the  Actors'  Church 
Alliance  of  England. 

Actors*  Fund  of  America, 
The,  was  instituted  in  1882  to 
provide  for  needy  or  disabled 
members  of  the  profession.  It 
maintains  a  home  for  that  pur- 
pose (opened  in  1902)  at  West 
New  Brighton,  Staten  Island. 
There  are  nearly  500  honorary 
and  life  members.  Secretary, 
E.  D.  Miner,  1476  Broadway, 
New  York  City. 

Acts  of  Pilate.   See  Acta  Pi- 

LATI. 

Acts    of   the    Apostles,  the 

fifth  book  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  the  most  trustworthy  source 
for  the  early  history  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  It  is  in  form  sub- 
vStantially  a  continuation  of  the 
Gospel  of  Luke,  and  both  tra- 
dition and  the  majority  of  Bibli- 
cal critics  ascribe  these  books 
to  the  same  author,  who  was  the 
companion  and  friend  of  Paul. 
The  book  falls  roughly  into  two 
parts:  the  first  (ch.  i.-xii.)  nar- 
rates the  spread  of  the  Church 
from  Jerusalem  outward  to  Ju- 
daea, Samaria,  and  Antioch,  the 
central  figure  being  St.  Peter; 
while  the  second  part  (ch. 
xiii.-xxviii.)  carries  the  story  to 
Asia  Minor  and  Europe,  being  in 
the  main  a  fragmentary  biogra- 
phy of  St.  Paul,  detailing  his  mis- 
sionary labors  in  company  with 
Barnabas,  and  subsequently  with 
Silas  and  others. 

The  book  is  addressed  to  The- 
ophilus,  probably  to  inform  him 
of  the  means  by  which  the  Gos- 
pel had  been  carried  to  the  Gen- 
tiles. The  probable  date  of  its 
preparation  is  about  170  A.  D., 
as  indicated  by  the  writings  of 
Irenaeus  toward  the  close  of  the 
second  century.  The  Acts  and 
the  Third  Gospel  were  both  in 
circulation  in  Rome,  but  tradi- 
tion does  not  point  out  positively 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  "15 


the  details  and  the  place  of  the 
Lucan  writings,  whether  in  Rome 
or  in  Asia  Minor.  The  MS.  of  the 
Acts  is  found  in  two  forms,  the 
so-called  'Western'  and  the  com- 
mon text:  one  the  original,  and 
the  other  a  revised  edition,  prob- 
ably by  Luke  himself.  It  is 
represented  in  the  Codex  Bezae 
(q.v.). 

The  difficulty  of  reconciling 
some  of  the  statements  in  the 
Acts  with  Paul's  Epistles — nota- 
bly the  account  of  the  Council  of 
Jerusalem  in  Acts  xv.,  as  com- 
pared with  Gal.  ii.  9 — taken  along 
with  the  parallelism  between 
Paul  and  Peter  apparently  car- 
ried out  in  the  Acts,  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  'Tendency 
Theory'  of  the  Tubingen  School 
(q.v.).  Baur  and  his  disciples 
held  that  the  early  Christian 
Church  consisted  of  two  widely 
divergent  and  warring  sects,  the 
Jewish-Christian  or  Petrine,  and 
the  more  liberal  Pauline  party; 
and  that  the  Acts  were  written 
with  the  view  of  minimizing  the 
differences  that  had  existed  be- 
tween the  two  hostile  sections  of 
the  Church,  at  a  time  when  the 
Pauline  spirit  was  on  the  whole 
in  the  ascendency.  The  later 
followers  of  Baur  are  less  extreme 
than  the  earlier  ones  (as  Zeller) 
in  their  differences  from  the  or- 
thodox view.  See  New  Testa- 
ment. 

Consult  E.  Zeller's  Contents 
and  Origin  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles; F.  H.  Chase's  Credibility  of 
the  Book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles; A.  Harnack's  New  Testament 
Studies  (Part  iii.,  'The  Acts,' 
1908);  W.  M.  Ramsay's  Luke  the 
Physician,  and  Other  Studies 
(1907). 

Acts  of  Uniformity,  passed  by 
the  British  Parliament  to  insure 
uniformity  of  public  worship  in 
the  Church  of  England.  The  Act 
of  1548  orders  clergy  to  use  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  under 
penalty  of  imprisonment.  The 
Act  of  1558  applies  that  of  1548 
to  the  new  Elizabethan  Prayer 
Book.  The  Act  of  1662  ordains 
a  new  Prayer  Book,  and  orders 
morning  and  evening  prayer  to 
be  read  daily.  The  Act  of  1872 
authorizes  a  shortened  form  of 
service  except  on  feast  days,  and 
special  forms  of  service  if  ap- 
proved by  the  ordinary. 

Actua'rial  Society  of  America, 
an  organization  founded  in  1889 
in  New  York  City,  for  the  promo- 
tion of  actuarial  science,  and  in- 
cluding among  its  membership 
the  actuaries  of  the  principal  life 
insurance  companies.  It  has  140 
fellows  and  110  associates. 

Ac'tuary.  In  the  Roman  em- 
pire the  actuarii  were  clerks  who 
recorded  the  acta  or  deeds  of  the 
senate  and  other  bodies,  and  who 


kept  the  military  accounts;  and 
hence  the  English  word  actuary 
originally  denoted  a  registrar  or 
clerk.  Later  it  was  applied  to  an 
officer  appointed  to  record  the  pro- 
ceedings of  a  court,  and  then  to 
the  managing  secretary  or  ac- 
countant of  a  public  company. 

At  the  present  day,  an  actuary 
is  an  official  in  an  insurance 
company  whose  duties  are  to  deal 
with  statistics,  deduce  therefrom 
rates  of  mortality,  and,  by  com- 
bining these  with  rates  of  inter- 
est, to  calculate  premiums  for  all 
kinds  of  insurances;  also  to  esti- 
mate the  liability  of  the  company 
under  its  contracts;  and  generally 
to  perform  calculations  of  all 
kinds,  and  advise  on  all  questions 
of  accounting  and  finance.  He 
has  also,  as  a  rule,  to  deal  with 
many  legal  questions;  and  should 
have  a  certain  amount  of  medical 
knowledge,  in  order  to  under- 
stand and  benefit  fully  by  the 
advice  of  the  company's  medical 
officer  as  to  the  acceptance  or 
rejection  of  lives  proposed  for 
insurance.  Actuarial  work  has 
now  an  international  character, 
congresses  having  determined 
several  questions  of  universal 
importance,  such  as  the  adoption 
of  a  uniform  system  of  notation. 
See  Annuity;  Insurance;  Prob- 
abilities. 

Ac'upres'sure,  a  method  of 
closing  a  blood  vessel  devised  by 
Sir  J.  Y.  Simpson  (1859),  who 
passed  a  needle  under  the  tissues 
and  tied  it  in  such  a  way  as  to 
press  upon  the  artery.  It  is  now 
rarely  used. 

Ac'upunc'ture,  the  insertion  of 
needles  into  the  body  to  a  depth 
of  one  or  two  inches,  generally 
until  they  pierce  a  nerve,  where 
they  are  left  for  half  an  hour,  to 
relieve  lumbago  and  sciatica.  It 
has  been  a  specific  surgical  opera- 
tion of  the  Chinese  from  very 
early  times.  The  surgeon,  by  a 
rotatory  movement,  passes  one  or 
more  needles  to  the  desired  depth 
in  the  tissues,  and  leaves  them 
there  from  a  few  minutes  to  an 
hour.  Needles  protected  except 
at  their  points  by  insulating 
material  are  sometimes  used  as 
conductors  of  the  galvanic  cur- 
rent to  deep-seated  parts. 

A.D.,  Anno  Domini — in  the 
year  of  our  Lord — the  chronolog- 
ical era  now  universally  used  in 
Christian  countries,  beginning 
with  the  supposed  date  of  the 
birth  of  Christ. 

A'da,  city,  Pontotoc  county, 
Oklahoma,  on  the  St.  Louis  and 
San  Francisco,  the  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Texas,  and  the  Okla- 
homa Central  Railroads;  80  miles 
southeast  of  Oklahoma  City.  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  State  normal 
school.  Industries  include  cot- 
ton and  lumber,  and  the  manu- 


Ada 


53  B 


Adam 


facture  of  asphalt  and  cement. 
Pop.  (1900)  3,257;  (1910)  4,349. 

Ada,  village,  Hardin  county, 
Ohio,  on  the  Pennsylvania  Com- 
pany Railroad;  15  miles  east  of 
Lima.  It  contains  the  Ohio  Nor- 
mal University.  It  manufactures 
staves  and  tiles,  and  has  canning 
industries.  .  Pop.  (1900)  2,576; 
(1910)  2,465. 

Ada,  od'o,  town,  Bacs-Bodrog 
county,  Hungary,  on  the  River 
Theiss;  30  miles  south  of  Sze- 
gedin.  Industries  include  cattle, 
fish,  and  cereals.    Pop.  13,000. 

Ada-Bazar,  a-da-ba-zar'  ('isl- 
and bazaar'),  town,  Anatolia, 
Asia  Minor,  on  the  Sakaria  River; 
24  miles  east  of  Ismid.  Ada-Ba- 
zar station  {5H  miles)  is  on  the 
Anatolian  Railway.  The  town  is 
the  seat  of  an  Armenian  bishop- 
ric. There  are  industries  of  silk, 
tobacco,  and  walnut  wood.  Pop. 
18,000  (Moslems,  10,000;  Chris- 
tians. 8.000). 

Adagio,  a-da'jo  (Ital.),  a  slow 
or  very  slow  movement  or  meas- 
ure of  time  in  music.  The  word 
is  also  used  as  the  title  of  a  piece 
of  music,  or  as  the  name  of  a 
movement  in  a  symphony  or 
sonata,  etc.  The  distinctive 
feature  of  the  adagio  is  its  power 
of  expression.  The  finest  speci- 
mens of  the  adagio  are  found  in 
the  works  of  the  old  masters, 
above  all  in  Beethoven  (q.v.). 
See  Symphony. 

Adair,  a-dar',  James,  Indian 
trader,  resided  among  the  Chick- 
asaws  and  Cherokees  from  1733 
to  1775,  when  in  the  latter  year 
he  published  his  History  of  the 
American  Indians.  In  this  work 
he  attempts  to  prove,  from  the 
assumed  resemblance  between 
the  customs  of  the  Jews  and  the 
Indians,  that  they  were  de- 
scended from  the  same  stack. 
The  portion  of  the  work  relating 
to  the  Indian  dialects  is  still 
valuable. 

Adair,  John  (1759-1840), 
American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Chester  coUnty,  S.  C.  He  served 
in  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  and 
against  the  Indians  (1791)  as  a 
major  of  militia.  In  November, 
1792,  he  was  defeated  at  Fort 
St.  Clair,  O.,  by  the  Miami 
chief  Little  Turtle.  He  aided 
Shelby  in  the  Battle  of  the 
Thames  (1813);  served  under 
General  Jackson  at  New  Or- 
leans (1814);  was  U.  S.  Senator 
(180.5-06),  governor  of  Kentucky 
(1820-24),  and  Member  of  Con- 
gress (1831 -.3). 

Ad'albcrt  (c.  1000-1072),  Ger- 
man ecclesiastic,  was  appointed 
archbishop  of  Bremen  and  Ham- 
burg in  1043  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  hi.  He  became  tutor  to 
the  young  Henry  iv..  over  whom 
he  exercised  such  influence  as  to 
be  the  virtual  ruler  of  the  em- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  15 


pire.  He  introduced  Christianity 
among  the  Wends,  and  endeav- 
ored, ineffectually,  to  found  an 
independent  patriarchate  in  the 
north. 

Adalbert,  St.,  an  early  English 
saint  (c.  700),  probably  a  grand- 
son of  Oswald,  king  of  Deira. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
first  archbishop  of  Utrecht. 

Adalbert,  St.  (c.  950-997), 
the  'Apostle  of  the  Prussians,' 
was  a  native  of  Prague,  and  was 
chosen  its  bishop  in  982.  His 
austerity  irritated  the  lawless  and 
but  recently  converted  Bohemi- 
ans, and  he  was  obliged  to  flee 
from  his  diocese.  He  was  after- 
ward murdered  by  the  heathen 
Poles  and  Prussians.  His  body 
was  buried  in  the  Cathedral  at 
Gnesen,  and  afterward  carried  to 
Prague;  and  here,  in  1880,  his 
bones  were  discovered  and  re- 
interred  in  the  Cathedral. 

Adalia,  a-da'li-a,  or  Antalia 
(ancient  Attalia,  founded  by  At- 
tains II.;  the  Satalia  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages),  seaport  of  Anatolia, 
Asia  Minor,  at  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Adalia;  200  miles  south- 
east of  Smyrna.  It  exports  tim- 
ber, cattle,  grain,  and  sesamum. 
Pop.  30,000  (Moslems,  24,000; 
Christians,  6,000). 

Ad'am,  the  first  man.  See 
Adam  and  Eve. 

Adam,  a-dah',  Adolphe 
Charles  (1803-56),  French  mu- 
sical composer,  chiefly  of  comic 
opera,  was  born  and  died  at  Paris. 
The    Postilion   de  Longjumeau 

(1836)  and  the  ballet  Giselle 
(1841)  were  his  most  popular 
works.  Consult  Pongin's  Adolphe 
Adam. 

Ad'am,  Sir  Frederick  (1781- 
1853),  British  soldier,  was  made 
brigadier-general  in  1813,  and 
fought  against  General  Suchet, 
whom  he  repulsed,  losing,  how- 
ever, 3,000  men.  He  was  twice 
severely  wounded  at  Ordell. 
Made  major-general  (1814),  he 
fought  with  great  distinction  and 
intrepidity  at  Waterloo.  After- 
ward he  held  important  com- 
mands in   Malta  and  Madras 

(1837)  . 

Adam,  Graeme  Mercer 
(1839-1912),  Canadian  man  of 
letters,  was  born  at  Loanhead, 
Midlothian,  Scotland,  and  was 
educated  in  Edinburgh,  where  he 
learned  the  publishing  business. 
In  1858  he  went  to  Toronto,  and 
after  that  time  was  engaged 
there  and  in  New  York  City  in 
literary  work  as  publisher,  au- 
thor, and  editor.  For  twelve 
years  he  was  private  secretary 
to  Goldwin  Smith.  He  edited 
The  Canadian  Monthly,  The  Can- 
ada Educational  Monthly,  and 
LovcU's  Gazetteer  of  the  Canadian 
Dominion.  His  writings  include: 
The    Canadian    Northwest,  lis 


History  and  Its  Troubles;  Life  of 
Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee;  Canada  from 
Sea  to  Sea;  Outline  History  of 
Canadian  Literature. 

Adam,  a-dah',  Juliette 
(1836),  French  writer,  was  born 
at  Verberie,  Oise.  She  is  best 
known  by  the  name  of  her  second 
husband,  Edmond  Adam,  pre- 
fect of  police  and  life  senator  (d. 
1877).  Under  the  name  of  her 
first  husband,  'Messine,'  she 
published  (1858)  her  I  dees  Anti- 
proudhoniennes  sur  1' Amour,  la 
Femme,  et  le  Mariage;  and  there- 
after, as  'Juliette  Lamber,* 
Mon  Village  (1860).  and  other 
works.  In  1879  she  founded 
La  Nouvelle  Revue,  in  which  ap- 
peared her  various  studies  of 
European  society.  La  Societe  de 
Paris,  La  Sainte  Russie,  etc., 
written  under  the  pseudonym 
'Paul  Vasili.'  She  also  wrote: 
Romance  of  My  Childhood  and 
Youth  (Eng.  trans.  1902);  My 
Literary  Life  (Eng.  trans.  1904); 
Mes  Sentiments  et  Nos  I  dees  avant 
1870  (1905);  Mes  Illusions  et 
Nos  Souffrances  Pendant  le  Siege 
de  Paris  (1906);  Nos  Angoisses 
et  Nos  Luttes  (1907);  Apres 
r Abandon  de  la  Revanche  (1910); 
Impressions  Francaises  en  Russie 
(1912);  Chetienne  (1914). 

Adam,  Lambert  Sigisbert 
(1700-59),  French  sculptor,  was 
born  in  Nancy.  In  1723  he 
gained  the  Prix  de  Rome.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Acade- 
my in  1737,  and  a  professor  in 
1744.  His  works,  which  are 
chiefly  symbolic,  adorned  the 
gardens  of  St.  Cloud  and  Ver- 
sailles, and  the  Chateau  de 
Choisy.  In  1754  he  published 
a  Recueil  de  Sculptures  Antiques, 
taken  from  the  examples  dis- 
covered at  Rome. 

Adam,  Paul  (1862),  French 
author,  was  born  in  Paris.  His 
first  novel.  Chair  Molle  (1885), 
brought  on  him  an  unsuccessful 
prosecution.  He  played  a  part 
in  the  Boulangist  movement. 
His  other  works,  in  the  method 
of  the  symbolists,  include:  Robes 
Rouges  (1891);  Le  Mystere  des 
Foules  (2  vols.,  1895) ;  La  Bataille 
d'Uhde  (IS97);  La  Force  (189S) ; 
L' Enfant  d'Austerlitz  (1902);  La 
Ruse  (190.3);  Au  Soleil  de  Juillet 
(1903);  La  Ville  Inconnue  (10th 
ed.  1911);  Stephanie  (1913). 

Ad'am,  Robert  (1728-92), 
Scottish  architect,  was  born  in 
Kirkcaldy.  In  17.54  he  visited 
Italy  with  Clerisseau,  and  going 
to  Dalmatia  made  studies  of  Di- 
ocletian's ruined  palace  at  Spa- 
lato  (consult  his  Ruins  of  the 
Palace  of  Diocletian,  1764).  He 
and  his  brother  James  built  the 
Register  House  and  the  Univer- 
sity at  Edinburgh;  the  screen  to 
the  Admiralty  Office,  and  Lans- 
downe  House  in  Berkeley  Square, 


Adam  and  Eve 


54 


Adam  and  Eve 


London;  and  Lord  Mansfield's 
mansion,  near  Hempstead.  Rob- 
ert is  buried  in  Westminster  Ab- 
bey. They  published  Works  in 
Architecture  (1773-8),  to  which  a 
posthumous  volume  was  added 
lin  1822. 

Adam  and  Eve,  the  first  hu- 
man pair,  are  represented  in  the 
'well-known  Biblical  story  (see 
'Gen.  i.  ff.)  as  having  been  created 
by  God  and  placed  in  the  Garden 
of  Eden,  where  they  lived  in  a 
state  of  innocence  until  the  Fall. 
It  is  now  generally  conceded  that 
the  narrative  of  Genesis  is  a  com- 
bination of  two  accounts  of  the 


considerably  in  regard  to  the  sub- 
stance of  the  story.  P  speaks  of 
man  (Hebrew  'adam)  as  having 
been  created  on  the  same  (sixth) 
day  as  the  animals.  Elohim 
makes  him  in  His  own  image, 
a  male  and  a  female  {ix.,  as  a 
species) ;  He  blesses  him,  and 
gives  him  dominion  over  all 
other  created  things.  J's  narra- 
tive is  much  more  detailed:  it  tells 
how  Yahweh  (-Elohim)  formed 
the  man  {ha- adam),  placed  him 
in  Eden,  and  subsequently  fash- 
ioned the  woman  out  of  a  rib 
taken  from  the  man's  side.  Both 
accounts,  however,  agree  in  rep- 


fore  proceeding  to  consider  these 
attacks,  or  the  place  of  the  Fall  in 
theology,  let  us  ask  what,  if  any, 
light  is  thrown  upon  the  narrative 
by  (1)  philology,  and  (2)  the 
study  of  comparative  religion. 

(1)  The  supposed  proper  name 
Adam  is  a  generic  term,  appli- 
cable to  both  man  and  woman,  in 
Gen.  i.;  but  it  is  a  proper  name 
used  with  the  article  in  ch.  ii.,  iii., 
and  iv.  The  origin  of  the  name  is 
usually  connected  with  the  He- 
brew root  Adam,  'to  be  red.'  It 
is  often  derived  from  Adamah, 
'the  ground,'  but  this  is  taking 
the  simpler  from  the  more  devel- 


The  Sacred  Tree  with  Eagle-headed  Deities  (Assyrian  Sculpture), 


creation  of  man  (see  Hexa- 
teuch).  The  greater  and  the 
more  picturesque  portion,  from 
ch,  ii.  4b  onward,  is  attributed  to 
a  writer  distinguished  as  J  (i.e., 
the  Jahvist  or  the  Jehovistic  nar- 
rator); while  ch.  i.-ii.  4a  is  as- 
signed to  P  (i.e.,  the  Priestly 
Code).  The  latter,  called  the 
Elohistic  narrator,  always  speaks 
of  the  Deity  as  Elohim  (God), 
while  the  former  uses  Yahweh; 
the  use  of  the  combination  Yah- 
weh-Elohim  (the  Lord  God),  in 
J's  account,  being  explained  on 
the  hypothesis  that  some  later 
compiler  or  editor  added  Elohim 
to  Yahweh,  in  order  to  make  the 
transition  less  abrupt. 

But  apart  from  this,  and  from 
other  marked  differences  of  form 
and  style,  the  two  writers  diverge 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


resenting  man  as  the  crown  of 
creation,  and  imply  that  he  pos- 
sesses a  community  of  nature 
with  God,  and  a  capacity  for  fel- 
lowship with  Him.  In  P  there 
is  nothing  corresponding  to  J's 
account  of  the  serpent,  the  Fall, 
or  the  expulsion  from  Paradise, 
the  former  writer's  more  concise 
and  abstract  representation  be- 
ing (though  it  stands  first)  a 
product  of  later  theological  and 
philosophical  reflection. 

Origin  of  the  Paradise  Story. — 
Naturally,  the  greater  interest 
centres  in  J's  account.  The  story 
of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  having 
been  taken  as  the  historical  basis 
of  the  doctrine  of  sin,  has  become 
in  consequence  the  objective  of 
the  most  trenchant  attacks  from 
the  side  of  modern  science.  Be- 


oped  form.  The  Assyrian  equiv- 
alent is  Adamu,  'man,'  used  only 
in  a  general  senvse,  not  as  a  proper 
name.  This  is  connected  by  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson  and  Professor 
Sayce  with  Adamatu,  'red  skins,' 
the  Assyrian  word  by  which  the 
dark-skinned  Accadians  of  primi- 
tive Babylonia  are  designated  in 
the  bilingual  tablets.  Eve  is  the 
Hebrew  Havvah,  and  means  'life.' 
The  question,  then,  is  whether 
the  common  name  became  spe- 
cialized into  the  proper  (because 
the  first  man  was  necessarily  the 
man),  or  whether  the  proper 
name  was  of  independent  origin, 
and  merely  happens  to  coincide 
with  the  common.  Attempts  to 
prove  the  latter  alternative  have 
failed  to  carry  conviction.  But 
since  there  exists  the  Assyrian 


Adam  and  Eve 


55 


Adamawa 


admu,  meaning  'child'  {i.e.,  'one 
made  [by  God']),  and  since, 
according  to  Sayce,  adam  is  the 
common  Babylonian  word  for 
'man,'  we  may  safely  conclude 
that  adam  was  originally  a  ge- 
neric term  that  subsequently 
(perhaps  through  a  misunder- 
standing) became  a  proper  name. 

(2)  It  has  been  supposed  that 
the  Paradise  story  of  Gen.  ii.  ff.  is 
of  Babylonian  origin;  but  as  yet 
investigators  have  not  gathered 
from  the  cuneiform  inscriptions 
any  narrative  sufficiently  resem- 
bling the  Biblical  account  to  be 
deemed  the  source  of,  or  even  a 
fair  parallel  to,  the  latter.  Doubt- 
less there  are  points  of  similarity 
between  Gen.  ii.  ff.  and  certain 
elements  in  Babylonian  mythol- 
ogy— e.g.,  the  garden  with  its  four 
rivers  finds  a  parallel  in  the  Baby- 
lonian isle  of  the  blessed,  which 
also  has  four  streams;  and  the 
tree  of  life  may  be  compared  with 
the  herb  of  life  which  grew  on  the 
island  (see  Eden,  Garden  of). 
There  is  a  Babylonian  seal  cylin- 
der which  shows  a  fruit  tree  with 
two  human  figures  and  a  serpent, 
and  which  has  been  supposed  to 
represent  the  temptation;  but 
this  theory  is  now  abandoned. 
We  may  mention  that  the  cheru- 
bim which,  according  to  Gen.  iii. 
24,  guard  the  gate  of  Paradise 
correspond  to  the  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  figures  of  winged 
genii  which  protected  houses. 
Finally,  the  serpent  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  mythology 
not  only  of  the  Babylonians,  but 
of  many  other  peoples.  The  tree 
of  life  is  also  a  widely  dissemi- 
nated conception.  Hence,  even  if 
the  parallels  and  analogies  re- 
vealed by  means  of  comparative 
religion  were  much  more  striking 
than  they  really  are,  the  litera- 
ture of  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
has  furnished  as  yet  nothing  to 
be  compared,  for  richness  of  color- 
ing or  detail,  with  the  Paradise 
story  of  Genesis.  Nor  have  re- 
searches into  other  literatures 
brought  to  light  any  but  obviously 
fortuitous  resemblances  to  the 
Biblical  narrative. 

The  Writer's  Own  Purpose. — 
It  remains  to  inquire  what  the 
writer  intended  by  his  own  nar- 
rative. Did  he  imagine  that  he 
was  writing  actual  history?  or 
shall  we  credit  him  with  con- 
structing a  skilful  allegory,  or 
merely  a  picturesque  story?  Per- 
haps to  neither  of  these  questions 
can  be  given  an  unqualified  an- 
swer. Note,  first,  that  the  writer 
vseems  to  be  well  aware  that  his 
story  moves  in  a  world  other  than 
the  real — a  world  in  which,  for 
example,  God  is  hardly  more,  and 
the  serpent  (an  actual  animal) 
hardly  Icsjs,  than  human;  and, 
again,  that  the  serpent  and  the 
Vol.  I. — Oct.  '15 


tree  of  knowledge  seem  decidedly 
to  indicate  some  older  tradition 
lying  at  the  basis  of  the  narrative 
as  now  extant.  Taking  these  in 
connection  with  the  fact  that  the 
writer  speaks  of  'the  man'  and 
'the  woman,'  rather  than  of 
'Adam'  and  'Eve,'  the  most  prob- 
able conclusion  is  that  he  found  a 
popular  tradition — richly  laden, 
doubtless,  with  mythical  ele- 
ments— and  idealized  it — i.e.,  re- 
told it  so  as  to  make  it  expressive 
of  moral  and  spiritual  truths.  In 
his  hands,  therefore,  the  grosser 
and  more  fantastic  features  of  the 
myth  were  purged  away;  and 
while  preserving  its  dramatic 
form  and  quality,  he  permeated  it 
with  such  truths  about  human 
nature  as  his  own  moral  experi- 
ence and  environment  suggested. 

It  is  these  embodied  truths  or 
ideas  which  constitute  the  real 
and  permanent  value  of  the  story; 
and  the  psychological  insight,  the 
knowledge  of  human  nature,  dis- 
played by  the  writer,  must  im- 
press every  attentive  reader  as 
remarkably  penetrating.  To 
note  a  few  examples:  the  forma- 
tion of  the  woman  from  the  man's 
rib  seems  to  express  her  subordi- 
nation to  the  stronger;  her  weak- 
er character  is  supposed  to  be  in- 
dicated by  the  serpent's  choosing 
her  as  the  immediate  victim  of  his 
deceit;  the  connection  between 
sin  and  shame  and  between  sin 
and  suffering  is  implied  in  Adam 
and  Eve  hiding  from  God  and 
their  expulsion  from  Paradise, 
respectively;  while  the  fact  that 
the  serpent  is  not  asked  to  explain 
its  action  may  signify  that  the 
writer  did  not  consider  it  a  moral 
agent,  thus  registering  a  clear  dis- 
tinction between  man  and  even 
the  most  'subtil'  of  the  animals. 

Scientific  and  Theological  Rela- 
tions.—li  the  above  be  a  fair  state- 
ment of  the  case,  it  is  plain  that 
the  objections  of  modern  science 
to  the  Paradise  story  of  man's 
Creation  and  Fall  are  beside  the 
mark.  It  follows,  further,  that 
discussions  about  the  unity  of  the 
human  race,  and  related  ques- 
tions, are  entirely  out  of  place  in 
this  connection.  In  the  Pauline 
theology  Adam  stands  as  the 
typical  head  and  representative 
of  the  whole  human  race,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  Christ,  'the 
second  man,'  'the  last  Adam.' 
(See  Creation;  Fall). 

Later  Developments. — The  story 
of  Aflam  and  Eve  has  proved  a 
fruitful  theme  for  speculation  in 
many  directions.  Leaving  aside 
the  theories  of  doctrinal  theology 
as  to  the  effects  of  the  Fall,  the 
story  of  Adam's  creation  is  retold 
in  the  Talmud  with  much  of  the 
mythical  grossncss  and  dualism 
which  the  writer  of  Gen.  ii.ff.  was 
so  careful   to  exclude.  Thus, 


Adam  is  represented  as  a  man- 
woman  of  monstrous  size,  a  terror 
to  the  angels.  Having  cast  him 
into  a  sleep,  God  took  parts  of  all 
his  members,  which,  when  scat- 
tered abroad,  developed  into 
human  beings.  Again,  Adam's 
first  wife  was  Lilith — the  word 
occurs  in  Isa.  xxxiv.  14;  'night 
monster,'  as  in  R.  V.;  'harpy,' 
'succuba' — who,  becoming  the 
mother  of  demons,  flew  away. 
Her  place  was  taken  by  Eve, 
created  from  a  rib.  Adam  was 
afterward  tempted  by  an  envious 
seraph,  Sammael,  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  sin,  driven  forth  to 
wander  up  and  down  the  earth. 
The  Koran  tells  the  story  with 
other  mythical  variations. 

Many  of  the  later  Jews  ex- 
plained the  story  as  an  allegory. 
Philo,  the  foremost  writer  of  the 
Alexandrian  school,  explains  Eve 
as  the  sensuous  part,  Adam  as 
the  rational  part,  of  human 
nature.  The  serpent  attacks 
the  sensuous  element,  which 
yields  to  the  temptation  of 
pleasure,  and  next  enslaves  the 
reason.  Clement  and  Origen 
adapted  this  interpretation  to 
Christian  theology.  In  several 
of  the  Gnostic  systems  Adam 
occupies  an  important  place,  be- 
ing made  the  earthly  representa- 
tive of  the  Demiurge.  Augustine 
accepted  the  story  as  history,  but 
admitted  a  spiritual  meaning 
superinduced  upon  the  literal; 
and  his  explanation  was  adopted 
generally  by  the  Church.  Among 
more  modern  interpreters,  Mar- 
tensen  describes  the  story  as  a 
combination  of  history  and  sa- 
cred symbolism,  'a  figurative  pres- 
entation of  an  actual  event.' 

Apocryphal  literature  is  rich  in 
themes  drawn  from  Adam  and 
Eve — e.g.,  the  lost  Gnostic  works. 
Revelations  of  Adam,  Penitence 
of  Adam,  and  On  the  Daughters 
of  Adam;  The  Ethiopic  Book  of 
Adam  (Eng.  trans,  by  Malan) ; 
Testament  of  Adam.  In  art  and 
poetry  the  beautiful  Garden,  as 
well  as  the  innocence  and  the 
tragic  experiences  of  its  occu- 
pants, have  proved  fruitful 
themes  for  pictorial  and  literary 
treatment — e.g.,  Michelangelo's 
beautiful  fresco  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel  of  the  Vatican,  and  Mil- 
ton's Paradise  Lost.  See  Gene- 
sis; Creation. 

Ad'amant,  a  term  now  used  to 
express  any  substance  of  ex- 
traordinary hardness,  chiefly  a 
rhetorical  or  poetical  word.  The 
name  was  attached  to  a  supposed 
stone  or  mineral,  as  to  the  prop- 
erties of  which  vague  notions 
long  prevailed.  It  has  been  iden- 
tified with  the  lodestone,  emery, 
and  diamond. 

Adamawa,  a-da-ma'wii,  a  Cen- 
tral African  state.   North  of  Yola 


Adam  de  la  Halle 


56 


Adams 


(on  the  Benue  River),  the  capital 
of  the  state,  Adamawa  stretches 
north  toward  Bornu,  and  north- 
east toward  the  Shari;  on  the 
southeast  it  forms  part  of  French 
territory.  Its  area  is  perhaps 
100,000  square  miles.  The  cen- 
tral and  northern  part  is  a  block 
land,  rising  4,250  to  6,500  feet. 
East  of  this  the  country  is  occu- 
pied partly  by  isolated  groups  of 
mountains,  partly  by  undulating 
plains.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  76°.  Rain  begins  in 
June,  and  is  very  frequent  in  July 
and  August,  accompanied  by 
heavy  thunderstorms.  The  dry 
northeast  wind  (Harmattan) 
blows  from  November  to  May. 
Pop.  3,000,000,  mainly  Fulahs. 
Arabs,  Kanuri,  Hausa,  and  Yo- 
ruba  also  dwell  in  Adamawa. 
Islamism  is  the  dominant  re- 
ligion; the  masses  are  pagan. 
Gum  arable,  rubber,  ivory,  skins, 
kola  nuts,  and  a  few  slaves  are 
exported  in  exchange  for  cotton 
cloth,  silk,  copper,  salt,  sulphur, 
and  beads.  Cotton,  indigo,  and 
henna,  as  well  as  cereals  and 
vegetables,  are  cultivated.  The 
ruler  is  a  native  sultan.  The 
territory  of  Adamawa  has  been 
divided  by  treaties  between 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  and 
France,  without  regard  to  natural 
boundaries  or  tribal  divisions. 
Consult  Passarge's  Adamaua. 

Adam  de  la  Halle,  a-dah'  de  la 
aV  (1240-88),  called  'Le  Bossu 
d' Arras'  (Hunchback  of  Arras), 
author  of  Le  Jeu  de  Robin  et  de 
Marion,  the  oldest  French  dra- 
matic pastoral,  or  primitive 
comic  opera,  was  a  trouvere  of 
Arras  in  Picardy,  who  found  his 
way  to  the  court  of  Charles  of 
Anjou  at  Naples,  where  his  piece 
was  played  in  128.3.  From  an- 
other of  his  works,  Le  Jeu  de  la 
Feuillee  (?1262),  a  true  mediaeval 
medley  of  fantasy  and  satire,  we 
glean  hints  of  his  early  life.  In 
1282  he  followed  Robert  it.  of 
Artois  to  Italy.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  works  was  pub- 
lished in  1879  by  Coussemaker. 
Consult  Petit  de  Julleville's  Les 
Comediens  au  Moyen  Age. 

Ad'amitos,  an  Antinomian 
Gnostic  vsect  in  north  Africa  in  the 
second  century,  who  professed  to 
return  to  the  innocence  of  Eden, 
abstained  from  marriage,  and 
rejected  clothing.  The  doctrine 
reappeared  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  v.  (a.d.  1106-1121)  in 
an  extreme  form;  again  under 
Charles  v.  (a.d.  1364-80)  in  Dau- 
phine  and  Savoy;  among  a  sec- 
tion of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit,  or  Beghards,  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  some  of  whom 
lived  naked  and  had  wives  in 
common;  among  a  section  of  the 
Bohemian  Taboritcs,  who  were 
cut  to  pieces  by  Ziska,  leader 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


of  the  Hussites  (1421);  and  in 
1848-9  there  was  a  small  sect  in 
Austria,  the  nocturnal  meetings 
of  which  were  attended  without 
clothing. 

Ad'amnan  (c.  625-704),  Irish 
saint,  and  abbot  of  lona  (Hii) — 
ninth  in  the  succession  of  that 
office  from  Columba,  whose  life  he 
is  credited  with  having  written — 
was  born  in  Donegal,  a  scion, 
like  his  great  predecessor,  of  the 
powerful  local  tribe  of  the  Neills 
or  O'Donnells  (the  clan  Domh- 
naill).  In  679  he  was  appointed 
abbot  of  lona.  In  686  he  came 
to  the  court  of  Northumbria  to 
beg  for  the  release  of  certain 
Irish  captives,  and  remained  with 
King  Aldfrith  for  a  time.  Ori 
completing  his  work,  De  Locis 
Sanctis,  he  presented  it  to  Ald- 
frith. This  book  (subsequently 
reproduced  by  Bede  in  an  abridged 
form)  is  of  note  as  containing  one 
of  the  first  Western  accounts  of 
Palestine.  At  the  National  As- 
sembly of  Tara  in  692  there  was 
enacted  the  'Law  of  Adamnan,' 
or  'Law  of  the  Innocents,'  which 
freed  Irish  women  from  compul- 
sory military  service.  Adamnan 
visited  Ireland  once  again  before 
his  death  at  lona  in  704,  Sept.  23, 
the  day  whose  saint  he  is  in  the 
older  Irish  calendars.  The  Latin 
Life  of  Columba,  now  generally 
accepted  as  Adamnan's,  is  al- 
most the  only  record  outside 
Bede's  History  of  one  of  the  most 
attractive  portions  of  the  life  of 
the  early  church  in  Scotland. 
Adamnan' s  Vision,  a  professed 
account  of  his  visit  to  heaven  and 
hell,  is  preserved  in  an  Irish  MS. 
of  the  twelfth  century. 

Ad'am  of  Brem'en  (d.  ?1076), 
born  in  Upper  Saxony,  mission- 
ary, traveller,  and  canon  of 
Bremen,  is  chiefly  remembered 
by  his  historical  and  geographical 
writings  relating  to  Northwestern 
Europe  during  the  first  millen- 
nium of  the  Christian  era.  His 
principal  work,  Gesta  Poniificum 
H  ammenburgensium,  contains 
this  passage  referring  to  America: 
'Besides  this,  he  [the  king  of  Den- 
mark] told  of  still  another  island 
that  had  been  found  by  many  in 
that  ocean  [the  Atlantic].  It  is 
called  Wineland,  because  vines 
spring  up  there  spontaneously, 
producing  excellent  wine.' 

Ad'ams,  town,  Berkshire  coun- 
ty, Massachusetts,  on  the  Hoosac 
River,  and  the  Boston  and  Al- 
bany Railroad;  16  miles  north  of 
Pittsfield.  There  are  paper,  cot- 
ton, and  woollen  mills,  and  ma- 
chine shops.  Greylock  Mountain 
(q.v.)  is  in  the  township,  which 
includes  the  villages  of  Maple 
Grove,  Renfrew,  and  Zylonite. 
Pop.  (1900)  11,134;  (1910)  13,026. 

Adams,  town,  Jefferson  county. 
New  York,  on  the  New  York 


Central  and  Hudson  River  Rail- 
road; 12  miles  southwest  of 
Watertown.  It  has  flour  mills 
and  manufactures  of  wagons  and 
canned  goods.  Pop.  (1900)  3,081; 
(1910)  3,128. 

Adams,  Abigail  Smith  (1744- 
1818),  wife  of  John  Adams  and 
mother  of  John  Quincy  Adams, 
was  born  of  Puritan  stock  at 
Weymouth,  Mass.  In  1764  she 
married  John  Adams  (q.v.),  and 
in  1785-8  accompanied  her  hus- 
band when  the  latter  was  first 
American  Minister  at  the  Court 
of  St.  James.  Her  letters,  which 
were  collected  and  published  in 
1840  by  her  grandson,  Charles 
Francis  Adams,  afTord  valuable 
glimpses  of  the  life  of  that  period. 

Adams,  Alvin  (1804-77), 
founder  of  the  Adams  Express 
Company,  was  born  in  Andover, 
Vt.  In  1840  he  organized  an  ex- 
press route  between  New  York 
and  Boston,  and  in  1854  the 
Adams  Express  Company  was 
founded. 

Adams,  Brooks  (1848),  Amer- 
ican author,  son  of  Charles  Fran- 
cis Adams  (1807-86),  was  born  in 
Quincy,  Mass.,  and  was  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  (1870).  He 
subsequently  studied  at  Harvard 
Law  School,  and  until  1881  prac- 
tised law,  after  which  he  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  National  Institute 
of  Arts  and  Letters.  He  has  pub- 
lished :  The  Emancipation  of  Mas- 
sachusetts (1887) ;  The  Gold  Stand- 
ard (1894);  The  Law  of  Civiliza- 
tion and  Decay  (1895);  America's 
Economic  Supremacy  (1900);  The 
New  Empire  (1902);  Railways  as 
Public  Agents  (1910);  Charles 
Francis  Adams  (1912);  The  The- 
ory of  Social  Revolutions  (1913). 

Adams,  Charles  Follen 
(1842)  American  humorous 
writer,  was  born  in  Dorchester, 
Mass.  He  has  written  numerous 
verses  in  German  dialect,  which 
have  been  collected  as  Leedle 
Yawcob  Strauss  and  Other  Poems 
(1878)  and  Dialect  Ballads  (1887). 

Adams,  Charles  Francis 
(1807-86),  American  diplomat, 
the  son  of  John  Quincy  Adams, 
was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.  His 
childhood  was  spent  in  Russia, 
his  father  having  become  U.  S. 
Minister  there  in  1809,  and 
in  England,  where  he  attended 
school.  In  1825  he  was  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard.  He  then 
studied  law  under  Daniel  Web- 
ster; spent  several  years  in  pri- 
vate study,  in  writing  for  The 
North  American  Review,  and  in 
mlanaging  the  business  affairs  of 
his  father;  was  a  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  legislature 
(1840-5);  and  edited  the  Boston 
Whig  (1846-8).  An  ardent  op- 
ponent of  slavery,  he  presided  in 
1848  over  the  National  Free  Soil 


4dams 


57 


Adams 


Convention,  and  was  the  Free 
Soil  candidate  for  Vice-President. 
From  1858  to  1861  he  was  a 
Member  of  Congress.  During 
the  Civil  War  period  he  repre- 
sented the  ITnitcd  States  at  Lon- 
don, with  marked  ability.  In 
1871-2  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Geneva  Court  of  Arbitration, 
which  adjusted  the  difficulty  be- 
tween the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  growing  out  of  the 
Alabama  Claims.  He  edited  the 
Works  of  John  Adayns  (10  vols., 
1850-6)  and  the  Diary  of  John 
Quincy  Adams  (12  vols.,  1874-7). 

Adams,  Charles  Fr.a.ncis,Jr. 
(1835-1915),  American  lawyer 
and  man  of  letters,  son  of  Charles 
Francis  Adams  (1807-86),  was 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  (1856), 
and  was  admitted  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts bar  in  1858.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  served  as  a  cavalry 
officer.  Resuming  his  profession 
in  Boston,  he  made  a  specialty  of 
railroad  law,  and  in  1869  became 
a  railroad  commissioner  of  Massa- 
chusetts. In  1879-84  he  served 
on  the  board  of  arbitration  of 
the  Trunk  Line  organization;  in 
1884-90  was  president  of  the 
Union  Pacific  Railroad;  and  in 
1892-5  was  chairman  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Metropolitan  Park 
Commission.  He  was  president 
of  the  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation (1901),  and  was  a  member 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Letters.  His  works  include 
Railroads,  Their  Origin  and  Prob- 
lems (1878) ;  Richard  Henry  Dana 
(1891);  Massachusetts,  Its  His- 
torians and  Its  History  (1893); 
Life  of  Charles  Francis  Adams 
(1900);  Lee  at  Appomattox,  and 
Other  Papers  (1902);  Studies, 
Military  and  Diplomatic  (1911); 
Transatlantic  Historical  Solidar- 
ity (1913);  Autobiography  (1916). 

Adams,  Charles  Francis 
(1866-  ),  American  public 
official,  the  great-great-grandson 
of  President  John  Quincy  Adams, 
■*as  born  in  Quincy,  Mass.  He 
was  graduated  from  Harvard 
University  in  1888,  read  law  in 
the  office  of  Sigourney  Butler, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts bar  in  1893.  He  was 
twice  elected  mayor  of  his  native 
city  and  practised  law  in  Boston 
after  1893.  He  has  always  been 
an  enthusiastic  yachtsman  and 
in  1920  sailed  the  Resolute,  the 
America's  Cup  defender  which 
defeated  Shamrock  IV.  In  1929 
he  was  made  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  in  President  Hoover's 
cabinet. 

Adams,  Charles  Kendall 
(1835-1902),  American  educator, 
was  born  in  Derby,  Vt.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of 
Michigan,  and  in  France  and 
Germany,  and  in  1863-85  was 
assistant  and  full  professor  of 
history  at  his  alma  mater.  In 
1881  he  was  made  non-resident 


professor  of  history  at  Cornell 
University,  and  was  president  of 
Cornell  from  1885  to  1892,  and 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
from  1892  until  his  death.  He 
was  editor-in-chief  of  Johnson's 
Universal  Encyclopcedia  (1892- 
5).  His  published  works  include 
Democracy  and  Monarchy  in 
France  (1872);  Manual  of  His- 
torical Literature  (1882);  Chris- 
topher Columbus,  His  Life  and 
Work  (1892);  History  of  the 
United  Stales  (with  W.  P.  Trent). 

Adams,  Cyrus  Cornelius 
(1849-1928),  American  geogra- 
pher, was  born  in  Naperville,  111. 
He  was  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Chicago  (1876),  in 
1884  became  a  writer  of  geo- 
graphical topics  for  the  New  York 
Sun,  and  in  1908-15  was  editor 
of  the  Bulletin  of  the  American 
Geographical  Society.  He  was 
president  of  the  Association  of 
American  Geographers  (1906). 
His  works  include  Commercial 
Geography  for  High  Schools  ( 1 90 1 ) ; 
Elementary  Commercial  Geogra- 
phy (1902);  David  Livingstone, 
African  Developer  (1902). 

Adams,  Edwin  (1834-77), 
American  actor,  was  born  in 
Medford,  Mass.  His  first  ap- 
pearance was  at  the  Boston  Na- 
tional Theatre  as  Stephen  in  The 
Hunchback  (1853).  He  toured 
the  principal  cities  of  the  United 
States,  and  in  1867  appeared  at 
Booth's  Theatre  as  Mercutio, 
Narcisse,  lago,  and  Enoch  Arden 
(his  best  part),  and  in  other  roles. 
He  was  one  of  the  best  light 
comedians  of  his  day. 

Adams,  Ephraim  Douglass 
(1865-  ),  American  historian, 
was  born  in  Decorah,  la.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan  (1887),  and  was 
assistant  professor  (1891-4),  asso- 
ciate professor  (1894-9)  of  history 
and  sociology,  and  professor  of 
European  history  (1899-1902),  at 
the  University  of  Kansas.  In 
1902-6  he  was  associate  professor 
and  professor  (since  1906)  of  his- 
tory at  Leland  Stanford  Junior 
University.  In  1919  he  began 
the  collection  and  organization  in 
Paris,  France,  of  the  great  Ameri- 
can research  library  on  the  World 
War  and  Reconstruction  known 
as  the  Hoover  War  Library,  lo- 
cated at  Stanford  University,  and 
has  since  remained  a  Director  of 
that  Library.  His  publications 
include  The  Control  of  the  Purse 
in  the  U.  S.  Government  (1894); 
The  Influence  of  Grenville  on 
Pitt's  Foreign  Policy  (1904); 
British  Interests  and  Activities  in 
Texas  (1910) ;  The  Power  of  Ideals 
in  American  History  (1913); 
Great  Britain,  America  and  De- 
mocracy (1919);  Great  Britain  and 
the  American  Civil  War  (1925). 

Adams,  Frank  Dawson 
(1859-  ),  Canadian  geologist, 
was  born  in  Montreal.  He  was 
graduated  from  McCiill  Universi^ 


ty  (1878) 'and  Heidelberg  (1892), 
and  holds  several  honorary  de- 
grees. In  1880  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Dominion  Geo- 
logical Survey.  In  1889  he  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  geology. 
McGill  University,  and  later 
Logan  professor  of  geology,  Dean 
of  the  Faculty  of  Applied  Science 
and  Vice  Principal  of  that  Uni- 
versity. In  1924  he  retired  as 
Emeritus  Dean  and  Vice  Princi- 
pal. He  has  served  as  president 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada, 
and  other  similar  organizations. 
He  has  been  awarded  the  Lyell 
Medal  by  the  Geological  Society 
of  London,  and  is  a  member  of 
many  scientific  societies.  His 
works  include  The  Geology  of  a 
Portion  of  the  Laurentian  Area 
(1897);  Iron  Ore  Deposits  of  Bil- 
bao (1901);  The  Monteregian 
Hills  (1903);  The  Geology  of  the 
Haliburton  and  Bancroft  Areas 

(1910)  ;  An  Experimental  Investi- 
gation into  the  Flow  of  Rocks 

(1911)  ;  The  National  Domain  in 
Canada  and  Its  Proper  Conserva- 
tion (1913);  A  Visit  to  the  Gem 
Districts  of  Ceylon  and  Burma 
'(1926);  Tin  Mining  in  Malaya 
(1926). 

Adams,  Franklin  Pierce 
(1881—  ),  American  humorous 
writer,  was  born  in  Chicago,  111., 
and  attended  the  University  of 
Michigan  (1899-1900).  He 
served  on  the  editorial  staff  of 
the  Chicago  Journal  (1903-04), 
New  York  Evening  Mail  (1904- 
14),  NewYorkTribune(1914:-2l), 
and  the  New  York  World  (since 
1922),  where  he  now  conducts, 
over  his  initials,  a  column  of  mis- 
cellaneous verse  and  prose,  'The 
Conning  Tower.'  He  has  pub- 
lished Tobogganing  on  Parnassus 
(1910);  In  Other  Words  (1912); 
By  and  Large  (1914) ;  Weights  and 
Measures  (1917);  Something  Else 
Again  (1920);  Overset  (1922);  So 
Much  Velvet  C1923);  So  There! 
(1924);  Half  a  Loaf  (192.5);  The 
Column  Book  of  F.  P.  A.  (1928). 

Adams,  George  Burton 
(1851-1925),  American  historian, 
was  born  in  Fairfield,  Vt.  He 
was  graduated  from  Beloit  Col- 
lege (1873),  Yale  Divinity  School 
(B.D.,  1877),  and  Leipzig  Univer- 
sity (PH.D.,  1886).  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Drury  College 
(1877-88)  and  at  Yale  Universitv 
(1888-1925).  He  is  the  author  of 
Civilization  During  the  Middle 
Ages  (1894);  The  Growth  of  the 
French  Nation  (1896);  European 
History  (1899);  Vol.  ii.  of  Hunt 
and  Poole's  Political  History  of 
England  (1905) ;  The  Origin  of  the 
English  Constitution  (1912);  The 
British  Empire  and  a  League  of 
Peace  (1917);  Constitutional  His- 
tory of  England  (1920);  Council 
and  Courts  in  Anglo-Norman 
England  (1920). 

Adams,  Hannah  (1755-1832), 
American  author,  was  born  in 
Medfield,   Mass.    She  was  the 

Vol.  I. — Oct.  '29 


Adams 


58 


Adams 


first  American  woman  to  make 
literature  a  profession.  Her 
works  include  Views  of  Religious 
Opinions  (1784);  History  of  New 
England  (1799);  Evidences  of 
Christianity  (1801) ;  History  of  the 
Jews  (1812). 

Adams,  Henry  (1838-1918), 
American  historian,  son  of  Charles 
Francis  Adams  (1807-86),  was 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  and  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  (1858). 
From  1861  to  1868  he  was  private 
secretary  to  his  father,  and  from 
1870  to  1877  assistant  professor 
of  history  at  Harvard.  In  1870- 
76  he  edited  The  North  American 
Review.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Letters.  His  publications  in- 
clude Documents  Relating  to  New 
England  Federalisrn  (1877);  Al- 
bert Gallatin,  and  Writings  of 
Albert  Gallatin  (1879) ;  John  Ran- 
dolph (1882);  History  of  the 
United  States,  1801-1817  (1889); 
Historical  Essays  (1891);  Mont 
Saint  Michel  and  Chartres  {l^OA)', 
The  Education  of  Henry  Adams 
(1906,  printed  privately  but  pub- 
lished after  his  death);  Letter  to 
American    Teachers    of  History 

(1910)  ;  Life  of  George  Cabot  Lodge 

(1911)  . 

Adams,  Henry  Carter 
(1851-1921)  ,  American  economist, 
was  born  in  Davenport,  Iowa. 
He  was  graduated  from  Iowa 
College  (1874)  and  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  (ph.d.  1878). 
After  spending  two  years  of  study 
in  Europe  he  became  lecturer  on 
economics  at  Cornell  and  later  at 
the  University  of  Michigan. 
From  1887  until  his  death  he  was 
professor  of  political  economy 
and  finance  at  the  University  of 
Michigan.  From  1887  to  1911 
he  acted  as  statistician  to  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion, and  he  was  special  agent  in 
charge  of  the  department  of 
transportation  of  the  Eleventh 
Federal  Census.  Besides  numer- 
ous reports,  he  published  Outlines 
of  Lectures  upon  Political  Econo- 
my (1881) ;  Taxation  in  the  United 
States,  1789-18 16  (1884) ;  Relation 
of  the  State  to  Industrial  Action 
(1887) ;  Public  Debts  (1887) ;  Rela- 
tion of  Modern  Municipalities  to 
Quasi-Public  Works  (1888);  The 
Science  of  Finance  (1888);  Sta- 
tistics of  Railways  (1888-1910); 
Regulation  of  Railway  Rates 
(1906);  American  Railway  Ac- 
counting (1918);  Description  of 
Industry  (1918). 

Adams,  Herbert  (1858- 
),  American  sculptor,  was 
born  in  Concord,  Vt.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Worcester  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  and  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Normal  Art  vSchool, 
and  studied  abroad  (1885-90). 
He  is  a  trustee  of  the  American 
Academy  in  Rome,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Letters,  and  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Design  (presi- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '29 


dent,  1915-1918).  Besides  hon- 
orable mention  at  the  Paris  salons 
of  1888  and  1889,  he  has  received 
several  medals.  Among  his 
works  are  the  statues  of  Professor 
Henry,  Library  of  Congress, 
Washington;  Dr.  Channing,  Bos- 
ton; William  CuUen  Bryant,  New 
York;  Fitchburg  Fountain  and 
Fitchburg  War  Memorial,  Fitch- 
burg, Mass.;  Winchester  War 
Memorial,  Winchester,  Mass.; 
MacMillan  Memorial  Fountain, 
Washington;  Welch  Memorial, 
Auburn,  N.  Y.;  Hoyt  Memorial, 
Judson  Church,  New  York;  Pratt 
Memorial,  Emanuel  Baptist 
Church.  Brooklyn;  Jonathan  Ed- 
wards Memorial,  Northampton, 
Mass;  bronze  doors.  Library  of 
Congress,  and  St.  Bartholomew's 
Church,  New  York. 

Adams,  Herbert  Baxter 
(1850-1901),  American  educator, 
was  born  in  Amherst,  Mass.  He 
was  graduated  from  Amherst 
College  in  1872,  and  received  the 
degree  of  ph.d.  at  Heidelberg. 
He  was  associate  professor  and 
professor  of  history  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University  (1883-1901), 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  American  Historical  Associa- 
tion, and  its  first  secretary.  He 
edited  an  important  series  of 
monographs  known  as  the  Johyis 
Hopkins  Studies  in  Historical  and 
Political  Science  and  also  a  series 
of  monographs  on  the  history  of 
education  in  the  United  States. 
His  books  include  The  College  of 
William  and  Mary;  The  Study  of 
History  in  American  Colleges  and 
Universities;  Maryland' s  Influ- 
ence in  Founding  a  National  Com- 
monwealth; Thomas  Jefferson 
and  the  University  of  Virginia; 
History  of  the  United  States  Con- 
stitution; Life  and  Writings  of 
Jared  Sparks. 

Adams,  James  Truslow 
(1878-  ),  American  historian, 
was  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  He 
was  graduated  from  Yale  Uni- 
versity in  1900  and  until  1912 
was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Stock  Exchange.  During  the 
War  he  served  on  the  Colonel 
House  Commission  to  prepare 
for  the  Peace  Conference  at 
which  he  was  detailed  for  special 
duty  (1919).  In  1920  he  won 
the  Pulitzer  Prize  for  the  best 
book  on  American  history.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  National 
Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters. 
His  published  works  include  Me- 
morials of  Old  Bridgehampton 
(1910);  History  of  Southampton 
(1918) ;  Founding  of  New  England 
(1921);  Revolutionary  New  Eng- 
land 1691-1776  (1923);  New 
England  in  the  Republic  (1926); 
Provincial  Society  (1927);  Jeffer- 
sonian  Principles  (1928);  Hamil- 
tonian  Principles  (1928).  He  is 
a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
Atlantic  Monthly,  Harpers,  the 
Forum,  Saturday  Review  and 
other  periodicals. 


Adams,  John  (1735-1826), 
American  statesman,  second 
President  o.'  the  United  States, 
was  born  in  that  part  of  Brain- 
tree,  Mass.,  now  known  as  Quin- 
cy,  on  Oct.  30,  1735,  the  eldest 
son  of  a  prosperous  farmer  (d. 
1760)  of  the  same  name.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1755, 
and  was  designed  for  the  minis- 
try; but  instead  he  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts bar  in  1758.    In  1765, 


John  Adams 


during  the  excitement  aroused  by 
the  Stamp  Act,  he  sprang  into 
prominence  as  the  author  of  the 
instructions  which  were  sent  by 
the  town  of  Braintree  to  its  repre- 
sentatives in  the  Massachusetts 
General  Court,  and  which  were 
soon  adopted  by  forty  other 
townships  in  the  colony;  and  in 
the  same  year  he  contributed  to 
the  Boston  Gazette  four  vigorous 
articles  directed  primarily  against 
the  Stamp  Act,  which  were  after- 
ward issued  as  a  pamphlet  en- 
titled A  Dissertation  on  the  Canon 
and  Feudal  Law  (1768). 

Throughout  the  period  imme- 
diately preceding  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolutionary  War,  Adams 
was  one  of  the  most  influential 
leaders  of  the  Whig  or  Patriot 
Party  in  Massachusetts;  but  as 
compared  with  some  of  his  asso- 
ciates, he  was  conservative,  and 
he  had  the  courage  to  act  as 
counsel  for  the  British  soldiers 
tried  for  murder  in  connection 
with  the  so-called  'Boston  Mas- 
sacre' (1770),  the  soldiers  being 
acquitted.  From  1774  to  1777 
he  was  one  of  the  most  conspicu- 
ous members  of  the  Continental 
Congress.  He  was  at  the  head 
of  the  Board  of  War;  seconded 
the  nomination  of  Washington 
as  commander-in-chief;  and  with 
his  relative,  Samuel  Adams 
(fl.v.),  headed  the  party  of 
independence.  He    was  a 

member  of  the  committee  ap- 
pointed to  draft  the  American 
Declaration     of  Independence 


Adams 


59 


Adams 


(q.v.).  which  document  he 
signed. 

In  1778  he  was  sent  to  France 
as  representative  of  the  new  na- 
tion, but  returned  the  following 
year  to^take  an  important  part  in 
drafting  the  first  constitution  of 
Massachusetts.  Late  in  1880  he 
again  went  to  Europe,  and  after 
much  difficulty  not  only  secured 
recognition  from  the  United 
Provinces  (April  19,  1782)  as  the 
minister  of  an  independent  nation, 
but  negotiated  a  treaty  of  amity 
and  commerce — the  second  in  the 
history  of  the  United  States.  He 
was  one  of  the  American  commis- 
sioners who  signed  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  at  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tion (1783).  From  1785  to  1788 
he  was  the  first  Minister  of  the 
United  States  to  Great  Britain, 
and  at  that  time  wrote  his  Defence 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  (1787).  On  his  return  he 
became  the  first  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States,  serving  two 
terms  (1789-97),  and  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  new  Federalist 
Party  (q.v.).  In  1797  he  suc- 
ceeded Washington  in  the  Pres- 
idential chair,  serving  until  1801, 
during  a  period  marked  by  crit- 
ical relations  with  France,  result- 
ing almost  in  war;  by  the  passage 
of  the  hateful  Alien  and  Sedition 
Acts  (q.v.),  which  did  much  to 
bring  odium  upon  the  Federal- 
ists; and  by  the  appointment  of 
John  Marshall  to  be  Chief  Jus- 
tice of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 
During  his  term  Adams  became 
alienated  from  Alexander  Ham- 
ilton (q.v.),  the  real  leader  of  the 
Federalists;  and  unable  to  secure 
the  undivided  and  enthusiastic 
support  of  his  own  party,  he  was 
defeated  in  1800  by  Thomas 
Jefferson.  He  lived  for  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  retirement  at  Quincy, 
Mass.,  and  died  there  on  July  4, 
1826  (on  the  same  day  that  Jef- 
ferson died). 

John  Adams  was  in  many  re- 
spects a  typical  New  Englander 
of  his  time.  He  was  scrupu- 
lously honest,  thoroughly  sincere, 
indomitably  fearless  and  cour- 
ageous, a  tireless  and  self-sacri- 
ficing worker  in  the  common 
cause,  and  quick  to  perceive  and 
as  quick  to  oppose  oppression  in 
any  form,  however  subtly  dis- 
guised. On  the  other  hand,  un- 
fortunately, he  was  inclined  to  be 
pompous,  vain,  opinionated,  and 
contentious,  impatient  of  contra- 
dict^n  or  opposition,  and  eager 
for  applause.  Both  his  writings 
and  his  speeches  are  character- 
ized by  vigor,  forcefulness,  ear- 
ncvStness,  and  intensity  of  convic- 
tion, by  warm  emotion,  exuber- 
ance, a  certain  splendor  of  truc- 
ulence,  and  an  affluence  of  ideas, 
theories,  and  speculations. 

Consult  his  Works,  with  Life 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


and  Notes,  and  Familiar  Letters 
of  John  Adams  to  His  Wife,  both 
edited  by  Charles  Francis  Adams; 
Morse's  John  Adams,  in  the 
'American  Statesmen  Series'; 
Chamberlain's  John  Adams;  C. 
M .  Walsh's  The  Political  Science 
of  John  Adams  (1915). 

Adams,  John  (c.  1760-1829), 
seaman  and  mutineer,  served  on 
board  H.M.S.  Bounty  (1789), 
where  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  famous  mutiny  (see 
Bounty,  Mutiny  of  the).  His 
real  name  was  Alexander  Smith. 
He  afterward  sailed  with  nine 
men  to  Pitcairn  Island,  which  he 
governed  with  great  wisdom  and 
success.    See  Pitcairn  Island. 

Adams,  John  Couch  (1819- 
1892),  British  astronomer,  was 
born  near  Launceston,  Cornwall. 
He  was  sent  in  1839  to  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  where  in 
1843  he  became  senior  wrangler. 
He  undertook  to  find  out  the 
cause  of  the  irregularities  in  the 
motion  of  Uranus,  anticipating, 
indeed,  his  own  and  Leverrier's 
discovery — that  they  are  due  to 
the  influence  of  a  then  unknown 
planet.  Leverrier  did  not  com- 
mence his  researches  till  the  sum- 
mer of  1845;  but  on  Nov.  10  he 
published  the  results  of  his  calcu- 
lations, assigning  to  the  unknown 
planet  almost  the  same  place  as 
Adams  had  done  in  a  paper  which 
he  left  with  the  Astronomer 
Royal  at  Greenwich  Observatory 
in  the  previous  October,  but 
which  he  neglected  to  publish. 
(See  Neptune.)  Neptune  was 
actually  observed,  near  the  place 
assigned,  by  Galle  at  Berlin  in 
September,  1846.  In  1858 
Adams  was  appointed  to  the 
Lowndean  professorship  of 
astronomy,  Cambridge.  Consult 
his  Scientific  Papers  (ed.  by  W.  G. 
Adams,  with  Life  by  Glaisher). 

Adams,  John  Qitincy  (1767- 
1848),  American  statesman,  the 
sixth  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  that  part  of 
Braintree,  Mass.,  which  is  now 
Quincy,  on  July  11,  1767,  the 
eldest  son  of  John  Adams  (q.v.), 
President  in  1797-1801.  He 
studied  for  a  year  (1778-9)  in 
Paris,  while  his  father  was  on  a 
diplomatic  mission  there,  and 
later  (1780)  at  the  University  of 
Leyden;  was  private  secretary 
(1781-2)  to  Francis  Dana,  Ameri- 
can envoy  to  Russia;  and  on  his 
return  to  the  United  States  was 
graduated  from  Harvard.  He 
then  studied  law  under  Theophi- 
lus  Parsons,  was  admitted  (1790) 
to  the  Massachusetts  bar,  and 
practised  in  Boston.  His  inter- 
est was  primarily  in  politics, 
however,  and  he  soon  attracted 
attention  by  a  scries  of  articles 
opposing  Paine's  Rights  of  Man, 
arraigning  certain  aspects  of  the 


French  Revolution,  and  urging 
the  observance  by  the  United 
States  of  strict  neutrality  in  the 
European  conflicts  of  the  time. 

In  1794  he  received  from  Presi- 
dent Washington  the  appoint- 
ment of  Minister  Resident  at  The 
Hague;  was  afterward  sent  to 
the  Court  of  St.  James;  was  nomi- 


John  Quincy  Adams. 


nated  by  Washington  as  Min- 
ister to  Portugal;  and  on  the 
accession  of  the  elder  Adams  to 
the  Presidency,  was  appointed 
Minister  to  Prussia,  where  he 
negotiated  (1799)  a  treaty  of 
amity  and  commerce.  In  1802 
he  was  chosen  State  senator  by 
the  Federalists  of  his  district, 
and  in  1803  was  elected  to  the 
U.  S.  Senate  from  Massachusetts. 
In  1806  he  boldly  denounced  in 
the  Senate  the  right  claimed  by 
the  British  government  of  search- 
ing and  confiscating  the  cargoes 
of  neutral  vessels,  and  introduced 
resolutions  (which  were  sup- 
ported by  the  Republicans)  re- 
questing the  President  to  demand 
the  restoration  of  property  so 
confiscated.  This  position  thor- 
oughly alienated  Adams  from  the 
Federal  Party,  and  he  resigned 
his  seat  in  the  Senate. 

From  1809  to  1814  Adams  was 
Minister  to  Russia,  and  was  one 
of  the  negotiators  (1814)  of  the 
Treaty  of  Ghent  terminating  the 
War  of  1812;  from  1815  to  1817 
he  was  Minister  to  England,  and 
with  Clay  and  Gallatin  negoti- 
ated (1815)  a  treaty  of  commerce 
with  that  nation;  and  from  1817 
to  1825  he  was  Secretary  of 
State  in  the  Cabinet  of  President 
Monroe,  negotiating  with  Spain 
the  treaty  by  which  Florida  was 
ceded  (1821)  to  the  United 
States,  and  being  credited  by 
many  with  the  first  formulation 
of  what  is  now  known  as  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  (q.v.).  In 
1824  he  was  one  of  the  candidates 


Adams 


60 


Adams 


for  the  Presidency,  along  with 
Andrew  Jackson,  W.  H.  Craw- 
ford, and  Henry  Clay.  Jackson 
received  99  electoral  votes, 
Adams  84,  Crawford  41,  and  Clay 
37.  None  of  them  having  re- 
ceived a  majority  of  the  electoral 
votes,  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives was  called  upon  to  decide 
from  among  the  three  highest 
candidates.  Thereupon  the  fol- 
lowers of  Clay  joined  with  those 
of  Adams,  and  insured  the  latter's 
election;  while  Adams  made  Clay 
his  Secretary  of  State. 

As  President  (1825-9),  Adams 
advocated  internal  improve- 
ments, and  steadily  refused,  in 
spite  of  considerable  pressure,  to 
remove  office  holders  for  politi- 
cal reasons.  He  was  not  popu- 
lar, however;  was  bitterly  at- 
tacked both  in  and  out  of  Con- 
gress; and  among  other  things 
was  unjustly  charged  with  hav- 
ing gained  Clay's  support  by  a 


corrupt  agreement  to  make  the 
latter  Secretary  of  State.  (For 
the  events  of  Adams'  administra- 
tion, see  United  States,  His- 
tory.) His  own  followers  refused 
to  ally  themselves  with  the  Jack- 
sonian  Democrats,  and  organized 
the  short-lived  National  Repub- 
lican Party.  At  the  close  of  a 
troublous  and  comparatively  un- 
eventful term  as  President  he 
was  defeated  for  re-election 
(1828)  by  Andrew  Jackson  (q.v.). 

Instead  of  retiring  into  private 
life,  however,  Adams  returned  to 
Vol.  I. —Oct.  '15 


Washington  in  1831  as  a  Repre- 
sentative in  Congress,  where  he 
served  continuously  until  his 
death,  seventeen  years  later. 
This  Was  in  many  respects  the 
most  noteworthy  period  of  his 
career,  and  was  marked  by  his 
long  and  finally  successful  fight 
(1844)  to  secure  the  repeal  of  the 
'Gag  Rules'  (q.v.),  which  virtu- 
ally took  away  the  right  of  peti- 
tion as  regards  slavery;  and,  in 
general,  by  his  courageous  and 
able  fight  against  all  measures 
(such  as  the  annexation  of  Texas) 
in  the  interest  of  the  institution 
of  slavery.  In  one  of  his  speeches 
(May,  1836)  he  seems  to  have 
been  the  first  to  assert  that  slav- 
ery could  be  legally  abolished  by 
the  exercise  of  the  war  powers  of 
the  Federal  Government.  He 
was  not  technically  an  Abolition- 
ist, however.  On  Feb.  21,  1848. 
while  in  his  seat  in  the  House  of 
Representatives,  he  suffered  a 


stroke  of  paralysis,  and  died  two 
days  later. 

John  Quincy  Adams'  chief 
characteristics  were  his  extreme 
independence,  his  unyielding 
courage,  his  conscientiousness 
and  self-sacrificing  devotion  to 
duty,  his  sturdy  patriotism,  his 
thoroughgoing  honesty,  his  ca- 
pacity for  work,  his  coldness  and 
unbending  pride,  his  pugnacity, 
persistent  censoriousness,  and 
irritability,  and  his  frequent  in- 
dulgence in  keen,  biting  invec- 
tive.  He  was  never  really  popu- 


lar, had  few  intimate  friends,  and 
numerous  and  bitter  political 
enemies;  but  his  qualities  every- 
where compelled  respect. 

Adams  kept  an  extensive  diary, 
which  is  included  in  his  Memoirs 
(edited  by  C.  F.  Adams),  and 
which  constitutes  a  storehouse  of 
valuable  material  for  the  period 
during  which  he  was  active  in 
diplomatic  and  political  life, 
although  marred  by  personal  crit- 
icisms often  acrid  and  deprecia- 
tory in  the  extreme.  Consult 
W.  H.  Seward's  Life;  Morse's 
John  Quincy  Adams,  in  the 
'American  Statesmen  Series' ; 
Quincy's  Memoir. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  the 
2d  (1833-94),  American  legislator, 
was  born  in  Boston,  the  son  of 
Charles  F.  Adams  (q.v.) .  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  (1853), 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
served  three  terms  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts legislature;  in  1867  and 
in  1871  he  was  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  governor  on  the 
Democratic  ticket;  and  in  1872 
he  was  the  candidate  for  Vice- 
President  on  the  ticket  with 
Charles  O'Conor  (q.v.). 

Adams,  Maude  Kiskadden 
(1872),  American  actress,  was 
born  in  Salt  Lake  City,  both  her 
parents  being  actors.  At  an  early 
age  she  appeared  in  children's 
parts,  and  when  sixteen  years  old 
joined  the  stock  company  of  E. 
H.  Sothern,  and  later  that  of 
Charles  Frohman.  In  1892  she 
played  with  John  Drew  in  The 
Masked  Ball;  in  1898  became  a 
star  as  Lady  Babbie  in  The  Little 
Minister;  and  in  1899  played  Ju- 
liet to  William  Faversham's  Ro- 
meo. In  1900-01  she  appeared  in 
Rostand's  L'Aiglon;  in  1902,  in 
Barrie's  Quality  Street;  in  1905,  in 
Barrie's  Peter  Pan,  a  great  popu- 
lar success;  in  1908,  in  the  same 
author's  What  Every  Woman 
Knows;  in  1911,  in  Rostand's 
Chanticleer;  in  1913-14,  in  Bar- 
rie's Legend  of  Leonora.  She  has 
played  the  leading  role  in  notable 
spring  performances  at  some  of 
the  principal  universities — e.g.. 
Twelfth  Night,  1908;  Schiller's 
Joan  of  Arc,  1909;  and  As  You 
Like  It,  1910. 

Adams,  Nehemiah  (1806-78), 
American  Congregational  clergy- 
man, was  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
and  was  educated  at  Harvard 
and  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary.  His  ministry,  ex- 
tending over  a  long  period  at 
Cambridge  and  Boston,  gained 
him  the  reputation  of  a  scholar 
and  a  man  of  eloquence.  He 
antagonized  the  anti-slavery  ele- 
ment by  maintaining,  in  A  South 
Side  View  of  Slavery,  that  slavery 
heightened  the  religious  character 
of  tiie  negroes.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  Sable  Cloud  (1863); 


Maude  Adams. 


Adams 


61 


Adams 


Under  the  Mizzenmast,  a  voyage 
round  the  world  (1871);  Life  of 
John  Eliot. 

Adams,  Oscar  Fay  (1855), 
American  author  and  lecturer, 
was  born  in  Worcester,  Mass., 
and  was  educated  at  Leicester 
Academy  and  the  New  Jersey 
vState  Normal  School.  Since  1902 
he  has  been  secretary  of  the  Bos- 
ton Authors  Club.  He  is  chiefly 
known  for  his  useful  Dictionary  of 
American  Authors  (new  ed., 
1905),  and  his  edition  of  Through 
the  Year  with  the  Poets  (12  vols., 
1886).  He  is  also  editor  of  the 
American  issue  of  the  Henry  Irv- 
ing Shakespeare,  and  author  of 
Brief  Handbook  of  English  Au- 
thors (1884);  Poet  Laureate  Idylls 
(1885)  ;  Brief  Handbook  of  Amer- 
ican Authors  (1886);  Dear  Old 
Story  Tellers  (1889);  The  Story  of 
Jane  Austen's  Life  (1891);  The 
Archbishop' s  Unguarded  Moment, 
and  Other  Stories  (1899);  Some 
Famous  American  Schools  (1903) ; 
Sicut  Patribus,  and  Other  Poems 
(1906);  A  Motley  Jest,  Shake- 
spearean Diversions  (1909);  Scot- 
land Since  Culloden  (1909). 

Adams,  Samuel  (1722-1803), 
American  statesman,  was  born  in 
Boston.  Mass.,  on  Sept.  27,  1722, 
the  son  of  Samuel  Adams  (d. 
1748),  a  man  of  considerable 
wealth  and  some  political  promi- 
nence. He  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  (1740;  a.m.  1743),  and 
took  up  the  study  of  law;  but  he 
soon  entered  business  for  him- 
self, for  which  he  had  little  taste 
and  less  aptitude,  and  in  which  he 
failed.  He  then  became  his  fa- 
ther's partner  in  a  brewery,  and 
this  also  failed  after  his  father's 
death. 

It  was  not  until  he  was  forty- 
two,  in  1764,  that  Adams  entered 
upon  the  career  which  made  him 
famous.  In  that  year  he  drew  up 
the  instructions  for  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  township  of  Boston 
in  the  Massachusetts  General 
Court.  These  instructions,  be- 
sides suggesting  the  co-operation 
of  the  various  colonies,  contain 
what  is  thought  to  be  the  first 
public  denial  of  the  validity  of 
the  Stamp  Act,  about  to  be 
passed;  the  following  is,  perhaps, 
their  keynote:  'If  taxes  are  laid 
upon  us  in  any  shape  without  our 
having  a  legal  representation 
where  they  are  laid,  are  we  not 
reduced  from  the  Character  of 
free  Subjects  to  the  miserable 
State  of  tributary  Slaves?' 

From  1765  until  1774  he  was  a 
member,  and  after  1766  clerk,  of 
the  lower  house  of  the  General 
Court;  and  during  this  period  he 
was  practically  the  leader  of  the 
opposition  in  Boston — and  there- 
fore in  Massachusetts  and  the 
New  England  colonies — to  the 
arbitrary  measures  of  the  British 
Vol.  I —Oct.  '15 


government.  He  virtually  con- 
trolled and  inspired  the  policy  of 
the  Boston  town  meeting;  drafted 
nearly  all  of  the  more  important 
papers  of  that  body;  was  in- 
strumental, after  the  so-called 
'Boston  Massacre'  (q.v.)  of  March 
5,  1770,  in  forcing  the  withdrawal 
from  Boston  of  the  two  British 
regiments  quartered  there;  and 
brought  about  the  appointment  of 
the  Boston  Committee  of  Cor- 
respondence, and  thus  put  into 
operation  one  of  the  most  efficient 
means  for  securing  colonial  and 
intercolonial  union  and  co-opera- 
tion. He  probably  inspired  the 
'Boston  Tea  Party'  (q.v.)  of  Dec. 
16,  1773;  and  above  all,  by  per- 
sonal contact  with  his  fellow  citi- 
zens and  by  numerous  articles  in 
the  press,  he  won  over  many  wa- 
verers  to  the  patriot  cause,  and 
greatly  influenced  the  views  of 
the  colonists.  Naturally,  he  in- 
curred the  bitter  enmity  of  the 
royal  authorities  of  Massachu- 
setts: it  was  partly  to  capture 
him  that  the  famous  expedition  of 
April  18-19,  resulting  in  the  Bat- 
tle of  Lexington  (q.v.),  was  sent 
out  from  Boston;  and  he  and 
John  Hancock  were  expressly 
excepted  in  the  proclamation  of 
pardon  issued  by  Governor  Gage 
on  June  12,  1775. 

From  1774  to  1782  (excepting 
1779)  Adams  was  a  member  of 
the  Continental  Congress,  and 
exercised  a  powerful  influence 
over  its  deliberations,  especially 
exerting  himself  to  win  his  fellow 
members  to  the  cause  of  indepen- 
dence. During  the  war  he  served 
as  secretary  of  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts; took  an  important  part 
in  drafting  (1779-80)  the  first 
State  constitution;  and  in  1782 
was  president  of  the  State  senate. 
At  first  opposed  to  the  Federal 
Constitution  framed  at  Philadel- 
phia in  1787,  he  ultimately  used 
his  influence  to  secure  its  ratifica- 
tion. He  became  the  recognized 
leader  of  the  Republicans  in 
Massachusetts;  from  1789  to 
1794  was  lieutenant-governor  of 
the  State;  and  from  1794  to  1797 
governor.  He  died  in  Boston  on 
Oct.  2,  1803. 

Samuel  Adams'  great  services 
were  rendered  immediately  be- 
fore and  during  the  Revolution- 
ary War.  Fiske  speaks  of  him 
as  being  second  only  to  Wash- 
ington; Jefferson  said,  'I  always 
considered  him,  more  than  any 
other  member,  the  fountain  of 
our  more  important  measures'; 
Bancroft  calls  him  'the  type  and 
representative  of  the  New  Eng- 
land town  meeting.'  Astute,  cool, 
and  clear  headed,  tactful,  shrewd, 
and  far-seeing,  skilled  in  all  the 
arts  of  the  practical  politician, 
he  was  pre-eminently  a  manager 
of   men.    Careless  of  personal 


fame,  he  was  capable  of  continual 
self-effacement — other  men  put 
forward  by  him  often  appearing 
responsible  for  measures  or  acts 
which  he  himself  originated  or 
inspired.  Though  not  a  great 
orator,  he  was  always  an  effective 
speaker,  and  he  was  perhaps  the 
most  voluminous  political  writer 
of  his  time  in  America.  He  fre- 
quently concealed  the  authorship 
of  his  contributions  to  the  press, 
and  altogether  used  as  many  as 
twenty-five  fictitious  signatures. 

Consult  W.  V.  Wells'  Life  and 
Public  Services  of  Samuel  Adams; 
J.  K.  Hosmer's  Samuel  Adams,  in 
the  'American  Statesmen  Series' ; 
H.  A.  Cushing's  The  Writings  of 
Samuel  Adams  (4  vols.,  1904-8). 

Adams,  Samuel  Hopkins 
(1871),  American  journalist  and 
author,  was  born  in  Dunkirk,  N. 
Y.,  and  was  graduated  from 
Hamilton  College  (1891).  After 
serving  as  reporter  and  special 
writer  on  the  New  York  Sun 
(1891-1900),  he  was  successively 
managing  editor  of  McClure's 
Syndicate  (1900-1),  advertising 
manager  for  McClure,  Phillips  & 
Co.  (1901-2),  and  a  member  of 
the  staff  of  McClure's  Magazine 
(1903-5).  In  1906  his  series  of 
articles  in  Collier  s  Weekly  on  the 
patent  medicine  evil  attracted 
wide  attention.  He  has  written: 
The     Great     American  Fraud 

(1905)  ;  The  Mystery  (with  S.  E. 
White,  1905) ;   The  'Flying  Death 

(1906)  ;  Average  Jones  (1911); 
The    Secret    of   Lonesome  Cove 

(1912)  ;     The     Health  Master 

(1913)  ;  The  Clarion  {1914.).  In 
1913  he  was  elected  an  associate 
fellow  of  the  American  Medical 
Association  in  recognition  of  his 
work  for  the  advancement  of  the 
public  health. 

Adams,  Sarah,  nee  Flower 
(1805-48),  English  hymn  writer; 
author  of  the  hymns,  'Nearer, 
My  God,  to  Thee'  (1840),  and 
'He  Sendeth  Sun,  He  Sendeth 
Shower.'  Her  principal  work  is 
Vivia  Perpetua,  a  dramatic  poem 
(1841). 

Adams,  Suzanne  (1§73), 
American  operatic  soprano,  was 
born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.  She 
studied  in  Paris  under  Mme. 
Marchesi,  making  her  debut  there 
in  Romeo  and  Juliet  in  1894.  She 
sang  at  Covent  Garden.  London, 
with  the  Maurice  Grau  Company 
for  several  years;  and  in  1898-9 
was  a  member  of  the  Metropoli- 
tan Opera  Company  in  New  York 
City.  Her  principal  roles  have 
been  Juliet,  Marguerite,  Gilda, 
Mimi,  Micaela,  the  queen  in  Les 
Huguenots,  and  the  queen  of  the 
night  in  The  Magic  Flute. 

Adams,  Thomas,  Puritan 
preacher,  who  held  charges  in 
Bedfordshire,  Buckingham,  and 
London  between  1612  and  1653. 


Adams 


62 


Adaptation 


His  works  were  collected  and 
printed  by  Joseph  Angus  and 
Thomas  Smith  (3  vols.,  1862). 
Southey  named  him  'the  prose 
Shakespeare  of  Puritan  theolo- 
gians.' He  died  before  the  Res- 
toration. For  his  sermons,  con- 
sult Nichol  s  Puritan  Divines. 

Adams,  Thomas  Sewall 
(1873),  American  economist,  was 
born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  was 
graduated  from  Baltimore  City 
College  (1893)  and  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  (ph.d.  1899). 
He  is  a  member  of  the  Wisconsin 
Town  Commission,  and  professor 
of  political  economy  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin.  He  has 
served  as  expert  on  the  Wiscon- 
sin State  Tax  Commission  (1904- 
8)  and  in  the  Department  of 
Commerce  and  Labor  (1908-9), 
and  is  secretary  of  the  National 
Tax  Association  (since  1912). 
His  writings  include:  Taxation 
in  Maryland  (1900);  Labor  Prob- 
lems (with  H.  L.  Sumner,  1905); 
Mortgage  Taxation  in  Wisconsin 
and  Neighboring  States  (1907). 

Adams,  William  (1575-1620), 
English  navigator,  was  born  in 
Gillingham,  near  Chatham.  He 
went  to  Japan  about  1600;  was 
taken  into  the  government  ser- 
vice (after  having  been  impris- 
oned) ;  and  after  1613  was  active, 
with  Richard  Cocks  and  other 
Englishmen,  in  developing  the 
industries  of  that  country.  He 
married  a  Japanese  woman.  A 
Tokyo  street  bears  his  name. 
Consult  his  Letters  in  vol.  i.  of 
Purchas  his  Pilgrimes. 

Adams,  William  (1807-80), 
American  clergyman,  was  born 
in  Colchester,  Mass.  He  was 
graduated  from  Yale  (1827). 
studied  theology  at  Andover, 
and  was  ordained  pastor  (1831) 
of  the  Congregational  Church  at 
Brighton,  Mass.  He  afterward 
removed  to  the  Broome  Street 
Presbyterian  Church,  New  York 
City,  which  in  1853  became  the 
Madison  Square  Presbyterian 
Church,  a  pastorate  he  held  until 
1873.  In  that  year  he  became 
president  of  the  Union  Theolog- 
ical Seminary.  He  wrote:  The 
Three  Gardens  (1859);  Conversa- 
tions of  Jesus  Christ  with  Repre- 
sentative Men  (1865). 

Adams,  William  Davenport 
(1851-1904),  English  author, 
widely  known  as  a  literary  and 
dramatic  critic.  After  editing 
several  country  newspapers,  he 
worked  on  the  editorial  staff  of 
the  London  Globe.  His  published 
works  include:  Dictionary  of  Eng- 
lish Literature  (1877);  Sketches 
in  the  Highways  and  Byways  of 
English  Literature  (1879);  By- 
ways in  Bookland  (1888) ;  Diction- 
ary of  the  Drama  ( 1 899) . 

Adams,  William  Ta  v  l  o  r 
(1822-97),  popularly  known  as 
Vol.  L— Oct.  '15 


'Oliver  Optic,'  American  au- 
thor of  juvenile  fiction,  was  born 
in  Medway,  Mass.,  and  for  many 
years  was  a  teacher  in  the  public 
schools  of  Boston  and  Dorches- 
ter. His  first  book,  Hatchie,  the 
Guardian  Slave  (1853),  was  suc- 
ceeded by  over  a  hundred  vol- 
umes of  juvenile  fiction,  pub- 
lished in  series,  which  included: 
The  Boat  Club,  Young  America 
Abroad,  The  Starry  Flag,  Onward 
and  Upward,  and  The  Yacht 
Club.  He  also  edited  Oliver  Op- 
tic's Magazine,  Student  and 
Schoolmate,  Our  Boys  and  Girls, 
and  Our  Little  Ones. 

Adam's  Apple,  the  popular 
name  given  to  the  projection  in 
the  fore  part  of  the  neck  formed 
by  the  anterior  extremity  of  the 
thyroid  cartilage  of  the  larynx 
(q.v.);  so  called  from  the  notion 
that  it  was  caused  by  a  bit  of 
the  forbidden  fruit  which  stuck, 
in  Adam's  throat. 

Adam's  Bridge,  a  ridge  of  sand 
and  rocks,  about  30  miles  long, 
extending  from  a  small  island  off 
the  Indian  coast  to  one  just  off 
Ceylon.  It  formed  at  one  time 
a  portion  of  an  isthmus  which 
connected  India  with  Ceylon, 
and  is  referred  to  in  the  Rama- 
yana  as  the  bridge  over  which 
the  god  Rama  passed  to  invade 
Ceylon. 

Adams,  Mount  (5,805  feet), 
one  of  the  Presidential  Range  in 
New  Hampshire,  4  miles  north- 
west of  Mount  Washington 
(q.v.),  to  which  it  is  second  in 
height. 

Ad'amson,  Patrick  (1537- 
92) ,  Scottish  prelate,  was  born  in 
Perth.  He  went  to  France  as  a 
tutor  (1566),  where  he  suffered 
imprisonment  for  referring  in  a 
Latin  poem  to  Queen  Mary's 
son  as  king  of  France  and  Eng- 
land. He  returned  to  Scotland 
(c.  1572),  became  minister  of 
Paisley,  chaplain  to  the  Regent 
Morton,  and  in  1576  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  regent  to  the 
as  yet  unabolished  archbishopric 
of  St.  Andrews.  From  this  time 
he  was  at  open  war  with  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  until  his  excom- 
munication in  1588  on  various 
charges.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  religious  works,  and  ranks 
high  as  a  Latin  poet. 

Adamson,  Robert  (1852- 
1902),  English  educator,  was 
born  in  Edinburgh,  where  he 
was  educated.  He  obtained  the 
Ferguson  vScholarship  (1872),  and 
the  Shaw  Fellowship  (1873). 
In  1876  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  Owens 
College,  Manchester;  in  1883  pro- 
fessor of  logic  at  Aberdeen 
University,  and  in  1895  to  the 
same  position  at  Glasgow.  He 
wrote:  The  Philosophy  of  Science 
in  the  Middle  Ages  (1876);  The 


Philosophy  of  Kant  (1879) ;  Fichte 
(1881);  The  Development  of  Mod- 
ern Philosophy  (1903);  The  De- 
velopment of  Greek  Philosophy 
(1906);  A  Short  History  of  Logic 
(1911)— the  last  three  published 
posthumously. 

Adam's  Peak  (7,420  feet), 
called  by  the  natives  Samanella, 
an  isolated  granite  mountain  on 
the  southwest  edge  of  the  central 
highlands,  Ceylon,  and  a  place 
of  pilgrimage  for  Buddhists  and 
Moslems.  The  cone  forming  the 
summit  is  a  naked  mass  of  gran- 
ite, in  the  middle  of  which  is  a 
hollow,  5  feet  long,  having  a  re- 
semblance to  a  human  footstep. 
Mohammedan  tradition  makes 
this  the  scene  of  Adam's  peni- 
tence, after  his  expulsion  from 
Paradise,  where  he  stood  1,000 
years  on  one  foot.  To  the  Bud- 
dhists it  is  the  Sri-pada,  or  sacred 
footmark,  left  by  Buddha;  and 
the  Hindus  recognize  Buddha  as 
an  avatar  of  Vishnu. 

Adana,  a-da'na,  capital  of  the 
Turkish  vilayet  of  Adana  (15,500 
square  miles;  pop.  425,000),  is 
situated  in  Anatolia,  Asia  Minor, 
on  the  River  Sihun;  528  miles 
southeast  of  Constantinople,  and 
42  miles  by  rail  northeast  of  Mer- 
sina.  Recent  irrigation  projects 
have  added  1,200.000  acres  of  fer- 
tile land  to  the  surrounding  dis- 
trict. Trade  is  carried  on  in  wool, 
cotton,  grain,  and  wood ;  and  iron 
is  mined.  Adana  was  a  place  of 
importance  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans.  In  1909,  30,000  Ar- 
menian Christians  were  massa- 
cred in  the  city  and  vilayet.  Pop. 
50,000. 

Adanson,  a-dan-son',  Michel 
(1727-1806),  French  botanist, 
was  born  in  Aix,  Provence.  He 
studied  under  Reaumur  and  Jus- 
sieu  at  Paris.  When  about 
twenty-one  years  old  he  went  to 
Senegal  in  Africa,  and  stayed 
there  five  years.  He  made  im- 
portant researches  in  the  field  of 
electro-physics,  but  his  best 
known  work  was  in  the  field  of 
botany.  He  wrote:  Histoire  Na- 
turelle  du  Senegal  (1757) ;  Families 
des  Plantes  (1763);  Histoire  de  la 
Botanique  et  Plan  des  Families 
Naturelles  des  Plantes  (2  vols.,  ed. 
by  his  son,  A.  Adanson,  and 
Payer,  1864). 

Ad'anso'nia.    See  Baobab. 

Ad'apta'tion.  One  of  the  most 
striking  characters  of  living 
things  is  their  fitness  for  their 
surroundings.  This  fitness  is 
never  absolute;  but  where  it  is 
specially  marked  in  any  species, 
the  members  of  that  species  tend 
to  increase  in  number,  such  in- 
crease being  at  the  expense  of 
other  forms  less  well  fitted  for 
the  given  environment.  Charac- 
ters which  o])vi()UsIy  render  an  or- 
ganism well  suited  to  its  peculiar 


Adar 


63 


Addison 


environment  are  termed  adap- 
tive characters,  or  adaptations. 
But  it  is  clear  that  organisms 
not  nearly  related  may  have  a 
common  environment,  wherefore 
the  term  'adaptive  character'  has 
a  secondary  significance  in  addi- 
tion to  that  indicated  above,  and 
implies  that  the  particular  char- 
acter is  of  no  value  in  classifica- 
tion, but  has  been  acquired  as  a 
consequence  of  a  certain  method 
of  life.  Thus,  parasites  tend  to 
lose  locomotor  organs  and  sense 
organs,  are  usually  hermaphro- 
dite, and  invariably  prolific.  But 
the  possession  of  these  common 
characters  does  not  indicate  that 
all  parasites  are  nearly  related; 
they  are  rather  to  be  described 
as  adaptations  to  the  parasitic 
mode  of  life. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
every  organism  possesses  two  sets 
of  characters:  (1)  those  whose  use 
it  is  often  difficult  to  define 
clearly,  which  it  has  inherited 
from  its  ancestors,  and  which  are 
of  supreme  importance  in  classi- 
fication; and  (2)  those  which  are 
adaptations  to  a  particular  mode 
of  life,  which  have  been  acquired 
during  the  evolution  of  the  stock, 
and  which  are  of  no  importance  in 
classification.  It  is  one  of  the 
great  problems  of  systematic 
biology  to  distinguish  between 
these  two  sets  of  characters,  and 
to  determine  whether  a  given 
character  is  or  is  not  of  adaptive 
nature.  The  study  of  natural 
history  in  the  broad  sense  is  the 
study  of  adaptation.  The  works 
of  Darwin  and  of  subsequent 
leaders  in  biology  exhibit  the 
methods  and  results  of  research 
in  this  direction.  See  Darwin- 
ism; Environment;  Evolution. 

Adar,  a'dar,  the  twelfth  month 
of  the  sacred  (and  the  sixth  of  the 
civil)  Hebrew  year — end  of  Febru- 
ary and  beginning  of  March.  As 
the  months  were  lunar,  a  second 
adar,  called  veadar,  was  interca- 
lated once  in  three  years.  The 
term  occurs  first  after  the  Exile  in 
Esther  iii.  7. 

Adda,  ad'da  (Latin  Addua), 
river  of  Italy,  rises  in  the  Bernina 
Alps,  flows  into  Lake  Como,  then 
south  through  the  Lombard 
plain,  to  enter  the  Po  a  few  miles 
above  Cremona.  Length,  190 
miles,  of  which  77  are  navigable. 

Adda,  or  Ada,  port  on  the  Gold 
Coast,  on  the  River  Volta;  6  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  62  miles 
northeast  of  Accra.    Pop.  13,000. 

Ad'dams,  Jane  (1860),  Ameri- 
can social  settlement  worker,  was 
born  in  Cedarville,  111.,  and  was 
graduated  from  Rockford  College 
(1881).  In  1889,  with  Ellen  Gates 
Starr,  she  opened  Hull  House  set- 
tlement in  Chicago.  Her  interest 
in  sociological  theories  has  been 
expressed  by  a  life  devoted  to 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


practical  efforts  to  better  the  con- 
dition of  the  poor  and  the  de- 
graded, a  work  in  which  she  has 
been  highly  successful.  In  1909 
she  was  made  president  of  the 
National  Conference  of  Charities 
and  Correction,  and  in  1910  re- 
ceived the  first  honorary  degree 
ever  given  by  Yale  to  a  woman. 
In  1912  she  was  prominent  in  the 
formation  of  the  national  Pro- 
gressive Party,  and  was  vice- 
president  of  the  National  Wo- 
men's Suffrage  Association.  In 
April,  1915,  she  presided  at  the 
International  Peace  Conference 
of  Women  at  The  Hague.  She  has 
written:  Democracy  and  Social 
Ethics  (1902);  Newer  Ideals  of 
Peace  (1907) ;  Spirit  of  Youth  and 
the  City  Streets  (1909);  Twenty 
Years  at  Hull  House  (1910);  A 
New  Conscience  and  an  Ancient 
Evil  (1912). 

Ad'dax,  Addas  (Addax  naso- 
maculatus),  an  antelope  allied  to 
the  gemsbok,  but  having  ringed 
horns  which  ascend  in  an  open 
spiral,  instead  of  being  straight. 
These  horns  are  present  in  both 
sexes,  and  measure  nearly  three 
feet  along  the  spiral  (see  illustra- 
tion under  Antelope).  The  ad- 
dax is  a  desert  animal,  inhabiting 
North  Africa  and  Arabia,  but  is 
becoming  rare.  It  is  of  a  general 
yellowish-white  tint,  the  head, 
neck,  and  mane  being  brown  save 
for  a  white  band  and  spots  on 
the  muzzle.  Its  height  is  over 
three  feet. 

Ad'der,  the  popular  name  for 
certain  poisonous  snakes  of  the 
viper  family  (see  Viper;  Puff 
Adder),  as  well  as  of  harmless 
snakes  of  the  family  Colubridae. 
The  term  is  most  commonly  ap- 
plied to  the  viper  V.  berus,  wide- 
ly distributed  throughout  Eu- 
rope, and  the  only  British  ven- 
omous snake.   It  attains  a  length 


Head  of  Adder, 


of  more  than  two  feet;  is  brown, 
with  a  black,  zigzag  line  down 
the  back;  feeds  chiefly  upon  mice, 
and  is  viviparous.  Its  bite  rarely 
proves  fatal,  except  to  weak  per- 
sons and  children.  A  very  ven- 
omous serpent  of  New  South 
Wales  {Acanthopis  tor  tor)  is  com- 
monly called  the  Death  Adder  or 
Black  Adder. 

In  the  United  States,  the  name 
adder  is  applied  to  some  poison- 
ous snakes  without  rattles,  as 
the  Moccasin  (q.v.)  or  Water 
Adder,  and  the  Copperhead  (q.v.) 
or  Red  Adder;  also  to  the  harm- 
less Hognose  (q.v.). 


Adder's  Tongue  (Ophioglos- 
sum  vulgatum) ,  a  small  fern  which 
forms  annually  one  leaf,  dividing 
into  a  flat,  ovate,  sterile  portion, 
and  an  elongated,  narrow,  un- 
branched,  spore-bearing  part.  It 
is  found  throughout  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  New  Zealand. 

Ad'dicks,JOHNEDWARD(1841), 
American  political  leader,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  He 
made  a  fortune,  estimated  at 
$10,000,000  to  $15,000,000,  by 
operations  in  gas  properties,  espe- 
cially the  Bay  State  Gas  Company 
of  Boston,  the  Brooklyn  Gas  Com- 
pany of  New  York  City,  and  works 
in  Wilmington,  Del.  From  1895  to 
1905  he  was  an  important  factor 
in  the  politics  of  Delaware,  and 
despite  numerous  charges  of  cor- 
ruption made  repeated  attempts 
to  become  a  U.  S.  Senator  from 
that  State.  As  a  result  of  his 
activities,  Delaware  was  without 
representation  in  the  Senate  from 
1901  to  1903,  and  at  other  times 
was  represented  by  only  one  vSen- 
ator.  In  later  years,  campaign 
expenses  and  business  reverses 
diminished  his  wealth,  and  in 
1915  he  was  unable  to  pay  a  judg- 
ment of  $16,000. 

Addicks,  Lawrence  (1878), 
American  metallurgical  engineer, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
He  studied  at  Spring  Garden 
Institute,  Philadelphia,  and  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  was  graduated  from  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology (B.S.,  1899).  Since  1905 
he  has  been  superintendent  of 
the  United  States  Metals  Re- 
fining Co.  He  has  made  a  special 
study  of  the  properties  of  refined 
copper.  In  September,  1915,  he 
was  selected  to  serve  on  the  U. 
S.  Naval  Advisory  Board,  as  a 
representative  of  the  American 
Electro-Chemical  Society. 

Adding  Machines.  See  Cal- 
culating Machines. 

Ad'dington,  Henry.  See  Sid- 
mouth,  Lord. 

Addis  Abeba.   See  Adis  Abe- 

BA. 

Ad'dison,  town,  Steuben  coun- 
ty. New  York,  on  the  Canisteo 
River,  and  the  Buffalo  and  Sus- 
quehanna and  the  Erie  Railroads; 
28  miles  west  of  Elmira.  Its 
manufactures  include  boots  and 
shoes,  foundry  and  machine  shop 
products.  Pop.  (1900)  2,080; 
(1910)  2,004. 

Addison,  Joseph  (1672-1719), 
English  writer  and  essayist,  was 
born  in  Milston,  near  Amesbury, 
Wiltshire,  where  his  father  was 
rector.  He  was  educated  at  the 
grammar  school  in  Lichfield,  and 
at  the  Charter  House,  from  which, 
in  his  sixteenth  year,  he  passed 
to  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  In 
1693  he  began  his  literary  career 


Addison 


64 


Addison's  Disease 


with  a  poetical  address  to  Dry- 
den;  the  next  year  appeared  his 
Account  of  the  Greatest  English 
Poets,  and  a  translation  of  the 
fourth  book  of  the  Georgics,  with 
an  essay  on  that  poem.  In  1696 
he  was  elected  probationary  fel- 
low of  his  college,  and  in  1699 
obtained  a  pension  from  the 
crown  of  $1,500.  He  spent  four 
years  on  the  Continent,  when  he 
wrote  his  Letter  to  Lord  Halifax, 
and  made  notes  for  his  Remarks 
on  Several  Parts  of  Italy,  and  his 
Dialogue  on  Medals. 

Addison's  first  preferment — a  -. 


Joseph  Addison. 

commissionership  of  appeal  in  the 
excise — came  in  1704.  Thus  en- 
dowed, he  entered  upon  the  com- 
position of  The  Campaign,  which 
launched  him  on  his  career  of 
state  service — a  career  which, 
thanks  to  the  magnanimity  of 
Swift,  whose  close  friendship  he 
won  when  in  Ireland  as  secretary 
to  the  lord-lieutenant  (1709),  was 
not  altogether  broken  even  by  the 
Tory  triumph  in  1710.  This  Irish 
visit  also  marks  the  opening  of 
Addison's  true  literary  vein.  He 
had  just  started  for  Dublin  when 
(April  12,  1709)  Steele  began  The 
Vol.  I. — Oct.  '15 


Taller,  and  in  No.  18  his  first  con- 
tribution appeared.  But  it  was 
with  the  more  famous  Spectator 
(March  1,  1711.  to  Dec.  6,  1712) 
that  Addison  really  found  himself, 
and  left  the  imprint  of  his  genius 
upon  literature.  Under  George  i., 
Addison  again  became  secretary 
to  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland; 
then  a  commissioner  for  Trade 
and  the  Colonies;  and  finally 
(1717)  secretary  of  state,  a  post 
resigned  in  March,  1718,  owing  to 
ill  health.  From  1710  till  his 
death  he  was  m.p.  for  Malmes- 
_  bury.    On  Aug.  3,  1716.  Addison 


{After  Knellcr.) 

married  Charlotte,  Countess  of 
Warwick,  who  bore  him  a  daugh- 
ter (1719).  He  died  that  same 
year  (June  17)  at  Holland  House, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

Apart  from  his  Latin  poems, 
Addison's  writings  fall  under  the 
heads  of  political  journalism, 
verse,  and  miscellaneous  prose. 
His  political  writings  embrace 
The  Whig  Examiner  (September- 
October,  1710),  an  opposition 
sheet  to  The  Examiner,  in  which 
Matt  Prior,  and  afterward  Swift, 
fought  under  the  Tory  flag;  The 


Late  Trial  and  Conviction  of  Count 
Tariff  (1713),  a  squib  on  the 
Treaty  of  Utrecht;.  The  Free- 
holder (55  numbers,  1715-16); 
The  Old  Whig_  (1719),  a  reply  to 
Steele's  Plebeian,  etc.  Of  verse, 
besides  The  Campaign,  a  number 
of  h>;mns  are  still  remembered. 
But  neither  his  opera.  Fair  Rosa- 
mond (1706),  nor  the  celebrated 
Cato  (1713)  lives  either  as  poetry 
or  drama.  The  Drummer,  a  prose 
comedy,  shares  their  oblivion. 
As  a  light  essayist  he  has  no 
equal,  and  scarcely  a  second,  in 
English  literature.  The  noble 
monument  of  his  success  is  the 
Spectator,  a  paper  in  which  the 
foundations  of  much  that  is 
sound  and  healthy  in  modern 
English  thought  may  readily  be 
traced.  As  an  'abstract  and  brief 
chronicle'  of  the  manners  of  the 
time,  it  is  incomparable.  The 
praise  of  his  prose  style  has  been 
written  by  Johnson,  and  it  is  not 
exaggerated;  his  manner  reflects 
the  peculiar  character  of  his  hu- 
mor, a  singular  grace  and  breed- 
ing being  conveyed  in  sentences 
full  of  subtle  irony,  which  are 
balanced  without  being  formal, 
and  though  constructed  with 
apparent  simplicity,  defy  me- 
chanical imitation. 

Addison's  works  were  first  col- 
lected by  Tickell  (4  vols.,  1721), 
and  have  since  appeared  in  nu- 
merous editions.  Reprints  of 
the  Spectator  are  also  numerous. 
His  Life  has  been  written  by  Lucy 
Aikin  and  by  Courthope.  Con- 
sult Macaulay's  'Essay  on  Ad- 
dison,' and  Johnson's  Lives  of  the 
Poets. 

Addison's  Disease  is  associated 
with  disease  of  the  suprarenal 
bodies,  usually  of  a  tuberculous 
nature,  and  is  characterized  by 
weak  heart,  low  blood  pressure, 
gastric  and  intestinal  irritation, 
anaemia,  increasing  muscular 
weakness,  and  generally,  though 
not  always,  by  discoloration  or 
browning  of  the  skin.  Recently, 
the  disease  has  been  considered  to 
be  an  affection  of  the  entire  sym- 
pathetic system.  The  disease 
was  first  described  by  Dr.  Thomas 
Addison  (1793-1860).  The  pig- 
mentation usually  begins  on  the 
face,  neck,  and  hands,  and  is  reg- 
ularly deeper  on  the  exposed 
parts.  After  death  the  adrenals 
are  usually  found  enlarged,  nod- 
ulated, and  changed  into  a  dense, 
grayish,  translucent  fibroid  ma- 
terial, enclosing  opaque,  yellow, 
cheesy  masses,  manifestly  tuber- 
culous. Some  cases  die  with  no 
obvious  change  in  the  suprarenals, 
but  with  marked  changes  in  the 
semilunar  ganglia  of  the  abdom- 
inal sympathetic. 

Treatment. — Before  the  use  of 
extract  of  the  suprarenal  gland, 
or  Adrenalin  (q.v.),  the  disease 


Addlllon 


65 


Address,  Forms  of 


was  invariably  fatal  —  usually 
within  a  few  years;  but  since  the 
use  of  the  extract  several  cases 
are  said  to  have  been  cured,  and 
many  have  been  temporarily  im- 
proved. The  permanent  efficacy 
of  this  treatment  is  questioned  by 
many.  Rest,  careful  dieting, 
avoidance  of  certain  drugs,  no- 
tably arsenic,  and  general  hy- 
giene should  be  observed.  See 
Adrenalin;  Suprarenal  Cap- 
sules. 

Addi'tion,  in  arithmetic,  is  the 
uniting  of  two  or  more  numbers 
in  one  sum  total  (see  Arith- 
metic). In  Algebra,  it  is  the 
combining  of  quantities  accord- 
ing to  their  algebraic  signs. 

Addled  Parliament,  name  giv- 
en to  the  second  Parliament  of 
James  i.  of  England,  which  sat 
April  5  to  June  7,  1614.  The 
court  politicians  endeavored  to 
secure  supplies  for  the  king,  but 
Parliament  insisted  first  on  re- 
dress of  grievances,  and  discussed 
the  illegalities  of  the  king  so 
freely  that  it  was  dissolved  be- 
fore it  had  passed  a  single  act. 

Addlestone,  village,  England, 
in  Surrey,  a  mile  southeast  of 
Chertsey.  It  is  the  site  of  a  new 
model  village  and  park  (war 
memorial).    Pop,  (1921)  8,098, 

Addorsed,  or  Addosse,  he- 
raldic term  signifying  turned 
back  to  back. 

Address',  Forms  of.  Social 
custom  prescribes  certain  forms 
in  addressing  by  letter,  as  well 
as  orally,  persons  of  distinction, 
and  those  occupying  official  po- 
sitions. In  the  United  States, 
where  there  is  no  nobility,  the 
forms  are  few,  and  the  usage  not 
very  strict.  In  Great  Britain, 
formal  address  is  much  more 
elaborate,  owing  to  the  custom  of 
investing  each  rank  with  its  ap- 
propriate terms  of  respect. 

United  States.— The  President 
of  the  United  States,  the  Gover- 
nors of  States,  and  the  United 
States  Ambassadors  and  Minis- 
ters to  foreign  nations  are  ad- 
dressed 'To  His  Excellency'  

(the  official  title  following);  e.g., 
'To  His  Excellency,  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.' 
(Simply,  'To  the  President  of  the 
United  States'  is  not  incorrect, 
however.)  No  word  should  be 
abbreviated.  Ambassadors  of 
foreign    nations    are  addressed 

'To    His    Excellency  .'  In 

conversation  the  form  prescribed 
is  'Your  Excellency.' 

The  form  'To  the  Honorable 

the  '  is  prescribed  for  the 

Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  the  Secretaries  of  Depart- 
ment at  Washington,  Justices  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  States,  and 
Judges  of  the  superior  courts. 
Members  of  Congress,  the  Lieu- 
tenant-Governors of  the  States, 
and  the  mayors  of  cities.  It  is 
not  incorrect  to  address  simply, 


'To  the  Secretary  of  State  .' 

The  Chief  Justice  of  the  United 
States  is  addressed  'Mr.  Chief 
Justice,'  as  well  as  'To  the  Hon- 
orable' ;  and  other  Justices  as  'Mr. 
Justice'  (the  surname  fol- 
lowing), as  well  as  'To  the  Hon- 
orable'. Judges  of  all  courts 
below  the  State  superior  courts 

are  addressed  as  'Honorable  ' 

(the  personal  name  following, 
and  preferably  the  official  title 
also).  The  form  of  oral  address 
in  official  relations,  as  with  a 
judge  on  the  bench,  is  'Your 
Honor.'  'Honorable'  is  also  the 
form  of  address  for  State  senators, 
speakers  of  houses  of  representa- 
tives and  delegates,  ex-Presidents, 
and  other  former  high  officials, 

'Mr.'  (a  contraction  of  Master) 
is  used  both  in  written  and  oral 
address  for  all  persons  not  digni- 
fied with  a  specific  title,  as  'Dr.' 
or  'Prof.'  It  is  customary  with 
some  to  omit  the  prefix  'Mr.' 
and  to  affix  'Esq.'  to  the  surname. 

In  ecclesiastical  circles  the 
usages  are  more  formal.  The 
Pope  is  addressed  'To  His  Holi- 
ness the  Pope,'  or  'To  Our  Most 

Holy  Father  Pope  ,'  The 

form  for  the  inscription  and  oral 
address  is  'Most  Holy  Father,'  or 
'Your  Holiness,'  A  cardinal  is  ad- 
dressed 'Most  Eminent  and  Most 
Reverend  Sir,'  and  orally  as 
'Your  Reverence,'  If  he  is  also 
an  archbishop,  the  form  is  'To 
His  Eminence  the  Cardinal, 
Archbishop  of   .'  An  arch- 
bishop is  addressed  'The  Most 
Reverend    the    Archbishop  of 

 ';    but    in    the  Episcopal 

Church,  'His  Grace  the  Lord 
Archbishop  of  .' 

Both  Roman  Catholic  and 
Episcopal  bishops  are  'The  Right 

Reverend  the  Bishop  of  ,'  or 

'The  Right  Reverend  ,'  The 

Methodist  bishop  is  'The  Rev, 

Bishop  .'    The  presiding 

bishop  in  the  Episcopal  Church 

is  'The  Most  Rev.  ';  the 

dean  of  a  cathedral,  'The  Very 

Rev,  ' ;  the  archdeacon  of  a 

diocese,  'Venerable'  or  'Ven,'  A 
monsignor  is  'The  Right  Rev- 
erend Monsignor,'  or  simply 
'Right  Reverend,'  A  vicar-gen- 
eral is  'Very  Reverend,'  Clergy- 
men of  all  denominations  are 
'The  Reverend,'  usually  abbre- 
viated to  'The  Rev.'  Communi- 
cations are  begun,   'Rev,  Sir,' 

'The   Rev,    Mr,  '   is  often 

used.  Sisters  of  religious  orders 
should  be  addressed  as  'Sister' 
or  'Mother,' 

In  Canada  the  Governor-General 
is  addressed  as  'His  Excellency'; 
the  Lieutenant-Governor  as  'His 
Honor';  and  the  Cabinet  mini- 
sters as  'Honorable', 

Great  Britain.  —  Custom  has 
ordained  the  forms  summarized 
below  for  the  beginning  and 
ending  of  communications,  and 
for  oral  address,  to  the  person- 
ages named. 


King  or  Queen.  —  'To  the 
King's  (or  Queen's)  Most  Ex- 
cellent Majesty:  Sire'  (or  Mad- 
am), Conclusion:  'I  have  the 
honor  to  remain  Your  Majesty's 
most  obedient  Servant.'  Orally, 
'Your  Majesty.' 

Royal  Family.  —  To  His  (or 
Her)  Royal  Highness,  Prince 
(or  Princess)  :  Sir  (or  Mad- 
am) .  ,  ,  I  have  the  honor 
to  remain  Your  Royal  Highness' 
most  humble  Servant.  Orally, 
Your  Royal  Highness, 

Duke. — To  His  Grace  the  Duke 

of  :  My  Lord  Duke,  ,  ,  ,  I 

beg  to  subscribe  myself.  Your 
Grace's  most  obedient  Servant, 
Orally,  My  Lord,  or  Your  Grace, 
The  eldest  son  is  addressed  as  if 
a  peer,  taking  the  grandfather's 
title.  Duchess. —  To  Her  Grace 
the  Duchess  of  :  My  Lady- 
ship (or  Madam).  Conclusion 
as  for  Duke. 

Marquess. — To  the  Most  Hon- 
orable the  Marquess  of  :  My 

Lord  Marquess,  ,  ,  ,  I  have  the 
honor  to  be  Your  Lordship's  most 
obedient  Servant,  Orally,  My 
Lord,  The  eldest  son  takes  his 
father's  second  title,  and  is  ad- 
dressed as  if  an  earl  or  a  vis- 
count. Marchioness. — The  same 
as  for  the  Marquess,  substituting 
the  feminine  terms  for  the  mascu- 
line.   Orally,  My  Lady, 

If  the  title  is  not  taken  from  a 
place,  the  word  'of  is  not  used, 
the  family  name  following  the 
title. 

Earl.  —  To  the  Right  Hon,  the 

Earl  of  :  My  Lord.  ...  I 

have  the  honor  to  remain.  My 
Lord,  your  most  obedient  Ser- 
vant, Orally,  My  Lord  or  Your 
Lordship.    Countess.  —  To  the 

Right  Hon.  the  Countess  of  : 

Madam.  Conclusion  as  for  Earl. 
The  eldest  son  has  the  title  Lord 
and  Right  Hon.,  and  his  wife 
is  addressed  accordingly.  The 
younger  sons  are  styled  Esquires, 
and  Honorable;  their  wives. 
Honorable, 

Viscount  or  Baron.  —  'The 
Right  Hon,  the  Lord  Viscount,' 

or  'The  Right  Hon,  Lord  ,' 

'Right  Hon,'  may  be  omitted 
Begin  'My  Lord,'  and  refer  to  as 
'Your  Lordship,'  in  either  case. 
Substitute  the  feminine  terms 
for  the  Viscountess  or  Baroness, 
Prefix  'The  Hon,'  in  the  case  of 
sons  and  daughters.  In  Scot- 
land the  eldest  son  is  usually 
styled  'The  Hon,  the  Master 
of  ,' 

Baronet  or  Knight.  —  To  Sir 

 (first  Christian  name),  Bart, 

(omit  Bart,  in  case  of  a  knight) : 

Sir  (first  Christian  name), 

.  ,  ,  Your  obedient  Servant, 
The  wife  of  a  baronet  or  knight 
has  the  title  Lady,  Refer  to 
as  Your  Ladyship. 

Privy    Councillor.  —  To  the 

Right  Hon.  :  Sir.  .  ,  ,  Your 

obedient  Servant,    Orally,  Sir. 

Lord  Mayor.  —  To  the  Right 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Address,  Gettysburg 


Adelphi  College 


Hon.  the  Lord  Mayor  of  : 

My  Lord.    Mayor.  —  The  Right 

Worshipful  the  Mayor  of  : 

Sir.    Orally,  Sir. 

Lord  Chief  Justice.  —  To  the 
Right  Hon.  the  Lord  Chief  Jus- 
tice of  England :  My  Lord.  Oral- 
ly, My  Lord. 

Judges.  —  To  the  Hon.  Mr. 

Justice    (personal  name); 

if  a  knight,  The  Hon.  Sir  . 

On  the  bench  a  judge  is  ad- 
dressed My  Lord.  Councillors 
are  addressed  Mr.  Councillor  . 

Ambassadors. — To  His  Excel- 
lency .  .  .  H.  B.  M.'s  Ambassa- 
dor and  Plenipotentiary,  Sir. 
Orally,  My  Lord. 

Archbishop.  —  To   His  Grace 

the  Lord  Archbishop  of   : 

My  Lord  Archbishop  (or  Your 
Grace).  ...  I  remain,  My  Lord 
Archbishop,  Your  obedient  Serv- 
ant. Orally,  Your  Grace.  Bishop. 
—  The    Right    Reverend  the 

Lord  Bishop  of  :  My  Lord 

Bishop.        Dean.  —  The  Very 

Reverend    the    Dean    of  : 

Very  Rev.  Sir.  Archdeacon.  — ■ 
The  Venerable  the  Archdeacon 

of  :    Sir.        Clergy.  —  The 

Reverend  (personal  name) : 

Sir. 

Members  of  Parliament  have 
M.p.  affixed  to  the  usual  form  of 
address.  Military  and  Naval 
Officers  have  their  professional 
rank  prefixed  to  any  other  rank 
which  they  may  hold.  It  is 
usual  to  affix  special  initials  to 
the  names  of  all  who  hold  orders 
or  special  offices. 

See  Salutations.  Consult 
Ransone's  Good  Form  in  Eng- 
land; Davidson's  The  Correspon- 
dent; Thomas'  Official,  Diplo- 
matic, and  Social  Etiquette  of 
Washington;  Clapp's  Courtesies; 
Gavit's  Etiquette  of  Correspond- 
ence. 

Address,     Gettysburg.  See 

Gettysburg  Address. 

Ade,  ad,  George  (1866-  ), 
American  author  and  playwright, 
was  born  in  Kentland,  Indiana. 
He  was  graduated  from  Purdue 
University  (1887)  and  from  1890 
to  1900  was  connected  with  the 
Chicago  Record.  He  is  a  member 
of  the  National  Institute  of  Arts 
and  Letters.  Among  his  best- 
known  books  are:  Fables  in 
Slang  (1899);  More  Fables 
(1900) ;  The  Slim  Princess  (1907) ; 
Knocking  the  Neighbors  (1912); 
Handmade  Fables  (1920).  His 
plays  include:  The  Sultan  of  Sulu 

(1902)  ;  The    County  Chairman 

(1903)  ■,The  College  Widow  (1904) ; 
Father  and  the  Boys  (1907); 
Nettie  (1914);  Marse  Covington 
(1923) ;  Just  Out  of  College  (1924). 

A'dee,  Alvev  Augustus 
(1842-1924),  American  public 
official,  was  born  in  Astoria,  N. 
Y.  He  was  educated  privately 
and  in  1870  began  his  official 
career  as  secretary  of  the  United 
States  legation  at  Madrid.  In 
1882  he  became  third  assistant 


secretary  of  state,  and  after  1886 
served  as  second  assistant  secre- 
tary. He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  diplomatic  negotiations 
incident  to  the  Chinese  Boxer 
uprising  of  1900;  assisted  in 
preparing  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
after  the  Spanish-American  War; 
and  in  1908  acted  as  Secretary 
of  State  ad  interim. 

Adelaer,  a'de-lar.  Curt  Si- 
VERTSEN  (1622-75),  Danish  ad- 
miral, was  born  in  Brevig,  Nor- 
way. As  a  youth  he  took  part 
in  the  Battle  of  the  Downs  (1639) 
under  Van  Tromp,  and  in  1645 
entered  the  Venetian  service, 
during  that  republic's  warfare 
with  the  Turks.  On  his  return 
to  Copenhagen,  in  1663,  he  was 
made  an  admiral;  in  1666  he 
became  admiral-general,  and  was 
ennobled.  He  died  of  the  plague 
while  in  command  of  the  fleet, 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
Sweden. 

Ad'elaide,  city,  Australia,  capi- 
tal of  South  Australia;  6  miles 
east  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Vincent, 
7  miles  by  rail  from  Port  Ade- 
laide, and  506  miles  by  rail 
northwest  of  Melbourne.  It 
stands  on  a  large  plain,  bounded 
on  the  east  and  south,  at  a 
distance  of  4  to  8  miles,  by  the 
Mount  Lofty  Range  (alt.  2,333 
feet).  North  Adelaide,  the  resi- 
dential quarter,  is  separated 
from  South  Adelaide,  the  busi- 
ness quarter,  by  a  park  half  a 
mile  wide,  through  which  runs 
the  Torrens  River,  spanned  by 
numerous  bridges.  Public  build- 
ings include  the  Government 
House,  Parliament  Houses,  Town 
Hall,  and  Post  Office;  St.  Peter's 
Cathedral  (Anglican)  and  the 
Cathedral  of  St.  Francis  Xavier 
(Roman  Catholic) ;  the  vice-regal 
summer  residence  at  Marble  Hill, 
12  miles  from  the  city;  and  the 
Art  Gallery,  Museum,  Meteoro- 
logical Observatory,  Public  Li- 
brary, and  School  of  Mines.  Be- 
side the  Botanic  Gardens  and 
Botanic  Park  (104  acres),  and 
the  Zoological  Gardens  (17  acres), 
there  are  a  number  of  city  parks, 
including  three  children's  play- 
grounds. The  town  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  belt  of  reserved 
parklands  half  a  mile  wide.  At 
Belair,  40  minutes  journey  from 
Adelaide,  is  the  National  Park 
(2,000  acres) ,  a  recreation  reserve. 

Among  educational  institu- 
tions the  most  important  are 
Adelaide  University  (q.  v.),  St. 
Peter's  (Episcopal)  College,  St. 
Barnabas'  Theological  College, 
and  Prince  Alfred  (Wesleyan) 
College.  There  is  a  large  school 
of  mines  and  industries,  as  well 
as  a  technical  college.  Adelaide 
is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  and 
of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  It 
has  telegraphic  communication 
with  the  other  colonies,  and  is 
the  terminus  of  the  direct  line 
to  London  via  Port  Darwin. 


The  leading  manufactures  are 
woollen,  leather,  iron,  and  earth- 
enware goods;  but  the  city's 
chief  importance  depends  on  its 
being  the  great  emporium  for 
South  Australia.  Wool,  wine, 
wheat,  flour,  and  copper  ore  are 
the  staple  articles  of  export. 
Port  Adelaide  (q.  v.)  ranks  third 
among  Australian  ports,  both 
imports  and  exports  being  valued 
at  between  S20,000,000  and 
$25,000,000  annually.  Adelaide, 
named  after  the  queen  of  William 
IV.,  was  founded  in  1837  and 
incorporated  in  1840.  Pop.,  with 
suburbs  (1922),  270,329. 

Adelaide  University,  in  the  city 
of  Adelaide,  South  Australia, 
was  founded  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1874.  The  institution 
was  opened  in  1876,  and  the 
present  buildings  occupied  in 
1882.  Sir  Thomas  Elder  and 
Sir  W.  W.  Hughes  were  munifi- 
cent donors,  Parliament  adding 
an  annual  grant  of  $50,000  and 
a  land  endowment  of  50,000 
acres,  and  the  city  providing  a 
site  of  5  acres.  The  Elder  Con- 
servatory of  Music  was  opened 
in  1900,  and  the  Engineering  and 
Science  Schools  in  1903.  The 
University  grants  degrees  in 
Arts,  Science,  Law,  Medicine, 
Dentistry,  Engineering,  and 
Music,  and  diplomas  in  Com- 
merce, Music,  Education,  Eco- 
nomics and  Political  Science, 
and  various  branches  of  Applied 
Science.  In  1924  there  were  764 
undergraduate  students  in  the 
University,  and  564  in  the  Elder 
Conservatory. 

Ad'elbert  College,  the  collegi- 
ate department  of  Western 
Reserve  University  (q.  v.). 

Adeler,  adVl-gr,  Max,  pseudo- 
nym of  Charles  Heber  Clark 
(1841-1915),  American  author, 
born  in  Berlin,  Md.  He  was 
educated  in  Georgetown,  D.  C, 
and  entered  the  field  of  journal- 
ism in  1865.  He  was  for  ten 
years  secretary  of  the  Manu- 
facturers' Club  of  Philadelohia, 
and  editor  of  their  magazine.  The 
Manufacturer,  for  which  he  wrote 
important  papers  on  economic 
subjects.  He  is  best  known  for 
his  works  of  fiction,  which  in- 
clude: Out  of  the  Hurly  Burly; 
Captain  Bluitt  (1901);  In  Happy 
Hollow;  The  Quakeress  (1905); 
By  the  Bend  of  the  River  (1914). 

Ad'elochor'da  or  Hemichorda, 
a  sub-class  of  the  Chordata,  em- 
bracing the  worm-like  Balano- 
glossus  ((1.  V.)  and  allies,  in  which 
the  spinal  cord  is  very  obscure. 
These  are  the  lowest  of  verte- 
brates.   vSee  Chordata. 

Adelphi  College,  a-del'fi,  anon- 
sectarian  institution  for  the 
higher  education  of  women, 
located  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  It 
offers  a  four-years  college  course 
and  special  courses  to  teachers. 
It  awards  in  its  own  name  its 
diplomas  and  degrees,  and  is  an 


Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Adelsberg 


67 


Adenitis 


approved  college  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  the  State  of  New  York  for 
the  reception  of  the  university 
scholars.  It  was  chartered  by  the 
Board  of  Regents  in  1896,  and 
has  awarded  462  normal  diplomas 
and  618  degrees.  At  the  present 
time  it  receives  women  only  in  its 
regular  classes,  but  maintains 
separate  courses  of  college  grade 
for  teachers  and  other  qualified 
persons  which  lead  to  the  degrees 
of  B.A.  and  M.A.  The  honor  sys- 
tem has  always  prevailed  in  Adel- 
phi  College.  In  1914-1915  it  had 
a  corps  of  41  professors,  instruc- 
tors, and  lecturers;  a  membership 
of  560  students;  and  a  reference 
library  of  16,000  volumes.  A 
college  house  for  social  occasions 
has  recently  been  opened. 

Adelsberg,  a'dels-ber<:/i  (Slav., 
Postojna),  town  and  summer  re- 
sort. Carniola,  Austria;  22  miles 
northeast  of  Trieste.  Near  it  are 
caves,  the  most  famous  being  a 
large  stalactite  cavern,  the  A  dels- 
berg  Grotto.  This  cavern,  the 
largest  in  Europe,  is  divided  into 
the  old  and  the  new  grotto,  the 
latter  discovered  in  1816.  Poik 
River  runs  through  a  part  of  the 
grotto,  and  then  disappears  below 
the  ground.    Pop.  (1911)  3,863. 

A  d  e  I  u  n  g ,  Friedrich  von 
(1768-1843),  German  philologist. 
Oriental  scholar,  and  student  of 
Russian  history.  His  chief  work 
is  Kritisch-Utterarische  Uebersicht 
der  Reisenden  in  Russland  bis 
1700  (1846). 

Adelung,  a'de-loong,  Johann 
Christoph  (1732-1806),  German 
philologist  and  lexicographer,  was 
born  in  Spantekow,  Pomerania. 
From  1787  till  his  death  he  was 
librarian  of  the  Electoral  Library 
at  Dresden.  He  wrote  Gramma- 
tischkritisches  Wdrlerbuch  der 
Hochdeutschen  Mundart  (1774- 
86) ;  Mithridates  Oder  Allgemeine 
Sprachenkunde  (1806),  completed 
by  J.  S.  Vater. 

Ademp'tion  is  the  complete 
or  partial  revocation  of  a  testa- 
mentary benefit  by  a  subsequent 
event  in  the  testator's  lifetime, 
not  being  a  revocation  by  a 
testamentary  instrument.  Thus 
if  a  testator  bequeaths  a  specific 
article,  and  then  before  his  death 
that  article  is  destroyed  or  totally 
changed  in  character  either  by  his 
own  act  or  otherwise,  the  legatee 
gets  nothing.  But  an  unauthor- 
ized conversion  will  not  cause 
ademption.  Ademption  is  vsome- 
times  improperly  used  to  denote 
the  'satisfaction'  of  legacies.  See 
Legacy. 

Aden,  a'den  or  a'den,  penin- 
sula and  fortified  port  near  the 
southwestern  extremity  of  Ara- 
bia; 105  miles  east  of  the  Strait 
of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  1.300  miles 
from  Suez,  and  1,650  miles  from 
Bombay.  It  is  a  port  of  call  for 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


all  P.  &  O.  liners.  Aden  is  a 
British  possession,  and  comprises 
the  peninsula  of  Aden  proper  (21 
square  miles),  the  peninsula  of 
Little  Aden  (15  square  miles), 
and  the  district  of  Shaikh  Oth- 
man  (34  square  miles)  on  the 
mainland — or,  including  the  hin- 
terland Protectorate,  some  9,000 
square  miles.  The  peninsula  of 
Aden  is  an  irregular  oval,  con- 


nected with  the  mainland  by  a 
narrow,  sandy  isthmus;  the  pe- 
ninsula of  Little  Aden  is  a  mass 
of  granite.  Between  them  is  the 
harbor,  Aden  West  Bay.  The 
town,  or  Aden  Camp,  is  on  the 
east  side,  opposite  the  fortified 
island  of  Sira.  The  climate  is 
hot,  but  healthy;  mean  annual 
temperature,  83°  F.  in  the  shade, 
or  from  76°  in  January  to  91°  in 
June.  The  mean  annual  rainfall 
is  2.45  to  3  inches.  Snakes  and 
scorpions  are  numerous.  The 
outer  harbor  affords  anchorage  in 
19  to  28  feet  of  water;  the  inner 
harbor,  which  is  the  crater  of  an 
old  volcano,  is  dredged  to  a  depth 
of  26  feet. 

Solyman  the  Magnificent  forti- 
fied Aden,  and  it  was  afterward 
occupied  successively  by  the  Por- 
tuguese and  the  Turks,  until  it 
became  a  British  possession  in 
1839.  It  has  a  garrison  and 
strong  fortifications,  and  is  known 
as  the  'Gibraltar  of  the  East.' 
The  imports,  including  coal,  cot- 
ton and  silk  fabrics,  live  stock, 
grain,  provisions,  tobacco,  are 
valued  at  $15,000,000  annually; 
the  exports,  coffee,  gums,  spices, 
ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  hides, 
pearls,  at  $14,000,000.  Aden, 
along  with  the  islands  of  Perim, 
Kuria-Muria,  and  Socotra,  is 
under  the  government  of  Bombay. 
Most  of  the  natives  are  Arabs, 
and  Somalis  from  Africa,  all  speak- 
ing Arabic.     Pop.  (1911)  46,165. 

Aden,  Gulf  of,  arm  of  the 
Arabian  Sea,  to  the  south  of  the 
Red  Sea,  between  Southern  Ara- 
bia and  the  Somali  coast.  Length, 
500  miles;  breadth,  150  to  200 
miles. 


Ade'nia.   See  Anemia. 

Adenitis,  ad-e-nl'tis  (Greek 
dST^f,  a  gland),  and  Angeioleu- 
ciTis  (Greek  a'^yeiov,  a  vessel, 
\€vk6s,  white)  are  the  terms  em- 
ployed in  medicine  to  indicate 
inflammation  of  the  lymphatic 
glands  and  inflammation  of  the 
lymphatic  vessels,  respectively. 
The  latter  condition  is  more 
commonly  known  as  Lymphan- 


gitis. In  most  instances  of  in- 
flammation in  the  lymphatic 
system,  the  vessels  and  glands 
are  simultaneously  involved.  De- 
pending upon  the  cause,  this  in- 
flammation may  be  either  Acute 
or  Chronic. 

Acute  Lymphangitis,  or  sep- 
tic inflammation  of  the  lymph 
vessels  and  glands,  is  never  a 
primary  disease.  It  is  due  either 
directly  to  the  invasion  of  micro- 
organisms, or  to  the  irritation 
arising  from  their  products. 
The  focus  of  infection  may  be 
either  an  external  wound,  as  a 
puncture,  a  cut,  or  a  blister,  or 
some  inflammatory  condition, 
such  as  a  boil.  Injuries  received 
while  making  post-mortem  ex- 
aminations, especially  of  septi- 
caemic  cases,  often  cause  inflam- 
mation of  extreme  virulence. 
The  inflammation  in  these  cases 
may  extend  from  the  vessels  and 
glands  to  the  surrounding  tis- 
sues, while  abscess  formation 
and  patches  of  gangrene  may 
occur  along  the  course  of  the 
vessels.  Occurring  more  com- 
monly in  the  extremities,  it  al- 
ways progresses  toward  the 
trunk. 

Treatment  depends  upon  the 
severity  of  the  inflammation,  and 
varies  from  simple  fomentations 
to  extensive  incisions.  Because 
of  its  fulminatory  character, 
acute  inflammation  of  the  lymph 
vessels  and  glands  should  always 
be  under  the  observation  of  a 
competent  surgeon. 

Chronic  Lymphangitis  occurs 
in  the  course  of  various  diseases, 
by  far  the  most  common  being 
syphilis  and  tuberculosis.  The 


Adenoids 


68 


Adiaphora 


symptoms  are  hiostly  objective, 
and  are  characterized  by  a  thick- 
ening of  the  vessel  walls,  with  the 
formation  of  nodules.  Chronic 
oedema  of  the  extremities  may 
occur.  Treatment  is  that  of  the 
constitutional  disease  which  in- 
duces the  condition. 

Chronic  Adenitis,  while  com- 
monly caused  by  syphilis  and  tu- 
berculosis, occurs  also  as  the 
result  of  uncleanliness,  pediculo- 
sis, ulcers,  etc.  Enlarged  tonsils 
and  adenoids  and  carious  teeth 
are  often  responsible  for  enlarged 
cervical  glands.  Treatment  should 
be  both  constitutional  and  local; 
but  if  syphilis  be  the  cause  of 
the  glandular  enlargement,  local 
treatment  is  seldom  necessary. 
Adenitis  due  to  gonorrhceal  infec- 
tion, or  Bubo  (q.v.),  frequently 
requires  incision.  Tuberculous 
glands  should  usually  be  excised. 
See  Glands. 

Ad'enoids  (Greek  ddriv,  gland, 
c?5o5,  form)  are  gland-like  aggre- 
gations of  lymphoid  tissue  on  the 
roof  and  posterior  wall  of  the 
naso-pharynx.  This  pharyngeal 
or  Luschka's  tonsil  is  very  similar 
in  structure  to  the  faucial  ton- 
sils, and  is  subject  to  the  same 
inflammatory  and  hypertrophic 
changes.  It  is  normally  charac- 
teristic of  childhood,  gradually 
diminishing  in  size  after  puberty; 
but  it  does  not  necessarily  follow 
this  course,  and  large  post-nasal 
growths  in  adults  are  by  no 
means  uncommon.  Unless  un- 
duly enlarged  so  as  to  cause  total 
or  partial  obstruction  to  nasal 
breathing,  the  pharyngeal  tonsil 
should  not  be  considered  patho- 
logical. 

The  symptoms  of  hypertrophy 
vary  in  kind  and  severity,  de- 
pending upon  the  amount  of  na- 
sal obstruction,  but  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  are  unmistakable. 
The  child  habitually  breathes 
through  the  mouth,  is  dull  and 
listless,  with  vacant  expression, 
and  is  often  deaf  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree.  The  breathing  of 
children  affected  with  adenoids 
is  noisy  and  snuffling,  due  to  the 
nasal  catarrh  commonly  present. 
At  night  the  child  snores,  and 
the  sleep  is  usually  troubled  from 
embarrassment  of  respiration. 
The  speech  is  thick,  the  school 
work  is  retarded,  and  partly 
from  lack  of  tone  resonance, 
partly  from  deafness,  the  articu- 
lation is  defective.  If  uncor- 
rected, permanent  deformity  of 
the  face  and  chest  wall  may  re- 
sult. 

Treatment. — Operative  treat- 
ment is  the  only  effectual  meth- 
od. The  results  are  favorable  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  age  of 
the  patient  and  the  length  of 
time  the  obstruction  has  existed. 
The  removal  of  hypertrophied 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


adenoids  often  produces  a  re- 
markable improvement  in  the 
child;  while  the  older  patient 
usually  shows  marked  improve- 
ment, both  physical  and  mental. 

Aderbaijan,  a'der-bi-jan'.  See 
Azerbaijan. 

Aderno,  a-der'n5,  town,  Cata- 
nia, Sicily,  on  the  southwest  slope 
of  Mount  Etna;  20  miles  by  rail 
northwest  of  Catania.  It  con- 
tains two  Norman  structures  of 
Roger  I. — a  keep  and  a  monas- 
tery (1157).  It  stands  on  the  site 
of  ancient  Hadranum  or  Adra- 
num,  famous  for  its  temple  of 
Hadranus.  Many  interesting 
ruins  are  near  by.  Pop.  (1911) 
30,190. 

Adersbach  Rocks,  aMers-bak, 
labyrinthine  group  of  sandstone 
rocks  near  the  village  of  Aders- 
bach, in  Northeastern  Bohemia, 
close  to  the  frontier.  There  are 
thousands  of  curious  cones,  peaks, 
and  pinnacles  (one  over  200  feet 
high).  These  varied  conforma- 
tions have  been  produced  by  the 
influence  of  rain,  frost,  and  other 
atmospheric  changes,  and  cover 
an  area  of  about  4  by  IV2  miles. 

Adhe'sion,  in  Physics.  See  Co- 
hesion; Friction. 

Adhesion,  in  Pathology,  a 
vital  union  between  two  surfaces 
of  a  living  body  which  have  been 
either  naturally  or  artificially 
separated.  In  the  healing  of 
wounds  it  is  usually  an  alto- 
gether beneficial  process;  though 
even  in  this  case  it  may  cause 
deformity — e.g.,  when  adjacent 
surfaces  of  two  fingers  are  allowed 
to  become  united  by  adhesion 
after  a  burn.  After  injuries  to 
joints,  adhesion  frequently  takes 
place  between  the  injured  struc- 
tures and  those  adjoining,  which 
may  cause  subsequent  stiffness. 
Adhesion  is  a  frequent  conse- 
quence of  inflammation  of  serous 
and  synovial  membranes — e.g., 
pleurisy  may  cause  adhesion  of 
the  lung  to  the  chest  wall. 

Adiabatic,  ad-i-a-bat'ik.  See 
Steam  Engine;  Thermodynam- 
ics. 

Adiabene,  a'di-a-be'ne,  the  an- 
cient name  used  by  Pliny  for  As- 
syria, lay  between  the  Tigris, 
Lycus  (Upper  Zab),  and  Caprus 
(Lower  Zab)  Rivers.  By  the  Ara- 
maeans it  was  called  Hadyab.  At 
one  time  its  territory  also  in- 
cluded Nisibis,  a  district  of  Meso- 
potamia, and  Ecl^atana  in  Media, 
The  capital  of  Adiabene  was  Ar- 
bela  (q.v.),  celebrated  as  the  place 
where  the  Macedonians  com- 
manded by  Alexander  the  Great 
defeated  the  Persian  army  under 
Darius  (3:U  b.c).  Monobazus  i. 
ruled  over  Adiabene  toward  the 
close  of  the  first  century  B.C.  His 
son  Izates  came  to  the  throne  in 
25  A.D.,  and  following  the  exam- 
ple of  Helena,  his  mother,  both  he 


and  his  son  embraced  Judaism. 
Adiabene  was  conquered  by  Tra- 
jan in  116  A.D.,  who  changed  its 
name  to  Assyria;  under  Hadrian 
it  enjoyed  semi-independence; 
but  it  was  again  conquered  by 
Septimius  Severus  in  195  a.d. 

Adian'tum,  or  Maidenhair 
(Adiantum  Capillus-Veneris) ,  a 
small,  delicate,  and  graceful  fern, 
with  bipinnate  fronds,  alternate 
obovate  and  wedge-shaped  mem- 
branaceous pinnules  on  capillary 
stalks,  and  marginal  sori  hidden 
beneath  oblong  indusia.  It  grows 
on  moist  rocks  and  old  walls, 
especially  near  the  sea;  rare  in 


Adiantum  (Maidenhair  Fern). 

1,  Part  of  frond;  2,  involucre  laid  open; 
3,  capsule. 


Great  Britain,  but  very  abundant 
in  the  south  of  Europe.  Another 
species  of  the  same  genus,  A. 
pedatum,  a  native  of  North  Amer- 
ica, with  pedate  leaves,  has  a 
sweet,  fragrant  root  stock,  of 
which  capillaire  is  made.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  name  maiden- 
hair originated  in  the  use  of  a 
mucilage  made  from  this  fern  by 
women  for  stiffening  their  hair. 

Adiaphora,  ad-i-af 'o-ra  ( Greek, 
'indifferent  things'),  in  Ethics,  are 
such  actions  as  lie  between  the 
spheres  of  good  and  of  evil.  The 
Stoics  gave  currency  to  the  word 
in  this  scuvse,  and  Cicero  (De 
Finibus,  iii.  10)  translates  it  by 
Hndifferens.'  The  Adiaphoristic 
controversy  troubled  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  Germany  for 
a  few  years  subsequent  to  1548. 
In  that  year  the  Emperor  Charles 
v.,  desiring  to  heal  the  breach  be- 
tween Catholics  and  Protestants, 
prescribed  a  certain  rule  of  faith 
and  ritual  as  binding  on  all  till 
some  permanent  form  should  be 


Adige 


69 


Adirondacks 


promulgated  by  a  general  council. 
Thereupon  the  Elector  Moritz  of 
Saxony  urged  Melanchthon  and 
his  followers  to  declare  what  por- 
tions of  the  document  they  were 
willing  to  accept;  and  they  decid- 
ed, in  the  Leipzig  Interim,  to  re- 
gard certain  customs  and  tenets 
{e.g.,  the  use  of  candles,  pictures, 
Latin  hymns,  but  notably  the 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith) 
as  indifferent — adiaphora.  This 
was  more  than  the  stricter  follow- 
ers of  Luther  would  allow,  and 
there  ensued  a  bitter  contro- 
versy. 

Adige,  a'di-ja  (ancient  A  thesis, 
German  Etsch),  after  the  Po  the 
most  important  river  in  Italy, 
rises  in  tlae  Rhaetian  Alps,  in  the 
Tyrol  (alt.  5,005  feet).  After  a 
swift  descent  to  Glarus  it  trav- 
erses the  Vintschgau  eastward; 
at  Meran  it  bends  south,  flowing 
past  Botzen,  Trent,  and  Rove- 
redo  into  Lombardy;  then  south- 
east past  Verona  to  Badia,  and 
finally  east  to  the  Adriatic.  In 
its  lower  course  the  Adige  is  con- 
nected with  the  Po  by  canals,  and 
is  itself  canalized  through  allu- 
vial deposits.  Its  banks  have 
repeatedly  been  the  scenes  of 
bloody  engagements.  Length, 
250  miles,  of  which  120  are  in 
Italy.  It  is  navigable  up  to  the 
confluence  of  its  chief  tributary, 
the  Eisach,  190  miles. 

Adi  Granth,  a'di  granth,  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Sikhs,  first 
edited  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
They  consist  in  great  part  of 
poems  and  legends,  and  are  ex- 
alted in  ethical  and  intellectual 
tone.  An  additional  Granth, 
known  as  the  'Granth  of  the 
Tenth  Reign,'  was  composed  in 
the  seventeenth  century  under 
the  direction  of  Guro  Gobind. 
vSce  vSiKHS. 

Adigrat,  Adigherat,  Addi 
Garaht,  or  Ategerat,  town, 
Tigre,  Abyssinia;  about  90  miles 
south  of  Massowah.  It  is  an 
important  market,  and  the  cen- 
tre of  several  routes.  Altitude, 
8,500  feet.    Pop.  2,000. 

Adip'ic  Acid,  C4H8(COOH)2. 
is  a  dibasic  acid  of  the  oxalic 
series,  having  the  general  for- 
mula CnH2n-204;  aucl  is  obtained 
in  the  form  of  white,  opaque, 
hemispherical  nodules  (which  are 
probably  aggregations  of  small 
crystals)  by  the  oxiflizing  action 
of  nitric  acid  on  oleic  acid,  suet, 
spermaceti,  and  other  fatty 
bodies. 

Adipoccre,  ad-i-p5-ser'  (Latin 
adeps,  'fat,'  cera,  'wax'),  a  sub- 
stance resembling  a  mixture  of 
fat  and  wax,  and  resulting  from 
the  decomposition  of  animal  bod- 
ies in  moist  places  or  under  water. 
Human  bodies  have  been  found, 
on  disinterment,  reduced  to  this 
state. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


Ad'ipose  Tis'sue  consists  of 
an  aggregation  of  minute  vesicles 
filled  with  fat  or  oil.  Under  the 
microscope,  each  vesicle  presents 
a  very  delicate  envelope  enclosing 
a  drop  of  the  oily  matter.  Thus 
it  is  that  in  the  living  body  the 
fat,  although  nearly  liquid,  is  not 
moved  by  gravitation,  as  is  the 
case  when  the  tissues  are  infil- 
trated by  water.  It  is  copiously 
supplied  with  capillary  blood 
vessels,  but  no  nerves  have  been 
seen  to  end  in  it,  and  thus  it  may 
be  punctured  without  causing 
pain.  Adipose  tissue  is  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  body. 
It  occurs  in  the  yellow  marrow  of 
bones;  and  a  considerable  layer 
is  found  under  the  skin,  where, 
being  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  it 
is  specially  valuable  in  retaining 
the  warmth  of  the  bodies  of  ani- 
mals exposed  to  great  cold,  such 
as  whales.  Being  light  and  elas- 
tic, it  forms  an  excellent  packing 
substance,  hence  it  is  also  found 
surrounding  large  vessels  and 
nerves,  the  kidneys,  joints,  etc., 
where  it  affords  support,  and 
protects  from  injurious  pressure. 
Its  utilization  as  a  reserve  supply 
of  nutriment  is  well  illustrated 
in  hibernating  animals  like  the 
hedgehog.    See  Fat. 

Ad'iron'daclc  Parle,  an  exten- 
sive area  in  the  heart  of  the  Adi- 
rondack region  of  New  York 
State,  was  established  in  1892. 
It  comprises  all  of  Hamilton 
county,  and  the  adjacent  por- 
tions of  Essex,  Franklin,  St. 
Lawrence,  Warren,  and  Herkimer 
counties,  and  contains  3,313,564 
acres,  of  which  the  State  owns 
1,412,702.  The  Park  is  distin- 
guished from  the  'Adirondack 
Preserve,'  which  is  the  general 
designation  for  lands  owned  by 
the  State  of  New  York  in  the 
Adirondack  counties  for  preserv- 
ing the  forests.  The  entire  tract 
is  under  the  direction  of  the 
Conservation  Commission,  and  is 
policed  by  fire  wardens,  game 
wardens,  and  foresters.  The 
region  is  mountainous,  and  much 
of  it  densely  wooded,  comprising 
large  areas  of  virgin  forest.  It 
embraces  over  a  thousand  lakes 
and  ponds,  which  are  well 
stocked  with  game  fish.  Many 
private  preserves  and  summer  re- 
sorts are  included  within  its 
borders.  The  Park  is  visited 
annually  by  thousands  in  search 
of  health  and  recreation.  At 
Saranac  Lake  (q.v.)  there  is  a 
sanatorium  for  consumptives. 
See  Adirondacks. 

Adirondaclis  (Indian,  'tree 
eaters'),  specifically  a  group  of 
mountains  in  Northeastern  New 
York,  as  well  as  an  extensive 
area  including  nearly  all  the  ter- 
ritory lying  between  Lake  Cham- 
plain  and  the  valleys  of  the  St. 


Lawrence  and  Mohawk  Rivers, 
and  occupying  Clinton,  Essex, 
Franklin,  St.  Lawrence,  Lewis, 
Herkimer,  Hamilton,  and  War- 
ren counties.  The  mountain 
section  culminates  in  Essex  coun- 
ty, the  tallest  peaks  being  Mount 
Marcy,  the  highest  land  in  the 
State  (5,344  feet),  Mclntyre 
(5,112  feet).  Skylight  (4,920  feet). 
Haystack  (4,918  feet),  and  Dix 
(4,916  feet). 

The  geological  formation  of 
the  Adirondacks  consists  prin- 
cipally of  crystalline  rocks  of  the 
Pre-Cambrian  epoch — gneisses, 
labradorites,  and  syenites.  The 
most  important  mineral  deposit 
is  iron  ore  of  the  magnetite  vari- 
ety. Building  stone  is  quarried 
near  Keeseville  and  Potsdam — ■ 
one  a  green  granite,  the  other  a 
valuable  sandstone.  Other  min- 
eral deposits  are  marble  and  talc 
at  Gouverneur,  and  graphite 
near  Lakes  Champlain  and 
George. 

The  physical  features  of  the 
region  have  a  general  north- 
easterly and  southwesterly  trend, 
and  are  heavily  scored  by  the 
Pleistocene  ice  sheet  which  trav- 
ersed them  from  north  to  south, 
covering  the  region  with  sand 
and  boulders.  Toward  the  west 
and  south  the  country  assumes 
the  form  of  a  great  plateau,  ele- 
vated from  1,500  to  1,800  feet 
above  the  sea;  and  this  section 
has  received  the  distinctive  title 
of  the  'Lake  Region,'  owing  to 
its  abundance  of  lakes  and 
ponds  of  varying  size  and  great 
beauty.  The  largest  lakes  of  this 
region  are  Lake  Champlain 
(q.v.),  over  120  miles  long,  and 
from  700  feet  to  15  miles  wide, 
and  Lake  George  (q.v.),  33 
miles  long,  and  from  mile  to 
3  miles  wide.  Others  are  Big  and 
Little  Tupper  (q.v.),  Raquette 
(q.v.),  the  Fulton  Chain,  Blue 
Mountain,  Schroon,  and  Long 
Lakes.  In  the  mountain  region, 
Lake  Placid  (q.v.)  and  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Saranac  Lakes  are 
noteworthy.  All  of  these  are 
favorite  vacation  resorts,  and 
places  of  summer  residence,  the 
wild  beauty  and  healthfulness 
of  the  region  constituting  per- 
manent attractions. 

Much  of  the  Adirondacks  is 
heavily  forested  with  red  and 
black  spruce,  balsam  fir,  white 
pine,  red  Norway  pine,  hemlock, 
yellow  and  white  ash,  cedar, 
tamarack,  soft  maples,  and  other 
species.  Above  the  forest  line 
grow  juniper,  grasses,  and  mosses. 
The  fauna  include  deer,  hares, 
beaver,  and  partridges.  In  the 
streams  and  lakes  are  found 
black  bass  and  brook  trout. 
Salmon  once  lived  in  these  wa- 
ters, but  is  now  extinct. 

The  immense  watershed  lying 


Adis  Abeba 


70 


Adier 


between  the  Hudson  and  St.  Law- 
rence Rivers  is  formed  by  the  Adi- 
rondack Mountains,  and  in  order 
to  conserve  the  water  supply  the 
State  has  purchased  and  set 
apart  extensive  areas  as  a  'Forest 
Preserve.'  Altogether,  the  State 
holds  about  1,700,000  acres, 
nearly  all  lying  within  the  limits 
of  Adirondack  Park  (see  Adi- 
rondack Park).  In  1902  the 
Association  for  the  Protection  of 
the  Adirondacks  was  permanently 
organized;  its  headquarters  are 
in  The  Tribune  Building,  New 
York  City,  and  Edward  Haga- 
man  Hall  is  secretary. 

Consult  the  Reports  of  the 
New  York  State  Geologist,  State 
Botanist,  and  State  Forestry 
Commission;  Bulletin  of  the 
State  Museum. 

Adis  Abeba,  a'dis  a-ba'ba,  or 
Addis  Abbeba  (Finfini),  capital 
of  Abyssinia,  in  the  province  of 
Shoa,  and  in  the  midst  of  moun- 
tains, near  one  of  the  sources  of 
the  Blue  Nile  (alt.  10,000  feet). 
The  town  is  poorly  laid  out,  and 
is  intersected'  by  deep  ravines. 
It  contains  the  royal  palace,  a 
series  of  flimsy  buildings  sur- 
rounded by  walls.  Telegraph 
lines  connect  it  with  Harar  and 
Jiboiiti,  and  a  railroad  to  Harar 
is  projected.  Here  was  signed 
the  treaty  of  peace  between 
Abyssinia  and  Italy  (Oct.  26, 
1896).    Pop.  50,000. 

Ad 'it  (Latin  aditus,  an  ap- 
proach or  access),  a  mining  term 
for  nearly  horizontal  passages 
which  are  opened  for  drainage 
purposes.  Adits,  in  many  cases, 
facilitate  drainage  by  saving  the 
cost  of  raising  water  above  the 
outlet  which  they  afford.  Nota- 
ble adits  are  found  in  Cornwall, 
where  the  district  of  Gwennap  is 
drained  by  an  adit  extending 
some  30  miles  inland,  and  meet- 
ing shafts  at  a  depth  of  400  feet; 
in  the  Ernst  August  adit  in  the 
Harz  Mountains  of  Germany;  in 
the  Joseph  ii.  adit  at  Schemnitz; 
and  in  the  Sutro  Tunnel  draining 
the  Comstock  Mines  in  Nevada. 
See  Mining. 

Ad'jective  (Latin  adjectivus, 
'added')  in  grammar  defines  and 
limits  the  noun  to  which  it  refers, 
though  earlier  grammarians  spoke 
of  a  noun-adjective  (see  Parts  of 
Speech).  In  dyeing,  'adjective 
colors'  are  such  as  require  to  be 
mixed  with  some  basis  to  make 
them  permanent.  In  law,  what 
relates  to  forms  of  procedure  is 
'adjective  law,'  while  'substan- 
tive law'  is  the  law  of  the  land 
interpreted  by  the  courts. 

Adju'diea'tlon,  in  a  general 
sense,  is  the  decision  of  a  court  of 
law  on  a  question  of  law  or  fact 
arising  in  an  action.  vSpecifically, 
it  is  the  final  judgment  in  a  bank- 
ruptcy proceeding.  See  Bank- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  '15 


ruptcy;  Judgment;  Res  Judi- 
cata; 

Adjustment  of  Average  is  a 

term  used  mainly  in  Marine  In- 
surance, but  also  in  Fire  Insur- 
ance, to  denote  the  ascertainment 
of  the  amount  which  the  insured 
is  entitled  to  receive  under  the 
policy,  and  of  the  proportion  of 
the  loss  to  be  borne  by  each 
underwriter.  The  adjustment  is 
generally  done  by  the  brokers  or 
the  agents  of  the  insured,  or  the 
matter  may  be  referred  to  arbi- 
tration. In  the  United  States, 
the  adjustment,  to  be  binding, 
must  be  intended  by  the  parties 
to  be  absolute  and  final.  No  spe- 
cific form  is  necessary;  it  may  be 
made  by  indorsement  on  the  pol- 
icy, by  payment  of  the  loss,  or  by 
the  acceptance  of  an  abandon- 
ment. Fraud  on  the  part  of  either 
party  will  vitiate  an  adjustment. 
If  one  party  is  led  into  a  mistake 
of  fact  by  the  fault  of  the  other 
party,  the  adjustment  will  not 
bind  him.    See  Insurance. 

Ad'jutant  {Leptoptilus  argala), 
a  stork-like  bird,  common  during 
summer  in  India.  It  stands 
about  5  feet  high,  and  measures 
14  or  15  feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  ex- 
tended wings.  The  four-sided, 
pointed  bill  is  very  large;  the 
head  and  neck  are  almost  bare; 


Adjutant. 


and  a  sausage-like  pouch,  some- 
times 16  inches  long,  and  appar- 
ently connected  with  respiration, 
hangs  down  from  the  base  of  the 
neck.  While  feeding  largely  on 
carcasses  and  offal  about  the 
towns,  it  also  fishes  for  living 
food,  and  sometimes  devours 
birds  and  small  mammals.  The 
loose  under-tail  feathers  are 
used  for  decorative  purposes.  It 
is  protected  as  an  efficient  scav- 
enger in  the  towns  of  India. 


Adjutant,  a  staff  officer  of  a 
post,  battalion,  squadron,  or  regi- 
ment, whose  duties  are  to  assist 
the  commanding  officer  in  the 
details  of  military  work.  In  the 
U.  S.  Army,  the  adjutant  of  a 
regiment  of  infantry  or  cavalry 
holds  the  rank  of  captain.  Each 
infantry  regiment  has  three  extra 
first  lieutenants  who  are  adju- 
tants of  its  three  battalions,,  and 
each  cavalry  regiment  three 
squadron  adjutants  of  similar 
rank.  The  tenure  of  office  is  four 
years,  unless  sooner  relieved. 
Every  army  post  has  an  adjutant 
detailed  from  the  officers  on  duty 
thereat,  and  each  artillery  district 
has  an  adjutant;  also  each  inde- 
pendent small  command  in  the 
field. 

The  adjutant  is  appointed  by 
the  commanding  officer,  and  as- 
sists him  in  the  training,  disci- 
pline, and  administration  of  his 
command.  He  is  responsible  for 
the  proper  keeping  of  all  records 
and  rosters  of  duties  in  his  com- 
mand; also  for  the  receipt  and 
distribution  of  all  orders  from 
higher  authority,  and  for  the  is- 
suance, in  proper  form,  of  all 
orders  of  his  commanding  offi- 
cers. Consult  U.  S.  Army  Regu- 
lations. 

Adjutant- General,  staff  officer 
to  the  commanding  general,  with 
the  duty  of  assisting  in  all  de- 
tails of  the  command,  such  as 
issuing  orders,  receiving  and 
executing  orders,  dealing  with 
reports,  and  regulating  the  de- 
tails of  the  service.  All  officers 
acting  as  above  are  called  assist- 
ant adjutant-generals.  The  ad- 
jutant-general has  the  rank  of 
major-general.  There  are  also 
adjutant-generals  in  connection 
with  the  militia  of  most  of  the 
States.  See  Army  of  the  United 
States.  Consult  U.  S.  Army 
Regulations. 

Ad'juvant,  part  of  a  prescrip- 
tion intended  to  aid  the  action  of 
the  base  or  principal  drug. 

AdIer,  iid'ler,  Cyrus  (1863), 
American  Orientalist,  was  born 
in  Van  Buren,  Ark.,  and  was 
graduated  from  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  (1883).  From 
1884  to  1893  he  was  successively 
PH.D.,  scholar,  fellow,  instructor, 
and  associate  in  Semitic  lan- 
guages at  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity. He  was  special  commis- 
sioner of  the  Columbian  Expo- 
sition to  Turkey,  Tunis,  Algiers, 
and  Morocco  (1890-92);  repre- 
sented the  United  States  at  the 
Conference  on  an  International 
Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature, 
London,  1898,  and  is  now  mem- 
ber of  its  International  Council; 
librarian  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution (1892-1905),  and  assist- 
ant secretary  (1905-08) ;  assistant 
curator  and  curator  of  historic 


Adier 


71 


Administration 


archaeology  and  historic  relig- 
ions, U.S.  National  Museum 
(1888-1908).  In  1908  he  became 
president  of  the  Dropsie  College 
for  Hebrew  and  Cognate  Learn- 
ing, in  Philadelphia.  He  is  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Jewish  His- 
torical Society,  of  the  Jewish 
Community  of  Philadelphia,  and 
of  the  United  Synagogue  of 
America,  and  a  director  of  the 
Jewish  Theological  Seminary. 
He  has  written:  Told  in  the  Coffee 
House  (with  Allan  Ramsey,  1898) ; 
The  Voice  of  America  on  Kishi- 
neff  (1904);  Jews  in  the  Diplo- 
matic Correspondence  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  (1906);  and  numerous 
papers  on  Oriental,  philological, 
and  archaeological  subjects.  He 
was  also  one  of  the  editors  of 
The  Jewish  Encyclopcedia;  editor 
of  The  American  Jewish  Year 
Book  (1899-1905).  of  the  Jeffer- 
son Bible,  and  of  The  Jewish 
Quarterly  Review. 

Adler,  Felix  (1851),  American 
educator,  was  born  in  Alzey,  Ger- 
many. He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1857,  and  was  graduated 
from  Columbia  University  (1870). 
He  was  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Oriental  languages  and  literature 
at  Cornell  University  (1874-6); 
established  the  New  York  Society 
for  Ethical  Culture  in  1876;  and 
became  professor  of  social  and 
political  ethics  at  Columbia  in 
1902.  In  1908-9  he  was  Theodore 
Roosevelt  exchange  professor  to 
the  University  of  Berlin.  His 
works  include:  Creed  and  Deed 
(1877);  The  Moral  Instruction  of 
Children  (1892);  Life  and  Des- 
tiny (1905);  Religion  of  Duty 
(1905);  Marriage  and  Divorce 
(1905);  What  the  Ethical  Culture 
School  Stands  for  (with  W.  H. 
Maxwell,  1910);  and  several 
pamphlets  of  the  National  Child 
Labor  Committee  (1908-11). 

Adler,  Friedrich  (1827-1908), 
German  architect,  was  born  in 
Berlin.  He  travelled  extensively 
in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
returned  to  teach  in  Berlin.  He 
carried  out  the  designs  of  the 
Christuskirche  and  Thomaskirche 
at  Berlin,  and  made  valuable  re- 
searches into  ancient  architecture 
in  connection  with  excavations  in 
the  Peloponnesus.  Among  his 
works  are:  Baugeschichtliche  For- 
schungen  in  Deutschland  (1870- 
79) ;  Die  Baugeschichte  von  Berlin 
(1861);  Die  Weltstddte  in  der 
Baukunst  (1872). 

Adler,  Georg  (1863-1908), 
German  economist,  was  born  in 
Posen.  He  was  professor  of  soci- 
ology at  the  University  of  Basle, 
and  professor  of  political  econ- 
omy at  the  University  of  Frei- 
burg. He  was  an  opponent  of 
radicalism  in  social  policy,  and 
published:  Karl  Marxsche  Krilik 
(1886);  Inlernationaler  Arheiter- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  '15 


Schutz  (1888);  Staat  und  Arheits- 
losigkeit  (1894);  Die  Social-Re- 
form imA  Iter  turn  ( 1 898) ;  Geschichte 
des  Socialismus  und  Communis- 
WM^  (1900);  Die  Bedeutung  der 
Illusionen  fiir  Politik  und  Sociales 
Leben  (1904). 

Adler,  George  Jakob  (1821- 
68),  German-American  lexicog- 
rapher, was  born  in  Germany. 
Coming  to  New  York  at  the  age 
of  twelve,  he  was  graduated  from 
New  York  University  in  1844. 
From  1846  to  1854  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  German  there.  He  is 
best  known  for  his  German-Eng- 
lish Dictionary  (1848)  andOerman 
Grammar  (1868). 

Adler,  Hermann  (1839-1911), 
Jewish  rabbi,  was  born  in  Han- 
over, Germany,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  University  College  and 
at  Prague  and  Leipzig.  On  the 
opening  of  the  Bayswater  Syna- 
gogue, London,  in  1864,  he  was 
appointed  its  minister  and 
preacher.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  Nathan,  in  1889,  Dr.  Adler 
was  unanimously  chosen  to  suc- 
ceed him  as  chief  rabbi  of  the 
United  Hebrew  congregations  of 
the  British  Empire.  He  also 
served  as  president  of  the  Jews' 
College,  London.  In  1909  he  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  c.v.o.  from 
St.  Andrews,  and  of  Hon.  d.c.l. 
from  Oxford.  He  published: 
Ibn  Gabirol  and  His  Relatiqn  to 
Scholastic  Philosophy  (1864); 
Jewish  Reply  to  Dr.  Colenso;  Can 
Jews  be  Patriots?  (1878);  Anglo- 
J elvish  Memories  (1909). 

Adler,  Jakob  Georg  Chris- 
tian (1756-1834),  Danish  Ori- 
entalist. He  was  one  of  the  best 
Arabic  scholars  of  his  day;  author 
of  an  interesting  treatise  on  the 
Cufic  Mss.  in  the  University  of 
Copenhagen  (1770),  and  of  the 
celebrated  Novi  Testamenti  Ver- 
siones  Syriacce  (1789).  In  1789- 
93  he  edited  Abulfida's  Chronicles 
in  Arabic. 

Adler,  Nathan  Marcus  (1803- 
90),  chief  rabbi,  was  born  in 
Hanover,  Germany.  Havingfilled 
the  office  of  chief  rabbi  of  the  duchy 
of  Oldenburg,  and  later  of  Han- 
over, he  was  in  1844  elected  chief 
rabbi  of  London,  where  he  per- 
formed an  important  part  in  the 
reunion  of  the  English  congrega- 
tions. He  published  Nethinah 
Lager,  a  Hebrew  commentary  on 
the  Chaldee  paraphrase  of  the 
Pentateuch. 

Adler,  Samuel  (1809-91),  Ger- 
man-American rabbi,  was  born  in 
Worms,  and  was  educated  at 
Bonn  and  Giessen.  For  fifteen 
years  (1842-57)  he  was  rabbi  of 
congregations  in  Rhine-Hesse, 
when  he  was  called  to  Emanu- 
El  Temple,  New  York  City.  He 
was  a  learned  scholar,  and  a  man 
of  advanced  and  progressive 
views.  His  books  include:  Jeww/i 


Conference  Papers  (1880);  Bene- 
dictions (1882). 

Adlershof,  town  and  summer 
resort,  Brandenburg,  Prussia;  7 
miles  southeast  of  Berlin.  Pop. 
(1910)  10,645. 

Ad  Lib'itum  (in  Italian  a  pia- 
cere,  or  a  piacimento)  is  a  musical 
term  which  implies  that  the  part 
so  marked  may  be  performed  ac- 
cording to  the  taste  of  the  per- 
former, and  not  necessarily  in 
strict  time.  When  there  is  an 
accompaniment  to  the  music 
thus  marked,  it  must  strictly 
follow  the  ad  libitum  time  of  the 
principal  performer.  Ad  libitum 
also  frequently  means  that  the 
part  for  a  particular  instrument 
or  instruments  may  be  left  out. 
Also  a  common  expression,  mean- 
ing 'to  an  indefinite  extent.' 

Adme'tus,  son  of  Pheres,  king 
of  Pherae  in  Thessaly,  married 
Alcestis,  the  fairest  daughter  of 
Pelias,  king  of  lolcos;  Apollo  be- 
coming his  obedient  slave  either 
because  of  affection  simply,  or  by 
way  of  punishment  for  slaying 
the  Cyclopes.  The  god  procured 
from  the  Fates  (Moirae)  that 
Admetus  should  be  spared,  if 
another  would  die  for  him ;  and  to 
this  Alcestis,  in  spite  of  his  par- 
ents, consented.  The  earlier  leg- 
end, as  in  Euripides'  Alcestis,  says 
Heracles  rescued  her  from  death; 
the  later,  that  his  skill  cured  her 
of  a  dangerous  malady. 

Administration,  in  politics. 
See  Government;  Local  Gov- 
ernment. 

Administration,  in  law,  is  the 
settlement  of  the  estate  of  a  de- 
ceased person.  This  is  effected 
through  the  agency  of  one  who  is 
known  as  the  personal  representa- 
tive, because  he  represents  the 
person  of  the  deceased  in  his  legal 
relations.  When  designated  by 
will,  this  representative  is  known 
as  an  executor  (q.v.) ;  when  not  so 
designated,  as  an  administrator 
(q.v.).  In  either  case,  the  per- 
sonal representative  acquires  ti- 
tle at  once  to  the  personal  prop- 
erty of  the  deceased,  subject  to 
the  obligation  of  paying  the 
debts,  funeral  expenses,  and  lega- 
cies, so  far  as  the  assets  received 
by  him  enable  him  to  do  so;  or,  if 
there  be  no  bequests,  subject  in 
the  same  way  to  the  claims  of 
those  entitled  by  law  to  the  sur- 
plus assets. 

The  administration  of  an  estate 
comprehends  every  act  of  author- 
ity exercised  by  any  one,  whether 
rightfully ornot,  over  the  personal 
estate  of  a  decedent.  It  begins 
with  the  taking  possession  of  any 
part  of  the  property;  it  includes 
the  collection  and  settlement  of 
claims  by  suit  or  otherwise,  the 
payment  of  debts  and  legacies, 
etc. ;  and  it  does  not  end  until  the 
final  accounting  and  discharge  in 


1.  Admiral  George  Dcwoy.  3.  Admiral  David  G,  Farragut.  2.  Admiral  D.  P.  Porter. 

4.  Bear-Admiral  W.  T.  Sampson.  5.  Rear-Admiral  R.  D.  Evans.  C.  Hoar-Admiral  W.  S.  Schley. 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


Administrative  Law 


71  B 


Admiralty,  Board  of 


the  probate  court.  The  adminis- 
tration of  estates  is  everywhere 
subject  to  legal  supervision.  In 
the  United  States  it  is  executed 
by  probate  and  surrogates'  courts. 
See  Administrator;  Assets; 
Probate;  Will. 

Administrative  Law  {droit  ad- 
ministratif)  means  in  most  Euro- 
pean states  that  special  body  of 
rules  which  applies  to  the  agents 
of  the  government.  The  doctrine 
of  the  separation  of  powers,  as 
there  understood,  forbids  inter- 
ference on  the  part  of  the  judi- 
ciary with  officials  of  the  execu- 
tive in  the  performance  of  their 
duties.  Accordingly,  it  is  the 
general  practice  that  the  latter 
can  be  tried  only  in  special  ad- 
ministrative courts  where  the 
bureaucratic  element  is  strong. 
If,  however,  an  official  goes  alto- 
gether outside  the  scope  of  his 
authority,  he  may  render  himself 
amenable  to  the  ordinary  courts. 
The  administrative  law,  as  car- 
ried out  by  the  administrative 
tribunals,  has  in  some  states  be- 
come a  highly  developed  system. 

The  theory  of  the  English  com- 
mon law,  which  has  extended  to 
the  United  vStates,  is  directly  op- 
posed to  any  such  principle  as 
that  of  droit  administratif.  In 
the  United  States  and  Great  Brit- 
ain the  ordinary  courts  are  com- 
petent to  try  all  offences  on  the 
part  of  the  government  officials 
according  to  the  ordinary  law, 
though  something  corresponding 
to  administrative  law  may  be 
found  in  statutory  provisions  pro- 
tecting executive  officers  from 
vexatious  interference  in  the  exer- 
cise of  their  official  duties. 

The  term  Administrative  Law 
is  also  used  in  a  less  technical 
sense,  to  denote  that  part  of  law 
which  regulates  \he  composition 
and  action  of  inferior  govern- 
mental agencies — e.g.,  the  police. 
In  this  seuvse  it  is  merely  a  branch 
of  the  ordinary  law  of  the  land, 
not  a  special  system  with  rules 
of  its  own.   See  Executive. 

Administrator  is  the  person 
appointed  by  a  probate  court  to 
administer  the  estate  of  an  in- 
testate, or  of  a  person  who  has 
made  a  will  but  has  failed  to 
appoint  an  executor.  In  the 
latter  case  he  is  called  an  admin- 
istrator cum  testamento  annexo. 
If  an  executor  dies  without 
having  distributed  the  estate  of 
the  testator,  an  administrator 
de  bonis  non  is  appointed — that  is, 
of  the  property  not  yet  distrib- 
uted. Any  person  competent 
to  contract  may  be  appointed. 
The  husband  of  a  deceased  wife, 
or  the  wife  of  a  deceased  husband, 
has  generally  the  first  claim; 
failing  whom,  the  next  of  kin  of 
the  creditors  may  receive  the 
appointment. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


The  duties  and  liabilities  of  an 
administrator  correspond  closely 
to  those  of  an  executor.  He  is 
generally  obliged  to  give  security 
for  the  due  fulfilment  of  his  office. 
He  must  file  an  inventory  of  the 
deceased's  property;  pay  out- 
standing debts  in  the  order  of 
preference;  and  finally  distribute 
the  balance  among  the  parties 
entitled  thereto  under  direction 
of  the  court.  An  administrator 
derives  his  sole  title  from  the 
court,  and  can  do  nothing  before 
letters  of  administration  are 
granted  to  him.  In  the  event  of 
his  decease  the  office  does  not 
devolve  on  his  legal  representa- 
tives, but  a  new  appointment 
must  be  made.  In  the  United 
States,  he  is  usually  entitled  by 
law  to  a  commission  on  all 
moneys  received  and  disbursed 
by  him.   See  Administration. 

Admirable  Crichton,  krl'tun. 
See  Crichton,  James. 

Ad'miral  (butterfly) .  See  Red 
Admiral. 

Admiral  (Arabic,  emir,  'com- 
mander'), the  title  of  a  naval 
officer  of  the  highest  rank.  It  has 
been  in  use  among  maritime  coun- 
tries since  the  thirteenth  or  four- 
teenth century.  In  its  earliest 
application  in  England,  the  title 
was  used  only  for  the  official  in 
supreme  command  of  all  the 
naval  forces,  and  it  was  not 
until  1311  that  it  became  of  gen- 
eral use  in  application  to  all  com- 
manders of  fleets  and  squadrons. 
The  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral 
seems  to  have  been  first  created 
about  1406,  and  vested  in  John, 
Earl  of  Somerset.  With  the  in- 
crease of  the  British  fleet,  the 
grades  of  vice-admiral  and  rear- 
admiral  were  established.  Ad- 
mirals in  command  of  large  fleets 
are  styled  'admirals  of  the  fleet.' 
Practically  all  the  leading  navies 
of  the  world  make  use  of  the 
ranks  of  rear-admiral,  vice-ad- 
miral, and  admiral. 

United  Stales.— In  the  U.S. 
Navy,  no  rank  above  that  of  cap- 
tain was  actually  conferred  until 
1862,  when  the  grades  of  commo- 
dore (hitherto  only  a  courtesy 
title  given  to  the  commanders 
of  squadrons)  and  of  rear-admiral 
were  successively  created  by  Con- 
gress and  conferred  upon  David 
G.  Farragut  (q.v.).  In  1864  the 
rank  of  vice-admiral,  and  in  1866 
that  of  admiral,  were  established, 
and  in  each  case  Farragut  was  the 
first  to  be  promoted  to  the  new 
rank.  After  their  establishment 
the  grades  of  admiral  and  vice- 
admiral  were  held  as  special 
honorary  rewards  to  which  offi- 
cers might  be  appointed  for  dis- 
tinguished service  in  war.  The 
officers  who  earlier  attained  the 
rank  of  admiral  are  David  G. 
Farragut  (1866-70)  and  David 


D.  Porter  (1870-91);  those  who 
held  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  are 
David  G.  Farragut,  David  D. 
Porter,  and  Stephen  C.  Rowan. 
At  their  deaths  those  grades  be- 
came extinct.  For  his  distin- 
guished services  in  the  Battle  of 
Manila  Bay  (May  1,  1898), 
George  Dewey  (q.v.)  was  pro- 
moted by  Congress  to  the  high 
rank  of  'admiral  of  the  navy.' 

During  recent  years,  the  in- 
creasing size  and  importance  of 
the  American  fleets  have  caused 
efforts  to  be  made  to  revive  the 
highest  ranks  of  the  Navy.  These 
efforts  were  crowned  with  success 
in  1915,  when  the  naval  appropri- 
ation bill  contained  a  provision 
that  on  and  after  June  1,  1915, 
the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
United  States  Atlantic  fleet,  the 
Pacific  fleet,  and  the  Asiatic  fleet 
shall,  while  serving  as  such,  have 
the  rank  of  admiral,  and  the  offi- 
cer serving  as  second  in  command 
of  those  fleets  shall,  while  serving 
as  such,  have  the  rank  of  vice- 
admiral.  Under  that  provision, 
Frank  F.  Fletcher,  Thomas  B. 
Howard,  and  Walter  Cowles 
were  named  as  admirals.  The 
new  admiral's  flag  has  a  navy 
blue  background  on  which  four 
stars  are  arranged  like  the  points 
of  a  diamond  in  the  middle  of  the 
pennant. 

Flag  officers  of  the  Navy  take 
rank  with  general  officers  of  the 
Army  as  follows:  admirals  with 
generals,  vice-admirals  with  lieu- 
tenant -  generals,  rear  -  admirals 
(first  half  of  list)  with  major-gen- 
erals, and  rear-admirals  (second 
half  of  list)  with  brigadier-gen- 
erals. All  officers  of  the  Navy  are 
retired  after  forty  years'  service, 
or  at  the  age  of  sixty-two,  but  the 
age  of  retirement  is  extended  for 
those  officers  who  receive  the 
thanks  of  Congress  for  specially 
meritorious  and  important  ser- 
vices. For  table  of  pay,  see 
Pay  Department;  for  personnel, 
see  Navy,  U.  S. 

Ad'miralty,  Board  of,  a  gov- 
ernment department  which  has 
the  management  of  all  matters 
concerning  the  British  navy.  It 
comprises  six  lords  commission- 
ers, who  decide  collectively  on 
important  questions.  Besides 
this  collective  or  corporate  ac- 
tion, each  has  special  duties 
assigned  to  him.  There  are  two 
civil  or  political  lords,  and  four 
naval  or  sea  lords.  The  First 
Lord,  who  is  always  a  Cabi- 
net minister,  besides  having  a 
general  control,  is  responsible  for 
all  business  of  the  Admiralty, 
and  the  other  members  of  the 
Board  act  as  his  assistants  in  the 
various  duties  which  are  divided 
among  them.  The  only  lord  who 
necessarily  resigns  when  the 
Prime   Minister  resigns  is  the 


Admiralty  Courts 


72 


Adoiphu£! 


First  Lord,  yet  a  change  of  the 
others  usually  takes  place.  Some 
statesmen  advocate  a  modified 
plan:  proposing  to  appoint  a  few 
naval  officers  of  rank  as  perma- 
nent lords  of  the  Admiralty,  and 
only  changing  the  others  on  a 
change  of  ministry.  All  delicate 
or  doubtful  matters  are  specially 
reserved  for  the  First  Lord;  but 
in  the  Board  meetings  he  has  only 
one  vote,  like  the  rest,  though 
from  his  general  Parliamentary 
responsibility  he  practically  has 
both  an  absolute  veto  and  an 
absolute  power  of  giving  action 
to  his  views. 

Admiralty  Courts.  The  Eng- 
lish Admiralty  Court  (whose 
functions  are  now  exercised  by 
the  Probate, "  Divorce,  and  Ad- 
miralty Division  of  the  High 
Court  of  Justice,  constituted  in 
1873-5)  was  created  for  the 
purpose  of  trying  and  deciding 
maritime  causes. 

In  the  United  States,  the  court 
of  original  admiralty  jurisdiction 
is  the  United  States  district 
court.  From  this  court  causes 
may  be  removed,  in  certain  cases, 
to  the  circuit  court,  and  ultimate- 
ly to  the  Supreme  Court.  The 
jurisdiction  of  admiralty  has 
been  extended  beyond  that  of 
the  English  Admiralty  Court. 
Its  civil  jurisdiction  extends  to 
cases  of  salvage,  bonds  of  bot- 
tomry, respondentia,  seamen's 
wages,  seizures  under  the  law  of 
imposts,  navigation  or  trade, 
cases  of  prize  or  ransom,  charter 
parties,  contracts  of  affreight- 
ment between  different  States  or 
foreign  ports,  contracts  for  con- 
veyance of  passengers,  contracts 
with  material  men,  jettisons, 
maritime  contributions  and  aver- 
ages, pilotage,  surveys  of  ship 
and  cargo,  and  generally  to  all 
damages  and  trespasses  occurring 
on  the  high  seas.  Its  criminal 
jurisdiction  extends  to  all  crimes 
and  offences  committed  on  the 
high  seas,  or  beyond  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  any  country. 

Courts  of  Admiralty,  within 
the  limits  of  their  jurisdiction, 
resemble  courts  of  equity  in  their 
practice  and  modes  of  proceeding, 
but  are  even  more  free  from 
technical  rules.  See  Maritime 
Law. 

Admiralty  Inlet.  (1.)  East 
arm  of  Puget  Sound,  Washington, 
connecting  it  with  the  Strait  of 
Juan  de  Fuca.  Greatest  width, 
10  miles;  navigable  for  largest 
ships.  Seattle,  Tacoma,  and  Port 
Townsend  (qq.v.)  are  upon  this 
inlet.  (2.)  Northwest  opening  in 
Tierra  del  Fuego;  54°  s.,  70°  w. 

Admiralty  Island  lies  off  the 
coast  of  vSouthern  Alaska,  be- 
tween Chichakov  and  Baranov 
Islands,  in  57°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  1.34° 
15'  w.  long.  It  is  about  90  miles 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


long,  well  wooded  and  watered; 
and  contains  coal  and  copper.  It 
is  inhabited,  and  belongs  to  the 
United  States. 

Admiralty  Islands,  a  group  of 
forty  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
to  the  northeast  of  New  Guinea, 
about  2°  s.  lat.,  and  147°  e. 
long.  The  largest  is  60  miles 
long,  and  is  mountainous  but 
fruitful;  their  total  area  is  872 
square  miles.  Together  with  New 
Britain  and  some  adjoining 
groups,  they  were  annexed  by 
Germany  in  1885,  and  were  made 
part  of  the  Bismarck  Archipelago 
(q.v.). 

Admiralty  Law.  See  Mari- 
time Law. 

Admiralty  Sound  separates 
Tierra  del  Fuego  from  the  main- 
land of  South  America.  It  is  43 
miles  long  and  7  miles  wide,  and 
constitutes  a  southern  extension 
of  Magellan  Strait. 

Admission,  in  criminal  law,  is 
any  confession,  tacit  or  express, 
made  by  an  accused  person  of 
his  guilt,  or  of  any  fact  or  cir- 
cumstance relevant  to  the  proof 
thereof.  Such  admissions  are 
not  valid  evidence  unless  shown 
to  have  been  made  freely  and 
voluntarily,  and  not  extorted  by 
threat  or  promise  by  any  person 
in  authority.  In  civil  pro- 
ceedings, every  allegation  of  fact 
in  the  pleading  of  one  party,  if 
not  specifically  denied  in  the 
pleading  of  the  other,  or  at  least 
stated  to  be  not  admitted,  is  in 
general  held  to  be  admitted. 
Further,  as  relevant  admissions 
against  a  party  it  is  permissible 
to  prove  any  statement,  act,  or 
omission  of  his,  which  suggests 
an  inference  as  to  any  fact  in 
issue.  For  example,  it  is  allow- 
able to  prove  that  an  opponent 
has  attempted  to  suborn  wit- 
nesses, as  this  suggests  that  he 
knew  his  case  was  fraudulent. 
On  the  other  hand,  statements 
made  or  acts  committed  under 
illegal  compulsion  are  not  admis- 
sible as  evidence. 

Admissions  may  sometimes  be 
relevant,  though  made  by  an- 
other than  the  party  directly  in- 
volved. Thus,  the  statements  of  a 
ship  owner  may  be  proved  against 
the  master,  who  is  suing  on  his 
behalf;  those  of  one  partner 
against  another;  those  of  an 
agent  against  his  principal.  A 
solicitor  or  counsel  engaged  in  the 
conduct  of  a  case  has  authority 
to  make  admissions  which,  while 
they  stand,  are  conclusive  against 
the  client.  In  certain  cases, 
however,  the  court  may  allow 
admissions  made  by  those  repre- 
senting a  party  to  be  withdrawn, 
if  the  interests  of  justice  so  re- 
quire. See  Confession;  Evi- 
dence. 

Admoni'tlonlsts,    in  English 


history,  were  the  supporters  of 
a  Puritan  memorial  called  An 
Admonition  to  the  Parliament, 
issued  by  two  clergymen  about 
1572;  and  also  of  a  second  docu- 
ment, which  similarly  urged  the 
advantages  of  the  Presbyterian 
method  of  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment as  opposed  to  that  of  the 
Church  of  England. 

Adoa,  Adowa,  ii'do-a.  See 
Adua. 

Adobe,  a-do'ba  (Spanish;  An- 
glicized into  doby,  plural  dobies, 
in  New  Mexico),  the  sun-dried 
brick  of  Spanish  America,  first 
used  by  the  Indians  of  Mexico 
and  Peru,  and  introduced  into 
the  Southwestern  United  States 
by  the  Spaniards.  The  clay,  with 
hay  or  dried  grass  sometimes 
added,  is  trodden  to  the  proper 
consistency,  moulded  into  bricks 
18x9x4  inches,  or  16x12x4 
inches,  or  smaller,  and  hardened 
by  exposure  to  the  sun.  The 
bricks  are  adapted  for  use  in 
arid  and  tropical  climates,  but 
lack  the  coherence  necessary  to 
resist  moisture.  Similar  brick,  fre- 
quently mixed  with  straw,  was 
used  in  ancient  Egypt  and  As- 
syria. The  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  clay  from  which  the  brick 
is  made. 

Adoles'cence  (Latin  adoles- 
centia,  from  adolesce,  'to  grow') 
means  the  state  of  growing,  and  is 
used  almost  exclusively  of  human 
beings  to  denote  the  period  of 
youth — that  is,  the  period  be- 
tween puberty  and  full  growth: 
for  men,  stretching  from  four- 
teen to  twenty-five  years  of  age; 
for  women,  from  twelve  to 
twenty-one.  The  development 
of  the  organs  of  reproduction 
which  takes  place  during  this 
period  is  commonly  accompanied 
in  both  sexes  by  general  physical 
and  mental  instability,  due  to 
new  functioning  of  the  body  and 
the  widening  of  the  sphere  of  the 
feelings  and  desires.  At  this  time, 
too,  when  the  diseases  of  child- 
hood are  losing,  and  those  of  ma- 
turity are  gaining,  in  power,  the 
boy  or  girl  is  peculiarly  liable  to 
the  lighter  forms  of  both.  Ado- 
lescence is  the  crucial  period  in 
the  development  of  character,  the 
whole  future  depending  on  how 
the  newly  acquired  powers  are 
organized  and  directed.  See  Pu- 
berty; Hygiene.  Consult  Hall's 
Adolescence  (2  vols.,  1904). 

Adol'phus,  or  Adolph  (?1255- 
98),  king  of  Germany,  was  elected 
king  of  the  Romans  on  the  death 
of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  (1292), 
but,  disgusted  with  the  German 
princes,  he  formed  an  alliance 
with  England.  He  accepted 
money  from  the  latter,  but  failed 
to  supply  the  help  against  France 
to  which  he  had  pledged  himself. 
For  seizing  Meissen  and  other 


4donai 


73 


Adoration 


districts  Adolphus  was  sum- 
moned before  the  assembled 
princes,  and,  refusing  to  obey  the 
summons,  was  deposed  in  1298. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  killed  in 
battle  with  his  successor,  Al- 
brecht. 

Adonal,  a  Hebrew  name  for 
God.  Adon  means  'lord,'  and 
Adonai  is  probably  a  'plural  of 
excellence.'  The  final  i  means 
'my,'  but  the  original  possessive 
signification  came  to  be  ignored, 
as  in  'monsieur,'  'madonna.'  See 
Jehovah. 

Adonai  Shomo.  See  Com- 
munistic Societies. 

Adoni,  or  Adwani,  town, 
province  of  Madras,  India;  64 
miles  from  Bellary.  It  has  cot- 
ton and  silk  manufactures,  espe- 
cially carpets.    Pop.  30,000. 

Adonic  Verse  consists  of  a 
dactyl  and  a  trochee,  and  was  so 
called  because  the  songs  sung  at 
the  festival  of  Adonis  (q.  v.)  were 
written  in  this  metre. 

Adonijali.  (1.)  The  fourth 
son  of  David,  king  of  Israel,  was 
the  next  heir  to  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  Absalom,  but  was  set 
aside  in  favor  of  Solomon,  who 
caused  him  to  be  put  to  death 
(1  Kings  ii.  22)  on  the  charge  of 
conspiring  for  the  crown.  (2.) 
A  Levite  teacher  to  the  Judaeans 
(2  Chron.  xvii.  8).  (3.)  One  of 
the  'chiefs  of  the  people'  after 
the  Captivity  (Neh.  x.  16). 

Adonis,  a  beautiful  youth  be- 
loved by  Aphrodite.  He  was 
slain  by  a  boar  while  hunting, 
and  the  goddess,  coming  too  late 
to  his  rescue,  changed  his  blood 
into  flowers.  Her  grief  was  so 
great  that  Pluto,  the  god  of 
Hades,  allowed  him  to  spend  six 
months  of  every  year  on  earth. 
A  yearly  festival  was  celebrated 
in  honor  of  Adonis,  and  con- 
sisted of  two  parts — a  mourning 
for  his  departure  to  the  under 
world,  and  a  rejoicing  for  his  re- 
turn to  Aphrodite.  The  myths 
connected  with  Adonis  belong 
originally  to  the  East.  They 
display  a  worship  of  nature  con- 
joined with  that  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  and  Adonis  himself  ap- 
pears to  be  the  god  of  the  solar 
year. 

Adonis,  a  small  genus  of  the 
Ranunculaceae.  A.  autumnalis 
(Pheasant's  Eye),  found  in  Euro- 
pean cornfields,  is  about  12  inches 
high;  flower  terminal,  small,  and 
bright  scarlet  with  a  black  centre 
flowers  in  autumn.  A  larger- 
flowered  variety  is  cultivated  in 
gardens  as  Flos  Adonis.  A.  ver- 
nalis  has  large  yellow  flowers, 
opening  in  early  spring. 

Adonis  Gardens,  small  jars 
containing  lettuce  and  other 
quickly  growing  plants,  used  by 
the  Greeks  in  their  annual  fes- 


tival of  Adonis;  typical  of  short- 
lived beauty.  Plato  (Phced.,  276) 
and  Shakespeare  (1  Henry  VI.  1. 
6)  allude  to  them;  and  Isa.  xvii. 
10  (R.  V.  margin)  reads  'plant- 
ings of  Adonis.' 

Adoptianism,  a  heretical  doc- 
trine regarding  the  person  of 
Christ,  allied  to  the  tenets  of 
Nestorius,  which,  arising  in  a 
crude  form  in  the  fourth  century, 
was  recast  toward  the  close  of 
the  eighth  century,  and  main- 
tained in  Spain  by  Elipandus, 
archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  by 
Felix,  bishop  of  Urgel.  These 
held  that  Christ  was  the  Son  of 
God  only  in  His  divine  nature; 
in  His  human  nature  He  was, 
like  the  rest  of  humanity,  but 
a  child  of  God,  becoming  the 
Son  by  adoption.  Charlemagne 
summoned  various  synods  (Rat- 
isbon,  792;  Frankfort,  794;  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  799)  to  deal  with 
Felix  and  his  teaching.  Adop- 
tianism was  condemned,  and  Fe- 
lix deprived  of  his  bishopric. 
Its  ablest  opponent  was  the  Eng- 
lish monk  Alcuin.  The  subject 
remained  under  discussion,  first 
by  the  schoolmen,  to  be  revived 
by  Georgius  Calixtus  of  Helm- 
stadt,  and  finally  by  Johannes 
Major  in  Jena  (1656). 

Adoption,  in  law,  is  the  ad- 
mission of  a  child,  not  the  lawful 
issue  of  the  adopter,  to  the  legal 
rights  and  privileges  of  a  son  or 
daughter.  In  the  United  States, 
the  common  law  makes  no  provi- 
sion for  adoption,  and  the  prac- 
tice is  therefore  based  on  statutes 
in  the  several  States.  The  regu- 
lations governing  adoption  vary 
considerably,  requiring  judicial 
proceedings,  or  at  least  an 
order  of  the  court,  in  some 
States,  while  it  may  be  effected 
by  a  deed  of  adoption  in  other 
States.  In  all  cases,  however, 
the  status  of  the  adopted  person 
is  substantially  that  of  a  child 
born  in  lawful  wedlock.  (See 
Parent  and  Child.) 

Adoption,  or  the  admission  of 
an  alien  to  the  full  rights  and 
privileges  of  a  gens  or  family,  is  a 
practice  of  very  ancient  date. 
Its  primary  motive  was  that  of 
strengthening  the  influence  of 
the  clan;  and  it  is  to  this  custom 
that  Sir  Henry  Maine  traces  the 
beginning  of  civilization,  for  it 
was  by  this  means  that  tribal 
life  developed  into  federal  and 
national  life. 

The  law  of  adoption  fills  an 
important  chapter  in  Roman  law, 
where  the  practice  was  not  lim- 
ited to  the  adoption  of  children. 
A  person  alieni  juris  (i.  e.,  under 
the  patria  potestas  of  another) 
entering  a  new  family  was 
adopted  by  means  of  a  threefold 
fictitious  sale  {mancipatio) .  If 


the  stranger  was  sui  juris  (his 
own  master,  free  of  patria  potes- 
tas), he  entered  the  new  family 
by  arrogation,  which  in  ancient 
times  was  effected  by  a  vote  in 
the  comitia,  who  jealously 
watched  such  proceedings,  lest 
the  last  of  a  gens  should  arrogate 
himself,  and  its  sacra  be  lost. 
Simpler  modes  of  arrogation  and 
adoption  were  employed  in  later 
times,  especially  by  Justinian, 
who  decreed  that  unless  the 
adopter  was  an  ascendant,  the 
person  adopted  should  not  pass 
out  of  his  natural  family. 

Exogamy,  the  custom  of  tak- 
ing a  wife  from  an  alien  tribe, 
still  invariable  in  some  savage 
races,  is  one  form  of  adoption; 
and  among  the  Somalis  of 
Northeast  Africa  such  exogam- 
ous  marriages,  which  are  only  of 
occasional  occurrence,  are  avow- 
edly made  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  immunity  from  the 
blood  feud  existing  between  the 
rival  tribes.  'Blood  brother- 
hood' between  men  of  different 
race,  symbolized  by  an  exchange 
or  transfusion  of  blood,  is  held  to 
make  them  thenceforth  actual 
kinsmen. 

Transferred  into  religious  usage 
from  its  usual  and  legal  signifi- 
cance, the  term  adoption  is  em- 
ployed by  Paul  to  designate  the 
new  filial  relation  subsisting  be- 
tween Christians  and  the  Father. 
In  the  Bible  the  word  does  not 
occur  outside  the  letters  of  Paul; 
it  is  rare  in  Greek  literature,  but 
is  found  with  great  frequency  in 
inscriptions  of  the  Hellenistic 
period. 

Adoration  (Latin  ad,  'to,'  05, 
'the  mouth'),  among  the  Ro- 
mans, was  the  act  of  kissing  the 
hand  and  waving  it  toward  some 
person  or  object  as  a  sign  of  deep 
reverence.  The  kissing  of  a 
sovereign's  hand  or  of  the  cross 
on  the  Pope's  slipper  is  the  mod- 
ern form  of  this  practice.  In  our 
time,  adoration  denotes  a  mental 
attitude  of  worshipping  devotion 
to  God. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
recognizes  three  kinds  of  wor- 
ship: (1)  latria,  the  worship  due 
to  God  alone;  (2)  dulia,  the  hon- 
or paid  to  angels  and  saints  or 
relics  and  images  of  the  saints; 
(3)  hyper  dulia,  the  veneration  of 
the  Virgin  Mary.  Adoration  of 
the  Cross  is  a  special  ceremony 
carried  out  on  Good  Friday. 
Adoration  of  the  Host  is  the  su- 
preme act  in  the  celebration  of 
the  Mass. 

In  Christian  art  and  archaeol- 
ogy an  Adoration  is  a  representa- 
tion of  the  adoration  of  the  In- 
fant Jesus  by  the  Magi.  It  has 
been  the  subject  of  many  pic- 
tures. 


Adorf 


74 


Adrian  dl  Castello 


Adorf,  town,  Prussian  Saxony; 
65  miles  south  of  Leipzig.  It 
manufactures  cottons  and  moth- 
er-of-pearl goods.  Pop.  (1910) 
7,861. 

Adour  (ancient  Aturus),  river, 
France,  drains  the  west  half  of 
the  northern  slopes  of  the  Pyre- 
nees and  flows  to  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay. It  passes  through  Dax  and 
Bayonne;  receives  on  the  right 
the  Midouze,  on  the  left  the 
Gave  de  Pau.  It  is  navigable  for 
about  80  miles.  Length,  207 
miles. 

Adowa.   See  Adua. 

Adra  {Abdera  or  Abdora  of  the 
Phoenicians),  port  in  Almeria, 
Spain;  8  miles  from  Berja,  on  the 
Mediterranean.  It  has  cane- 
sugar  industry,  lead  mining,  and 
exports  grapes.    Pop.  12,000. 

Adrammelech.  (1.)  A  form  of 
the  sun  god  worshipped  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Sepharvaim  (2 
Kings  xvii.  31),  and  introduced 
into  Samaria  by  the  Sepharvite 
colonists.  (3.)  A  son  of  Sen- 
nacherib, king  of  Assyria  (2 
Kings  xix.  37;  Isa.  xxxvii.  38). 

Adramyti  (Turkish  Edremid), 
town,  western  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  opposite  Mitylene,  amid 
rich  olive  groves.  To  the  east  lay 
the  ancient  Adramyttium.  Pop. 
6,000. 

Adrar.    See  Rio  de  Oro. 

Adrastus,  king  of  Argos, 
whose  daughter  married  Poly- 
nices  of  Thebes,  who  had  been 
exiled  from  his  native  city  by  his 
brother  Eteocles.  He  led  the  ex- 
pedition of  the  'Seven  against 
Thebes, '  but  was  the  only  one  that 
survived,  as  Amphiaraus  had 
foretold.  Ten  years  later  he  led 
the  six  sons  of  the  heroes  to  a 
new  attack  on  Thebes — the  war 
of  the  Epigoni  ("descendants'). 
This  time  the  attack  was  success- 
ful, but  a  son  of  Adrastus  fell  in 
the  struggle,  and  the  father  im- 
mediately died  of  grief. 

Adrenalin.  One  of  the  most 
important  advances  in  pharma- 
cology and  therapeutics  in  re- 
cent years  has  been  the  discovery 
of  adrenalin,  the  active  principle 
of  the  suprarenal  glands.  These 
glands  have  been  shown  to  con- 
tain a  body  which  possesses  a 
very  powerful  action  on  the  or- 
ganism, and  which  the  glands 
normally  secrete  into  blood  ves- 
sels. The  active  principle  was 
discovered  about  the  same  time 
by  a  Japanese  scientist,  Taka- 
mine,  and  an  American  investi- 
gator, Abel. 

When  very  small  doses  are  in- 
troduced into  the  system  there 
is  a  great  increase  in  the  blood 
pressure,  with  a  slowing  and 
strengthening  of  the  heart  beat, 
these  results  being  due  chiefly  to 
a  profoundly  stimulating  action 


on  the  non-striped  muscle  in  the 
walls  of  the  blood  vessels,  but 
also  to  a  stimulating  effect  on  the 
heart  and  vasomotor  centre.  As 
a  result  of  the  constriction  of  the 
blood  vessels  the  parts  supplied 
by  them  become  blanched.  An 
extremely  minute  dose  suffices  to 
produce  this  effect  if  injected  in- 
to the  vein;  more  is  required  for 
subcutaneous  injection;  and 
much  more  to  produce  the  effect 
by  oral  administration.  It  pro- 
duces its  effect  when  locally 
applied  to  different  mucous  mem- 
branes, such  as  the  conjunctiva, 
nasal  and  uterine  mucous  mem- 
brane, but  it  has  no  action  on  the 
unbroken  skin.  Its  action  is,  as 
a  rule,  of  short  duration.  A  re- 
markable feature  is  that  the  ves- 
sels of  the  lungs  are  in  no  way 
influenced  by  this  active  prin- 
ciple. Another  striking  feature 
is  the  occurrence  of  glycosuria, 
due  to  an  increased  production 
of  sugar  by  the  liver;  the  mechan- 
ism of  this  is  not  fully  under- 
stood. 

The  uses  of  adrenalin  are 
many,  and  of  very  great  value. 
If  directly  applied  to  a  bleeding 
surface  it  is  a  most  valuable 
haemostatic,  and  is  so  used  for 
bleedings  from  the  uterus,  nose, 
bladder,  and  eye.  A  solution  of 
a  strength  of  1  ::o  5,000  to  10,- 
000  suffices  for  this  purpose;  and 
in  the  case  of  bleeding  from  the 
nose  it  is  often  applied  in  the 
form  of  a  spray.  The  complete 
local  bloodlessness  induced  by 
it  is  also  of  great  value  to  the 
surgeon,  more  especially  in  op- 
erations on  the  nose  and  eye. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  often  com- 
bined with  cocaine  and  other  local 
anaesthetics.  Locally  applied  it 
is  of  value  in  hay  fever.  It  is  also 
valuable  as  a  rapidly  acting 
stimulant  in  heart  failure  due  to 
shock,  more  especially  in  chloro- 
form poisoning.  In  a  few  cases 
the  internal  administration  of 
adrenalin  has  proven  of  value  in 
Addison's  Disease,  but  as  a  rule 
it  has  been  inefficacious  in  the 
treatment  of  this  disease.  See 
Addison's  Disease;  Suprare- 
nal Glands. 

Adria,  town,  Rovigo  prov- 
ince, Italy,  between  the  Rivers 
Po  and  Adige;  20  miles  by  rail 
southwest  of  Chioggia.  It  was 
an  important  seaport  of  the 
Etruscans,  and  was  formerly  on 
the  Adriatic,  to  which  sea  it  gave 
its  name,  but  from  which  it  is 
now  14  miles  distant.  Here,  in 
213  B.C.,  the  Romans  built  a 
large  port,  which  flourished  until 
the  twelfth  century;  but  the  con- 
tinual deposition  of  alluvium 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Italy 
gradually  separated  it  from  the 
sea.   Pop.  16,000. 


Adrian,  city,  Michigan,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Lenawee  county,  on 
the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern,  the  Detroit,  Toledo, 
and  Ironton,  and  the  Wabash 
Railroads;  73  miles  southwest  of 
Detroit.  It  is  well  furnished  with 
water  power,  commands  the 
trade  of  a  large  grain-growing 
region,  and  has  several  factories, 
especially  flour  and  planing  mills. 
Adrian  College,  the  State  Indus- 
trial Home  for  Girls,  and  St. 
Joseph's  Academy  (R.  C.)  are 
situated  here.  Pop.  (1900) 
9,654;  (1910)  10,763. 

Adrian,  Emperor  of  Rome. 
See  Hadrianus. 

Adrian,  the  name  of  six  popes 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Adrian  i.  (772-95)  obtained 
the  help  of  Charlemagne  against 
Didier,  king  of  the  Lombards, 
and  was  visited  at  Rome  by  the 
great  monarch,  whom  he  after- 
ward eulogized  in  Latin  verse. 

Adrian  ii.  (867-72)  took  part 
in  the  struggles  between  Louis 
II.  and  Charles  the  Bald,  and 
freely  used  against  his  opponents 
the  terrors  of  excommunication. 
During  his  term  of  office  the 
schism  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches  began. 

Adrian  hi.  (884-5)  passed  a 
decree  restraining  the  Emperor 
Charles  iii.  from  interfering  with 
the  papal  election. 

Adrian  iv.  (1154-9),  Nicholas 
Breakspeare,  was  the  only  Eng- 
lish pope.  He  was  born  at 
Langley,  near  St.  Albans;  en- 
tered a  French  house  as  a  menial, 
but  rose  to  be  its  abbot.  The 
canons'  complaints  of  his  sever- 
ity resulted  in  his  election  as 
cardinal  (1146),  and  in  his  mis- 
sion to  the  Scandinavian  king- 
doms; after  which,  owing  to  his 
success  as  Apostle  of  the  North, 
he  was  made  Pope  (1154).  Ad- 
rian's pontificate  was  a  constant 
struggle  for  the  supremacy  which 
Frederick  i.  stubbornly  claimed. 

Adrian  v.  (1276)  held  office 
only  for  a  month. 

Adrian  vi.  (1522-3)  had  held 
office  as  canon  of  St.  Peter's,  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  dean  of  the 
Church  of  Louvain,  bishop  of 
Tortosa,  cardinal  (1517),  tutor 
to  Charles  v.,  ambassador  to 
Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and  regent 
of  Spain  during  the  minority  of 
Charles  v.  He  tried  to  arrest  the 
progress  of  the  Reformation  in 
Germany. 

Adrian  dl  Castello  (1460?- 
1521?),  Italian  cardinal,  who  was 
English  ambassador  at  Rome, 
and  held  the  bishopric  of  Here- 
ford and  of  Bath  and  Wells. 
He  was  implicated  in  the  plot  to 
poison  Leo  x.,  and  was  de- 
graded (1518).  He  wrote  poems 
and  philosophical  works. 


Adrianople 


74  A 


Adularia 


Adrianople,  ad-ri-an-5'p'l, 

former  vilayet  of  European  Tur- 
key. It  is  chiefly  an  agricultural 
region,  producing  grain,  tobacco, 
wool,  cheese,  eggs,  skins,  and 
milk.  Most  of  the  vilayet  lies 
in  the  territory  ceded  to  the  Bal- 
kan allies  in  1913.  Area,  14,822 
square  miles.    Pop.  1,-500,000. 

Adrianople  (Turkish  Edirne; 
ancient  Uskudama  or  Orestia), 
city,  capital  of  the  vilayet  of 
the  same  name,  in  that  part 
of  European  Turkey  which  was 
ceded  to  the  Balkan  allies  by 
the  Treaty  of  London  (May, 
191.3) ;  on  the  Oriental  Railways, 
and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mar- 
itza,  at  its  confluence  with  the 
Tunja;  137  miles  by  rail  north- 
west of  Constantinople.  The 
principal  edifices  are  the  beauti- 
ful mosque  built  by  the  Sultan 
Selim  II.,  the  Serai  (palace),  the 
Michael  bridge  (built  by  Byzan- 
tine emperors) ,  a  modern  railroad 
station  (1912),  and  a  great  ba- 
zaar for  the  products  of  the 
vicinity,  especially  cereals  and 
wine.  The  city  is  an  important 
centre  of  commerce.  There  are 
carpet  factories,  distilleries,  tan- 
neries, and  manufactures  of 
textiles  and  perfumes.  Pop. 
(1912)  83,000. 

The  name  Adrianople  dates 
from  the  second  century,  when 
the  Emperor  Hadrian  enlarged 
and  beautified  the  town  (hence 
Hadrianopolis) .  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Turks  in  1361,  and 
was  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  until  1453 — i.  e.,  pre- 
vious to  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople. It  was  occupied  by 
the  Russians  in  1829,  and  here, 
in  September  of  that  year,  was 
signed  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople, 
which  concluded  the  war  between 
Russia  and  Turkey.  In  the  war 
of  1877—8  it  was  again  occupied 
by  the  Russians.  It  was  after- 
ward strongly  fortified  by  a  line 
of  defences  24  miles  in  circum- 
ference; and  the  construction  of 
outworks  in  1909  made  it  one  of 
the  strongest  positions  in  the 
country. 

In  1912-13,  with  a  garrison  of 
50.000  men  under  Shukri  Pasha, 
Adrianople  sustained  for  five 
months  a  siege  by  the  Bulgarians 
and  Servians;  but  it  finally  sur- 
rendered after  a  three  days'  as- 
sault, on  March  26,  1913.  King 
Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria  entered 
the  town  two  days  later.  After 
conflicting  territorial  claims  had 
resulted  in  hostilities  between 
Bulgaria  and  the  other  Balkan 
allies  in  July,  Adrianople  was  re- 
captured by  the  Turks.  It  was 
then  declared  in  Constantinople 
that  Adrianople  was  within  the 
new  confines  of  European  Turkey. 
See.  Balkan  War. 

Adrian,  Saint,  a'dri-an  (a.d. 
300),  one  of  the  soldier-saints  of 
the  early  Christian  Church.  A 
member  of  the  Praetorian  Guard, 
Vol.  1. — March,  '20 


he  was  converted  through  his 
admiration  for  the  steadfastness 
of  certain  Christian  martyrs,  and 
was  beheaded  after  torture.  His 
wife,  Natalia,  was  canonized  with 
him,  their  day  of  commemora- 
tion being  Sept.  8. 

Adriatic  Sea,  a'dri-at'ik  or 
ad'ri-at'ic  {Mare  Adriatico) ,  or 
Gulf  of  Venice,  an  arm  of  the 
Mediterranean,  extending  from 
Venice  for  460  miles  southeast 
to  the  Strait  of  Otranto  (less  than 
40  miles  wide),  lies  between  the 
low,  sandy  beaches  of  Italy  on 
the  west  and  the  rocky  cliffs, 
islands,  and  inlets  of  Dalmatia 
and  Albania  on  the  east.  Its 
general  breadth  is  about  90 
miles.  The  depth  on  the  south 
is   from    550   to    860  fathoms, 


and  industriously  worked;  sponge 
fishing  has  recently  been  im- 
proved by  artificial  propagation. 
The  principal  ports  are  Brindisi, 
Ancona,  and  Venice,  Trieste, 
Pola.  and  Fiume,  Corfu,  Zante, 
Vostitza,  Patras,  and  Kala- 
mata.  The  annual  wedding  of 
the  Doge  to  the  sea  on  Ascen- 
sion Day,  a  ceremony  instituted 
in  1174,  symbolized  the  mari- 
time basis  of  Venetian  prosper- 
ity. Consult  F.  H.  Jackson's 
The  Shores  of  the  Adriatic — The 
Italian  Side  (1906),  The  Aus- 
trian Side  (1908). 

Adua,  a'dwa,  Adoa,  or  Adowa, 
city,  Abyssinia;  150  miles  north- 
east of  Gondar,  and  120  miles 
southwest  of  Massowah.  It  is 
an  important  centre  for  trade 


The  Adriatic  Sea. 


shoaling  to  4  fathoms  inshore 
and  36  fathoms  in  the  centre  of 
the  northern  part.  The  color  is 
green,  darker  than  that  of  the 
Mediterranean;  the  water  is  very 
salty.  Tides  are  almost  absent 
except  at  Venice  and  in  the 
Strait  of  Otranto.  A  current 
runs  up  the  east  coast  and  down 
the  west.  Navigation  is  easy  for 
steamers,  but  frequent  heavy 
gales  make  it  dangerous  for 
sailing  vessels. 

The  Italian  coast  is  well  popu- 
lated, with  many  small  harbors 
artificially  enlarged  for  the  busy 
trade  in  agricultural  produce. 
The  Dalmatian  coast  is  inhos- 
pitable; provisions  and  even 
fresh  water  are  scarce.  The 
fisheries  of  the  Adriatic  are  rich, 


between  the  coast  and  the  in- 
terior. The  railway  line  from 
Massowah  to  Gondar  passes 
through  it.  Here  Menelik  in- 
flicted a  crushing  defeat  on  the 
Italian  forces  on  March  1,  1896. 
Altitude  over  6,300  feet.  Pop. 
3,000. 

Adularia,  ad-u-la'ri-a,  a  clear, 
transparent,  glassy  form  of  pot- 
ash feldspar  (see  Orthoclase) 
which  is  found  mainly  in  the 
crevices  of  crystalline  schists  and 
gneisses,  often  in  perfect  crystals. 
It  has  sometimes  a  pearly,  opal- 
escent reflection  or  play  of  colors. 
Like  albite  (q.  v.),  a  similar 
variety  of  feldspar,  adularia  is 
often  employed  as  a  semi-precious 
stone  under  the  name  moonstone. 
See  Feldspar;  Oligoclase. 


Adults 


74  B 


Adult  Education 


Adulis,  a-dii-le',  or  Adule, 
town  and  territory  claimed  by 
the  French  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  Red  Sea;  30  miles  southeast 
of  Massowah.  It  comprises  ZuUa 
or  Sula  (ancient  Adulis),  with  its 
bay  (Annesley  Bay),  and  the 
islands  of  Dessi  and  Ouda.  Here 
was  found  in  the  sixth  century 
the  Monumentum  Adulilanum,  a 
Greek  inscription  of  the  con- 
quests of  Ptolemy  ii.  Euergetes. 
In  the  Abyssinian  War  (1868)  it 
was  the  British  base. 

AduUam,  a-dul'am,  a  cave,  or 
rather  'stronghold,'  on  the  Phil- 
istine border  of  Judah,  in  which 
David  and  four  hundred  refugees 
and  outlaws  took  shelter — 'every 
one  that  was  in  distress,  and 
every  one  that  was  in  debt,  and 
every  one  that  was  discontented,' 
Consult  1  Sam.  xxii. 

Adul'lamites,  a  term  applied 
to  those  English  Liberals — Lowe 
was  the  most  notable  of  about 
forty — who  in  1866  seceded  from 
Russell  and  Gladstone  on  the 
question  of  Parliamentary  re- 
form, and  voted  with  the  Con- 
servatives. The  group  was 
known  also  as  'the  Cave,'  in  ref- 
erence to  its  likeness  to  the  band 
of  political  outlaws  who  took 
refuge  with  David  in  the  cave  of 
Adullam  (q.  v.). 

Adult  Education.  Public 
provision  for  education  in  a  dem- 
ocratic state  cannot  be  con- 
sidered complete  until  adequate 
opportunity  for  study,  research, 
and  intellectual  life  is  offered  to 
all  the  people,  irrespective  of  age 
or  social  or  occtipational  status. 
The  fundamental  principles  un- 
derlying the  movement  are  stated 
by  the  British  Adult  Education 
Committee  as  follows: 

1.  The  main  purpose  of  educa- 
tion is  to  fit  a  man  for  life,  and 
therefore  in  a  civilized  communi- 
ty to  fit  him  for  his  place  as  a 
member  of  that  community.  2. 
The  goal  of  all  education  must  be 
citizenship.  3.  In  a  democracy 
citizenship  must  be  defined  as 
including  intelligent  and  active 
participation  in  the  life  of  the 
state.  4.  The  capacity  to  de- 
velop an  open  habit  of  mind  and 
to  absorb  essential  facts  on  all 
questions  of  the  relations  of  man 
to  man  in  actual  society  is  prac- 
tically universal.  5.  The  neces- 
sary conclusion  is  that  adult 
education  is  a  permanent  nation- 
al necessity,  and  should  be  both 
universal  and  lifelong.  6.  The 
opportunity  for  adult  education 
should  be  spread  uniformly  and 
systematically  over  the  entire 
community.  7.  Intelligent  pub- 
lic opinion  can  be  created  only 
by  a  long,  thorough,  universal 
process  of  education  continu- 
ing throughout  the  life  of  the 
adult. 

England  claims  to  have  been 
the  pioneer  in  the  modern  move- 
ment, with  a  history  that  can  be 
Vol.  L — March,  '20 


traced  at  least  to  the  eighteenth 
century. 

The  religious  revival,  natural 
science,  and  political  radicalism 
all  contributed  to  the  early  move- 
ment. Adult  schools  were 
founded  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century  by  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christian  Knowl- 
edge. The  Society  of  Friends 
and  other  denominations  and 
societies  established  schools  in- 
tended chiefly  for  religious  in- 
struction, but  also  in  part  for 
secular  studies.  Natural  science 
and  industrial  revolution  called 
forth  the  demand  for  Mechanics 
Institutes  for  the  instruction  of 
mechanics,  first  established  in 
1799,  for  the  popularization  and 
application  of  physical  science. 
These  institutes  with  the  Me- 
chanics Magazine  exerted  a  great 
influence  until  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

Political  radicalism,  under  the 
leadership  of  Robert  Owen  and 
William  Lovell  wrote  the  philoso- 
phy of  the  movement,  and  estab- 
lished on  a  firm  foundation  a 
system  of  adult  'civic  education.' 
The  first  People's  College  at 
Sheffield  was  founded  in  1842. 
The  Christian  Socialists  under 
the  lead  of  Frederick  D.  Maurice, 
John  Ruskin,  and  Charles  Kings- 
ley  took  up  the  movement  for  the 
establishment  of  organic  educa- 
tion, at  once  humane  and  social, 
not  so  much  a  system  of  instruc- 
tion as  a  'way  of  life  shared  by 
student  and  teacher.'  The  Roch- 
dale Pioneers  and  the  other  co- 
operatives were  the  first  and 
chief  working-class  bodies  that 
consistently  and  persistently 
stood  for  humane  education  as 
essential  to  the  establishment 
and  preservation  of  democracy. 

University  extension  started  at 
Cambridge  University  in  1873, 
with  a  clear  conception  of  a  peri- 
patetic university  for  working 
men  and  for  women.  Although 
suffering  from  insufficient  sup- 
port, the  movement  was  moder- 
ately successful  from  the  first. 
In  1903,  at  the  instance  of  a 
group  of  workingmen,  the  tutor- 
ial class  system  was  devised  to 
overcome  the  shortcomings  of  the 
lecture  system,  and  the  Workers 
Educational  Association  was  or- 
ganized, chiefly  by  working-class 
organizations,  to  provide  con- 
tinued support  of  the  enterprise. 
The  new  system  has  been  called 
the  most  promising  educational 
movement  in  England  to-day, 
and  has  its  significance  in  being 
a  practical  alliance  of  the  uni- 
versities, labor  organizations,  and 
the  state  educational  boards,  in 
furthering  a  thorough  system  of 
adult  working-class  education. 
The  tutorial  class  system  pro- 
vides a  serious  and  continuous 
course  of  study,  usually  of  three 
years'  duration  and  grade.  It 
includes  essay  work  and  original 


study.  One-year  courses  are 
also  provided.  Summer  residen- 
tial schools  at  the  universities 
provide  for  tutorial  students  the 
advantages  of  academic  life  and 
associations.  The  course  of 
study  has  been  consistently  liber- 
al, being  devoted  chiefly  to  eco- 
nomic, government,  and  other 
subjects  of  particular  importance 
to  the  labor  movement.  There 
has  been  evidenced  a  strong  an- 
tagonism to  vocational  training. 

This  is  of  particular  signifi- 
cance as  the  courses  are  deter- 
mined by  the  preferences  of  the 
working-class  students.  The  as- 
sociation has  over  2,700  support  ■ 
ing  societies,  over  14,000  mem- 
bers, and  over  200  branches.  In 
1919  there  were  conducted  over 
150  courses  with  nearly  4,000 
students.  The  movement  has 
spread  to  Australia,  New  Zea- 
land, and  recently  to  Canada. 
In  Australia  alone  there  are  over 
3,000  student  members.  Ad- 
ministrative costs  are  met  partly 
by  university  and  public  grants. 
The  ideals  of  the  association  are 
briefly  summed  up  in  its  motto 
that  education  is  not  a  ladder 
from  gutter  to  university,  but 
a  public  highway  on  which  all 
are  free  to  walk. 

England  has  nine  labor  col- 
leges. Not  all  of  these  are 
strictly  of  college  grade,  but  two 
are  residential  colleges  to  which 
students  are  sent  largely  by 
supporting  scholarships  of  trade 
unions.  The  Working  Men's 
College,  London  (founded  1854), 
and  Ruskin  College,  Oxford 
(founded  1899),  have  a  chief 
function  in  the  higher  training  of 
trade  union  officials.  The  Labor 
College,  London  (founded  1909), 
is  for  training  for  radical  labor 
propaganda.  Some  of  the  labor 
colleges  are  more  nearly  evening 
schools,  and  some  are  educational 
social  settlements. 

Adult  education  in  England  is 
firmly  established,  and  has  won 
a  large  measure  of  support  from 
the  working  people,  the  universi- 
ties and  the  state.  Its  chief 
handicaps  have  been  inadequate 
financial  support,  and  prevailing 
industrial  conditions.  A  serious 
attempt  is  being  made  to  con- 
sider the  entire  subject  of  adult 
education,  with  the  view  of  its 
establishment  as  a  permanent 
part  of  the  national  educational 
system.  The  Adult  Education 
Committee  of  the  Ministry  of 
Reconstruction  has  issued  four 
important  reports,  and  has  not 
hesitated  to  recommend  radical 
economic  and  social  changes  in 
order  that  education  may  be- 
come, in  fact,  free  and  popular 
as  is  the  public  highway.  The 
committee  recommends  as  a  first 
step  the  doing  away  with  condi- 
tions that  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
development  of  adult  education 
— long  hours  of  labor,  overstrain, 


Adult  Education 


75 


Adult  Education 


monotonous  work,  bad  working 
and  living  conditions. 

The  committee  further  recom- 
mends that  the  facilities  for 
higher  education  be  brought 
within  the  reach  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of' every  town  and  village; 
that  the  opportunity  for  adult 
education  be  spread  uniformly 
and  systematically  over  the 
whole  community;  that  the  scope 
of  adult  education  be  broadened 
to  include  a  larger  provision  for 
science,  modern  language,  litera- 
ture, music,  drama,  craftsman- 
ship and  the  like;  that  the  part 
of  the  university  in  providing 
extra-rural  adult  education  be 
greatly  increased,  residential 
summer  schools  largely  de- 
veloped, and  that  adequate  op- 
portunities be  estabHshed  for  the 
training  of  civil  servants,  teach- 
ers, trade  union  officials  and 
other  groups;  that  local  authori- 
ties develop  systems  of  adult 
education  to  meet  local  needs, 
establish  evening  institutes  as 
centres  of  popular  education 
and  social  life,  and  local  colleges 
as  centres  for  more  serious 
study;  that  voluntary  associa- 
tions and  groups  be  greatly  en- 
couraged; and  that  in  rural  dis- 
tricts village  halls  be  erected  to 
house  village  institutes,  the  cost 
to  be  met  chiefly  by  national 
grant. 

Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Sweden.  Denmark  has  in  its 
People's  High  Schools  a  well,  de- 
veloped system  for  the  education 
of  adult  young  people,  mostly 
from  the  rural  districts.  Of 
these  schools  there  are  80  in 
Denmark,  45  in  Sweden,  and  24 
in  Norway.  About  half  give  a 
purely  liberal  course  of  study, 
while  some  are  chiefly  agricul- 
tural, and  others  offer  vocational 
courses.  They  are  residential 
schools  with  a  one  and  two  years* 
course  of  study.  Winter  courses 
of  6  months  are  provided  for 
young  men,  and  summer  sessions 
of  5  months  for  young  women. 
The  men  frequently  spend  one 
winter  at  the  liberal  schools,  and 
follow  this  with  a  second  at  one 
of  the  agricultural  schools.  It 
is  estimated  that  from  one-third 
to  one-fourth  of  the  entire  rural 
population  of  Denmark  have  at 
some  time  attended  the  People's 
Schools.  The  annual  attendance 
is  over  8,000.  The  cost  of  tui- 
tion is  kept  very  low,  and  a  part 
of  the  expense  is  met  by  state 
grant. 

France. — In  France  consider- 
able provision  is  made  by  the 
state  system  of  education  for  the 
vocational  training  of  adults. 
Non-vocational  education  of 
adults  is  provided  chiefly,  as  in 
all  Latin  countries,  by  'popular 
universities,'  which  are  private 
associations  for  the  mutual  im- 
provement and  education  of  the 
people  of  every  condition. 
Vol.  I. — March,  '20 


The  Germanic  countries  had 

before  the  war  a  considerable 
system  of  adult  schools.  Under 
the  leadership  of  the  elder  Lieb- 
knecht  and  the  Social  Demo- 
cratic party,  there  was  organized 
a  considerable  activity  in  edu- 
cational matter.<^  by  both  the  so- 
cialist and  labor  movements. 

In  Russia,  since  the  revolu- 
tion of  1917,  both  the  Provisional 
and  Soviet  authorities  have  en- 
couraged the  establishment  of 
elementary  and  other  schools  for 
adults,  and  'people's  universities.' 
Local  Soviets  have  made  large 
appropriations  for  adult  schools. 

China  is  the  last  country  to 
attempt  national  provision  for 
adult  education.  A  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  National  Edu- 
cation, founded  in  1919,  plans 
to  establish  free  courses  for 
adults  at  industrial  establish- 
ments, and  to  promote  the  dif- 
fusion of  general  information, 
social  and  civic  instruction,  and 
health  and  sanitary  information. 

United  States.— The  United 
States  ranks  first  among  the  na- 
tions in  the  provision  and  finan- 
cial support  of  adult  education. 
Indeed  in  these  matters  it  is 
probable  that  it  has  more  to 
show  than  all  the  rest  of  the 
world  together. 

The  early  history  of  educa- 
tional extension  is  treated  else- 
where (see  University  Exten- 
sion). The  modern  movement 
dates  from  1907,  when  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  began  its 
plan  of  carrying  information 
directly  to  all  the  people  of  the 
State.  The  faults  of  the  earlier 
extension  movement  were  chiefly 
that  it  did  not  in  practice  provide 
facilities  for  consecutive  and 
advanced  study.  The  modern 
movement  has  enriched  the  cur- 
riculum until  it  is  often  as  truly 
universal  as  that  taught  on  the 
campus,  and  in  some  respects 
offers  a  much  wider  service. 

University  extension  has 
proved  wonderfully  resourceful 
in  devising  new  educational 
methods  and  devices.  Corre- 
spondence study,  extension  class 
study,  club  study,  lectures,  ex- 
hibits, visual  instruction,  adviso- 
ry mail  instruction,  directed 
reading  courses,  demonstrations, 
printed  courses,  commercial  short 
courses,  teacher's  training  courses 
are  a  few  of  the  established  meth- 
ods. The  public  welfare  service 
furnishes  general  information  on 
any  subject,  package  and  travel- 
ling libraries;  promotes  debate 
work,  current  topics  study,  com- 
munity drama,  pageants,  and 
music,  library  extension,  art  ex- 
hibitions, community  and  special 
institutes,  community  centres, 
Americanization  work;  and  con- 
ducts conferences,  investigations 
and  surveys  of  State,  municipal, 
or  social  problems  and  condi- 
tions.   In  this  service  the  uni- 


versity breaks  definitely  with  the 
tradition  of  academic  remoteness, 
and  becomes  a  potent  instrument 
of  social  and  civic  betterment. 
It  aims  to  co-operate  with  of- 
ficial and  voluntary  groups  in 
community  improvement,  and  to 
promote  a  sound  public  opinion 
in  support  of  American  institu- 
tions and  ideals.  Much  of  this 
service  is  effected  through  the 
furnishing  of  experts  to  advise 
local  communities,  associations, 
or  groups  in  the  best  solution  of 
their  community  problems. 

Specialized  service  has  been 
developed  for  the  promotion  of 
agriculture,  engineering,  and 
commercial  subjects.  Co-opera- 
tive work  by  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  (q.  v.)  and 
the  State  Agricultural  Depart- 
ments, Agricultural  Colleges,  and 
experiment  stations  is  carried 
on  through  7,500  special  agents, 
and  local  bureaus,  and  brings 
expert  knowledge  and  advice  to 
practically  every  man  and  woman 
engaged  in  agriculture.  Engi- 
neering experiment  service  in 
some  States  performs  much  the 
same  service  for  the  great  engi- 
neering industries  and  their  em- 
ployees. 

Some  idea  of  the  present  im- 
portance of  the  movement  can  be 
had  from  the  following  statistics. 
There  are  said  to  be  in  the  en- 
tire United  States  two  students 
in  university  extension  classes 
for  every  one  in  residence  on  a 
college  or  university  campus. 
In  1917-18  there  were  reported 
nearly  100,000  extension  students 
enrolled  in  69  institutions  in  42 
States.  Nearly,  1,000,000  per- 
sons attended  extension  lectures; 
3,000,000  were  reached  by  edu- 
cational moving  pictures  and 
slides;  900,000  by  debates  and 
discussions;  263,000  by  institutes 
and  conferences;  and  59,000  re- 
quests for  special  information 
and  advice  were  answered. 

During  the  first  half  of  1919 
there  was  in  operation  a  Federal 
Division  of  Educational  Exten- 
sion, designed  to  relate  and  sup- 
port the  extension  work  of  the 
several  States,  and  to  continue 
some  of  the  most  important  edu- 
cational activities  called  out  by 
the  war.  Congress  has  as  yet 
failed  to  permit  the  continuation 
of  this  work  by  the  necessary 
legislation  and  appropriations, 
but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  Federal  government  will 
soon  support  general  educational 
extension  in  the  same  liberal  way 
that  it  now  supports  agricultural 
extension  and  vocational  educa- 
tion. 

Many  American  trade  unions 
have  schools  for  the  vocational 
training  of  their  apprenticed 
members.  Non-vocational 
schools  are  maintained  by  the 
International  Ladies  Garment 
Workers  Union  in  New  York  and 


Adulteration 


75  A 


Adulteration 


Philadelphia,  by  the  Boston  Cen- 
tral Labor  Union  (Trade  Union 
College),  by  the  Chicago  Federa- 
tion of  Labor  in  co-operation 
with  the  Women's  Trade  Union 
League.  After  a  study  of  these 
schools,  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor  in  1919  voted  to  under- 
take a  campaign  for  the  general 
establishment  of  public  adult 
schools  for  workers. 

It  favors  a  liberal  education  for 
adult  schools  as  in  other  parts  of 
the  public  educational  system, 
and  fears  the  dangers  of  a  too 
narrow  interpretation  of  voca- 
tional studies. 

The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  has  enrolled 
in  its  educational  schools  and 
classes  over  80,000  different 
students,  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  whom  are  adults. 
The  educational  plan  of  the  as- 
sociation ranges  from  the  at- 
tempt to  guide  reading  in  libra- 
ries to  the  provision  of  an  elabo- 
rate course  of  study  in  the  large 
and  important  evening  classes. 
(See  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association.)  The  Knights  of 
Columbus  have  recently  initiated 
a  plan  of  adult  business  and  voca- 
tional education  on  somewhat 
similar  lines. 

Adult  education  has  already 
been  established  as  an  impor- 
tant and  permanent  part  of  pub- 
lic education.  It  has  developed 
adequate  and  effective  methods 
of  instruction  peculiar  to  its 
field.  It  has  called  forth  a 
large  body  of  support  from  all 
sorts  and  conditions  of  men.  It 
is  at  present  the  area  of  educa- 
tion in  process  of  the  most  rapid 
development.  There  is  in  evi- 
dence a  widespread  and  per- 
sistent demand  that  it  receive 
from  the  State  and  Nation  ade- 
quate support  and  assistance, 
and  that  it  be  universally  de- 
veloped as  the  crown  of  the 
public  educational  system. 

Bibliography.  —  Consult  Bul- 
letins of  the  World  Association 
for  Adult  Education;  M.  E. 
Sadler's  Continuation  Schools  in 
England  and  Elsewhere;  H.  W. 
Foght's  Rural  Denmark  and  Its 
Schools  (191.5);  Year  Book  of  the 
Workers'  Educational  Associa- 
tion (1918);  Reports  of  the 
British  Adult  Education  Com- 
mission (1918-19);  A.  G.  Klein's 
A  dministration  of  Correspond- 
ence-Study Departments  of  Uni- 
versities and  Colleges  (U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin 
56,  1919). 

Adulteration  (Latin  adulter- 
are,  'to  debase,'  'to  corrupt,'  'to 
render  impure'),  a  term  applied 
generally  to  the  practice  of  add- 
ing cheaper  substances  to  arti- 
cles of  commerce,  or  of  abstract- 
ing from  them  one  or  more  of 
their  valuable  ingredients  for 
separate  sale,  with  the  purpose 
of  making  a  greater  profit. 
While  all  adulterations  are  to  be 
Vol.  I. — March,  '20 


condemned  on  the  ground  of 
fraud,  the  adulteration  of  food 
and  drugs,  as  affecting  the 
health  and  nutrition  of  the  com- 
munity, is  held  to  be  the  most 
serious  offence. 

The  evil  of  food  adulteration 
is  a  very  old  one.  Pliny  tells  us 
of  one  article  which  was  so  ex- 
tensively adulterated  in  his  time 
that  even  the  wealthier  mem- 
bers of  the  community  could 
not  obtain  it  in  a  state  of  purity, 
and  in  both  Athens  and  Rome 
laws  and  inspection  were  re- 
quired to  safeguard  the  purity 
of  wine. 

In  the  United  States  practi- 
cally nothing  was  done  officially 
to  prevent  food  adulteration  un- 
til about  1880.  In  1881  the 
Division  of  Chemistry  of  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
began  a  series  of  investigations. 
In  1883  the  first  practical  food 
inspection  law  was  enacted  by 
Massachusetts;  and  by  1906, 
when  the  national  Pure  Food 
and  Drug  Law  (q.  v.)  was  passed, 
25  States  had  special  regulations 
as  to  the  purity  and  methods  of 
labelling  foods  and  drugs. 

Among  the  more  common 
adulterations  of  food  which  still 
exist  are  chicory  (often  in  harm- 
ful quantity)  in  ground  coffee; 
plum  and  other  leaves  in  tea; 
suet  in  cheese;  tallow  and  cotton- 
seed oil  in  lard;  starch  and  glu- 
cose in  jellies  and  jams;  gelatine 
and  boric  acid  in  cream;  peanut 
and.  cotton-seed  oil  in  olive  oil; 
poisonous  copper  salts  in  canned 
green  peas,  string  beans,  and 
spinach;  sugar,  saccharin,  and 
starch  in  canned  corn;  glucose 
and  invert  sugar  in  honey;  rye, 
corn,  and  wheat  flour  in  buck- 
wheat flour;  alum  and  acid  phos- 
phate, ground  gypsum  and  terra 
alba,  in  cream  of  tartar  and 
baking  powders. 

The  fat  or  'butter'  of  cocoa  is 
sometimes  removed,  and  the 
residue  ground  with  cedar  saw- 
dust, cocoa  shells,  and  iron 
oxide  for  cheap  brands  of  break- 
fast cocoa.  Ground  spices  may 
be  heavily  adulterated  with 
ground  cocoanut  shells,  buck- 
wheat hulls,  corn  meal,  almond 
shells,  and  olive  pits.  In  the  case 
of  ginger,  a  recent  sample  was 
found  to  be  mixed  with  powdered 
stems  of  cloves,  cayenne  pepper, 
rice,  potato,  and  wheat  flour, 
with  turmeric  added  to  give  it  the 
proper  color. 

Wines  offer  a  fertile  field  for 
adulteration — glucose,  resins, 
and  coloring  matters  being  freely 
used,  with  the  addition  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  in  the  case  of 
'champagne.'  Extract  of  soap 
bark  is  sometimes  added  to  beer 
and  beverages  to  give  them  a 
more  enduring  'bead.'  At  one 
time  wheat  flour  was  largely 
mixed  with  corn  flour;  but  this 
adulteration  has  been  stopped  by 


the  energetic  enforcement  of  the 
Federal  mixed  flour  law. 

Prior  to  the  enactment  of  the 
United  States  law  of  1848  govern- 
ing the  importation  of  adulter- 
ated and  spurious  drugs,  medi- 
cines, and  chemicals,  no  de- 
pendence could  be  placed  on  the 
strength  or  purity  of  any  of  these 
important  articles.  Roots, 
barks,  and  herbs  were  imported 
after  the  valuable  ingredients 
had  been  extracted,  and  the 
refuse  stained  or  coated  to  ap- 
pear fresh.  Opium  was  often 
robbed  of  two-thirds  of  its  active 
principles;  and  quinine  was 
heavily  adulterated  with  salicin 
made  from  willow  bark. 

The  excuses  which  have  been 
urged  in  extenuation  of  adultera- 
tions are  numerous,  and  in  some 
cases  plausible.  Many  articles 
of  food  are  prepared  and  sold  in 
an  adulterated  form  under  the 
claim  of  popular  demand.  Thus 
it  is  said  that  certain  preserved 
vegetables  must  possess  a  green 
hue  in  order  to  be  accepted  by 
the  public.  For  example,  peas 
do  not  retain  their  natural  color 
when  preserved,  and  therefore 
the  manufacturers  of  these  arti- 
cles color  them  with  verdigris 
(copper  acetate)  or  other  salt  of 
copper.  Sauces  and  preserved 
meats  are  dyed  red;  butter 
and  cheese  are  tinted  yellow; 
bread  is  whitened. 

Again  it  is  asserted  that  some 
forms  of  adulteration — or  ad- 
mixture, as  it  is  less  harshly 
called — are  quite  allowable  be- 
cause they  are  deemed  to  be  im- 
provements. Thus  it  is  main- 
tained that  to  mix  chicory  with 
coffee  is  commendable,  as  the 
compound  is  regarded  by  many 
as  superior  to  pure  coffee. 

A  third  form  of  excuse  asserts 
that  certain  things  must  be 
mixed  with  others  in  order  to  in- 
sure their  preservation — as  corn 
starch  with  baking  powder,  or 
lime  with  table  salt.  Another 
excuse  is  that  it  is  impossible  to 
supply  pure  articles  at  the  cur- 
rent price.  Finally,  we  have  the 
plea  advanced  that  in  many  cases 
adulteration  does  no  harm — as  in 
the  addition  of  water  to  milk  or 
whiskey;  therefore  to  dilute 
those  substances  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  a  criminal  act. 

It  is  possible  that  one  unac- 
quainted with  the  facts  might 
prefer  bright  green  peas  to  those 
of  a  yellow  tint.  If,  however,  he 
were  informed  that  the  bright, 
fresh-looking  article  owed  its 
attractive  appearance  to  the 
presence  of  a  poisonous  copper 
salt,  it  is  hardly  probable  that 
he  would  still  elect  to  be  supplied 
with  it.  As  to  admixtures  being 
improvements,  it  is  significant 
that  the  articles  which  are  added 
by  way  of  improvement  are  al- 
ways much  cheaper  than  the 
articles  whose  bulk  they  increase. 


Adulteration 


75  B 


Advent 


The  statement  that  adultera- 
tion is  necessary  because  the 
public  refuses  to  pay  a  fair  price 
for  pure  articles  seems  absurd 
when  it  is  considered  that  the 
dealers,  not  the  public,  fix  the 
price;  and  that  if  a  dealer  were 
to  inform  his  patrons  of  the 
truth,  they  would  undoubtedly 
prefer  to  pay  the  higher  price  for 
unadulterated  brands. 

With  regard  to  the  admixture 
of  water  to  milk  doing  no  harm, 
as  well  might  it  be  said  that 
selling  milk  by  means  of  a  meas- 
ure which  holds  only  half  as 
much  as  it  is  represented  to  hold 
does  no  harm.  The  public  is 
not  thereby  poisoned,  but  is 
certainly  defrauded. 

Manufacturers  of  certain  classes 
of  food  products  have  protested 
against  the  stringency  of  the 
present  laws,  claiming  that  the 
term  'adulteration'  should  apply 
only  where  substances  of  less  pro- 
portional value  have  been  added. 
This  definition  would  remove  the 
ban  from  such  chemical  preserva- 
tives as  boric  acid,  benzoate  of 
soda,  formaldehyde,  etc.,  also 
saccharin,  and  many  flavorings 
and  coloring  matters.  The  stat- 
utory decisions,  however,  have 
been  uniformly  against  any  addi- 
tions, except  the  ordinary  con- 
diments. 

As  the  discovery  of  fraud  and 
consequent  exposure  is  often  the 
most  salutary  form  of  punish- 
ment, the  detection  of  food  adul- 
teration becomes  highly  impor- 
tant. In  the  United  States  this 
is  effected  m.ainly  by  two  agen- 
cies, chemical  analysis  and  micro- 
scopical examination,  employed 
for  the  purpose  by  inspectors 
under  the  Pure  Food  and  Drug 
Law,  or  State  and  local  enact- 
ments. By  the  provisions  of  the 
Federal  Act,  food  is  deemed  to  be 
adulterated  if  it  has  been  mixed 
or  packed  with  any  substance  so 
as  to  reduce,  lower,  or  injuriously 
affect  its  quality  or  strength;  if 
any  valuable  ingredient  has  been 
wholly  or  in  part  abstracted;  if 
its  appearance  has  been  changed 
in  any  way  to  conceal  damage  or 
inferiority;  if  any  substance  in- 
jurious to  health  has  been  added 
to  it;  or  if  it  contains  any  filthy 
or  decomposed  ingredient. 

All  foods  and  drugs  imported 
from  foreign  countries  are  re- 
quired to  fulfil  the  conditions 
laid  down  in  the  Pure  Food  and 
Drug  Law.  In  the  administra- 
tion of  this  law,  branch  labor- 
atories of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Chemistry  have  been  established 
at  the  principal  ports  of  entry, 
where  inspections  and  analyses 
are  made  of  articles  of  both  do- 
mestic and  foreign  production 
whenever  adulteration  is  sus- 
pected. 

The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture has  established  'Stand- 
ards of  Purity'  for  all  food  prod- 


ucts, a  summary  of  which  has 
been  published  in  the  Depart- 
ment's Circular  No.  19.  See 
Pure  Food  and  Drug  Law; 
Meat,  Government  Inspection; 
Packing  Industry. 

Consult  Bigelow's  Foods  and 
Food  Control  (U.  S.  Chemistry 
Bureau  Bulletin  No.  69,  1902- 
4);  Bartley's  Adulterations  of 
Food  (1907);  Wiley's  Foods  and 
Their  Adulterations  (1907); 
Bruce's  Food  Adulterations 
(1908);  Parry's  Food  and  Drugs 
(2  vols.,  1911);  Olsen's  Pure 
Foods — Their  Adulteration,  Nu- 
tritive Value,  and  Cost  (1911); 
Bruce's  Detection  of  the  Common 
Food  Adulterants  (3d  ed.  1917); 
Year  Books  of  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

Adul'tery  is  the  voluntary 
sexual  intercourse  of  one  spouse 
with  any  person  except  the  other 
spouse.  It  was  punished  se- 
verely by  the  Jewish  and  Roman 
laws,  and  under  the  canon  law, 
was  held  a  good  ground  for  sep- 
aration, though  the  marriage  it- 
self was  indissoluble.  Since  the 
Reformation  it  has  been  gener- 
ally recognized  as  a  ground  for 
divorce  at  the  instance  of  either 
husband  or  wife. 

Adultery  is  not  a  criminal  of- 
fence at  the  common  law  either 
in  England  or  America,  though  a 
number  of  States  of  the  United 
States  have  by  statute  made  it 
punishable  with  more  or  less 
severity. 

In  every  modern  country  in 
which  divorce  is  permitted,  adul- 
tery is  a  sufficient  cause  for  a 
severance  of  the  marriage  rela- 
tion. Both  in  the  United  States 
and  in  England  the  injured  hus- 
band has  a  claim  for  damages 
against  his  wife's  seducer;  and 
in  some  of  the  States  the  con- 
verse also  holds  good.  See  Di- 
vorce. 

Ad  Valo'rem  (Latin,  'accord- 
ing to  value'),  a  phrase  used  in 
levying  customs  duties,  when  the 
duties  on  the  goods  are  fixed,  not 
according  to  weight,  size,  or 
number,  but  at  rates  propor- 
tioned to  the  value  of  the  goods 
as  estimated  and  sworn  to  by  the 
owner  and  confirmed  by  customs 
authorities. 

Advance  Guard,  a  detachment 
of  troops  detailed  from  the  main 
body  to  protect  it  on  the  march 
against  sudden  attack  and  to 
give  time  for  deployment.  The 
strength  and  composition  of 
the  advance  guard  depend  upon 
the  length  and  formation  of  the 
marching  column,  the  efficiency 
of  its  cavalry  screen  (see  Cav- 
alry), the  nature  of  the  terrain, 
the  strength,  activity,  and  prox- 
imity of  the  enemy,  and  other 
contingencies;  it  varies  from  one- 
eighth  to  one-fourth  of  the  whole 
command.  During  a  retreat  the 
advance  guard  becomes  the  rear 
guard  (q.  v.),  and  must  be  con- 


siderably strengthened.  See 
Army;  Cavalry;  Outposts; 
Reconnaissance. 

Advancement  denotes  a  doc- 
trine of  equity  which  operates 
in  several  directions.  When  a 
purchaser  takes  a  conveyance  or 
transfer  in  the  name  of  another 
it  acts  as  a  counter  presumption 
to  that  of  a  resulting  trust. 
When  a  parent  makes  a  gift  of 
personal  property  to  a  child  as 
an  advance  payment  of  an  in- 
tended legacy  or  distributive 
share  of  his  estate,  this  doctrine 
causes  the  legacy  or  share  in 
question  to  be  pro  tanto  reduced. 
In  some  of  the  States  of  the  United 
States  the  doctrine  has  been  ex- 
tended by  statute  to  gifts  made 
with  that  intention  by  others 
than  parents  to  their  children. 
The  term  advancement  is  also 
applied  to  the  gift  itself. 

Advancement  of  Science, 
American  Association  for  the, 
an  organization  formed  to  pro- 
mote scientific  research  and  the 
dissemination  of  scientific  knowl- 
edge. The  Association  has  fif- 
teen sections,  as  follows:  (a) 
Mathematics;  {b)  Physics;  (c) 
Chemistry;  {d)  Astronomy;  (e) 
Geology  and  Geography;  (/)  Zo- 
ological Sciences;  {g)  Botanical 
Sciences;  (/?)  Anthropology;  (i) 
Psychology;  (k)  Social  and  Eco- 
nomic Sciences;  (0  Historical 
and  Philological  Sciences;  (m) 
Engineering;  («)  Medical  Sci- 
ences; (o)  Agriculture;  (?)  Edu- 
cation. Each  section  has  a 
chairman,  who  serves  as  a  vice- 
president  of  the  Association. 

The  Association,  formed  in 
1848,  is  a  continuation  of  the 
American  Association  of  Geolo- 
gists and  Naturalists,  organized 
in  1840;  it  was  chartered  under 
its  present  name  in  1874.  It  is 
one  of  the  largest  scientific  bodies 
in  the  United  States,  having  a 
membership  of  more  than  14,- 
000.  It  publishes  Science,  a 
weekly  magazine,  and  an  annual 
volume  of  Proceedings. 

Advancement  of  Science, 
Britisli  Association  for  the.  See 
British  Association. 

Advance  Note,  a  draft,  gener- 
ally for  a  month's  wages,  given 
to  sailors  by  shipowners  when 
they  sign  articles  of  agree- 
ment. 

Advent  (Latin  adventus,  'the 
coming'),  a  season  of  preparation 
for  the  festival  of  Christmas.  In 
the  Greek  Church,  the  Advent 
period  comprises  forty  days;  and 
similarly,  in  the  earliest  authen- 
tic notice  of  Advent,  a  canon  of 
the  Council  of  Macon  (581  a.d.), 
fasting  three  times  a  week  is 
enjoined  from  the  feast  of  St. 
Martin  (Nov.  11)  to  the  Nativ- 
ity. In  England,  this  forty  days' 
fast  was  observed  even  after 
Bede's  death  (735),  though  Greg- 
ory the  Great  (590-004)  had  re- 
stricted the  season  to  the  four 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '26 


Advent,  Second 


75  C 


Advertising 


Sundays  of  Advent,  now  ob- 
served in  the  Roman  Catholic 
communion  and  the  Church  of 
England.  The  ecclesiastical  year 
commences  with  the  First  Sun- 
day in  Advent.  See  also  Ad- 
vent, Second. 

Advent,  Second.  While  it 
was  formerly  held  that  the  com- 
ing of  Christ  was  fourfold  —  (1) 
at  his  Nativity;  (2)  to  His  dis- 
ciples at  His  death  (John  xiv. 
3);  (3)  at  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
(Matt.  xxiv.  30  /.);  (4)  at  the 
Day  of  Judgment — the  term 
Second  Advent  is  now  usually 
restricted  to  the  last  mentioned, 
when  He  shall  appear  'the  second 
time  without  sin  unto  salvation' 
(Heb.  ix,  28). 

The  whole  subject  of  Christ's 
second  coming,  or  Parousia, 
forms  one  of  the  most  perplexing 
themes  in  theology.  In  Mat- 
thew, Mark,  and  Luke  it  seems 
to  be  associated  with  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem,  and  to  be  imminent. 
Occasionally  Paul  also  speaks  as 
if  the  event  were  at  hand,  but 
again  he  seems  to  remove  it  to 
the  distant  future;  while  the 
Book  of  Revelation  introduces 
the  millennium  as  having  to 
ensue  before  the  final  day. 

The  doctrine  of  the  second 
coming  of  Christ  has  run  like 
an  underground  stream  through- 
out the  history  of  Christianity. 
There  is  a  quite  general  agree- 
ment among  Christians  that 
He  is  coming  again,  but  as  to 
the  purpose  of  His  coming,  and 
how  and  when,  there  is  a  wide 
diversity  of  opinion.  The  study 
and  literal  interpretation  of  the 
Bible  is  a  special  inciting  cause 
for  a  belief  in  the  second  advent. 
The  greater  the  emphasis  laid 
on  the  written  word  as  authori- 
tative as  the  inspired  message  of 
God  to  man,  the  stronger  is  the 
tendency  to  accept  the  message 
of  the  Book  of  Revelation,  with 
various  supplementary  passages 
from  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. The  German  Pietists, 
the  Shakers,  the  modern  Ad- 
ventists,  and  the  Premillennialists 
in  England  and  America  all 
believe  in  the  personal  coming  of 
Christ.  The  latter  number 
among  their  ranks  many  out- 
standing evangelists  who  have 
made  notable  contributions  to 
Christian  activity  and  have 
furnished  no  little  driving  power 
to  the  cause  of  Christianity.  See 
Antichrist;  Eschatology;  Mil- 
lennium; Second  Adventists. 

Adventists,  Second.  See  Sec- 
ond Adventists. 

Adverb,  a  part  of  speech  gen- 
erally modifying  verbs,  adjec- 
tives, or  other  adverbs;  fre- 
quently formed  from  the  corre- 
sponding adjective  by  the  addi- 
tion of  'ly.'  Adverbs  which  by 
their  meaning  admit  of  compari- 
son are  compared  by  the  addition 
of  more  and  most,  or  by  irregul^>r 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


forms.  According  to  the  classi- 
fication adopted  by  G.  R.  Car- 
penter, there  are  adverbs  of  man- 
ner, place  or  direction,  time, 
number,  quantity,  and  degree; 
interrogative  adverbs,  introduc- 
tory adverbs  {'There  are  100,000 
books  in  the  library'),  general  ad- 
verbs, qualifying  an  entire  state- 
ment ('perhaps,'  'therefore'),  and 
relative  (or  conjunctive)  adverbs 
('whereas'),  introducing  subor- 
dinate clauses.  See  Parts  of 
Speech. 

Adverse  Possession,  in  law, 
designates  the  undisturbed  oc- 
cupancy of  real  estate  by  some 
one  other  than  the  true  owner, 
for  a  specified  term  of  years,  the 
length  of  the  term  being  fixed  by 
statute — usually  twenty  years. 
To  secure  title  to  real  property  by 
adverse  possession,  the  occu- 
pancy and  use  of  such  property 
must  be  in  the  open  view  and 
knowledge  of  the  public,  exclu- 
sive as  against  any  other  claim- 
ant, even  the  rightful  owner,  and 
continuous  during  the  pre- 
scribed statutory  period.  It  is 
not  required  that  the  occupancy 
shall  be  continuously  by  the  same 
person;  but  the  right  under  ad- 
verse possession  may  be  contin- 
ued by  inheritance,  will,  or  deed 
until  the  statutory  period  has 
been  completed,  or  until  posses- 
sion has  been  secured  by  some 
other  claimant. 

Adverse  possession,  therefore, 
is  not  legal  possession,  but  pos- 
session adverse  to  the  rightful 
owner.  It  becomes  legal  posses- 
sion through  the  expiration  of  a 
statutory  period  during  which 
the  rightful  owner  has  made  no 
claim.  See  Limitation,  Stat- 
utes of;  Possession. 

Advertising  is  defined  as  the 
application  of  the  force  of  organ- 
ized publicity  to  business.  It  is 
associated  to-day  mainly  with 
printed  forms,  though  oral  ad- 
vertising doubtless  preceded  the 
written  or  chiselled  word,  and 
was  employed  soon  after  barter 
began  among  men.  In  general, 
as  soon  as  people  began  to  deal 
with  one  another,  to  live  together 
in  communities,  or  to  have  any 
rule,  they  were  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  finding  some  means  of 
spreading  information.  How 
soon  the  forces  of  publicity  were 
employed  to  exploit  the  sale  of 
privately  owned  wares  cannot  be 
told.  Doubtless  it  was  early  in 
the  history  of  human  communi- 
cation. 

The  public  notice  was  a  means 
of  disseminating  information  as 
early  as  Babylonian  times,  and  a 
clay  tablet  of  Babylon  bears  an 
inscription  of  cattle  and  feed  for 
sale.  An  Egyptian  papyrus  in 
the  British  Museum  containing 
a  notice  of  a  runaway  slave  and 
of  a  reward  offered  for  his  appre- 
hension is  assuredly  the  first 
known  advertisement  on  mate- 


rial which  can  be  classed  as  pa- 
per. The  Greeks  and  Romans 
painted  signs  on  walls  in  public 
places,  the  announcements  still 
to  be  observed  in  Porripeii  and 
Herculaneum  being  distinctly  of 
an  advertising  character.  The 
crier  was  another  means  of  call- 
ing the  attention  of  the  populace 
to  wares  for  sale,  in  Greece  and 
probably  elsewhere. 

The  Middle  Ages  witnessed  a 
great  vogue  of  public  criers. 
Posters  were  also  painted,  chiefly 
as  the  signs  of  the  guilds,  and 
signboards  were  much  favored  in 
France  by  innkeepers  and  shop- 
keepers. An  ordinance  of  1567 
required  the  keeper  of  an  inn 
to  report  his  'enseigne,'  and  a 
royal  decree  of  1616  limited  the 
size  of  these  devices,  probably  in 
the  interest  of  public  safety,  so 
great  was  the  rivalry  among  en- 
terprising advertisers  to  engage 
attention  by  their  signs.  The 
trademarks  of  artificers  to  iden- 
tify the  origin  of  goods  must 
also  be  regarded  as  advertising, 
for  simple  as  all  these  measures 
were,  they  embodied  a  definite 
attempt  to  attract  the  attention 
of  the  buyer,  and  to  create  a 
favorable  opinion  of  the  seller 
and  his  goods. 

Printing  afforded  the  first 
means  of  broadcasting  announce- 
ments, and  the  handbills  which 
followed  soon  upon  its  invention 
were  advertising.  Although 
there  were  issued,  with  some  reg- 
ularity, various  news  letters  as 
early  as  the  first  half  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  the  idea  of  as- 
sociating paid  advertisements 
with  such  reading  was  slow  in 
arriving.  The  first  regular  ad- 
vertisers were  booksellers,  fol- 
lowed by  dealers  in  quack  medi- 
cines, and  merchants.  Books 
and  pamphlets  were  advertised  in 
1647-8;  and  the  Mercurius  Polil- 
icus  for  Nov.  22,  1660,  had  a 
quack  advertisement  which  might 
have  appeared  at  the  present 
time.  The  Public  Advertiser 
(1657)  consisted  almost  wholly  of 
advertisements,  including  the  ar- 
rivals and  departures  of  ships, 
and  books  to  be  printed.  Other 
papers  now  commenced  to  insert 
more  advertisements;  and  by 
1682  newspaper  advertising  was 
well  developed,  chiefly  through 
the  medium  of  the  London  Ga- 
zette, In  1785  was  established 
The  Daily  Universal  Register, 
which  in  1788  changed  its  name 
to  The  Times.  Its  establishment 
marks  the  beginning  of  the  era  of 
modern  advertising. 

In  America,  one  of  the  earliest 
records  of  advertising  was  in 
John  Campbell's  Boston  News 
Letter.  The  following  notice  is 
taken  from  his  first  issue,  pub- 
lished April  24,  1704. 

'This  News  Letter  is  to  be  continued 
Weekly  and  all  Persons  who  have  any 
Houses,,  Lands,  Tenements,  Farmes,  Ships, 


Advertising 


75  D 


Advertising 


Vesaels,  Goods,  Wares  or  Merchandizes, 
Ec.  to  be  Sold  or  Lett;  or  Servants  Runa- 
way; or  Goods  Stoll  or  Lost  may  have  the 
same  inserted  at  a  Reasonable  Rate  from 
Twelve  Pence  to  Five  Shillings  and  not 
to  exceed;  Who  may  agree  with  Nicholas 
Boone  for  the  same  at  his  shop,  next  door 
to  Major  Davis's  Apothecary  in  Boston 
near  the  Old  Meeting  House.  .  .  . ' 

The  idea  of  advertising  was 
well  recognized  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  though 
the  mediums  for  its  expression 
were  limited  in  their  circulation 
and  influence.  The  founding  of 
daily  newspapers  naturally  gave 
it  a  strong  impetus,  while  the 
perfection  of  the  cylinder  press 
was  a  further  aid,  permitting  the 
increasing  of  circulations  to  a 
point  never  before  thought  of. 

It  can  hardly  be  denied  that 
the  first  persons  to  appraise  cor- 
rectly the  power  of  mass  adver- 
tising were  those  who  used  it  to 
mislead  the  public  by  extrava- 
gant language,  for  though  the 
early  announcements  of  local 
tradesmen  were,  in  general,  mod- 
els of  sober  utterance,  the  patent 
medicine  men,  then  as  now, 
promised  far  more  than  their 
physicks  could  perform.  Such 
extravagant  claims  brought  the 
whole  practice  of  advertising 
into  a  disrepute,  in  the  eyes  of 
many,  from  which  it  was  long  in 
recovering.  Barnum  was,  for  a 
time  at  least,  regarded  as  the 
true  type  of  advertiser.  But 
economic  and  business  forces 
were  at  work  which  were  to  de- 
mand just  such  an  aid  to  distribu- 
tion as  advertising  afforded.  It 
was  soon  realized  that  so  potent 
an  ally  of  business  must  be 
cleansed  of  its  bad  reputation, 
and  the  era  of  greater  honesty  in 
announcements  began. 

The  economic  and  business 
forces  which  made  modern  ad- 
vertising indispensable  were  the 
mechanical  inventions  which  ush- 
ered in  mass  production  and  es- 
tablished the  factory  system. 
Increased,  centralized  production 
called  for  new  methods  of  dis- 
tribution, and  organized  public- 
ity, or  advertising,  offered  itself 
as  the  natural  means  of  attract- 
ing public  attention  to  the  merits 
of  the  goods.  The  same  era 
which  witnessed  the  rapid  prog- 
ress of  mechanical  invention, 
speeding  up  the  output  of  the 
factories,  witnessed  also  the  de- 
velopment of  printing  machinery, 
which  enabled  publishers  to  ob- 
tain enormous  circulations,  and 
the  improvement  of  communica- 
tions, so  that  both  advertising 
and  merchandise  could  be  trans- 
ported over  great  distances.  A 
strong  factor  in  the  sr)read  of 
newspaper  advertising  was  the 
influence,  in  the  three  decades 
after  1850,  of  such  journals  as 
the  New  York  Tribune,  Times, 
and  Herald.  The  greatest  in- 
crease in  volume,  however,  came 
in  the  period  of  business  expan- 


sion between  1880  and  1900. 
Postal  rates  on  newspapers  and 
magazines  had  been  reduced  in 
1879  to  two  cents  a  pound,  and 
this  undoubtedly  contributed 
greatly  to  advertising  progress. 
In  1885  the  rate  was  still  further 
reduced  to  one  cent  a  pound. 
In  1919  it  was  increased  and  the 
zone  system  established  (see  Post 
Office),  but  this  had  little  effect 
on  the  volume  of  advertising. 

Modern  advertising  has  as- 
sumed tremendous  proportions. 
That  form  of  it  which  the  public 
chiefly  associates  with  the  term 
advertising,  namely  space  bought 
in  newspapers  and  magazines, 
accounts  for  the  larger  part  of  a 
vast  expenditure.  Other  forms 
are  direct  mail,  business  or  trade 
papers,  window  and  store  dis- 
plays, billboards  and  street-car 
cards,  novelties,  painted  and  elec- 
tric signs,  and  motion  pictures. 
Expenses  of  propaganda  or  pub- 
licity campaigns  are  sometimes 
charged  to  advertising,  though 
not  properly  so. 

The  total  sum  laid  out  in  ad- 
vertising cannot  be  estimated, 
but  fairly  accurate  figures  for  the 
major  items  in  the  United  States 
are  available  and  give  some  idea 
of  its  magnitude.  The  advertis- 
ing volume  of  2,015  American 
dailies,  in  1925,  exceeded  10  bil- 
lion lines,  while  the  total  expen- 
diture for  all  newspaper  advertis- 
ing was  estimated  at  $900,000,- 
000  to  $1,000,000,000.  Maga- 
zine advertising  in  the  same  year 
was  estimated  to  have  cost  $100,- 
000,000  to  $125,000,000.  If,  as 
one  authority  says,  newspaper 
advertising  accounts  for  two- 
thirds  of  the  country's  advertis- 
ing expenditure,  the  total  annual 
outlay  in  the  United  States  would 
be  approximately  $1,450,000,000. 

Newspaper  advertising  falls 
into  three  main  divisions,  na- 
tional (placed  by  firms  distribut- 
ing their  goods  through  dealers 
or  directly  over  all  or  large  areas 
of  the  country) ;  local  display  (by 
local  drygoods  or  other  firms) ; 
and  classified  (small  announce- 
ments of  a  few  lines  inserted  by 
individuals  seeking  or  offering 
positions,  offering  rooms  or 
houses  for  rent,  etc.).  The  ad- 
vantages of  newspaper  advertis- 
ing are  primarily  those  of  local- 
izing a  sales  appeal,  its  cheapness, 
the  assurance  that  the  paper 
reaches  a  given  number  of  homes 
in  a  definite  area,  the  speed  and 
flexibility  of  control  over  adver- 
tising schedules,  and  the  possi- 
bility of  tie-up  between  national 
advertisers  and  local  dealers 
carrying  the  goods  advertised. 
Newspaper  advertising  permits 
the  testing  of  a  sales  campaign  on 
a  limited  scale,  and  the  avoid- 
ance of  waste  inseparable  from 
any  nation-wide  publicity  in 
sections  where  the  goods  are  not 
offered  for  sale,  or,  because  of 


climate  or  other  reasons,  are  inap- 
propriate. Quotations  of  prices, 
a  potent  appeal  to  the  consumer, 
form  a  large  part  of  newspaper 
advertising.  A  significant  change 
in  local  merchandising,  and  con- 
sequently in  the  volume  of  news- 
paper advertising,  has  come  with 
the  automobile,  which  has  greatly 
enlarged  the  trading  area  of  a 
community's  merchants. 

Magazine  advertising  (except 
in  those  small  periodicals  of 
purely  local  interest)  is  wholly  of 
national  concerns.  It  reaches 
the  consumer,  stimulates  the  de- 
sire to  buy,  and  encourages  the 
dealer  to  stock  advertised  trade- 
marked  goods.  Much  of  this 
advertising  is  of  the  mail-order 
type,  the  buyer  purchasing  direct 
from  the  manufacturer  by  mail. 
The  superior  printing  of  maga- 
zines on  good  paper  has  made 
possible  advertising  of  the  high- 
est typographical  beauty.  The 
insertion  of  pages  in  two,  three, 
and  four  colors  is  a  development 
of  recent  years;  artists  of  high 
reputation  are  frequently  em- 
ployed, and  some  of  the  adver- 
tising pages  have  real  artistic 
worth. 

Advertising  rates  in  news- 
papers and  magazines  are  based 
chiefly  on  circulation.  They  are 
generally  quoted  per  agate  line, 
one  column  width,  fourteen  agate 
lines  being  measured  to  one  inch 
depth.  A  convenient  means  of 
comparing  newspaper  rates  is 
the  milline  figure,  i.e.  the  rate  per 
line  per  million  copies.  The 
milline  rate  of  the  Sunday  edition 
of  a  leading  New  York  news- 
paper is  $1.50,  the  agate  line  rate 
being  90  cents,  and  the  circula- 
tion 600,000.  The  rates  of  other 
newspapers  may  vary  as  much  as 
50  per  cent,  from  this  instance. 
Magazine  rates  are  subject  to 
even  greater  variations  in  pro- 
portion to  circulation.  The  cost 
of  a  page  in  certain  magazines  of 
enormous  circulation  seems  stag- 
gering. The  back  cover  of  one 
magazine,  in  colors,  costs  $15,000 
per  issue;  inside  pages  in  color  are 
less  in  proportion;  a  full  page  in 
black  and  white  is  $7,500. 

One  adjunct  to  magazine  and 
newspaper  advertising  is  the  'key 
system'  by  which  various  adver- 
tisements are  so  prepared  as  to 
enable  the  advertiser  to  trace  the 
replies  received  from  each  par- 
ticular medium. 

Bill-posting,  or  outdoor  adver- 
tising, is  much  Uvsed  both  by 
national  and  local  companies, 
along  railroads  and  vehicle  routes, 
on  walls,  fences,  and  roof  boards 
in  cities.  Some  signs  are  painted, 
others  are  covered  with  printed 
posters,  frequently  renewed.  The 
largest  boards  for  printed  posters 
are  for  twenty-four  sheets,  each 
28x42  inches.  Some  public  op- 
position has  been  aroused  to  the 
use  of  this  form  of  advertising  in 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Advertising 


76 


Advertising 


places  of  scenic  beauty,  but  such 
abuses  have  been  taken  in  hand 
by  the  companies  contracting  to 
furnish  the  boards.  AUied  to 
bill-posting  is  the  advertising 
sign,  painted  or  electric,  used 
over  the  dealer's  store  or  else- 
where. Electric  signs  in  strate- 
gic positions  on  the  roofs  of  build- 
ings in  great  cities  bring  enor- 
mous prices,  one  in  the  Times 
Square  district  (New  York  City) 
costing  for  rentals,  current,  and 
operation  about  $150,000  a  year. 
The  greatest  ingenuity  has  been 
shown  in  making  these  signs  flash 
changing  pictures  or  text. 

Street-car,  bus  and  train-car 
card  advertising  is  also  a  popu- 
lar means  of  reaching  the  public, 
used  alike  by  national  and  local 
companies. 

Direct-mail  advertising  is  widely 
employed.  This  embraces  the 
preparation  of  circulars,  cata- 
logues, and  other  printed  mat- 
ter, and  their  distribution  by 
mail,  and  involves  the  prep- 
aration or  the  purchase  of  mail- 
ing lists  from  firms  which  special- 
ize in  their  compilation.  The 
direct-mail  method  is  used  to  a 
considerable  degree  by  local 
firms,  but  to  an  even  greater  de- 
gree by  national  mail-order  com- 
panies. Frequently  a  concern 
manufacturing  an  article  will 
supply  circulars  or  other  'dealer 
helps'  to  be  enclosed  with  bills 
and  mail  sent  to  the  individual 
dealer's  customers.  Periodicals 
seeking  to  build  up  their  circula- 
tion also  employ  the  direct-mail 
method.  The  postage  cost  makes 
any  considerable  direct-mail  cam- 
paign an  item  of  large  expense; 
but  the  results  (which  are  sub- 
ject to  precise  checking)  are 
carefully  watched.  The  per- 
centage of  returns  from  a  par- 
ticular list,  the  returns  to  be  ex- 
pected from  a  'follow  up'  sent  to 
the  same  list,  the  response  to 
various  types  of  appeals,  are 
mathematically  figured.  Expert 
sales-letter  writers  are  employed. 

Other  mediums  of  advertising 
are  trade  papers,  theatre  pro- 
grammes, sampling  and  demon- 
strations, motion  pictures,  novel- 
ties, etc.  Large  national  con- 
cerns freciuently  make  use  of  all 
kinds  of  advertising  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  their  goods. 

A  recent  development,  though 
necessarily  one  of  limited  appli- 
cation, is  aerial  advertising.  By 
the  medium  of  an  expert  opera- 
tor in  an  aeroplane  the  name  of 
some  well  known  product  is 
written  in  a  heavy  smoke  in  the 
sky  on  a  cloudless  day.  At 
night  aerial  advertising  is  ob- 
tained by  a  string  of  aeroplanes, 
each  carrying  one  large  electric- 
lighted  letter,  a  sufficient  number 
of  planes  being  employed  to 
spell  the  trademark  of  the  ad- 
vertiser using  this  method  of 
publicity. 

Vol.  I. — Mar.  *26 


Advertising  by  radio  is  another 
very  recent  means  of  publicity. 
The  prevailing  method  is  to  an- 
nounce on  behalf  of  some  adver- 
tiser a  concert,  song,  speech,  etc., 
by  some  organization,  artist,  or 
well  known  person,  with  a  brief 
mention  of  the  advertiser's  name 
or  the  trademark  of  the  product 
for  which  the  publicity  is 
desired. 

The  magnitude  of  the  advertis- 
ing appropriation  of  a  large 
national  company  may  be  judged 
by  the  expenditure  in  one  year, 
for  newspaper  and  magazine  ad- 
vertising alone,  of  $3,084,000  by 
a  talking  machine  manufacturer. 
$2,650,000  by  one  automobile 
company,  $2,202,000  by  another, 
$1,808,000  by  a  tobacco  firm, 
$1,608,000  by  a  soap  and  toilet 
preparation  company,  $1,612,000 
by  a  soup  company. 

Virtually  all  magazine  and  a 
considerable  share  of  newspaper 
advertising  is  placed  by  agencies, 
a  large  factor  in  this  modern 
business.  Such  agencies  bring 
together  in  their  organization 
trained  men  in  the  fields  of  copy- 
writing,  technical  research,  ty- 
pography, art,  visualization, 
space  buying  in  various  media, 
merchandising,  sales  planning, 
etc.  The  more  important  agen- 
cies undertake  the  most  thorough 
study  of  markets,  of  the  psycho- 
logical effects  of  copy  upon  read- 
ers, and  of  the  preference  of  the 
consumer  in  matters  of  size, 
shape,  taste,  appearance,  and 
other  qualities  of  the  product  to 
be  advertised.  Field  surveys 
are  conducted  and  scientific  lab- 
oratory tests  are  made  to  estab- 
lish new  uses  for  the  product  or 
new  reasons  for  its  consumption. 

The  advertising  agencies  de- 
rive their  income  chiefly  from 
commission  and  cash  discount 
allowed  them  by  newspaper  and 
magazine  publishers,  such  com- 
mission usually  being  15  per 
cent.,  with  a  cash  discount  of 
2  per  cent.,  occasionally  10  per 
cent,  and  5  per  cent.  Adver- 
tisers placing  their  announce- 
ments direct  pay  the  full  rate 
quoted  on  the  rate  card.  The 
agencies  are  responsible  to  the 
publication  for  the  payment  of 
all  bills  in  behalf  of  their  clients, 
and  their  credit  standing  is 
closely  watched.  Commission  is 
allowed  only  to  agencies  recog- 
nized by  the  various  publishers' 
associations,  national  or  local. 
The  agency  may,  and  generally 
does,  charge  its  client  an  addi- 
tional service  fee  for  art  or  other 
work  in  connection  with  the 
handling  of  the  account.  The 
majority  of  large  advertisers 
maintain  their  own  departments 
and  employ  agencies  as  well. 

The  purposes  of  advertising, 
stated  in  the  simplest  form,  are: 
(1)  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
reader;  (2)  to  impress  upon  his 


memory  the  name  and  superior 
qualities  of  the  product  adver- 
tised; (3)  to  convince  the  reader; 
(4)  to  induce  him  to  purchase. 
The  knowledge  of  methods  by 
which  these  ends  may  be  accom- 
plished, and  the  ability  to  make 
the  various  forms  of  advertising 
perform  effectively  one  or  all  of 
these  functions,  are  the  equip- 
ment of  the  professional  adver- 
tising man.  Copy  and  'layouts' 
are  analysed  as  scientifically  as 
possible  to  test  their  appeal  to 
the  human  emotions,  instincts, 
interests,  or  desires.  The  'sell- 
ing points'  of  the  article  adver- 
tised are  carefully  listed,  perhaps 
developed  further,  so  that  they 
may  be  stressed  in  advertising. 
A  'plan,'  which  is  the  basis  of  any 
campaign,  includes  a  thorough 
analysis  of  the  product,  the  chief 
bases  of  sales  appeal,  the  ob- 
jective to  be  attained,  a  copy 
plan  or  list  of  media  and  esti- 
mates of  the  cost. 

The  most  significant  change  in 
advertising  in  recent  years  has 
been  the  growing  importance  of 
the  'reason  whj^'  style  of  copy. 
In  former  years  greater  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  'reminder'  ad- 
vertising, the  repetition  of  the 
name,  or  perhaps  the  name  and 
slogan  or  trademark.  This  was 
successful  in  an  era  in  which 
competition  was  not  too  keen  and 
in  which  the  volume  of  produc- 
tion had  not  attained  its  present 
magnitude.  When,  however,  a 
half  a  dozen  large,  well  financed 
companies  are  competing  for  the 
national  market,  each  naturally 
tries  to  demonstrate  by  analysis 
and  appeal  to  the  reason  its 
points  of  superiority,  as  purity 
of  ingredients,  scientific  manu- 
facture, specific  fitness  for  vari- 
ous purposes,  etc. 

Institutional  advertising  has 
also  had  a  great  vogue.  When 
the  distribution  of  goods  was 
from  one  individual  in  a  small 
community  directly  to  another, 
the  character  of  the  craftsman 
was  known  to  the  buyer.  Now 
the  company  is  but  a  name  to  its 
millions  of  consumers.  By  in- 
stitutional advertising  it  seeks  to 
establish  in  the  reader's  mind  a 
conviction  of  the  good  character 
of  the  company  manufacturing 
the  product.  Similarly  cam- 
paigns of  a  special  sort  are  under- 
taken when  a  company  whose 
name  is  identified  in  the  public 
mind  with  a  given  class  of  mer- 
chandise wishes  to  market  a  new 
product  and  reach  a  different 
public. 

An  important  movement  in 
advertising  in  recent  years  has 
been  the  enforcement  of  higher 
standards  of  honesty.  This  has 
come  about  in  part  by  the  action 
of  publishers  in  excluding  from 
their  columns  misleading  or 
fraudulent  announcements  and 
those  detrimental  to  the  public 


Advertising 


77 


Advocate,  Lord 


standards;  in  part  bj^  the  crea- 
tion of  such  agencies  as  the  Bet- 
ter Business  Bureaus;  and  in 
part  by  the  voluntary  action  of 
manufacturers  or  dealers  in  a 
given  industry.  Furniture  com- 
panies, for  instance,  adopted  a 
'name  the  woods'  agreement, 
whereby  only  the  actual  woods 
used  were  to  be  named  in  adver- 
tising. 

Most  reputable  publications 
exclude  nearly  all  medical  adver- 
tising— quacks  were  among  the 
first  to  see  the  power  of  this  form 
of  publicity  and  to  play  upon  the 
imaginations  and  fears  of  in- 
dividuals— questionable  financial 
offers,  advertisements  of  lotteries, 
and  extravagant  promises  which 
would  mislead  the  ignorant. 
The  cleanliness  of  its  columns  is 
of  great  influence  in  creating 
confidence  among  the  readers  of 
a  newspaper  or  magazine. 

A  movement  for  absolute  hon- 
esty in  circulation  statements  of 
pubHshers  was  commenced  in  the 
last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  A  majority  of  impor- 
tant newspapers  and  magazines 
in  the  United  States  now  belong 
to  the  Audit  Bureau  of  Circula- 
tions (A.  B.  C),  which  examines 
the  books  of  the  pubUsher,  deter- 
mines exactly  the  net  paid  circu- 
lation, its  distribution  locally 
and  otherwise,  the  use  of  pre- 
miums to  obtain  subscribers,  etc. 
More  recently  advertisers  and 
agencies  have  engaged  in  research 
to  estabHsh  the  quality  as  well 
as  the  quantity  of  circulation, 
measured  by  the  buying  power 
of  a  publication's  readers  and 
their  confidence  in  its  columns. 

In  general,  opinion  has  tended 
in  recent  years  to  put  a  greater 
emphasis  upon  the  value  of  qual- 
ity in  circulation,  of  'class'  as 
against  'mass.'  This  is  due  to 
the  greater  buying  power  of  such 
class  circulation,  to  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  people  reached,  and 
their  disposition  to  be  influenced 
by  well  founded  advertising  ap- 
peals to  their  self-interest,  and 
to  remember  to  ask  for  trade- 
marked  goods  when  a  conviction 
of  merit  is  established. 

It  is  argued — and  with  good 
reason — that  advertising  has  been 
a  strong  factor  in  raising  the 
national  standard  of  living,  in 
bringing  the  conveniences  en- 
joyed by  the  urban  dweller  to 
those  living  in  small  communities 
or  rural  districts;  that  it  has  edu- 
cated the  buyer  to  be  discrim- 
inating, and  that  it  has  tended  to 
equalize  prices.  Critics  of  ad- 
vertising have  charged  (and  this, 
too,  is  true)  that  a  large  part  of 
the  sums  so  spent  are  wasted. 
The  charge,  frequently  made, 
that  advertising  increases  the 
price  of  the  articles  sold  is  not, 
however,  in  the  main  well 
founded.  Successful  advertising 
leads  to  such  a  distribution  of 
goods  as  to  permit  of  mass  pro- 


duction, and  the  resultant  saving 
allows  lower  prices  which  eco- 
nomically more  than  justify  the 
advertising  cost. 

No  other  nation  has  developed 
advertising  to  the  same  degree 
as  the  United  States.  Great 
Britain,  more  conservative  in  its 
methods  and  particularly  in  its 
copy  appeal,  is  now  taking  greater 
interest  in  American  ideas  in  this 
field,  though  not  adopting  them 
rapidly.  On  the  continent  ad- 
vertising is  still  less  of  a  factor 
in  business  than  in  Great  Brit- 
ain. Europe  has  employed  poster 
work  effectively,  and  has  created 
an  artistic  style  in  this  form  of 
advertising  in  advance  of  any- 
thing seen  in  America.  The  in- 
ternational exchange  of  adver- 
tising is  less  than  might  be  ex- 
pected in  view  of  the  enormous 
world  trade  in  manufactured 
goods.  Foreign  makers  of  arti- 
cles have  in  general  been  content 
to  let  the  importers  advertise 
locally  to  increase  the  consumer 
demand. 

A  word  remains  to  be  said  of 
the  economic  place  of  advertising 
in  publishing.  Advertising  pays 
the  bills.  A  newspaper  having 
gross  revenues,  from  all  sources, 
of  $18,000,000  receives  S3, 250,- 
000  from  circulation  and  $14,- 
750,000  from  advertising.  Its 
paper  bill  alone  is  in  excess  of 
$6,000,000,  so  that  it  is  obvious 
that  its  readers  do  not  nearly 
pay  for  the  cost  of  the  white 
paper.  A  magazine  of  2,250,000 
circulation  is  said  to  receive 
$40,000,000  from  advertising;  its 
gross  revenue  from  circulation  at 
the  face  subscription  price  could 
not  be  more  than  $4,500,000  and 
probably  is  nearer  $3,000,000. 
It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  cir- 
culation is  developed  with  little 
thought  of  revenue  from  this 
source,  and  mainly  as  a  basis  for 
attaining  advertising.  The  two 
examples  cited  are  extremes,  but 
the  principle  holds  true. 

The  laws  of  the  various  coun- 
tries relating  to  advertising  are 
comparatively  unimportant.  In 
the  United  States  the  postal  reg- 
ulations bar  from  the  mails  only 
those  advertisements  which  are 
indecent,  advertisements  of  lot- 
teries, and  prize  offers  which  are 
not  bona-fide.  The  majority  of 
statutes  and  local  ordinances  in 
the  United  States  and  elsewhere 
deal  with  posters  and  the  distri- 
bution of  hand  bills. 

With  the  development  of  ad- 
vertising there  have  arisen  a  con- 
siderable number  of  organiza- 
tions devoted  to  the  interests  of 
the  profession.  There  were  in 
1926  some  325  advertising  clubs 
(275  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada)  associated  in  an  organi- 
zation known  as  The  Advertising 
Clubs  of  the  World,  established 
in  1904.  The  slogan  of  this  or- 
ganization is  'Truth  in  Adver- 
tising,' and  it  has  been  an  im- 


portant influence  in  the  sup- 
pression of  fraudulent  adver- 
tising. 

A  further  development  has 
been  the  establishment  of  nu- 
merous schools  for  the  study  of 
advertising  and  the  introduction 
of  courses  in  advertising,  includ- 
ing psychology,  publicity,  sales- 
manship, typography,  and  com- 
mercial art,  in  some  of  the  leading 
American  colleges  and  univer- 
sities. 

Bibliography , — A  considerable 
bibliography  of  advertising  has 
arisen  in  recent  years.  For  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  available 
volumes  on  the  many  phases  of 
the  subject  the  reader  must  be 
referred  to  a  good  library  cata- 
logue. Consult  especially  Samp- 
son's i7w/o/'yo/.4  dver Using  (1874:) ; 
Calkins  and  Halden's  Modern 
Advertising  (1905);  P.  T.  Cher- 
ington's  A  dvertising  as  a  Business 
Force  (1913);  Tipper,  Hollings- 
worth,  Hotchkiss,  and  Parsons' 
Advertising:  Its  Principles  and 
Practice  (1913);  D.  Starch's 
Principles  of  Advertising  (1923); 
J.  G.  Frederick's  Masters  of  Ad- 
vertising Copy  (1925);  G.  P.  Far- 
rar's  How  Advertisements  are 
Built  (1925). 

Advice,  in  commerce,  formal 
notice  given  by  one  party  to  an- 
other of  any  transaction,  espe- 
cially of  bills  drawn. 

Advocate  (Latin  advocatus)  in 
its  general  sense  includes  any  one 
who  pleads  for  another  in  a  court 
of  law  or  other  tribunal.  In  the 
days  of  the  Roman  Republic  such 
a  person  was  called  patronus  or 
'orator,'  and  it  was  not  until  im- 
perial times  that  the  term  advo- 
catus was  applied  to  him.  It  is 
clear  that  in  Rome  the  functions 
of  a  patronus,  orator,  or  advo- 
catus were  considered  as  quite 
distinct  from  those  of  a  procura- 
tor (attorney,  solicitor,  or  agent) . 
In  some  countries  the  same  dis- 
tinction is  still  strictly  main- 
tained. In  England,  professional 
advocates  are  called  barristers, 
and  they  alone  have  audience  in 
the  higher  courts.  In  France  the 
avocat  and  avoue  correspond 
closely  to  the  barrister  and  solici- 
tor in  England.  In  the  United 
States,  most  of  the  British  colo- 
nies, and  some  parts  of  Europe, 
the  two  branches  of  the  legal 
profession  are  not  kept  separate. 
See  Barrister;  Disbar;  Law- 
yer; Solicitor. 

Advocate,  Lord.  The  Lord 
Advocate,  or  His  Majesty's  Ad- 
vocate, is  the  chief  law  officer  of 
the  crown  in  Scotland,  and  one  of 
the  great  officers  of  state.  He 
represents  the  sovereign  in  all 
proceedings  which  aff  ect  the  roy- 
al or  the  public  interest.  One  of 
his  special  functions  is  to  sit  as 
public  prosecutor  of  crimes.  He 
is  assisted  by  the  Solicitor-Gen- 
eral, four  regular  and  two  extra 
advocates-depute,  and  the  pro- 
curators-fiscal   in    the  inferior 


Vol.  L— Mar.  '26 


Advocates,  Faculty  of 


78 


iC^ades  Islands 


courts.  He  is  always  in  practice 
a  privy  councillor,  a  member  of 
Parliament  and  of  the  Ministry, 
though  not  in  the  Cabinet,  He 
goes  out  of  office  with  his  gov- 
ernment. 

Advocates,  Faculty  of,  a  col- 
lective term  for  the  advocates 
practising  at  the  Scottish  bar. 
It  is  necessary  to  pass  two  exam- 
inations before  admission  to  the 
body  can  be  obtained,  one  in 
general  scholarship  and  one  in 
law.  The  first  may  be  dis- 
pensed with  if  the  applicant  has 
taken  the  m.a.  degree  in  a  British 
University. 

Advocates*  Library,  in  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  the  property  of 
the  Faculty  of  Advocates  (q.  v.), 
is  the  largest  and  most  important 
library  in  Scotland.  It  was 
founded  in  1682,  and  in  1709  re- 
ceived the  privilege  of  obtaining 
free  a  copy  of  every  book  pub- 
lished in  the  United  Kingdom. 
It  now  consists  of  more  than  half 
a  million  volumes,  besides  a  large 
number  of  valuable  manuscripts. 

Advocatus  Diaboli.  See 
Devil's  Advocate. 

Advowson,  ad-vou'z'n,  the 
right  of  presentation  to  an  ec- 
clesiastical benefice  in  England. 
Advowsons  are  either  presenta- 
tive  or  collative.  In  the  former 
the  patron  presents  his  nominee 
to  the  bishop,  with  the  request 
that  he  be  instituted  to  the  va- 
cant living;  in  the  latter  case  the 
bishop  is  himself  the  patron. 
Before  the  passing  of  the  Bene- 
fices Act  (1898),  there  existed 
donative  advowsons  in  gift  of  the 
sovereign  or  other  patron,  with- 
out reference  to  the  bishop; 
these  are  now  merged  in  the 
presentative.  In  the  case  of  Ro- 
man Catholic  patrons  of  Angli- 
can benefices,  the  presentation 
passes  to  either  Oxford  or  Cam- 
bridge. If  the  lord  chancellor  is 
a  Roman  Catholic,  the  presenta- 
tions in  his  gift  pass  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury. 

An  advowson  is  regarded  as 
real  estate,  and  may  be  disposed 
of  as  freely  as  other  rights  of 
property,  subject  to  the  rules  of 
law  relating  to  simoniacal  con- 
tracts. An  agreement  to  sell  an 
advowson  or  next  presentation 
while  the  living  is  vacant  is  si- 
moniacal, and  therefore  unlawful 
(see  Simony).  But  it  may  hap- 
pen that  a  clergyman,  who  owns 
the  advowson  of  his  living,  offers 
it  for  sale  'with  immediate  pos- 
session'— in  other  words,  he 
agrees  to  resign  as  soon  as  the 
sale  is  complete,  that  the  pur- 
chaser may  present  himself  or 
the  person  for  whom  he  has  pur- 
chased the  living.  The  Benefices 
Act  of  1898  provides  that  advow- 
sons shall  not  be  sold  by  auction 
except  along  with  landed  estate 
adjacent  to  the  benefice,  and 
makes  various  other  restrictions 
cn  the  transfer  of  patronage. 

Adytum,  ad'i-tum  (Greek  'not 

Vol.  I.— Mar,  '26 


entered'),  the  innermost  chamber 
in  ancient  Greek  temples  where 
oracles  were  given  or  mysteries 
performed.  It  could  be  entered 
only  by  the  priests  and  the 
initiated. 

iHacus,  e'a-kus,  son  of  Zeus 
and  iEgina,  grandfather  of  the 
hero  Achilles,  and  king  of  the 
island  ^Egina;  so  famous  for 
righteousness  that  after  death 
he  was  made  one  of  the  judges 
of  the  dead,  the  others  being 
Minos  and  Rhadamanthus. 

Aeby,  a'bi,  Christoph  Theo- 
DOR  (1835-85),  Swiss  anthropol- 


ogist, was  born  near  Pfalzburg, 
Lorraine.  He  devoted  himself 
especially  to  craniotomy,  and 
wrote  German  works  on  the  sub- 
ject. He  also  showed  the  influ- 
ence of  atmospheric  pressure  on 
the  joints  of  the  body. 

^diles,  e'dilz  (Ediles),  mag- 
istrates of  ancient  Rome,  who 
were  entrusted  with  the  care  of 
public  buildings,  streets,  markets, 
weights  and  measures,  etc.;  fixed 
the  prices  of  foodstuff's;  were  the 
custodians  of  the  decrees  of  the 
senate  and  of  the  people;  and 
maintained  public  order.  Two 
aediles  of  the  people  were  created 
in  B.C.  494;  in  388  two  patrician 
or  'curule'  aediles  were  added; 
and  Caesar  appointed  others  (b.c. 
45)  to  administer  the  corn  sup- 


ply. The  public  games  and 
spectacles  were  arranged  by  the 
aediles. 

iDdui,  ed'u-i,  or  H^dui,  one 
of  the  most  powerful  tribes  in 
Gaul  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  ar- 
rival (58  B.C.),  whose  territory 
lay  between  the  Rivers  Liger 
(Loire)  and  Arar  (Saone).  They 
formed  an  alliance  with  Caesar, 
but  joined  the  rest  of  the  Gauls 
in  the  final  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence. After  his  victory, 
Caesar  treated  them  leniently  for 
the  sake  of  their  old  alliance. 

iEetes,    e-e'tes,  or  ^eta,  in 


Greek  mythology,  son  of  Helios 
and  Penscis,  was  king  of  Colchis 
(^a)  when  Jason,  the  leader  of 
the  Argonauts,  sought  the  golden 
fleece.  His  daughter  Medea 
(called  by  the  poets  ^etis)  as- 
sisted Jason  to  obtain  the  prize, 
and  left  Colchis  as  his  wife.  She 
subsequently  returned,  and  re- 
stored her  father  to  the  throne, 
which  his  brother  Perses  had 
seized.    vSee  Argonauts. 

i^gades  Islands,  e'ga-dez 
(Italian  Egadi,  'goat  islands'), 
three  islands  off  the  west  coast 
of  Sicily — Maritimo  (ancient 
Hiera),  reaching  2,245  feet  in 
Monte  Falcone;  Favignana  (an- 
cient jEgusa),  1,070  feet;  and 
Levanzo  (ancient  Phorbantia) , 
850  feet.   Their  total  area  is  70 


The  ^gean  Sea 


^gean  Civilization 


79 


^ifheah 


sq.  m.  Pop.  6,500.  Here,  in  241 
B.C.,  C.  Lutatius  Catulus  de- 
feated the  Carthaginians,  and 
terminated  the  First  Punic  War. 

Msesin  Civilization.  See  My- 
CEN^AN  Civilization. 

JEsesLn  Sea,  the  northeast 
division  of  the  Mediterranean, 
between  Greece,  Turkey,  and 
Asia  Minor.  Its  waters  are  rela- 
tively shallow,  and  studded  with 
islands  (the  Greek  Archipelago), 
and  its  shores  are  greatly  indent- 
ed. The  greatest  depth,  between 
Samos  and  Chios,  is  only  640 
fathoms. 

^geus,  in  classic  mythology, 
son  of  Pandion  and  father  of 
Theseus,  and  king  of  Athens, 
where  he  introduced  the  cult  of 
Aphrodite.  When  he  was  driven 
from  the  throne  by  his  nephews 
the  Pallatides,  Theseus,  who  was 
being  educated  at  the  court  of 
his  grandfather  Pittheus  at  Troe- 
zen,  and  was  in  ignorance  of  his 
origin,  restored  his  father  to  the 
throne.  When  Theseus  went  to 
Crete  to  deliver  Athens  from  the 
tribute  to  Minos,  he  promised  his 
father  he  would  hoist  a  white  sail 
on  his  return,  as  a  signal  of  safe- 
ty. But  in  the  intoxication  of 
his  victory  he  forgot  his  promise, 
and  his  father,  perceiving  the 
black  sail,  thought  that  his  son 
had  perished,  and  threw  himself 
into  the  sea,  which,  from  this 
event,  received  the  name  of  the 
iEgean. 

il}gilops  ('hard  grass,'  'goat 
grass'),  hard  dwarf  annual  grasses 
native  to  the  south  of  Europe, 
now  included  in  the  genus  Triti- 
cum  (wheat).  A.  ovata  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  the  source 
from  which  wheat  originated;  it 
is  capable  of  considerable  im- 
provement under  cultivation. 

iflgina,  a  Greek  island,  now 
Egina,  area  33  square  miles,  in 
the  Gulf  of  ^gina  (the  ancient 
Saronicus  Sinus).  It  is  moun- 
tainous, with  deep  valleys  and 
chasms.  The  most  ancient  name 
of  the  island  was  CEnone,  and  the 
Myrmidons  dwelt  in  its  valleys 
and  caverns.  For  a  century  be- 
fore the  Persian  War  it  was  pros- 
perous, and  the  chief  seat  of 
Greek  art.  (See  ^ginetan 
Sculptures.)  The  Athenians  in 
429  B.C.  expelled  the  original  in- 
habitants.   Pop.  10,000. 

M^tiA.  The  town  of  ^gina 
stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
town,  at  the  northwest  end  of  the 
island.  The  considerable  remains 
left  of  the  ancient  city  attest  its 
size  and  importance.    Pop.  4,700. 

^gina.  Gulf  of,  or  Saronic 
Gulf,  between  the  Greek  penin- 
sulas of  Attica  on  the  north  and 
Argolis  on  the  south.  It  contains 
many  islands  and  good  harbors. 

iCgineta  Paulus.   See  Paulus 

y^^GINETA. 


il]ginetan  Sculptures,  ^gina 
(q.  V.)  holds  an  important  posi- 
tion in  the  history  of  Greek  art. 
On  an  eminence  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  island  stand  the  ruins 
of  a  temple  of  Pallas  Athene. 
Among  these  ruins  a  series  of 
statues  were  excavated  in  1811, 
which  are  now  the  most  remark- 
able ornaments  of  the  Glypto- 
thek  at  Munich.  One  group  rep- 
resents a  combat  of  Greeks  and 
Trojans.  The  figures  are  true  to 
nature,  but  there  is  no  individual- 
ity. Probably  they  date  from 
not  more  than  fifty  years  before 
Phidias. 

iEgir,  a  Norse  deity,  husband  of 
Ran,  with  nine  daughters.  He 
has  power  over  the  stormy 
waters,  and  regales  the  gods  with 
foamy  ale.  His  journey  to  As- 
gard  is  chronicled  in  Snorri 
Sturluson's  Edda. 

i^^girite,  or  ^girine,  a  mineral 
belonging  to  the  group  of  pyrox- 
enes; a  silicate  of  soda  and  iron. 
It  is  frequently  found  in  the  rocks 
known  as  phonolites  and  nephe- 
line  syenites.  It  crystallizes  in 
the  monoclinic  system,  is  dark 
green  in  color,  pleochroic,  and 
easily  fusible  under  the  blow- 
pipe. 

jEgis,  in  mythology,  the  cloud 
surrounding  the  thunderbolts  of 
Zeus;  thence  the  shield  of  Zeus, 
Apollo,  and  Athena.  (Consult 
Iliad,  V.  738 #.)  In  ancient  art  it 
is  shown  as  a  mantle  fringed  with 
serpents,  that  of  Athena  bearing 
Medusa's  head.  The  word  is  now 
used  as  a  symbol  of  protection  or 
patronage. 

il^gisthus,  son  of  Thyestes  and 
cousin  of  Agamemnon.  While  the 
latter  was  away  besieging  Troy, 
^gisthus  became  the  paramour 
of  Clytaemnestra,  Agamemnon's 
wife.  On  Agamemnon's  victori- 
ous return  they  murdered  him; 
but  some  years  afterward,  Ores- 
tes, son  of  Agamemnon,  returned 
from  Phocis,  where  he  had  taken 
refuge,  and  slew  the  guilty  pair. 
This  is  the  account  given  by 
Homer;  the  tragic  poets  make 
Clytaemnestra  alone  murder 
Agememnon — her  motive  in  ^s- 
chylus  being  her  jealousy  of  Cas- 
sandra, in  Sophocles  and  Eurip- 
ides her  wrath  at  the  death  of 
Iphigenia.  Later  writers  also  de- 
scribe iEgisthus  as  the  son  of 
Thyestes  by  unwitting  incest  with 
his  daughter  Pelopia. 

i^gium,  town,  ancient  Greece, 
one  of  the  twelve  towns  of  Achaia, 
and  its  capital  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Helice  (373  B.C.) .  Accord- 
ing to  legend  it  was  the  birthplace 
of  Zeus.  Here  Agamemnon  mus- 
tered the  Greek  chiefs  against 
Troy;  and  here  the  Achaean 
League  met,  as  the  Amphictyons 
did  at  Thermopylae  and  Delphi. 
The  modern  town  is  Voslilsa. 


iUgle,  a  genus  of  Aurantiaceae, 
one  of  which,  A.  marmelos,  pro- 
duces a  fragrant,  delicious,  and 
wholesome  Indian  fruit  resem- 
bling the  orange,  called  Bael  or 
Bhel  fruit.  The  unripe  fruit,  bark, 
and  leaves,  have  astringent  prop- 
erties; the  rind  gives  a  perfume 
and  yellow  dye;  the  seed  yields  a 
cement. 

^gospotamos  (Greek  'goat 
river'),  a  river  in  the  Thracian 
Chersonesus,  famous  for  the  de- 
feat of  the  Athenian  fleet  by  the 
Lacedaemonians  under  Lysander 
(405  B.C.),  which  put  an  end  to 
the  Peloponnesian  War,  and  to 
the  predominance  of  Athens  in 
Greece. 

i^grotat,  a  medical  certificate 
granted  to  students  in  English 
universities,  to  show  that  illness 
prevented  due  attendance  to  du- 
ties; colloquially,  'an  aeger.' 

iEgyptus,  son  of  Belus  and 
Anchinoe,  and  twin  brother  of 
Danaus.  He  received  Arabia 
from  his  father,  and,  conquering 
the  land  of  the  Nile,  called  it 
Egypt,  after  himself.  He  had, 
according  to  the  legend  most  ac- 
cepted, fifty  sons  who  were 
feared  by  their  uncle,  Danaus, 
who,  strangely  enough,  had 
fifty  daughters.  Danaus  fled  to 
Argos  in  the  PelojDonnesus,  but 
was  pursued  by  the  sons  of 
iEgyptus,  who  sought  the  hands 
of  his  daughters  in  marriage;  and 
taking  advantage  of  their  several 
loves,  he  bestowed  on  each  a 
daughter,  who  received  from  her 
father  a  dagger  with  which  to 
slay  her  bridegroom  on  the  mar- 
riage night.  This  infamous  race 
of  the  Danaides  succeeded  by 
this  means  in  despatching  all  the 
husbands  with  one  exception, 
Lynceus,  who  was  saved  by 
Hypermnestra. 

iEken,  or  Hieronymus,  Jerom 
VAN  (1462-1516),  or  JerOM 
Bosch  from  his  birthplace,  a 
Dutch  painter  and  sculptor.  One 
of  the  first  Dutch  painters  in  oil, 
he  loved  the  grotesque.  His 
chief  work.  The  Temptation  of 
Saint  Antony,  is  in  Antwerp, 
while  Vienna  possesses  his  Last 
Judgment,  and  the  Louvre  his 
Hell.  Breughel  was  one  of  his 
disciples. 

^Ifgar,  Earl  (d.  c.  1062),  son 
of  Leofric,  Earl  of  Mercia,  and  of 
the  'Lady  Godiva'  of  legend.  He 
and  his  father  assisted  Edward 
the  Confessor  against  Earl  God- 
win. Outlawed  by  the  Witan  in 
1055,  he  took  refuge  in  Ireland, 
thereafter  invading  Hertfordshire 
with  Welsh  allies.  He  succeeded 
as  Earl  of  Mercia  in  1057. 

^Ifheah,  or  St.  Alpiiege,  An- 
glo-Saxon bishop  of  Winchester 
in  984,  and  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  1006;  in  1011  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Danes  and  killed.  St. 


mtred 


79  A 


^olians 


Alphege  Day  in  the  English 
Church  is  April  19. 

^fred.    See  Alfred. 

vElfred  Atheling,  son  of  ^th- 
elred  ii.  and  Emma;  taken  with 
his  brother  Edward  (afterward 
the  Confessor)  to  their  uncle, 
Richard  the  Good  of  Normandy. 
In  1036,  on  the  death  of  Canute, 
the  claims  of  Alfred  and  Edward 
to  the  English  throne  were  set 
aside  by  the  Witan.  Alfred 
landed  at  Dover  with  a  force  of 
Normans,  but  was  attacked  and 
captured  by  Earl  Godwin,  who 
cruelly  blinded  him;  he  died  from 
his  injuries  at  Ely. 

iElfric  (called  Grammaticus, 
'the  Grammarian'),  a  volumi- 
nous Old  English  writer  about  the 
close  of  the  tenth  century,  whose 
history  and  personality  are 
alike  involved  in  obscurity.  It  is 
known  that  he  was  a  pupil  of 
yEthelwold,  most  likely  at  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  Abing- 
don, and  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  he  accompanied  his  master 
on  his  advancement  to  the  see  of 
Winchester.  He  was  appointed 
to  rule  over  the  new  monastery  at 
Cerne,  and  afterward  became 
abbot  of  Ensham.  The  gram- 
matical works  ascribed  to  ^Ifric 
are  his  Latin  and  English  gram- 
mar and  glossary,  printed  by 
Somner  at  Oxford  in  1659;  and 
his  Colloquium,  a  series  of  dia- 
logues containing  interesting  de- 
scriptions of  common  life,  in  Lat- 
in, with  English  interlinear  trans- 
lation. His  most  important  work 
is  his  collection  of  Homilies, 
eighty  in  number,  edited  by 
Thorpe  for  the  ^Elfric  Society 
(1844-6).  They  are  short  and 
vigorous,  and  attracted  great  at- 
tention at  the  time  of  the  English 
Reformation.  Among  his  other 
works  are  a  treatise  on  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  and  an 
abridgment  of  the  Pentateuch 
and  the  Book  of  Job. 

MWz,  Capitolina,  the  city 
which  the  Emperor  Hadrian 
wished  built  on  the  ruins  of  Jeru- 
salem (135  A.D.),  but  which 
Aquila  his  kinsman  erected.  The 
old  Temple  was  replaced  by  a 
pagan  shrine  of  Jupiter  Capito- 
linus,  whence  the  city's  name 
is  derived. 

i^lianus,  Claudius,  a  native 
of  Pra?neste  in  Italy,  who  studied 
and  taught  rhetoric  in  Rome  at 
the  end  of  the  second  century 
A.D.,  and  was  styled  the  'Sophist.' 
Two  of  his  works  remain. 

i^ius    Aristides.    See  Aris- 

TIDES. 

m\2L  (Ella),  died  588,  first 
king  of  the  Deirans,  an  East  An- 
glian tribe,  whose  name,  and  espe- 
cially those  of  his  race  (Angli)  and 
kingdom  (Deira),  are  commemo- 
rated in  the  legendary  tale  of 
Pope  Gregory  and  the  English 


captives  in  the  market  place  at 
Rome. 

^uroidea.    See  Carnivora. 

illmilian  Way,  a  famous  Roman 
road  built  in  187  B.C.  by  Marcus 
^milius  Lepidus,  Roman  consul. 
It  ran  from  Rimini,  on  the  Adri- 
atic, through  Bononia  (Bologna), 
in  a  northwest  direction  to  Pla- 
centia  (Piacenza),  on  the  River 
Po,  being  the  continuation  of  the 
Flaminian  Way  from  Rome  to 
Rimini.  The  79th  milestone  was 
found  in  the  Rhine,  and  it  records 
that  Augustus  restored  the  road 
from  Ariminium  to  the  River 
Trebia  (2  B.C.).  To-day  the  road 
follows  the  same  line  and  crosses 
some  of  the  same  bridges. 

i^milius  Paulus.  See  Paulus. 

^naria,  Italy.    See  Ischia. 

il}neas,  the  hero  of  Virgil's 
^neid,  was,  according  to  Homer, 
the  son  of  Anchises  and  Aphro- 
dite (Venus),  and  ranked  next  to 
Hector  among  the  Trojan  heroes. 
The  traditions  of  his  adventures 
before  and  after  the  fall  of  Troy 
are  various  and  discordant.  The 
best  known  is  that  of  Virgil,  who 
makes  ^neas  escape  from  Troy, 
carrying  his  aged  father  on  his 
shoulders;  but  in  the  confusion  of 
his  hasty  flight  he  loses  his  wife 
Creusa.  His  filial  affection  to- 
ward his  father  earned  him  the 
name  of  the  'pious  ^neas.'  Hav- 
ing collected  a  fleet  of  twenty 
vessels,  he  sailed  to  Thrace,  where 
he  began  building  a  city,  but  was 
terrified  by  an  unfavorable  omen, 
and  abandoned  his  plan  of  a  set- 
tlement there.  A  mistaken  in- 
terpretation of  the  oracle  of  Del- 
phi now  led  him  to  Crete;  but 
from  this  place  he  was  driven  by  a 
pestilence.  Passing  the  promon- 
tory of  Actium,  he  came  to  Epi- 
rus,  and  then  continued  his  voy- 
age to  Italy  and  round  Sicily  to 
the  promontory  of  Drepanum  on 
the  west,  where  his  father 
Anchises  died. 

A  storm  afterward  drove  ^ne- 
as  to  the  coast  of  Africa;  and 
landing  near  Carthage,  he  was 
hospitably  received  and  enter- 
tained by  Queen  Dido.  His  mar- 
riage with  Dido  was  prevented 
only  by  an  express  command  of 
Jupiter  that  he  must  return  to 
Italy.  The  hero  sailed  away, 
leaving  the  unhappy  queen  to 
despair  and  death  by  her  own 
hand.  During  his  stay  in  Sicily, 
where  he  celebrated  the  funeral 
of  his  father,  the  wives  of  his  com- 
panions and  seamen,  weary  of 
long  voyages  without  certainty  of 
finding  a  home,  set  fire  to  his 
fleet.  After  building  the  city 
Acesta,  he  sailed  for  Italy,  leav- 
ing behind  him  the  women,  and 
some  of  the  men  belonging  to  his 
fleet.  On  landing  in  Italy  he 
visited  the  Sibyl  at  Cuma?,  and 
received  intimations  of  his  future 


destiny.  Then,  sailing  along  the 
Tiber,  and  landing  on  the  east 
side  of  the  river,  he  found  himself 
in  the  country  of  Latinus,  king  of 
the  Aborigines.  Lavinia,  the 
daughter  of  Latinus,  had  been 
destined  to  marry  a  stranger,  but 
her  mother  had  promised  to  give 
her  in  marriage  to  Turnus,  king 
of  the  Rutuli.  A  war  ensued, 
which  terminated  in  the  marriage 
of  ^neas  with  Lavinia.  His 
landing  in  Italy  occurred  seven 
years  after  the  fall  of  Troy. 

Many  of  the  episodes  in  the 
story,  as  his  meeting  with  Queen 
Dido  at  Carthage,  are  irreconcil- 
able even  with  mythical  chronol- 
ogy, lulus  or  Ascanius,  son  of 
/Eneas  and  Creusa,  was  claimed 
as  their  eponymous  ancestor  by 
the  Julian  gens  at  Rome;  hence 
constant  allusions  to  the  divine 
ancestress  of  Augustus  occur  in 
Virgil,  Horace,  and  other  poets  of 
the  time. 

.«:neas  Silvius.   See  Pius  ii. 

i^neid.   See  ^neas;  Virgil. 

Aeng,  or  An,  river  and  town, 
Kyauk-pyu  district,  Arakan, 
Lpwer  Burma,  in  19°  45'  N. 

Aeng,  pass  through  Arakan 
Yoma  Mountains,  between  Bur- 
ma and  Arakan. 

^olian  Deposits,  formations 
due  to  the  action  of  the  wind, 
such  as  the  sandhills  or  dunes  of 
many  maritime  regions,  and  the 
similar  hillocks  which  occur  in 
desiccated  areas,  such  as  those  of 
the  Sahara,  Arabia,  Utah,  Ari- 
zona, etc.  Rocks  of  aeolian  origin 
are  found  interbedded  with  sedi- 
mentary strata  in  many  of  the 
older  geologic  formations.  See 
Loess. 

^olian  Harp,  a  simple  musical 
instrument  formed  by  stretching 
eight  or  ten  catgut  strings  of  va- 
rious thickness,  all  tuned  in  uni- 
son, over  a  wooden  shell  or  box. 
The  sounds  produced  by  the  ris- 
ing and  falling  wind,  in  passing 
over  the  strings,  are  of  a  drowsy 
and  lulling  character.  St.  Dun- 
stan  is  said  to  have  invented  it; 
modifications  were  Schnell's  An- 
emochord  (1789),  and  Herz' 
Pianoeolien  (1851). 

^olian  Islands.  See  Lipari 
Islands. 

^olian  Mode  in  Music.  See 
Mode. 

^olians,  one  of  the  principal 
races  of  the  Greek  people,  who 
were  originally  settled  in  Thes- 
saly,  from  which  chey  spread  arid 
formed  numerous  settlements  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Greece  and 
in  the  Western  Peloponnesus.  In 
the  eleventh  century  B.C.  some  of 
them  emigrated  to  Boeotia  and 
other  districts  of  North  Greece, 
colonized  the  island  of  Lesbos, 
and  founded  more  than  thirty 
cities  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
Asia  Minor.    Their  dialect  was 


generally  regarded  as  the  oldest 
form  of  Hellenic  speech.  It  is 
usually  divided  into  four  vari- 
eties, the  chief  of  which  is  the 
Lesbian,  in  which  Alcaeus  and 
Sappho  composed  their  lyrics. 
It  threw  out  the  aspirate  or 
rough  breathing,  and  was 
smoother  than  Doric. 

^olipile  (Latin  'ball  of  ^o- 
lus'),  a  hollow  metallic  ball  ro- 
tating about  its  vertical  axis, 
with  horizontal,  arm-like  tubes 
projecting  radially,  and  having 
their  free  ends  bent  round  in  a 
tangential  direction.  When  the 
water  in  the  globe  is  heated,  and 
steam  rushes  out  of  the  tubes, 
rotation  is  set  up.  It  was  in- 
vented by  Hero  of  Alexandria 
about  120  B.C.  See  Turbines, 
Steam. 

iEoIotropy  (from  Greek  words 
for  'changeful'  and  'turning'), 
or  Anistropy,  is  the  opposite 
of  isotropy,  and  implies  change  in 
the  electrical,  optical,  or  other 
physical  properties  of  bodies  in 
consequence  of  change  of  posi- 
tion— as  when  the  refractive 
property  of  a  transparent  body  is 
not  the  same  in  all  directions. 
See Isotropy. 

^olus  (Greek  'fleet'),  in 
Greek  mythology,  the  god  of  the 
winds  and  ruler  of  the  i^^olian 
(Lipari)  Islands,  where  he  kept 
the  several  winds  immured  in  a 
cave.  According  to  euhemeris- 
tic  interpretation,  ^olus  was  an 
ordinary  mortal,  the  first  chief 
of  the  Cohans. 

iSoii,  a  cosmological  term  sig- 
nifying an  age,  an  indefinitely 
long  period  of  time,  an  era; 
chiefly  used  rhetorically.  Also, 
in  Gnostic  doctrine,  a  divine 
emanation  partaking  of  the  eter- 
nal duration  of  God,  having  a 
specific  and  independent  activity 
in  providential  history. 

^pinus,  Franz  Maria  Ul- 
RiCH  Theodor  (1724-1802), 
German  physicist  who  discovered 
the  electric  properties  of  tourma- 
line and  devised  many  new  ex- 
periments in  electricity.  He 
was  the  discoverer  of  the  method 
of  magnetization  known  as 
'double  touch.'  He  held  the 
'single  fluid'  theory  of  elec- 
tricity. 

iEpyornls  (Greek  'tall  bird*), 
the  name  given  to  a  great  wing- 
less bird,  whose  remains  occur  in 
Post-tertiary  deposits  in  Mada- 
gascar. Its  sub-fossil  eggs  are  13 
to  14  inches  in  diameter,  and 
have  the  capacity  of  three  os- 
trich eggs.  There  appear  to 
have  been  two  or  three  species, 
one  as  large  as  the  Dinornis,  or 
larger.    See  Moa, 

iSqui,  a  warlike  tribe  of  an- 
cient Italy  who  inhabited  the 
upper  valley  and  hills  to  the 
southeast  of  the  River  Anio,  on 
the  eastern  border  of  Latium. 
Together  with  the  Volsci,  a  kin- 
dred tribe,  they  v/aged  constant 


warfare  with  the  young  Roman 
republic,  sometimes  carrying 
their  raids  to  the  very  gates  of 
the  city.  In  446  B.C.  they  ap- 
peared for  the  last  time  before 
the  city,  and  in  418  they  were 
dispossessed  of  their  great  strong- 
hold on  Mount  Algidus.  Their 
last  struggle  with  Rome  began  in 
304,  and  ended  with  their  com- 
plete subjugation. 

^rarium,  the  public  treasury 
of  ancient  Rome,  in  the  temple  of 
Saturn,  on  the  Capitoline  Hill. 
It  contained  all  important  state 
papers,  the  laws  engraved  on 
brass,  the  standards  of  the  le- 
gions, and  the  state  money  and 
accounts. 

Aerated  Bread  is  bread  not 
fermented  with  yeast,  but  me- 
chanically charged  with  carbonic 
acid  gas,  the  gas  being  derived 
usually  from  carbonic  acid 
water.    See  Bread. 

Aerated  Waters,  a  name  ap- 
plied to  the  large  class  of  bev- 
erages which  are  rendered  spark- 
ling by  dissolving  in  them  car- 
bonic acid  under  pressure.  The 
term  does  not  include  cham- 
pagne or  other  carbonated  bev- 
erage in  which  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  is  produced  by  the  natural 
process  of  fermentation.  Car- 
bonic acid  dissolves  readily  in 
water,  that  liquid  absorbing  at 
the  ordinary  atmospheric  pres- 
sure and  temperature  about  its 
own  volume  of  the  gas.  Under 
pressure,  however,  as  when  the 
gas  is  forced  into  a  strong  vessel 
containing  the  water,  it  absorbs 
many  times  its  own  volume;  and 
when  the  pressure  is  released,  the 
extra  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
escapes,  rendering  it  sparkling  or 
effervescent. 

Various  forms  of  apparatus, 
constructed  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple but  differing  in  detail,  are 
used  for  the  production  of 
aerated  water  on  a  large  scale. 
In  fact,  in  no  branch  of  industry 
has  more  ingenuity  been  ex- 
pended in  the  devising  of  labor- 
saving  apparatus.  Essentially, 
the  process  consists  in  the  pro- 
duction of  carbonic  acid  from 
whiting  or  chalk  by  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid.  The  refuse,  con- 
sisting of  plaster  of  Paris,  is  dis- 
carded, while  the  gas,  after  being 
purified  by  washing  with  water, 
is  stored  in  a  copper  bell  or  gaso- 
meter. Thence  it  is  pumped 
along  with  water  into  copper  or 
gunmetal  vessels  lined  with  pure 
tin,  being  made  to  dissolve  in  the 
water  either  by  agitation  or  by 
other  processes.  When  the  pres- 
sure inside  these  vessels  reaches 
about  100  lbs.  per  square  inch, 
the  water  contains  about  seven 
times  its  volume  of  gas,  and  is 
ready  to  be  filled  into  bottles. 

The  siphon  is  a  glass  bottle, 
fitted  with  a  metal  top,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  lever  or  handle, 
which,  enables  a  portion  of  the 


contents  to  be  drawn  off  without 
difficulty.  The  head  should  be  of 
the  purest  tin,  to  avoid  contami- 
nation of  the  aerated  water.  For- 
merly there  was  risk  of  lead  poi- 
soning by  aerated  waters,  as  they 
readily  dissolve  lead,  but  all  man- 
ufacturers of  repute  now  use 
pure  tin  pipe  alone.  For  use  in 
soda  fountains,  the  water  is  de^ 
livered  in  large  cylinders. 

The  better  known  kinds  of 
aerated  waters  are:  (1)  Potash 
and  Soda  waters,  which,  when  of 
full  medicinal  strength,  contain 
15  grains  of  the  bicarbonate  of 
potash  or  soda  in  each  bottle; 
usually,  however,  much  less  is 
put  in,  and  the  amount  ranges 
from  1  to  7  or  10  grains;  (2) 
Aerated  water,  which  is  frequently 
sold  for  soda  water,  but  is  a  sim- 
ple solution  of  carbonic  acid,  and 
contains  no  admixture;  (3)  Seltzer 
water  (q.  v.),  which  contains  the 
chlorides  of  sodium,  calcium,  and 
magnesium,  along  with  phos- 
phate and  sulphate  of  sodium; 
(4)  Medicinal  waters,  containing 
varying  proportions  of  chemicals, 
as,  for  instance,  lime,  carbonate 
of  iron,  citrate  of  lithia,  or  bro- 
mide of  potassium. 

The  temperance  drinks,  which 
include  such  favorites  as  lemon- 
ade, ginger  ale,  ginger  beer,  and 
tonic  bitters,  are  made  by  put- 
ting the  requisite  quantity  of 
flavoring  syrup  into  a  bottle,  and 
filling  up  with  simple  aerated 
water;  md  the  varying  qualities 
in  the  market  correspond  to  the 
variety  in  the  recipes  from  which 
they  are  made.  Aerated  fruit 
beverages  are  produced  when  the 
water  charged  with  carbonic  acid 
is  received  in  a  glass  containing 
about  a  tablespoonful  of  any  of 
the  fruit  syrups. 

Many  waters  naturally  aerated 
have  important  medicinal  prop- 
erties, and  are  treated  under 
Mineral  Waters. 

Aeration,  in  plants,  is  the 
process  by  which  interchange  of 
gases  takes  place  between  the 
plant  tissues  and  the  surrounding 
medium.  Leaves  are  the  speciai 
organs  set  apart  for  the  absorp- 
tion of  gases,  as  well  as  for  the 
transpiration  of  water  vapor  and 
the  expiration  of  other  gases. 
Gases,  however,  can  be  absorbed 
by  the  cells  of  leaves  or  other 
parts  of  the  plant  only  when 
these  gases  are  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion; and  in  the  larger  plants  the 
great  number  of  cells  and  com- 
pactness of  structure  would  make 
it  impossible  for  all  but  the  sur- 
face cells  to  procure  the  neces- 
sary aeration.  Hence  an  exten- 
sive system  of  irregular  passages 
between  the  cells  has  been  devel- 
oped, communicating  with  the 
outer  air  by  minute  openings 
between  the  surface  cells  or 
through  larger  breaks  in  the  cork 
layers.  In  the  case  of  submerged 
water  plants,  the  gases  are  al- 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Aerial  Mail 


Aeronautics 


ready  dissolved  in  the  water  sur- 
rounding the  leaves;  but  in  the 
case  of  land  plants,  the  gases 
contained  in  the  atmosphere  are 
dissolved  by  the  sap  which  sat- 
urates the  cell  wall. 

A  small  amount  of  nitrogen  is 
absorbed,  but  chiefly  oxygen  and 
carbon  dioxide  are  taken  in  by 
the  leaves;  both  of  the  latter  are 
also  exhaled.  Carbon  dioxide  is 
absorbed  not  only  by  the  leaves, 
but  by  all  parts  of  the  plant's  sur- 
face which  contain  chlorophyll. 
It  is  the  main  food  of  green 
plants,  which  utilize  the  carbon, 
along  with  water  and  a  small 
amount  of  mineral  constituents, 
to  build  up  their  structure. 
Under  certain  circumstances 
small  quantities  of  ammonia, 
sulphur  dioxide,  and  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen  are  also  ab- 
sorbed by  the  leaves  of  plants. 
See  Absorption;  Plants,  Phys- 
iology OF. 

Aerial  Mail.  See  Aeronau- 
tics. 

Aerial  Ropeways.  See  Rope- 
ways. 

A'erodrome,  the  name  pro- 
posed by  S.  P.  Langley  for  flying 
machines  with  wing-like  appen- 
dages, has  been  superseded  by 
Aeroplane.  Aerodrome  now 
signifies   aviation  grounds. 

A'erodynam'ics,  that  branch  of 
hydrodynamics  which  treats  of 
air  and  other  gases  in  motion. 
See  Gases,  Kinetic  Theory  of; 
Hydrokinetics;  Hydrostatics. 

A'eroklin'oscope,  the  name  of 
an  instrument  invented  by  Buys- 
Ballot,  and  used,  principally  in 
Europe,  in  connection  with 
weather  signals  for  exhibiting 
publicly  the  difference  of  baro- 
metric pressure  at  different  ob- 
serving stations. 

Aerolites.    See  Meteorites. 

A'eronau'tics,  the  term  used 
to  designate  the  entire  science  of 
aerial  navigation,  while  Aviation 
is  specifically  limited  to  denote 
flight  in  machines  that  are  heav- 
ier than  the  air  (see  Flying  Ma- 
chines) .  A  Free  Fying  or  Spher- 
ical Balloon,  also  called  an  Aero- 
stat, is  an  apparatus  with  an  en- 
velope which  is  filled  with  a  gas 
whose  specific  gravity  is  lighter 
than  the  atmosphere  near  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  It  cannot 
be  steered  by  the  pilot,  and  is 
practically  at  the  mercy  of  the 
air  currents  (see  Balloons). 
A  Dirigible  Balloon  or  Airship 
usually  has  an  elongated  en- 
velope, and  is  equipped  with  a 
motor,  propellers,  and  rudder, 
with  which  it  can  be  steered  at 
will  against  a  moderate  wind  (see 
Balloons,  Dirigible).  Kite  Bal- 
loons are  a  combination  of  the 
elongated  balloon  and  kite  prin- 
ciples (see  Kite).  Captive  Bal- 
loons are  firmly  anchored  to  the 
ground,  and  can  be  automati- 
cally raised  or  lowered  by  means 
of  a  mechanical  device  fixed  on 
the  ground.    Sounding  Balloons 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


are  small  balloons  used  to  carry 
a  set  of  recording  instruments  to 
the  higher  altitudes,  when  the 
balloons  burst,  and  the  instru- 
ments are  carried  safely  to  earth 
by  means  of  a  parachute.  A 
Parachute  (q.v.)  is  a  scientific- 
ally constructed,  umbrella-like 
apparatus  which,  by  compressing 
the  air  systematically,  regulates 
the  descent  of  a  body  heavier 
than  the  air.  An  Aeronaut  is  a 
person  who  sails  in  any  of  the 
various  forms  of  air  craft.  An 
Aviator  is  one  who  flies  in  ma- 
chines that  are  heavier  than  air. 
Though  it  is  said  that,  in  1685, 
Laurenzo  de  Gusmann  con- 
structed a  lighter-than-air  ap- 
paratus at  Lisbon,  which  suc- 
ceeded in  raising  itself  from  the 
ground  by  means  of  the  lifting 
power  of  hot  air,  the  science  of 
aeronautics  definitely  dates  from 
1783,  when  the  Montgolfier 
brothers,  at  Annonay  in  France, 
constructed  their  first  balloons. 
They  and  their  co-workers, 
Charles,  Pilatre  de  Rozier,  Rob- 
ert, and  the  Marquis  d'Arlandes, 
rapidly  developed  the  spherical 
balloon  to  a  state  of  efficiency 
which  practically  has  not  been 
improved  upon  to  this  day.  In 
the  balloon  used  by  MM. 
Robert  and  Charles  in  1783  there 
were  present  all  the  details  of  a 
modern  balloon  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  guide  rope  and  the 
ripping  cord.  In  all  Europe,  and 
principally  in  France,  ballooning 
became  a  great  fad  and  an  object 
of  scientific  inquiry;  but  it 
languished  about  1812,  owing  to 
a  number  of  untoward  accidents. 

In  the  meantime,  the  balloon 
had  been  adapted  to  military 
uses,  and  a  company  with  a  bal- 
looning school  was  instituted  in 
France.  On  June  13,  1794,  the 
French  at  Maubeuge,  in  a  battle 
with  the  Austrians,  for  the  first 
time  used  an  aerial  vessel  in  war- 
fare. It  proved  exceptionally 
useful  for  purposes  of  reconnais- 
sance, and  aroused  a  supersti- 
tious dread  in  the  ranks  of  the 
enemy.  In  the  meantime,  Gen- 
eral Meusnier,  an  exceptionally 
far-sighted  officer  of  the  French 
army,  had  been  studying  the 
resistance  of  the  air,  and  had 
planned  an  elliptical  dirigible 
airship,  which  in  the  main  in- 
cluded all  the  important  prin- 
ciples involved  in  the  modern 
dirigible.  It  is  probable  that  he 
would  have  carried  out  his 
scheme  if  he  had  not  been  killed 
fighting  the  Prussians  at  May- 
ence  in  1793.  When  Napoleon, 
in  1789,  closed  the  French  bal- 
looning school  and  disbanded  the 
two  companies,  the  airship  in 
warfare  disappeared. 

After  the  early  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  science  of 
aeronautics  was  left  almost  en- 
tirely to  showmen.  In  the  inter- 
val, meteorologists  used  the  bal- 
loon to  obtain  remarkable  at- 


mospheric data,  and  several  na- 
tions utilized  the  apparatus  in 
their  military  operations,  no- 
tably the  United  States  during 
the  Civil  War  and  the  French  at 
the  Siege  of  Paris.  But  the  im- 
provements were  insignificant. 
A  passing  interest  was  aroused 
by  Giffard  in  France,  who,  in 
1852,  constructed  an  airship  with 
a  small  steam  engine  of  5  h.p,, 
with  which  he  succeeded  in  nav- 
igating. Paul  Haenlein  in  Ger- 
many shortly  afterward  man- 
aged to  propel  a  dirigible  by 
means  of  a  gas  engine,  the  first 
in  history  to  be  so  used.  Another 
notable  impetus  was  given  to  the 
science  by  the  French  army 
officers  Renard  and  Krebs,  in 
1885,  who  in  their  dirigible 
described  a  figure  eight  and 
returned  to  their  starting  point. 

Contemporary  popular  inter- 
est in  the  science  of  aeronautics 
dates  from  1898,  when  Santos- 
Dumont,  a  wealthy  young  Bra- 
zilian, performed  many  spec- 
tacular feats.  Immediately  bal- 
looning became  the  sporting  fad 
in  France,  and  spread  rapidly 
over  the  Continent  and  England. 
The  various  governments  estab- 
lished aeronautical  military  di- 
visions; numerous  airships  of 
the  dirigible  type  made  their  ap- 
pearance; many  balloon  fac- 
tories were  established;  and  aero 
clubs,  in  some,  cases  aided  by 
government  subsidies,  were 
formed  throughout  Europe  and 
later  in  the  United  States.  The 
clubs  in  the  various  sections  of 
the  country  are  federated  divi- 
sionally; are  banded  together 
under  a  national  organization; 
and  the  aero  clubs  of  the  world 
are  combined  in  an  organization 
known  as  the  Federation  Aero- 
nautique  Internationale.  This 
organization  certifies  all  avia- 
tion records,  which  are  only 
official  when  made  under  the 
supervision  of  the  national  as- 
sociation which  is  a  member  of 
the  international  body. 

The  effort  to  fly  by  means  of 
heavier-than-air  craft  antedates 
all  other  experiments  in  aerial 
navigation.  The  first  authentic 
instance  is  recorded  in  67  a.d. 
One  of  the  early  students  of 
heavier-than-air  machines  was 
the  celebrated  painter  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  whose  sketches,  still 
in  existence,  indicate  an  extra- 
ordinary technical  knowledge 
of  the  mechanical  problems 
involved.  The  first  aeroplane  to 
fly  by  mechanical  propulsion  was 
invented  by  an  Englishman 
named  Henson,  who,  in  1843, 
flew  under  power  of  a  20  h.p. 
steam  engine.  Sir  Hiram  Maxim 
built  a  machine  in  1888  which 
was  practically  successful,  and 
Ader  flew  in  Paris  in  1900.  S.  P. 
Langley  (q.v.),  who  began  ex- 
perimenting in  1885,  constructed 
a  model  which  flew  across  the 
Potomac  River  in  1896.  Otto 


Aeronautics 


79  D 


Aeronautics 


Lilienthal  of  Germany  carried 
out  systematic  investigations 
regarding  gliding  flight,  and  in 
1892  made  over  2,000  glides  u^ith 
gliders  of  his  own  construction. 
The  Wright  Brothers,  Orville  and 
Wilbur  (qq.v.).  following  along 
the  lines  of  Lilienthal  and  Lang- 
ley,  made  their  initial  flights 
under  motor  power  in  1903. 

For  the  subsequent  develop- 
ment of  the  flying  art  and  the 
evolution  of  modern  aircraft, 
prior  to  the  Great  War,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  articles 
on  Balloons  and  Flying  Ma- 
chines, which  discuss  in  detail 
the  various  types. 

Development  of  Aeronautics 
during  the  Great  War. — Lighter- 
than-Air  Craft,  as  they  exist  at 
the  stage  to  which  they  were 
developed  during  the  war,  are  in 
general  of  three  classes — Non- 
rigid,  Semi-rigid,  and  Rigid. 

The  Non-rigid  is  the  simplest 
and  oldest  form  in  use,  nearly  all 
spherical  and  kite  balloons,  as 
well  as  small  dirigibles  or 
'blimps,'  coming  under  this 
class.  These  are  made  of  per- 
fectly flexible  fabric,  and  de- 
pend entirely  on  an  excess  of  in- 
ternal pressure  to  maintain  their 
proper  shape.  Fabrics  used  in 
balloon  construction  are  of  three 
main  types:  (1)  Gas-tight  fabric, 
used  where  gas-tightness  is 
the  prime  consideration;  (2) 
Outer-covering  fabric,  the  prin- 
cipal function  of  which  is  to 
form  a  rain-  and  weather-proof 
outer  cover  to  the  ship  (usually 
of  a  rigid  type)  both  as  a  fairing 
to  reduce  air  resistance  and  to 
protect  the  internal  balloonets 
from  sudden  variation  in  tem- 
perature due  to  radiant  heat  and 
from  deterioration  caused  by 
sunlight;  (3)  Fabric  combining 
the  properties  of  both  gas-tight 
and  outer-covering  fabrics,  such 
as  is  required  for  the  envelopes 
of  non-rigid  ships. 

The  lightest  method  of  ren- 
dering a  fabric  gas-tight  is  the 
application  of  gold  beaters'  skin 
— a  membrane  through  which 
water  will  easily  pass  but  which 
has  a  pronounced  tendency  to 
resist  the  passage  of  hydrogen. 
This  material,  however,  is  no 
longer  in  general  use,  having 
been  superseded  by  the  use  of 
a  cotton  fabric,  rubber  coated, 
and  consisting  usually  of  several 
layers  stuck  together  by  a  rub- 
ber solution — a  fabric  which 
both  fulfils  the  function  of  an 
outer  covering  and  is  capable  of 
withstanding  considerable  stress 
produced  by  the  internal  pres- 
sure of  the  gas  and  the  tension  of 
the  riggings  attached  to  it.  The 
rubber  coating  usually  contains 
aluminum  powder,  which  forms 
a  surface  that  reflects  much  of 
the  radiant  heat  and  prevents 
rapid  temperature  changes  and 
is  also  opaque  to  the  light,  which 
would  injure  the  fabric. 


In  non-rigid  types  the  mini- 
mum pressure  between  the  in- 
side and  outside  of  the  fabric  is 
usually  15  mm.,  the  pressure 
which  it  is  necessary  to  main- 
tain in  the  envelope  depending 
upon  the  load  supported  by  the 
rigging  and  the  excess  of  external 
pressure  caused  around  the  bow 
of  the  envelope  due  to  the  for- 
ward motion  of  the  ship,  which 
becomes  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance as  the  speed  increases. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  air- 
ships is  perhaps  the  feature  of 
greatest  importance  from  both 
a  military  and  commercial  point 
of  view.  The  basis  for  calcu- 
lating the  disposal  lift  varies  in 
different  countries,  from  62.5 
to  68,  which  is  about  the  pres- 
ent standard,  though  at  one  time 
it  was  taken  as  high  as  70.14 
in  Great  Britain  and  72.5  in 
France,  that  being  the  weight 
in  pounds  that  could  be  raised 
by  1,000  cubic  feet  of  hydrogen. 

As  the  volume  of  gas  increases 
as  the  cube  of  the  linear  dimen- 
sion, while  the  weight  of  the  mass 
is  considerably  less,  the  non-rigid 
having  no  hull  structure  will 
for  the  same  size  have  a  greater 
proportion  of  available  lift. 

For  commercial  purposes  there 
is  perhaps  much  to  be  gained  by 
carrying  a  given  weight  in  several 
small  ships  rather  than  in  one 
large  one,  as  the  best  figures  that 
are  available  as  regards  the  cost 
of  the  largest  British  rigid  and 
non-rigid  indicate  that  several 
of  the  non-rigid  type  can  be  built 
for  the  same  price  as  one  of  the 
large  rigid  type.  In  the  last 
year  or  two,  however,  the  ten- 
dency has  been  toward  larger 
airships  of  the  rigid  type  for 
commercial  purposes.  The  Brit- 
ish have  constructed  two  large 
dirigibles  of  nearly  6,000,000 
cubic  feet  capacity  which  will  be 
used  in  commercial  flights  to 
India,  and  Germany  is  also  con- 
structing a  large  dirigible  for 
an  air  route  over  the  South 
Atlantic. 

In  construction,  the  problem 
of  suspension  is  one  which  in- 
volves most  careful  considera- 
tion of  the  ordinary  principles 
used  in  calculating  the  distribu- 
tion of  loads  and  bending  move- 
ments in  ships  and  similar  struc- 
tures. Usually  a  small  model 
experiment  is  made  in  which  the 
lift  of  the  gas  and  distribution  of 
load  are  reproduced  in  a  small 
envelope  filled  with  water  and 
inverted,  the  weight  of  the  water 
acting  downward  corresponding 
to  the  lift  of  the  gas  acting  up- 
ward in  a  full  size  ship.  Load  is 
taken  by  a  number  of  wires  ar- 
ranged similarly  to  the  rigging 
and  passing  over  pulleys  which 
support  the  equivalent  of  the 
load  of  the  airship.  The  method 
of  carrying  out  these  experiments 
is  simple:  the  various  loads  are 
distributed  along  the  envelope, 


and  the  pressure  reduced  until 
the  fabric  begins  to  pucker  at 
some  point;  the  value  is  then 
noted,  and  the  distribution  of 
load  may  be  varied  in  order  to 
reduce  the  compression  in  the 
fabric  at  this  point.  Water 
models  are  usually  arranged  so 
that  the  whole  system  can  be 
inclined  up  or  down  at  one  end  in 
order  to  reproduce  the  condi- 
tions of  airships  pitching,  which 
occasions  greater  difficulty  than 
the  mere  suspension  of  load  when 
the  ship  is  on  an  even  keel. 

Semi-rigid  Balloons  have  been 
developed  chiefly  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, though  considerable  work 
along  these  lines  has  been  done 
also  in  Italy.  Airships  of  this 
class  are,  like  non-rigid  ships, 
dependent  for  their  shape  upon 
the  excess  of  internal  pressure. 
They  are  provided,  however, 
with  a  rigid  keel  of  sufficient 
strength  to  maintain  rigidity 
under  the  action  of  various  loads, 
carried  by  the  envelope  that  con- 
tains the  gas.  It  appears  doubt- 
ful, all  things  being  equal,  if 
there  is  much  to  be  gained  by 
this  construction,  for  the  keel, 
having  to  be  sufficiently  strong 
to  take  the  load  of  the  airship 
without  the  assistance  of  the  en- 
velope, would  collapse  in  event 
of  the  pressure  failing,  and  could 
not  be  restored  to  proper  shape 
by  re-inflation. 

The  most  successful  semi- 
rigid type  of  airship  developed 
so  far,  appears  to  be  the  one  in- 
invented  by  Gen.  Umberto  No- 
bile,  chief  of  the  Italian  air 
services,  which  was  used  by 
Amundsen  and  Ellsworth  and 
Nobile  on  the  flight  across  the 
North  Pole.  This  airship  has  an 
ingeniously  built  keel,  made  up  of 
V-shaped  sections,  which  are 
connected  by  ball  and  socket 
joints  in  the  steel  tubing  of  the 
frames.  The  ship  is  extremely 
flexible,  and  in  a  storm  during 
flight  the  entire  keel  can  be  seen 
to  undulate,  taking  stresses 
which  might  wreck  a  rigid  frame. 
Its  strength  was  proved  during 
the  storms  over  Alaska  at  the 
end  of  the  flight.  The  Japanese 
government  bought  one  of  these 
ships  from  Italy. 

For  very  large  ships  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  divide  the 
gas  chamber  into  a  number  of 
compartments,  and  for  this 
reason  a  rigid  construction  that 
calls  for  no  excess  of  internal 
pressure  must  almost  certainly 
be  adopted  for  ships  of  the 
largest  class. 

The  framework  of  a  rigid  air- 
ship consists  of  a  number  of 
rigid  longitudinals  connected  by 
transverse  members  which  form 
rings  at  intervals  along  the 
length  of  the  ship,  each  of  these 
rings  being  braced  in  its  position 
by  a  number  of  radial  wires. 
The  gas  bags  are  placed  in  these 
compartments    and    the  outer 

Vol.  I. —Oct.  '27 


Aeronautics 


79  E 


Aeronautics 


covering  stretched  over  the 
framework,  the  upward  pressure 
of  the  bags  being  transmitted 
through  nets  attached  to  the 
inner  edges  of  the  various  rigid 
members  of  the  framework. 
The  weights  are  mostly  carried 
in  a  strong  keel  that  runs  along 
the  bottom  of  the  ship,  which 
acts  as  a  distributor  of  load  to 
the  main  transverse  section  of  the 
framework,  and  to  which  are 
also  attached  the  cars  that  are 
suspended  below  the  hull.  The 
necessity  of  dividing  the  gas 
space  into  a  number  of  compart- 
ments is  not  due  to  the  possi- 
bility of  loss  in  leakage,  but  to 
the  fact  that  any  great  increase 
in  the  angle  of  the  ship's  position 
produces  an  excess  of  internal 
pressure  at  the  upper  end  con- 
siderably greater  than  that  at 
the  bottom,  and  of  the  air  out- 
side, which  is  usually  estimated 
at  1  mm.  per  metre  difference  in 
level. 

To  stabilize  the  motion  of  the 
ship,  planes  are  fitted  to  the  after 
end  with  vertical  and  horizontal 
rudders,  for  steering  either  way, 
resembling  in  construction  the 
conventional  aeroplane  wings, 
and  braced  by  guy  wires,  though 
in  the  latest  German  ships  these 
are  made  some  six  feet  thick  at 
the  base  and  faired  off  into  the 
rudder  and  tapered  to  the  outer 
edge  so  as  to  be  almost  totally 
self-supporting,  requiring  no  guy 
wires. 

Heavier-than-Air  Craft.  —  The 
greatest  progress  in  heavier- 
than-air  craft  during  the  war  was 
along  lines  of  general  refinement 
and  elaboration,  with  the  adop- 
tion of  numerous  accessories  that 
had  previously  received  but  scant 
consideration,  as  the  application 
and  use  of  wireless  and  general 
radio  equipment,  photographic 
installations,  and  oxygen  respir- 
atory sets  for  both  passengers 
and  motors. 

There  were  no  larger  machines 
on  either  side  than  those  used  in 
Russia  before  the  war.  In  gener- 
al the  tendency  had  been  to  small 
planes,  a  large  proportion  being 
equipped  with  the  rotary  air- 
cooled  type  of  motor,  and  but 
few  of  any  kind  exceeding  120 
horse  power.  With  the  outbreak 
of  war  and  the  extraordinary 
demands  created  by  military 
activities,  the  motor  power 
increased  at  first  faster  than  the 
size  of  the  planes,  this  holding 
good  until  very  nearly  the  end  of 
the  war.  There  were  but  few 
machines  using  more  than  three 
motors  and  the  prevailing  type 
seems  to  have  been  two. 

No  radical  types  were  devel- 
oped or  used,  the  general  ten- 
dency being  towards  improving 
the  maximum  performance  of  the 
plane  as  a  whole,  i.e.,  for  a  given 
power,  increavsed  speed,  rate  of 
climb,  radius  of  action,  and  car- 
rying capacity,  with  better  visi- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '27 


bility  and  angle  of  fire  for  crews. 
Flying  radius  was  doubled  for  a 
given  load,  as  was  proved  by 
many  successful  air  raids,  the 
larger  number  of  which  were 
carried  out  at  night. 

The  state  of  efficiency  reached 
in  motors  in  general  was  the 
greatest  single  contribution  of 
the  war  towards  the  successful 
development  of  aeronautic  activi- 
ties, next  to  this  coming  plane 
design.  In  many  cases  individual 
skill  reached  an  astonishingly 
high  state  of  perfection,  but  on 
the  whole,  it  would  seem  that  less 
skill  was  required  as  the  planes 
became  proportionately  better. 

In  the  development  of  avia- 
tion motors,  the  greatest  orig- 
inality seems  to  have  been  dis- 
played in  France,  which  pro- 
duced the  first  rotary,  stationary, 
and  V-type,  air-cooled  motors 
used  in  this  work.  In  the  heavier 
type  of  water-cooled  engines 
honors  are  about  equally  divided 
among  Great  Britain,  Italy,  and 
Germany,  though  Germany  may 
be  considered  the  pioneer  in  this 
line  of  development,  if  not  in 
conception.  In  high  powers,  the 
motors  produced  in  Italy  have 
been  among  the  largest  flown,  a 
single  unit  of  750  h.p.  being  pro- 
duced in  quantity  as  early  as 
1916,  although  at  the  time  there 
were  no  planes  built  that  could 
mount  such  high  powers. 

In  the  last  few  years  the  United 
States  has  developed  perhaps  the 
most  reliable  airplane  motors  yet 
built,  notably  air-cooled  motors, 
and  has  produced  motors  of  large 
horse  power  and  much  less  weight 
per  horse  power  than  had  been 
thought  possible.  The  reliability 
of  American  motors  has  been 
proved  by  the  several  trans-Atlan- 
tic and  trans-Pacific  flights,  on  all 
of  which  the  motors  functioned 
perfectly,  and  astonished  foreign 
engineers  by  the  simplicity  of 
their  design  and  their  care- 
ful workmanship.  There  has 
been  a  constant  tendency  toward 
the  perfection  of  air-cooled  mo- 
tors so  that  the  cumbersome 
water-cooling  devices,  which  so 
increase  the  weight  of  the  motor, 
may  be  discarded.  Even  the 
water-cooled  motors  have  been 
greatly  improved,  however,  and 
their  weight  per  horse  power 
steadily  decreased.  The  largest 
water-cooled  motor  yet  built 
develops  a  horse  power  of  more 
than  1,200,  and  weighs  less  than 
1,400  pounds.  This  motor,  while 
still  experimental,  shows  the 
increased  efficiency  of  motor 
design,  caused  by  the  necessity 
for  larger  and  larger  horse  power. 

There  has  been  a  wide  differ- 
ence of  opinion  between  engineers 
of  different  countries  as  to  the 
comparative  values  of  air-cooled 
and  water-cooled  motors.  Ger- 
many has  done  almost  nothing 
with  the  air-cooled  motor,  al- 
though it  has  developed  a  few, 


but  has  built  some  excellent 
water-cooled  types.  France 
and  England  each  have  one 
or  two  excellent  air  -  cooled 
motors,  but  in  both  countries 
the  water-cooled  motor  still 
holds  its  own.  In  the  United 
States,  however,  the  air-cooled 
motor  is  being  more  and  more 
widely  adopted,  particularly  for 
commercial  work,  and  would 
probably  be  even  more  com- 
monly used  were  it  not  for  the 
large  stocks  of  water-cooled 
motors  left  over  from  war 
production.  The  United  States 
Navy  air  service  has  been  fore- 
most in  utilizing  the  air-cooled 
motor,  and  the  majority  of  its 
seaplanes  are  built  around  these 
engines,  but  the  army  air  service 
still  largely  uses  water-cooled 
motors. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  use 
of  the  air-cooled  motor  will  in- 
crease rapidly,  and  many  in- 
teresting experiments  have  been 
made  to  determine  its  relative 
efficiency.  It  is  claimed  for  it 
that  because  higher  temperatures 
are  permissible — as  there  is  no 
water  to  boil — greater  fuel  econ- 
omy is  obtained,  and  at  McCook 
Field,  tests  of  air-cooled  motors 
run  at  a  temperature  of  about 
700  degrees  have  disclosed  some 
very  interesting  economies.  The 
development  of  the  motor  in  the 
United  States  has  been  steady 
and  conservative,  and  many 
types  of  motors  have  developed. 
They  have  been  flown  over  the 
North  Pole  and  in  the  tropics, 
and  have  made  altitude  records 
in  rarified  atmosphere,  showing 
their  adaptability. 

The  increasing  size  of  airplanes 
has  made  necessary  the  develop- 
ment of  more  powerful  motors. 
So  rapid  has  been  the  develop- 
ment of  airplane  design  that  at 
present  there  seems  to  be  no 
logical  limitation  to  the  size  of 
planes,  other  than  the  problem 
of  getting  them  off  the  ground. 
Planes  have  already  been  built 
which  will  carry  sixty  or  seventy 
persons,  and  it  seems  to  be  merely 
a  question  of  a  few  years  before 
designers  solve  the  problem  of 
the  multi-motored  plane  with  a 
safe  cruising  radius  of  several 
thoUvSand  miles,  suitable  for 
passenger  carrying.  This  devel- 
opment of  the  large  plane,  begun 
in  Russia  before  the  war,  has 
been  carried  on  most  widely  in 
Germany,  France  and  England. 
Two  factors  enter  into  this  de- 
velopment, subsidies  by  the 
government  which  permit  the 
extension  of  air  passenger  lines, 
and  the  necessity  for  large 
planes  which  will  carry  the  larg- 
est number  of  paying  passengers 
at  the  minimum  operating  ex- 
pense. Subsidies  have  not  been 
been  granted  to  air  lines  in  the 
United  States,  and  as  a  result  the 
large  airplane  has  developed 
here  more  slowly. 


Aeronautics 


79  F 


Aeronautics 


One  of  the  most  interesting 
points  in  recent  large  airplane 
designs  has  been  the  increasing 
tendency  toward  the  mono- 
plane. The  monoplane,  having 
had  an  early  period  of  ascendan- 
cy, was  later  forced  behind 
by  the  biplane  but  has  in 
recent  years  been  gaining  rapidly 
in  favor,  except  for  fast  military 
or  racing  planes.  This  increasing 
importance  of  the  monoplane  has 
led  to  two  distinctly  different 
types  of  large  passenger  planes. 
The  English  stick  rather  closely 
to  the  biplane,  many  of  their 
large  planes  carrying  twenty 
persons  comfortably.  The 
French  have  large  planes  of  both 
the  monoplane  and  biplane 
types,  while  the  Germans  have 
been  most  successful  with  the 
monoplane  and  have  developed 
it  to  a  remarkable  degree  of 
safety.  Some  European  pas- 
senger planes  have  two  or  three 
compartments,  some  with  berths 
for  sleeping.  All  these  large 
planes,  which  have  a  high  record 
of  safe  performance,  are  multi- 
motored,  most  of  them  having 
three  motors. 

The  development  of  the  large 
seaplane  is  distinctly  European, 
and  has  been  most  successfully 
done  by  Germany,  although 
Italy  and  France  have  also  built 
some  remarkably  successful  large 
seaplanes,  notably  the  type  in 
which  Col.  Francesco  de  Pinedo 
has  made  his  long  distance 
flights.  These  large  seaplanes, 
or  flying  boats — for  they  usually 
consist  of  a  large  boat-like  hull  of 
metal,  with  the  wing  above — 
are  almost  exclusively  mono- 
planes. The  monoplane  wing 
sets  high  enough  above  the 
water  not  to  trip  in  an  ordinary 
sea.  A  large  monoplane  flying 
boat  has  been  landed  in  the  ocean 
and  towed  for  days  in  a  storm 
without  serious  damage  to  the 
wing.  The  motors  of  European 
flying  boats  are  generally  set 
above  the  wing,  frequently  one 
behind  the  other,  in  tandem,  so 
that  they  may  be  as  free  from 
spray  as  possible.  A  plane  of  this 
type  carried  sixty-eight  people 
on  Lake  Constance  in  1927  and 
cleared  the  water  in  less  than  a 
minute,  and  probably  trans- 
Atlantic  passenger  lines  will  use 
planes  of  this  type.  So  far  the 
range  of  these  large  flying  boats 
is  limited  because  of  their  weight, 
which  prohibits  carrying  much 
gasoline  in  addition  to  the  neces- 
sary passengers  or  freight. 

The  only  large  flying  boats 
built  in  the  United  States  have 
been  constructed  by  the  navy 
for  military  purposes,  and  have 
been  of  the  biplane  type.  Small 
seaplanes  have  been  built  suc- 
cessfully, and  in  1927,  powered 
with  air-cooled  motors,  made 
several  speed  and  altitude 
records.  An  amphibian  plane, 
largely  used  by  the  navy  and 


coast  guard,  has  also  been 
developed  in  the  United  .States, 
and  is  perhaps  the  most  success- 
ful of  its  type. 

The  efficiency  of  all  these 
planes  has  been  due  to  recent 
rapid  improvements  in  design. 
Wind  tunnel  experiments  have 
provided  engineers  with  data — 
still  far  from  complete — by 
which  they  can  estimate  fairly 
well  the  performance  of  a  plane 
before  it  is  built,  and  by  means 
of  which  they  have  learned  the 
causes  of  many  accidents.  They 
have  progressed  so  far,  in  fact, 
that  they  now  build  airplanes 
which  cannot  be  made  to  spin 
or  stall,  and  which  can  be  flown 
with  hands  off  the  controls  for 
long  periods  of  time.  Problems 
of  resistance  have  been  solved, 
and  the  fuselage  and  other  parts 
of  the  plane  so  refined  that  drag 
has  been  diminished  to  a  mini- 
mum. The  thick  wing,  which 
gives  maximum  lift,  due  to  the 
increased  vacuum  on  the  upper 
surface,  has  been  developed  so 
that  enormous  loads  can  be 
carried. 

Many  improvements  in  the 
design  of  landing  gear  have  also 
been  made  recently,  shock  ab- 
sorbers of  rubber  or  hydraulic 
cylinders  taking  up  the  impact 
of  a  huge  plane  when  it  hits  the 
ground.  Practically  all  airplanes 
are  now  built  with  the  split  axle 
type  of  landing  gear,  so  as  to 
eliminate  the  danger  of  the  axle 
tripping  the  plane  on  a  stump  or 
other  projection  on  rough  ground, 
and  decreasing  the  resistance  in 
taking  off  through  high  grass. 
As  a  result  airplanes  can  be 
landed  with  safety  on  any  fairly 
smooth  field. 

The  use  of  metal  in  building 
the  bodies  and  wings  of  airplanes 
is  becoming  general,  many  Euro- 
pean airplanes  being  entirely 
constructed  of  metal,  while  two 
or  three  types  of  all-metal  planes 
have  been  built  in  the  United 
States,  The  fuselage  of  an 
airplane  now  is  generally  built  of 
steel  or  duralumin  tubing,  welded 
together,  some  manufacturers 
preferring  steel  because  of  the 
peculiar  structural  and  chemical 
changes  to  which  duralumin  iS 
still  subject. 

Airplane  speeds  have  rapidly 
increased  due  to  the  improve- 
ments in  motors  and  airplane 
design.  The  highest  speed  yet 
attained  by  an  airplane  is  278 
miles  an  hour,  attempts  to 
exceed  this  mark  being  made 
constantly.  Planes  which  attain 
such  a  speed  are  tiny  things, 
with  a  small  wing  spread  and 
powerful  motors.  American 
military  pursuit  planes  have  a 
speed  of  nearly  180  miles  an 
hour.  Flying  planes  at  a  speed 
approaching  .300  miles  an  hour 
lays  a  terrific  strain  upon  the 
aviator  in  turning,  and  most 
military  aviators   believe  that 


aerial  combats  in  the  future 
will  be  at  speeds  considerably 
less  than  a  potential  one. 
Manoeuverability  in  aerial  war- 
fare is  more  important  than 
blind  speed,  and  few  pilots  have 
the  physique  to  withstand  the 
shock  of  quickly  changing  a 
course  at  250  miles  an  hour,  or 
the  instinct  to  handle  a  plane  at 
that  speed.  A  racing  plane  bucks 
like  a  broncho  and  the  slightest 
touch  on  the  controls  causes  it  to 
whizz  off  its  course.  A  racing 
plane  at  full  speed,  merely  from 
the  impetus  of  its  flight,  will 
climb  several  thousand  feet  with 
a  dead  motor. 

The  years  1926  and  1927  saw 
the  period  of  most  interesting 
development  in  the  field  of 
aviation.  Up  to  that  time  had 
been  the  work  of  the  pioneer;  the 
experiments  of  Eiffel  just  before 
the  war  were  the  basis  of  inten- 
sive research  work  which  revo- 
lutionized principles  of  design. 
Then  came  the  period  of  record 
flights — those  of  Lindbergh,  Byrd, 
Chamberlin,  Maitland  and  others 
— which  showed  the  remarkable 
reliability  of  the  airplane  motor, 
and  the  lifting  capacity  of  planes. 
These  so  aroused  public  interest 
and  enlisted  public  support  that 
designers  found  themselves  for 
the  first  time  working  with  the 
encouragement  of  sympathetic 
and  understanding  public  opin- 
ion. 

Navigating  Instruments. — Co- 
incident with  the  improvement 
in  air  craft  there  has  been  a  cor- 
responding development  in  nav- 
igating instruments  for  aerial 
use.  These  consist  in  general  of 
the  following  instruments: 

1.  Altimeter,  indicates  the 
height  at  which  the  machine  is 
flying;  is  actuated  by  the  atmos- 
pheric density. 

2.  Air  Speed  Indicator,  usually 
a  form  of  Pitot  tube  or  Venturi 
tube  construction,  sometimes 
both;  indicates  the  relative  air 
speed. 

3.  Compass,  made  in  numer- 
ous types  and  styles,  but  usually 
of  the  standard  principle,  card 
arrangement,  submerged  in  ker- 
osene. The  earth  inductor  com- 
pass, operating  by  the  relation- 
ship of  generator  brushes  to  the 
lines  of  magnetic  force  of  the 
earth,  is  the  latest  and  most 
important  addition  to  the  com- 
pass family.  (See  Compass.) 
The  Radio  Compass  or  Direction 
Finder  responds  to  the  control 
of  a  certain  station  to  which  it  is 
'tuned'  by  radio  wave,  and 
keeps  constantly  to  that  direc- 
tion, and  not  to  the  magnetic 
pole. 

Of  equal  importance,  and  a 
parallel  development  to  the 
Radio  Direction  Finder,  is  the 
recently  developed  system  of 
Audio  Frequency  Landing  Sta- 
tion Receivers,  the  work  of  Earl 
C.  Hanson,  of  the  U.  S.  Navy 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '27 


Aeronautics 


79  G 


Aeronautics 


Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering. 
A  plurality  of  insulated  electric 
conductors  are  located  around 
the  outer  edge  of  the  landing 
field,  and  a  similar  smaller  set 
nearer  the  centre,  both  con- 
nected to  a  source  of  audio  fre- 
quency current  of  different  de- 
grees of  strength  and  intensity, 
projecting  upward  to  varying 
heights  electro-magnetic  energy 
to  be  received  by  planes  ap- 
proaching at  night  or  in  a  fog, 
which  are  thus  able  to  deter- 
mine their  approximate  position 
in  relation  to  the  centre  of  the 
landing  field,  and  by  different 
sound  intensities  standardized 
for  varying  distances  ascertain 
their  altitude  above  the  sending 
point.  With  proper  field  illumi- 
nation, a  safe  landing  is  thus  as- 
sured even  under  conditions  of 
adverse  visibility. 

4.  Inclinometer,  shows  the  ex- 
tent of  deviation  from  the  hori- 
zontal, or  'line  of  flight,'  either 
in  ascent  or  descent,  constructed 
in  several  forms,  usually  a  bent 
glass  tube  with  a  bubble  in  liquid, 
balanced  pendulum  construction, 
or  statoscope  with  bubble  read- 
ing. 

5.  Turn  Indicator,  a  very 
recent  development,  somewhat 
on  the  lines  of  the  inclinometer, 
but  in  longitudinal  direction  and 
very  sensitively  balanced  to 
show  deviation  from  the  course  to 
right  or  left. 

6.  Bank  Indicator,  also  a 
curved  tube  which  shows  by  a 
bubble  whether  the  plane  is 
banking  and  at  what  angle. 
This  instrument,  with  the  turn 
indicator,  is  particularly  useful 
at  night  or  in  a  fog. 

7.  Drift  Indicator,  indicates 
leeway  over  the  surface;  indicates 
whether  or  not  the  machine  is 
flying  square  to  the  wind.  For 
navigating  over  the  ground  ob- 
servation is  made  through  a  slot, 
a  point  taken  as  reference,  and 
the  position  noted.  The  object 
is  then  followed  and  the  variation 
is  read  on  a  small  condensed 
scale  at  the  side  or  top  of  the 
instrument. 

8.  Rate  of  climb  indicator, 
which  shows  on  a  dial  the  speed 
at  which  the  airplane  is  ascending 
or  descending. 

9.  Tachometer,  used  to  show 
the  number  of  motor  revolutions; 
generally  of  round-face  appear- 
ance, the  face  plainly  showing 
the  figures  representing  motor 
turns  per  minute,  indicated  by 
the  usual  hand  or  arrow.  Prin- 
ciple of  operation,  either  centrif- 
ugal, magnetic,  or  escapement 
(clock). 

10.  Oil-pressure  Gage,  showing 
that  oil  is  being  supplied  to  the 
parts  to  be  lubricated. 

11.  Gasoline  Gage,  indicating 
the  amount  in  the  tanks.  Either 
magnetic  float,  ordinary  column 
sight  glass  or  rotating  dial, 
actuated  by  the  float. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


12.  Flow  Meter,  an  indicator 
set  in  the  main  fuel  supply  line 
to  show  at  a  glance  amount  of 
gasoline  that  is  being  consumed 
by  the  motor  at  the  time,  operat- 
ing on  the  lines  of  the  usual 
water  meters,  either  the  rotative 
or  glass  column  with  float 
principle. 

13.  Thermometer,  operating  on 
the  lines  of  the  standard  instru- 
ment, and  installed  in  the  water- 
cooling  system,  to  show  the 
thermal  state  of  the  motor. 

14.  Oil  temperature  gage,  to 
show  if  the  motor  is  over-heating, 
of  particular  value  in  air-cooled 
motors. 

These  instruments  have  added 
greatly  to  the  safety  of  flying, 
particularly  at  night  or  during 
foggy  weather.  When  Alcock  and 
Brown  first  flew  the  Atlantic  at 
times  they  did  not  know  whether 
or  not  they  were  flying  on  an 
even  keel,  and  several  times 
found  themselves  diving  toward 
the  water  or  flying  almost  upside 
down.  With  the  modern  turn 
and  bank  indicator  and  incli- 
nometer, as  well  as  the  earth  in- 
ductor compass,  the  recent  trans- 
Atlantic  and  trans-Pacific  fliers 
were  able  to  keep  on  a  level  keel 
and  fly  steadily  on  their  course, 
even  when  for  hours  they  could 
see  nothing  beneath  them  or  on 
either  side. 

Aeronautic  Maps. — The  use  of 
maps  for  aviation  was  not  seri- 
ously dealt  with  or  to  any  great 
extent  before  the  war,  as  lengthy 
flights  were  seldom  made,  and 
then  only  after  extensive  prepa- 
ration that  permitted  the  careful 
study  of  the  proposed  route. 
Later,  however,  when  flights  of 
several  hours  became  a  daily 
affair,  and  accuracy  of  reports  of 
observation  were  vitally  impor- 
tant, a  variety  of  aeronautic 
maps  were  evolved.  The  general 
ordnance  maps  were  quite  suit- 
able for  a  large  part  of  the  work; 
these  supplying  the  basis  for  all 
future  improvements  that  were 
rendered  possible  through  the 
application  of  aerial  photogra- 
phy. In  France,  where  military 
maps  had  reached  a  high  state 
of  development,  the  two  stand- 
ard sizes  produced,  1-1,000,000 
and  1-20,000,  supplied  the  basis 
on  which  all  other  maps  were 
either  enlarged  or  reduced.  For 
general  aviation  work  the  pre- 
vailing size  seems  to  have  been 
1-50,000  and  to  have  given 
satisfactory  results.  (See  also 
Photography;  Maps  and  Map 
Making.) 

Practical  Applications. — The 
most  important  application  of 
the  science  of  aeronautics  up  to 
1925  was  along  military  lines. 
This  phase  of  the  subject  has 
already  been  discussed  in  the 
course  of  this  article,  as  well  as 
under  the  heading  Army  Avia- 
tion (q.v.).  Other  applications 
may  be  touched  upon  briefly. 


Naval  Aeronautics  have  wit- 
nessed a  rapid  development  since 
the  war,  and  the  five-year  build- 
ing program  for  aviation  includes 
at  least  1,000  airplanes  for  the 
navy.  These  are  divided  into 
pursuit,  scouting,  observation 
and  bombardment  planes,  equip- 
ped both  as  seaplanes  on 
pontoons  and  land  planes  with 
wheels.  The  planes  on  pontoons 
are  shot  from  catapults  from 
battleships,  and  when  they  land 
alongside  are  swung  aboard 
again  by  cranes.  The  land 
planes  when  operating  with  the 
fleet  fly  from  airplane  carriers. 
Two  of  these  ships,  of  high  speed, 
and  carrying  an  upper  deck  on 
which  planes  can  land,  have 
been  built  to  succeed  the  present 
airplane  carrier,  the  Langley,  a 
converted  ship.  Naval  seaplanes 
largely  built  around  air-cooled 
motors  have  been  brought  to  a 
high  state  of  efficiency. 

Aerial  Mail. — The  history  of 
the  aerial  mail  service  in  the 
United  States  dates  back  to  the 
Nassau  Boulevard  Aviation  Meet 
of  1911.  The  first  mailbag  was 
carried  by  airplane  on  Sept. 
23,  and  on  Sept.  27  Post- 
master -  General  Hitchcock 
opened  a  route  from  the  aviation 
field  to  Mineola,  over  which 
43,247  pieces  of  mail  were  car- 
ried during  the  ten  days  of  the 
meet.  A  special  aero-mail  ser- 
vice of  a  similar  character  was 
conducted  between  the  aviation 
fields  and  the  fair  grounds  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  a  distance  of  twelve 
miles,  in  October  of  the  same 
year,  and  from  that  time  to  the 
opening  of  the  first  regular  U.  S. 
aerial  mail  route,  some  seventy 
special  routes  were  established  in 
connection  with  various  fairs  and 
meets,  such  routes  being  au- 
thorized by  the  Post  Office  De- 
partment, the  mail  being  carried 
by  sworn  carriers  but  without 
expense  to  the  governmowt. 

The  first  regular  air  mail  route 
was  opened  on  May  15,  1918,  be- 
tween New  York  and  Washing- 
ton, starting  from  New  York  at 
11:30  A.M.,  and  from  Washing- 
ton a  few  minutes  later.  The 
plane  leaving  Washington  was 
obliged  to  return  to  its  point  of 
departure  on  account  of  a  slight 
accident,  but  the  New  York  to 
Washington  trip  was  successfully 
accomplished  in  three  hours 
and  twenty  minutes,  with  a  stop 
of  nine  minutes  in  Philadelphia 
to  transfer  the  mail  to  a  relay 
plane.  The  service  thus  inau- 
gurated was  continued  by  the 
War  Department  for  the  Post 
Office  Department  until  August 
12,  1918,  when  equipment  and 
flying  operations  were  transferred 
to  the  Post  Office  Department. 

The  government  developed 
the  daily  transcontinental  service 
from  New  York  to  San  F'rancisco, 
and  operated  it  until  the  summer 
of  1927,  when  it  was  taken  over 


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Aeronautics 


79  H 


Aeronautics 


by  private  contractors  as  the 
result  of  a  policy  begun  a  year 
before.  In  the  spring  of  1926  the 
contract  air  mail  system  was 
started  in  the  belief  that  a 
greater  stimulus  to  commercial 
aviation  would  be  given  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the  government 
from  competition.  When  the 
service  was  turned  over  to  private 
operators  it  had  been  in  success- 
ful operation  from  1918  over  a 
route  2,680  miles  long.  Landing 
fields  were  located  at  Hadley 
Field,  N.  J.,  Bellefonte,  Pa., 
Cleveland.  O.,  Bryan,  O., 
Chicago,  111.,  Iowa  City,  la., 
Omaha,    Neb.,    North  Platte. 


With  the  exception  of  the  govern- 
ment route  between  Salt  Lake 
City  and  New  York,  lighted  by 
the  Post  Office,  all  civil  airway 
flying  was  being  done  without 
lighting  facilities.  The  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  is  now  aiding 
in  lighting  airways  on  the  con- 
tract routes.  The  transcon- 
tinental system  was  divided 
when  it  was  turned  over  to  pri- 
vate operators  in  1927,  and  the 
section  from  New  York  to 
Chicago  was  let  to  the  National 
Air  Transport  for  day  and  night 
operation,  while  the  section  from 
Chicago  to  San  Francisco,  was  let 
to  the  Boeing  Airplane  Company. 


high  averages  of  operation,  and 
came  through  their  first  year 
without  a  fataUty.  In  1926 
there  were  585  operators  engaged 
in  all  kinds  of  airplane  services 
in  the  United  States,  flying  a 
total  of  nearly  19,000,000  miles, 
and  carrying  more  than  700,000 
passengers. 

Foreign  air  routes. — Practically 
all  European  countries,  many 
Latin  American  countries,  Aus- 
tralia, parts  of  Africa  and  the 
Far  East  now  have  air  mail 
routes.  The  French  service  was 
officially  opened  March  1,  1919. 
Italy  had  daily  service  by  means 
of  flying  boats  between  Civitavec- 


Courtesy  of  the  A  erial  A  ge 

The  U.  S.  Navy  Flying  Boat,  N.  C.  4,  Which  Made  the  First  Successful  Trans-Atlantic  Flight,  at  Rockaway, 
Long  Island,  Before  Leaving  for  Trepassey  Bay,  Newfoundland. 


Neb.,  Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  Rawlins, 
Wyo.,  Rock  Springs,  Wyo., 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  Elko, 
Nev.,  Reno,  Nev.,  and  San 
Francisco,  Cal.  In  July,  1924, 
a  day  and  night  service  was 
inaugurated  by  which  a  letter  or 
parcel  travels  between  New  York 
and  San  Francisco  in  a  day  and  a 
half. 

There  are  sixty-six  station 
stops  on  the  present  air  mail 
routes  of  which  there  are  seven- 
teen. They  serve  sixty-four  cit- 
ies with  a  population  of  nearly 
24,000,000.  More  than  $5,000,- 
000  had  been  invested  in  the 
contract  air  system  in  1926,  and 
nearly  $17,000,000  was  repre- 
sented in  real  estate  and  im- 
provements   at    the  airports. 


Other  contract  lines  operating 
at  present  (1927)  are  Boston- 
New  York,  220  miles;  Chicago- 
St.  Louis,  277  miles;  Chicago- 
Dallas,  995  miles;  Salt  Lake 
City-Los  Angeles,  589  miles; 
Pasco-Elko,  424  miles;  Detroit- 
Cleveland,  148  miles;  Detroit- 
Chicago,  278  miles;  Seattle-Los 
Angeles,  1,073  miles;  Chicago- 
Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  384 
miles;  Cheyenne-Pueblo,  200 
miles;  Seattle-Victoria,  78  miles; 
New  Orleans-Pilottown,  80  miles; 
Detroit-Grand  Rapids,  140  miles; 
Cleveland-Pittsburgh,  115  miles. 
These  air  routes  operated  planes 
for  a  scheduled  air  mileage  of 
nearly  four  and  a  half  million 
miles  up  to  the  end  of  1926. 
Some  of  them  performed  very 


chia  and  Terranova,  Sardinia,  as 
early  as  June,  1917.  In  the 
years  after  the  war  air  routes 
spread  rapidly  all  over  Europe. 
At  present  it  is  possible  to  fly  by 
connecting  air  passenger  and 
mail  lines  from  Africa  to 
Sweden  and  Finland,  and  from 
London  to  Moscow.  The  air 
line  map  of  Europe  has  so  many 
connecting  links  that  there  are 
large  airplane  time-tables  com- 
parable to  railway  time-tables, 
and  the  schedules  are  closely 
kept. 

The  largest  unit  in  the  Euro- 
pean system  is  the  German  Luft 
Hansa.  In  1926  this  organization 
carried  56,268  passengers,  641 
tons  of  freight,  and  301  tons  of 
mail.     It  operates  three  inter- 

VOL.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Aeronautics 


Aeronautics 


national  routes,  between  Berlin 
and  Zurich,  Stettin  and  Stock- 
holm, and  between  Amsterdam 
and  Bale,  Switzerland,  via  several 
German  cities.  With  the  co- 
operation of  other  concerns  the 
Luft  Hansa  operates  six  other 
international  lines:  Malmo,  Swe- 
den, Copenhagen,  Denmark,  and 
Berlin;  Zurich,  Munich,  Vienna, 
and  Budapest;  Malmo,  Copen- 
hagen, Hamburg,  and  Amster- 
dam; Berlin,  Cologne,  and 
London;  Berlin  and  Moscow; 
Berlin,  Cologne,  and  Paris.  The 
French  Air  Union  operates  a 


important  international  routes 
and  the  Luft  Hansa  is  planning 
an  air  route  to  China  as  soon 
as  conditions  in  China  become 
more  settled.  The  preliminary- 
flights  over  the  long  route  to  the 
East  have  been  made  success- 
fully. 

Other  applications. — In  ad- 
dition to  the  air  mail  routes, 
several  of  which  now  carry 
passengers,  there  are  many  other 
commercial  uses  for  airplanes. 
They  are  used  widely  for  survey- 
ing and  mapping  districts  which 
would  otherwise  be  difficult  to 


in  1914,  however,  led  to  the 
suspension  of  the  offer  and 
prevented  any  further  efforts  in 
the  direction  until  after  the  sign- 
ing of  the  armistice  (Nov.  11, 
1918),  when  interest  was  again 
aroused  by  the  renewal  of  the 
prize  offer. 

While  the  first  successful  trans- 
oceanic flights  were  made  from 
west  to  east,  the  first  attempt 
was  in  the  opposite  direction. 
It  was  made  by  the  Englishmen 
Major  Wood  and  Captain  Wyl- 
lie,  who  left  Eastchurch,  Eng- 
land, April  18,  1919,  in  a  pre- 


CovvrigM  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Front  View  of  the  Vickers-Vimy  Plane,  Which  Made  the  First  Non-stop  Trans- Atlantic  Flight.    The  figure  in 
uniform  stands  just  front  of  the  pilot's  seat,  which  is  in  the  forward  part  of  the  fuselage.   The  four-bladed  pro- 
pellers are  seen  on  either  side. 


number  of  lines:  Paris-Marseilles; 
Paris  -  Geneva;  Paris  -  London. 
Other  French  lines  operate  planes 
between  Paris  and  Vienna,  and 
by  other  connections  on  to  Bel- 
grade, Sofia  and  Constantinople. 
A  French  line  operates  between 
Paris  and  Casablanca  in  Africa, 
and  there  are  other  lines  to  other 
parts  of  Northern  Africa. 

English  planes  fly  from  London 
to  Paris,  Brussels,  Rotterdam, 
Amsterdam  and  Cologne,  and  the 
Imperial  Airways  also  sends 
planes  to  Zurich.  The  latest 
addition  to  the  English  lines  is 
the  long  air  route  to  Cairo, 
Egypt,  connecting  with  Karachi, 
India,  but  there  has  been  no 
development  of  air  lines  betv/een 
English  cities. 

There  are  a  number  of  other 


chart.  Airplane  cameras  have 
now  been  developed  to  the  point 
where  they  will  automatically 
register  the  altitude,  speed,  focal 
length  and  other  important 
data  on  the  film  itself,  and 
record  minutely  every  character- 
istic of  a  landscape  many  square 
miles  in  area.  These  photo- 
graphic flights  are  usually  made 
at  a  great  height,  about  three 
miles,  and  their  results  have 
been  of  great  value  in  forestry 
work,  map  making,  fire  patrol 
and  even  in  plotting  cities. 

Trans- Atlantic  Flight  (Aero- 
plane). —  The  problem  of  a 
trans-Atlantic  flight  was  first 
brought  to  popular  notice  by 
the  offer  of  a  $.50,000  prize  by  the 
London  Daily  Mail,  in  April 
1913.    The  outbreak  of  the  war 


liminary  flight  to  the  point  of 
final  departure  in  Ireland.  All 
went  well  until  Holyhead  was 
passed,  when  the  machine  devel- 
oped trouble  and  a  forced  de- 
scent was  made,  the  plane  alight- 
ing in  the  Irish  Sea.  Neither  of 
the  fliers  was  injured,  but  the 
projected  flight  was  abandoned. 

The  Sopwith. — Among  the  first 
entries  for  the  Daily  Mail  prize 
was  the  Sopwith  plane,  manned 
by  the  Englishmen,  Hawker  and 
Grieve,  who  arrived  at  vSt.  John's, 
Newfoundland,  March  4,  1919, 
and  at  once  commenced  the  as- 
sembly of  their  plane,  a  specially 
built  machine,  known  as  the  At- 
lantic type,  fitted  with  one  375 
H.p.  Rolls-Royce  Eagle  Mark 
vm  engine;  estimated  flight 
duration,  25  hours  at  100-106 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Aeronautics 


79  L 


Aeronautics 


miles  per  hour;  driving  a  geared- 
down,  four-bladed  propeller;  span 
46  feet  6  inches;  length  31  feet 
over  all;  weight,  fully  loaded, 
6,300  lbs. 

Hawker  and  Grieve  started 
their  trans-Atlantic  flight  on 
May  18,  1919,  at  5.51  p.m., 
from  the  Mount  Pearl  Aero- 
drome, near  St.  John's,  in  an 
attempt  to  reach  Ireland  in  a 
non-stop  flight  of  1,925  sea  miles. 
After  about  a  four-hour  flight 
through  clear  weather,  they 
encountered  heavy  clouds,  fol- 
lowed by  squalls  and  rain,  though 
by  keeping  at  15,000  feet  alti- 
tude they  passed  above  them. 
Engine  trouble  developing,  they 
descended  after  sighting  the 
tramp  steamer  Mary.  Their 
total  flight  time  out  from  New- 
foundland was  14  hours  30  min- 
utes; time  of  alighting  on  the 
water  8:30  p.m.,  British  summer 
time;  distance  covered,  1,050 
miles. 

The  Martynside. — The  second 
entry  for  the  trans-Atlantic  race 
to  arrive  at  St.  John's  was  the 
Martynside,  April  2,  1919;  Capt. 
F.  P.  Raynham,  pilot,  Capt. 
C.  W.  F.  Morgan,  navigator; 
aerodrome  at  'Quid  Vidi.'  The 
machine  was  wrecked  in  taking 
off. 

The  N.  C.  4.— The  efforts  of  the 
United  States  Navy  were  di- 
rected towards  the  trans-Atlan- 
tic flight  problem  shortly  after 
the  signing  of  the  armistice,  and 
the  construction  of  a  new  type 
of  large  flying  boat  was  altered 
with  this  in  view.  In  all  four 
planes  were  built,  known  gener- 
ally as  the  N.  C.  1,  N.  C.  2,  N.  C. 
3,  and  N.  C.  4,  the  letter  N 
standing  for  Navy  and  C  for 
Curtiss,  indicating  the  joint  pro- 
duction of  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment and  the  Curtiss  Engineer- 
ing Corps. 

The  term  Flying  Boat  is  used 
for  this  type  of  craft,  it  actually 
being  a  stout  seaworthy  boat 
construction,  permitting  a  water 
speed  of  60  miles  per  hour,  and 
an  air  speed,  with  full  load,  of  90 
miles  per  hour.  The  hull  proper 
is  45  feet  long  by  10  feet  beam, 
bottom  of  double  plank  V  con- 
struction, single  step.  Five 
bulkheads  divide  the  hull  into  six 
water-tight  compartments,  used 
for  the  accommodation  of  the 
crew  and  the  location  of  gasoline 
tanks.  Engines,  4  Liberty  (see 
Liberty  Motor),  1,600  h.  p.; 
wing  span,  126  ft.  upper,  96  ft. 
lower;  length  68  ft.  5  in.;  height, 
24  ft.  5  in.;  weight  (empty), 
15,874  lbs.,  (loaded).  28,000  lbs.; 
useful  load,  12,126  lbs.;  gravity 
tank,  91  gals.;  fuel  tanks,  1,800 
gals.;  oil  tanks,  160  gals. 

The  first  step  in  the  trans- 
Atlantic  flight  was  made  on  the 
morning  of  May  10,  1919,  at 
10  A.M.,  when  the  three  planes, 
the  N.  C.  1,  3,  and  4,  in  command 
of  Lieut.-Comm.  P.  N.  L.  Bel- 


linger, Comm.  John  H.  Towers, 
and  Lieut.-Comm.  A.  C.  Read, 
respectively,  left  Rockaway 
Point  Naval  Station  en  route 
to  Trepassey  Bay,  Newfound- 
land, where  the  final  cross-Atlan- 
tic start  was  to  be  made.  At 
this  point  the  flight  was  started 
on  the  evening  of  May  16.  It 
was  not  to  be  a  non-stop  flight, 
and  naval  vessels  were  to  patrol 
the  general  course  to  the  Azores 
and  from  the  Azores  to  Portugal. 

The  A^.  C.  4  reached  the  island 
of  Horta,  in  the  Azores,  at  9:25 
A.M.,  May  17,  and  left  on  May 
20,  flying  to  Ponta  Delgada,  a 
distance  of  150  miles,  in  one  hour 
and  forty-five  minutes.  The 
next  day  the  flight  was  delayed 
because  of  engine  troubles,  but 
was  later  resumed,  the  plane  ar- 
riving at  Lisbon,  Portugal,  May 
27,  and  continuing  to  Plymouth, 
England,  which  it  reached  May 
31,  with  a  grand  total  of  4,514 
miles  flown,  including  the  775 
miles  from  Lisbon.  The  com- 
plete record  of  the  N.  C.  4's  fly- 
ing time  and  speed  is  given  in  the 
accompanying  table. 

Of  the  other  flying  boats,  the 
N.  C.  3  was  forced  to  alight  on 
account  of  bad  weather  and  poor 
visibility.  She  was  badly  dam- 
aged in  the  heavy  seas  that  were 
running,  but  succeeded  in  mak- 


days  for  favorable  weather,  they 
started  their  flight  June  14,  at 
4.28  P.M.,  Greenwich  mean  time, 
in  the  direction  of  Ireland. 
Weather  conditions  were  decid- 
edly unfavorable,  and  the  report 
of  the  trip  showed  that  it  was 
possible  to  make  only  three  ob- 
servations during  the  voyage. 
In  spite  of  these  difficulties,  the 
plane  landed  at  Clifden,  Ireland, 
at  8.40  A.M.,  Greenwich  mean 
time,  June  15,  after  a  total  flight 
time  of  16  hours  and  12  minutes, 
and  a  distance  covered  of  1,960 
miles,  thus  winning  the  Daily 
Mail  prize  of  $50,000. 

ThoV ickers-  Vimy  flight  was  the 
world's  long  distance  non-stop 
aeroplane  flight  for  several  years. 
The  best  previous  record  was 
made  on  May  24,  by  Lieutenant 
Roget  of  the  French  Army,  who 
flew  from  Paris  to  Morocco,  1,361 
miles,  without  stop,  beating  the 
earlier  record  for  distance  made 
in  1914,  by  Lieutenant  Boehm, 
of  the  German  Army,  who  cov- 
ered 1,350  miles  over  a  circuit 
course,  flying  for  24  hours  and  12 
minutes. 

These  splendid  early  achieve- 
ments in  long  distance  flying 
were,  however,  all  eclipsed  in 
1927,  which  will  probably  go 
down  in  aviation  history  as  the 
year  of  the  big  flights.  Aeroplanes, 


Course  of  the  N.  C.  4. 

Date. 

Distance, 
Knots. 

Time. 

Speed. 
Knots. 

Rockaway-Chatham  (forced  land- 

h. m. 

ing  about  100  miles  off  Chatham) 

May 

8 

300 

5:45 

52 

May 

14 

320 

3.51 

85 

May 

15 

460 

6:20 

72.6 

May 

16-17 

1,200 

15:18 

78.4 

Horta-Ponta  Delgada  

May 

20 

150 

1:45 

86.7 

May 

27 

800 

9:44 

82.1 

May 

30 

100 

2:07 

48.8 

Mondego  River-Ferrol  

May 

30 

220 

4:37 

45.6 

May 

31 

455 

6:59 

64.8 

ing  the  port  of  Ponta  Delgada. 
The  N.  C.  I  was  less  fortunate, 
having  to  alight  also  because  of 
bad  weather.  The  crew  were 
compelled  to  abandon  the  plane 
and  were  taken  aboard  the  S.S. 
Ionia  and  landed  at  Horta. 

Vickers-Vimy. — The  next  entry 
for  the  trans-Atlantic  flight  from 
Newfoundland  was  the  Vickers- 
Vimy  aeroplane,  at  the  time  one 
of  the  largest  land  type  machines 
actually  assembled  for  the  pur- 
pose, having  a  wing  span  of  67 
feet,  length  42  ft.  8  in.,  cord  10  ft. 
6  in.  It  was  fitted  with  two 
Rolls-Royce  motors  of  350  h.p., 
and  its  gasoline  capacity  had 
been  increased  to  865  gallons, 
giving  an  estimated  flying  radius 
of  2,440  miles. 

About  June  1  Capt.  J.  Al- 
cock  and  Lieut.  Arthur  W. 
Brown,  of  the  British  air  service 
arrived  at  St.  John's  and  pro- 
ceeded to  have  this  plane  erected 
on  the  Mount  Pearl  aerodrome, 
formerly  used  by  the  Sopwith 
machine.    After  waiting  several 


motors  and  instruments  had  by 
that  time  become  so  efficient 
that  one  flight  after  another  was 
made,  although  American  planes 
and  motors  were  the  most  suc- 
cessful. Up  to  that  year  the 
longest  flight  had  been  by  Capt. 
Rignot  and  Lieut.  Costes  of  the 
French  army  from  Paris  to 
Djask,  Persia,  a  distance  of  3,313 
miles,  on  October  28-29,  1926. 
The  French  were  the  first  also  to 
attempt  the  trans-Atlantic  pas- 
sage in  1927,  Capt.  Charles 
Nungesser,  French  war  ace,  and 
Capt.  Frangois  Coli,  hopping  off 
from  Paris  on  May  8.  They  had 
a  large  biplane  with  a  single, 
powerful  water-cooled  motor. 
They  were  never  heard  from 
again,  and  no  trace  of  them  was 
ever  found,  so  it  is  supposed  that 
they  came  down  somewhere  in 
the  Atlantic  with  such  force 
that  their  plane  was  demolished. 

Col.  Charles  A.  Lindbergh  was 
the  next  to  attempt  the  flight, 
and  his  success  was  one  of  the 
most  spectacular  events  in  the 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Aeronautics 


79  N 


Aeronautics 


history  of  aviation.  It  took  the 
peoples  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean 
by  storm  and  made  this  25-year- 
old  flyer  an  international  hero. 
He  flew  alone  in  a  Ryan  mono- 
plane with  a  Wright  220  horse- 
power air-cooled  motor,  leaving 
Roosevelt  Field  on  May  20,  at 
6:52  A.M.,  New  York  standard 
time,  and  reaching  Le  Bourget 
just  33K  hours  later.  His 
flight  was  a  masterpiece  of  navi- 
gation, as  without  a  sextant,  and 
with  only  the  aid  of  his  com- 
passes and  drift  indicator,  he 
reached  the  Irish  coast  within 
two  miles  of  his  course.  He  had 
previously  brought  his  plane  to 


circle  course  from  point  to  point, 
but  as  Chamberlin  was  for  many 
hours  lost  in  a  severe  storm  over 
Germany  he  probably  flew  about 
4,400  miles.  His  plane  was  a 
Bellanca  monoplane,  powered 
with  a  Wright  motor. 

The  next  great  flight  was  over 
the  Pacific  from  San  Francisco  to 
Honolulu,  a  distance  of  2,000 
miles.  The  difficulty  in  this 
flight  was  the  small  mark  which 
must  be  found  in  the  wastes  of 
the  Pacific,  the  Hawaiian  Is- 
lands being  easily  missed  in 
fog  or  bad  weather.  The  flight 
required  careful  navigation,  but 
Lieuts.    Lester    J.  Maitland, 


Paris  because  of  a  severe  storm 
which  was  raging  when  they 
reached  the  French  coast.  They 
finally  turned  back  to  the  coast 
after  circling  somewhere  near 
Paris  and  landed  in  the  water  off 
Ver-sur-mer,  a  French  fishing 
village,  after  having  been  in  the 
air  43  hours  and  20  minutes. 

Commander  Byrd,  on  May  9, 
1926,  flew  from  Spitzbergen  to 
the  Pole  and  back  again  in  six- 
teen hours.  His  pilot  on  the  trip 
was  Floyd  Bennett.  Byrd  ver- 
ified Peary's  observations  tak- 
en at  the  pole,  and  saw  no  land 
although  he  flew  in  a  wide  circle. 
The  Congressional  Medal  was 


U.S.NAVY 


Courtesy  of  the  Bureau  of  Aeronautics,  U.  S.  Navy  Department 

The  U.  S.  Airship  Los  Angeles,  Formerly  the  Z-Rj 

This  airship  was  constructed  by  the  Zeppelin  Airship  Company  for  the  United  States  Government  as  a  replacement  for  two 
smaller  airships  to  which  this  country  was  entitled  at  the  close  of  the  Great  War.  The  Los  Angeles  is  designed  as  a  commercial 
airship,  and  has  accommodations  for  twenty  passengers. 


New  York  from  San  Diego,  Cal., 
in  two  swift  flights,  so  that  his 
entire  flight  was  about  6,000 
miles  broken  by  a  stay  of  a  few 
hours  in  St.  Louis,  and  a  week  in 
New  York.  His  dashing  courage 
while  others,  who  had  begun  to 
prepare  before  him  were  on  the 
ground,  caught  the  imagination 
of  the  world.  His  flight  was  a 
new  record  of  3,610  miles  and 
won  for  him  the  $25,000  Orteig 
prize. 

Closely  following  Lindbergh  was 
Clarence  Chamberlin,  who  with 
Charles  A.  Levine  as  the  first 
trans-Atlantic  passenger,  flew 
from  Roosevelt  Field,  L.  I.,  on 
June  24,  and  reached  Eiseleben, 
Germany,  46>2  hours  later. 
His  distance  was  3.911  miles,  as 
calculated  according  to  the  rules 
of  distance-flying  on   a  great 


pilot,  and  Albert  F.  Hegenberger, 
navigator,  took  off  on  June  28, 
and  reached  Honolulu  in  25 
hours  and  50  minutes.  Their 
flight  was  in  a  Fokker  monoplane 
with  three  Wright  Whirlwind 
motors. 

Just  after  they  landed  in  Hono- 
lulu, Commander  Richard  E. 
Byrd,  u.  s.  N.,  who  had  reached 
the  North  Pole  by  aeroplane  the 
year  before,  took  off  for  France 
from  RoOvSevelt  Field  in  a  plane 
which  was  a  duplicate  of  the  one 
used  on  the  Pacific  flight. 
With  him  were  Bert  Acosta, 
pilot,  Lieut.  George  O.  Noville, 
radioman  and  flight  engineer, 
and  Lieut.  Bernt  Balchen,  relief 
pilot  and  relief  navigator.  They 
flew  in  very  bad  weather,  were 
unable  to  see  land  or  sea  for 
sixteen  hours,  and  could  not  find 


bestowed  on  Byrd  and  Bennett. 

In  1927  also,  Col.  Francesco 
de  Pinedo,  the  Italian  long  dis- 
tance flyer,  made  another  of 
his  famous  seaplane  flights. 
In  1923  he  had  flown  from  Rome 
to  Japan  and  back  by  a  circuitous 
route,  making  34,000  miles  in  all. 
In  1927  he  left  vSardinia  on  Feb- 
ruary 14,  flew  to  Dakar,  Africa, 
then  to  the  Cape  Verde  Islands, 
then  to  Fernando  de  Noronha,  to 
Brazil,  and  up  to  the  United 
States,  where  his  plane  was 
destroyed  by  fire  in  Colorado. 
He  obtained  another  plane  from 
Italy,  and  flew  back  by  way  of 
Newfoundland  to  the  Azores. 
He  was  forced  by  a  storm  to 
land  in  the  sea  some  distance 
from  the  Azores,  was  towed  to 
land,  and  went  on  after  his 
plane  was  repaired. 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '28 


Aeronautics 


80 


Aeronautics 


Two  of  the  most  significant 
flights  of  the  year  were  those  of 
the  two  Detroit  fliers,  Edward  F. 
Schlee  and  Wilham  S.  Brock  and 
the  French  aviators.  Captain 
Dieudonne  Costes  and  Com- 
mander Josef  Lebrix.  Brock  and 
Schlee  took  off  from  Harbor 
Grace,  Newfoundland,  on  the 
morning  of  Aug.  27  and  flew 
across  the  Atlantic  to  Croyden 
Airport,  London.  From  there 
they  flew  across  Europe  and  Asia, 
ending  their  flight  12,395  miles 
from  the  start  at  Tokyo  on  Sep- 
tember 14.  In  eighteen  days  of 
flying  they  crossed  the  Atlantic 
and  two  continents,  having  used 
a  Stinson  monoplane  with  a 
Wright  Whirlwind  motor, 

Costes  and  Lebrix  left  Paris 
on  the  morning  of  October  14, 
1927,  flying  a  Breguet  biplane 
A^ith  a  500  horsepower  Hispano 
Suiza  motor  and  landed  twenty 
hours  later  at  St.  Louis,  Senegal, 
West  Africa.  Thence  they  flew 
2,100  miles  across  the  South 
Atlantic  to  Port  Natal,  Brazil, 
completing  the  first  successful 
nonstop  east  to  west  flight  across 
the  Atlantic.  They  toured  South 
America  and  crossed  that  conti- 
nent by  night  flying  over  the 
Andes  at  20,000  feet  altitude 
from  Rio  de  Janeiro  to  Santiago, 
Chile,  from  where  they  flew  north 
to  land  at  Mitchel  Field,  L.  L, 
February  11,  1928,  after  23.000 
miles  of  flying.  After  a  visit  in 
New  York  they  flew  to  Seattle, 
proceeded  with  their  plane  by 
steamer  to  Japan  and  then  flew 
across  Asia  and  Europe  to  Paris, 
43,000  miles  of  flying  without  an 
accident  of  any  sort. 

The  first  great  flights  of  1928 
came  in  April.  Captain  Herman 
Koehl,  Baron  Guenther  von 
Huenefeld,  both  Germans,  and 
the  Irish  aviator  Major  James 
Fitzmaurice  took  off  from  Dublin 
on  the  morning  of  April  12  and 
landed  at  Greenely  Island  off 
the  coast  of  Labrador  36  hours 
later,  after  wandering  for  many 
hours  over  the  forests  and  moun- 
tains of  Labrador.  Theirs  was 
the  first  westward  crossing  of  the 
North  Atlantic  in  an  airplane. 
They  used  a  Junkers  all-metal 
monoplane  powered  with  a  310 
horsepower  Junkers  motor.  While 
the  German-Irish  expedition  was 
still  stranded  at  Greenely,  on 
April  15-lG,  Captain  George 
Hubert  Wilkins,  the  Australian 
explorer,  and  Lieutenant  C.  B. 
Eielson,  his  American  pilot,  flew 
from  Point  Barrow  Alaska,  2,100 
miles  across  the  top  of  the  world 
to  Dead  Man's  Island,  a  tiny 
speck  twenty-five  'miles  off  the 
coast  of  Spitzbergen.  They  were 
stormbound  there  five  days  be- 
fore they  were  able  to  fly  on  to 
Green  Bay,  Spitzbergen.  They 
used  an  American  built  Lockheed 
Vega  monoplane  powered  with 
the  Wright  Whirlwind  motor. 

On  May  31  Captain  Charles 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '28 


Kingsford-Smith  and  Captain 
Charles  T.  P.  Ulm,  Australians, 
with  Captain  Harry  Lyon  and 
James  W.  Warner,  Americans, 
as  navigator  and  radio  operator 
took  off  at  San  Francisco  in  a 
tri-motored  Fokker  monoplane 
landing  the  next  day  in  Hawaii. 
Three  days  later  they  took  off 
for  Suva,  capital  of  the  Fijis, 
making  this  water  jump,  3,138 
miles,  the  longest  in  the  history 
of  aviation,  in  34  hours  and  33 
minutes  after  flying  through 
several  storms,  guiding  them- 
selves with  absolute  precision  by 
radio  bearings.  June  8,  they  left 
the  Fijis  by  air  for  Brisbane, 
Australia  a  flight  of  1,762  miles 
in  21  hours  and  18  minutes. 

On  June  17,  the  first  woman 
to  fly  the  Atlantic,  Miss  Amelia 
Earhart  of  Boston  took  off  from 
Trepassy  Bay,  Newfoundland, 
in  a  tri-motored  Fokker  seaplane 
piloted  by  Wilmer  Stultz  with 
Louis  Gordon  as  mechanic  and 
co-pilot.  After  flying  nearly  all 
of  the  distance  across  the  ocean 
above  clouds  and  fog,  20  hours 
and  40  minutes  later  they  landed 
at  Burry  Port,  South  Wales. 

Captain  Arturo  Ferrarin  and 
Major  Carlo  P.  Delprete, 
Italians,  took  off  from  Monte- 
cello  airdrome  near  Rome,  July  3, 
flew  4,475  miles  across  the  Medi- 
terranean, Northwest  Africa,  and 
the  South  Atlantic  and  landed  on 
the  beach  near  Port  Natal, 
Brazil  two  days  later,  51  hours 
after  they  left  Rome,  surpassing 
Chamberlin  and  Levine's  flight 
from  Roosevelt  Field  to  Germany 
by  more  than  500  miles  and  es- 
tablishing a  new  world's  distance 
record.  They  used  a  special 
Savoia  Marchetti  monoplane 
powered  by  a  550  horsepower 
Fiat  motor  mounted  on  top  of 
the  wing. 

Records:  Many  new  records 
were  made  in  1927  and  during 
the  early  months  of  1928.  Fol- 
lowing are  the  more  important 
which  are  recognized  by  the 
Federation  Internationale  Aero- 
nautique. 

Speed:  Major  Mario  de  Ber- 
nardi  of  Italy  flew  a  Macchi  52 
monoplane  (seaplane)  with  an 
800  horsepower  Fiat  motor  at  a 
speed  of  318.624  miles  an  hour 
at  Venice,  Italy  on  March  30, 
1928. 

Lieutenant  S.  N.  Webster  of 
Great  Britain  flew  a  Supermarine 
monoplane  (seaplane)  with  a 
1,000  horsepower  Napier  motor 
100  kilometers  at  the  rate  of 
283.669  miles  an  hour  at  Venice, 
September  26,  1927,  a  world's 
record  for  100  kilometers. 

The  maximum  speed  in  the 
United  States  was  made  by 
Lieut.  A.  J.  Williams,  u.  s.  N.,  in 
a  Curtis  racer,  with  a  500  horse- 
power motor,  at  Mitchel  Field, 
L.  I.,  where  he  flew  at  a 
rate  of  266.59  miles  an  hour  on 
Nov.  4,  1923.  The  record  for  an 


American  seaplane  over  a 
straightaway  course  was  made  by 
Lieut.  James  H.  Doolittle,  u.  s.  a. 
in  a  Curtis  racer,  at  Bay  Shore, 
Baltimore,  Oct.  27,  1925,  when 
he  flew  at  the  rate  of  245.713 
miles  an  hour.  The  day  before  he 
made  a  speed  of  234.772  miles 
over  the  100  kilometer  course. 

Distance:  Colonel  Charles  A. 
Lindbergh,  Roosevelt  Field — 
Paris,  May  20-21,  1927,  3,610 
miles. 

Clarence  D.  Chamberlin, 
Roosevelt  Field — Eiseleben,  Ger- 
many, June  4,  5,  6,  1927,  3,911 
miles. 

Captain  Arturo  Ferrarin  and 
Major  Carlo  P.  Delprete,  Rome — 
Port  Natal,  Brazil,  July  3,  4,  5, 
1928,  4,475  miles. 

Duration. — Clarence  D.  Cham- 
berlin and  Bert  Acosta  in  the 
same  Bellanca  monoplane  in 
which  Chamberlin  flew  to  Ger- 
many, using  a  220  horsepower 
Wright  air-cooled  motor,  made 
a  duration  record  51  hours,  11 
minutes,  25  seconds,  at  Roosevelt 
Field,  L,  I.,  on  April  12,  13, 
14,  1927. 

Johann  Risticz  and  Cor- 
nelius Edzard  broke  Cham- 
berlin and  Acosta's  record  with 
a  Junkers  L.  monoplane  powered 
with  a  Junkers  310  horsepower 
motor  at  Dessau  Aug.  3,  4,  5, 

1927  when  they  stayed  aloft 
52  hours,  22  minutes,  31  seconds. 

Edward  A.  Stinson  and 
George  W,  Haldeman  flying  a 
Stinson  Detroiter  with  220  horse- 
power Wright  Whirlwind  motor 
again  broke  this  record  at  Jack- 
sonville, Fla.,  March  28,  29,  30, 

1928  by  staying  up  53  hours,  36 
minutes,  30  seconds. 

Ferrarin  and  Del  Prete,  the 
Italians,  took  the  record  to  Italy 
with  the  plane  they  flew  to 
Brazil,  a  Savoia  Marchetti  pow- 
ered with  a  Fiat  550  horespower 
motor  on  May  31-June  1,  2,  with 
a  sustained  flight  of  58  hours,  34 
minutes,  26  seconds. 

Johann  Risticz  and  Hans  Zim- 
merman took  this  record  again 
to  Germany  when  they  stayed 
aloft  at  Dessau  in  their  Jm 
Junkers  monoplane  powered  with 
the  Junkers  310  horsepower 
motor,  65  hours,  31  minutes, 
on  July  5,  6,  7. 

Altitude. — Lieut.  C.  C.  Cham- 
pion u.  s.  N.  flying  a  Wright 
Apache  with  a  Pratt  and  Whit- 
ney 425  horsepower  'wasp'  motor 
made  the  world's  record  for 
altitude  at  Anacostia  Field, 
Washington,  D.  C.  with  a  flight 
to  a  height  of  38,418  feet  on 
July  25,  1927. 

Lieut.  Champion,  flying  the 
same  plane  equipped  as  seaplane, 
established  the  world's  seaplane 
record  over  the  same  field  on 
July  4,  1927  with  a  flight  to  a 
height  of  37,995  feet. 

The  First  World  Flight.— In 
the  Fall  of  1923  the  United  States 
Army   announced    its   plan  to 


TEMPORARY  PAGES  FOR  NELSON'S  L.  L.  ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


Insert  in  Volume  I.,  following  page  80. 


The  World  Flight 

Circumnavigation  of  the  world 
by  air  was  accomplished  in  1924 
by  the  United  States  Army.  Of 
the  four  heavier-than-air  flying 
machines  that  set  out  on  the 
world  flight,  however,  only  two 
completed  the  journey  in  its  en- 
tirety; one  came  to  grief  early  in 
the  attempt;  another,  with  the 
goal  almost  in  sight,  was  wrecked 
and  forced  to  forego  the  flight 
across  the  Atlantic,  but  the  avi- 
ators were  provided  with  a  new 
aeroplane  and,  rejoining  their 
companions,  completed  a  greater 
part  of  the  journey.  The  route 
taken  was  from  east  to  west  and 
the  time  consumed  was  approxi- 
mately six  months. 

It  had  been  certain  since  the 
safe  crossing  of  the  Atlantic  by 
U.  S.  Navy  seaplanes  five  years 
earlier  that  a  round-the-world 
flight  would  be  attempted.  In- 
deed, several  plans  were  made 
and  actually  launched,  but  these 
were  private  enterprises  and 
failed  more  for  lack  of  organiza- 
tion and  supplies  than  for  any 
want  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
aviators.  In  fact,  while  the 
American  fliers  were  going  around 
the  world,  representatives  of 
France,  England,  Portugal,  Italy, 
and  Argentina  were  trying  to  do 
the  same  thing,  but  misfortune 
overtook  each  of  them,  and  un- 
able to  repair  and  refit,  they  had 
to  abandon  the  attempt.  Simi- 
lar misfortunes  befell  the  Ameri- 
cans, but  advance  preparation 
and  superior  organization  en- 
abled them  to  overcome  these 
obstacles. 

The  Plan.— in  the  Fall  of  1923 
the  United  States  Army  an- 
nounced its  plan  to  circumnavi- 
gate the  world  by  air.  There 
were  obviously  two  great  ob- 
stacles to  be  overcome — unfavor- 
able flying  weather  and  lack  of 
supplies.  Aeroplanes  had  not 
reached  that  state  of  perfection 
where  invariably  they  could  ven- 
ture successfully  against  storm 
and  fog  and,  in  any  event,  they 
could  not  fly  without  gasoline 
and  oil.  It  was  to  overcome 
these  obstacles,  so  far  as  humanly 
possible,  that  the  army  air  service 
set  itself  in  the  months  preceding 
the  flight.  A  route  was  mapperl 
out  that  would  best  avoid  at 
known  times  known  conditions 
of  storm  and  fog.  though  it  was, 
of  course,  not  dreamed  that 
storm  and  fog  would  be  alto- 
gether   escaped.    Bad  weather 


would  inevitably  be  met  with, 
but  by  starting  in  the  Spring  of 
the  year  and  flying  from  the 
west  coast  of  the  United  States 
to  Alaska  and  then  by  way  of 
Japan,  China,  India,  Persia,  Tur- 
key, France,  England,  Iceland, 
Greenland,  and  Labrador,  thus 
regaining  the  eastern  coast  of 
North  America,  it  was  thought 
that  the  worst  weather  conditions 
of  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic 
would  be  avoided.  Accordingly, 
with  the  route  decided  on,  ar- 
rangements were  made  to  have 
supplies  on  hand  at  each  of  the 
stopping  places,  and  in  northern 
regions  ice-breakers  and  dog- 
sleds  were  engaged  to  transport 
the  supplies  to  points  where  they 
would  be  needed. 

The  Purpose. — Major-General 
Mason  M.  Patrick,  Chief  of  the 
U.  S.  Army  Air  Service,  gave  the 
following  reasons  for  the  flight: 

'The  purpose,  of  this  flight  has 
been  to  demonstrate  the  feasi- 
bility of  establishing  aerial  com- 
munication with  all  the  countries 
of  the  world ;  the  practicability  of 
travel  by  air  through  regions 
where  surface  transportation  does 
not  exist,  or  at  best  is  slow,  tedi- 
ous, or*  uncertain;  to  prove  the 
ability  of  modern  types  of  air- 
craft under  all  climatic  condi- 
tions; to  stimulate  the  adaptation 
of  aircraft  to  the  needs  of  com- 
merce; to  show  the  people  of  the 
world  the  excellence  of  American- 
produced  aircraft,  and  thus  stim- 
ulate our  American  aircraft 
industry;  and  lastly  to  bring  to 
the  United  States,  the  birthplace 
of  aeronautics,  the  honor  of  being 
the  first  to  fly  around  the  world.' 

The  Personnel. — The  personnel 
selected  for  the  flight  were:  Major 
Frederick  L.  Martin,  Flight 
Commander,  and  vSergeant  Alva 
L.  Harvey,  mechanic;  Lieutenant 
Lowell  H.  Smith,  pilot,  and  Lieu- 
tenant Leslie  P.  Arnold,  me- 
chanic; Lieutenant  Erik  H.  Nel- 
on,  pilot,  and  John  Harding,  me- 
chanic; Lieutenant  Leigh  Wade, 
pilot,  and  Lieutenant  H.  H. 
Ogden,  mechanic. 

The  Aeroplanes. — Douglas  bi- 
planes, equipped  with  single  en- 
gines of  twelve  cylinders,  and 
capable  of  easily  being  provided 
with  pontoons  or  running  gear  as 
conditions  might  demand,  were 
specially  constructed  for  the 
flight.  Each  was  capable  of 
carrying  a  pilot  and  a  mechanic. 
No.  1,  that  of  Major  Martin,  was 


named  Seattle;  No.  2,  that  of 
Lieutenant  Smith,  Chicago;  No. 
3,  that  of  Lieutenant  Wade.  Bos- 
ton; No.  4,  that  of  Lieutenant 
Nelson,  New  Orleans.  Subse- 
quently Boston  II  was  provided 
for  Lieutenant  Wade. 

The  Flight.  —  On  March  17, 
1924,  the  flight  began.  On  the 
morning  of  St.  Patrick's  day  the 
four  aeroplanes  rose  from  Clover 
Field,  Santa  Monica,  California, 
for  the  first  leg  of  their  flight, 
which  was  to  end  at  Sacramento, 
370  miles  away.  The  journey 
was  accomplished  without  mis- 
hap, and  the  aviators  expressed 
themselves  as  confident  of  be- 
ing able  to  carry  out  their  orders 
successfully.  Their  next  hop 
was  to  Seattle,  550  miles  distant, 
which  they  reached  on  March  20. 
There  the  running  wheels  of  the 
aeroplanes  were  removed  and 
pontoons  were  substituted,  as 
their  journey  for  some  time  on 
was  to  take  them  over  water. 
On  April  6  they  reached  Prince 
Rupert,  British  Columbia,  on 
April  10,  Sitka,  Alaska,  and  on 
April,  13,  Seward,  Alaska. 

Thus  far  the  flight,  although 
beset  with  many  aggravations, 
had  been  without  any  serious  in- 
cident. From  Seward  the  route 
called  for  a  hop  of  450  miles  to 
Chignik.  The  four  pilots  took 
off"  on  the  morning  of  April  15. 
Three  of  them  made  port  suc- 
cessfully that  evening.  Major 
Martin,  however,  who  had 
been  experiencing  some  engine 
trouble,  was  forced  down  by  a 
crack  in  the  crank  case  through 
which  he  lost  his  lubricating  oil. 
He  landed  in  Portage  Bay  and 
rode  at  anchor  all  that  night. 
His  situation  was  serious,  as  it 
was  impossible  to  continue. 
American  destroyers,  however, 
had  been  patroling  the  water 
flights,  and  when  the  flight  com- 
mander was  missed  a  search  was 
begun  that  ended  in  his  rescue.  A 
new  engine  was  then  sent  to  him, 
but  while  the  others  were  disposed 
to  wait  for  their  commander 
and  did  wait  for  four  days, 
instructions  came  to  them  from 
Washington  to  proceed.  Ac- 
cordingly they  flew  on  400  miles 
to  Dutch  Harbor.  There  they 
were  storm  bound  for  almost  two 
weeks  and  it  was  not  until  May  3 
that  they  were  able  to  continue 
to  Atka  Island. 

In  the  meantime.  Major  Mar- 
tin and  his  mechanic,  having  in- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  '24 


The  World  Flight 


4 


The  World  Flight 


stalled  their  new  engine,  contin- 
ued their  flight.  They  encoun- 
tered the  snowstorm,  however, 
that  had  held  up  the  others  in 
advance  and,  while  flying  with 
almost  no  visibility,  their  plane 
hit  the  side  of  a  mountain  near 
Port  MoUer  and  was  wrecked 
beyond  hope  of  repair.  The  avi- 
ators escaped  without  serious  in- 
jury, but  found  themselves  on 
foot  in  a  snow-covered  wilderness 
with  almost  no  food.  They  set 
out  to  walk,  in  the  hope  of  reach- 
ing some  habitation,  but  nearly 
a  week  passed  before  they  ar- 
rived at  a  small  camp.  Here 


Attu.  the  end  of  the  chain  of 
Aleutian  Islands,  and  before 
them  stretched  880  miles  of  the 
north  Pacific  ocean  to  the  Kuriles. 
On  May  16  they  took  off,  but 
ran  into  bad  weather  and  decided 
to  come  down  near  Commandor- 
ski  on  the  Kamchatkan  coast. 
They  passed  the  night  on  their 
planes  at  anchor  on  the  water 
and  continued  the  following  day 
for  the  Kuriles,  arriving  safely. 
Here  they  met  with  more  snow 
and  bad  fog  and  were  again  held 
up,  but  at  last  were  able  to  con- 
tinue to  the  mainland  of  Japan, 
where  the  aeroplanes  were  over- 


the  aviators  had  passed  from 
arctic  to  equatorial  regions,  from 
extreme  cold  to  extreme  heat, 
and  while  it  had  been  their  en- 
gines that  demanded  the  closest 
attention  in  the  former,  it  was 
now  the  fabric  of  their  wings  that 
required  rigid  scrutiny.  They 
came  through,  however,  and  con- 
tinued on  to  India,  reaching  Cal- 
cutta on  June  26.  It  was  ex- 
hausting work,  sandstorms  add- 
ing to  the  discomfort  of  the  heat, 
but  they  flew  on  to  Allahabad,  to 
Umballa,  to  Multan,  and  to 
Kurachi  in  the  northeast,  their 
last  Indian  stop.    During  this 


©Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Lieutenant  Smith's  Flagplane  "Chicago," equipped  with  Pontoons  for  Flight  Over  Water 


they  found  rest,  food,  and 
warmth,  and  news  of  their  safety 
was  sent  out  to  a  world  that  had 
prepared  itself  for  the  worst.  A 
destroyer  was  despatched  for  the 
aviators,  and  they  were  instructed 
to  return  to  Washington.  At 
that  time,  it  was  intended  to  send 
Major  Martin  to  the  Near  East 
to  rejoin  the  flight  with  a  new 
plane.  The  flight  commander, 
however,  asked  that  the  plan  be 
cancelled;  his  wishes  were  ob- 
served and  Lieutenant  Smith 
took  command. 

The  longest  and  one  of  the 
most  dangerous  legs  of  the  jour- 
ney now  faced  the  aviators. 
From  Atka  they  had  flown  to 


hauled  and  the  aviators  were 
made  much  of.  On  June  1  they 
continued  to  Kushimoto  and 
thence  to  Kagoshima. 

The  route  of  the  airmen  now 
led  to  China.  At  Shanghai  the 
pontoons  that  had  been  put  on 
at  Seattle  were  removed  and 
wheeled  landing  gear  was  at- 
tached, for  the  sea  was  now  be- 
hind, for  some  time  at  least, 
while  ahead  lay  hill  and  plane 
and  snow  and  sand.  P^rom 
Shanghai  to  Hongkong,  thence  to 
Haiphong  in  French  Indo-China, 
they  flew,  continuing  on  to  Bang- 
kok, in  Siam,  and  to  Rangoon,  in 
Burma. 

In  a  comparatively  few  days 


flight  Lieutenant  Smith  fell  from 
the  wing  of  his  aeroplane  and 
fractured  two  ribs,  but  he  did 
not  permit  this  mishap  to  hold 
him  back.  His  one  object  was 
to  push  forward  and  on  July  7, 
with  new  engines  in  the  aero- 
planes, he  led  his  command  on 
through  Persia  by  way  of  Char- 
bar,  Bendar  Abbas  and  Bushire 
to  Bagdad  in  Mesopotamia. 
Thence  the  fliers  made  their  way 
to  Aleppo  in  Syria,  reaching 
Constantinople  on  July  10. 

Two  days  later  they  crossed 
into  Europe.  Their  route  to 
Paris  lay  by  way  of  Bucharest, 
Vienna,  and  Strassbourg.  They 
reached  the  F'rench  capital  on 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


The  World  Flight 


6 


The  World  Flight 


Bastille  Day,  circled  the  Arc  de 
Triomphe,  dropped  flowers  on 
the  tomb  of  the  Unknown  Sol- 
dier, and  landed  on  an  airfield  in 
the  outskirts  of  the  city.  Thence 
they  flew  north,  crossed  the  Eng- 
lish Channel,  and  reached  Lon- 
don, 

Although  little  time  had  been 
lost,  four  months  had  elapsed. 
There  was  dangerous  flying 
ahead,  and  the  success  of  the 
venture  was  by  no  means  as- 
sured. Consequently,  no  time 
was  wasted  in  London.  After 
one  day  the  aviators  continued 
to  Hull.  There  their  aeroplanes 
were  once  more  fitted  with  pon- 
toons, and  on  August  2  they 
hopped  off  for  Kirkwall,  Scot- 
land. 

It  was  in  the  next  leg  of  the 
journey  that  misfortune  fell  upon 
Lieutenant  Wade  and  his  aero- 
plane Boston.  The  plane  was 
forced  down  by  engine  trouble  ofl" 
the  Faroes,  and  was  taken  in  tow 
by  the  scout,  cruiser  Richmond. 
In  the  sea  that  was  running,  the 
Boston  did  not  tow  well  and  it 
was  decided  to  hoist  her  on  board. 
The  equipment  of  the  Richmond 
was,  however,  designed  for  smaller 
and  lighter  planes  and  in  the 
attempt  the  vessel's  boom  broke, 
the  aeroplane  fell  to  the  water, 
and  was  wrecked.  Lieutenants 
Wade  and  Ogden  were  scarcely 
more  disappointed  than  their 
companions  when  it  became  ap- 
parent that  another  plane  could 
not  be  sent  and  assembled  in  time 
to  avoid  the  winter  weather  that 
would  soon  be  setting  in  off  Ice- 
land and  Greenland.  Such,  how- 
ever, was  the  case,  and  the  two 
aviators  were  sent  to  Canada  by 
ship  and  the  Boston  II  was  fitted 
out  and  flown  up  to  Pictou,  Nova 
Scotia,  for  them. 

By  the  end  of  July  Lieutenant 
Smith  with  Chicago  and  Lieuten- 
ant Nelson,  with  New  Orleans, 
were  in  Reykjavik,  Iceland. 
Their  next  scheduled  hop  was  to 
Angmagsalik,  on  the  east  coast 
of  Greenland.  For  the  greater 
part  of  each  year  Angmagsalik  is 
ice-bound,  but  for  fifteen  years 
entrance  to  the  harbor  had  been 
effected  at  this  season.  Now. 
however,  ice  filled  the  harbor  and 
extended  northward  to  a  width 
of  fifteen  miles  off  shore.  The 
supplies  that  the  aviators  would 
need  at  Angmagsalik  were  on 
board  the  Danish  steamship 
Gertrud  Rask,  but  although  that 
vessel  was  an  ice-breaker,  she 
was  unable  to  push  through.  In- 
deed, she  was  caught  in  the  drift 
ice  and  as  the  precious  days  went 
by  was  carried  further  and  fur- 
ther from  her  destination.  The 
flight  now  reached  its  crisis,  and 
it  became  clear  that  unless  some 
oi)en  harbor  could  be  found,  the 
attempt  would  have  to  be  aban- 
doned. Advance  officers  of  the 
army  began  a  hunt  for  a  safe 
Vol.  I. — Oct.  '24 


landing  place,  and  just  when 
hopes  were  at  their  lowest,  for  it 
was  a  time  of  the  heaviest  fog 
off  the  southern  tip  of  Greenland, 
Fredriksdal,  on  the  west  coast, 
just  beyond  Cape  Farewell,  the 
most  southerly  point  of  Green- 
land, was  decided  upon  as  a  suit- 
ble  landing  place  in  the  emer- 
gency. 

By  this  time  Antonio  Locatelli, 
an  Italian,  who  had  left  Rome 
with  four  companions  in  a  sea- 
plane originally  constructed  to 
fly  to  the  North  Pole,  had  reached 
Reykavik  and  had  obtained  per- 
mission to  accompany  the  Ameri- 
cans. He  hopped  off  with  them 
and  flying  a  more  powerful  sea- 
plane, took  the  lead.  American 
warships  patrolling  the  route  re- 
ported all  three,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  destroyer  nearest  to 
Fredriksdal,  which  sighted  only 
the  Americans  and  attributed 
failure  to  see  Locatelli  to  a  dense 
fog  that  had  set  in.  It  was  a  fog 
that  gave  both  Smith  and  Nelson 
much  trouble.  Both,  however, 
reached  Fredriksdal  safely.  Loc- 
atelli, on  the  other  hand,  was 
forced  down  near  Fredriksdal, 
fearing  he  might  strike  an  ice- 
berg in  the  fog.  The  sea  was 
heavy,  and  he  and  his  compan- 
ions had  difficulty  keeping  the 
seaplane  headed  into  the  wind. 
Waves  threatened  to  sink  them, 
and  the  fog  continued.  Loca- 
telli now  found  that  he  could  not 
rise  from  the  water.  He  had 
provisions  for  ten  days,  but  on 
the  fourth  day  was  picked  up  by 
the  Cruiser  Richmond.  A  Very 
light,  fired  by  himself,  had  been 
seen  by  a  lookout  on  the  Rich- 
mond just  before  midnight,  and 
the  rescue  had  followed.  The 
aviators  were  taken  on  board, 
but  it  was  impossible  to  save 
their  airplane,  which  had  to  be 
burned.  Locatelli  was  taken  to 
Labrador  and  later  to  Boston  by 
ship. 

From  Fredriksdal  Lieutenants 
Smith  and  Nelson  flew  around 
Cape  Farewell  to  Ivigtut,  later 
described  by  Smith  as  'the  avi- 
ator's Hell.'  At  Ivigtut  engines 
were  changed  and  plans  made  for 
the  dangerous  crossing  to  the 
North  American  continent.  Ice 
Tickle,  in  Hamilton  Inlet,  Lab- 
rador, had  been  selected  as  the 
landing  place,  and  there  supplies 
were  on  hand,  as  well  as  a  meteor- 
ological officer  of  the  Army  Sig- 
nal (^orps,  who  sent  weather  re- 
ports twice  daily  to  the  aviators. 
He  warned  them  that  they  had 
best  face  head  winds,  for  such 
winds  would  drive  off  fog. 

Sunday,  July  31,  dawned,  a 
cold,  raw,  somewhat  rainy  day. 
The  aviators  decided  they  could 
risk  delay  no  more.  Accord- 
ingly, early  in  the  morning  they 
took  off  from  Ivigtut,  destroyers 
stationed  en  route  reporting  their 
progress  every  hour.    During  the 


middle  of  the  afternoon  they 
reached  Ice  Tickle.  Wind,  how- 
ever, had  sprung  up,  and  the 
landing  place  that  had  been  pre- 
pared was  too  rough  for  a  safe 
descent.  At  the  last  moment 
two  emergency  buoys  had  been 
made  ready  in  the  lee  of  the  shore 
in  an  adjoining  cove  and  it  was 
there  the  aviators  came  down. 
They  were  taken  on  board  the 
Richmond,  which  had  arrived 
from  Iceland,  and  greetings  from 
the  President  of  the  United 
States  were  read  to  them.  Later 
Lieutenant  Smith  gave  credit  for 
his  safe  arrival  to  his  companion. 
Lieutenant  Arnold.  Two  hours 
out  from  Ivigtut  the  gasoline  feed 
broke  down  and  Arnold  kept  the 
engine  supplied  with  fuel  by 
means  of  a  hand  pump,  making 
two  strokes  to  the  minute,  keep- 
ing this  up  for  three  hours. 

Two  days  later  the  aviators 
continued  on  to  Hawkes  Bay,  on 
the  west  coast  of  Newfoundland, 
and  proceeded  thence  to  Pictou. 
There  they  were  met  by  Lieuten- 
ants Wade  and  Ogden  with  Bos- 
ton II  and  the  three  hopped  off 
for  Boston  on  Friday,  Sept.  5. 
Off  the  coast  of  Maine,  however, 
they  encountered  fog  and  decided 
to  come  down  at  Mere  Point  in 
Casco  Bay.  It  was  their  first 
landing  on  the  shores  of  the 
United  States  since  they  had  left, 
nearly  six  months  before.  The 
following  morning  they  contin- 
ued, arriving  in  Boston  in  the 
early  afternoon.  There  they 
were  met  by  officials  of  the  na- 
tion. State,  and  city,  were  hon- 
ored by  public  receptions  and 
given  many  presents. 

In  Boston  the  pontoons  were 
removed  from  the  aeroplanes  for 
the  last  time,  and  landing  wheels 
put  on.  On  Sept.  8.  accom- 
panied by  eight  escorting  planes, 
led  by  General  Patrick,  the  world 
cruisers  flew  on  to  New  York, 
where  the  Secretary  of  War,  and 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  then  visiting 
in  America,  and  many  other  dis- 
tinguished persons  greeted  them. 
The  next  day  they  proceeded  to 
Washington  and  were  received 
by  the  President.  Thence,  by 
easy  stages,  they  continued  their 
flight  across  country  to  the 
starting  point.  They  reached  San 
Diego,  Cal.,  Sept.  22,  1924. 

The  /?csu//5.— While  it  is  doubt- 
ful that  the  World  Flight  accom- 
plished all  that  General  Patrick 
hoped  for,  it  did  bring  to  the 
United  States  the  honor  o'f  the 
first  circumnavigation  of  the 
world  by  air.  Subsequent  flights 
undoubtedly  will  greatly  reduce 
the  time,  but  it  is  not  likely  that 
extreme  northern  lanes  will  be 
traversed  for  some  time  to  come 
at  least.  The  impracticability  of 
the  Greenland  route  was  shown 
and  doubtless  in  the  next  at- 
tempt the  Atlantic  will  be  crossed 
by  way  of  the  Azores. 


Aeronautics 


81 


Aeronautics 


circumnavigate  the  world  by  air. 
By  starting  in  the  Spring  of  the 
year  and  flying  from  the  west 
coast  of  the  United  States  to 
Alaska  and  then  by  way  of 
Japan,  China,  India,  Persia, 
Turkey,  France,  England,  Ice- 
land, Greenland,  and  Labrador, 
thus  regaining  the  eastern  coast 
of  North  America,  it  was  thought 
that  the  worst  weather  conditions 
of  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic 
would  be  avoided.  Accordingly, 
arrangements  were  made  to  have 
supplies  on  hand  at  each  of  the 
stopping  places,  and  in  northern 
regions  ice-breakers  and  dog- 
sleds  were  engaged  to  transport 
the  supplies  to  points  where  they 
would  be  needed. 


2,  that  of  Lieutenant  Smith, 
Chicago;  No.  3,  that  of  Lieuten- 
ant Wade,  Boston;  No.  4,  that  of 
Lieutenant  Nelson,  New  Orleans. 

On  the  morning  of  March  17, 
1924,  the  four  aeroplanes  rose 
from  Clover  Field,  Santa  Mo- 
nica, California,  for  the  first  leg  of 
their  flight,  which  was  to  end  at 
Sacramento,  370  miles  away. 
Their  next  hop  was  to  Seattle, 
550  miles  distant,  which  they 
reached  on  March  20.  There 
the  running  wheels  of  the  aero- 
planes were  removed  and  pon- 
toons were  substituted,  as  their 
journey  for  some  time  on  was  to 
take  them  over  water.  On  April 
6  they  reached  Prince  Rupert, 
British  Columbia,  on  April  10, 


to  Dutch  Harbor.  There  they 
were  storm-bound  for  almost  two 
weeks  and  it  was  not  until  May  3 
that  they  were  able  to  continue 
to  Atka  Island. 

In  the  meantime.  Major  Mar- 
tin and  his  mechanic,  having 
installed  their  new  engine,  contin- 
ued their  flight.  They  encoun- 
tered the  snowstorm,  however, 
that  had  held  up  the  others  in 
advance  and,  while  flying  with 
almost  no  visibility,  their  plane 
hit  the  side  of  a  mountain  near 
Port  M  oiler  and  was  wrecked 
beyond  hope  of  repair.  Major 
Martin,  at  his  own  request,  was 
relieved  of  the  command,  and  it 
was  assumed  by  Lieutenant 
Smith. 


Copyright  bv  International  Film  Service 

The  Great  British  Dirigible  Skirting  the  Ground  at  Roosevelt  Field,  Mineola,  Long  Island,  Just  Ready  to  Land. 
Major  G.  H.  Scott,  R.  A.  F.,  in  command  of  the  airship,  is  shown  in  the  inset  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner. 


The  personnel  selected  for  the 
flight  were:  Major  Frederick  L. 
Martin,  Flight  Commander,  and 
Sergeant  Alva  L.  Harvey,  me- 
chanic; Lieutenant  Lowell  H. 
Smith,  pilot,  z.nd  Lieutenant  Les- 
lie P.  Arnold,  mechanic;  Lieu- 
tenant Erik  H.  Nelson,  pilot,  and 
John  Harding,  mechanic;  Lieu- 
tenant Leigh  Wade,  pilot,  and 
Lieutenant  H.  H.  Ogden,  me- 
chanic. 

Douglas  biplanes,  equipped 
with  single  engines  of  twelve 
cylinders,  and  capable  of  easily 
being  provided  with  pontoons  or 
running  gear  as  conditions  might 
demand,  were  specially  con- 
structed for  the  flight.  Each  was 
capable  of,  carrying  a  pilot  and  a 
mechanic.  No.  1,  that  of  Major 
Martin,  was  named  Seattle;  No. 


Sitka,  Alaska,  and  on  April  13, 
Seward,  Alaska. 

From  Seward  the  route  called 
for  a  hop  of  450  miles  to  Chignik. 
The  four  pilots  took  ofl"  on  the 
morning  of  April  15.  Three  of 
them  made  port  successfully  that 
evening.  Major  Martin,  how- 
ever, was  forced  down  by  a  crack 
in  his  crank  case  through  which 
he  lost  his  lubricating  oil.  Land- 
ing in  Portage  Bay  he  rode  at 
anchor  all  that  night  and  was 
later  rescued  by  American  de- 
stroyers, which  had  been  patrol- 
ing  the  water  flights.  A  new 
engine  was  then  sent  to  him,  but 
while  the  others  were  disposed  to 
wait  for  their  commander,  in- 
structions came  to  them  from 
Washington  to  proceed.  Ac- 
cordingly they  flew  on  400  miles 


The  longest  and  one  of  the 
most  dangerous  legs  of  the  jour- 
ney now  faced  the  aviators. 
From  Atka  they  had  flown  to 
Attn,  the  end  of  the  chain  of 
Aleutian  Islands,  and  before 
them  stretched  880  miles  of  the 
North  Pacific  ocean  to  the 
Kuriles.  On  May  16  they  took 
ofi^,  but  ran  into  bad  weather  and 
came  down  near  Commandorski 
on  the  Kamchatkan  coast.  They 
passed  the  night  on  their  planes 
at  anchor  on  the  water  and  con- 
tinued the  following  day  to  the 
Kuriles.  Here  they  met  with 
more  snow  and  bad  fog  and  were 
again  held  up,  but  at  last  were 
able  to  continue  to  the  mainland 
of  Japan.  On  June  1  they  con- 
tinued to  Kushimoto  and  thence 
to  Kagoshima. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Aeronautics 

The  route  of  the  afrmett  noW 
led  to  China.  At  Shanghai  the 
pontoons  that  had  been  put  on 
at  Seattle  were  removed  and 
wheeled  landing  gear  was  at- 
tached, for  ahead  lay  hill  and 
plane  and  snow  and  sand.  From 
Shanghai  to  Hongkong,  thence  to 
Haiphong  in  French  Indo-China, 
they  flew,  continuing  on  to  Bang- 
kok, in  Siam,  and  to  Rangoon,  in 
Burma.  They  reached  Calcutta 
on  June  26,  and  from  there  flew 
on  to  Allahabad,  to  Umballa,  to 
Multan,  and  to  Kurachi  in  the 
northeast,  their  last  Indian  stop. 
During  this  flight  Lieutenant 
Smith  fell  from  the  wing  of  his 
aeroplane  and  fractured  two  ribs, 
but  he  did  not  permit  this  mis- 
hap to  hold  him  back.  On  July 
7,  with  new  engines  in  the  aero- 
planes, he  led  his  command  on 
through  Persia  by  way  of  Char- 
bar,  Bendar  Abbas  and  Bushire 
to  Bagdad  in  Mesopotamia. 
Thence  the  fliers  made  their  way 
to  Aleppo  in  Syria,  reaching 
Constantinople  on  July  10. 

Two  days  later  they  crossed 
into  Europe.  Their  route  to 
Paris  lay  by  way  of  Bucharest, 
Vienna,  and  Strassbourg.  They 
reached  the  French  capital  on 
Bastile  Day  (July  14).  Thence 
they  flew  north,  crossed  the 
English  Channel,  and  after  one 
day  in  London  continued  to 
Hull,  where  their  aeroplanes  were 
once  more  fitted  with  pontoons. 
On  July  30  they  reached  Kirk- 
wall, Scotland. 

In  the  next  leg  of  the  journey 
the  Boston  was  forced  down  by 
engine  trouble  off  the  Faroes, 
and  was  wrecked  in  an  attempt  to 
hoist  it  on  board  the  scout 
cruiser  Richmond.  Lieutenants 
Wade  and  Ogden  were  sent  to 
Canada  by  ship  and  the  Boston 
II  was  fitted  out  and  flown  up  to 
Pictou,  Nova  Scotia,  for  them. 

Lieutenant  Smith,  with  the 
Chicago,  and  Lieutenant  Nelson, 
with  the  New  Orleans,  continued 
the  flight,  and  on  Aug.  5  reached 
Reykjavik,  Iceland.  Their  next 
scheduled  hop  was  to  Angmag- 
salik,  on  the  east  coast  of  Green- 
land, but  as  the  harbor  was  ice- 
bound, Fredriksdal,  on  the  west 
coast,  just  beyond  Cape  Farewell, 
was  decided  upon  as  a  landing 
place. 

From  Fredriksdal  Lieutenants 
Smith  and  Nelson  flew  around 
Cape  Farewell  to  Ivigtut,  where 
engines  were  changed  and  plans 
made  for  the  dangerous  crossing 
to  the  North  American  continent. 
Thence  on  August  31  they  made 
their  way  to  Ice  Tickle,  in  Hamil- 
ton Inlet,  Labrador. 

Two  days  later  the  aviators 
continued  on  to  Hawkes  Bay, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Newfound- 
land, and  proceeded  thence  to 
Pictou.  There  they  were  met  by 
Lieutenants  Wade  and  Ogden 
with  Boston  II  and  the  three 
hopped  off  for  Boston  on  Sep- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '27 


^1  A 

tember  5.  Off  the  coast  of  Maine, 
however,  they  encountered  fog 
and  came  down  at  Brunswick, 
Maine — their  first  landing  on  the 
shores  of  the  United  States  since 
they  had  left,  nearly  six  months 
before.  The  following  morning 
they  continued,  arriving  in  Bos- 
ton in  the  early  afternoon.  There 
the  pontoons  were  removed  from 
the  aeroplanes  for  the  last  time, 
and  landing  wheels  put  on.  On 
September  8,  accompanied  by 
eight  escorting  planes,  the  world 
cruisers  flew  on  to  New  York. 
Thence,  by  easy  stages,  they 
continued  their  flight  across 
country  to  the  starting  point, 
reaching  San  Diego,  Cal.,  Sept. 
22,  1924,  and  Seattle  on  Sep- 
tember 28. 

Dirigible  Flights. — Faith  in'dir- 
igible  airships  has  not  been 
shaken  in  spite  of  tragic  losses 
both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe.  Rigid  ships  of  this 
type  have  crossed  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  American  con- 
tinent and  returned  safely  to 
their  bases.  Plans  to  build 
much  larger  craft  than  now  exist 
have  already  been  made  in  Great 
Britain  and  are  under  considera- 
tion in  the  United  States. 

R-3Jf.— On  July  2,  1919,  the 
British  dirigible  left  her 

hangar  at  East  Fortune,  Scot- 
land, for  Roosevelt  Field,  Mine- 
ola,  N.  Y.  She  carried  thirty- 
one  persons,  including  an  Ameri- 
can observer  and  a  British 
stowaway.  Encountering  head 
winds,  she  ran  into  a  gale  off  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland  and  was 
tossed  500  feet  into  the  air  but 
remained  under  control  and  was 
not  damaged.  She  was  made 
fast  at  Roosevelt  Field  after  a 
flight  of  3,200  miles  in  108  hours. 
Refueling,  the  R-SJ^^  recrossed 
the  Atlantic  and  reached  East 
Fortune  again  without  mishap. 
Her  dimensions  were  as  follows: 
Length,  670  feet;  beam,  70  feet; 
capacity,  2,200,000  cubic  feet. 

Shenandoah. — Laid  down  as 
the  Z-R  1,  the  dirigible  airship 
subsequently  named  Shenandoah 
was  built  at  the  Naval  Air  Sta- 
tion, Lakehurst,  N.  J.,  in  a 
hangar  specially  constructed  to 
hold  three  ships  of  her  size  (see 
Hangar).  She  was  successfully 
launched  on  Sept.  4,  1923,  and 
made  a  number  of  short  trial 
flights.  On  Jan.  16,  1924,  when 
she  was  moored  for  test  pur- 
poses to  a  mast  at  Lakehurst,  a 
gale  blew  up  and  tore  her  loose. 
She  proved  airworthy,  however, 
and  after  riding  out  the  gale  for 
eight  hours  returned  to  Lake- 
hurst and  was  berthed  in  her 
hangar.  On  Aug.  8,  1924,  she 
was  moored  to  a  mast  on  the 
U.  S.  S.  Patoka,  proving  her 
availability  for  use  at  sea  as  an 
air  scout  with  the  fleet.  In 
October  1924,  the  Shenandoah 
made  a  successful  transconti- 
nental flight.   She  returned  im- 


Aeronautlcs 

mediately,  accomplishing  a  flight 
of  9.000  miles  in  272  hours,  30 
minutes.  She  was  safely  berthed 
in  her  hangar  with  the  Z-R  3 
on  October  26.  On  Sept.  3,  1925, 
while  making  a  flight  from  her 
hangar  at  Lakehurst,  N.  J.,  to 
St.  Louis,  the  Shenandoah  en- 
countered a  thunder  squall  near 
Caldwell,  Ohio,  and  was  totally 
wrecked  with  a  loss  of  14  of  her 
crew,  including  the  commander. 
For  details  see  Aircraft  Dis- 
asters. Dimensions:  length 
680  feet,  beam  78  feet,  capacity 
2,150,000  cubic  feet.  (For  illus- 
tration, see  Hangar.) 

Dixmude. — Formerly  the  L-72, 
the  Dixmude  had  been  almost 
completed  by  the  Germans  when 
the  war  was  concluded.  She  was 
turned  over  to  France  under  the 
terms  of  the  peace  treaty  and 
in  September  1923  broke  all 
distance  and  endurance  records 
when  she  landed  at  her  aero- 
drome at  Marseilles,  after  a 
flight  of  4,500  miles,  during 
which  she  had  been  in  the  air 
118  hours,  41  minutes.  In  that 
flight  she  crossed  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  cruised  over  Algeria, 
Tunisia  and  the  Sahara,  return- 
ing successfully  to  France. 

On  Dec.  18,  1923,  the  Dixmude 
left  France  on  a  similar  cruise. 
On  Dec.  20  she  was  over  Biskra. 
On  Dec.  21,  at  3  a.m.,  she  com- 
municated by  radio  that  she  was 
in  a  storm  area  and  was  return- 
ing to  France.  She  was  never 
heard  from  again.  In  some 
manner  she  was  lost  over  the 
Mediterranean  and  all  of  her 
crew  of  50  were  killed.  The  body 
of  her  commander  was  taken 
from  the  sea  a  few  days  later  off 
the  Sicilian  coast  and  some 
charred  wreckage  subsequently 
was  found.  It  is  not  known 
whether  she  collapsed  from 
structural  defects  or  whether  she 
was  struck  by  lightning. 

Los  Angeles. — On  Oct.  12  the 
German  dirigible  Z-R  3,  which 
had  been  built  at  the  Zeppelin 
works  for  the  United  States 
under  the  terms  of  the  peace 
treaty,  left  Friedrichshaven,  Ger- 
many, for  the  naval  air  station 
at  Lakehurst,  N.  J.  She  reached 
her  destination  on  Oct.  15  and 
was  turned  over  to  the  U  S. 
Government  by  her  builders. 
The  voyage  of  approximately 
5,000  miles  was  a  new  distance 
record  and  was  accomplished  in 
81  hours.  After  she  had  been 
accepted,  the  Z-R  3  was  renamed 
Los  Angeles.  The  terms  under 
which  this  vessel  was  awarded 
to  the  United  States  specify  that 
she  shall  be  used  for  commercial 
purposes. 

For  accounts  of  the  Roma  and 
Z-R  2,  vsee  Aircraft  Disasters. 

The  greatest  long  distance 
flight  for  dirigibles  was  ac- 
complished in  1926  when  the 
dirigible  Norge,  carrying  the 
Amundsen-Ellsworth- Nobile  po- 


TEMPORARY  PAGES  FOR  NELSON'S  L.  L.  ENCYCLOP/EDIA 


Insert  in  Volume  I,  following  page  8lA 

The  Graf  Zeppelin  Round-the- World  Flight:  August  8-29,  1929 


Captain  Sir  George  Hubert  Wilkins,  who  has  written  this  account  of  the  Graf  Zeppelin  world 
flight,  was  one  of  the  nine  passengers  who  made  the  complete  round-the-world  trip  in  the  giant 
dirigible.  He  is  now  (1929)  in  command  of  the  Wilkins-Hearst  Antarctic  Expedition.  The  present 
article  was  written  by  Captain  Wilkins  especially. for  the  Nelson  Loose-Leaf  Encyclopaedia,  by  per- 
mission of  the  Hearst  newspapers. 

,  The  Publishers. 


In  August  1929  a  new  chapter 
in  aeronautic  history  was  written 
when  the  giant  German  dirigible 
Graf  Zeppelin,  which  in  October 
of  1928  had  crossed  the  Atlantic 
in  one  hundred  and  eleven  and  a 
half  hours,  circled  the  globe  from 
Lakehurst,  N.  J.,  to  Lakehurst, 
N.  J.,  in  twenty-one  days,  seven 
hours,  and  twenty-six  minutes. 
After  achieving  this  record,  the 
great  airship  returned  to  Fried- 
richshafen,  Germany,  its  original 
point  of  departure,  bettering  its 
own  time  and  making  a  new  rec- 
ord from  Friedrichshafen  to 
Friedrichshafen  of  twenty  days 
and  four  hours.  The  flight  was 
made  possible  through  arrange- 
ments with  Mr.  William  Ran- 
dolph Hearst,  and  through  his 
efforts  the  hangar  at  Tokio  was 
made  available  and  a  mooring 
mast  was  provided  at  Los  An- 
geles. Considerable  help  was 
'afforded  by  the  United  States 
and  Japanese  navies,  and  many 
private  enterprises  contributed. 

In  accompUshing  this  feat  the 
Zeppelin  established  not  one  but 
several  records.  It  made  the 
fastest  airship  time  ever  made 
across  the  Atlantic,  covering  the 
distance  between  New  York  and 
Paris  in  forty-six  hours  fifty-two 
minutes  (Lindbergh's  time  in  an 
airplane  was  thirty-three  and 
one-half  hours,  while  Com- 
mander Byrd  took  forty-three 
hours  twenty-one  minutes  from 
New  York  to  the  coast).  It  was 
the  first  lighter-than-air  craft  to 
fly  around  the  world  and  the 
first  aircraft  of  any  type  to  make 
the  eastward  passage  of  the  Pa- 
cific. It  bettered  by  more  than 
two  days  the  former  record  for 
circumnavigating  the  globe, 
twenty-three  days,  fifteen  hours, 
eight  seconds,  set  in  1928  by 
Collyer  and  Mears,  travelling  by 
airplane,  train,  automobile,  and 
steamer.  It  made,  also,  in  the 
course  of  its  journey,  the  longest 
hop  in  aeronautic  history — Fried- 
richshafen to  Tokio — a  distance 
of  6,880  miles  in  one  hundred  and 
one  hours  and  fifty  minutes. 

Construction  of  the  Airship. — 
The  Graf  Zeppelin,  named  for 
the  inventor  of  airships,  Graf 
(Count)  von  Zeppelin  (q.v.), 
was  completed  at  the  Zeppelin 


factory  at  Friedrichshafen,  Ger- 
many, in  September  1928,  the 
177th  airship  built  since  the 
first  Zeppelin  made  its  initial 
flight  in  July  1900.  A  large 
portion  of  the  funds  required 
for  its  construction  was  provided 
by  pubUc  subscription. 

Although  the  latest  airship  of 
its  type,  the  Graf  Zeppelin  is  not 
considered  to  be  the  most  per- 
fect in  design,  having  been  built 
to  fit  the  only  existing  hangar  at 
Friedrichshafen  rather  than  with 
the  idea  of  conforming  to  the  best 
aspect  ratio,  streamline,  and 
steering  qualities.  The  diam- 
eter of  the  ship  in  proportion  to 
its  length  was  controlled  by  the 
size  of  the  hangar,  and  two  extra 
parallel  sections  were  included  in 
the  hull  design  in  order  to  pro- 
vide room  for  power  gas,  a  feature 
which  adds  somewhat  to  the 
difficulty  of  control.  The  frame- 
work is  of  duralumin,  and  is 
built  in  triangular  sections. 
Longitudinal  girders  connect  the 
circular  framework,  and  the 
whole  structure  is  braced  to- 
gether with  piano  wire.  The 
ship  is  776.2  feet  long,  100.1  feet 
in  diameter  at  its  greatest  girth, 
and  has  a  gas  capacity  of  3,708,- 
000  cubic  feet,  about  three 
fourths  of  which  is  used  for  lifting 
gas  and  about  one  fourth  for 
power  gas.  Hydrogen  is  used 
for  lifting  and  Blau  or  Luna  gas 
for  fuel. 

The  empty  ship  weighs  about 
30  tons,  and  more  than  20,000 
square  yards  of  specially  woven 
cotton  fabric  are  used  for  the 
outside  covering.  The  gas  is 
contained  in  cells  or  ballonettes 
within  the  main  envelope.  A 
cat  walk  about  eight  inches  wide 
extends  from  the  nose  of  the  ship 
to  its  rear  fins,  affording  access 
to  all  parts  of  the  vessel.  The 
crew  enter  the  engine  nacelles  by 
means  of  a  collapsible  ladder. 
Inside  the  envelope  the  officers 
and  crew  occupy  small  tents  cov- 
ering hammocks  slung  from  the 
framework  of  the  ship.  The 
cargo,  stores,  supplies,  and  mail 
are  distributed  along  the  keel  of 
the  ship  on  special  steel  and 
fabric  nets. 

The  Graf  Zeppelin  is  powered 
with  five  twelve-cylinder  May- 


bach  water-cooled  engines,  each 
of  570  horsepower,  each  engine 
being  installed  in  a  separate  gon- 
dola called  a  power  car.  A 
mechanic  is  in  constant  attend- 
ance in  each  power  car  to  regu- 
late the  speed  of  the  engine  ac- 
cording to  the  orders  of  the  cap- 
tam  in  charge  of  the  ship.  These 
orders  are  sent  by  means  of  a 
machine  telegraph  similar  to  that 
used  on  board  steamers.  There 
are  also  electric  telephone  com- 
munication and  voice  tubes  be- 
tween each  engine  room  and 
control  point  on  the  ship.  The 
Maybach  motors  are  directly 
reversible  and  accomplish  the 
reverse  action  without  the  ne- 
cessity of  complicated  reversing 
mechanism.  They  are  consider- 
ably heavier  than  those  used  on 
heavier-than-air  craft  but  of  ex- 
tremely low  fuel  consumption. 
When  operating  on  gasoline,  at 
cruising  speed,  each  engine  con- 
sumes about  245  pounds  of  fuel 
per  hour,  about  50  pounds  an 
hour  less  than  the  average  air- 
plane engine  of  the  same  horse- 
power. An  ingenious  device  at- 
tached to  the  carburetors  of  the 
engines  makes  it  possible  to 
switch  from  gasoline  to  gaseous 
fuel  without  interrupting  opera- 
tion. For  purposes  of  economy 
and  safety,  however,  gaseous 
fuel  is  used. 

The  control  room,  navigators' 
quarters,  wireless  room,  elec- 
trically equipped  kitchen,  pas- 
sengers' saloon,  and  sleeping  ac- 
commodations are  in  a  gondola 
forward  and  beneath  the  centre 
of  the  main  structure.  If  the 
ship  is  at  a  high  mooring  mast  the 
passengers  enter  a  small  door  be- 
neath the  mooring  attachment; 
if  it  is  in  the  hangar  or  near  the 
ground  they  enter  through  a 
door  in  the  gondola.  Accom- 
modations are  furnished  for 
twenty  passengers  in  ten  two- 
berth  compartments  and  two 
wash  rooms,  supplied  with  hot 
and  cold  water.  The  dining 
saloon  occupies  a  compartment 
about  twenty-five  feet  square. 
A  special  fan  is  operated  at  the 
end  of  the  gondola  to  insure  and 
regulate  ventilation.  For  cold- 
weather  flying,  special  heating 
apparatus  using  heat  from  the 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  29 


Graf  Zeppelin  Flight 


2 


Graf  Zeppelin  Flight 


exhaust  of  the  engines  has  been 
installed,  but  under  ordinary 
conditions  and  on  the  round-the- 
world  flight  no  extra  heating  ar- 
rangements were  needed. 

Crew  and  Passengers. — On  her 
epoch-making  flight  from  Lake- 
hurst  to  Lakehurst  the  Graf 
Zeppelin  was  manned  by  a  crew 
of  thirty-three,  captained  by 
Dr.  Hugo  Eckener,  with  Cap- 
tains Lehman,  Fleming,  and 
von  Schiller  as  watch-keeping 
officers.  Two  navigating  offi- 
cers were  carried  on  each  watch; 
three  watches  were  kept.  Nine 
passengers  made  the  trip  from 
Lakehurst    to    Lakehurst  and 


fix  the  position  of  the  ship  with- 
out seeing  the  horizon;  an  instru- 
ment to  solve  mechanically  all 
the  mathematical  problems  and 
logarithms  connected  with  nauti- 
cal astronomy;  an  Echo-lot,  an 
instrument  which  electrically 
measures  by  sound  the  altitude 
of  the  ship  and  with  which  the 
navigators  were  able  to  check 
every  change  of  barometric  pres- 
sure and  adjust  their  pressure 
altimeters,  thus  gaining  an  exact 
knowledge  of  the  height  of  the 
ship  required  to  ascertain  the 
speed  and  drift;  a  drift  indicator, 
and  gyro  compass,  which  records 
the  direction  irrespective  of  the 


be  either  vertical  or  horizontal 
and  are  sometimes  so  sharply 
defined  that  in  spite  of  the  ef- 
forts of  the  men  at  the  controls 
the  Zeppelin  will  climb  or  fall 
at  an  angle  of  18  or  20  degrees, 
though  ordinarily  this  angle  is 
not  in  excess  of  10  to  15  degrees. 
On  several  occasions  during  the 
world  flight — once  over  Siberia 
and  again  over  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
of¥  the  coast  of  Japan — about  600 
feet  in  altitude  were  lost  in  a 
single  manoeuvre. 

The  arrangement  of  the  con- 
trol car  on  the  Graf  Zeppelin  af- 
fords good  visibility  of  the 
weather  and  it  is  possible  for  the 


From  Wide  World  Photos 

The  Giant  Dirigible  Graf  Zeppelin  Setting  a  New  World  Record  for  Circumnavigating  the  Globe 
The  inset  shows  the  control  room,  which  occupies  the  forward  part  of  the  gondola.   Back  of  this  are  the  navigators'  quarters,  wire- 
less room,  kitchen,  passengers'  saloon,  and  sleeping  accomodations. 


many  others  made  separate  legs 
of  the  journey,  keeping  the  pas- 
senger list  to  about  twenty. 
The  nine  passengers  who  made 
the  entire  trip  were  Commander 
Rosendahl  and  Lieutenant  Rich- 
ardson of  the  U.  S.  Navy;  Karl 
von  Wiegand,  well  known  war 
correspondent;  Lady  Drummond 
Hay,  noted  writer  and  the  only 
woman  passenger;  William  Leeds, 
of  New  York;  Joachim  Rickard 
of  Boston;  Herr  von  Eschwege- 
Lichbert,  German  newspaper 
correspondent;  Robert  Hartman, 
photographer,  and  Captain  Sir 
Hubert  Wilkins. 

Some  Features  of  Navigation. 
— The  navigating  equipment  in- 
cluded the  latest  type  bubble 
sextant,  which  made  it  possible 
to  take  an  altitude  of  the  sun  and 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '29 


magnetic  hues  of  influence,  which 
vary  with  position. 

Adequate  short  and  long  wave 
wireless  equipment  kept  the  offi- 
cers frequently  informed  as  to 
weather  conditions,  winds,  and 
storm  centres,  while  their  knowl- 
edge and  skill  made  it  possible 
for  them  to  take  advantage  of 
this  information.  Following 
winds  are  of  special  importance, 
since  every  mile  per  hour  that  the 
wind  travels  in  the  direction 
which  the  airship  is  taking  means 
one  mile  less  for  it  to  cover  under 
its  own  power.  In  order  to 
reach  these  favorable  air  cur- 
rents, however,  it  was  necessary 
at  times  to  venture  into  storms 
and  sudden  changes  of  wind  di- 
rection, or  'line  squalls.'  These 
changes  in  wind  direction  may 


officer  on  watch — if  he  under- 
stands weather  conditions  and 
the  laws  of  storms — to  avoid  the 
worst  consequences  of  violent  air- 
stream  changes.  Visibility  is  an 
important  thing  in  all  flying  but 
on  an  airship  over  the  ocean  or  on 
a  long  distance  flight  it  is  less  es- 
sential than  under  other  condi- 
tions. With  the  aid  of  instru- 
ments the  vessel  can  steer 
through  cloud  and  fog  for  many 
hours.  On  its  record-breaking 
trip  over  the  Atlantic  the  Graf 
Zeppelin  flew  for  hours  through 
a  wet  blanket  of  cloud.  Water 
flowing  down  the  sides  of  the 
giant  airship  streamed  along  its 
bottom  and  dropped  ofif  in  mini- 
ature waterfalls.  The  total 
amount  of  water  on  the  envelope 
was  considerable,  but  it  was  nee- 


Graf  Zeppelin  Flight 


3 


Graf  Zeppelin  Flight 


essary  to  increase  the  angle  of 
attack  only  one  degree  to  com- 
pensate by  aerodynamic  lift  for 
the  effect  of  the  heaviest  rain  on 
the  ship. 

The  Round-the-World  Flight. 
— After  leaving  Lakehurst  at 
11.40  P.M.  August  8  (all  times 
given  are  Eastern  Standard 
time),  the  Zeppelin  circled  New 
York  and  then  flew  east  for  a 
thousand  miles  to  go  south  of  a 


a  trip  of  4,200  miles  accomplished 
in  fifty-five  hours  twenty-two 
minutes.  Here  engineers,  me- 
chanics, balloon  men,  and  riggers 
went  carefully  over  the  whole 
ship  and  made  several  small  ad- 
justments. One  spark  plug  had 
been  changed  on  the  journey  and 
one  valve  spring.  Three  more 
spark  plugs  and  several  valves 
were  changed  at  Friedrichshafen. 
The  fabric  on  three  sections  of 


hafen  for  twenty-four  hours,  and 
the  airship  took  off  on  August  14, 
flying  north  to  Berlin  and  Stet- 
tin, crossing  over  Danzig,  Poland, 
and  a  part  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  It 
then  cut  across  a  corner  of  Lat- 
via and  Esthonia  and  crossed  the 
Russian  border  at  night. 

The  course  was  laid  for  Mos- 
cow, but  head  winds  soon  drove 
Dr.  Eckener,  in  command,  to 
choose  a  more  northerly  route, 


no       100       30  80 


S  2S/fAf.  AUG  19^0  K I O 
LEFTZISRM  ^•i 
^flUG  23 


IbO 


170 


ISO 


ITO 


IbO 


OS'ANGELES^ 

f1RRlV£D  3  :35  fi.M  /7U6  26 
L£FT4/5ff.M,ffU6.27 


130 


120 


110 


100 


90 


do 


70 


(>0 


York  Times 

Course  of  the  Graf  Zeppelin  in  Its  World  Flight  {New  York  daylight-saving  time  shown) 


storm  centred  in  Hudson  Bay. 
There  were  disturbances  east  of 
Greenland  and  northeast  of  Ice- 
land and  beneath  these,  in  the 
North  Atlantic,  was  a  big  move- 
ment of  circulating  atmosphere 
with  its  northerly  edge  travelling 
in  the  direction  which  the  airship 
planned  to  follow. 

Fog  and  low  visibility  were  en- 
countered off  the  English  coast, 
but  over  the  continent  the  air  was 
clear  and  a  splendid  view  of  Paris 
was  afforded.  A  landing  was 
made  at  Friedrichshafen  early  in 
the  morning  of  August  10,  after 


the  tail  and  two  on  the  bow  of 
the  envelope  were  tightened  and 
some  frames  set  lengthwise  be- 
tween the  longitudinal  girders 
were  installed  to  overcome  any 
further  difficulty  in  that  respect. 
A  larger  buffer  bag  with  extra 
flotation  gear  was  installed  un- 
der the  control  gondola  to  pro- 
vide for  emergency  landings  or 
heavy  landings  in  Tokio  and  Los 
Angeles,  and  fresh  provisions  and 
emergency  supplies  and  equip- 
ment were  taken  on  board. 
Adverse  weather  conditions  de- 
layed the  start  from  Friedrichs- 


and  the  picturesque  town  of 
Wologda  was  the  first  Russian 
town  to  be  seen  by  daylight. 
The  course  now  lay  over  the 
lower  ranges  of  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains (not  more  than  two  thou- 
sand feet  in  altitude),  and  beyond 
these  over  the  desolate  swamp 
lands  of  Siberia,  with  winding 
rivers  meandering  through  low, 
stunted  growth.  For  a  great 
part  of  the  way  the  ship  was  fly- 
ing low  over  the  ground,  and 
only  an  occasional  indication  of 
habitation  was  seen.  Several 
trappers'  camps  were  observed. 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '29 


Craf  Zeppelin  Flight 


4 


Graf  Zeppelin  Flight 


and  native  tents  with  a  few  dogs 
and  shaggy  horses  about  them. 
The  few  people  seen  ran  to  their 
houses,  and  rarely  showed  them- 
selves until  the  ship  was  well 
away.  At  occasional  places 
where  rivers  joined,  what  ap- 
peared to  be  trading  stations 
were  seen,  and  an  occasional  house 
on  a  raft  was  sighted  floating 
slowly  along  stream.  While  the 
route  here  lay  over  what  is  per- 
haps the  coldest  country  in  the 
world  in  winter,  the  temperature 
was  not  as  low  as  that  encoun- 
tered later  over  San  Francisco 
and  New  York  State. 

The  favorable  winds  experi- 
enced carried  the  ship  on  with 
such  speed  that  it  covered  the 
4,000  miles  between  Friedrichs- 
hafen  and  Yatusk  (the  actual 
distance  travelled  was  probably 
nearer  4,800  miles)  in  sixty-seven 
hours.  In  order  to  economize  on 
fuel  only  four  engines  had  been 
used.  The  air  speed  was  prob- 
ably never  more  than  sixty  miles 
an  hour  and  more  often  less  than 
fifty.  Over  the  entire  journey 
there  was  a  tail  wind  averaging 
between  15  and  20  miles  an  hour. 

It  was  over  Central  Siberia 
that  one  of  the  great  thrills  of  the 
trip  was  experienced,  when  the 
ship  ran  beneath  a  rain  cloud, 
was  sucked  up  as  if  by  a  living 
force,  enveloped  in  the  dark  gray 
belly  of  the  cloud,  and  at  its 
other  side  spat  out  with  a  down- 
ward motion  which  Lost  nearly 
five  hundred  feet  of  altitude  in  a 
few  seconds.  Another  thrilling 
experience  was  the  approach  to 
the  Stanova  Mountains  which 
mark  the  eastern  side  of  Siberia 
and  fringe  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk. 
These  mountains  were  indicated 
on  the  map  as  3,400  feet  high  but 
even  at  5,000  feet  the  airship  was 
far  below  the  highest  peaks,  and 
was  steered  through  the  ranges 
much  as  a  pursuit  pilot  might 
steer  his  light  plane. 

It  was  a  memorable  experi- 
ence, also,  to  hurtle  down  from 
five  thousand  feet  over  Asia  to 
the  edge  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Cloud  and  more  or  less  unfavor- 
able weather  were  encountered 
over  the  Okhotsk  Sea.  Notice 
had  been  received  of  a  cyclone  in 
the  neighborhood,  but,  with 
courage  born  of  experience.  Dr. 
Eckener  sought  the  tail  of  it  and 
took  advantage  of  the  favorable 
wind,  which  was  with  the  ship 
for  a  few  hours  while  it  flew 
through  heavy  rain  and  storm. 
Passing  out  of  the  storm,  the 
Zeppelin  met  with  head  wind. 
It  was  not  strong,  however,  and 
in  a  few  hours  two  records  had 
been  made — the  first  non-stop 
flight  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Pa- 
cific and  the  first  non-stop  flight 
from  Germany  to  Japan — a  dis- 
tance of  6,880  miles  in  one  hun- 
dred and  one  hours,  fifty  min- 
utes, with  fuel  left  to  go  half  as 
far  again. 


At  Tokio  the  Japanese  Navy 
gave  a  fine  exhibition  of  skill  and 
training,  landing  the  ship  with 
despatch  and  walking  her  into  a 
hangar  which  had  been  taken 
over  from  the  Germans  after  the 
war  and  which  also  housed  the 
small  semi-rigid  dirigible  built  in 
Japan  and  a  blimp  which  con- 
stituted the  Japanese  lighter- 
than-air  fleet.  Great  honors 
and  a  furious  round  of  entertain- 
ments were  showered  upon  Dr. 
Eckener  and  the  crew  and  pas- 
sengers. 

A  close  inspection  of  the  air- 
ship at  this  point  showed  that 
there  was  nothing  to  do  in  the 
way  of  repairs.  Gas  and  fuel 
were  replaced,  and  at  the  ap- 
pointed time  the  ship  was  moving 
out  of  the  hangar.  Here  the 
first  slight  damage  sustained  on 
the  trip  was  experienced.  The 
trolley  guiding  the  airship 
jammed  in  the  runway  and  when 
the  order  came  to  lift  the  rear 
car  over  an  obstruction  the  men 
could  not  budge  the  ship,  which 
was  held  fast  by  the  ropes.  The 
rear  engine  power  car  struck  the 
ground  and  several  bracing  wires 
and  struts  were  broken.  No 
serious  damage  was  done  to  the 
main  structure,  however,  and  in 
about  eight  hours  the  crew  had 
effected  repairs  with  the  spare 
parts  carried  in  the  ship. 

The  start  was  then  further  de- 
layed by  local  storms  and  it  was 
the  evening  (local  time)  of  the 
fourth  day  before  the  departure 
was  made.  At  this  time  there 
was  a  storm  directly  in  the  path 
of  the  airship  but  it  was  not  of 
great  area,  and  beyond  it  was 
favorable  weather.  The  ap- 
proach to  the  storm  came  late  in 
the  evening,  and  from  informa- 
tion at  hand  the  officers  knew 
they  would  have  to  go  through 
it  from  "behind' — that  is,  meet 
a  downward  thrust  of  air  current 
as  they  approached  the  cloud. 
The  helmsmen  were  warned,  but 
even  so  the  ship  dipped  so  steeply 
that  articles  slipped  from  the 
tables  and  passengers  ran  to  the 
windows.  The  black  cloud  over- 
head shadowed  and  darkened 
everything.  For  a  few  minutes 
the  ship  rumbled  along  over  un- 
dulating air  as  if  crossing  a  series 
of  corrugations  and  at  the  other 
side  of  the  storm  cloud  shot  up 
several  hundred  feet  into  an  air 
stream  travelling  in  an  entirely 
different  direction. 

With  the  aid  of  the  drift  indi- 
cator the  wind  was  soon  gauged, 
it  was  found  to  be  favorable,  and 
the  Zeppelin  hurried  on  its  long 
flight  over  the  Pacific,  flying  for 
hours  through  thick  fog  where 
the  visibility  was  not  more  than 
a  few  hundred  yards.  Many 
times  the  ship  rose  above  the 
clouds  to  get  a  sight  of  the  sun 
and  fix  its  position  and  at  others 
descended  to  within  two  or  three 
hundred  feet  of  the  water  to  get 


an  observation  for  drift  and 
speed.  In  spite  of  forty  hours  of 
fog,  the  estimated  position  just 
before  the  Farallon  Islands  near 
San  Francisco  were  sighted  was 
only  eight  miles  from  that  certi- 
fied by  a  passing  steamer.  The 
time  of  crossing  the  Pacific  from 
Japan  to  San  Francisco,  a  dis- 
tance of  5,400  miles  on  the  route 
covered,  was  sixty-eight  hours, 
fifty-one  minutes.  Some  time 
was  spent  in  circling  over  San 
Francisco,  Berkeley,  and  Oak- 
land, and  then  the  great  aircraft 
loitered  along  the  coast,  cruising 
around  about  Los  Angeles  and 
out  to  sea,  waiting  for  daylight 
to  land  at  the  mooring  mast 
erected  by  the  U.  S.  Navy.  This 
increased  the  time  from  Japan  to 
Los  Angeles  seventy-nine  hours, 
twenty- two  minutes. 

At  Los  Angeles,  with  the  effi- 
cient aid  of  the  U.  S.  Navy  and 
the  officials  at  Mines  Field,  the 
ship  was  moored  to  a  low  mast 
and  refueled  in  record  time. 
After  a  stay  of  about  eight- 
een hours,  it  was  again  on  its 
way. 

It  was  after  leaving  Los  An- 
geles that  the  greatest  danger 
was  encountered.  In  spite  of 
the  fact  that  nine  of  the  crew 
were  left  behind,  the  sr«ip  was 
heavy  and  the  temperature  fairly 
high.  The  airship  had  been 
walked  from  the  mooring  mast 
toward  the  end  of  the  field,  and 
as  it  rose  in  the  air  it  was  seen 
that  it  was  not  light  enough  to 
rise  above  the  high-tension  wires 
surrounding  the  field,  and  the 
engines  were  put  on  to  give  the 
speed  necessary  to  rise  with  aero- 
dynamic lift.  The  forward  speed 
soon  ate  up  the  distance  to  the 
end  of  the  field,  and  when  the 
nose  of  the  ship  was  over  the 
wires  the  tail  could  be  felt  still 
dragging  on  the  ground.  It  was 
only  the  expert  handling  of  the 
aircraft  that  avoided  a  grave 
disaster.  The  tail  cleared  the 
wires  by  a  few  feet  and  it  was 
safely  under  way. 

By  going  south  from  Los  An- 
geles and  following  the  railway 
line  the  high  mountains  of  Ari- 
zona were  avoided,  but  the  flying 
over  that  mountainous  dry  coun- 
try was  the  worst,  according  to 
Dr.  Eckener  and  Captain  Leh- 
man, that  they  had  ever  experi- 
enced over  such  a  long  period. 
For  four  hours  the  ship  was  in 
'bumpy' weather.  Crossing  over 
El  Paso,  Kansas  City,  Chicago, 
Detroit,  Cleveland,  and  many 
other  smaller  towns,  the  Zeppelin 
reached  New  York  City  and 
Lakehurst  at  7.06  a.m.,  August 
29,  thus  making  the  total  time 
for  the  hop,  step  and  a  couple  of 
jumps  around  the  world — over 
twelve  different  countries,  and 
over  thirteen  States  of  the 
United  States — twenty-one  days, 
seven  hours,  and  twenty-six 
minutes. 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Aeronautics 


81  B 


^schylus 


lar  expedition,  flew  over  the 
North  Pole  from  Spitzbergen  to 
Teller,  Alaska,  on  May  11,  12, 
13.  The  dirigible  had  previously 
flown  to  Spitzbergen  from  Rome, 
via  London,  Oslo  and  Leningrad. 
When  the  weather  conditions 
are  taken  into  consideration  this 
flight  stands  out  as  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  ever  made  by 
an  airship.  The  flight  was  for 
the  purpose  of  exploring  the 
unknown  area  of  the  polar  sea 
between  the  North  Pole  and 
Alaska,  to  determine  if  there  was 
land  there.  No  land  was  seen, 
but  as  the  ship  flew  much  of  the 
way  in  fog  the  visibility  was 
limited.  (See  Arctic  Explora- 
tion.) 

Routes. — There  are  three  dis- 
tinct routes  by  which  a  heavier- 
than-air  machine  may  cross  the 
Atlantic:  1.  The  route  from 
Newfoundland  or  Labrador  to 
Southern  Greenland  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Cape  Farewell,  700 
miles;  thence  to  Iceland,  900 
miles;  thence  to  Northern  Scot- 
land, 700  miles.  2.  The  route 
from  Newfoundland  to  Ireland 
(Skelligs  Rocks),  1,860  miles— 
the  most  direct  way  between  the 
Americas  and  Europe.  3.  The 
southern  route,  from  Newfound- 
land to  the  Azores,  1,195  miles; 
tnence  to  Portugal,  850  miles; 
thence  to  the  final  destination. 
A  fourth  route  has  also  been 
considered,  but  only  in  a  westerly 
direction.  It  lies  down  the  west 
coast  of  Africa  to  a  point  where 
the  prevailing  trade  winds  blow 
in  a  strong  and  constant  direc- 
tion, due  west  to  the  eastern  coast 
of  Brazil. 

The  first  route  from  east  to 
west  was  adopted  from  the  U.  S. 
Army's  round-the-world  flight  in 
1924.  It  presents  serious  diffi- 
culties owing  to  bad  weather  and 
lack  of  landing  places  or  supply 
depots.  The  second  is  the  course 
followed  by  Captain  Alcock  and 
Lieutenant  Brown  in  their  non- 
stop flight  with  the  Vickers- 
Vimy  aeroplane  on  June  15,  and 
previously  by  Hawker  in  the 
Sopworth.  plane,  until  he  was 
forced  to  descend  after  a  flight  of 
1,050  miles.  The  third,  or 
southern,  was  the  route  taken  by 
the  U.  S.  Navy  seaplanes  in  their 
trans-Atlantic  flight. 

A  possible  route  is  from  Nor- 
folk, Va.,  to  Bermuda,  about 
650  miles;  thence  to  the  Azores, 
about  1,800  miles;  and  thence 
to  Portugal.  This  route  would 
assure  the  maximum  of  good 
weather  conditions  through  the 
year,  although  the  distance  is  a 
long  one,  the  single  flight  from 
Bermuda  to  the  Azores  being 
about  equal  to  the  No.  2  route. 

Whatever  course  the  aerial 
navigator  may  choose,  the  prob- 
lem of  visibility  is  a  serious  one, 
for  without  the  possibility  of 
making  observations  to  deter- 
mine the  position  of  the  plane. 


no  way  of  checking  the  amount 
of  drift  from  the  line  of  course 
can  be  reached.  Over  land,  the 
pilot  or  navigator  has  always 
within  sight  certain  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  country  that 
readily  provide  the  necessary 
reference  points  from  which  to 
check  his  position,  especially  at 
heights  of  15,000  feet  and  over, 
when  prominent  landmarks  are 
distinctly  visible  long  before 
they  are  close  at  hand.  At  sea 
quite  the  reverse  is  true,  and 
height  does  not  tend  to  simplify 
the  problem  of  taking  an  obser- 
vation, for  the  error  due  to  the 
'dip'  of  the  compass  may  be 
quite  appreciable.  A  number  of 
simple  tables,  computed  for  use 
by  naval  aircraft  in  the  war,  have 
been  employed  with  a  fair 
amount  of  success.  The  usual 
ship's  instruments  can  also  be 
used  and  several  new  instruments 
have  been  devised. 

See  Balloons;  Flying  Ma- 
chines; Liberty  Motor;  Army 
Aviation;  Aircraft  Disasters. 

Bibliography. —Consult  F.  W. 
Lanchester's  Aerodynamics  and 
Aerodonetics;  Sir  Hiram  Max- 
im's Natural  and  Artificial  Flight; 
S.  P.  Langley's  Experiments  in 
Aerodynamics  and  The  Internal 
Work  of  the  Wind;  H.  W.  L. 
Moedebeck's  Pocket  -  Book  of 
Aeronautics;  O.  Chanute's  Prog- 
ress in  Flying  Machines;  R. 
Soreau's  Navigation  Aerienne; 
R.  Brewer's  Art  of  Aviation. 

Aeroplanes.  See  Aeronau- 
tics; Army  Aviation;  Flying 
Machines. 

A'eroscope,  an  apparatus  for 
collecting  microscopic  objects 
(dust,  etc.)  from  the  air.  It  con- 
sists of  a  glass  vessel  smeared 
with  glycerin,  through  which  a 
stream  of  air  is  drawn  by  an  in- 
spirator. As  the  air  passes 
through,  the  particles  of  dust 
adhere  to  the  film  of  glycerin. 
Since  the  amount  of  air  passing 
through  is  known,  it  is  possible 
to  find  out  the  degree  of  purity 
by  the  particles. 

Aerostatic  Press,  a  machine  for 
extracting  the  colormg  matter 
from  dyewoods  and  similar  sub- 
stances. 

Aerostatics,  that  branch  of 
hydrostatics  which  treats  of  the 
equilibrium  and  pressure  of 
air  and  gases.  See  Hydro- 
statics. 

A'erotherapeu'tlcs,  the  term 
commonly  applied  to  the  treat- 
ment of  disease  by  atmospheric 
air  and  specially  prepared  atmos- 
pheres. Modified  atmospheric 
pressure  is  used  on  the  surface 
of  the  body,  on  the  respiratory 
organs,  or  on  both.  The  open- 
air  treatment,  under  ordinary 
pressure,  may  also  be  classed 
under  this  head.  The  air  treat- 
ment may  consist  of  inhaling 
such  gases  as  oxygen  and  nitrous 
oxide,  or  such  liquids  as  easily 
volatilize — i.e.,  chloroform  and 


ether,  or  the  vapor  of  mercury 
or  sulphur,  produced  by  arti- 
ficial heat.  The  latter  method 
is  used  in  cases  of  syphilis  and 
skin  parasitic  diseases.  Arti- 
ficial atmospheres  may  also  be 
made  by  respirators,  the  air  be- 
ing drawn  through  a  sponge 
moistened  with  some  disinfec- 
tant. 

The  term  is  also  applied  to 
treatment  by  change  of  climate. 
Phthisical  patients  are  benefited 
by  residence  in  a  dry  climate — 
either  in  warm  latitudes,  or  in 
high  and  cold  or  high  and  warm 
altitudes.  See  Health  Resorts. 

Aerschot,  ar'skot,  town,  Bra- 
bant, Belgium,  on  the  River 
Demer;  9  miles  northeast  of 
Louvain.  It  is  an  important 
junction  on  the  Antwerp- Aachen 
Railway.    Pop.  8,000. 

.iHschines,  es'ki-nez  (389-314 
B.C.),  an  Athenian  orator,  second 
only  to  Demosthenes.  Demos- 
thenes advocated  the  policy  of 
opposing  King  Philip  before  it 
was  too  late,  while  ^Eschines  was 
the  head  of  the  peace  party.  He 
was  a  member  of  more  than  one 
embassy  sent  by  the  Athenians  to 
Philip.  Demosthenes  accused 
him  of  receiving  bribes  from  the 
Macedonian  monarch,  and  of 
betraying  the  cause  of  Athens 
and  of  her  allies,  but  there 
is  no  proof  that  this  was  the 
case.  When  it  was  proposed  to 
reward  Demosthenes  with  a 
golden  crown  for  his  patriotic 
exertions  in  defence  of  his  coun- 
try, ^schines  indicted  the  pro- 
poser, Ctesiphon,  for  bringing 
forward  an  illegal  proposition, 
but  his  charge  not  being  proved 
he  was  obliged  to  retire  from 
Athens.  He  finally  established  a 
school  of  eloquence  in  Rhodes. 
The  oration  against  Ctesiphon 
and  two  others  are  the  only 
authentic  productions  of  ^s- 
chines  that  have  come  down  to 
us. 

ii:schylus,  es'ki-lus,  the  son  of 
Euphorion,  the  earliest  of  the 
three  great  Athenian  tragic 
poets,  was  born  in  Eleusis,  the 
town  of  the  Mysteries,  near 
Athens,  in  525  B.C.,  and  no  doubt 
had  his  religious  feelings  stimu- 
lated by  the  solemn  services 
which  represented  the  deepest 
elements  of  Greek  religion.  He 
fought  for  Athens  in  the  great 
Persian  wars,  and  is  reported  to 
have  been  wounded  at  Marathon, 
where  his  brother  fell.  He  won 
thirteen  first  prizes  in  tragic 
competitions,  and  was  exceed- 
ingly hurt  at  being  defeated  by 
vSophocles  in  4G8  B.C.  This  may 
have  induced  him  to  leave  and 
go  to  vSicily,  which  he  had  al- 
ready visited  to  bring  out  a  play 
for  the  artistic  tyrant  Hiero. 
He  produced  there  a  new  edition 
of  his  extant  Persce.  His  trial 
before  the  Areopagus  on  the 
charge  of  divulging  the  Mysteries 
is,  however,  also  stated  as  a  cause 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


iCschylus 


82 


of  his  departure.  His  last  great 
victory  was  won  in  458  B.C.,  with 
the  trilogy  which  we  still  possess, 
and  three  years  later  he  died  at 
Gela  in  Sicily,  where  his  tomb 
was  shown  long  after.  Out  of 
some  sixty  plays  ascribed  to  him, 
we  have  only  seven  extant. 

The  Suppliants  is  the  earliest, 
at  least  in  form.  The  plot,  which 
is  exceedingly  simple,  is  based  on 
the  escape  of  the  fifty  daughters 
of  Danaus  from  their  suitors,  the 
sons  of  ^gyptus,  and  their  sup- 
plications to  the  king  of  Argos 
to  protect  them.  This  simple 
subject  gives  the  poet  occasion 
for  the  loftiest  utterances  on 
Fate  and  Divine  Providence,  ex- 
pressed in  that  tremendous  dic- 
tion which  no  other  Greek  poet 
ever  equalled. 

The  Persa  is  most  interesting 
as  giving  us,  in  tragedy,  a  piece 
of  contemporary  history,  for  the 
poet  fought  in  the  Battle  of 
Salamis,  which  he  describes. 

The  Seven  Against  Thebes 
brings  us  to  a  more  advanced 
stage  of  the  poet's  development. 
It  is  no  longer  the  chorus,  but 
Eteocles,  the  patriotic  king  of  the 
Cadmeans,  who  takes  the  leading 
part.  The  drawing  of  his  char- 
acter is  clear  and  sharp.  Both 
the  narrative  of  the  messenger 
who  gives  the  details  of  the  fight, 
and  the  choruses  uttered  by  ter- 
rified maidens  of  the  city,  are  full 
of  life  and  beauty. 

The  Prometheus  Bound  is  the 
perfection  of  ^schylus'  art,  and 
shows  us  what  his  genius  could 
do  in  simple  tragedy,  in  the  old 
plotless,  motionless,  surpriseless 
drama,  made  up  of  speeches  and 
songs  and  nothing  more.  We 
now  have  three  actors  together 
on  the  stage,  and  the  duties  of 
the  chorus,  once  so  prominent, 
are  becoming  restricted  to  sub- 
ordinate work.  Prometheus,  the 
heroic  sufferer,  sustains  the  whole 
interest  of  the  play.  He  is  driven 
with  insult  to  the  Caucasus.  He 
soliloquizes.  He  discourses  with 
friendly  nymphs  and  their  cau- 
tious father,  Oceanus.  He  con- 
doles with  the  frantic  lo,  who 
passes  by  in  her  wanderings; 
he  prophesies  her  future.  Lastly, 
he  bids  defiance  to  Zeus,  through 
his  messenger  Hermes,  and  dis- 
appears amid  thunder  and  whirl- 
wind. 

The  Oresteia  or  three  plays  on 
the  fortunes  of  Orestes,  is  the 
latest  and  greatest  work  we  have 
from  iEschylus. 

The  first  of  the  series,  the 
Agamemnon,  is  the  longest  play 
left  us  by  the  poet,  as  perhaps 
the  greatest  Greek  play  of  all 
that  have  survived.  With  a  per- 
fectly simple  plot,  there  is  splen- 
did and  consistent  drawing  of 
character,  deep  philosophy  in  the 
choral  songs,  and  a  certain 
gloomy  grandeur  which  makes  it 
unique. 

The  Chcephorce,  a  shorter  and 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


less  striking  play,  but  not  with- 
out the  same  grandeur  and  the 
same  gloom,  gives  us  the  return 
of  Orestes  from  exile,  and  his 
murder  of  Clytaemnestra. 

In  the  Eumenides  we  find  the 
necessary  results  of  the  previous 
tragedy.  Though  Orestes  has 
obeyed  one  great  moral  law, 
avenging  the  blood  of  his  father, 
he  has  violated  another  no  less 
sacred  in  taking  the  life  of  his 
mother,  whose  Furies  (Eumen- 
ides) persecute  him  with  cease- 
less pursuit. 

The  genius  of  ^schylus  is 
quite  peculiar  in  Greek  litera- 
ture, and  he  has  no  equal.  There 
is  something  Oriental  in  his  bold- 
ness, his  uncouth  yet  expressive 
compounds,  his  daring,  piled-up 
metaphors.  But  what  distin- 
guishes him  still  more  from  great 
contemporaries  like  Pindar,  or 
great  successors  like  Sophocles, 
is  the  grandeur  of  his  conceptions 
in  theology,  in  the  providential 
ruling  of  the  world,  the  inheri- 
tance of  sin,  the  conflict  of  a  rude 
with  a  purer  religion. 

Consult  Wecklein's  critical 
edition  of  the  works  of  ^schylus, 
Paley's  edition  (with  English 
notes),  and  numerous  editions  of 
single  plays.  There  are  trans- 
lations by  Potter,  Blackie  and 
Plumptre;  Browning  and  Fitz- 
gerald published  translations  of 
the  Agamemnon,  and  Mrs. 
Browning  of  Prometheus. 

^sculapius,  es  -  kii  -  la'pi  -  us 
(Greek  Asklepios) ,  appears  in 
Homer  as  the  'blameless  physi- 
cian,' of  human  origin;  in  the 
later  legends  he  has  become  the 
god  of  the  healing  art.  The  most 
common  account  makes  him  the 
son  of  Apollo  and  Coronis.  He 
was  brought  up  by  Chiron,  and 
instructed  in  the  healing  art,  in 
which  he  soon  surpassed  his 
teacher,  and  succeeded  so  far  as 
to  restore  the  dead  to  life.  Pluto, 
fearful  lest  his  realm  would  get  no 
new  inhabitants,  therefore  com- 
plained to  Zeus,  who  slew  the 
physician  by  a  thunderbolt. 
After  this  he  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  the  gods  by  the  gratitude 
of  mankind,  and  was  especially 
worshipped  at  Epidaurus,  on  the 
coast  of  Laconia.  From  Epi- 
daurus the  worship  of  the 
healing  god  extended  itself  over 
the  whole  of  Greece,  and  even  to 
Rome.  According  to  Homer, 
iEsculapius  left  two  sons,  Ma- 
chaon  and  Podalirius,  who,  as 
physicians,  attended  the  Greek 
army.  From  them  the  race  of  the 
Asclepiades  descended.  Hygieia, 
Panaceia,  and  JEgXe  are  repre- 
sented as  his  daughters. 

The  temples  of  ^sculapius 
usually  stood  outside  of  the 
cities  in  healthful  situations,  on 
hillsides,  and  near  fountains. 
Patients  who  were  cured  of  their 
ailments  offered  a  cock  or  a  goat 
to  the  god  and  hung  up  a  tablet 
in   his   temple,    recording  the 


name,  the  disease,  and  the  man- 
ner of  cure.  Many  of  these  votive 
tablets  are  still  extant.  There 
was  a  statue  of  the  god  at  Epi- 
daurus formed  of  gold  and  ivory 
by  Thrasymedes.  The  great 
healer  is  represented  as  seated  on 
a  throne,  holding  in  one  hand  a 
staff  about  which  a  snake  is 
coiled.  At  his  feet  is  a  dog,  sym- 
bolic of  watchfulness.  Praxiteles 
and  other  sculptors  represented 
-iEsculapius  as  an  ideal  of  manly 
beauty,  closely  resembling  Zeus. 

The  followers  of  ^sculapius, 
who  inherited  the  secrets  of  the 
healing  art,  were  known  as  As- 
clepiades, and  constituted  a 
medical,  priestly  caste  or  order 
who  preserved  as  mysteries  the 
doctrines  of  medicine.  They  were 
bound  by  an  oath  not  to  divulge 
the  secrets  of  their  profession. 

Consult  Dyer's  The  Gods  in 
Greece;  Caton's  Temples  and  Rit- 
ual of  jEsculapius  at  Epidaurus 
and  Athens. 

^sculus.  See  Horse  Chest- 
nut. 

Aesir,  a'ser  (plural  form  of  As), 
the  name  given  to  an  order  of 
mighty  beings  in  the  Scandina- 
vian and  Teutonic  mythology — 
the  children  of  Odin,  of  whom  the 
most  famous  were  Thor,  Freyr, 
Balder,  Bragi,  Heimdall.  There 
were  also  corresponding  female 
demigods — e.g.,  Frigga  and  Idun. 
These  divinities  waged  warfare 
against  the  Vanir  and  against  the 
Giants.  Their  country  is  known 
as  Asgard.  See  Mythology. 

^sop,  e'sop,  or  .Esopus  (prob- 
ably 620-560  B.C.),  a  celebrated 
Greek  fabulist.  Certain  writers 
deny  the  personal  existence  of 
^sop  altogether,  owing  to  the 
uncertainty  attaching  to  the 
authorship  of  many  fables  at- 
tributed to  him.  But  the  general 
conclusion  seems  to  be  that  ^Esop 
was  a  real  person — a  Phrygian  by 
birth,  a  contemporary  of  the 
'seven  sages,'  and  a  slave  to 
several  masters  until  set  free  by 
Jadmon  of  Samos.  He  then 
visited  the  court  of  Croesus  and 
gained  his  confidence  to  such  an 
extent  that  he  was  sent  on  several 
missions,  in  one  of  which,  to 
Delphi,  he  was  thrown  over  a 
precipice  by  the  priests,  infu- 
riated at  his  witty  blasphemies. 
The  traditions  of  his  ugliness  and 
his  buffoonery  may  be  dismissed. 
The  fables  connected  with  his 
name  were  long  transmitted 
through  oral  tradition.  Socrates 
turned  such  of  them  as  he  could 
remember  into  verse  during  his 
imprisonment,  and  the  same  was 
done  by  Demetrius  Phalereus. 

It  has  been  proved  that  certain 
stories  traditionally  attributed  to 
yEsop  have  a  more  ancient  origin, 
and  are  the  common  property  of 
other  nations — e.g..  The  Lion  and 
the  Mouse,  and  The  Dispute  Be- 
tween the  Stomach  and  the  Mem- 
bers— which  have  been  shown  by 
both    Brugsch    and  Maspero 


^sopus 


83 


iDsthetics 


to  be  identical  with  certain  fables 
found  on  Egyptian  papyri .  1 1  has, 
indeed,  been  maintained  that  they 
are  all  of  Arabian  and  Persian 
origin,  and  that  ^sop  is  the  Gre- 
cian figure  corresponding  to  the 
Arabic  Lukman  or  Lokman. 

None  of  ^sop's  fables  have 
come  down  to  us  in  the  original 
Greek,  if  there  was  ever  such  a 
compilation  in  existence;  but  two 


Bust  of  jEsop  the  Fabulist. 


authors — Babrius  in  Greek,  and 
Phaedrus  in  Latin — have  preserved 
many  of  them.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  there  were  three  principal 
collections  published,  including 
many  spurious  fables:  (1)  that  of 
Maximus  Planudes,  a  monk  of 
Constantinople,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourteentla  century;  (2)  one 
published  at  Heidelberg  (1610); 
and  (3)  one  discovered  in  ms.  at 
Florence,  probably  a  century  old- 
er than  that  of  Planudes.  There 
is  a  statue  to  ^sop  in  the  Villa 
Albani  at  Rome.  Consult  Jacobs' 
Introduction  to  the  Fables  of  jEsop. 

i^sopus,  e-so'pus,  Claudius  or 
Clodius,  a  celebrated  Roman 
tragic  actor,  a  friend  of  Cicero, 
and  of  equal  merit  with  his  con- 
temporary Roscius,  the  comedian. 
He  left  a  large  fortune  to  his  son 
— that  worthless  ^sop  who  is 
said  to  have  boastfully  dissolved 
in  vinegar  a  pearl  worth  $50,000, 
in  order  to  provide  a  costly  drink. 

iSsthesiometer,  es-the-si-om'- 
e-ter  (Greek  'measure  of  percep- 
tion'), an  instrument  used  for 
estimating  the  sense  of  touch  in 
any  part  of  the  body.  Two  points 
are  applied  to  the  part,  and  the 
minimum  distance  is  recorded  at 
which  they  are  felt  as  two  points, 
and  not  as  one.  On  the  tongue  tip 
two  points  can  be  distinguished, 
normally,  at  a  distance  of  1  mm. 
apart.    See  Touch. 

if}stheticism,  es-thet'i-siz'm,  is, 
primarily,  attachment  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  aesthetics.  The  term  is 
popularly  applied  to  extravagant 
devotion  to  trifling  forms  of  beau- 
ty, which  frequently  develops  in- 
to whimsical  absurdities.  In  Eng- 
land aestheticism  has  at  times 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


been  carried  to  this  extreme,  and 
has  been  ridiculed  in  Gilbert  and 
Sullivan's  opera  Patience  and  in 
Du  Manner's  Punch  cartoons. 
Among  the  promoters  of  a  saner 
aestheticism  were  Ruskin,  Leigh- 
ton,  Millais,  and  Morris. 

^Esthetics,  es-thet'iks.  By  aes- 
thetics is  meant  primarily  a  the- 
ory of  the  beautiful  as  exhibited 
in  works  of  art.  That  is  to  say, 
aesthetics,  considered  on  its  ob- 
jective side,  has  to  investigate, 
first,  the  function  of  art  in  general 
as  expressing  the  beautiful,  and 
the  nature  of  the  beauty  that  is 
so  expressed;  and,  second,  the  spe- 
cial functions  of  the  several  arts, 
and  the  special  aspects  of  the 
beautiful  with  which  they  are  sev- 
erally concerned.  .(Esthetics,  there- 
fore, has  to  discuss,  among  others, 
such  topics  as  these:  the  relation 
of  art  to  nature  and  lite;  the  dis- 
tinction of  art  from  nature;  the 
relation  of  natural  to  artistic 
beauty;  the  conditions  and  na- 
ture of  beauty  in  a  work  of  art; 
the  distinction  of  beauty  from 
truth,  from  utility,  andf  rom  moral 
goodness;  the  classification  of 
the  fine  arts;  the  conditions  and 
limitations  of  artistic  representa- 
tion or  production  in  the  several 
arts — i.e.,  the  kinds  of  beauty  the 
several  arts  are  fitted  to  represent 
— and  so  on. 

^Esthetic  theory  is  thus  distin- 
guished from  art  criticism  by  its 
more  abstract  character,  or  by 
the  importance — relatively  much 
greater  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter — of  the  scientific  as  com- 
pared with  the  artistic  interest. 
Art  criticism  is  concerned  prima- 
rily and  mainly  with  the  appre- 
ciation of  particular  works  of  art; 
whereas  aesthetic  theory  seeks 
rather  to  formulate  the  more  ab- 
stract and  fundamental  concep- 
tions, distinctions,  and  principles 
which  underlie  all  such  criticism. 

Esthetic  theory  is  thus  one  re- 
move further  from  the  actual 
works  of  art  and  their  immediate 
appreciation.  It  is  not,  however, 
on  that  account  to  be  regarded  as 
quite  severed  from,  or  discontinu- 
ous with,  art  criticism.  For  al- 
though in  aesthetics  the  scientific 
interest  in  the  statement  of  prin- 
ciples has  become,  in  a  sense,  of 
even  primary  importance,  yet 
science  would  degenerate  into  ped- 
antry if  the  artistic  interest  did  not 
retain  its  vitality.  In  fact,  art 
criticism  is,  in  this  respect,  simply 
a  mean  between  aesthetic  science 
on  the  one  hand  and  intelligent 
appreciation  on  the  other.  And 
as  appreciation  at  the  one  extreme 
does  not  sink  to  the  level  of  fea- 
tureless sensation,  so,  too,  knowl- 
edge at  the  other  does  not  aim  at 
an  abstractness  that  is  different 
to  all  artistic  content. 

A  second  main  subject  of  in- 
quiry may  be  included  in  aesthet- 
ics— viz.,  the  investigation,  on 
the  subjective  side,  of  the  aesthetic 


consciousness.  By  this  is  meant 
an  inquiry  into  the  psychological 
nature,  origin,  and  development 
of  aesthetic  judgment  and  aesthetic 
emotion  or  sentiment — in  other 
words,  a  theory  of  taste  and  the 
pleasures  of  taste.  This  second 
inquiry  is  obviously  dependent 
on  the  first,  and  subordinate  to  it, 
since  we  cannot  define  the  sense 
of  beautj'^  apart  from  the  beauty 
cf  which  it  is  the  sense.  It  is  to 
be  observed  that  psychological 
aesthetics  may  investigate  the 
process  and  conditions  of  artistic 
production,  as  well  as  of  artistic 
perception  or  appreciation. 

The  two  mOvSt  important  con- 
tributions of  classical  antiquity  to 
general  aesthetic  theory  are,  on 
the  one  hand,  those  discussions  in 
Plato  and  Aristotle  of  the  value 
of  art  and  the  relation  of  art  to 
nature,  that  centre  round  the  con- 
ception of  art  as  imitative;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  an  insistence 
on  the  more  formal  conditions  of 
artistic  excellence,  such  as  the 
unity  of  the  work  of  art  as  a  whole, 
and  the  due  proportion  of  the 
parts  that  make  up  the  whole. 
The  most  important  single  work 
on  aesthetic  theory  in  antiquity  is 
Aristotle's  Poetics,  in  which  the 
theory  of  poetic  art  (and  mainly 
tragedy)  is  discussed  both  on  its 
objective  and  on  its  subjective 
side.    (See  Aristotle.) 

In  the  modern  period,  the  great- 
est and  most  c'ontinuous  develop- 
ment of  aesthetic  theory  has  taken 
place  in  Germany.  The  valuable 
work  of  Lessing  in  his  Laocoon 
and  his  dramatic  criticism  was  fol- 
lowed in  1790  by  Kant's  epoch- 
making  Critique  of  Judgment,  in 
which,  for  the  first  time,  the 
sphere  and  object  of  the  aesthetic 
judgment — in  other  words,  the 
general  nature  of  the  beautiful — 
were  clearly  defined.  Most  of  the 
great  German  thinkers  since 
Kant's  time  have  dealt  in  some 
fashion  with  aesthetic  theory.  He- 
gel's Lectures  on  ALsthetics  is  per- 
haps the  greatest  work  on  the 
whole  subject,  aiming,  as  it  does, 
at  determining  the  nature  of  the 
ideal  or  the  beautiful,  and  exhib- 
iting the  manner  of  its  concrete 
realization  throughout  the  whole 
scope  of  art.  Herbart  and  Fech- 
ner,  again,  seek  to  bring  an  exact 
psychology  to  bear  upon  the  prob- 
lems ot  aesthetic  science;  while  in 
no  philosophy  is  the  place  of  art 
more  exalted  than  in  that  of  Scho- 
penhauer. Later  German  writers 
on  the  subject  have  been  Lotze, 
Carriere,  and  F.  T.  Vischer. 

The  British  writers  on  aesthet- 
ics of  the  eighteenth  century,  such 
as  Hutcheson..  Hume,  Home,  Ali- 
son, Burke,  were  concerned  pri- 
marily and  mainly  with  the  psy- 
chological investigation  of  the 
aesthetic  emotions.  No  work  on 
aesthetics,  as  a  whole,  has  been 
produced  in  the  United  States  or 
Great  Britain  which  can  compare 


JCstlvation 


84 


.i:toUa 


with  the  works  of  the  great  Ger- 
man writers  and  their  successors. 

Most  of  the  leading  works  above 
mentioned  are  translated  (see,  for 
example,  Lessing,  Kant,  and 
Hegel).  Consult  also  Bosan- 
quet's  History  of  Esthetic,  with 
bibliography;  Santayana's  The 
Sense  of  Beauty;  Baldwin  Brown's 
Fine  Arts.  The  most  striking  re- 
cent work  on  the  subject  is  that 
of  the  Italian,  Benedetto  Croce 
(Eng.  trans.  1909). 

iEstiva'tion,  in  Zoology,  a  sum- 
mer sleep,  not  uncommon  in  ani- 
mals which  inhabit  climates  where 
the  summer  is  very  hot  and  dry, 
especially  in  the  case  of  forms  re- 
quiring a  considerable  degree  of 
moisture,  or  whose  habitat  is 
fresh-water  ponds.  Thus  many 
snails,  and  both  land  and  water 
tortoises,  frequently  retire  into 
cavities  of  the  ground  during  heat 
and  drought,  and  there  remain 
till  the  recurrence  of  the  rainy 
season.  The  African  fish  Protop- 
ierus  and  several  Oriental  fishes 
in  the  dry  season  construct  mud 
nests,  in  which  several  months 
may  be  spent  awaiting  the  return 
of  the  rains.  The  phenomenon  is 
entirely  comparable  to  hiberna- 
tion.   See  Hibernation. 

i^stivation,  in  Botany,  the  ar- 
rangement of  leaves  in  the  bud 
with  relation  to  one  another.  The 
term  is  applied  chiefly  to  flower 
buds;  and  as  the  aestivation  of 
buds  is  usually  constant  for  the 
same  flower,  and  often  for  the 
same  genus,  and  even  for  the  or- 
der, the  study  of  them  is  im- 
portant in  reference  to  classifica- 
tion.   See  Flower. 

JEt.i  abbreviation  for  atatis  an- 
no, "m  the  year  of  his  age.' 

Aetas,  a'a-tas,  or  Inagtas,  a 
Negrito  people,  woolly  haired, 
dwarfish,  and  aboriginal,  found  in 
Luzon  and  other  parts  of  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands  (q.  v.).  See  Ne- 
grito. 

iHtheling,  ath'el-ing,  or  Athel- 
ing,  in  Anglo-Saxon  times  meant, 
at  first,  one  of  noble  (athel)  birth, 
and,  later,  from  the  ninth  to  the 
eleventh  century,  a  prince  of  the 
blood  royal.  The  title  is  especial- 
ly associated  with  Edgar  (q.  v.), 
grandson  of  Edmund  Ironside. 

iE'ther.    See  Ether. 

.^ther,  in  Greek  mythology, 
son  of  Chaos  and  Darkness,  one 
of  the  elementary  substances  out 
of  which  the  universe  was  formed ; 
in  later  times  the  wide  expanse  of 
heaven,  the  abode  of  the  gods. 

iE'thrioscope,  an  instrument 
designed  by  Leslie  in  1817  for  the 
purpose  of  measuring  changes  of 
temperature  produced  by  radia- 
tion. It  consists  of  a  differential 
thermometer,  with  both  bulbs 
contained  in  a  cup-shaped  mirror, 
and  one  of  them  in  its  focus.  By 
this  instrument  slight  variations 
of  temperature,  due  to  changes  in 
the  condition  of  the  sky,  a,ve  also 
estimated. 

Vol.  L— Mar.  'IQ 


iU'tiol'ogy.    See  Etiology. 

Action,  a-e'shi-on,  a  Greek 
painter  contemporary  with  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  His  masterpiece 
was  The  Marriage  of  Roxana  and 
Alexander;  it  was  exhibited  at  the 
Olympic  Games.  The  picture  is 
described  in  detail  by  Lucian,  and 
was  reproduced  by  Raphael. 

Aetius,  a-e'shi-us,  a  Roman 
general,  the  last  successful  de- 
fender of  the  Roman  Empire,  was 


Alexandria;  but  in  361  he  was  re- 
called by  Julian  the  Apostate, 
from  whom  he  received  an  estate 
in  Lesbos  and  a  position  in  the 
court  at  Constantinople,  where 
he  died  in  370.  His  work  De  Fide 
was  refuted  by  Epiphanius. 

JEt'na,   See  Etna. 

illtolia,  e-to'li-a,  a  district  of 
ancient  Greece,  on  the  north 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Ozo- 


hmetoUcus'w-. 


Stadia  (600=  D 


60  100 


j^tolia. 


born  in  Moesia.  Early  in  life  he 
was  handed  over  to  Alaric  (q.  v.) 
as  a  hostage,  and  became  familiar 
with  the  tactics  of  the  barbarians. 
As  commander-in-chief  of  the 
armies  of  the  Western  Empire  he 
kept  Italy,  Spain,  Britain,  and 
Gaul  in  peace  from  433  to 450  a.d. 
In  451  he  succeeded  in  checking 
the  advance  of  Attila  (q.  v.)  in 
the  great  battle  in  the  Catalau- 
nian  plains,  near  Chalons;  but  in 
454  he  was  murdered  by  Valen- 
tinian  iii.  (q.  v.),  who  suspected 
him  of  aiming  at  the  throne. 
Consult  Gibbon's  Decline  and 
Fall  (chaps,  xxxiii.,  xxxv.). 

Aetius,  surnamed  'the  Athe- 
ist,' the  leader  of  the  Anomcean 
sect  of  Arians,  who  are  sometimes 
called  after  him  Aetians.  Or- 
dained deacon  in  348,  he  was 
present  at  the  first  synod  of  Sir- 
mium,  when  he  defeated  in  argu- 
ment the  bishops  Basilius  and 
Eustachius  of  the  Homoiousian 
party.  In  356,  from  fear  of  Con- 
stantius  ii.,  he  left  Ahtioch  for 


lian  Locrians,  south  by  the  Co- 
rinthian Gulf,  west  by  the  Ache- 
lous  River,  and  north  by  Epirus 
and  Thessaly.  In  ancient  times 
the  inhabitants  appear  to  have 
been  equal  in  culture  to  the  rest 
of  the  Greeks,  and  their  chief  city 
Calydon  was  famous  in  the  leg- 
ends. In  historical  times,  how- 
ever, they,  like  their  neighbors 
the  people  of  Acarnania,  were 
semi-barbarous.  About  323  B.C. 
they  were  united  in  an  impor- 
tant confederacy,  the  .^tolian 
League,  which  was  joined  by 
several  cities  in  the  north  of 
Greece.  They  sided  with  the  Ro- 
mans against  the  Achaean  League 
(see  AcHAEi),  but  afterward  aid- 
ed Antiochus  nr.,  king  of  Syria, 
against  the  Romans,  and  on  his 
defeat  became  virtually  subject 
to  Rome.  After  146  B.C.  they 
were  included  in  the  province  of 
Achaia. 

With  Acarnania,  .(Etolia  now 
forms  the  nomarchy  Acarnania 
and  ^tolia  of  modern  Greece. 


Afanasiev 


85 


Affinity,  Chemical 


Area,  3,034  square  miles.  Pop. 
190,000. 

Afanasiev,  a-fa-na'sief,  Alex- 
ander    NiKOLAIEVITCH  (1826- 

71),  Russian  author  and  scholar, 
born  in  the  government  of  Vero- 
netz.  He  was  in  the  civil  service 
until  1862.  His  principal  work. 
The  Poetical  Views  of  the  Slavs 
about  Nature  (3  vols.,  1865-9).  is 
a  rich  storehouse  of  information 
concerning  Slav  mythology.  He 
published  also  a  large  collection 
of  Russian  Popular  Tales  (4  vols., 
2d  ed.  1873),  many  of  which  have 
been  translated  into  European 
languages. 

Afar,  a'far,  Arab  tribe.  See 
Danakil. 

A'fer,  used  by  Milton  for  the 
southwest  wind  that  blows  from 
Africa  over  Italy. 

Afer,  DoMiTius,  of  Nemausus 
(Nimes) ,  a  celebrated  Roman  or- 
ator; praetor  a.d.  25.  He  gained 
the  favor  of  Tiberius  by  accusing 
Claudia  Pulchra,  cousin  of  Agrip- 
pina,  A.D.  26.  By  flattery  he  se- 
cured the  consulship  under  Ca- 
ligula (39),  and  is  said  to  have 
died  of  over-eating. 

Affec'tion,  a  psychological 
term  used  to  designate  the  con- 
sciousness of  a  general  change  in 
the  tone  of  the  nervous  system. 
As  such  it  is  considered  one  of  the 
two  elements  of  consciousness 
(see  Sensation),  and  possesses 
two  qualities,  pleasantness  and 
unpleasantness.  Feeling,  emo- 
tion, and  sentiment  are  usually 
regarded  as  complexes  of  affective 
processes.  From  a  biological 
point  of  view,  life  is  assumed  to 
be  a  state  of  equilibrium  between 
the  forces  that  destroy  and  those 
that  reconstruct  tissue.  Con- 
sciousness is  intimately  connect- 
ed with  the  nervous  system, 
which  holds  all  parts  of  the  or- 
ganism in  intercommunication,  so 
that  when  the  balance  of  nutri- 
tive processes  is  disturbed,  bio- 
logical conditions  result,  which 
come  into  consciousness  as  un- 
pleasantness or  pleasantness,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

Affenthaler,  a  red  wine  which 
takes  its  name  from  the  village 
of  Affenthal  in  Baden. 

Affettuoso,  iif-fet-two'so,  an 
Italian  musical  term  indicating  a 
tender  and  affecting  style;  it  lies 
between  adagio  and  andante,  and 
is  frequently  joined  with  these 
terms.  A ffetto  and  con  affetto  are 
used  in  the  same  sense. 

Afflda'vit  (Latin,  'he  hath 
sworn')  is  a  written  statement  of 
facts  made  upon  oath  or  solemn 
affirmation  before  a  magistrate, 
or  other  person  authorized  by  law 
to  administer  the  oath.  In  inter- 
locutory and  non-contentious  pro- 
ceedings, the  use  of  affidavits  as 
evidence  is  almost  universal.  In 
contentious  cases,  however,  oral 
evidence  is  generally  insisted  on, 
unless  parties  agree  to  have  a 
oroof  by  affidavit.  In  England 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


the  tendency  in  recent  times  has 
been  to  discourage  such  proofs. 

Affidavits  should  set  forth  facts 
only,  and  not  arguments  or  state- 
ments of  the  merits  of  the  case. 
Generally,  the  matters  dealt  with 
should  be  within  the  knowledge 
of  the  deponent, but  in  some  cases 
he  is  entitled  to  speak  'to  the  best 
of  his  knowledge  and  belief.'  Af- 
fidavits must  run  in  the  first  per- 
son, and  are  signed  by  the  depo- 
nent. The  'jurat'  is  the  final  part 
of  the  document,  in  which  are  spec- 
ified the  person  before  whom,  the 
place  where,  and  the  time  when  it 
was  sworn,  and  this  is  signed  by 
the  magistrate  or  other  party  ad- 
ministering the  oath. 

In  the  United  States,  an  affida- 
vit made  solely  on  information  or 
belief  is  not  held  sufficient  to  au- 
thorize the  arrest  of  a  person 
charged  with  an  offence. 

Affllia'tion  is  the  legal  process 
whereby  the  father  of  a  bastard 
child,  upon  the  paternity  being 
proved  against  him,  may  be  ren- 
dered liable  to  contribute  toward 
its  maintenance  and  education. 
It  is  usually  instituted  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  mother,  but  when 
the  child  has  become  chargeable 
to  a  town  or  parish  it  may  be 
raised  by  the  local  authorities. 
The  procedure  and  penalties  are 
in  most  jurisdictions  laid  down  by 
statute. 

Affln'ity  (Latin,  affinitas)  is  the 
tie  which  arises  in  consequence  of 
marriage  betwixt  one  of  a  married 
pair  and  the  blood  relations  of  the 
other.  The  rule  of  computing  its 
degrees  is  that  the  relations  of  the 
husband  stand  in  the  same  degree 
of  affinity  to  his  wife  as  that  in 
which  they  stand  to  the  husband 
by  consanguinity,  and  conversely. 
The  canon  law  draws  no  distinc- 
tion between  consanguinity  and 
affinity  as  a  barrier  to  marriage, 
and  this  rule  still  prevails  gener- 
ally throughout  Christendom. 

In  the  United  States,  marriage 
is  in  nearly  every  case  permitted 
between  a  man  and  the  sister  of 
his  deceased  wife,  and  between  a 
woman  and  the  brother  of  her  de- 
ceased husband.  In  Great  Brit- 
ain, a  recent  statute  has  allowed 
marriage  between  the  former,  but 
not  the  latter  pair. 

It  is  to  be  observed  (1)  that 
there  is  no  affinity  between  the  rel- 
atives of  the  one  and  the  relatives 
of  the  other  spouse,  and  (2)  in 
modern  times,  contrary  to  the 
canon  law,  mere  illicit  intercourse 
is  not  regarded  as  giving  rise  to 
relationship  by  affinity.  See  Con- 
sanguinity; Marriage. 

Affinity, Ctiemicai.  According 
to  Ostwald,  chemical  affinity  is 
that  property  in  virtue  of  which, 
when  bodies  are  brought  into  con- 
tact, they  react  on  each  other, 
forming  new  bodies.  It  may  be 
further  defined  as  a  force;  for  by 
its  action  energy  is  produced,  as 
is  manifested  by  the  resulting 


heat,  light,  electrical  or  mechan- 
ical energy. 

The  existence  of  this  phenome- 
non of  mutual  reaction  by  sub- 
stances which  are  of  the  same 
origin,  or  of  the  same  kind,  was 
recognized  by  the  Greek  philoso- 
phers, and  was  likened  by  them 
to  the  human  qualities  of  sym- 
pathy and  antipathy.  As  knowl- 
edge grew,  these  conceptions  took 
on  a  more  scientific  aspect — no- 
tably when  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in- 
troduced into  chemistry  the  idea 
of  an  attractive  action  between 
one  small  particle  and  another,  to 
explain  the  mutual  reactions  of 
bodies.  Later  investigators,  in- 
cluding Buff  on,  Bergmann,  Ber- 
thollet,  and  Davy,  by  their  chem- 
ical studies  aided  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  greater  knowledge  of 
chemical  affinity;  and  the  theory 
advanced  by  Berzelius,  that  chem- 
ical affinity  was  simply  the  attrac- 
tion of  opposite  electricities  con- 
centrated on  the  smallest  parts  of 
substances,  was  long  accepted,  al- 
though it  failed  to  reveal  the 
exact  nature  of  the  phenomenon. 
With  the  discovery  by  Mayer  and 
Joule  of  the  actions  of  forces,  it 
was  recognized  that  chemical  af- 
finity must  be  classed  with  me- 
chanical, electrical,  and  thermal 
energy,  in  so  far  as  it  is  converti- 
ble into  any  of  these,  and  can  be 
produced  from  one  of  them. 

The  way  in  which  chemical 
forces  act  has  been  extensively 
studied.  For  a  time  it  was  be- 
lieved that  the  force  acting  be- 
tween two  different  kinds  of  mat- 
ter began  to  exert  itself  on  bring- 
ing the  ultimate  particles  nearer 
together,  and  if,  under  the  given 
conditions,  it  was  possible,  com- 
bination ensued.  Then  the  phys- 
ical conditions  of  the  reacting 
bodies  were  found  to  have  an  in- 
fluence on  the  final  results  of  the 
actions  of  affinity.  Bunsen  and 
Gladstone  contributed  their  share 
to  the  development  of  our  knowl- 
edge of  chemical  affinity.  Be- 
sides the  intensity  of  the  forces, 
the  mass  of  the  reacting  sub- 
stances was  found  to  be  a  factor 
in  the  combination.  In  1867 
Guldberg  arid  Waage  announced 
the  law  that  'chemical  action  is 
proportional  to  the  active  masses 
of  each  of  the  substances  par- 
ticipating in  the  reaction.' 

At  present,  in  conformity  with 
the  'electron  conception  of  va- 
lence,' as  developed  by  Sir  J.  J. 
Thomson  and  others,  the  belief  is 
that  the  union  of  two  atoms  is 
brought  about  by  the  transfer  of 
a  negatively  charged  corpuscle 
from  one  atom  to  the  other;  the 
atom  losing  the  corpuscle  becom- 
ing charged  positively,  the  one 
gaining  the  corpuscle  becoming 
charged  negatively.  The  Unkings 
between  atoms  which  represent 
the  bonds,  usually  shown  by  lines 
and  dots,  are  replaced  as  a  result 
of  the  electronic  considerations 


AflBrmation 


86 


Afghanistan 


by  arrows — the  head  of  the  arrow 
indicating  the  direction  in  which 
the  corpuscle  is  assumed  to  be 
transferred  in  the  production  of 
the  chemical  bond.  Chemical  af- 
finity between  two  combining 
atoms  corresponds  to  the  inten- 
sity factor  in  chemical  energy, 
and  can  be  measured  quantita- 
tively by  the  change  in  free  en- 
ergy of  the  reaction.  See  Elec- 
tro-Chemistry;  Electrolysis; 
Equilibrium,  Chemical. 

For  the  older  views  on  chem- 
ical afhnity,  consult  the  article  on 
'Affinity'  in  Watts'  Dictionary  of 
Chemistry;  for  a  more  modern 
discussion  of  the  subject.  Sir  J.  J. 
Thomson's  Corpuscular  Theory  of 
Matter  (1907). 

Affirma'tion,  a  solemn  decla- 
ration made  in  the  legal  form  as 
required  by  law.  Affirmation  has 
now  in  most  Protestant  countries 
been  admitted  in  place  of  an  oath. 
In  Great  Britain  and  a  few  of  the 
United  States  the  person  desiring 
to  affirm  has  to  state  either  that 
he  has  no  religious  belief,  or  that 
the  taking  of  an  oath  is  contrary 
to  his  religious  belief.  In  most  of 
the  United  States,  however,  no 
such  declaration  is  required.  In 
all  cases  a  false  affirmation  carries 
with  it  the  penalties  of  perjury. 
See  Oath. 

Afforesta'tion  is  the  conver- 
sion of  habitable  land  into  forest 
or  woodland.    See  Forestry. 

Affray',  the  fighting  of  two  or 
more  persons  in  a  public  place,  to 
the  terror  of  other  people.  Of 
two  persons  engaged,  each  must 
be  guilty  of  attacking  the  other 
to  constitute  an  affray;  if  one 
does  not  exceed  the  limits  of  self- 
defence,  it  is  an  assault  (q.  v.). 
An  affray  is  a  misdemeanor 
(q.  v.). 

Affre,  af'r',  Denis  Auguste 
(1793-1848).  In  1840,  on  ac- 
count of  his  prudent  and  tem- 
perate character,  he  was  made 
archbishop  of  Paris  by  the  gov- 
ernment of  Louis  Philippe.  When 
in  1848  a  republic  was  pro- 
claimed, he  kept  aloof  from  po- 
litical strife.  During  the  June 
insurrection  he  climbed  on  a  bar- 
ricade in  the  Place  de  la  Bastille, 
carrying  a  green  bough  in  his 
hand,  as  a  messenger  of  peace; 
but  he  had  scarcely  uttered  a  few 
words,  when  he  fell  mortally 
wounded. 

Affreight'ment  is  the  general 
term  for  any  contract  by  which 
a  ship  owner  undertakes  to  carry 
goods  in  his  ship  for  reward.  The 
sum  paid  for  the  carriage  is 
termed  freight,  and  the  person 
who  vsends  the  goods  the  freighter. 
The  contract  may  take  the  form 
of  a  charter  party  (q.  v.),  when 
the  freighter  hires  tlie  use  of  the 
ship,  or  that  of  a  bill  of  lading 
(q.  v.),  when  it  is  made  between 
the  ship  owner  and  each  of  a 
number  of  persons  who  transport 
goods  in  a  general  ship. 
Vol.  I— Mar.  '16 


Affronte,  a'froh'ta'.  Affront- 
ant,  or  Affronted,  in  heraldry, 
said  of  the  figures  of  men  or  ani- 
mals placed  full  face  to  the  spec- 
tator, 

Afghanistan,  af-gan-is-tan',  in- 
land country  of  Asia,  bounded  on 
the  east  and  south  by  India  and 
Baluchistan,  on  the  north  and 
northeast  by  the  Russian  and 
Chinese  empires,  and  on  the  west 
by  Persia  Its  length  from  west 
to  east,  between  Khorassan  and 
the  Punjab,  is  600  miles,  but 
about  900  miles  to  the  Chinese 
borders:  its  breadth,  north  to 
south,  is  from  450  to  500  miles; 
area,  about  250,000  square  miles. 

As  a  'buffer  state'  between  the 
Russian  and  British  empires,  the 
precise  limits  of  its  territory  have 
been  settled  by  treaty,  and  locally 
demarcated  by  several  boundary 
commissions.  By  the  Anglo- 
Russian  treaty  of  September, 
1907,  Russia  declared  that  Af- 
ghanistan was  without  the  Rus- 
sian sphere  of  influence,  and  un- 
dertook to  act  in  all  political  re- 
lations with  Afghanistan  through 
the  British  government.  The 
Russo-Afghan  border  line  starts 
from  Zulfikar,  on  the  Hari-Rud, 
runs  through  the  Badghais  dis- 
trict, and,  leaving  Panjdeh  to 
Russia  and  Meruchak  to  Afghan- 
istan, terminates  on  the  Amu 
Daria  at  Khamiab.  Thence  it  is 
formed  by  the  Amu  Daria  and 
the  Ab-i-Panj  up  to  Lake  Vic- 
toria, whence  it  follows  the  crest 
of  the  Nicholas  range,  between 
the  Great  and  Little  Pamirs,  to  a 
peak  in  the  Sarikol,  the  meeting 
place  of  Russian,  Afghan,  and 
Chinese  dominions.  The  Sarikol 
range,  north  and  south,  separates 
the  Little  Pamir  from  the  Chi- 
nese Pamir.  From  the  Wakhjir 
Pass,  where  the  British,  Afghan, 
and  Chinese  spheres  meet,  the 
Indo-Afghan  border  follows  the 
Hindu-Kush  to  the  Dora  Pass, 
and  then  to  the  divide  between 
the  Bashgol  and  Chitral  Rivers. 
From  the  Kabul  River  it  follows 
the  Safed  Koh  to  the  Caiwar  Ko- 
tal.and  thence  south  to  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Gumal  and  Kundar 
Rivers.  From  this  point  Afghan- 
istan borders  with  Baluchistan 
for  800  miles  to  Koh-i-Malik  Siah, 
where  Persian,  Afghan,  and  Brit- 
ish territories  converge. 

Physical  Features.  —  The 
chief  mountain  range  is  the  Hin- 
du-Kush (q.  v.),  with  its  pro- 
longation the  Koh-i-Baba.  The 
Hindu-Kush  takes  its  rise  in  the 
northeast,  where  it  abuts  on  the 
Himalayas  in  a  group  of  magnifi- 
cent peaks  (23,000  feet) ;  thence  it 
extends  in  a  southwest  direction 
to  the  Khawak  Pass  as  a  single 
range  of  great  height;  and  farther 
west  it  divides  into  a  system  of 
parallel  chains,  with  high  plateaus 
and  valleys  between  them.  To 
the  east  are  the  vSulaiman  Moun- 
tains, forming  the  watershed  of 


the  Indus,  and  the  Safed  Koh, 
dividing  the  Kabul  from  the 
Kuram.  The  whole  country 
forms  part  of  the  Iran  plateau, 
and  has  a  general  elevation  of 
2,000  to  4,000  feet. 

Hydrographically,  Afghanistan 
may  be  divided  into  the  three 
great  river  basins  of  the  Oxus,  the 
Indus,  and  the  Helmund.  The 
northern  slopes  of  the  Hindu-Kush 
are  drained  by  a  number  of  rivers 
flowing  north  toward  the  Oxus; 
with  its  tributaries,  the  Argan- 
dab,  Tarnak,  and  Arghastan,  it 
drains  all  Southwest  Afghanistan. 
The  Indus  basin  includes  the  great 
basin  of  the  Kabul  itself  and  its 
tributaries,  draining  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  Hindu-Kush  and  the 
northern  valleys  of  the  Safed 
Koh,  the  basin  of  the  Kuram,  and 
the  streams  issuing  from  the  Wa- 
ziri  and  Sulaiman  Hills.  The 
Helmund  drains  the  three  great 
plateaus  on  the  Indian  side. 

The  climate  is  continental,  with 
great  heat  in  summer  and  severe 
cold  in  winter  (above  5,000  feet), 
but  is  generally  healthful.  The 
rainfall  is  slight,  and  the  snowfall 
heavy  in  the  highlands.  The 
northwest  'wind  of  the  120  days' 
blows  from  March  to  the  end  of 
July. 

Though  the  minerals  are  not 
much  worked,  they  are  tolerably 
plentiful  in  Northern  Afghanis- 
tan, and  comprise  gold,  silver, 
rubies,  lapis  lazuH,  iron,  copper, 
lead,  antimony,  zinc,  sal  ammo- 
niac, gypsum,  and  nitre. 

Agriculture  and  Trade. — While 
much  of  the  country  is  mountain- 
ous and  unfit  for  successful  culti- 
vation, the  valleys  and  plains  are 
exceedingly  fertile,  and  with  the 
aid  of  irrigation  agriculture  is  ex- 
tensively carried  on.  There  are 
two  harvests  in  the  year,  one 
sown  in  the  late  fall  and  gathered 
in  the  summer,  the  other  sown  to- 
ward the  end  of  spring  and  reaped 
in  the  fall. 

Among  the  natural  productions 
of  Afghanistan  is  the  plant  yield- 
ing the  asafoetida.  The  castor-oil 
plant  and  madder  are  everywhere 
grown  in  the  district  of  Kandahar. 
The  cultivated  area  round  Herat 
produces  magnificent  crops  of 
wheat,  barley,  cotton,  grapes,  mel- 
ons, and  the  mulberry  tree.  Sur- 
rounding the  villages,  and  in  or- 
chards, the  ash,  elm,  apricot,  ap- 
ple, plum,  quince,  peach,  and 
pomegranate  are  cultivated;  the 
zizyplius  is  indigenous.  In  special 
localities  are  forests  of  pistachio, 
the  leaves  of  which  are  used  in 
dyeing.  . 

Domestic  animals  include  cam- 
els, horses  and  ponies,  cattle, 
goats,  and  dogs.  A  curious  va- 
riety of  fat-tailed  sheep  is  of 
considerable  economic  value,  its 
flesh  furnishing  meat,  its  wool 
wearing  apparel,  and  its  skin  an 
important  article  of  export. 

Manufactures  are  limited.  The 


AFGHANISTAN 


60  zoo  js_ 


John  Bulhoiutue^*  &  Co- 


Vol.  I.    Page  87 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Afghanistan 


88 


Afghanistan 


industrial  products  are  silk,  chief- 
ly for  domestic  use,  carpets,  felts, 
and  fabrics  from  the  wool  of 
sheep,  goats,  and  camels.  The 
manufacture  of  poslins,  or  sheep- 
skins, is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  industrial  occupations. 

Trade  is  carried  on  with  Persia, 
Russian  Central  Asia,  China,  and 
India.  The  chief  exports  are 
wool,  silk,  sheepskins,  timber, 
drugs,  cattle,  and  fruits.  The 
imports  are  cotton,  silk,  and 
woollen  goods,  coarse  cloths, 
sugar,  tea,  indigo,  drugs,  arms, 
and  metal  goods.  With  the  re- 
moval of  some  of  the  heavy  duties 
and  other  restrictions  formerly 
imposed  upon  commerce,  the 
trans-frontier  trade  with  India 
has  increased  within  the  last  few 
years.  For  the  year  ending 
March  31,  1925,  it  was  valued  at 
£325,700,  of  which  £l22,600  rep- 
resented exports,  and  £203,100 
imports. 

The  chief  highways  are  through 
the  Khaibar,  Gumal,  and  Bolan 
Passes  (qq.v.)  to  Kabul,  Ghazni, 
and  Kandahar;  from  Kabul  to 
Bokhara,  Herat,  and  Kandahar; 
from  Kandahar  to  Seistan,  Herat, 
and  Meshed.  Oxen,  camels,  and 
horses  are  used  for  caravans. 
There  are  no  railways,  but  there 
are  some  200  miles  of  road  fit  for 
motor  traffic,  mostly  near  the 
capital. 

People. — The  population  is 
about  8,000,000  (1928),  and  con- 
sists of  many  discordant  ele- 
ments, the  dominant  race  being 
the  Afghans  or  Pathans  (q.v.), 
who  number  about  3,000,000. 
Non-Afghan  races  comprise  the 
Hazriras,  Aimaks,  Arabs,  Jews, 
Baluchis,  and  Kaffirs.  The  lan- 
guage is  Pushtu,  but  Persian  is  in 
general  use.  Most  of  the  Af- 
ghans are  pastoral  and  nomadic, 
the  townsmen  as  a  rule  belonging 
to  non-Afghan  races,  who  prac- 
tise various  trades  and  handi- 
crafts considered  derogatory  by 
men  of  rank. 

The  principal  towns  are  Kabul 
(pop.  100,000),  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment and  centre  of  a  fertile 
district;  Kandahar  (00,000),  the 
chief  city  of  South  Afghanistan; 
Herat  (121,000),  formerly  consid- 
ered the  key  of  India;  and  Ma- 
zar-i  Sharif  (40,200). 

Government,  etc. — The  gov- 
ernment of  Afghanistan  is  a  con- 
stitutional monarchy,  with  legis- 
lative and  State  assemblies  and  a 
cabinet.  At  its  head  is  the  king, 
who  is  assisted  by  a  cabinet. 
There  are  departments  of  war, 
foreign  affairs,  internal  affairs, 
education,  commerce,  justice  and 
revenue,  each  in  charge  of  a 
minister. 

For  administrative  purposes 
the  country  is  divided  into  five 
provinces — Kabul,  Kandahar, 
Herat,  Afghan  Turkestan,  and 
Kataghan-Badakhshan.  At  the 
head  of  each  province  is  a  hakim 
or  governor,  under  whom  are  the 


kazis  or  chief  magistrates,  as- 
sisted by  muftis  or  mulaassihs, 
somewhat  resembling  detective 
officers.  Criminal  cases  are  in 
the  hands  of  govcnmient  officials, 
but  in  otlKM-  cases  justice-  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  /v(;,/.v  or  their 
subordinates  in  accordance  with 
the  law  of  the  Koran. 

The  Afghan  army  is  said  to 
number  about  25,000,  in  addition 
to  large  numbers  of  well-armed 
tribesmen. 

The  religion  of  the  Afghans  is 
(Sunni)  Islam.  They  were  con- 
quered and  converted  to  this 
faith  in  the  seventh  century,  a.d. 
Many  of  the  tribes  are  fanatical, 
and  the  mullahs  have  much 
power.  Elementary  education  is 
free  and  compulsory.  There  are 
elementary  and  secondary  schools 
throughout  the  country  and  two 
colleges  at  Kabul,  besides  various 
schools  of  fine  arts,  agriculture 
and  telegraphy. 

History. — Afghanistan  is  the 
gateway  to  India.  Most  historic 
invasions  of  that  peninsula  have 
been  made  through  its  passes 
from  the  days  of  Darius  and 
Alexander  (330-329  B.C.)  to  Mos- 
lem and  Mogul  times;  the  Af- 
ghans themselves  have  made 
many  predatory  incursions,  and 
have  even  set  up  Afghan  or  Pa- 
than  dynasties.  After  forming 
successively  part  of  the  Parthian 
and  Sasanian  empires,  the  country 
was  at  times  partly  subject  to 
Persia,  palrtly  to  the  Mogul  em- 
pire, and  at  times  divided  among 
small  native  dynasties,  of  which 
that  of  Ghazni  (1001-1186)  was 
the  most  notable. 

In  1708  the  Ghilji  rose  against 
Persia,  and  set  up  an  independent 
kingdom  at  Kandahar,  and  in 
1717  the  Afghans  asserted  their 
independence  at  Herat.  Nadir, 
Shah  of  Persia,  who  had  levied  a 
strong  Afghan  contingent  for  his 
invasion  of  India,  was  assassi- 
nated (1747),  and  the  Afghans 
chose  as  king,  Ahmed,  a  general 
in  Nadir's  army.  Ahmed  re- 
duced to  his  rule  the  whole  of 
Afghanistan,  and  annexed  Sindh, 
part  of  the  Punjab,  and  Kashmir. 

The  years  following  1793  were 
disturbed  by  domestic  conflict 
and  anarchy,  out  of  which  Dost 
Mohammed  emerged  as  Emir 
('commander')  in  182G.  After 
some  complications  which  in- 
volved Russia,  the  British  occu- 
pied Kandahar  and  Kabul,  and 
set  Shah  Shuja  on  the  throne 
(1839).  Dost  Mohammed  sur- 
rendered, but  his  eldest  son,  Ak- 
bar  Khan,  continued  the  resis- 
tance. In  a  revolt  at  Kabul  (Nov. 
2,  1841)  Sir  A.  Burnes,  British 
resident,  was  killed;  Sir.  W.  Mac- 
naghten,  envoy,  was  shot  by  Ak- 
bar  (Dec.  23);  and  on  Jan.  (>, 
1842,  the  garrison  capitulated 
upon  terms  of  a  safe  escort  to 
India.  Practically  the  whole 
army  was  killed,  or  perished  of 
hunger  and  exp(jsure  during  the 


retreat,  the  only  white  man  who 
escaped  being  Dr.  Brydon. 

An  avenging  army  under  (ren- 
eral  Pollock  relieved  jelalabad 
(Ai)ril  1842),  demolished  the 
citadel  of  Kabul  (Sept.  15),  and. 
Shah  Shuja  having  been  killed, 
replaced  Dost  Mohammed  on  the 
throne.  From  that  time  his 
friendly  relations  with  Great 
Britain  were  marked  by  British 
aid  against  Persia,  and  by  his 
faithfulness  during  the  time  of 
the  mutiny.  Having  taken  He- 
rat, and  thus  consolidated  the 
whole  kingdom,  he  died  in  1863, 
and  was  succeedisd  by  his  son 
Shere  Ali. 

The  new  Emir's  reign  was 
greatly  harassed  by  a  series  of 
conflicts  with  Azim,  his  brother, 
and  Abdur-Rahman,  his  nephew, 
who  occupied  Kabul  (1866)  ;  but 
he  regained  his  throne  and  king- 
dom in  1869,  and  received  a  sub- 
sidy of  money  and  arms  from 
Britain,  and  a  recognition  of  his 
northern  boundary  by  Russia. 
Alarmed  by  the  fall  of  Khiva, 
Shere  Ali  sent  to  Simla  to  request 
an  offensive  and  defensive  alli- 
ance, with  recognition  of  his  heir- 
apparent,  and  when  the  British 
refused  his  request  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Russia  (1878).  His 
action  was  regarded  as  hostile; 
the  British  occupied  Kandahar; 
and  Shere  Ali  died  a  fugitive  from 
Kabul  (February,  1879). 

Shere  All's  son,  Yakub  Khan, 
came  into  the  British  camp  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  Gandamak 
(May  26),  by  which  a  resident 
was  to  be  admitted  at  Kabul,  the 
Khaibar  Pass  and  certain  districts 
in  Baluchistan  were  ceded  to 
Britain,  and  Afghan  foreign  rela- 
tions were  to  be  submitted  to 
British  guardianship.  In  the 
same  year,  however,  the  envoy 
(Sir  Louis  Cavagnari)  and  the 
whole  garrison  were  murdered 
(Sept.  3).  General  Roberts  occu- 
pied Kabul  (Oct.  12),  and  sent 
Yakub  Khan  to  India.  Early  in 
1880,  Abdur-Rahman,  who  had 
invaded  the  Turkestan  province, 
was  accepted  by  Lord  Ly  tton  as  a 
suitable  ruler,  and  was  pro- 
claimed Emir  (July  22);  and  the 
British  prepared  to  withdraw 
(Aug.  10),  when  news  of  the  de- 
feat of  General  Burrows  at  Mai- 
wand  by  Eyyub  Khan,  and  of 
the  siege  of  Kandahar,  arrived. 
Then  followed  Roberts'  famous 
march  to  Kandahar  (Aug.  9-31), 
and  its  relief  and  the  defeat  of 
Eyyub  Khan. 

Abdur-Rahman  regained  He- 
rat, and  was  occupied  during 
most  of  his  reign  in  putting  down 
opposition  and  disaffection.  In 
1883  his  rule  was  endowed  by  the 
British  with  an  annual  subsidy  of 
twelve  lakhs  of  rupees.  After 
the  occupation  of  Merv  by  Russia 
(1884),  it  was  found  necessary  to 
have  the  northwestern  boundary 
defined.  An  Anglo-Russian  com- 
mission was  appointed,  and  a  pro- 


VoL.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Arghanistan 

tocol  was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg 
(July  22,  1887).  The  Durand 
mission  visited  Kabul  (1893)  and 
settled  the  Anglo- Afghan  border; 
at  the  same  time  the  subsidy  was 
increased  to  sixteen  lakhs.  Ab- 
dur-Rahman  broke  the  power  of 
the  tribal  chieftains  by  maintain- 
ing a  standing  army,  and  by  skil- 
fully husbanding  the  resources  of 
his  treasury. 

HabibuUah,  his  eldest  son,  suc- 
ceeded him  (Oct.  3,  1901),  and  in 
1905  signed  a  treaty  accepting 
and  confirming  the  engagements 
entered  into  by  his  father. 
Friendly  feelings  with  the  British 
were  further  established  by  the 
Emir's  visit  to  India  in  1907.  By 
the  Anglo-Russian  Convention  of 
1907  the  political  status  quo  was 
maintained,  and  Afghanistan  de- 
clared to  be  outside  the  Russian 
sphere  of  influence.  In  1910  an 
agreement  was  reached  by  the 
governments  of  Afghanistan  and 
India  to  submit  their  disputes  to 
a  joint  commission. 

The  virtual  protectorate  estab- 
lished by  Great  Britain  in  Af- 
ghanistan was  resented  by  tribal 
chiefs  and  others  and  in  1919 
HabibuUah,  who  was  blamed  for 
the  existing  situation,  was  assassi- 
nated. His  fifth  son.  Amanullah, 
succeeded  him  as  ruler  of  the 
country.  One  of  Amanullah's 
first  acts  was  to  vow  publicly 
that  he  would  liberate  Afghanis- 
tan. Shortly  afterward  he  noti- 
fied the  Viceroy  of  India  that  he 
would  no  longer  permit  Afghan 
foreign  policy  to  be  determined 
by  the  British  Foreign  Office. 
He  attacked  the  Indian  frontier 
and  hostilities  continued  for  four 
months  before  the  signing  of 
peace  at  Rawalpindi  (1919).  In 
February,  1921,  a»  permanent 
treaty  was  signed  whereby  Great 
Britain  recognized  the  unquali- 
fied independence  of  Afghanistan. 

Three  weeks  later  Amanullah 
entered  into  friendly  treaty  rela- 
tions with  Great  Britain's  rival, 
Soviet  Russia.  In  spite  of  Brit- 
ish protests,  Russian  consulates 
were  opened  in  Afghanistan. 
Promises  of  a  Russian  subsidy 
and  of  a  trained  Russian  per- 
sonnel for  certain  Afghan  services 
were  not  carried  out.  Instead  it 
was  German  and  Turkish  tech- 
nicians who  were  actually  em- 
ployed by  Amanullah  to  improve 
Afghan  standards  in  the  army 
and  in  the  civil  administration. 

Amanullah's  enthusiasm  for 
reform  carried  him  to  Europe  on 
a  tour  of  inspection  in  1928. 
Lavishly  entertained  in  many 
capitals,  he  examined  western 
industrial  methods  and  military 
e([uipment  wherever  he  went 
with  a  view  to  their  introduction 
into  Afghanistan.  On  his  return 
to  Kabul,  however,  he  found  that 
the  reforms  he  contemplated 
would  be  vigorously  opposed  by 
the  clergy  and  all  reactionary 
elements  of  the  population.  Dis- 


89 

regarding  all  warnings,  he  vset 
actively  to  work  to  create  a  more 
efficient  government  and  to  in- 
troduce the  manners  and  dress  of 
the  west.  Insurrection  broke 
out  in  December,  1928.  In 
January  Amanullah  was  forced  to 
abdicate  in  favor  of  a  brother, 
but  the  latter  was  almost  imme- 
diately driven  out  before  the 
advance  of  a  rebel  chieftain, 
Bacha  Sakao,  who  installed  him- 
self in  the  capital  as  ruler  under 
the  name  of  Habibullah  Khan. 
An  attempt  on  the  part  of  Ama- 
nullah to  regain  his  throne  failed 
in  Mav,  1929. 

Bibliography.— G.  B.  Malle- 
son's  History  of  Afghanistan;  Con- 
stitution and  Laws  of  Afghanistan 
(ed,  by  Sultan  Mahommed  Khan, 
1910);  Holdich's  Gates  of  India; 
Lyons'  Afghanistan,  the  Buffer 
State;  G.  P.  Tate's  Kingdom  of 
Afghanistan. 

Afiu  m-Kara-Hissar,  a-fi- 
oom'-ka-ra'-his-sar',  or  Kara-His- 
sar-Sahib  (ancient  Synnada), 
town,  Turkey  in  Asia,  in  the  vila- 
yet of  Afium-Kara-Hissar.  It  is 
the  centre  of  the  opium  (afium) 
district.  A  ruined  citadel  stands 
on  a  hill  800  feet  above  the  plain. 
Pop.  25,000. 

Afra,  a  patron  saint  of  Brescia, 
who  became  a  Christian  on  wit- 
nessing the  fortitude  of  her 
brothers  when  thrown  to  the  wild 
beasts  by  Hadrian.  She  was 
martyred  in  121. 

The  name  also  belongs  to  a 
patron  saint  of  Augsburg,  con- 
verted by  the  teaching  and 
example  of  a  Spanish  priest  who 
had  taken  refuge  in  her  house 
during  the  Diocletian  persecu- 
tion. Accused  of  harboring 
Christians,  she  was  burned  at  the 
stake  in  307. 

Afragola,  a-fra-go'la,  town, 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Naples, 
4  miles  northeast  of  the  city  of 
Naples.  It  is  famous  for  its 
manufacture  of  straw  hats.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Afra'nius,  Lucius,  Roman 
comic  poet  who  flourished  about 
100  B.C.  Roman  scenes  and 
manners,  for  the  most  part  of  the 
lower  classes,  form  the  subjects  of 
his  comedies. 

Afranius,  Lucius,  Roman 
general  and  friend  of  Pompey, 
whom  he  served  in  the  Sertorian 
and  Mithridatic  Wars,  B.C.  77. 
He  was  elected  consul  in  B.C.  60, 
and  when  Pompey  obtained  the 
provinces  of  the  two  Spains  in 
B.C.  55  he  sent  Afranius  and 
Petreius  to  govern  them.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  hostilities  be- 
tween Caesar  and  Pompey,  Petre- 
ius and  Afranius,  after  a  short 
campaign,  were  compelled  to  sur- 
render at  IMerda,  B.C.  49.  Afra- 
nius was  present  at  tlu'  Battle  of 
Pharsalia;  and  on  the  defeat  of 
Pompey  at  Rliapsus  he  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Sittius,  and  was 
slain  (B.C.  46). 

Africa,  a  continent  of  the 


Africa 

Eastern  Hemisphere,  forming  the 
southernmost  prolongation  of  the 
Old  World,  and  a  southwest  ex- 
tension of  Asia.  The  greater  bulk 
of  its  compact  mass  lies  between 
the  tropics;  the  Equator  crosses  it 
almost  halfway  between  north 
and  south.  The  distance  from 
north  to  south  is  5,000  miles,  and 
from  west  to  east  (Cape  Verde  to 
Ras  Hafun,  south  of  Cape  Guard- 
afui)  4,650  miles.  Its  shape 
roughly  resembles  that  of  a  pear, 
bulging  out  in  the  north  and  ta- 
pering to  the  south,  so  that  its 
breadth  at  10°  s.  is  only  about 
1,800  miles.  Total  area,  11, 513,- 
000  square  miles. 

In  the  northeast,  Africa  is  sep- 
arated from  Asia  by  the  Gulf  of 
Aden  and  the  Red  Sea,  between 
which  it  is  almost  joined  to  Asia 
at  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb 
(14  miles  wide).  In  the  north  it 
is  actually  continuous  with  Asia 
at  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  (75  miles 
wide),  across  which  the  Suez  Ca- 
nal has  been  cut.  The  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  separates  Africa  from 
Europe  in  the  north,  but  the  two 
continents  approach  to  within  9 
miles  of  each  other  at  the  Strait 
of  Gibraltar.  Africa  is  bounded 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the 
west,  and  by  the  Indian  Ocean  on 
the  east.  The  coast  line,  disre- 
garding minor  indentations,  is 
19,000  miles.  There  are  no  true 
peninsulas  of  any  size  in  Africa, 
and  the  islands — which  are  all 
small,  with  the  exception  of  Mad- 
agascar— form  but  two  per  cent, 
of  the  total  area. 

Physical  Features. — Africa  is 
a  massive  platform  rising  out  of 
deep  seas.  The  continental  ledge 
or  shelf  is  everywhere  narrow.  It 
is  most  marked  in  the  south, 
where  it  forms  the  triangular 
Agulhas  bank.  The  lowlands 
under  660  feet  above  the  sea  are 
also  narrow,  and  represent  only 
about  15  per  cent,  of  the  surface. 
Only  2 per  cent,  of  Africa  is  over 
6,600  feet,  and  this  is  mostly  in 
Abyssinia  and  the  Atlas  region. 
The  average  elevation  of  the 
continent  is  2,130  feet. 

Except  for  the  folded  chain  of 
(1)  the  Atlas,  which  is  sharply 
distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the 
continent,  the  natural  divisions 
are  not  well  marked.  A  line  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Nile  to  that  of 
the  Zambezi  separates  (2)  East 
Africa  from  the  rest  of  the  table- 
land, which  may  be  subdivided 
into  (3)  the  Northern  Plateau, 
north  of  5°  N.;  (4)  the  Central 
Plateau,  or  Congo  Basin;  and  (5) 
the  Southern  Plateau  south  of 
10°  s.  The  (6)  Eastern  Islands 
and  (7)  the  Western  Islands  must 
also  be  considered  as  separate 
natural  divisions. 

The  Atlas  Mountains  (cj.v.), 
which  lie  to  the  north  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  Wadi  Draa  to  the 
Gulf  of  (iabes,  are  a  continuation 
of  the  folded  mountain  system  of 
Southern  Europe. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Africa 


90 


Africa 


The  Northern  Plateau  has  an 
area  of  between  4,000,000  and  5,- 
000,000  square  miles,  and  an  aver- 
age elevation  of  1,500  feet.  The 
lowlands  are  in  the  west  and 
north.  The  band  of  Tarso  (Ti- 
besti  highlands),  rising  from 
6,000  to  8,000  feet  high,  crosses 


the  Central  Plateau  formerly  oc- 
cupied by  a  great  lake.  This  de- 
pression is  almost  circular  in 
shape,  and  the  river  forces  its 
way  to  the  west  by  a  series  of 
rapids  to  a  great  estuary. 

East  Africa  is  bounded  on  the 
west  by  the  Nile  and  the  great 


Africa — Contours 


this  region  diagonally  from  north- 
west to  southeast,  and  the  Upper 
Guinea  Plateau  bounds  it  in  the 
south.  The  north  and  centre  of 
this  region  form  the  Sahara,  a 
land  of  barren,  stony  plateaus 
and  shifting  sand  dunes,  crossed 
by  a  few  dry  valleys.  In  the 
south  the  land  becomes  less  arid, 
and  the  Niger  and  its  tributary, 
the  Benue,  flow  across  it  to  the 
(lulf  of  Guinea,  the  vShari  to  Lake 
Chad,  and  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  to 
the  Nile. 

The  Congo  Basin  is  a  hollow  in 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


lakes — Albert  Nyanza.  Edward 
Nyanza,  Tanganyika,  and  Nyasa. 
It  is  characterized  by  two  lines 
of  rift  valleys — the  west,  that 
of  the  lakes  just  mentioned; 
and  the  east,  that  passing  from 
the  north  of  Nyasa,  by  Lakes 
Naivasha,  Rudolf,  and  Margher- 
ita,  to  the  south  and  east  escarp- 
ments of  Abyssinia.  Much  of 
the  plateau  south  of  Abyssinia 
lies  about  4,000  feet  above  the 
Indian  Ocean,  to  which  it  de- 
scends by  a  series  of  terraces. 
The  lowest  terrace  forms  the  low 


coastal  plain,  which  is  narrow  in 
most  places. 

Between  the  two  rifts  the  Vic- 
toria Nyanza  fills  the  lowest  ba- 
sin, and  in  the  east  the  land  rises 
to  an  average  height  of  7,000  feet 
in  the  Nandi  plateau.  Near  the 
west  rift  active  volcanoes,  such  as 
Mount  Kirunga,  are  found  near 
Lake  Kivu,  between  Lakes  Tan- 
ganyika and  Edward  Nyanza. 
Farther  north  is  the  great  igneous 
mass  of  Ruwenzori  (estimated  at 
19,000  feet).  This  and  the  ex- 
tinct volcanic  peaks  of  Kilima- 
Njaro  (19,720  feet)  and  Kenya 
(17,200  feet),  which  rise  near  the 
east  rift,  are  the  culminating 
points  of  Africa. 

Abyssinia  is  also  mainly  com- 
posed of  young  volcanic  accumu- 
lations, rising  in  Ras  Dashan  to 
15,000  feet.  Here  Jurassic  rock 
is  found  beneath  the  loose  vol- 
canic deposits,  in  which  the  rivers 
have  excavated  gorges  some  thou- 
sand feet  deep.  In  the  heart  of 
the  plateau  is  Lake  Tsana  or 
Dembea,  the  source  of  the  Blue 
Nile.  A  depression,  probably  an 
old  Nile  course,  runs  from  the 
first  turn  of  the  great  south  bend 
of  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea,  and 
the  towns  of  Berber  and  Suakin 
have  arisen  at  its  extremities. 

The  South  African  Plateau  has 
also  a  high  average  elevation,  be- 
tween 3,000  and  4,000  feet;  but 
no  great  heights  rise  above  it,  ex- 
cept in  the  southeast,  where  the 
massive  tables  of  the  Drakenberg 
or  Kwathlamba  Mountains  reach 
over  11,000  feet.  This  plateau  is 
divided  into  four  regions,  each 
over  4,000  feet,  by  the  valleys  of 
the  Zambezi,  Limpopo,  and  Or- 
ange— the  Congo-Zambezi  Pla- 
teau in  the  north,  the  Matabele 
Plateau  in  the  east,  the  High 
Veldt  in  the  southeast,  and  the 
Damara  Plateau  in  the  west. 
Across  these  most  of  the  rivers 
flow  in  gorges,  and  the  undulating 
landscape  is  diversified  by  flat- 
topped  hills  (the  tables  or  mesas 
locally  known  as  kopjes),  which 
are  often  steep-sided.  The  de- 
scent to  the  coast  is  by  a  series  of 
terraces,  those  in  the  east  being 
cut  up  into  more  rounded  hilly 
regions,  which  gradually  sink  to 
the  sea  line.  In  the  south,  the 
terrace  flats  widen,  and  form  the 
Great  and  Little  Karroos. 

In  its  geological  constitution, 
Africa  presents  the  appearance  of 
great  stability  and  antiquity. 
Unlike  those  of  other  continents, 
the  seaboard  is  subject  to  scarcely 
any  movements  of  upheaval  or 
subsidence,  except  on  the  north- 
east coast  between  the  Nile  delta 
and  the  Gulf  of  Sidra  (an  area  of 
subsidence),  and  parts  of  the 
Moroccan  and  Red  Sea  coasts 
(areas  of  upheaval).  Earth- 
quakes are  confined  mainly  to  the 
Atlas  region. 

Coastal  Belt  and  Islands. — The 
coast  line  is  very  regular.  The 
northwest  coast  is  steep  from  the 


Africa 

d  on  the 

ic  regions 
Mediter- 
outhwest 
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arm,  dry 
orth  and 
mnd  the 
rain  falls, 
iperature 
le  North 
3  usually 
South  Sa- 
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The  sub- 
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tempera- 
idequate 
t  of  sum- 
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le  year 
ximum 
at  the 
Congo 
ist,  the 
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■rature 
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river, 
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Africa 


91 


Africa 


Wadi  Draa  to  Cape  Bon,  and 
from  the  Barka  Peninsula  to  the 
Nile.  Between  the  Atlas  and 
Barka  a  low  coast  curves  south, 
and  forms  the  Gulf  of  Gabes  in 
the  west,  and  the  Gulf  ot  Sidra  in 
the  east.  The  east  coast  along 
the  Red  Sea,  and  to  beyond  Cape 
Guardafui,  is  straight,  regular, 
and  steep.  The  island  of  Sokotra 
is  an  outlier  of  the  Somali  Penin- 
sula, which  protrudes  eastward 
south  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden  like  a 
horn,  and  is  bordered  on  the  east 
by  a  low  plain. 

From  the  Equator  to  Delagoa 
Bay  the  coastal  plain  is  narrow, 
with  hills  which  here  and  there 
approach  the  sea.  Off  this  coast 
lie  the  little  islands  of  Pemba, 
Zanzibar,  and  Mafia;  and  south  of 


of  Biafra.  The  North  Guinea 
coast,  trending  east  and  west,  is 
known  by  various  names — e.g., 
the  Slave  Coast  (immediately 
west  of  the  Niger  delta) ,  the  Gold 
Coast,  the  Ivory  Coast,  the  Grain 
or  Pepper  Coast,  each  succeeding 
the  other  to  the  west.  Off  Cape 
Verde  lie  the  Cape  Verde  Islands, 
and  off  the  northwest  the  Canary 
and  Madeira  groups. 

Climate.  —  Three-fourths  of 
Africa  lies  between  the  tropics, 
and  here  the  days  are  of  nearly 
uniform  length,  with  almost 
twelve  hours  of  Hght  every  day. 
At  sea  level  the  mean  tempera- 
ture of  the  coldest  month  is  over 
70°  F.,  except  near  the  extremities 
of  the  continent,  where  it  falls  to 
55°  F.    Around  the  tropics  the 


tor,  and  from  80  upward  on  the 
Guinea  coast. 

There  are  nine  climatic  regions 
in  Africa:  (1,  2)  The  Mediter- 
ranean and  extreme  southwest 
regions,  with  mild  winters  (during 
which  rain  falls)  and  warm,  dry 
summers.  (3,  4)  The  north  and 
south  desert  regions,  round  the 
two  tropics,  where  little  rain  falls, 
and  the  extremes  of  temperature 
are  considerable.  In  the  North 
Sahara  the  rain  showers  usually 
come  in  winter;  in  the  South  Sa- 
hara and  Kalahari  they  usually 
occur  in  summer.  (5,  6)  The  sub- 
tropical regions  of  summer  rains, 
with  a  smaller  range  of  tempera- 
ture, and  a  short  but  adequate 
rainy  season  at  the  height  of  sum- 
mer.   (7)  The  equatorial  regions, 


A frica — Climate. 


these  is  the  island  of  Madagascar, 
which  is  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  the  Strait  of  Mozam- 
bique, having  the  Comoro  Islands 
in  the  north.  The  coast  is  regular 
south  of  Delagoa  Bay,  both  round 
the  south  coast  and  north  along 
the  west  coast  as  far  as  the  mouth 
of  the  Orange.  The  rest  of  the 
west  coast  is  bordered  by  sandy 
shores,  except  at  the  head  of  the 
Bight  of  Biafra  and  in  some  parts 
of  the  North  Guinea  coast. 

The  Gulf  of  Guinea  is  formed 
where  the  west  coast  changes 
from  a  north-and-south  to  an 
east-and-west  direction,  and  is 
divided  by  the  Niger  delta  into 
two  bays— the  Bight  of  Biafra  in 
the  east,  and  the  Bight  of  Benin 
in  the  west.  A  line  of  volcanic 
islands,  including  Fernando  Po, 
Prince's  Island,  St.  Thomas,  and 
Annobon,  rises  above  the  Bight 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '16 


daily  and  seasonal  ranges  of  tem- 
perature are  great — over  30°  f. be- 
tween the  warmest  and  coldest 
month;  but  in  equatorial  regions, 
and  toward  the  north  and  south 
of  the  continent,  where  it  is  bor- 
dered by  seas,  the  range  is  small. 
A  narrow  strip  of  the  southwest 
coast  is  kept  cool  at  all  seasons  by 
an  upwelling  of  cold  water  along 
the  coast  and  by  low  fogs.  At  the 
equinoxes  a  belt  of  rising  air  and 
heavy  rains  is  found  near  the 
Equator,  and  this  moves  north 
and  south  with  the  zenithal  sun; 
so  that  around  the  Equator  there 
are  two  rainy  seasons,  and  in 
some  regions  almost  constant 
rains,  while  at  the  tropics  there 
are  one  wet  and  one  dry  season. 
The  mean  annual  rainfall  ranges 
from  under  4  inches  in  the  Sahara 
and  about  10  in  the  Kalahari,  to 
60  and  80  inches  about  the  Equa- 


hot  and  wet  nearly  all  the  year 
round,  but  with  the  maximum 
rainfall  when  the  sun  is  at  the 
zenith.  These  include  the  Congo 
Basin  and  the  Guinea  Coast,  the 
east  coast  of  the  mainland  from 
the  Equator  to  the  Tropic  of  Cap- 
ricorn, and  the  east  coast  of  Mad- 
agascar. (8)  The  higher  land  sur- 
rounding these  regions  forms  the 
high  plateau  regions.  Owing  to 
their  elevation  the  temperature 
is  lower  and  the  rainfall  less,  and, 
except  on  the  great  lake  plateau, 
there  is  only  one  rainy  season  in 
summer.  (1))  The  high  mountain 
region,  above  5,000  feet. 

Hydrography.  —  Each  climatic 
region  has  its  own  type  of  river, 
and  most  African  rivers,  where 
they  leave  the  plateau,  have  their 
courses  impeded  by  cataracts. 
The  Zambezi  and  Limpopo,  with 
the  Rovuma,  Juba,  and  a  few 


Africa 


Africa 


other  coast  streams,  flow  to  the 
Indian  Ocean;  the  Nile,  Niger, 
Congo,  Orange,  Senegal,  together 
with  the  Cunene,  Coanza,  Ogo- 
wai,  Volta,  and  Gambia,  flow  to 
the  Atlantic,  either  directly  or 
through  the  Mediterranean. 
Nearly  all  are  still  entangled  in 
the  intricacies  of  the  interior, 
hence  are  obstructed  either  along 
their  middle  or  lower  courses  by 
formidable  falls  and  rapids,  such 
as  the  stupendous  Victoria  Falls 
on  the  Zambezi;  the  Yellala  and 
Isangila  on  the  Lower,  and  Stan- 
ley on  the  Middle  Congo;  the  so- 
called  'Six  Cataracts,'  the  Ripon, 
Murchison,  and  many  others,  all 
along  the  Nile  above  Egypt;  the 
'Hundred  Falls'  of  the  Middle  Or- 
ange. Freest  from  these  impedi- 
ments are  both  the  Niger  and  its 
great  eastern  affluent  the  Benue, 
which  latter  affords  a  clear  navi- 
gable highway  into  the  very  heart 
of  the  Sudan. 

The  rivers  of  the  equatorial 
rainy  regions  are  constantly  sup- 
plied with  water,  and  where  they 
flow  through  flat  ground  they 
spread  out  into  numerous  chan- 
nels or  loops,  so  that  the  limits 
between  water  and  land  are  indef- 
inite. The  Zambezi  and  the  Niger 
reach  the  sea  across  great  deltas 
fringed  with  mangrove  swamps. 
The  East  African  rivers  receive 
most  rain  in  summer.  The  Or- 
ange (which  flows  in  a  deep  gorge, 
with  many  rapids  in  its  course) 
and  the  Senegal  have  their  sources 
in  coastal  lands,  with  summer 
rains;  but  in  their  lower  courses 
they  flow  through  arid  regions, 
where  their  volume  steadily  di- 
minishes. The  deserts  are  inter- 
sected by  numerous  wadis,  filled 
only  after  heavy  rains.  The  Nile 
crosses  all  the  climatic  zones,  and 
consequently  is  an  epitome  of  Af- 
rican rivers.  It  rises  about  50°  s. 
lat.,  and  flows  north  to  the  Medi- 
terranean for  some  3,700  miles — 
a  course  next  in  length  to  that  of 
the  Missouri  -  Mississippi,  the 
longest  in  the  world.  The  Congo 
ranks  next  to  the  Amazon  for  vol- 
ume, discharging  probably  as 
much  water  as  all  the  other  Af- 
rican rivers  together. 

Africa  possesses  a  magnificent 
equatorial  lake  system,  elsewhere 
unrivalled  except  by  the  Great 
Lakes  of  North  America.  They 
are  grouped  toward  the  east  side 
of  the  continent,  between  15°  s. 
and  4°  N.  lat.,  and  all  stand  on  the 
south  tableland,  draining  seaward 
through  the  Zambezi  (Nyasa,  with 
outflow  vShire),  the  Congo  (Tan- 
ganyika, with  intermittent  out- 
flow Lukuja),  and  the  Nile  (Ed- 
ward Nyanza,  Victoria  Nyanza, 
and  Albert  Nyanza).  The  Vic- 
toria, queen  of  African  lakes,  is 
next  to  vSuperior  (31,200  square 
miles)  the  largest  fresh- water  ba- 
sin (30,000  s(iuare  miles)  on  the 
globe.  Scattered  over  the  con- 
tinent are  several  other  lacustrine 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


basins,  varying  greatly  in  size, 
which  have  no  seaward  outflow, 
but  form  isolated  centres  of  in- 
land drainage.  The  most  exten- 
sive of  these  are  Lakes  Chad 
(Tsad)  and  Ngami. 

Minerals. — Gold,  mined  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians  at  Mount  El- 
ba, Red  Sea  coast,  occurs  also  in 
many  other  places,  as  in  Upper 
Guinea,  the  Lower  Zambezi,  and 
Transvaal;  and  gold  dust  has  at 
all  times  formed  a  chief  article  of 
export.  But  iron  and  copper  are 
the  characteristic  metals,  ferru- 
ginous ores  abounding  almost 
everywhere,  and  copper  in  Nam- 


aqualand,  the  Congo  Basin,  Dar- 
Fertit,  and  many  other  places. 
The  basin  of  the  Vaal  is  one  of  the 
richest  diamond-bearing  regions 
on  the  globe. 

Flora. — The  regions  with  win- 
ter rains  are  characterized  by 
heaths  and  other  dry,  scrubby 
plants;  water-storing  species,  like 
mesembryanthemum ;  and  thick- 
skinned  plants,  such  as  the  agave. 
The  deserts  have  a  very  poor 
flora,  of  even  more  spiny,  leath- 
ery, or  water-storing  plants  than 
the  above.  The  most  important 
grass  lands  are  the  savannas, 
which  are  continuous  from  the 
Upper  Niger  across  the  Sudan  by 


the  Eastern  and  the  Matabili 
Plateaus;  and  the  High  Veldt,  a 
branch  running  westward  along 
the  Congo-Zambezi  divide.  Flat- 
topped  trees  are  dotted  about  the 
savannas,  and  form  continuous 
woods  along  the  river  courses. 
The  wet  jungles  of  the  equatorial 
forests  cover  the  coastal  plain  of 
Upper  Guinea,  the  lower  part  of 
the  Congo  Basin,  and  the  east  of 
Madagascar;  they  are  character- 
ized by  the  number  of  palms. 

In  North  Africa  are  found  the 
olive,  date,  fig,  and  cork,  several 
varieties  of  oak,  and  the  eucalyp- 
tus, introduced  from  Australia. 


The  graminaceae  are  predomi- 
nant, and  vast  tracts  in  Algeria 
and  Tunis  are  covered  with  es- 
parto grass,  largely  exported  to 
England  for  paper  making.  The 
papyrus  still  fingers  in  the  Upper 
Nile,  although  in  the  Lower  Nile 
the  lotus  and  other  characteristic 
plants  have  been  largely  replaced 
by  cereals,  cotton,  tobacco,  and 
other  economic  species.  South  of 
Egypt,  the  date  gives  place  to  the 
doom  and  deleb  palms,  wheat  and 
rice  to  durra;  in  the  forest  regions 
of  the  Sudan  and  Guinea  the  pre- 
vailing species  are  the  baobab, 
banana,  butter  tree,  ebony,  Elceis 
guineensis  or  oil  palm,  which 


O  O  Diamonds.     *  *  Gold.     °  °  Silver.     +  +  Iron.      »  Coal.  I 
Africa — Principal  Mining  Districts. 


POLITICAL 

English  MCles 


20  longiaidc  Wrjrt  10  /Vom  Gretnwith  O  Lorufituda  £a 


Africa 


91  B 


Africa 


yields  the  palm  oil  of  commerce, 
bamboo  palm,  mangrove,  acacias, 
mimosas,  and  other  gum  trees; 
and  in  Galla  and  Somaliland  are 
found  aromatic  shrubs  and  the 
coffee  shrub.  Indigenous  to  Af- 
rica is  also  the  cotton  plant, 
which,  like  indigo,  is  widely  cul- 
tivated in  Egypt,  the  Sudan,  and 
Nigeria,  and  which  grows  wild  in 
many  places  as  far  north  as  19° 
N.  lat.  But  of  all  African  floras, 
the  richest  and  most  diversified 
is  that  of  the  Cape  region  south 
from  the  Orange  River.  It  con- 
sists chiefly  of  grasses,  shrubs, 
bushes,  and  lovely  ferns  and 
heathers  in  greater  variety  than 
in  the  richest  European  lands. 

Fauna. —  The  savannas  are 
very  rich  in  animal  life,  the  most 
numerous  and  characteristic  be- 


bique  to  Sennaar,  fatal  to  the 
horse,  camel,  ox,  and  dog;  and 
the  donderobo,  south  of  Kilima- 
Njaro,  which  attacks  the  ass, 
goat,  and  sheep. 

The  wet  jungles  are  character- 
ized by  their  comparative  pov- 
erty in  mammals,  and  their 
wealth  of  bird  and  insect  life. 
The  gorilla,  chimpanzee,  and 
other  monkeys,  the  hippopota- 
mus and  elephant,  are  among 
the  most  important  mammals. 
Madagascar  has  no  large-sized 
mammals,  but  the  lemur  and 
the  aye-aye  '  are  among  the 
characteristic  ones.  It  is  rich 
in  birds  and  insects. 

Peoples. —  The  population  of 
Africa  is  estimated  at  180.000,- 
000  (1915),  or  nearly  16  inhab- 
itants per  square  mile.  These 


are  intruders  from  Asia,  some  in 
remote  or  prehistoric  times 
(3,000,000  Himyars  in  Abyssinia 
and  Harar  from  South  Arabia), 
some  since  the  spread  of  Islam 
(over  30,000,000  nomad  and 
other  Arabs,  chiefly  along  the 
Mediterranean  seaboard,  in  West 
Sahara,  and  Central  and  East 
Sudan).  All  the  rest  may  be 
regarded  as  the  true  aboriginal 
elements,  which  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  two  great  physical 
and  linguistic  groups — Hamites 
in  the  north,  Negroes  in  the 
south,  meeting  and  intermin- 
gling in  the  intermediate  region 
of  Sudan. 

The  Hamites — that  is,  the  Af- 
rican branch  of  the  Caucasic 
family — in  physical  type  are 
essentially  Mediterranean,  often 


Africa — Native  Races. 


Africa — Capacity  for  White  Colonization. 


ing  antelopes.  On  the  borders  of 
the  forest,  lions,  elephants,  buffa- 
loes, leopards,  hyenas,  and  gi- 
raffes are  still  found;  but  ele- 
phants and  most  other  big  game 
are  becoming  scarce,  owing  to 
indiscriminate  shooting  by  hunt- 
ers. The  double-horned  rhi- 
noceros is  abundant  on  some  of 
the  grassy  plateaus,  while  the 
hippopotamus  and  crocodile  are 
found  in  the  rivers. 

Among  the  birds,  besides  the 
ostrich,  are  the  ibis,  pelican,  sec- 
retary bird,  parrot,  and  guinea 
fowl.  Reptiles  and  insects 
abound,  comprising  the  huge 
python,  many  poisonous  snakes, 
termites,  locusts,  and  two  little 
winged  pests  highly  destructive 
to  domestic  animals — the  tsetse 
fly,  which  ranges  from  Mozam- 
VOL.  I— Oct.  '20 


are  distributed  very  unevenly 
over  the  surface,  being  massed 
somewhat  densely  in  the  Nile 
delta,  in  the  Upper  Nile  valley, 
and  generally  throughout  the 
Sudan;  less  thickly  over  the 
southern  plateau,  and  very 
thinly  on  the  northern  and 
western  coast;  while  large  tracts, 
especially  in  the  West  Sahara, 
the  Libyan  and  Kalahari  wastes, 
are  uninhabited. 

Of  the  whole  number,  prob- 
ably much  less  than  2,000,000  are 
white  immigrants  from  Europe, 
settled  chiefly  in  the  extreme 
north  (Egypt,  Tripolitania,  and 
French  West  Africa)  and  the 
extreme  south  (South  African 
Republic,  Rhodesia,  and  the 
former  German  colonies) .  About 
34,000,000,    of    Semitic  stock. 


characterized  by  extremely  regu- 
lar features,  and  in  places  even 
by  blue  eyes  and  fair  complexion 
(Aures  uplands,  Algeria).  The 
Negroes  include,  in  addition  to 
the  true  negroes,  the  diverse 
races  of  the  Congo-Nile  divide — 
those  who  speak  the  Bantu 
languages — the  aberrant  Hotten- 
tots of  the  extreme  southwest, 
and  a  number  of  dwarf  races, 
such  as  the  Bushmen  of  the 
Kalahari  steppe,  the  Obongos  of 
the  Gabun,  the  Akkas  (q.  v.) 
south  of  Monbuttuland,  and  the 
diminutive  Batwas  in  the  Middle 
Congo  basin. 

In  its  inhabitants,  as  well  as 
its  natural  history,  Madagascar 
forms  a  region  apart  (see  Mad- 
agascar). 

Languages.  —  Various  classi- 


Africa 


92 


Africa 


fications  of  the  African  language 
have  been  proposed.  Proceeding 
on  the  pasis  of  racial  difference, 
five  main  classes  are  distin- 
guished: (1)  Semitic,  the 
tongues  spoken  by  the  Arabs 
and  certai^  Abyssinian  tribes, 
and  introatJteed  into  the  con- 
tinent by  invaders  or  immi- 
grants. (2)  Hamitic,  including 
Libyan  and  various  Abyssinian 
dialects,  together  with  those  spo- 
ken by  the  Gallas  and  the  So- 
malis.  This  language  bears  no 
distinct  relation  to  any  other 
Caucasic  form  of  speech,  beyond 
a  certain  faint  resem^^lance  to  the 
Semitic  sufficient  to  suggest  a 
possible  primeval  Semitico-Ham- 
itic  organic  tongue.  (3)  Negro, 
a  bewildering  variety  of  dialects 
spoken  mainly  in  the  Bilad-es- 
Sudan,  or  'Land  of  the  Blacks.' 
(4)  Bantu,  spoken  by  all  the  black 
races  south  of  a  line  running 
roughly  eastward  from  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  Of  this 
group  the  Zulu  is  the  most  per-^ 
feet  type.  (5)  Hottentot-Bushman, 
spoken  by  the  Hottentots  and 
Bushmen,  whose  precise  relation- 
ship is  as  yet  in  doubt.  This  lan- 
guage is  distinguished  by  unpro- 
nounceable sounds  kryDwn  as 
'clicks,'  said  by  some  to  form  a 
sort  of  connecting  link  between 
articulate  and  inarticulate  speech. 
The  dwarf  tribes  still  retain  their 
own  languages,  and  the  natives 
of  Madagascar  employ  the  Mala- 
gasy language,  which  is  related  to 
that  of  Malay, 

Racial  Movements. — In  the 
south,  Bushmen  and  Hottentots 
foriherly  roamed  over  'a  much 
wider  area  than  at  present,  but 
have  been  driven  toward  the 
more  barren  southwest  by  ad- 
vancing Bantus,  who  are  more 
or  less  pastoral  peoples,  some 
with  a  powerful  military  or- 
ganization. The  most  remark- 
able of  these  Bantus  are  the 
Zulus,  who  devastated  much  of 
Eastern  South  Africa  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  and  from 
whom  the  Matabili  and  Marotse 
warriors  have  sprung.  The 
Arabs  have  expanded  steadily 
for  the  last  thousand  years,  and 
their  traders  and  slave  traders 
penetrate  as  far  south  as  the 
Tropic  of  Capricorn.  Mediterra- 
nean Africa  has  witnessed  Egyp- 
tian, PhcEnician,  Grecian,  and 
Roman  civilization.  Central 
and  South  Africa  are  isolated 
from  Mediterranean  culture  by 
the  Sahara  and  the  sea. 

The  Portuguese  navigators  of 
the  fifteenth  century  made 
known  the  central  and  south 
coasts  to  Europe;  the  Dutch 
were  the  first  to  settle  in  the 
temperate  lands  of  the  south. 
Hither,  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, came  refugee  Huguenots, 
and  the  resulting  mixed  race 
gradually  spread  over  the  south- 
ern terraces  and  the  High  Veldt. 
Vol.  I— Oct.  '20 


In  the  Sast  of  these  terraces,  and 
in  Natal,  British  and  Germans 
settled  in  some  numbers,  es- 
pecially in  the  middle  third  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Indian  coolies 
have  been  brought  as  laborers 
to  Natal,  as  Malays  were  for- 
merly brought  to  the  Cape,  and 
Chinese  were  imported  for  the 
gold  fields.  Italians,  Spanish, 
and  French  h'ave  settled  on  the 
African  shores  opposite  their 
own  lands. 

EconorrHc  Conditions. — The 
majority  of  native  Africans  live 
by  hunting  and  by  superficial 
cultivation  of  the  soil  or  pastoral 
pursuits.  Speaking  generally, 
the  Northern  Hamites  and  Sem- 
ites are  stock  breeders,  and 'the 
Southern  Bantus  agriculturists; 
these  two  factors  intermingling 
in  the  intervening  zone  of  Sudan. 
Hottentots,  however,  are  mainly 
cattle  breeders ;  and  the  Algerian 
Berbers  prefer  tillage  to  pastur- 
age. 

The  economic  possibilities  of 
Africa  are  great.  In  the  south 
and  northwest,  in  the  Nile  valley 
and  Abyssinia,  agriculture  flour- 
ishes, and  tropical  plantations 
are  being  extended  in  the  Euro- 
pean possessions  of  West  and 
East  Africa  and  Madagascar. 
The  warm,  moist  regions  produce 
abundantly  all  kinds  of  tropical 
products;  but  the  steamy  heat, 
though  favorable  to  vegetation, 
is  unhealthful  even  for  the  native 
negro.  On  the  lands  between 
the  tropics  over  4,000  feet  above 
the  sea  Europeans  can  hve  and 
maintain  a  fairly  healthful  exist- 
ence with  care;  and  although 
neither  temperature  nor  rainfall 
is  so  high  as  in  the  lowlands,  the 
savannas  might  be  made  to  yield 
rich  crops,  as  has  been  proved  in 
Nyasaland.  The  desert  regions 
are  healthful,  and  are  fertile 
where  water  can  be  obtained 
either  by  storage  or  from  artesian 
wells.  The  labor  problem  is  one 
of  the  chief  difficulties  in  opening 
up  Africa.  Agriculture  is,  in 
most  tribes,  a  woman's  occupa- 
tion, and  to  be  compelled  to  en- 
gage in  it  is  an  affront  to  the 
dignity  of  the  men,  whose  tra- 
ditional occupations  are  hunting 
and  fighting. 

The  mineral  wealth  is  in  parts 
most  important.  Iron  is  worked 
by  many  native  tribes;  gold  and 
diamonds  have  attracted  Euro- 
peans to  South  Africa,  and  are 
also  found  along  the  Gold  Coast 
and  elsewhere.  Mining  is  to  the 
natives,  however,  even  less  at- 
tractive than  agriculture. 

Religion. — Fully  one-half  of 
the  continent  has  accepted  the 
tenets  of  Mohammedanism, 
which  on  the  whole  have  had  a 
beneficent  influence  on  the  Negro. 
Elsewhere,  progress  is  barred 
by  all-prevailing  fetishism,  inti- 
mately associated  with  the  bane- 
ful practice  of  witchcraft.  Chris- 


tianity, introduced  at  various 
points  of  the  periphery,  has  made 
progress,  especially  among  Basu- 
tos  and  other  Southern  Bantus. 

Communications. — In  addition 
to  the  telegraph  lines  and  rail- 
ways extending  throughout  the 
more  settled  divisions  of  Africa, 
a  telegraph  line  to  stretch  over- 
land from  Cape  Town  to  Cairo 
was  begun  by  the  late  Cecil 
Rhodes  in  1893. 

The  project  for  a  Cape  ta  Cairo 
Railway  running  as  far  as  possi- 
ble through  British  territory,  and 
serving  as  a  link  to  bind  together 
the  various  sectfons  of  British  Af- 
rica, was  <also  due  to  Cecil 
Rhodes.  The  direct  distance  is 
about  5,700  miles.  From  Cairo 
the  railhead  has  been  carried 
southward  (except  for  the  river 
gap  between  Assuan  and  Wady 
Haifa)  to  Sennaar,  on  the  Blue 
Nile,  1,500  miles  south  of  Cairo. 
From  Cape  Town  the  line  has 
been  carried  north  as  far  as 
Broken  Hill,  on  the  southern 
border  of  the  Belgian  Congo,  and 
from  there  linked  up  with  the 
Congo  railways  to  Elizabethville, 
2,300  miles  from  Cape  Town. 
(See  Cape  to  Cairo  Railway.) 

Railways  into  the  interior  of 
the  continent  have  been  con- 
structed in  all  the  British  posses- 
sions, as  well  as  in  the  French 
and  German  territories. 

Exploration. — Although  the 
Nile  Valley  was  the  earliest  seat 
of  human  culture,  Africa  is  still 
the  least  known  division  of  the 
globe.  Neither  Greeks  nor  Ro- 
mans extended  their  knowledge 
much  beyond  the  northern  verge 
of  the  Sahara.  Little  was  known 
of  the  seaboard  till  the  four- 
teenth century  a.d.,  when  the 
Dieppe  mariners  claim  to  have 
founded  'Little  Dieppe'  on  the 
Guinea  coast  (1364),  and  col- 
onized the  Canaf^s  under  Jean 
de  Bethencourti  and  when 
Italian  navigators  coasted  the 
northwest  side  as  far  as  Bojador. 
General  knowledge  of  the  periph- 
ery was  nearly  completed  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  next  cen- 
tury, when  Vasco  de  Gama 
doubled  the  Cape  and  skirted 
the  eastern  coast  north  to  Maga- 
dosho  in  2°  N.  lat.  (1497-8).  But 
before  this,  the  spread  of  Islam 
converted  the  greater  part  of  the 
northern  plains  into  an  Arab  do- 
main, which  was  revealed  to 
science  by  the  Arab  writers  of  the 
next  ensuing  centuries.  Then  fol- 
lowed 300  years  of  comparative 
inactivity,  noted  chiefly  by  the 
occupation  of  various  points  on 
the  coast  by  the  Portuguese, 
Dutch,  and  English. 

The  modern  epoch  of  geo- 
graphical research,  apart  from 
political  or  commercial  consid- 
erations, begins  properly  with 
James  Bruce,  who  discovered  the 
Abai  source  of  the  Blue  Nile  in 
1770,  and  whose  adventures  in 


Africa 


Africa 


Abyssinia  stimulated  the  foun- 
dation of  the  African  Association 
(1788).  which  before  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century  had  al- 
ready sent  out  Ledyard,  Lucas, 
Houghton,  and  Mungo  Park  to 
explore  the  Niger  basin.  In 
1802-5,  Lichtenstein  travelled 
in  the  district  north  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  In  1809  ^urck- 
hardt  was  sent  ouf  by  the  Afri- 
can Society,  and  his  explora- 
tions, rich  in  manifold  results, 
occupied  the  years  1812—16.  The 
labors  of  Oudney,  Clapperton, 
Denham,  and  Lander,  in  the  Sa- 
hara and  Sudan,  are  memorable 
by  the  discovery  of.  Lake  Chad 
and  the  course  of  the  Niger. 

From  1843  to  1873  David  Liv- 
ingstone (q.  V.)  was  engaged  in 
trying  to  open  !he  countries 
north  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
He  penetrated  (1849)  as  far  as 
Lake  Ngami,  in  20°  s.  lat.;  and 
in  1853,  ascending  the  Zambezi 
for  several  hundred  miles,  suc- 
ceeded in  crossing  the  continent 
to  Loanda,  on  the  western  coast. 
Having  retraced  his  steps  to  the 
point  of  the  Zambezi  from  which 
he  had  started,  the  adventurous 
traveller  next  followed  that 
stream  till  he  reached  the  eastern 
coast  at  Quilimane  (1856),  Set- 
ting out  in  1866,  he  found  in  the 
region  south  of  Lake  Tanganyika 
the  River  Chambezi. 

Burton  and  Speke,  crossing 
the  Border  Mountains  from 
Zanzibar,  in  1857,  discovered 
Lake  Tanganyika;  and  the  for- 
mer, then  journeying  to  the 
northeast,  discovered  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  Victorian  Nyanza, 
which  he  supposed  to  be  the 
head  reservoir  of  the  Nile.  At 
Gondokoro,  Speke  and  Grant 
were  met  by  Sir  Samuel  Baker, 
who,  accompanied  by  his  heroic 
wife,  pus^d  on  to  the  south, 
and  discovered  in  1864,  west  of 
the  Victoria,  another  great  lake, 
which  he  called  the  Albert 
Nyanza. 

Henry  M.  Stanley  (q.  v.), 
after  exploring  the  Shimiyu, 
farthest  south  head  stream  of 
the  Nile,  circumnavigated  Vic- 
toria Nyanza,  and  discovered  the 
Muta  Nzige.  Then  striking  the 
Lualaba  at  Nyangwe  in  1876,  he 
forced  his  way  down  the  stream ; 
and  arriving  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Congo  in  autumn,  1877,  de- 
monstrated that  the  Lualaba 
and  the  Congo  are  identical. 

In  1880  Joseph  Thomson  ex- 
plored the  route  between  Nyasa 
and  Tanganyika;  and  in  1884  he 
made  his  memorable  journey 
from  Mombasa  by  Kilima-Njaro 
and  Kenia  across  Masailand  to 
the  Victoria  Nyanza.  Dr.  G.  A. 
Fischer,  in  his  attempt  to  relieve 
Emin  Pasha,  reached  north  to 
Lake  Baringo  (1885-6).  In 
1885  Grenfell  discovered  the 
Ubanghi,  the  great  northern 
tributary  of  the  Congo.  In  1887 
Vol.  I. — Oct.  '20 


Emin  Pasha  reported  by  letter 
repeated  exploration  of  the  Al- 
bert Nyanza.  '  The  intricate 
water  system  south  of  the  Middle 
Congo  was  unravelled  especially 
by  Pogge,  Wissmann,  and  Lud- 
wig  Wolf.  The  first  to  traverse 
Africa  from  north  to  south  were 
Grogan  and  Sharp. 

Exploration  during  the  last 
few  years  has  been  mainly  in 
connection  with  the  Central 
Equatorial  regions,  Northern 
Nigeria,  the  Algerian  Sahara, 
and  notkbly  with  the  Ruwenzori 
Mountains  and  the  regions 
around  Lake  Chad. 

Political  Spheres. — European 
states,  beginning  with  the  Ber- 
lin Conference  of  1884,  have 
marked  off  protectorates  and 
spheres  of  influenpe  in  Africa  to 
such  an  extent  that  only  Abys- 
sinia in  the  east  and  the  republic 
of  Liberia  on  the  Guinea  Coast 
remain  nominally  independent. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  of  Europe  (August,  1914), 
of  the  total  area  of  Africa,  Great 
Britain  controlled  about  3,700,- 
000  square  miles;  France,  4,422,- 
000;  Germany,  931,000;  Bel- 
gium, 909,000;  Portugal,  794,- 
000;  and  Spain,  593,000.  I 

In  North  Africa,  France  was 
overlord  of  all  west  of  and  includ- 
ing the  Tarso  Mountains  and 
north  of  the  Congo-Ubangi,  ex- 
cept Spanish  Rio  de  Oro,  Portu- 
guese Guinea,  British  Gambia, 
Sierra  Leone,  Gold  Coast,  Nige- 
ria, and  German  Togoland  and 
Kamerun.  In  1912  Morocco 
came  under  French  control,  in 
accordance  with  an  agreement 
between  France  and  Germany 
signed  by  the  sultan  of  Morocco 
(see  Morocco). 

In  November,  1911,  Tripoli 
and  B'arka,  former  Turkish 
vilayets,  were  annexed  by  Italy, 
and  the  annexation  was  later 
ratified  by  Turkey  in  the  Treaty 
of  Ouchy  in  1912  (see  Tripoli). 

Egypt  remained  nominally  a 
Turkish  possession,  though  actu- 
ally controlled  by  Great  Britain. 
British  interests  also  prevailed 
in  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan, 
Uganda  and  East  African  Protec- 
torates, and  in  Zanibar.  Bor- 
dering Abyssinia  on  the  east  and 
south  were  the  Italian  Eritrea 
and  Somaliland,  separated  by 
French  and  British  Somaliland. 
The  rest  of  the  East  African 
plateau  was  German  to  the 
Rovuma,  and  Portuguese  be- 
yond to  Delagoa  Bay. 

In  the  west,  the  Congo  basin 
was  controlled  by  Belgium,  An- 
gola by  Portugal,  and  Damara- 
land  and  Namaqualand  by  Ger- 
many. The  rest  of  Africa  south 
of  Tanganyika  and  Nyasa  was 
British,  forming  the  Nyasaland 
Protectorate,  Northern  and 
Southern  Rhodesia,  Bechuana- 
land,  Transvaal,  Orange  Free 
State,  Natal,  and  Cape  of  Good 


Hope — the  last  four  original 
provinces  of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa. 

Madagascar,  the  Comoro  Isl- 
ands, and  Reunion  wer«  French; 
the  other  East- African  Islands — 
Mauritius,  Amirante,  Rodriguez, 
Seychelles,  and  S(5cotra — Brit- 
ish. Portugal  owned  Madeira, 
and  Cape  Verde  Islands,  Prin- 
cipe, and  Sao  Thome;  and  Spain 
the  Canaries,  Fernando  Po, 
Annabon,  and  Corisco  Bay  in 
West  Africa.^  Ascension  and  St. 
Helena,  on '  the  mid- Atlantic 
ridge,  were  British. 

The  Great  War  (1914-18) 
brought  about  marked  changes 
in  the  political  status  of  the 
various  African  colonies.  Abys- 
sinia and  Liberia  remain  as  be- 
fore nominally  independent.  To-' 
goland  is  now  administered 
under  the  British  government 
of  the  Gold  Coast  and  the 
French  government  of  Dahomey, 
and  Kamerun  is  divided  and  ad- 
ministered under  French  Equa- 
torial Africa  and  British  Nigeria, 
the  larger  portion  being  allotted 
to  France.  By  the  terms  of  the 
Peace  Treaty  Germany  re- 
nounced all  the  rights  and  privi- 
leges in  Morocco  granted  by  the 
Franco-German  agreements  of 
1909  and  1911,  and  also  recog- 
nized the  Brittsh  protectorate 
declared  over  Egypt  in  Decem- 
ber, 1914.  German  East  Africa 
was  divided  between  the  British 
and  the  Belgians.  The  British 
part  is  called  Tanganyika  Terri- 
tory with  headquarters  at  Dar-es- 
Salaam  and  the  Belgian  sphere 
includes  the  provinces  of  Ru- 
anda, Ujiji  and  Urundi,  border- 
ing on  Lake  Tanganyika,  with 
headquarters  at  Kigoma.  In 
July,  1915,  the  German  forces 
in  Southwest  Africa  were  cap- 
tured by  the  South  African 
Union  forces  and  the  territory 
then  occupied  by  Germany  is 
now  administered  under  a  man- 
date by  the  Union  of  South 
Africa. 

For  additional  information, 
see  the  articles  Abyssinia;  Al- 
geria; British  Central  Af- 
rica Protectorate;  Congo, 
Belgian;  Egypt;  German  East 
Africa;  German  Southwest 
Africa;  Morocco;  Sahara; 
South  African  Union;  Sudan; 
Tripoli. 

Bibliography. — General:  R.  N. 
Cust's  Sketch  of  the  Modern 
Languages  of  Africa  (2  vols.); 
A.  S.  White's  Development  of 
Africa;  E.  Sanderson's  Africa 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  and 
Great  Britain  in  Modern  Africa 
(1907);  C.  G.  Schillings'  In  Wild- 
est Africa  (1907);  B.  Alexander's 
From  the  Niger  to  the  Nile  (2  vols., 
1907);  Sir  H.  H.  Johnston's  His- 
ory  of  the  Colonization  of  Africa 
by  Alien  Races  (1905),  and  Open- 
ing Up  of  Africa  (1911);  J.  K. 
Goodrich's    Africa    of  To-Day 


Africander 

(1912);  N.  D.  Harris'  Interven- 
tion and  Colonization  in  Africa 
(1914) ;  C.  H,  Stigand's  Adminis- 
tration in  Tropical  Africa  (1914). 

Central  and  East  Africa: 
D.  Livingstone's  Last  Journals  in 
Central  Africa;  J.  E.  S.  Moore's 
To  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon; 
Sir  H,  M,  Stanley's  In  Darkest 
Africa  (2  vols.),  and  Through  the 
Dark  Continent  (2  vols.);  R.  S.  S. 
Baden- Powell's  Sketches  in  Mafe- 
king  and  East  Africa  (1907);  A, 
L.  Kitching's  On  the  Backwaters 
of  the  Nile  (1912);  J.  T.  Dennis' 
From  Cataract  to  Equator  (1913); 
H.  A.  Wilson's  British  Border- 
land (1913) ;  D.  Eraser's  Winning 
a  Primitive  People  (1914);  T. 
Roosevelt's  Life  Histories  of 
African  Game  Animals  (with  E, 
Heller,  2  vols.,  1914);  J.  Barnes' 
Through  Central  Africa  from 
Coast  to  Coast  (1915). 

North  Africa:  A.  Graham's 
Roman  Africa;  E.  A.  Powell's 
Last  Frontier  (1912);  E.  S.  Bou- 
chier's  Life  and  Letters  in  Roman 
Africa  (1913);  A,  Bullard's  Bar- 
bary  Coast  (1913). 

South  Africa:  J.  Bryce's  Im- 
pressions of  South  Africa;  G,  M. 
Theal's  Progress  of  South  Africa 
in  the  [Nineteenth]  Century;  G.  W. 
Stow's  N ative„Races  of  South  Af- 
rica (1905);  A.  R.  Colquhoun's 
Afrikander  Land  (1906);  R,  H. 
Brand's  Union  of  South  Africa 
(1909);  D.  F.  Ellenberger's  His- 
tory of  the  Basuio,  Ancient  and 
Modern  (1912);  J.  M.  Moubray's 
In  South  Central  Africa  (1912); 
W.  B.  Worsfold's  Reconstruction 
of  the  New  Colonies  Under  Lord 
Milner  (2  vols.,  1913). 

West  Africa:  M.  H.  Kings- 
ley's  Travels  in  West  Africa,  and 
West  African  Studies;  E.  D.  Mo- 
rel's Affairs  of  West  Africa; 
George's  Rise  of  British  West  Af- 
rica; Lady  Lugard's  A  Tropical 
Dependency  (1905). 

Africander,  af-ri-kan'der,  or 
Afrikander,  a  native  of  South 
Africa  descended  from  Dutch 
parents  settled  there. 

Africander  Bond,  or  Afri- 
kander Bund,  a  South  African 
association,  formed  (1879)  for 
the  furtherance  and  consolida- 
tion of  Africander  influence.  Its 
founders  were  Borckenhagen, 
Reitz,  and  Hofmeyr.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  Cape,  the  organiza- 
tion embraced  the  Transvaal 
and  the  Orange  Free  State,  and 
after  the  Jameson  Raid  (1895) 
it  became  Boer  rather  than 
Africander.  In  the  South  Afri- 
can War  (q.  v.)  of  1899-1902  it 
sympathized  warmly  with  the 
Boers. 

African   Exploration.  See 

Africa,  Exploration. 

African  International  Asso- 
ciation.   See  Congo,  Belgian. 

African  Languages.  See  Af- 
rica, Peoples. 

African  Lliy.    See  Agapan- 

THUS. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '20 


African  Metiiodist  Episcopal 
Ciiurclies.     See  Methodism. 

African  Oalc,  or  African 
Teak  (Oldfieldia  africana),  a 
heavy,  hard  timber  used  in  ship- 
building, obtained  from  the 
west  coast  of  Africa.  It  is  of  less 
value  than  true  teak  (q.  v.). 

Africa'nus,  a  title  of  honor 
borne  by  the  two  great  Scipios,  in 
commemoration  of  their  African 
victories.    See  Scipio. 

Africanus,  Sextus  C^cilius, 
a  famous  Roman  jurisconsult 
and  orator,  pupil  of  Salvius 
Junius,  of  the  time  of  Antoninus 
Pius. 

Africanus,  Sextus  Julius,  a 
Christian  writer  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, who  lived  at  Emmaus  in 
Palestine,  but  visited  Alexandria. 
His  works,  with  the  exception  of 
extracts  found  in  Eusebius,  have 
been  lost. 

Afridi,  a-fre'de,  a  tribe  of  Pa- 
thans  or  Afghans,  dwelling  on  the 
northwestern  frontier  of  India,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Peshawar, 
the  most  powerful  and  independ- 
ent of  the  border  tribes  except 
the  Waziri.  Most  of  the  clans 
live  near  the  Kyber  Pass  and 
migrate  to  the  high  plateau  of 
Tirah  in  the  summer.  "They  num- 
ber about  300,000. 

Afrit,    a-fret'.    See  Ifrit. 

After-birtii.    See  Placenta. 

After-damp.  See  Choke- 
damp. 

After-glow,  the  glow  some- 
times seen  in  the  sky  after  sun- 
set, illuminating  the  upper  strata 
of  the  clouds,  usually  in  shades  of 
red  and  yellow;  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  fine  dust  in  the  higher 
atmosphere.  During  the  fall 
and  winter  of  1883,  following  the 
tremendous  eruptions  of  Kraka- 
toa,  in  the  Strait  of  Sunda,  pecu- 
liarly bright  and  continuous 
examples  were  seen  in  every 
part  of  the  globe.  The  same 
phenomenon  occurred  after  the 
Martinique  eruption. 

After-images  are  representa- 
tions to  the  mind  of  bygone  im- 
pressions. They  are  sensations 
for  which  at  the  time  of  their 
occurrence  there  is  no  present 
external  stimulus.  They  may 
be  due  to — (1)  a  simple  persist- 
ence of  sensation;  (2)  a  recur- 
rence of  sensation;  or  (3)  fatigue 
of  the  nerve  cells  concerned  in 
the  reception  of  previous  stim- 
uli. The  two  former  are  positive 
images,  while  the  third  is 
negative. 

Positive  after-images  may  be 
considered  as  due  to  inertia  of  the 
nerve  stimulated,  as  when  we 
glance  at  an  object  and  close  our 
eyes  we  seem  for  a  moment  to  see 
through  the  lids. 

Negative  after-images  depend 
upon  exhaustion  of  the  nerve- 
sight.  If  the  eye  is  intentlyjfixed 
for  a  time  upon  a  patch  of  black 
on  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  and 
then  suddenly  turned  upon  a 


Agag 

white  surface,  a  bright  patch  ap- 
pears on  that  surface.  It  moves 
with  the  eye,  and  gradually  fades 
away.  Should  the  patch  be 
colored,  the  after-image  has  the 
color  'complementary'  to  the 
original.  Thus,  if  the  retinal 
cells  are  fatigued  by  a  close,  pro- 
longed gaze  at,  say,  a  red  spot, 
an  image  of  that  spot  is  apparent 
when  the  eye  is  directed  toward  a 
new  white  surface.  The  image 
corresponds  in  shape  to  the 
original,  but  the  color  is  green, 
while  its  size  depends  on  the  dis- 
tance of  the  new  field — the  great- 
er the  distance  the  larger  the  im- 
age. The  part  of  the  retina  on 
which  rays  from  the  prim,  ry  ob- 
ject fall  has  temporarily  come  to 
an  end  of  its  capacity  for  appre- 
ciating red  rays.  Hence  an  after- 
image is  formed,  tinted  by  such 
rays  of  white  light  as  the  fatigued 
portion  can  still  appreciate. 

Afze'lius,  Arvid  August 
(1785-1871),  Swedish  poet,  was 
the  pastor  of  Enkoping,  and 
translated  the  Edda.  With  Gei- 
jer  he  edited  Svenska  Folkvisor 
fran  Forntiden,  a  fine  collection 
of  ancient  Swedish  folk  songs. 

Aga,  Si'ga,  or  Agha,  a  Turkish 
title  borne  by  officers  in  the  army 
under  the  rank  of  major,  ^nd  by 
various  lower  officials  in  the  min- 
istries. 

Agades,  ag'a-dez,  Aghades, 
or  Agadez,  African  town,  capital 
of  oasis  of  Air  or  Asben,  Sahara; 
lat.  18°  10'  n.,  long.  8°  e.  Once 
an  important  city  of  Central 
Africa,  and  still  a  great  centre  of 
the  caravan  route  between  the 
Sudan  and  Tripoli.  In  the  six- 
teenth century  it  probably  con- 
tained 60,000  Tuaregs;  now  it 
has  but  8,000. 

Agadir,  a'ga-der',  town  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Morocco,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Sus  River,  a  cara- 
van station  on  the  route  between 
Upper  and  Lower  Morocco.  It 
was  founded  by  the  Portuguese 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  was 
early  taken  by  the  Moors.  Pop. 
1,000. 

In  1911  the  town  became  the 
scene  of  an  international  crisis, 
known  as  the  Agadir  Affair, 
when  the  German  warship  Pan- 
ther was  despatched  there  to  pro- 
tect German  interests  against 
the  alleged  violation  of  the 
Algeciras  Convention  of  1906  by 
France.  Diplomatic  conferences 
followed,  and  the  matter  was 
settled  by  an  agreement  (Nov. 
4,  1911)  whereby  Germany  con- 
ceded to  France  unlimited  rights 
in  Morocco  and  certain  terri- 
tories then  in  dispute,  and  re- 
ceived in  return  a  large  tract  of 
land  in  the  French  Congo.  See 
Morocco. 

A'gag,  the  usual  title  of  the 
Amalekite  kings,-  the  best  known 
of  whom  is  referred  to  in  Judg.  i. 
and  1  Sam.  xv,  8-33.  Saul  spared 
him  unlawfully,  but  Samuel  or- 


Agalactia 


95 


Agaric  Mineral 


dered  him  to  be  brought  out  and 
cut  in  pieces. 

Agalactia,  ag'a-Iak'shi-a,  or 
Agalaxy,  a  want  of  the  due  secre- 
tion of  milk.  It  may  depend 
either  on  organic  imperfection  of 
the  mammary  gland,  or  upon 
constitutional  causes.  See  Milk. 

Ag'almat'olite,  ahydrated  alu- 
minum and  potassium  silicate, 
which  varies  in  composition  and 
color,  and  which  is  of  a  soft,  waxy 
consistency.  It  is  used  extensive- 
ly by  the  Chinese  for  the  carving 
of  images,  and  is  sometimes  known 
as  'figure  stone.' 

Ag'ama,  a  genus  of  lizards.  See 
Agamid^. 

Agamem'non,  son  of  King  At- 
reus,  and  brother  of  Menelaus. 
After  his  father's  death  he  reigned 
in  Mycenae,  and  married  Clytaem- 
nestra,  by  whom  he  .  had  three 
children — Iphigenia,  Electra,  and 
Orestes.  When  Paris  carried  off 
Helen,  Agamemnon  traversed 
Greece,  exhorting  all  the  leaders 
of  the  people  to  unite  in  an  expe- 
dition against  Troy.  Agamem- 
non was  appointed  general-in- 
chief  of  the  united  forces  assem- 
bled at  Aulis  in  Boeotia.  The 
Iliad  gives  an  account  of  the  war 
that  followed.  Agamemnon  is  de- 
scribed as  a  very  stately  and  dig- 
nified figure.  After  the  fall  of 
Troy  he  was  murdered  by  Cly- 
taemnestra,  with  or  without  the 
aid  of  ^gisthus. 

Ag'ami  (Psophia  crepitans), 
one  of  the  trumpeters  (q.  v.),  a 
family  of  large,  somewhat  stork- 
like birds  found  in  tropical  Amer- 
ica. 

Agamidse,  a-gam'i-de,  a  fam- 
ily of  squat-bodied,  thick-tongued, 
terrestrial  lizards,  closely  related 
to  the  Iguanas  (see  Iguana). 
The  Thorn  Devil  or  Moloch  (Mo- 
loch horridus)  of  Australia;  the 
curious  frilled  lizard  (Chlamydo- 
sauriis),  also  from  Australia;  the 
smooth  Egyptian  form  (Trapelus 
egyptiacus);  the  large  Levantine 
Thorny-Tailed  Lizard  (Stellio  spi- 
nipes) ;  the  flying  lizard  of  Java 
{Draco  volans);  and  the  Dabb  of 
the  Arabs  (Uromastix  spinipes), 
are  common  representatives  of 
the  family.  The  most  familiar 
example  is  the  little  Agama  stellio, 
common  in  Mediterranean  coun- 
tries. 

Ag'amogen'esis,  reproduction 
without  sex,  a  process  of  multi- 
plication by  division,  budding, 
etc.,  in  which  there  is  no  union  of 
sexual  elements,  but  simply  more 
or  less  discontinuous  growth.  See 
Parthogenesis;  Reproduction; 
Sex. 

Agaiia,  a-ga'nya,  or  San  Igna- 
cio  de  Agana,  the  capital  of  the 
island  of  Guam,  one  of  the  La- 
drones;  lat.  12°N.,  and  long.  14.5°  E. 
The  town  is  situated  on  Agafia 
Bay,  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
island.  It  has  good  streets,  an 
arsenal,  college,  barracks,  schools, 
and  churches.  The  harbor  is  ob- 
VoL.  I. — Mar.  '16 


structed  by  reefs.  Agafia  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  United  States  dur- 
ing the  Spanish-American  War. 
(See  Guam.)    Pop.  7,500. 

Agapse,  ag'a-pe  (Greek  agape, 
'love')  were  love  feasts,  or  feasts 
of  charity,  originally  celebrated 
by  the  early  Christians  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Wealthy  or  well-to-do  Christians 
brought  the  materials  of  the  feast, 
in  which  the  poorer  brethren  who 
had  nothing  to  bring  shared 
equally.  The  meetings  closed 
with  the  'holy  kiss.'  In  the  third 
and  fourth  centuries,  the  agapee 
had  degenerated  into  a  common 
banquet,  where  the  deaths  of  rel- 
atives and  the  anniversaries  of 
the  martyrs  were  commemorated. 
Councils  declared  against  them, 
and  finally  banished  them  from 
the  church.  These  feasts  have 
been  regarded  as  Christian  mod- 
ifications of  older  heathen  prac- 
tices. They  have  been  revived 
by  the  Herrnhut  community; 
compare  the  'love  feasts'  of  the 
Wesleyans.  Consult  J.  F.  Keat- 
ing's  The  Agape  and  the  Eucha- 
rist. 

Agapan'thus,  or  AfricanLily, 
a  native  of  the  Cape,  with  white 
or  blue  flowers.   One  species  may 


Agapanthus,  or  African  Lily. 


be  grown  out  of  doors  in  tubs,  but 
requires  protection  in  winter; 
others  are  beautiful  conservatory 
plants. 

Agapemone,  ag-a-pem'o-ne 
('abode  of  love'),  called  also  Lam- 
peter Brethren,  the  communi- 
ty of  mystics,  holding  to  a  com- 
munity of  goods,  and  conventual 
in  form,  founded  (1859)  at  Bridg- 
water, England,  by  Henry  J. 
Prince  (1811-99),  a  former  Angli- 
can clergyman. 

Agape't%,  the  name  given  to 
those  virgins  of  the  early  church 
who  lived  with  monks  professing 
celibacy,  and  between  whom  was 
said  to  exist  a  bond  of  spiritual 
love.  Denounced  by  the  fathers, 
the  practice  was  abolished  by  the 
Lateran  Council  in  1139.  Also 
the  name  of  a  sect  of  Gnostic 
women  who  arose  about  395. 


Agape'tus  I.  (d.  536),  a  native 
of  Rome,  was  elevated  to  the  pa- 
pacy in  535.  He  was  unsuccess- 
ful in  a  mission  to  Constantinople 
(536)  with  a  view  to  making 
peace  between  Justinian  and  The- 
odatus,  king  of  the  Eastern  Goths. 
He  died  in  Constantinople. 

Agapetus  11.,  a  native  of  Rome, 
occupied  the  papal  chair  from  946 
to  955.  He  is  best  known  for  es- 
tablishing the  papal  rule  over  the 
churches  of  the  empire.  In  951 
he  refused  the  request  of  Otto  I., 
king  of  Germany,  that  he  would 
crown  him  emperor,  in  spite  of 
the  friendly  relations  between  Ot- 
to and  himself. 

Agar,  a-gur',  or  Augur,  town, 
state  of  Gwalior,  India;  100  miles 
northwest  of  Bhopal.  It  stands 
on  a  rocky  height,  1,600  feet  above 
the  sea.    Pop.  30,000. 

Agar,  a'gar'  (Florence  Leo- 
nideCharvin)  (1836-91),  French 
actress  who  took  the  Biblical  name 
of  Agar  for  stage  purposes.  Be- 
ginning life  as  a  singer  at  cafes 
chantants,  she  had  advanced  by 
1870  to  the  Comedie  Frangaise. 
Remarkable  for  her  beauty  and 
her  histrionic  gifts,  and  above  all 
her  perfect  diction,  she  made  a 
great  name  in  the  classic  drama, 
especially  in  tragedies. 

Agar-agar,  a'ger-a'ger,  Agal- 
AGAL,  Malayan  names  for  a  sea- 
weed (Plocaria  lichenoides),  known 
also  as  Ceylon  Moss  and  Jaffna 
Moss.  It  forms  an  article  of 
trade  between  China  and  the  East 
Indies.  It  is  made  into  nutritious 
jellies,  and  the  Chinese  also  use  it 
as  a  paper  varnish.  Edible  birds' 
nests  are  made  from  another  Plo- 
caria  on  the  coast  of  Siam.  Agar- 
agar  is  much  employed  by  bac- 
teriologists for  the  cultivation  of 
bacteria. 

Agardh,  ii'gard,  Jakob  Georg 
(1813-1901),  son  of  Karl  Adolf 
Agardh,  became  his  successor  in 
the  chair  of  botany  atLund  (1854- 
79),  and  continued  his  father's 
labors  on  the  algae. 

Agardh,  Karl  Adolf  (1785- 
1859),  Swedish  botanist,  an  au- 
thority on  algae  whose  most  im- 
portant work  was  Sy sterna  Alga- 
rum.  He  was  also  a  mathemati- 
cian, a  priest,  a  liberal  politician, 
and  an  educationalist.  In  1834 
he  was  made  bishop  of  Karlstad. 

Ag'aric,  Agaricus.  See  Mush- 
rooms. 

Agar'icin,  Agaric,  Agaricic, 
Agaricinic,  or  Laricic  Acid,  a 
white  powder  obtained  from  Po/y- 
porus  officinalis,  used  medicinal- 
ly to  check  the  night  sweats  of 
phthisis.  The  name  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  alcoholic  extract. 

Agaric  Mineral,  a  variety  of 
calcite  or  calcium  carbonate,  very 
soft  and  light,  usually  pure  white, 
and  found  either  in  the  clefts  of 
rocks  or  the  bottom  of  lakes.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  a  stone  of 
which  bricks  capable  of  floating 
on  water  are  made  in  Tuscany. 


Agassiz 


96 


Agassiz  Association 


Agassiz,  ag'a-si  or  a-gas'iz,  Al- 
exander (1835-1910),  American 
zoologist,  only  son  of  Louis  Agas- 
siz (q.  v.).  was  born  in  Neuchatel, 
Switzerland.  He  was  graduated 
from  Harvard  (1855)  and  the  Law- 
rence Scientific  School  (1857).  Af- 
ter serving  as  assistant  in  the  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey,  he  became  assist- 
ant in  zoology  (1860-5),  assistant 
curator  (1870-4),  curator  (1874- 
85),  and  director  (1902-10)  of  the 
Harvard  Museum  of  Compara- 
tive Zoology.  In  1875  he  founded 
the  zoological  station  at  Newport, 
R.  L  He  assisted  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Calumet  and  Hecla 
copper  mines  near  Lake  Superior, 
of  which  he  became  president.  In 
1874-5  he  surveyed  Lake  Titicaca 
and  the  copper  mines  of  Peru  and 
Chile;  from  1876  to  1881  he  was 
engaged  in  deep-sea  dredging  in 
the  Indies;  and  in  1901-2  inves- 
tigated the  coral  formations  of 
the  Maldive  Islands.  He  made  a 
scientific  expedition  to  the  trop- 
ical Pacific  in  1900,  and  to  the 
Eastern  Pacific  in  1904-5.  His 
gifts  to  Harvard  and  other  insti- 
tutions for  the  promotion  of  zoo- 
logical investigations  amounted 
to  over  $1,000,000. 

Agassiz  was  especially  distin- 
guished for  his  studies  in  marine 
zoology — e.  g.,  echinoderms,  star- 
fishes, and  jellyfishes.  His  publi- 
cations include:  Exploration  of 
Lake  Titicaca  (with  S.  W.  Gar- 
man)  ;  Report  on  the  Echini  of  the 
'Challenger'  Expedition  (1881); 
Three  Cruises  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  Steamer  'Blake,' 
1877-80  (2  vols.,  1888);  Coral 
Reefs  of  the  Maldives  (2  vols., 
1903) ;  Coral  Reefs  of  the  Tropical 
Pacific  (4  vols.,  1903).  Consult 
G.  R.  Agassiz'  Letters  and  Rec- 
ollections of  Alexander  Agassiz 
(1913). 

Agassiz,  Elizabeth  Cabot 
(Gary)  (1822-  1907),  American 
educator,  was  born  in  Boston.  In 
1850  she  was  married  to  Louis 
Agassiz  (q.  v.).  She  accompan- 
ied him  to  Brazil  (1865-6),  and  on 
the  Hassler  expedition  (1871-2), 
besides  taking  a  prominent  part 
at  Radcliffe  College  (president 
1894-1900).  She  wrote:  A  First 
Lesson  in  Natural  History  (1859) ; 
Life  of  Louis  Agassiz  (2  vols., 
1885) ;  Seaside  Studies  in  Natural 
History  (with  her  son,  1865). 

Agassiz,  Jean  Louis  Rodolphe 
( 1 807-73) ,  Swiss- American  nat- 
uralist, was  born  in  Motier,' can- 
ton Fribourg.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Universities  of  Zurich,  Hei- 
delberg, Erlangen,  and  Munich, 
receiving  degrees  in  philosophy 
(Erlangen,  1829)  and  medicine 
(Munich,  1830).  He  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  of  natural 
history,  and  prior  to  his  gradua- 
tion prepared  a  description  of  the 
Fishes  of  Brazil  (from  specimens 
gathered  by  Spix,  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  king  of  Bavaria), 
which  elicited  a  warm  encomium 
Vol.  I —Mar.  'IQ 


from  Cuvier,  with  whom  he  was 
afterward  closely  associated. 

In  1832  Agassiz  became  profes- 
sor of  natural  history  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Neuchatel.  In  1833  he 
commenced  the  publication  of  his 
Researches  on  the  Fossil  Fishes, 
which  the  following  year  brought 


Louis  Agassiz. 


him  from  London  the  WoUaston 
Prize.  This  work,  comprising  five 
volumes  of  text  and  five  of  plates, 
appeared  at  intervals  from  1833 
to  1843.  In  1839  he  issued  the 
first  part  of  his  Histoire  Naturelle 
des  Poissons  d'Eau  Douce  de  V Eu- 
rope Centrale,  which  was  com- 
pleted in  1842.  Two  volumes  on 
the  fossil  echinoderms  of  Switzer- 
land appeared  in  1839  and  1840, 
and  from  1840  to  1845  he  pub- 
lished Etudes  Critiques  sur  les  Mol- 
lusques  Fossiles. 

In  1836  Agassiz  commenced  an 
examination  of  the  glacial  phe- 
nomena of  the  Alps,  and  in  1840 
he  established  a  station  of  obser- 
vation in  the  Bernese  Oberland, 
where  he  spent  each  summer  un- 
til 1844.  He  made  some  of  the 
earliest  recorded  observations  on 
the  motion  of  glaciers,  and  em- 
bodied his  scientific  observations 
in  Etudes  sur  les  Glaciers  (1840) 
and  Nouvelles  Etudes  (1847).  His 
theory  of  glacier  motion  (dilata- 
tion of  water  frozen  in  the  cre- 
vasses) soon  gave  way,  however, 
to  that  formulated  by  Forbes 
(gravitation  plus  plasticity). 

In  October,  1846,  Agassiz  vis- 
ited America,  and  delivered  a 
course  of  lectures  On  the  Plan  of 
the  Creation.  These  established 
his  reputation,  and  during  the 
winters  of  1847  and  1848  he  lec- 
tured in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
United  States,  everywhere  with 
success.  In  1848  he  was  elected 
to  the  newly  founded  chair  of 
natural  history  in  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, and  in  the  summer  of 
that  year,  in  company  with  a 
class  of  students,  made  a  scien- 
tific expedition  to  the  northern 


shores  of  Lake  Superior.  At  the 
invitation  of  Professor  Bache,  su- 
perintendent of  the  U.  S.  Coast 
Survey,  he  spent  the  winter  of 
1850-51  in  an  expedition  to  the 
Florida  Reefs,  his  report  upon 
which  was  afterward  published  in 
the  Memoirs  of  the  Museum  of 
Comparative  Zoology.  In  1851, 
in  addition  to  his  work  at  Cam- 
bridge, he  accepted  a  professor- 
ship at  the  Medical  College  of 
Charleston,  S.  C,  where  he  spent 
the  following  winter,  and  in  the 
spring  delivered  a  course  of  lec- 
tures at  Washington,  before  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  of  which 
he  was  later  appointed  a  regent. 
In  1858  he  founded  the  Museum 
of  Comparative  Zoology  at  Har- 
vard, for  which  a  land  grant  had 
been  made  by  Massachusetts  and 
funds  contributed  by  private  in- 
dividuals. He  himself  gave  his 
collections,  representing  an  outlay 
of  $10,000. 

In  1865,  in  consequence  of  ill 
health,  Agassiz  decided  upon  a 
trip  to  Brazil,  which  became  one 
of  the  most  important  scientific 
expeditions  of  his  life.  After  an 
absence  of  sixteen  months  he  re- 
turned to  the  United  States,  the 
account  of  his  trip  being  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  A  Jour- 
ney in  Brazil.  In  1872  he  visited 
California,  and  the  following  year 
received  for  a  summer  school  of 
Natural  History  a  gift  of  the  isl- 
and of  Penikese  in  Buzzard's  Bay, 
on  the  Massachusetts  coast,  and 
a  money  endowment  of  $50,000. 
He  lived  to  organize  and  conduct 
his  unique  school  for  one  season 
only.  He  assailed  with  great  ear- 
nestness Darwin's  evolutionary 
theory,  which  to  the  end  he  re- 
fused to  accept. 

Agassiz'  memory  is  preserved 
in  the  Alps  by  the  Agassizhorn 
(12,980  feet) ,  in  the  Bernese  Ober- 
land; in  Arizona  by  Mount  Agas- 
siz (q.  v.),  near  the  Grand  Can- 
yon) ;  in  Utah  by  Mount  Agassiz 
(q.  v.),  in  the  Uintah  range;  and 
in  North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  and 
Manitoba  by  Lake  Agassiz  (q.  v.) . 
Besides  the  works  mentioned,  his 
publications  include:  Nomenclator 
Zoologicus  (1842-6) ;  Contributions 
to  the  Natural  History  of  the  U  nited 
States  (4  vols.,  1857-62);  The 
Structure  of  Animal  Life  (1874). 
Consult  Mrs.  Agassiz'  Louis  Ag- 
assiz; C.  F.  Holder's  Life;  Mar- 
cou's  Life,  Letters,  and  Works. 

Agassiz  Association,  formed  in 
1875  by  Harlan  H.  Ballard  to  en- 
courage young  people  to  emulate 
the  example  of  Louis  Agassiz 
(q.  v.),  by  studying  natural  his- 
tory. In  1915  theie  were  over 
1,000  chapters,  chiefly  in  the 
United  vStates  and  Canada.  It 
has  aided  more  than  50,000  stu- 
dents, and  has  established  asso- 
ciated scientific  societies  in  sev- 
eral European  countries,  as  well 
as  Chile  and  Japan.  Headquar- 
ters are   at  ArcAdiA,  Sound 


Agassiz,  Lake 


97 


Agave 


Beach,  Conn.,  which  offers  both 
to  members  and  to  the  public  the 
facihties  of  a  general  natural  his- 
tory institution.  The  Society 
publishes  a  handbook,  The  Three 
Kingdoms,  and  The  Guide  to  Na- 
ture, its  official  organ.  President, 
Edward  F.  Bigeiow. 

Agassiz,  Lake,  name  given  to 
the  basin  of  a  large  sheet  of  water 
that  in  the  Glacial  Period  covered 
a  considerable  area  in  the  Red 
River  Valley  of  Minnesota,  North 
Dakota,  and  Manitoba.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  the  lake  discharged 
through  a  channel  50  miles  long 
into  the  Minnesota  River.  The 
bed  of  the  lake,  now  covered  by 
a  fertilizing  silt,  produces  rich 
grain.    See  Glacial  Period. 

Agassiz,  Mount,  a  peak  in  the 
Uintah  Mountain  range,  in  Utah, 
east  of  Salt  Lake  City.  Height, 
12,900  feet. 

Agassiz,  Mount,  an  extinct 
volcano  in  Arizona,  70  miles 
northeast  of  Prescott.  Height, 
10,000  feet. 

Ag'ate,  one  of  the  many  min- 
erals consisting  of  cryptocrystal- 
line  silica,  and  included  under  the 
general  name  of  chalcedony  (q.  v.). 
It  occurs  chiefly  as  rounded  nod- 
ules with  irregular  surfaces,  in 
cavities  of  igneous  rocks  into 
which  silica,  dissolved  in  water, 
has  percolated.  Layer  after  layer 
of  siliceous  matter  is  laid  down 
within  this  cavity,  the  outermost 
and  earliest  being  often  a  coating 
of  green  chloride  or  celadonite. 
The  layers  follow  the  outlines  of 
the  original  cavaty,  and  hence  aie 
mostly  concentric,  but  may  be 
angular  as  in  'fortification'  or 
'parallel-ribbon'  agate.  The  de- 
posited silica,  if  pure,  is  colorless 
or  grey,  and  translucent;  but  va- 
rious impurities  are  usually  pres- 
ent, causing  different  colors  in 
successive  layers.  The  common- 
est of  these  are  the  oxides  of  iron, 
producing  red,  brown,  or  yellow; 
but  bands  of  other  tints  are  often 
found.  Carnelian,  amethyst, 
common  quartz,  jasper,  opal,  and 
flint  may  occur  as  layers. 

The  colors  of  natural  agate  may 
be  heightened  and  varied  by  nu- 
merous methods,  for  its  layers  are 
often  porous,  and  will  absorb  so- 
lutions of  coloring  matters  to  a 
varying  extent.  Agate  thus  pre- 
pared is  largely  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  jewelry  and  other  or- 
naments. It  may  be  stained  by 
immersion  in  solution  of  sugar,  or 
boiling  in  oil  and  later  placing  it 
in  sulphuric  acid,  which  carbon- 
izes these  organic  matters,  pro- 
ducing brown  and  yellow  rings  of 
varying  intensity.  It  is  colored 
red  by  the  use  of  ferric  oxide,  blue 
by  an  iron  salt  and  ferrocyanide 
or  ferricyanide  of  potassium, 
green  by  nickel  or  chromium. salts, 
and  yellow  by  hydrochloric  acid. 

Because  of  its  hardness,  and  be- 
cause moist  air  and  chemical  f  umes 
will  not  rust  or  tarnish  it,  agate 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '16 


enters  into  the  construction  of  cer- 
tain scientific  instruments — e.  g., 
the  knife  edge  on  which  the  beam 
of  a  chemical  balance  is  suspended. 
It  is  also  used  for  mortars  and 
pestles  employed  by  chemists  to 
pulverize  hard  substances. 

The  great  centre  of  agate  work- 
ing has  for  centuries  been  Ober- 
stein,  in  Germany.  It  was  for- 
merly found  abundantly  in  that 
district,  as  also  in  Hungary  and 
various  other  places  in  Europe; 
but  for  many  years  the  chief 
sources  have  been  Brazil  and  Uru- 
guay. Agate  of  considerable 
beauty  is  found  in  the  Lake  Su- 
perior region,  particularly  Agate 
Bay,  and  in  the  stream  beds  of 
Colorado.  Montana  and  other 
Rocky  Mountain  regions  furnish 
agate  pebbles  of  various  sizes. 

Agate  Ware.  See  Enamelled 
Ware. 

Ag'atlia,  St.,  a  noble  Sicilian 
maiden  of  great  beauty,  who  re- 
jected the  love  of  the  Prefect 
Quintilianus,  and  suffered  a  cruel 
martyrdom  (251).  She  ranks 
among  the  saints  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Her  festival  is 
celebrated  on  Feb.  5. 

Agatharchides,  ag-rf-thar'ki-dez, 
or  Agatharchus,  Greek  historian 
and  geographer  of  the  second  cen- 
tury B.C.,  born  at  Cnidus,  in  Asia 
Minor.  He  wrote  about  the  cam- 
paigns of  Alexander  the  Great 
and  the  history  of  his  successors 
the  Diadochi,  and  described  the 
Nile  and  its  regions.  Only  frag- 
ments of  his  works  survive. 

Agath'ocles,  tyrant  of  Syracuse 
(361-289  B.C.),  was  born  at  Rhe- 
gium,  in  Italy.  He  emigrated 
with  his  father  to  Syracuse,  and 
entered  the  army  as  a  common 
soldier.  There  he  gained  the  fa- 
vor of  Damas,  whose  widow  he 
married, and  thus  became  the  rich- 
est man  in  Syracuse.  Having  in 
317  created  an  army  of  adventur- 
ers, he  assembled  about  four  hun- 
dred of  the  rich  and  influential 
citizens  and  killed  them.  During 
the  ensuing  two  days  four  thou- 
sand people  were  slain,  as  many 
banished  and  their  property  con- 
fiscated, and  Agathocles  was  pro- 
claimed tyrant  of  the  town.  To 
gain  popularity  he  cancelled  all 
debts,  and  divided  the  confiscated 
property  among  the  poor;  framed 
good  laws,  regulated  the  finances, 
and  created  a  powerful  army  and 
navy. 

By  conquering  nearly  all  of  Si- 
cily, Agathocles  came  into  colli- 
sion with  the  Carthaginians.  They 
sent  to  Sicily  an  army  under  Ha- 
milcar,  who  defeated  him  in  310, 
and  besieged  him  in  Syracuse. 
Upon  this  Agathocles  conceived 
the  daring  project  of  attacking 
Carthage.  He  sailed  to  Africa, 
defeated  the  Carthaginians,  and 
subdued  the  coast  of  North  Af- 
rica, when  he  was  recalled  by  the 
victories  of  Agrigentum  against 
Syracuse.    He  defeated  the  Ag- 


rigentines,  re-established  order  in 
Syracuse,  and  returned  to  Africa. 
But  in  306  he  suffered  defeat,  and 
had  to  flee  back  to  Sicily. 

After  concluding  peace  with  the 
Carthaginians,  Agathocles  once 
more  became  master  over  Syra- 
cuse, and  over  most  of  the  Greek 
cities  in  Sicily.  His  government 
was  now  marked  by  good  laws 
and  peaceful  administration.  In 
289  he  committed  suicide,  to  es- 
cape the  effects  of  poison  admin- 
istered by  a  slave  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  one  of  his  grandsons. 

Ag'athon  (c.  447-400  B.C.), 
Athenian  tragic  poet,  contempo- 
rary of  Euripides,  Plato,  Aris- 
tophanes, and  Socrates.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  most  nearly  ap- 
proached the  great  trio,  ^scixylus, 
vSophocles,  and  Euripides,  and  was 
the  first  to  write  a  play,  Anlhos 
('The  Flower'),  with  an  invented 
plot. 

Agau,  a-gou',  a  people  belong- 
ing to  the  Hamitic  race,  believed 
to  be,  with  the  Falasha,  the  abor- 
igines of  Abyssinia.    See  Fala- 

SHAS. 

Agave,  a-ga've,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  remarkable  and  beauti- 
ful appearance,  belonging  to  the 
order  Amaryllidaceae.  There  are 
a  number  of  species,  all  natives 
of  Mexico  and  Central  America. 


Agave  Americana. 


They  are  often  popularly  con- 
founded with  the  Aloe  (ci-  v.) ;  and 
Agave  am  eric  ana  is  generally 
known  by  the  name  of  American 
Aloe.  The  agaves  have  either  no 
proper  stem,  or  a  very  short  one 
bearing  at  its  summit  a  crowded 
head  of  large,  fleshy  leaves,  which 
are  spiny  at  the  margin.  From  the 
midst  of  these  shoots  up  the 


Agawam 


98 


Agenor 


straight,  upright  scape,  24  to  36 
feet  high,  and  at  the  base  often 
a  foot  in  diameter,  along  which 
are  small,  lanceolate  bracteae, 
with  a  terminal  panicle,  often 
bearing  as  many  as  4,000  flowers. 
After  flowering,  the  plant  always 
dies  down  to  the  ground,  but  new 
plants  arise  from  lateral  buds.  By 
macerating  the  leaves,  coarse 
fibres  can  be  obtained,  known  as 
Maguey,  Pita  Hemp,  or  Tampico 
Hemp,  from  which  thread,  twine, 
rope,  and  a  coarse  variety  of  pa- 
per may  be  made.  The  leaves, 
cut  into  slices,  are  used  for  feed- 
ing cattle. 

When  the  young  flower  bud  has 
been  cut  out,  the  sap  continues  to 
flow  into  the  cavity.  This  sap  is 
termed  aguamiel,  and  contains  a 
considerable  amount  of  sugar.  It 
is  collected  daily,  and  after  rapid 
fermentation  furnishes  the  nation- 
al beverage  called  pulque  (q.  v.). 
This  is  milky,  sour,  and  ill-smell- 
ing, resembling  thin  buttermilk; 
yet  even  Europeans  find  it  agree- 
able and  refreshing.  In  large 
quantities  it  produces  a  dull  in- 
toxication followed  by  heavy 
sleep.  The  strong  spirit  of  the 
country  {aguardiente)  is  also  dis- 
tilled from  it.  A.  americana,  A. 
mexicana,  and  other  species  are 
extensively  cultivated  for  these 
purposes.  The  roots  of  A .  sapo- 
naria  are  used  for  washing. 

Agawam,  ag'a-wom,  town, 
Hampden  county,  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  Connecticut  River, 
and  the  New  York  Central  Rail- 
road; 4  miles  southwest  of  Spring- 
field. Its  principal  industries  are 
distilleries  and  woollen  and  paper 
mills.  The  town  was  settled  in 
1635.  Pop.  (1900)  2^536;  (1910) 
3,501. 

Agde,  igd,  ancient  town,  de- 
partment Herault,  France,  on  the 
river  of  that  name;  2  miles  from 
the  Mediterranean,  and  29  miles 
southwest  of  Montpellier.  It 
stands  on  the  lava  from  an  extinct 
volcano.  It  has  a  coast  trade. 
Pop.  (1901)  8,626;  (1911)  9,205. 

Age,  a  historical  period  marked 
off  by  special  characteristics. 
Thus,  we  speak  of  the  Homeric 
Age,  the  Age  of  Pericles,  the  Au- 
gustan Age,  the  Elizabethan  Age, 
to  denote  certain  broad  distinc- 
tions in  literature  and  art.  Fur- 
thermore, we  refer  to  certain  ages 
as  the  Golden  Age,  the  Iron  Age, 
etc. — a  form  of  reference  originat- 
ing with  Hesiod,  who  divided  the 
world's  history  into  five  periods: 
(1)  The  Golden  Age,  or  reign  of 
Saturn;  of  patriarchal  simplicity, 
when  the  earth  yielded  her  fruits 
spontaneously,  and  spring  was 
eternal.  (2)  The  Silver  Age,  or 
reign  of  Jupiter;  a  lawless  time 
when  troubles  began,  labor  was 
imposed  on  man,  and  property 
began  to  be  held.  (3)  The  Brazen 
Age,  or  reign  of  Neptune;  a  period 
of  lawlessness,  war,  and  violence. 
(4)  The  Heroic  Age,  when  men 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '16 


began  to  aspire  to  better  things. 
(5)  The  Iron  Age  (Hesiod's  own), 
from  which  justice  and  piety  had 
disappeared.  Ovid  followed  He- 
siod, leaving  out  the  Heroic  Age. 
Varro  recognized  three  ages:  (1) 
before  the  Deluge;  (2)  after  the  Del- 
uge to  the  First  Olympiad — mythi- 
cal period;  (3)  after  the  First 
Olympiad — historical  period.  Lu- 
cretius also  noted  three:  (1)  the 
Age  of  Stone,  (2)  the  Age  of 
Bronze,  and  (3)  the  Age  of  Iron. 

Historians  divide  European  his- 
tory from  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  to  the  beginning  of  mod- 
ern times  into  certain  ill-defined 
periods.  The  Dark  Ages,  nearly 
coinciding  in  time  with  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  refer  to  the  period  of 
intellectual  darkness  from  the  de- 
cline of  classical  learning,  after 
the  establishment  of  the  barbari- 
ans in  Europe  in  the  fifth  century, 
till  the  Renaissance  in  the  fif- 
teenth century  (or  till  about  the 
eleventh  century,  by  Hallam). 
The  Middle  Ages,  or  the  thousand 
years  between  the  fall  of  Rome 
(455)  and  the  great  movements 
(spread  of  humanism,  discovery 
of  America  and  seaway  to  India, 
invention  of  printing,  the  Refor- 
mation, etc.)  of  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries.  (See  Mid- 
dle Ages.)  The  Feudal  Ages, 
from  the  tenth  to  the  sixteenth 
century. 

The  geological  ages  or  periods 
will  be  found  discussed  at  Geol- 
ogy; while  the  stone,  bronze,  and 
iron  ages  which  archaeological  re- 
search has  accepted,  are  treated 
under  Bronze  Age;  Iron  Age; 
Stone  Age. 

In  the  life  of  the  individual,  it 
is  usual  to  speak  of  four  ages — 
infancy,  youth,  manhood,  and  old 
age;  though  some  writers  {cf. 
Shakespeare's  As  You  Like  It) 
count  seven.  For  the  biological 
consideration  of  length  of  life,  see 
Longevity. 

Age,  in  Law^,  is  that  period  in 
the  life  of  a  human  being  when  he 
is  deemed  fully  capable  of  exer- 
cising the  rights  and  fulfilling  the 
duties  of  ordinary  citizenship.  In 
Roman  law  boys  up  to  the  age  of 
fourteen  and  girls  to  that  of 
twelve  were  called  pupils,  and  if 
their  paterfamilias  were  dead  had 
to  be  under  a  tutor.  From  four- 
teen or  twelve  to  twenty-five  they 
were  in  minority,  and  though 
generally  capable  of  performing 
all  legal  acts,  might  be  under  the 
guidance  of  a  curator. 

In  modern  legal  systems  {e.g., 
that  of  Scotland)  which  maintain 
the  Roman  twofold  division  of  a 
young  pervson's  life,  minority  gen- 
erally ceases  at  twenty-one,  in- 
stead of  at  twenty-five.  In  the 
United  States,  full  age  is  gener- 
ally attained  on  the  day  preced- 
ing the  twenty-first  birthday, 
though  in  some  States  women 
come  of  age  at  eighteen.  Prior  to 
that  time  they  are  termed  infants 


(see  Infant),  Thus,  a  boy  at 
fourteen  or  a  girl  at  twelve  is 
capable  of  matrimonial  consent, 
but  the  concurrence  of  his  or  her 
parent  or  guardian  is  generally 
required  until  'infancy'  is  at  an 
end.  The  age,  however,  at  which 
a  female  is  held  capable  of  con- 
senting to  illicit  carnal  intercourse 
has  generally  been  raised — in  some 
of  the  United  States  as  high  as 
eighteen.  The  inconveniences  of 
the  ages  of  fourteen  and  twelve  as 
conferring  matrimonial  capacity 
have  been  done  away  with  in 
France  by  raising  those  ages  to 
eighteen  and  fifteen  respectively. 

In  the  English  probate  court, 
infants  above  the  age  of  seven  are 
called  minors  in  a  technical  and 
special  sense,  and  may  choose 
their  own  guardians.  In  the  Unit- 
ed States  they  cannot  as  a  rule 
choose  their  own  guardians  till 
fourteen  years  are  attained.  Per- 
sons under  seven  cannot  be  guilty 
of  crime;  between  the  ages  of 
seven  and  fourteen  the  legal  pre- 
sumption is  that  they  are  incapa- 
ble of  the  criminal  intention,  but 
this  presumption  may  be  rebut- 
ted by  strong  and  clear  proof  to 
the  contrary.  Infants  are  gener- 
ally throughout  the  whole  period 
of  non-age  incapable  of  making  a 
valid  will;  nor  are  they,  except  in 
special  cases,  competent  to  make 
a  contract. 

In  the  United  States,  no  one 
can  be  a  Representative  in  Con- 
gress till  he  is  twenty-five,  a  Sen- 
ator till  thirty,  or  President  till 
thirty-five.  From  eighteen  to 
forty-five  a  male  citizen  is  liable 
to  military  service.  In  England 
twenty-one  is  generally  the  age  at 
which  men  are  eligible  for  public 
offices. 

Agen,  a-zhan'  (ancient  Agi- 
num) ,  capital  of  department  Lot- 
et-Garonne,  France,  on  the  Ga- 
ronne; 75  miles  southeast  of  Bor- 
deaux. II  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
an  important  railroad  junction, 
and  trades  largely  in  dried  plums. 
Here  Joseph  Scaliger  and  the  poet 
Jasmin  were  born.  Pop.  (1900) 
20,879;  (1910)  23,294. 

Agence  Havas,  a-zhaiis'  a-va'. 
See  Havas  Agency. 

Agen'da  (Latin  agere,  to  do), 
used  in  theology  to  distinguish 
between  practical  duties  and  doc- 
trinal beliefs;  but  particularly  ap- 
plied to  ecclesiastical  manuals 
containing  the  order  of  the  rites 
and  ceremonies  of  the  church  as 
the  clergy  shall  administer  them. 

Agenor,  a-je'nor,  in  Grecian 
mythology  king  of  Phoenicia,  son 
of  Poseidon  (q.  v.),  and  father  of 
Cadmus,  Europa,  Cilix,  and  (ac- 
cording to  some)  Phoenix.  When 
Europa  was  borne  away  by  Zeus, 
Agenor  commanded  his  sons  to 
seek  their  sister,  and  not  to  re- 
turn without  her.  Their  search 
proving  vain,  Cadmus  founded 
Thebes,  while  Phoenix  became  the 
ancestor  of  the  Phoenicians. 


Agent 


99 


Aglaophon 


Agent.  See  Principal  and 
Agent;  Broker. 

Agent  and  Client.  A  person 
who  employs  a  law  agent  or  so- 
licitor is  entitled  to  expect  from 
the  latter  competent  professional 
knowledge  and  skill.  The  sound- 
ness of  legal  advice  given  is  not, 
however,  guaranteed  so  as  to 
make  him  responsible  for  the  con- 
sequences of  such  advice.  See 
Attorney. 

Agent,  Consular.  See  Con- 
sular Service. 

Age  of  Reason,  The,  a  period 
of  the  French  Revolution  (the 
winter  of  1793-4)  when  Reason 
was  deified  as  a  goddess,  and  the 
Christian  religion  was  tabooed  by 
Hebert  and  his  atheistical  follow- 
ers. At  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  the 
goddess  was  worshipped  amid 
tawdry  ceremonies,  even  the  bish- 
ops of  the  church  taking  part  in 
them  and  exchanging  their  mitres 
for  the  representative  liberty  cap. 
After  the  wholesale  executions,  in 
March,  1794,  a  schism  occurred 
in  the  atheist  ranks,  and  religion, 
in  the  Feast  of  the  Supreme  Be- 
ing, was  ofificially  restored,  chiefly 
under  the  influence  of  Robes- 
pierre, who  was  bitterly  hostile  to 
Hebert  and  Danton. 

The  Age  of  Reason  is  also  the 
title  of  a  book  by  Thomas  Paine 
(q.  V.)  which  was  one  of  the  many 
subsidiary  causes  of  the  French 
and  American  Revolutions,  par- 
ticularly as  regards  the  arguments 
and  theories  advanced  by  their 
advocates. 

Ageratum,  a-jer'a-tum  or  a-jer- 
a'tum  (Eupaiorium) ,  a  genus  of 
Compositae,  with  white  or  laven- 
der flowers;  used  as  summer  bed- 
ding plants,  mostly  in  borders,  for 
which  they  are  well  adapted  on 
account  of  their  compact  and 
free-flowering  habit. 

Ages'ila'us  (445-360  B.C.),  king 
of  Sparta  from  398  to  360  B.C. 
After  the  death  of  his  brother  he 
became  king  with  the  aid  of  the 
general  Lysander.  Although  in- 
significant, ugly,  and  lame,  he 
soon  made  his  great  abilities  felt. 
At  that  time  Sparta  was  at  the 
height  of  her  power,  and  Agesilaus 
resolved  to  attack  the  Persians. 
He  invaded  Asia,  and  defeated 
them  in  many  battles,  and  in  396 
gained  a  great  victory  at  the 
River  Pactolus.  He  was  prepar- 
ing to  penetrate  into  the  heart  of 
the  Persian  empire  and  liberate 
the  subjugated  peoples,  when  he 
was  called  back  to  Sparta,  which 
was  threatened  by  a  coalition  of 
Athenians,  Thcbans,  etc.  Ages- 
ilaus triumphed  over  the  con- 
federates at  Coronea  (394). 

In  371  B.C.  Sparta  was  beaten  by 
the  Thebans,  under  Pelopidas  and 
Epaminondas,  at  Leuctra,  after 
which  she  lost  her  supremacy  in 
Greece;  indeed,  her  independence 
was  in  jeopardy.  But  the  death 
of  Epaminondas  at  Mantinea  in 
362  freed  Sparta  from  her  danger. 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


After  this  Agesilaus  once  more 
turned  his  attention  to  the  Per- 
sians. In  361  he  went  to  Egypt, 
at  the  request  of  the  king,  Tachos, 
who  promised  him  an  army  against 
the  Persians;  but  upon  his  failure 
to  do  so,  Agesilaus  helped  Nec- 
tanabis  to  become  king.  Ages- 
ilaus perished  in  a  tempest  while 
returning  from  this  expedition,  at 
the  age  of  eighty-four  years.  Xen- 
ophon  has  written  his  Life  in 
eulogistic  terms;  also  Cornelius 
Nepos  and  Plutarch. 

Agglom'erate,  or  Volcanic 
Agglomerate,  is  a  rock  made  up 
of  a  confused  mass  of  angular  and 
subangular  blocks  of  all  sizes. 
The  blocks  may  consist  exclusive- 
ly of  igneous  rocks,  or  of  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  or  of  both,  set  in 
a  more  or  less  meagre  matrix  of 
finer-grained  detritus  of  the  same 
materials.  The  rock  is  of  vol- 
canic origin,  and  is  a  characteris- 
tic accumulation  in  the  necks  and 
choked-up  vents  of  old  craters. 
Like  all  volcanic  ash,  it  is  due  to 
the  explosive  action  of  steam 
rising  in  the  molten  rock  which 
fills  an  active  crater. 

Agglu'tinative  Lan'guages, 
those  languages  which  may  be 
roughly  characterized  as  adding 
qualifying  words  as  suffixes,  mak- 
ing longer  or  shorter  compound 
words,  instead  of  inflecting  the 
principal  word  or  allowing  the 
qualifying  word  to  stand  alone. 
The  principal  languages  of  this 
group  are  Hungarian,  Finnish, 
Turkish,  Mongolian,  and  the 
Dravidian  languages  (e.g.,  Tamil, 
Telugu)  of  Southern  India.  See 
Philology. 

Agglu'tinins,  protective  sub- 
stances arising  in  the  blood  serum 
after  inoculation  with  a  bacterial 
vaccine  or  during  a  period  of  spe- 
cific infection,  causing  the  bac- 
teria directly  concerned  to  coa- 
lesce into  floccules.  See  Vaccine 
Therapy. 

Aggteiek,  og'tel-ek,  or  Agte- 
lek  (Hungarian,  Baradlam), 
Hungarian  village  to  the  north- 
east of  Budapest,  near  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  remarkable  stal- 
actitic  caves  of  Europe.  It  con- 
sists of  a  labyrinth  of  caverns,  in 
all  5  miles  long,  and  communicat- 
ing with  one  another.  Some  of 
the  caverns  are  nearly  100  feet  in 
height.  Remains  of  the  cave  bear 
are  found  in  them. 

Agha  Mohammed  Khan,  a'ga 
mo-ham'ed  Kiin  (1720-97),  shah 
of  Persia,  founder  of  the  reigning 
Kajar  dynasty.  The  son  of  Mo- 
hammed Hasan,  chief  of  Astra- 
bad,  he  raised  the  standard  of  re- 
volt against  Lutf  Ali  Khan,  the 
last  of  the  Zend  dynasty,  and 
gained  the  throne  after  a  pro- 
longed struggle  (1794) .  The  mur- 
der of  his  rival,  and  the  massacre 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns 
which  had  held  out  against  him, 
show  the  barbarity  of  his  nature; 
but  he  had  sound  ideas  of  policy, 


and  was  particularly  jealous  of 
Russian  interference.  He  was 
killed  by  his  own  followers. 

Aghrim,  6'grim.  See  Augh- 
rim. 

_Agincourt,  Battle  of,  a-zhah- 
koor'  or  aj'in-kort,  a  most  im- 
portant battle  in  the  Hundred 
Years'  War  between  France  and 
England,  was  fought  on  Oct.  25, 
1415,  near  the  site  of  the  present 
village  of  Agincourt,  40  miles 
southeast  of  Boulogne.  Henry  v. 
of  England,  after  taking  Harfleur, 
endeavored  to  reach  Calais.  With 
an  army  variously  estimated  at 
6,000  to  15,000  men,  one-third  of 
them  archers,  he  was  opposed  by 
30,000  to  50,000  French,  includ- 
ing 10,000  archers,  under  the  Con- 
stable of  France,  D'Albret.  The 
English  victory  was  complete  in 
three  hours.  The  French  lost 
about  10,000,  of  whom  many  were 
'gentle';  among  them  being  the 
Constable,  Duke  of  Alengon,  and 
Duke  of  Brabant.  Five  princes, 
among  them  the  Dukes  of  Orleans 
and  Bourbon,  were  taken  prison- 
ers. The  English  loss  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  1,600  (as  by 
St.  Remy)  to  under  200,  among 
them  the  Duke  of  York  and  the 
Earl  of  Suffolk. 

Agio,  aj'i-o  or  a'ji-5,  an  Italian 
word,  signifying  rate  of  exchange 
between  actual  and  face  values  of 
coinage  or  paper,  or  between  the 
standards  of  different  countries. 
See  Exchange. 

Agira,  a-je'ra  (ancient^  ^yrmm), 
town,  Catania,  Sicily;  28  miles 
northwest  of  Catania.  It  crowns 
a  lofty  hill  (2,130  feet),  9  miles 
north  of  the  railway  station.  It 
is  one  of  the  oldest  Sicel  towns 
of  Sicily.  Its  tyrant,  Agyris, 
along  with  Dionysius  i.,  beat  off 
the  Carthaginians,  392  B.C.  It 
was  colonized  by  the  Greeks  in 
339  B.C.  Diodorus  Siculus  was 
born  here.    Pop.  18,000. 

A'gis,  three  kings  of  Sparta  (or 
four,  counting  the  legendary 
founder  of  the  Agidae  dynasty). 
Agis  i.  (ii.)  reigned  427-397  B.C.; 
several  times  invaded  Attica,  and 
defeated  the  Athenians  and  their 
allies  at  Mantinea  (418),  and  be- 
sieged Athens(405). — Agis  ii.  (iii.) 
reigned  338-331  B.C.;  endeavored 
to  crush  the  Macedonian  suprem- 
acy in  Greece  during  the  absence 
of  Alexander  the  Great  in  Asia. — 
Agis  hi.  (iv.),  king  from  245-241 
B.C.,  sought  to  revive  the  institu- 
tions of  Lycurgus,  but  was  put  to 
death  by  his  suspicious  subjects. 

Agist'ment,  a  legal  term  for 
the  contract  of  bailment  where- 
in one  man  pastures  another's 
cattle;  the  'agister,'  as  he  is  called, 
being  responsible  for  damages 
due  to  lack  of  care.  See  Bailment. 

Agitato,  a-gi-tii'to,  a  term  used 
in  music,  generally  along  with  al- 
legro or  presto,  to  denote  a  restless 
and  emotional  style. 

Agla'ophon,  the  name  of  two 
Greek  painters,  supposed  to  be 


Aglen 


100 


Agnus  Dei 


grandfather  and  grandson.  The 
elder  flourished  about  500  B.C.;  is 
famous  as  the  father  and  instruct- 
or of  Polygnotus  and  Aristophon. 
The  painting  of  the  Winged  Vic- 
lory,  mentioned  by  the  schohast 
on  the  Birds  of  Aristophanes,  is 
supposed  to  be  by  him.  Antheus 
mentions  two  pictures  by  the 
younger  (fl. 416 B.C.) — The  Crown- 
ing of  Alcibiades,  and  Nemea  with 
Alcibiades  on  Her  Knees. 

Aglen,  Francis  Arthur 
(1869),  Enghsh  pubhc  official,  en- 
tered the  Chinese  customs  service 
(1888),  and  frorn  1896  to  1910 
served  as  commissioner  and  in- 
spector-general at  Tientsin,  Nan- 
king, Shanghai,  Peking,  and  Han- 
kow. In  1910  he  became  deputy 
inspector-general  of  the  Maritime 
Customs  of  China,  and  in  the 
same  year  acting  inspector-gen- 
eral. In  that  capacity  he  intro- 
duced many  reforms — notably 
the  reorganization  of  the  outdoor 
staff  and  the  requirement  of  an 
adequate  knowledge  of  the  Chi- 
nese language  by  customs  officials. 
In  1911  he  succeeded  Sir  Robert 
Hart  as  inspector-general. 

Aglossa,  a-glos'a,  a  suborder  of 
frogs  characterized  by  absence  of 
the  tongue  and  a  single. pharyn- 
geal opening  of  the  Eustachian 
tubes.  It  includes  two  existing 
families  (Pipidce  and  Xenopidce) 
and  a  number  of  fossil  forms.  See 
Frogs. 

Agnadello,  Battle  of,  a-nyii- 
del'lo,  or  Battle  of  the  Rivolta 
(May  14,  1509),  Here,  after  the 
League  of  Cambray,  the  French 
under  Louis  xii.  defeated  the  Ve- 
netians. 

Agnano,  Lake  of,  a-nya'no, 
Italy,  2K  miles  west  of  Naples, 
filled  the  basin  of  an  extinct  cra- 
ter, but  was  drained  in  1870.  The 
carbon  dioxide  waters  are  now 
used  in  baths.  Near  it  is  the  fa- 
mous Grotto  del  Cane  and  the  sul- 
phurous baths  of  San  Germains. 

Ag'nates,  or  Agnati,  in  Ro- 
man law,  blood  relations  on  the 
father's  side,  tracing  their  descent 
exclusively  through  males — e.g., 
one's  father's  brother's  child,  but 
not  one's  father's  sister's  child. 
The  most  important  incident  of 
agnation  was  the  right  of  succes- 
sion which  it  conferred.  Justin- 
ian, however,  abolished  all  such 
privileges  of  the  agnates  over  the 
other  blood  relations.  In  such 
modern  systems  as  retain  the 
term,  a  person's  agnates  are  usu- 
ally those  of  his  kindred  who  are 
related  to  him  through  his  father, 
while  his  cognates  (q.  v.)  are  his 
relatives  through  his  mother. 

Agnel,  a  l<>ench  gold  coin  struck 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  ix.,  but 
not  used  after  the  time  of  Charles 
IX.  So  called  because  it  had  a  fig- 
ure of  the  paschal  lamb  (Agnus). 

Agnes,  St.,  a  beautiful  Roman 
Christian  in  the  time  of  Diocle- 
tian, who,  having  in  her  thirteenth 
year  repulsed  the  heathen  son  of 
Vol.  I— Mar.  '10 


the  praetor,  was  publicly  humili- 
ated. A  series  of  miracles  could 
not  save  her  from  the  execution- 
er's sword.  Her  festival  falls  on 
Jan.  21.  The  eve  is  known  as  St. 
Agnes'  Eve. 

Agnesi,  a-nya'ze,  Maria  Gae- 
TANA  (1718-99),  remarkable  for 
her  varied  attainments,  was  born 
at  Milan.  In  her  ninth  year  she 
could  converse  in  Latin,  and  later 
acquired  a  mastery  of  Greek, 
Hebrew,  French,  Spanish,  and 
German.  Of  her  philosophical 
discourses  with  learned  men,  her 
father  published  a  number  of 
specimens,  called  Propositiones 
Philosophicce  (1738).  In  1 748  she 
published  her  Instituzioni  Analit- 
iche.  She  succeeded  her  father  as 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Bo- 
logna, and  after  his  death  entered 
a  convent  at  Milan. 

Ag'new,  Daniel  Hayes  (1818- 
92) ,  American  surgeon,  was  born 
in  Lancaster  county.  Pa.,  and  was 
graduated  in  medicine  from  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  He 
founded  the  School  of  Operative 
Surgery  in  Philadelphia,  and  was 
professor  of  surgery  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  He  was 
one  of  the  surgeons  who  attended 
President  Garfield  after  he  was 
shot.  His  publications  include: 
Practical  Anatomy  (1867);  Prin- 
ciples and  Practice  of  Surgery 
(1878). 

Agni,  ag'ne,  in  Hindu  mythol- 
ogy god  of  fire  and  of  the  earth,  to 
whom  many  Vedic  hymns  are  ad- 
dressed. 

Agno'men,  a  name  added  by 
the  Romans  to  those  of  any  per- 
son, to  commemorate  his  services, 
or  in  allusion  to  his  character — 
e.g.,  Cnaeus  Marcius  Coriolanus. 

Agnone,  a-nyo'na,  town,  Cam- 
pobasso,  Italy,  on  the  western 
slope  of  the  Apennines;  22  miles 
northwest  of  Campobasso.  It 
has  iron  and  copper  industries. 
Pop.  10,500. 

Agnos'ticism,  a  word  intro- 
duced into  the  English  language 
by  Professor  Huxley,  in  1869, 
suggested  to  him  by  the  inscrip- 
tion, Ayvodo-Tw  6ew  ('To  an  Un- 
known God'),  which  the  Apostle 
Paul  saw  on  an  Athenian  altar 
(Acts  xvii.  23).  By  its  form  it 
suggests,  and,  Huxley  tells  us, 
was  meant  to  suggest,  a  theory 
the  exact  opposite  of  gnosticism 
(q.  v.),  which  was  a  vague  and 
theosophical  method  of  specula- 
tion widely  prevalent  in  the  early 
church. 

Agnosticism  restricts  our  cog- 
nition to  the  manifestations  and 
transformations  of  matter  and 
energy,  and  disclaims  all  knowl- 
edge of  spiritual  existence,  wheth- 
er of  God  or  man.  While  accept- 
ing the  conclusions  of  science  and 
sensible  experience,  it  rejects,  as 
unfounded  conjecture,  all  asser- 
tions regarding  the  unseen.  Ag- 
nostics are  careful,  however,  to 
guard    themselves   against  the 


charge  of  Atheism  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  philosophical  Mate- 
rialism on  the  other,  inasmuch  as 
these  theories  desert  the  purely 
nescient  attitude  with  regard  to 
spiritual  existence.  Agnostics  do 
not  deny  that  behind  the  phe- 
nomena of  knowing,  feeling,  and 
willing  there  may  be  a  permanent 
entity  or  soul;  but  they  maintain 
that  nothing  can  be  proved  or 
disproved  respecting  the  soul's 
distinct  existence,  substance,  or 
durabiHty.  Similarly,  they  admit 
that  behind  the  material  phenom- 
ena of  the  universe  there  may  ex- 
ist a  Universal  Being;  but  they 
hold  it  impossible  to  determine 
whether  or  not  the  nature  of  this 
Being  is  conscious  and  spiritual. 
To  all  such  questions  there  is  but 
one  answer:  we  do  not  know,  and 
nothing  leads  us  to  suppose  that 
we  shall  ever  know.  History, 
however,  appears  to  prove  that 
much  of  religious  agnosticism 
tends  to  issue  in  ultimate  scepti- 
cism. 

There  are  many  shades  and 
varieties  of  agnosticism,  but  all 
reasoned  and  systematic  forms  of 
it  at  the  present  day  are  based 
more  or  less  overtly  upon  the 
speculations  of  Kant  (q.  v.).  The 
conclusion  of  Kant's  critical  anal- 
ysis of  human  reason  is  that  we 
can  know  only  the  phenomenal, 
while  such  ideas  as  God,  the  soul, 
and  immortality  can  be  appre- 
hended only  by  practical  faith. 
The  negative  side  of  this  theory 
has  been  adopted  by  Herbert 
Spencer  (q.  v.),  whose  works 
present  the  most  elaborate  and 
impressive  exposition  of  agnos- 
ticism to  be  had  in  English.  Ag- 
nosticism will  always  be  found  to 
rest  upon  a  subjective  theory  of 
knowledge,  and  can  be  refuted 
only  by  the  demonstration  that 
our  knowledge  of  reality,  so  far 
as  it  goes,  is  genuine  and  trust- 
worthy. 

See  Phenomenalism;  Rela- 
tivity OF  Knowledge.  Consult 
Huxley's  Lectures  and  Essays; 
Spencer's  First  Principles;  Leslie 
Stephen's  An  Agnostic's  Apology; 
Flint's  A  gnosticism;  W.  .U 
Moore's  Glimpses  of  the  Next  State 
(1911).  A  masterly  criticism  of 
the  theory  is  to  be  found  in  Dr. 
James  Ward's  Naturalism  and 
Agnosticism  (Gifford  Lectures, 
1899). 

Agnos'tus,  an  important  genus 
of  trilobites  characteristic  of 
Cambrian  strata  in  Europe  and 
America,  The  head  and  tail 
shields  are  semicircular  in  out- 
line and  quite  similar;  the  thorax 
consists  of  two  segments;  and 
there  are  no  eyes.  See  Trilo- 
bite. 

Ag'nus  De'i  (Latin  'Lamb  of 
God'),  a  title  of  the  Saviour  (John 
i.  29);  hence  a  symbolical  repre- 
sentation of  Christ  as  a  lam  I  )  with 
a  halo,  and  supporting  a  banner, 
as  found  in  the  catacombs.  Also 


Agonic  Lines 


101 


Agra 


the  figure  of  a  lamb  impressed 
on  wax  from  the  Paschal  candles 
and  blessed  by  the  Pope  on  the 
Thursday  following  Easter.  Also 
a  prayer  which  since  the  sixth 
century  has  been  used  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Mass — Agnus  Dei,  qui 
tollis  peccata  mundi,  miserere 
nobis. 

In  the  Greek  Church  the  cloth 
which  covers  the  chalice  is  known 
as  an  Agnus  Dei,  this  symbol 
being  embroidered  upon  it.  In 
mediaeval  heraldry  and  religion 
the  Agnus  Dei  was  associated 
with  St.  John,  and  was  conse- 
quently borne  by  those  under  the 
patronage  of  that  Saint. 

Agon'ic  Lines,  imaginary  lines 
on  the  earth's  surface  connecting 
those  points  where  the  magnetic 
needle  shows  no  declination. 
There  are  two  such — a  smaller, 
contained  entirely  in  Siberia  and 
China;  and  a  larger,  which  passes 
through  Russia,  the  Indian  Ocean, 
Australia,  Antarctic  Ocean, 
Brazil,  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  East- 
ern Canada.  See  Magnetism, 
Terrestrial. 

Agony  Column,  a  column  in 
English  newspapers  devoted  to 
personal  advertisements,  such  as 
notices  of  losses,  disappearances, 
mysterious  communications,  be- 
quests and  such  matters.  These 
notices  are  often  in  cipher.  In 
American  newspapers  the  per- 
sonal column  is  its  prototype. 

Agoo,  a-go'o,  pueblo,  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands;  in  La  Union 
province;  20  miles  south  of  San 
Fernando.  Sugar  cane,  cotton, 
corn,  and  rice  are  produced. 
East  of  the  town  is  Mount  Santo 
Tomas  (7,418  feet).  Pop.  (1918) 
12,517. 

Agora,  ag'6-ra  (Greek  'assem- 
bly'), the  market  place  of  an- 
cient Greek  towns,  corresponding 
to  the  Roman /orwm,  and  the  cen- 
tre of  the  religious,  commercial, 
and  political  life  of  the  town  or 
city.  The  most  famous  agorae 
were  those  of  Elis  and  Athens, 
the  latter  being  a  large  irregular 
area  bordered  by  the  Acropolis, 
Colonos  Agoraeus  Hill,  and  the 
Areopagus  Hill.    See  Athens. 

Agoraptiobia,  ag'o-ra-fo'bi-a 
(Greek  'fear  of  the  public 
square'),  a  nervous  disease  char- 
acterized by  fear  in  certain  situa- 
tions, usually  large  spaces.  The 
patient  suffers  palpitation  of  the 
heart,  trembling,  coldness,  and 
other  symptoms  of  terror,  which 
come  upon  him  suddenly  in  the 
market  place,  street,  or  theatre, 
and  cause  him  to  go  around 
rather  than  cross  open  or  crowded 
spaces.  Improvement  in  general 
health  and  keeping  the  mind 
well  occupied  usually  drive  it 
away. 

Ago'sta,  city,  Sicily.  See 
Augusta. 

Agoue,  a-gwe',  seaport  town, 
West  Africa,  in  Dahomey,  be- 


tween Great  and  Little  Pope. 
Pop.  5,000.  _ 

Agoult,  a-goo',  Marie  Cath- 
erine Sophie  de  Flavigny, 
Comtesse  d'  (1805-76),  French 
author  whose  pseudonym  was 
'Daniel  Stern,'  daughter  of  Vi- 
comte  Flavigny  and  Marie 
Bethmann  of  the  Frankfort 
banking  family,  was  born  in 
Frankfort-on-Main.  She  was 
educated  in  Paris  and  in  1827 
married  Count  d'Agoult,  but  left 
him  to  live  with  Franz  Liszt. 
She  travelled  much  in  Switzer- 
land, where  she  met  George 
Sand,  and  in  Germany  and  Italy. 
To  Liszt  she  bore  a  son  and  two 
daughters,   of   whom  Blandine 


Guiana,  Brazil,  and  Peru,  usually 
making  its  home  at  the  foot  of 
trees.  It  is  active  and  graceful, 
and  in  cultivated  places,  when  in 
search  of  food,  often  does  much 
damage  to  sugar  plantations 
and  the  like.  The  young  ones 
are  said  to  be  easily  tamable. 
Farther  south,  this  form  is  repre- 
sented by  Azara's  agouti  (D. 
azarce),  and  in  the  north  by  a 
smaller  form,  the  acouchy  {D. 
acouchy) . 

Agra,  a'gra,  third  city  of  the 
United  Provinces  of  Agra  and 
Oudh,  India,  and  the  capital  of 
Agra  district,  is  situated  on  the 
Jumna  River;  139  miles  south- 
east of  Delhi  by  rail.   The  native 


©  F.  Firth  &  Co.  Ltd. 

Agra. 


■The  Taj  Mahal,  or  'Peerless  Tomb' 


married  Emile  Ollivier,  and 
Cosima  married  first  Hans  von 
Billow  and  later  Richard  Wag- 
ner. Her  salon  was  long  a 
rendezvous  for  many  prominent 
men  and  women.  Her  published 
works  include  Nelida  (1845),  an 
autobiographical  romance;  Let- 
ires  republicaines  (1848);  Hisloire 
de  la  revolution  de  18^8  (1851-3); 
Esquisses  morales  et  politiques 
(1849),  by  which  she  is  best 
known;  Mes  souvenirs,  1806-33 
(1877). 

Agouta,  a-goo'ta,  a  small,  rat- 
like insectivore  {Solenodon  para- 
doxus) of  Haiti,  closely  related 
to  the  Almiqui.    See  Almiqui. 

Agouti,  a-gob'ti  (Dasyprocta 
agouti),  a  large  South  American 
rodent  allied  to  the  guinea  pig. 
It  is  about  18  to  20  inches  long; 
the  color  of  its  coarse  hair  varies 
from  brown  to  yellow;  the  form 
is  compact;  the  legs  are  slender 
and  pig-like,  with  three  toes  on 
the  hind  feet;  the  ears  small  and 
rounded;  the  tail  rudimentary. 
The  agouti  lives  in  the  forests  of 


city  originally  covered  11  square 
miles,  about  half  of  which  is  now 
occupied.  To  the  south  is  the 
British  cantonment,  within  which 
are  the  barracks,  hotels,  post 
office,  banks,  and  public  gardens. 

Architecturally,  Agra  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  cities  of 
India;  and  some  of  the  public 
buildings,  monuments  of  the 
house  of  Timur,  are  on  a  scale  of 
striking  magnificence.  Within 
the  walls  of  the  Fort,  built  on 
the  banks  of  the  Jumna  by  Ak- 
bar,  are  the  palace  and  audience 
halls  of  Shah  Jehan;  the  Moti 
Masjid  or  Pearl  Mosque,  so  called 
for  its  beautiful  interior  of  white 
marble;  the  Jama  Masjid  or 
Great  Mosque;  and  other 
mosques  and  pavilions.  Without 
the  city,  about  a  mile  to  the  east 
of  the  Fort,  is  the  famous  Taj 
Mahal,  considered  by  many  to  be 
the  most  beautiful  building  in 
the  world  (see  Taj  Mahal). 

Of  British  edifices  in  and  near 
the  city,  the  principal  are  Gov- 
ernment    House,  Government 

Vol.  I.— March  '28 


Agra  and  Oudh 


102 


Agrlcola 


College,  Agra  Medical  School, 
St.  John's  College,  the  Roman 
Catholic  Cathedral,  convent,  and 
school,  and  the  English  church. 

Agra  has  excellent  railway  fa- 
cilities, and  is  of  considerable 
importance  commercially.  The 
principal  articles  of  trade  are 
cotton,  tobacco,  salt,  grain,  and 
sugar.  There  are  manufactures 
of  shoes,  pipe  stems,  gold  lace, 
gold  and  silver  embroidery,  carv- 
ing in  soapstone,  and  of  inlaid 
mosaic  work,  for  which  Agra  is 
famous. 

The  mean  annual  temperature 
is  79°  F.;  and  there  is  a  hot, 
rainy  season  from  April  to  Sep- 
tember. The  most  important 
suburb  is  Sikandarah,  which 
contains  the  mausoleum  of  the 
Emperor  Akbar. 

Agra  is  held  in  great  veneration 
by  the  Hindus  as  the  scene  of 
the  incarnation  of  Vishnu  under 
the  name  of  Parasu  Rama.  It 
first  rose  to  importance  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  until  1658  was  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Mogul  sovereigns.  In 
that  year  Aurangzeb  removed 
the  seat  of  government  to  Delhi. 
In  1784  the  city  was  taken  by 
Sindhia,  and  was  held  by  the 
Mahrattas  until  1803,  when  it 
was  captured  by  Lord  Lake. 
From  1835  to  1858  it  was  the 
seat  of  government  of  the  North- 
west Provinces,  and  in  the  mu- 
tiny of  1857  it  stood  a  siege  of 
several  months.  Pop.  (1921) 
185,532. 

Agra  and  Oudh.  See  United 
Provinces. 

Agra  Canal,  an  irrigation  and 
navigation  canal  which  taps  the 
Indian  River  Jumna,  10  miles 
below  Delhi,  and  re-enters  20 
miles  below  Agra.  It  has  branches 
to  that  city  and  to  Muttra. 

Agram,  a'gram,  or  Zagreb, 
city,  Serb-Croat-Slovene  State, 
situated  at  the  foot  of  a  richly 
wooded  range  of  mountains, 
about  2  miles  from  the  River 
Save,  and  142  miles  northeast 
of  Fiume  by  rail.  Features  of 
interest  are  the  Cathedral,  a 
fine  Gothic  building  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  Governor's 
Palace,  National  Theatre,  Archi- 
episcopal  Palace,  and  Academy 
of  Sciences.  Industries  include 
the  manufacture  of  tobacco, 
leather,  linen,  porcelain,  and 
silk.  There  is  a  good  trade  in 
grain  and  wine.  Repeated  shocks 
of  earthquake  in  November, 
1880,  destroyed  most  of  the 
public  buildings.  Agram  is  a 
centre  of  learning  and  has  a 
university  founded  in  1874,  as 
well  as  other  educational  institu- 
tions. Until  after  the  Great 
War  it  was  a  city  of  Hungary. 
Pop.  (1921)  108,338. 

Agramonte,  a-gra-mon'ta,  Ig- 
NACio  (1841-73),  Cuban  lawyer, 
was  born  in  Puerto  Principe,  and 

Vol.  I. — March  '28 


studied  law  at  the  University  of 
Havana.  He  took  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1868;  was  secretary 
of  the  provisional  government 
(1869);  and  led  the  revolutionary 
forces  in  the  Camaguey  district. 
He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of 
Jimaguayu. 

Agrapha     of    Jesus.  See 

LOGIA. 

Agraph'ia,  a  nervous  com- 
plaint, analogous  to  aphasia,  in 
which  the  patient  is  unable  to 
write  what  he  means.  See 
Aphasia. 

Agra'rian  Laws,  the  term 
used  to  denote  the  legislation  of 
the  ancient  Romans  dealing  with 
the  ager  publicus  or  public  do- 
main. These  laws  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  Roman  history, 
their  object  being  to  utilize  the 
public  lands  for  the  greatest 
public  good.  As  the  Roman 
power  was  extended  through 
victories  over  surrounding  tribes 
and  nations,  large  portions  of 
territory  were  appropriated  by 
the  state.  The  use  of  these 
public  lands  came  largely  into  the 
hands  of  the  patrician  families, 
who,  by  means  of  slave  labor, 
were  able  to  cultivate  huge 
farms  at  infinitesimal  cost. 

The  demands  of  the  plebeians 
to  share  in  the  distribution  of  the 
ager  publicii  commenced  early. 
In  the  year  486  B.C.,  it  is  said, 
the  consul  Spurius  Cassius 
brought  in  the  first  agrarian  bill. 
He  was  not  successful,  however, 
and  fell  a  victim  to  the  vengeance 
of  the  infuriated  patrician  order. 
In  367  B.C.  the  plebeian  tribunes, 
Lucius  Licinius  Stolo  and  Lucius 
Sextius,  after  a  struggle  of  ten 
years,  enacted  the  famous  Leges 
Liciniae  Sextiae,  one  of  the  provi- 
sions of  which  was  that  no 
citizen  should  hold  more  than 
500  jugera  of  public  agricultural 
land,  nor  feed  more  than  100 
head  of  large  or  500  head  of  small 
cattle  on  the  public  pastures. 
In  all  cases  the  usual  rates  were 
to  be  paid  to  the  public  treasury, 
and  each  occupier  was  bound  to 
employ  so  much  free  labor. 

For  a  time  these  laws  had  a 
beneficial  effect,  but  afterward 
fell  into  desuetude.  Once  more 
the  possession  of  real  property 
fell  into  the  hands  of  large  own- 
ers, all  the  more  as  trade  was  for- 
bidden to  men  of  senatorial  rank, 
who  in  consequence  were  com- 
pelled to  invest  their  capital  in 
land.  The  cultivation  of  grain 
was  now  abandoned  by  the  hold- 
ers of  these  vast  estates  {lali- 
fundia),  in  favor  of  the  less  toil- 
some breeding  of  cattle  by  which 
process  a  feeble  class  of  herdsmen 
were  substituted  for  the  former 
vigorous  peasantry. 

In  133,  however,  the  tribune 
Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus 
turned  back  to  the  agrarian  law 
of  Licinius  and  Sextius,  and  had 


the  boldness  to  propose  that  no 
one  should  possess  more  than  500 
jugera  of  state  land  for  himself, 
and  250  each  for  grown  sons, 
provided  always  that  not  more 
than  1,000  jugera  came  into 
the  hands  of  one  family.  The 
lands  recovered  by  this  measure 
were  to  be  given  out  in  lots  of  30 
jugera  to  poor  citizens  and  allies 
on  an  inalienable  tenure.  The 
energy  of  Gracchus  succeeded  in 
carrying  the  measure  in  spite  of 
patrician  opposition,  but  both 
he  and  his  brother  and  supporter 
Gains  ultimately  fell  victims  to 
the  vengeance  of  the  aristocratic 
order.  The  'Sempronian  laws,' 
as  the  legislation  of  the  Gracchi 
was  termed,  though  not  formally 
repealed,  were  thereafter  evaded 
and  rendered  practically  inop- 
erative. Various  agrarian  laws 
were  subsequently  passed,  the 
object  and  intention  of  which 
was  directly  contrary  to  those  of 
the  Gracchi. 

The  name  Agrarian  Laws  was 
formerly  associated  with  the  idea 
of  interference  with  private 
property  in  land,  and  with  the 
application  thereto  of  communis- 
tic principles.  Thus  the  French 
Convention  in  1793  passed  an  act 
punishing  with  death  any  one 
who  should  propose  an  agrarian 
law,  in  the  sense  of  a  bill  for  the 
equal  distribution  of  the  soil 
among  all  citizens.  It  has  now 
been  conclusively  proved  that 
the  Roman  laws  of  that  name 
had  reference  solely  to  public  or 
state  lands,  not  to  those  held  in 
private  ownership.  See  Land 
Laws. 

Agreda,  a-gra'da,  Maria  Fer- 

NANDE      CORONEL,    ABBESS  OF 

(1602-65),  known  to  the  convent 
as  Maria  de  Jesus.  She  had  di- 
vine revelations  even  in  child- 
hood, Samaniego  tells  us,  and 
her  whole  family  entered  the 
religious  life.  She  embodied  her 
inspiration  in  a  life  of  the  Virgin, 
Mystica  Ciudad  de  Dios,  which  is 
full  of  apocryphal  history.  She 
started  a  valuable  correspon- 
dence with  Philip  IV.,  wherein 
she  probably  was  the  mouthpiece 
of  the  Franciscans  in  general. 
Translated  into  French,  Italian, 
and  German,  her  book  is  still 
read  by  upholders  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception. 

Agreement.    See  Contract. 

Agricola,  a-grik'6-la,  CNiEUS 
Julius  (37-93),  a  distinguished 
Roman  of  imperial  times,  dis- 
tinguished not  less  by  his  great 
abilities  as  a  statesman  and  a 
soldier  than  by  the  beauty  of  his 
private  character,  was  born  in 
Forum  Julii  (now  Frejus  in 
Provence).  Having  served  with 
distinction  in  Britain,  Asia, 
and  Aquitania,  and  filled  vari- 
ous civil  offices,  he  was  in 
77  A.D.  elected  consul,  and  in 
the   following   year  proceeded 


Agricola 


103 


Agricultural  Education 


as  governor  to  Britain.  He  not 
only  effectually  subdued  the 
island,  but  reconciled  most  of  the 
inhabitants  to  the  Roman  yoke. 
In  A.D.  86  he  defeated  the  Cale- 
donians at  Mons  Grampius  and 
circumnavigated  the  island.  The 
line  of  his  chain  of  forts  between 
the  Clyde  and  the  Forth  can  still 
be  traced.  The  jealousy  of  the 
Emperor  Domitian  caused  his 
removal,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
hastened  his  death  (a.d.  93) 
His  Life  by  his  son-in-law  Taci- 
tus is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  biography 
in  literature. 

Agricola,  Georg,  whose  real 
name  was  Bauer  (1494-1555), 
the  founder  of  the  modern  science 
of  mineralogy,  and  a  valued 
teacher  of  practical  mining  in 
Germany,  was  born  in  Glauchau, 
Saxony.  He  practised  as  a 
physician  at  Chemnitz  (1531 
onward) ;  and  at  Joachimsthal, 
a  mining  and  smelting  village, 
took  up  the  study  of  minerals, 
which  he  was  the  first  to  systema- 
tize into  a  logical  system  in  his 
De  Re  Metallica. 

Agricola,  Johann  (1492- 
1566)  (originally  Schnitter  or 
Schneider,  called  also  Magis- 
TER  IsLEBius  from  his  birth- 
place, Eisleben),  was  one  of  the 
most  zealous  founders  of  Prot- 
estantism. He  was  sent  in 
1525  by  Luther  to  institute  the 
Protestant  worship  in  Frankfort. 
After  his  return  he  held  a  chair 
at  Wittenberg,  which,  however, 
he  had  to  resign  because  of  his 
opposition  to  Luther  and  Me- 
lanchthon.  He  retired  to  Ber- 
lin, where  he  became  court 
preacher  to  the  elector,  and  there 
he  died.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  drawing  up  of  the  Augs- 
burg Interim,  and  wrote  many 
theological  books;  but  his  col- 
lection of  German  proverbs  gives 
him  his  best  claim  to  lasting 
fame.  Consult  Kawerau's  Jo- 
hann Agricola. 

Agricola,  Rodolphus  (1443- 
1485),  the  foremost  scholar  of 
the  '  New  Learning '  in  Germany, 
was  born  near  Groningen,  in 
Friesland.  His  real  name,  Roe- 
lof  Huysmann  ('husbandman'), 
he  Latinized  into  Agricola.  He 
entered  into  a  close  friendship 
with  Dalberg,  later  bishop  of 
Worms,  and  afterward  endeav- 
ored, in  connection  with  several 
of  his  former  co-disciples  and 
friends,  to  promote  a  taste  for 
literature  and  eloquence.  Sev- 
eral cities  of  Holland  vainly 
strove  with  each  other  to  obtain 
his  presence.  At  length,  yield- 
ing (1483)  to  the  solicitations  of 
Dalberg,  he  established  himself 
in  the  Palatinate,  where  he  so- 
journed alternately  at  Heidelberg 
and  Worms,  dividing  his  time 
between  private  studies  and  pub- 
lic lectures.  He  distinguished  him- 
self also  as  a  musician  and  painter. 
Vol.  I— March  '21 


Agricultural  Associations, 

voluntary  organizations  of  farm- 
ers and  others,  having  for 
their  purpose  the  advancement 
of  agriculture  and  the  mutual 
benefit  of  their  members.  The 
earlier  associations  were  almost 
wholly  educational,  their  activi- 
ties consisting  in  meetings  and 
conferences,  experimentation 
with  new  methods  of  farming  and 
stock  raising,  fairs  and  exhibits, 
and  the  publication  of  agricul- 
tural journals.  Many  of  these 
societies  exerted  a  marked  in- 
fluence on  legislation,  obtaining 
important  State  and  national 
concessions  in  the  interests  of 
agriculture.  In  recent  years  the 
emphasis  has  been  upon  organ- 
ization for  economic  purposes, 
and  farmers  now  co-operate 
through  associations  in  produc- 
tion, transportation,  and  mar- 
keting, as  well  as  for  the  pur- 
chase of  agricultural  requisites, 
the  provision  of  credit  facilities, 
and  agricultural  insurance. 

Agricultural  associations,  lo- 
cal, regional,  and  national  in 
scope,  are  found  in  all  the  civi- 
lized countries  of  the  world; 
and  there  is  an  International 
Institute  of  Agriculture,  estab- 
lished in  1905.  See  Co-opera- 
tion ;  Grange;  Farmer's  Alli- 
ance. Consult  Pratt's  Agricul- 
tural Organization  (1912). 

Agricultural  Chemistry.  See 
Chemistry:  Agricultural  Chem- 
istry. ' 

Agricultural  Co-operation. 
See  Co-operation  in  Agricul- 
ture. 

Agricultural    Credit.  See 

Rural  Credits. 

Agricultural  Education.  Al- 
though agriculture  is  the  oldest 
and  most  important  of  human 
occupations,  it  was  not  provided 
with  special  scientific  training 
until  a  comparatively  recent 
date.  The  growing  importance 
of  stock  raising  and  dairy  farm- 
ing in  Denmark  led  to  the 
creation  of  a  veterinary  college 
at  Copenhagen  in  1773,  which 
afterward  became  the  Royal 
Veterinary  and  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. This  was  followed  by  the 
founding  of  a  chair  of  agricul- 
ture at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh in  1790,  a  chair  of  rural 
economy  at  Oxford  in  1796,  a 
high-grade  agricultural  school 
at  Krumman,  Austria,  in  1799, 
another  at  Moglin,  Germany, 
in  1807,  and  the  first  in  France 
at  Nancy  in  1822,  followed  by 
Grignon  in  1829,  and  Grand- 
jouan  in  1830. 

United  States. — Columbia 
College,  in  New  York,  estab- 
lished a  'professorship  for  nat- 
ural history,  chemistry,  and  agri- 
culture' as  early  as  1792,  and  a 
professorship  of  natural  history 
was  created  at  Harvard  in  1801 
The  first  practical  school  of  agri- 
culture was  the  Gardiner  Lyceum 


in  Maine,  which,  receiving  a 
grant  of  money  from  the  State, 
was  opened  in  1823,  and  flour- 
ished for  many  years.  It  was 
designed  for  the  education  of 
farmers  and  mechanics,  and  its 
equipment  included  a  farm.  A 
similar  school  was  opened  at 
Derby,  Conn.,  in  1826,  and  with- 
in a  few  years  there  were  several 
schools  in  which  instruction  in 
agriculture  was  given  in  that 
State  and  in  New  York.  In  1846 
the  chair  of  agricultural  chem- 
istry and  vegetable  and  animal 
physiology  was  established  at 
Yale. 

The  State  of  Michigan  pro- 
vided in  her  constitution  for  an 
agricultural  college,  and  after 
the  selection  of  an  admirable 
site  near  Lansing,  the  new 
capital,  the  college  was  opened  in 
1857,  the  first  public  institution 
of  that  character  in  the  United 
States.  State  agricultural  col- 
leges were  opened  in  Maryland 
and  Pennsylvania  in  1859. 

In  1862  the  Morrill  Land 
Grant  Act,  which  marks  an  im- 
portant stage  in  the  development 
of  agricultural  education  in  the 
United  States,  was  signed  by 
President  Lincoln.  This  Act, 
proposed  by  Senator  J.  S.  Mor- 
rill (q.  v.),  donated  to  each  State 
and  Territory  30,000  acres  of 
public  lands  for  each  Senator  and 
Member  of  Congress  at  that  time, 
the  proceeds  to  constitute  a 
fund  to  endow  and  support  State 
colleges  for  the  benefit  of  agri- 
culture and  the  mechanical  arts. 
Some  of  the  States  divided  the 
fund;  some  located  and  sold  the 
lands  unwisely;  while  others 
turned  the  gift  into  a  magnificent 
patrimony.  In  1890  Senator 
Morrill  secured  the  passage  of 
the  Second  Morrill  Act,  which 
now  provides  the  sum  of  $25,000 
a  year  for  each  college.  In  1907 
Congress,  by  the  Nelson  Amend- 
ment, gave  each  college  an  addi- 
tional annual  endowment  of 
$25,000. 

In  1914  the  income  of  the 
State  colleges  was  still  further 
increased  by  the  passage  of  the 
Agricultural  Extension  Act, 
which  provides  for  an  appropria- 
tion of  $480,000  ($10,000  for 
each  State)  for  instruction  and 
practical  demonstration  in  agri- 
culture and  home  economics  for 
such  persons  as  do  not  attend 
the  sessions  of  the  colleges.  This 
sum  is  to  be  increased  each  suc- 
cessive year  for  seven  years,  at 
the  end  of  which  time  there  will 
be  a  permanent  annual  appro- 
priation of  $4,580,000  for  exten- 
sion work. 

Under  the  Morrill  Act  a  total 
of  10,320.843  acres  of  land  was 
granted.  In  1920,  67  institutions 
were  in  operation,  with  an  en- 
rollment, in  all  departments, 
of  123,000  students.  The  value 
of  the  property  of  these  institu- 


Agricultural  Education 


104 


Agricultural  Education 


tions  was  $184,400,000  in  1918. 
The  income  for  that  year  was 
$47,700,000.  Seventeen  sepa- 
rate schools  for  colored  students 
are  maintained.  In  1887  an 
act  of  Congress  made  provision 
for  the  establishment  of  experi- 
ment stations  at  these  colleges 
(see  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Stations). 

In  all  the  colleges  for  white 
persons,  and  in  several  of  those 
for  negroes,  a  four-year  course  of 
instruction  is  provided;  many 
also  make  provision  for  graduate 
study.  The  instruction  includes 
general  studies,  scientific  studies, 
and  technical  agriculture,  one- 
third  of  the  course  being  devoted 
to  each  group.  In  addition,  a 
shorter  two-year  course,  largely 
of  a  practical  nature,  is  offered  in 
many  of  these  institutions;  in 
others,  a  one-year  course  is, 
offered.  In  most  of  the  colleges 
winter  courses,  ranging  from  four 
to  twelve  weeks,  are  also  offered, 
which  are  widely  attended  by 
mature  farm  boys  who  are  un- 
able to  leave  home  at  other  times 
or  for  a  longer  period.  The  tui- 
tion in  these  short  courses  is  al- 
ways free,  while  in  most  colleges 
no  tuition  is  charged  to  residents 
of  the  State  for  the  longer 
courses.  Agricultural  experi- 
ment stations  are  conducted  by 
all  the  State  colleges,  and  farm- 
ers' institutes,  farmer's  read- 
ing clubs,  summer  sessions,  and 
correspondence  classes  by  many 
of  them. 

Among  the  technical  subjects 
pursued  at  the  agricultural  col- 
leges may  be  mentioned  the  fol- 
lowing: Agronomy,  soils,  farm 
equipment,  farm  crops,  plant 
breeding,  feeding  live  stock, 
breeding  live  stock,  farm  butch- 
ering, types  and  breeds  of 
farm  animals,  vegetable  garden- 
ing, fruit  growing,  landscape 
gardening,  dairying,  judging  live 
stock,  plant  diseases,  animal 
diseases,  insects,  rural  economics. 
These  group  subjects  are  further 
subdivided,  giving  each  student 
opportunity  to  specialize  along 
particular  lines. 

Special  schools  for  the  study  of 
agriculture  have  also  been  estab- 
lished in  nearly  all  the  States — 
the  State  legislature  providing 
the  funds  and  designating  the 
institutions  that  are  to  receive 
aid.  These  schools  are  not  com- 
petitors of  the  State  colleges, 
their  mission  being  to  give  agri- 
cultural training  in  connection 
with  the  lower  grades  of  study, 
on  a  par  with  what  is  called 
common  school  or  secondary  edu- 
cation. 

The  movement  that  has  gained 
the  greatest  headway  is  the 
teaching  of  agriculture  in  the 
public  schools.  Several  States 
now  require  agriculture  in  the 
school  courses,  placing  it  on  a 
par  with  reading,  writing,  and 
Vol.  I.— March  '21 


arithmetic.  EfTorts  are""  also 
being  directed  toward  the  enact- 
ment of  Federal  legislation  which 
shall  provide  national  aid  for 
special  schools  in  every  State  in 
which  agriculture,  domestic  sci- 
ence, and  manual  training  are 
taught;  give  similar  aid  to  exist- 
ing high  schools  that  teach  these 
subjects;  maintain  branch  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations  in 
connection  with  each  special 
school;  and  insure  Federal  aid 
for  the  training  of  teachers  at  the 
various  normal  colleges.  A  com- 
mission appointed  to  consider 
these  matters  reported  its  find- 
ings and  recommendations  -on 
June  1,  1914;  and  a  billrwas  in- 
troduced in  Congress  providing 
for  a  Federal  board  of  vocational 
education  and  granting  appro- 
priations for  the  State  prepara- 
tion of  teachers.  This  act  went 
into  effect  in  July,  1917.  (See 
Vocational  Education.) 

In  1916  the  ntunber  of  public 
high  schools  teaching  agriculture 
was  reported  as  2,175,  and  the 
number  of  students  of  secondary 
grade  studying  agriculture,  as 
24,743  boys  and  16,312  girls. 
There  were  68  special  secondary 
agricultural  schools  supported 
in  whole  or  in  part  by  the  States. 
In  addition  to  the  17  agri- 
cultural schools  for  negroes,  67 
other  negro  institutions  above 
elementary  grade  reported  agri- 
culture as  ^  part  of  the  curricu- 
lum. Definite  agricultural  in- 
struction is  also  becoming  a 
part  of  the  educational  work  in  a 
number  of  State  prisons,  reform- 
atories, and  schools  for  delin- 
quents.    (See  Gardening.) 

Canada. — In  Canada  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture  is  furnished 
chiefly  by  means  of  agricultural 
colleges  established  in  the  va- 
rious provinces.  Of  these  the 
foremost  is  the  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College  at  Guelph.  This 
college  is  affiliated  with  the 
University  of  Toronto,  and  com- 
prises some  twenty  main  build- 
ings, containing  classrooms  and 
scientific  laboratories,  and  a 
college  farm  of  over  seven  hun- 
dred acres,  a  large  part  of  which 
is  laid  out  in  experimental  plots. 
Instruction  is  given  in  both  agri- 
culture and  household  science. 
The  course  in  agriculture,  which 
covers  four  years,  leads  to  the 
degree  b.s.a.  (Bachelor  of  Sci- 
ence in  Agriculture) .  There  are, 
in  addition,  a  two-year  associate 
course  for  students  who  do  not 
wish  to  proceed  to  the  degree, 
and  a  number  of  short  courses, 
from  two  to  six  weeks  in  length, 
for  farmers  and  their  families. 
There  are  some  sixty  members  of 
the  teaching,  research,  and  ex- 
tension staff,  and  in  1920  there 
were  1,900  students  in  attend- 
ance, including  those  attending 
the  short  courses  and  special 
summer  courses  for  teachers 


Similar  colleges  have  been  es- 
tablished in  the  other  provinces. 
Nova  Scotia  has  maintained  an 
agricultural  school  at  Truro  for 
many  years.  Macdonald  Agri- 
cultural College,  about  twenty 
miles  from  Montreal,  is  an  incor- 
porated College  of  McGill  Uni- 
versity. Agricultural  colleges 
have  been  established  also  in 
connection  with  the  University 
of  Manitoba,  at  Winnipeg;  the 
University  of  Saskatchewan,  at 
Saskatoon;  the  University  of 
Alberta,  at  Edmonton;  and  the 
University  of  British  Columbia, 
at  Vancouver.  In  Ontario,  in 
addition  to  the  Agricultural 
College,  an  agricultural  school 
has  been  established  at  Kempt- 
ville,  and  in  Alberta  there  are 
six  agricultural  schools  at  dif- 
ferent centres.  Agricultural  so- 
cieties. Women's  Institutes,  trav- 
elling dairies,  live  stock  asso- 
ciations, fruit  growers'  associa- 
tions, and  bee-keepers'  associa- 
tions are  encouraged  and  aided 
by  the  provincial  governments, 
and  their  departments  of  agri- 
culture have  done  much  to  pro- 
mote the  interest  of  agricultural 
education  by  the  distribution 
of  bulletins.  The  Ontario  Ex- 
perimental Union  has  also  been 
active  in  encouraging  improved 
agricultural  methods. 

Agriculture  is  taught  as  part 
of  the  regular  work  of  the  public 
and  high  schools  in  a  number  of 
provinces  where  application  has 
been  made  by  the  boards  of 
trustees  for  the  establishment  of 
such  courses.  The  subject  also 
forms  part  of  the  course  for 
teachers-in-training  in  the  nor- 
mal schools,  and  special  summer 
courses  for  teachers  are  offered 
at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. The  teaching  of  agricul- 
ture in  public  and  high  schools  is 
liberally  encouraged  by  special 
government  grants. 

In  addition  to  the  agricultural 
instruction  which  is  furnished 
by  the  different  provinces,  the 
Dominion  Government  supplies 
information,  in  the  form  of  bulle- 
tins, with  respect  to  agricultural 
methods,  based  chiefly  on  the 
results  of  experiments.  It  main- 
tains also  five  experimental 
farms  and  eleven  experimental 
stations. 

Other  Countries. — The  best 
organized  systems  of  agricultural 
education  in  Europe  are  to  be 
found  in  France  and  Belgium. 
At  a  recent  date  there  were  in  the 
French  republic  16  special  farm 
schools  (fermes-ecoles),  46  prac- 
tical schools  of  agriculture,  6 
national  schools  of  agriculture 
and  horticulture,  3  veterinary 
schools,  a  shepherd's  school,  a 
dairy  school  at  MamiroUe,  a 
school  of  horticulture  at  Ver- 
sailles, a  veterinary  school  at 
Alfort,  a  school  of  forestry  at 
Nancy,  and  a  school  of  agricul- 


Agricultural  Education 


105 


Agriculture 


tural  industries  at  Douai.  Above 
all  these  is  the  National  Agro- 
nomic Institute  at  Paris,  where 
instruction  of  the  highest  grade 
is  given.  In  Belgium  the  govern- 
ment has  introduced  instruction 
in  the  elements  of  agriculture, 
horticulture,  and  forestry  in  all 
the  normal  and  primary  schools; 
while  higher  instruction  in  agri- 
culture is  given  at  Gembloux 
and  Louvain,  secondary  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture  at  60  different 
state  and  private  schools,  and  in 
horticulture  at  7  schools,  in  vet- 
erinary science  at  Cureghem,  and 
in  forestry  at  Bouillon. 

Although  Germany  has  devel- 
oped no  system  like  that  of 
France,  the  empire  possesses  a 
large  number  of  farm  schools 
(Ackerbau-schulen)  and  a  num- 
ber of  schools  of  secondary  and 
higher  grade.  There  are  also 
special  courses  of  agriculture  in 
schools  of  a  secondary  grade,  and 
agricultural  institutes  in  connec- 
tion with  many  of  the  univer- 
sities. The  Royal  Agricultural 
High  Schools  at  Berlin  and  Pop- 
pelsdorf  are  widely  and  favor- 
ably known;  while  the  forestry 
schools  in  Germany,  some  five  or 
six  in  number,  are  considered  the 
best  in  the  world. 

While  some  of  the  agricultural 
colleges  of  Great  Britain  rank 
high,  progress  there  has  not  been 
commensurate  with  that  in  other 
branches  of  learning.  Something 
has  been  done  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland  toward  teaching  agricul- 
ture in  the  public  schools,  and 
of  late  England  has  made  suc- 
cessful efforts  in  that  direction. 
Ireland  has  two  excellent  insti- 
tutions in  the  Albert  Institute  at 
Glasnevin  and  the  Munster 
Dairy  School.  In  England  there 
are  the  Royal  Agricultural  Col- 
lege at  Cirencester,  the  South- 
eastern Agricultural  College  at 
Wye,  and  agricultural  depart- 
ments in  connection  with  Cam- 
bridge University  and  many  col- 
leges. 

In  the  British  colonies  much 
has  been  accomplished.  There 
are  a  dozen  agricultural  colleges 
in  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
South  Africa,  and  an  excellent 
veterinary  school  and  forestry 
school  in  India. 

Though  one  of  the  smallest 
states  in  Europe,  Denmark  has 
promoted  the  prosperity  of  her 
people  by  providing  them  with  44 
agricultural  high  schools.  In 
addition,  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  Denmark  sends  out 
veterinary  and  dairy  experts  to 
assist  and  instruct  the  people. 
Sweden  has  an  Agricultural  In- 
stitute at  Ultuna  and  an  Agricul- 
tural and  Dairy  Institute  at  Al- 
narp,  founded  respectively  in 
1849  and  1862.  Norway  has  a 
Higher  Agricultural  School  at 
Aas,  dating  from  1859.  Finland 


has  an  Agricultural  and  Dairy 
Institute  at  Mustiala,  founded 
in  1840.  In  these  four  northern 
countries  there  are  no  less  than 
159  agricultural,  horticultural, 
forestry  and  dairy  schools  of  all 
grades. 

In  Russia  the  government  sus- 
tains about  75  agricultural 
schools  or  institutes,  located  in 
different  parts  of  the  empire  and 
affiliated  with  the  universities  at 
Kazan,  Kiev,  and  Moscow. 
Provision  is  also  made  for  courses 
in  the  secondary  schools. 

In  Austria-Hungary  there  are 
6  high-grade  agricultural  schools, 
6  forestry  schools,  and  over  150 
of  all  grades  devoted  to  general 
and  special  instruction  in  agri- 
culture. Switzerland  is  liberally 
provided  with  educational  facili- 
ties in  agriculture,  dairying  and 
forestry;  and  the  Federal  Poly- 
technic School,  at  Zurich,  devotes 
two  of  its  six  courses  to  agricul- 
ture and  forestry.  In  Italy  there 
are  agricultural  colleges  at  Milan 
and  Portici,  and  about  30  gen- 
eral and  special  schools  of  a  sec- 
ondary grade  scattered  through- 
out the  kingdom. 

Japan  is  making  great  prog- 
ress, and  an  agricultural  school 
was  opened  in  Egypt  in  1898. 
Of  the  Latin-American  countries, 
Brazil  and  Chile  have  done  most; 
efforts  have  also  been  made  in 
Mexico,  Argentina,  and  Uruguay 
to  provide  instruction  in  agri- 
culture. 

Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tions are  institutions  or  depart- 
ments devoted  to  practical,  sys- 
tematic investigations  in  the 
science  of  agriculture.  The  first 
public  experiment  station  was 
opened  near  Leipzig,  Germany, 
in  1851,  in  connection  with  the 
University  of  that  city.  Such 
stations  are  now  maintained  in 
almost  every  civilized  country, 
and  are  usually  supported  by 
the  government. 

United  Stales.  —  Experiment 
stations  are  to  be  found  in  every 
State,  as  well  as  in  Alaska,  Porto 
Rico,  Hawaii,  and  Guam.  These 
stations  are  maintained  by  the 
several  States,  and  each  station 
receives  an  annual  appropriation 
of  S30,000  from  the  Federal 
Government  under  the  Hatch 
Act  of  1887  and  the  Adams  Act 
of  1906.  Of  this  sum,  $15,000 
is  'to  be  applied  only  to  paying 
the  necessary  expenses  of  con- 
ducting original  researches  or 
experiments  bearing  directly  on 
the  agricultural  industry  of  the 
United  States.'  In  1912  the 
total  income  of  the  stations  was 
$4,068,240,  of  which  $1,440,000 
was  received  from  the  National 
(Government. 

With  few  exceptions  the  ex- 
periment stations  are  depart- 
ments of  the  land-grant  agricul- 
tural colleges,  but  in  some  in- 


stances the  subsidy  has  been 
divided  between  two  stations. 
There  are  also  separate  stations 
maintained  wholly  or  in  part  by 
State  funds  in  Alabama,  Connec- 
ticut, New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Hawaii,  Louisiana,  North  Caro- 
lina, Virginia,  and  Missouri.  In 
1913  there  was  a  total  of  64 
stations  in  the  United  States. 

A  vast  amount  of  valuable  re- 
search and  experimental  work 
has  been  accomplished  at  these 
stations;  and  the  results  have 
been  published  in  special  reports, 
bulletins,  circulars,  and  press 
notices  for  free  distribution. 
They  also  encourage  private  ex- 
periments, and  publish  the  re- 
sults, and  give  advice  and  in- 
formation to  farmers  on  applica- 
tion. The  stations  are  represent- 
ed in  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  by  the  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations. 

The  bulletins  issued  by  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Stations 
are  devoted  to  special  subjects, 
and  embody  the  results  of  the 
latest  researches.  Every  sub- 
ject connected  with  agriculture 
is  included.  They  are  free  to  all 
citizens  of  the  State  in  which  the 
station  is  located,  and  are  sent 
to  other  applicants  when  the 
supply  permits.  The  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  also 
publishes  an  exceptionally  valu- 
able list  of  Farmers'  Bulletins, 
which  are  distributed  gratuitous- 
ly on  application  to  members  of 
Congress  or  to  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture.  These  publications 
enable  the  farmer  to  acquire  a 
complete  and  valuable  working 
library  at  no  other  expense  than 
the  postage  on  his  letters  of 
application. 

In  addition,  the  Office  of  Ex- 
periment Stations  issues  a  pub- 
lication entitled  the  Experiment 
Station  Record,  which  is  especial- 
ly useful  to  the  progressive 
farmer.  It  summarizes  the  work 
of  all  the  experiment  stations 
and  of  the  various  divisions  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  reviews  the  world's  litera- 
ture on  scientific  agriculture  for 
the  benefit  of  investigators,  in- 
cluding abstracts  of  the  experi- 
ments reported  in  the  leading 
agricultural  publications  and  for- 
eign works.  Two  volumes  are 
issued  annually,  each  consisting 
of  nine  numbers,  which  are  sold 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Docu- 
ments, Washington,  D.  C,  at  $1 
a  volume. 

Agriculture.  In  a  broad  sense. 
Agriculture  includes  Horticulture 
and  Forestry,  as  well  as  what  is 
ordinarily  called  Farming.  The 
dividing  line  between  these  sub- 
jects cannot  be  sharply  drawn, 
and  in  particular  farming  and 
horticulture  overlap  each  other 
at  various  points.  In  this  ar- 
ticle, agriculture  will  be  used  in 


Agriculture 


106 


Agriculture 


December. 

Agriculture  in  the  Eleventh  Century. 
(From  a  calendar  of  the  twelve  months  prefixed  to  an  English  Hymnarium.) 


its  narrower  sense  as  synonymous 
with  farming;  the  subject  of 
horticulture  being  separately  con- 
sidered under  the  title  Garden- 
ing, and  that  of  forestry  in  the 
article  on  Forestry. 

The  scope  of  the  subject  may 
be  best  realized  by  considering 
the  various  matters  which  must 
engage  the  attention  of  the  agri- 
culturist. Besides  cultivated 
fields,  he  may  possess  extensive 
woods,  grazing  land,  lakes,  and 
streams,  all  of  which  are  capable 
of  development.  The  cultivated 
land  cannot  be  tilled  without  im- 
plements  and   farm  buildings; 


while  both  it  and  the  pasturet 
require  a  varied  knowledge  of 
live  stock.  The  interests  involved 
are  therefore  very  numerous,  and 
it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that 
for  the  thorough  understanding 
of  them  all,  nearly  every  branch 
of  human  knowledge  must  be 
laid  under  contribution. 

Agriculture  demands  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  soil,  atmosphere,  cli- 
mate, and  meteorology.  Still  more 
directly  does  it  involve  a  knowl- 
edge of  vegetable  life,  not  only 
as  regards  crops,  but  also  weeds, 
crop  enemies,  fungoid  attacks, 
and    poisonous    and  injurious 


plants.  Forage  plants  alone 
form  a  group  of  the  first  interest 
to  farmers.  In  ascending  series, 
all  the  phenomena  of  animal  life 
are  observable  in  live  stock — the 
anatomy,  physiology,  pathology, 
and  treatment  of  animals  in 
health  and  disease,  besides  ques- 
tions of  heredity,  variation, 
natural  selection,  hybridization, 
and  acclimatization;  a  knowl- 
edge of  Zoology,  therefore,  is  of 
great  importance.  Chemistry  is 
required  in  the  study  of  the  soil, 
fertilizers,  feeding  stuffs,  and  the 
composition  of  plants.  Geology 
throws  light  on  the  distribution 
and  origin  of  soils,  the  presence 
of  springs  or  of  water-bearing 
strata,  and  on  land  drainage. 
Entomology  opens  up  to  us  the 
study  of  noxious  insects,  and  of 
the  devastating  effects  of  entozoa 
on  live  stock.  Of  late  years  Bac- 
teriology has  been  shown  to  be 
intimately  concerned  with  nitri- 
fication in  the  soil,  fermentation 
and  putrefaction,  and  the  varia- 
tions in  cheese  and  butter  in  dif- 
ferent districts.  Sterilization  and 
serous  inoculation  for  tubercu- 
losis, anthrax,  and  other  dis- 
eases, all  form  parts  of  the  theory 
of  agriculture.  Further,  agricul- 
ture requires  engineering  knowl- 
edge for  construction,  drainage 
and  reclamation,  as  also  a  knowl- 
edge of  machinery  and  imple- 
ments. It  also  demands  no 
small  knowledge  of  Physics  and 
Mathematics. 

Historical.  —  That  the  two 
principal  branches  of  agricul- 
ture should  be  distinctly  sep- 
arated in  Gen.  iv.  2  is  remark- 
able. 'Abel  was  a  keeper  of 
sheep,  but  Cain  was  a  tiller  of 
the  ground.'  Very  primitive 
tribes  cultivate  the  ground,  and 
possess  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses. 
Some  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
agriculture  must  therefore  be  as- 
sumed. All  our  cultivated  plants 
and  breeds  of  domestic  animals 
have  been  developed  from  wild 
prototypes;  and  in  this  develop- 
ment the  work  of  man  in  breed- 
ing and  selecting  for  a  definite 
object  has  been  an  essential  fac- 
tor, as  well  as  the  environment 
and  food  presented  by  different 
localities.  Although  the  origin 
has  usually  been  traced,  the  orig- 
inal wild  form  is  often  extinct. 

Efforts  to  trace  the  origin  of 
European  cattle  to  three  types, 
all  now  extinct  as  absolutely  wild 
animals,  have  been  fairly  success- 
ful; but  Bos  primigenus  (Au- 
rochs) is  the  only  one  which  ex- 
ists in  a  semi-wild  condition  in 
the  wild  cattle  of  Chillingham 
Park,  Northumberland,  Cadzow 
Forest,  Lanarkshire,  and  in  parts 
of  Russia  and  the  Caucasus.  Un- 
imjiroved  races  of  sheep  are  gen- 
erally of  varied  color;  but  the  ef- 
forts of  Jacob  to  breed  sheep  to 
particular  colors  afford  evidence 


Agriculture 


107 


Agriculture 


that  cattle  and  sheep  were  bred 
with  care  in  the  earliest  times. 
Charred  grains  of  wheat  and  bar- 
ley have  been  found  in  Switzer- 
land on  the  site  of  ancient  lake 
dwellings,  and  well-preserved 
grains  in  mummies  of  great  an- 
tiquity; ears  of  maize  in  the 
huacas  of  the  ancient  Peruvian 
Indians;  and  the  bones  of  domes- 
ticated animals  have  been  re- 
covered from  the  prehistoric 
kitchen-middens  in  Denmark  and 
elsewhere. 

The  earliest  definite  knowledge 
of  agriculture  that  we  have  is 
found  in  the  history  of  ancient 
Egypt.  The  sovereign,  priest- 
hood, and  military  caste  were  the 
owners  of  the  land  and  the  live 
stock,  while  the  people  did  the 
actual  work.  The  Egyptians 
possessed  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and 
swine,  and  produced  wheat,  bar- 
ley, durra,  and  millet.  They  cul- 
tivated and  irrigated  the  soil, 
using  wooden  ploughs  and  hoes, 
and  rude  harrows  and  rollers. 
They  likewise  cultivated  flax  for 
its  fibre  from  very  remote 
times;  grew  lentils,  lupines, 
onions,  garlic,  and  radishes, 
grapes,  olives,  figs,  pomegranates, 
and  dates;  and  cultivated  water- 
melons and  the  castor-oil  plant. 

In  those  early  times  Palestine 
was  also  a  rich  agricultural  coun- 
try. The  productions  were 
wheat,  barley,  millet,  the  grape 
and  olive.  Sheep  were  raised  in 
flocks.  The  land  was  rich,  and 
was  held  under  more  favorable 
conditions  than  in  Egypt,  and 
the  farmers  were  good  tillers  of 
the  soil.  Greece  owed  much  to 
Egypt,  for  its  products  were  sim- 
ilar, though  a  greater  variety  of 
fruit  and  vegetables  were  culti- 
vated. Cotton  was  grown  in 
India  as  early  as  1500  B.C. 

The  Romans  were  the  pioneer 
agriculturists  of  Europe.  They 
loved  their  herds  and  flocks  and 
well-tilled  fields,  and  even  during 
the  decay  of  the  empire  their  af- 
fection for  their  country  estates 
remained  strong.  The  Romans 
introduced  their  methods  into 
the  countries  conquered  by  them. 
They  brought  wheat  into  Great 
Britain,  and  transplanted  the 
vine  from  Sicily  to  France.  They 
grew  wheat,  barley,  millet,  oats, 
and  rye;  alfalfa  and  vetches  for 
fodder;  hemp  and  flax  for  fibre; 
beans,  turnips,  and  lupines;  and 
a  great  variety  of  fruit.  They 
were  also  skilled  in  raising  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  mules,  swine,  and 
poultry,  and  made  cheese  and 
butter  They  practised  some 
sort  of  rotation,  the  land  being 
allowed  to  lie  fallow  after  grain, 
and  made  use  of  irrigation  and 
land  drainage.  They  utilized  the 
sickle  and  flail,  and  the  treading 
floor  for  threshing  grain.  Al- 
though much  that  they  taught 
the  world  was  lost  when  the 


Goths  and  Vandals  overran  Eu- 
rope, the  progress  they  made  in 
agriculture  and  the  dignity  they 
attached  to  it  must  ever  remain 
to  their  credit. 

During  the  Middle  Ages,  agri- 
culture in  Europe  owed  its  pres- 
ervation to  two  agencies — the 
Saracens  in  Spain,  and  the 
church  estates.  The  barbarians 
had  trampled  out  nearly  every 
vestige  of  Roman  husbandry,  and 
the  feudal  barons  were  more  in- 
terested in  devastating  their 
neighbors'  fields  than  in  cultivat- 
ing their  own.  The  Saracens, 
however,  introduced  various 
plants  from  Asia  and  Africa; 
grew  rice,  cotton,  and  sugar  cane; 
and  brought  Spain  under  a  de- 
gree of  cultivation  then  unknown 
in  Europe.  Many  of  the  church 
estates  were  also  noted  for  good 
management;  and  at  a  time  when 
war  and  robbery  were  favorite 
occupations,  they  taught  the  arts 
of  peace  and  preserved  habits  of 
industry. 

The  revival  in  agriculture  first 
appeared  in  Northern  Italy, 
where  the  waters  of  the  Po  trav- 
erse one  of  the  most  fertile  re- 
gions of  Europe,  and  in  the  Low 
Countries,  where  the  industrious 
Dutch  developed  dairy  farming 
and  the  Flemings  became  famous 
for  their  knowledge  of  farming 
and  gardening.  In  England,  ag- 
ricultural conditions  were  greatly 
improved  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury by  the  extinction  of  serfdom 
and  the  appearance  of  the  tenant 
farmer.  Periods  of  prosperity 
and  plenty,  however,  were  fol- 
lowed by  periods  of  adversity 
and  semi-starvation.  Rye  and 
oats  were  still  the  food  of  the 
poor,  wheat  that  of  the  rich.  The 
discovery  of  America  brought  in 
three  new  products  —  tobacco, 
maize,  and  the  potato;  and  the 
last  two  became  in  time  the  food 
of,  the  poor  with  rye  and  oats. 

The  sixteenth  century  showed 
marked  prosperity  in  British  ag- 
riculture because  of  the  greater 
restrictions  on  the  rights  of  com- 
mon and  the  extension  of  land 
enclosures.  Hops  were  intro- 
duced from  Holland,  and  wheat 
became  an  article  of  export. 
About  the  middle  of  the  century 
temporary  restrictions  on  this 
export  caused  great  distress,  and 
turned  the  cultivated  fields  into 
pasture  land,  but  the  mistake 
was  soon  corrected.  In  the  sev- 
enteenth century  the  cultivation 
of  garden  vegetables  began,  and 
turnips  and  red  clover  were  in- 
troduced from  Flanders,  prac- 
tically revolutionizing  agriculture 
in  Great  Britain.  As  food  for 
cattle  and  sheep  they  gave  a  new 
impetus  to  stock  raising;  while 
the  introduction  of  timothy  and 
orchard  grass  from  America 
about  1760  likewise  added  to  the 
stock  raisers'  resources. 


During  the  eighteenth,  nine- 
teenth, and  twentieth  centuries 
agriculture  has  shown  steady 
progress  throughout  the  world. 
Great  Britain  solved  the  problem 
of  providing  cheaper  food  for  a 
large  manufacturing  population 
by  the  abolition  of  protective 
duties  on  grain  in  1848.  This 
compelled  the  readjustment  of 
her  agricultural  industries,  which, 
with  the  aid  of  modern  science, 
has  been  successful.  Germany 
and  France  have  become  great 
agricultural  countries;  Austria- 
Hungary  and  Russia  are  leading 
wheat  producers;  Italy  is  return- 
ing to  her  old  estate;  improved 
conditions  are  manifest  in  Spain 
and  the  Balkans;  Holland  and 
Belgium  have  brought  tillage  of 
the  soil  and  dairy  farming  to  a 
high  degree  of  perfection;  the 
Scandinavians  have  become  pros- 
perous dairymen  and  grain  pro- 
ducers; and  Portugal  is  noted 
for  its  vineyards  and  gardens. 

The  influence  of  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  South  Africa,  In- 
dia, South  America,  and  Eastern 
Asia  is  now  felt  in  many  direc- 
tions, and  is  slowly  readjusting 
the  agricultural  industries  of  the 
world.  Brazil  practically  con- 
trols the  world's  coffee  market, 
though  excellent  coffee  is  pro- 
duced elsewhere.  The  wheat, 
wool,  and  meat  products  of  Ar- 
gentina, Australia,  and  South 
Africa,  and  the  rice  of  India  and 
Eastern  Asia,  are  competitors 
with  which  the  farmers  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  must 
reckon.  The  increasing  popula- 
tion of  the  civilized  world  must 
have  cheap  foodstuffs,  and  it  is 
the  mission  of  agriculture  every- 
where to  provide  them. 

United  States. —  American 
agriculture  is  practically  a  con- 
tinuation of  what  the  first  colo- 
nists brought  over  from  the  Old 
World,  modified  to  meet  new 
conditions,  and  re-enforced  from 
time  to  time  by  fresh  importa- 
tions. The  early  colonists  were 
obliged  to  discard  in  great  part 
the  customs  and  practices  of  the 
mother  country.  They  came 
from  long-settled,  thickly  popu- 
lated districts;  they  found  be- 
fore them  a  forest-covered  region 
of  unknown  extent,  occupied 
only  by  savages.  The  climate 
was  new  to  them;  there  were 
puzzling  variations  in  the  fertility 
of  the  soil;  they  had  no  market 
for  their  products;  and  their 
colonies  were  separated  by  path- 
less forests.  They  found  the 
natives  cultivating  maize  and 
tobacco,  and  these  became  their 
staple  productions.  They  also 
brought  seeds  from  the  old  coun- 
try, and  in  this  way  the  New 
World  received  many  of  the 
productions  that  were  destined 
to  become  prime  sources  of  its 
incalculable    wealth.  Horses, 


Agriculture 


108 


Agrtculturd 


cattle,  fiheep,  swine,  and  poultry, 
all  of  them  unknown  to  the  New 
World,  also  came  with  the  early 
settlers. 

Under  such  conditions  only 
a  primitive  type  of  agriculture 
was  possible  during  the  first 
century  of  our  colonial  life. 
Later  on,  the  development  of 
cotton  production  in  the  South 
and  the  discovery  that  rice  could 
be  grown  there  added  two  im- 
portant products;  while  the  en- 
terprise of  the  sailors  of  New 
England  developed  new  markets. 

As  the  American  settlers  moved 
westward  they  found  vast  tree- 
less plains  with  a  deep  alluvial 
soil — one  of  the  richest  agricul- 
tural regions  in  the  world.  They 
became  extensive  producers  of 
wheat,  maize,  hay,  cattle,,  sheep, 
and  swine,  and  in  time  their  food 
products  found  a  market  in  every 
port,  and  brought  them  wealth. 
In  recent  years  the  tide  of  emigra- 
tion and  settlement  has  flowed 
across  the  boundary  line  into  the 
great  Canadian  Northwest. 

From  colonial  days  there  has 
been  continuous  improvement  in 
American  agriculture,  while  dur- 
ing the  past  sixty  years  the 
development  has  been  remark- 
able. Two  main  reasons  for 
American  pre-eminence  are  to 
be  found  in  the  fine  quality  of 
the  soil  and  the  high  character 
of  the  agricultural  class.  Among 
the  influences  which  have  exerted 
a  profound  influence  for  good 
may  be  named  the  following: 
(1)  the  opening  up  of  vast  areas 
of  new  land;  (2)  the  inventive 
genius  of  the  nation,  as  shown  in 
the  creation  of  labor-saving 
machinery;  (3)  the  development 
of  transportation  by  land  and 
water;  (4)  the  abolition  of  slav- 
ery; (5)  the  establishment  of 
government  and  other  institu- 
tions and  agencies  for  the  pro- 
motion of  agricultural  knowledge; 

(6)  co-operation  among  farmers, 
and  the  further  dissemination  of 
knowledge  by  means  of  books 
and   periodicals   and  meetings; 

(7)  the  ready  adoption  of  such 
important  aids  as  irrigation,  dry 
farming,  selective  plant  and  ani- 
mal breeding,  specialization  in 
crops,  fertilizers,  cold  storage, 
etc. 

American  Crops.  —  In  North 
America  much  the  same  crops 
are  raised  as  in  corresponding 
latitudes  in  Europe,  except  to  the 
northward,  where  there  are  vast 
areas  of  inarable  ground.  The 
winters  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  are  much  more  severe 
than  those  of  Western  Europe, 
while  the  summers  are  quite  as 
hot  and  moist,  and  hence  arise 
considerable  variations  in  the 
practice  of  agriculture.  In  the 
Northern  States  and  Canada, 
wheat  is  a  staple  article  of  export. 
In    some    exporting  districts, 


wheat  and  red  clover  are  grown 
as  alternate  crops.  In  Canada 
and  the  adjacent  States  and 
Territories,  spring  wheat  is  more 
profitable  than  the  ordinary 
winter  wheat.  South  of  42°, 
winter  wheat  is  more  commonly 
the  standard  crop.  Wheat  is  the 
great  staple  in  the  northern  half 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  on 
the  Pacific  Coast.  Between  lati- 
tudes 42°  and  39°,  wheat  is  often 
grown  alternately  with  maize  or 
Indian  corn,  after  the  land  has 
been  under  pasture  for  some  years. 
Again,  between  latitudes  39°  and 
35°,  the  climate  is  Better  suited 
for  maize  than  wheat,  which  be- 
comes less  productive.  Below 
latitude  35°,  maize  is  much  less 
productive,  and  the  climate  be- 
comes suitable  for  cotton.  This 
plant  furnishes  the  staple  article 
of  production  from  latitude  35°  to 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Rice  is  a  very  profitable  crop 
in  some  of  the  Southern  States; 
but  its  culture  is  chiefly  con- 
fined to  swamps  which  can  be 
flooded  by  fresh  water.  The 
sugar  cane  is  chiefly  limited  to 
the  rich  alluvial  lands  near  the 
Mississippi  as  far  north  as  lati- 
tude 31°.  Tobacco  is  a  principal 
crop  in  several  States.  On  the 
Pacific  Coast  the  climate  is 
characterized  by  mild  winters 
and  dry  summers.  On  the  great 
plains  of  the  Western  half  of  the 
Continent,  and  also  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region  and  in  Texas, 
there  are  many  extensive  ranches 
for  the  pasturage  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  In  the  older  Northern 
States  and  Canada,  dairy  prod- 
ucts form  leading  articles  of 
export. 

The  production  of  Corn  or 
Maize  ranks  first  among  Ameri- 
can agricultural  industries.  It 
is  produced  in  every  State,  and 
compared  with  wheat  has  nearly 
quadruple  its  product  and  more 
than  double  its  value.  It  fur- 
nivshes  a  valuable  food  for  man  and 
domestic  animals,  and  its  suc- 
culent stalks  and  leaves  supply 
coarse  forage  for  cattle.  The 
high  estimation  in  which  Wheat 
is  held  as  an  article  of  human 
food  naturally  gives  it  an  im- 
portant place,  and  it  has  always 
been  a  principal  article  of  export. 
The  application  of  steam  or 
other  motive  power  to  the  work 
of  ploughing,  reaping,  and  thresh- 
ing on  the  great  wheat  farms  of 
the  West  has  reduced  enormously 
the  manual  labor  required,  and 
has  proportionately  decreased 
the  cost.  By  improved  methods 
of  culture  and  the  introduction 
of  drought-resisting  varieties  the 
cultivation  of  wheat  has  been 
rapidly  extended  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions.  The  large  increase 
in  the  output  of  Oats,  which  has 
ranked  second  in  product  in 
the  last  three  census  returns, 


indicates  that  this  cereal  is  taking 
the  place  of  wheat  in  those  States 
where  the  production  of  the 
latter  is  no  longer  profitable. 

Among  the  other  staple  pro- 
ductions, special  mention  may 
be  made  of  cotton,  hay  and  for- 
age, potatoes,  orchard  fruits, 
tobacco,  barley,  sweet  potatoes, 
cane  and  beet  sugar.  Of  these, 
hay  and  forage  and  barley 
have  shown  a  rapid  increase  in 
recent  years. 

For  a  more  detailed  account 
of  the  crops  of  the  United  States, 
see  the  section  on  Agriculture  in 
the  article  United  States. 

Rotation  of  Crops. — The  main- 
tenance of  fertility  in  soils  is 
greatly  aided  by  proper  rotation 
or  succession  of  crops.  This  is  due 
to  the  difference  in  the  demands 
made  upon  the  soil  by  different 
crops,  the  methods  of  cultivation 
called  into  play,  the  fertilization 
given  to  certain  crops  in  the 
rotation,  and  the  residues  left  by 
the  roots  and  stubble  of  such 
crops  as  clover  and  other  legumes, 
which  gather  nitrogen  from  the 
air.  Fallowing,  often  introduced 
in  a  system  of  rotation,  exposes 
the  soil  to  atmospheric  changes 
which  dissolve  the  mineral  matter 
in  the  soil,  and  encourage  nitri- 
fication, with  great  benefit  to 
succeeding  crops.  See  Rotation 
OF  Crops. 

Live  — When  the  Unit- 

ed States  was  first  settled  there 
were  no  domestic  animals  worthy 
of  note;  and  of  the  early  stock  of 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine, 
goats,  mules,  and  poultry  brought 
here  by  the  settlers,  some  were 
of  good  grade,  some  not.  Since 
the  early  nineteenth  century, 
however,  a  continuous  stream  of 
live  stock  of  all  kinds  has  been 
brought  into  the  United  States  to 
upbuild  and  improve  the  native 
farm  stock;  so  that  practically 
every  noted  breed  in  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Europe  is  now  repre- 
sented in  America  by  superior 
animals. 

Among  draught  horses,  the 
Percheron,  Clydesdale,  and 
French  Draught  were  early 
brought  over;  the  Shire  and 
Belgian  are  of  more  recent  im- 
portation. These  breeds  accli- 
mate readily,  and  are  strong  and 
massive.  Among  coach  breeds 
the  most  popular  are  the  Hack- 
ney, French  Coach,  German 
Coach,  and  Cleveland  Bay.  The 
American  trotting  horse  makes 
a  superior  roadster. 

To  England  credit  is  due  for 
the  leading  breeds  of  cattle.  The 
Shorthorn,  most  popular  and 
widely  distributed  among  the 
beef  breeds,  is  forced  to  share  at- 
tention with  the  Angus,  Gallo- 
way, and  Hereford  breeds.  In 
the  dairy  world,  the  Jersey  and 
the  Holstein  share  first  honors; 
the  Guernsey  is  preferred  by 


Agriculture 


110 


Agriculture,  IT.  S.  Department  of 


some  to  all  others;  and  the  rugged 
Ayrshire  is  gaining  friends. 

Since  the  introduction  in  1801 
of  a  number  of  Spanish  Merino 
sheep,  this  breed  has  attained 
the  most  popularity.  The  mod- 
ern Merino  has  taken  a  new 
name,  the  American  Merino,  due 
to  breeding,  vselection,  and  im- 
provement. The  demand  for 
mutton  has  brought  in  the  Shrop- 
shire, Southdown,  Oxford  Down, 
Horned  Dorset,  Leicester,  Lin- 
coln, Cotswold,  and  Hampshire 
hardy. 

Hog  raising  early  attracted 
attention,  on  account  of  the  large 
American  corn  crop;  and  the 
Poland  China,  Duroc-Jersey,  and 
Berkshire  breeds  have  long  been 
money  makers.  Some  farmers 
prefer  a  white  hog,  such  as  the 
Chester  White  and  the  Ohio  Im- 
proved Chester.  The  demand 
for  bacon  hogs  is  met  by  the 
Tamworth,  Hampshire, .  and 
Yorkshire  breeds. 

For  further  information  see 
Horse,  Cattle,  Sheep,  Pig; 
also  the  section  on  Stock  Raising 
in  the  articles  United  States 
and  Canada,  and  the  article  on 
each  State  and  province. 

Dairy  Farming.  —  Probably 
no  industry  is  more  highly  spe- 
cialized and  scientifically  man- 
aged than  dairy  farming.  The 
enormous  daily  consumption  of 
milk  in  the  cities,  and  the  ever- 
increasing  demand  for  butter, 
cheese,  cream,  and  condensed 
milk,  for  export  as  well  as  for 
home  consumption,  render  it  one 
of  the  safest  and  most  lucrative 
of  industries.  The  means  em- 
ployed to  meet  this  demand  is 
shown  by  the  exceptional  interest 
which  has  been  developed  all 
over  the  country,  not  only  in  the 
quantity  and  value  of  the  prod- 
uct, but  in  a  scientific  study  of 
the  business.  See  Dairying; 
Butter;  Cheese;  Milk. 

Agricultural  Implements. — The 
earliest  plough  was  probably 
a  pointed  stick  charred  or  shod 
with  iron  at  the  end,  and  the 
other  tillage  implements  were  at 
first  correspondingly  primitive. 
The  harrow  was  of  brushwood  or 
thorns  wattled  through  a  frame, 
and  the  roller  was  a  cylindrical 
boll  of  a  tree  fitted  with  axle  ends 
and  attached  to  a  frame.  Har- 
rows consisted  of  strai^iht,  point- 
ed iron  teeth,  fixed  at  the  points 
of  intersection  of  a  square 
framework  of  hard  wood. 
Ploughs,  harrows,  and  rollers 
were  the  only  tillage  implements. 
The  seed  was  sown  from  a  basket 
or  a  sheet  by  hand ;  the  crop  was 
reaped  by  sickles,  threshed  by 
flails,  and  winnowed  by  a  shovel 
in  the  wind. 

The  transition  from  these 
crude  beginnings  to  the  methods 
and  appliances  of  the  present 
day  forms  a  remarkable  con- 


trast. Especially  during  the  past 
thirty  years  many  machines  and 
implements  altogether  new  have 
been  placed  in  the  farmer's  hands, 
while  those  he  formerly  possessed 
have  undergone  radical  improve- 
ment— all  tending  to  increase 
efficiency  and  lessen  cost.  For  a 
detailed  list  of  these  appliances, 
see  Implements  and  Machin- 
ery, Agricultural. 

Statistics  of  agriculture  for  the 
United  States  will  be  found  under 
United  States,  section  on  Agri- 
culture; for  Canada,  under  Can- 
ada, Agriculture.  The  articles  on 
the  several  countries,  the  States 
of  the  United  States,  and  the 
provinces  of  Canada  contain  sec- 
tions on  Agriculture. 

For  further  information,  see 
also  the  following  titles: 

Anthrax.  Hops. 
Barley.  Horse. 
Bean.  Implements, 
Beet.  Irrigation. 
Bone  Fertilizers.  Landlord. 
Bread.  Milk. 
Buckwheat.  Mule. 
Burbank.  Oats. 
Butter.  Onion. 
Cabbage.  Orchards. 
Carrot.  Parasites. 
Cattle.  Pasture. 
Cheese.  Pea. 
Clover.  Peanut. 
Conservation.  Pig. 
Corn.  Potato. 
Cotton.  Poultry  Farming. 

Dairy  Factories.       Public  Lands. 
Dairying.  Reaping. 
Drainage.  Reclamation. 
Elevators  (Grain).  Rice. 
Ensilage.  Rotation  of  Crops. 

Fallow.  Rye. 
Farm  Buildings.  Sheep. 
Feeding  Stuffs.  Soils. 
Fertilizers.  Sugar  Cane 

Flax.  Sweet  Potato. 

Forestry.  Threshing. 
Fruit  Industry.  Tobacco. 
Gardening.  Turnips. 
Grasses.  Watermelon. 
Guano.  Wheat. 
Hay. 

Bibliography.  —  The  publica- 
tions of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  especially  the  Ex- 
periment Station  Record,  Farmers' 
Bulletins,  and  Year  Books,  as 
well  as  the  reports  of  the  State 
boards  of  agriculture,  are  invalu- 
able to  the  progressive  farmer. 
Early  ideas  on  agriculture  in  the 
American  colonies  may  be  found 
in  J.  Eliot's  Agricultural  Essays 
and  S.  Deane's  New  England 
Farmer. 

General  works  on  Agriculture 
include:  Fream's  Rothamsled  Ex- 
periments in  Wheat,  Barley,  and 
Grass  Lands  (London) ;  Johnson's 
How  Crops  Grow  and  How  Crops 
Feed;  Flint's  One  Hundred  Years' 
Progress;  Miles'  Stock  Breeding 
and  Land  Drainage;  Stewart's 
Shepherds'  Manual;  Harris'  Talks 
on  Manures;  Periam's  American 
Encyclopcedia  of  Agriculture;  El- 
liott's Practical  Farm  Drainage; 
Waring's  Draining  for  Profit, 
Draining  for  Health,  Report  of 
the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Com- 


mission, and  Sewerage  and  Land 
Drainage;  Armsby's  Manual  of 
Cattle  Feeding;  Sempers'  Manures : 
How  to  Make  Them  and  How  to 
Use  Them;  King's  The  Soil,  Irri- 
gation and  Drainage,  and  The 
Physics  of  Agriculture;  Wing's 
Milk  and  Its  Products;  Voorhees' 
First  Principles  of  Agriculture; 
Roberts'  The  Fertility  of  the  Land; 
Storer's  Agriculture  in  Some  of 
Its  Relations  to  Chemistry;  Hen- 
ry's Feeds  and  Feeding;  Bailey's 
The  Principles  of  Agriculture; 
Decker's  Cheese  Making;  Bailey 
and  Miller's  Encyclopaedia  of 
American  Horticulture  (4  vols.); 
Conn's  Agricultural  Bacteriology; 
Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals; 
Snyder's  Chemistry  of  Plant  and 
Animal  Life. 

Recent  works  include  the  fol- 
lowing: Wilcox  and  Smith's 
Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture  (1904); 
Taylor's  Agricultural  Economies 
(1905) ;  Hunt's  Cereals  in  America 

(1905)  ;  How  to  Choose  a  Farm 

(1906)  ,  and  Forage  and  Fibre 
Crops  in  America  (1907) ;  Plumb's 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  An- 
imals (1907);  Lyon  and  Fippin's 
The  Principles  of  Soil  Manage- 
ment (1909);  Brewer's  Rural  Hy- 
giene (1909);  Hay's  Farm  De- 
velopment (1910);  McLennan's 
A  Manual  of  Practical  Farming 
(1910);  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of 
Animals  (1910);  Widtsoe's  Dry 
Farming  (1911) ;  Agee's  Crops  and 
Methods  of  Soil  Improvement 
(1912);  Van  Slyke's  Fertilizers 
and  Crops  (1912);  Weather's 
Commercial  Gardening  (4  vols., 
1913);  Montgomery's  The  Corn 
Crops  (1913);  Warren's  Farm 
Management  (1913);  Ekblaw's 
Farm  Structures  (1914);  Bailey's 
New  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Hor- 
ticulture (in  preparation.  Vol.  I. 
ready). 

Agriculture  in  Canada.  See 

Canada,  Agriculture. 

Agriculture,  U.  S.  Department 

of,  is  administered  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture,  who  is  a 
member  of  the  Cabinet  (q.v.). 
Broadly  speaking,  the  province 
of  the  Department  is  to  foster 
the  agricultural  development  of 
the  country  through  its  various 
bureaus  and  divisions. 

The  Weather  Bureau  (q.v.) 
forecasts  the  weather,  issues 
warnings  of  floods,  frosts,  and 
storms,  collects  and  transmits 
marine  intelligence,  reports  tem- 
perature and  rainfall  conditions, 
and  conducts  climatological  and 
meteorological  investigations. 
The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
has  charge  of  animal  husbandry, 
studies  and  investigations  in 
dairying,  poultry  and  sheep  rais- 
ing, meat  inspection,  and  the 
prevention  of  animal  disease. 
The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  as- 
certains what  crop  plants  can  be 
advantageously  produced,  se- 
cures new  varieties  by  importa- 


Agriculture,  U.  S.  Department  of 


111 


Agrippina 


tion,  breeding,  and  selection, 
controls  plant  diseases,  and  stud- 
ies farm  management,  market- 
ing, and  shipping.  This  division 
has  in  charge  the  distribution 
of  seeds,  and  in  1913  sent  out 
over  12,050,000  packages  of 
vegetable  and  flower  seeds,  be- 
sides bulbs  and  plants.  The  Bu- 
reau of  Forestry  administers  the 
national  forests,  and  investi- 
gates methods  of  handling  wood- 
lands and  utilizing  their  products. 

The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  is 
charged  with  the  enforcement  of 
the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  and 
with  research  looking  to  the 
development  of  new  uses,  sources, 
and  methods  of  preparation  of 
foods  and  drugs.  The  Bureau 
of  Soils  studies  the  classification 
and  distribution  of  soils,  investi- 
gates their  chemical  and  physi- 
cal properties,  and  prescribes 
methods  of  cultivation  and  fer- 
tilization. The  Bureau  of  En- 
tomology studies  insects  injurious 
to  agriculture,  horticulture,  and 
forestry,  as  well  as  those  affect- 
ing the  health  of  man  and  ani- 
mals; and  carries  on  experimenta- 
tion in  bee  culture.  The  work 
of  the  Biological  Survey  includes 
investigation  of  the  food  habits 
of  North  American  birds  and 
mammals  in  relation  to  agricul- 
ture, biological  investigations 
with  special  reference  to  the 
geographic  distribution  of  native 
animals  and  plants,  the  super- 
vision of  national  bird  and  mam- 
mal reservations,  and  game  pres- 
ervation. 

The  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture has  also  a  Bureau  of  Statis- 
tics, which  prepares  monthly 
crop  reports;  a  Supply  Division; 
Division  of  Accounts  and  Dis- 
bursements; Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations  (see  Agricultu- 
ral Stations)  ;  Office  of  Public 
Roads;  Insecticide  and  Fungi- 
cide Board ;  Federal  Horticultural 
Board;  and  an  excellent  Library. 

The  results  of  the  experiments, 
investigations,  and  studies  of  the 
various  bureaus  and  services  are 
made  available  to  the  people  by 
the  Division  of  Publications, 
through  their  Year  Book,  Farm- 
ers' Bulletins,  Journal  of  Agricul- 
tural Research,  and  Departmental 
Bulletins.  In  1913  the  total  out- 
put of  publications  was  33,356,- 
366  copies,  including  9,375,950 
reprints. 

The  work  of  the  present  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  was  be- 
gun in  1836  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Patents,  who  undertook  the 
distribution  of  seeds  and  plants 
to  farmers;  the  first  appropria- 
tion for  this  purpose  was  made  in 
1839.  The  work  was  carried  on 
under  the  direction  of  the  Patent 
Office  until  1862,  when  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  was 
established.  It  became  an  exec- 
utive department  in  1889.  The 


present  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
is  David  F.  Houston  (q.v.). 
The  employees  in  the  Depart- 
ment in  1913  numbered  14,478, 
and  the  appropriation  for  that 
year  amounted  to  $24,735,135. 
Consult  Year  Book  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

Agrigentum,  ag-ri-jen'tum 
(Greek  Akragas),  town  on  the 
south  coast  of  Sicily,  about  2K 
miles  from  the  sea.  It  was  a  col- 
ony of  Gela — itself  a  colony  of 
Rhodes — founded  about  580  B.C. 
It  attained  great  wealth  and 
splendor,  and  contained  several 
temples,  including  those  to  Jupi- 
ter and  to  Concordia;  ruins  of  the 
former,  one  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent Jn  Sicily,  still  survive.  In 
its  palmy  days,  about  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century  B.C.,  it  is  said 
to  have  contained  200,000  inhab- 
itants; and  its  territory  extended 
across  Sicily.  Among  its  rulers 
were  the  tyrant  Phalaris,  and 
Theron  (488-472).  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Carthaginians  in 
406  B.C.  Timoleon  rebuilt  and 
recolonized  it  in  340,  but  it  suf- 
fered again  in  the  Punic  wars, 
and  from  210  B.C.  was  subject  to 
Rome.  Between  828  and  1086  it 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens, 
from  whom  it  was  conquered  by 
Count  Roger  Guiscard.  Noted 
as  the  birthplace  of  Empedocles. 
On  its  site  is  the  modern  GiR- 

GENTI  (q.v.). 

Agrimony,  ag'ri-mo-ni,  a  gen- 
eral name  for  rosaceous  plants  of 
the  genus  Agrimonia.  The  Com- 
mon Agrimony  {Agrimonia  eupa- 
toria)  is  a  native  of  Britain  and 
other  parts  of  Europe,  growing  in 
borders  of  fields,  on  waysides, 
etc.  It  has  an  upright  habit,  at- 
tains a  height  of  2  feet  or  more, 
and  has  interruptedly  pinnate 
leaves,  with  the  leaflets  serrate 
and  downy  beneath.  The 
fiowers  are  small  and  yellow,  in 
close  racemes.  Very  similar  to 
this  is  A.  parviflora,  a  native  of 
the  United  States;  it  has  an 
agreeable  fragrance.  A.  incisa 
is  common  in  the  South  Atlantic 
States. 

Agrip'pa    I.   and    II.  See 

Herod. 

Agrippa,  Cornelius  (1486- 
1535),  a  cabalistic  philosopher, 
born  at  Cologne  of  the  noble 
family  of  Nettesheim.  He  early 
entered  the  service  of  the 
Emperor  Maximilian,  and  was 
sent  on  a  secret  mission  to  Paris 
(1506),  where  he  joined  a  theo- 
sophistic  society.  In  1509  he 
was  invited  to  teach  theology  at 
Dole,  in  Burgundy.  His  lec- 
tures on  Reuchlin's  De  Verbo 
Mirifico  attracted  great  atten- 
tion, but  drew  on  him  the  hatred 
of  the  monks,  and  he  was  obliged 
to  resume  a  diplomatic  career. 
Then  followed  a  series  of  extraor- 
dinary vicissitudes;  he  was  by 
turns  soldier,  lecturer  at  Pavia, 


town  orator  of  Metz,  physician, 
and  historian.  His  chief  works 
are:  De  Incertitudine  et  Vanitate 
Scientiarum  (1530);  De  Occulta 
Philosophic  (1531-33);  De  Nobil- 
itate  Feminei  Sexus  (1532). 

Agrippa,  Marcus  Vipsanius 
(63-12  B.C.),  a  Roman  of  obscure 
family,  but  raised  to  the  highest 
position  by  his  friend  Octavius, 
afterward  the  Emperor  Augus- 
tus. He  married  Julia,  Augus- 
tus' daughter,  and  had  by  her  five 
children,  one  of  whom,  Agrip- 
pina,  became  the  wife  of  Ger- 
manicus.  He  pacified  Gaul  in  38 
B.C.;  defeated  Sextus  Pompeius 
in  the  naval  battle  at  Naulochos, 
Sicily;  and  was  in  command  of 
Octavian's  naval  forces  at  Ac- 
tium.  He  was  generous,  upright, 
and  a  friend  to  the  arts;  Rome 
owed  to  him  the  restoration  and 
construction  of  several  aque- 
ducts, and  the  Pantheon,  besides 
other  public  works  of  ornament 
and  utility. 

Agrippa,  Menenius,  a  Roman 
patrician,  who  as  consul  (503 
B.C.)  defeated  the  Sabines  and 
Samnites,  and  who  about  ten 
years  later,  when  the  Plebeians 
retired  to  Mons  Sacer,  induced 
them  to  return  to  Rome  by  nar- 
rating the  fable  of  the  belly.  He 
is  one  of  the  principal  characters 
of  Shakespeare's  Coriolanus, 
where  he  is  represented  as  a 
cynical  old  gourmand. 

Agrippina,  ag-ri-pi'na,  the 
Elder,  daughter  of  M.  Vipsanius 
Agrippa  and  Julia  daughter  of 
Augustus,  wife  of  Germanicus, 
and  mother  of  Caligula  and  the 
younger  Agrippina.  She  was  re- 
nowned for  her  noble  character. 
As  the  wife  of  Germanicus  she 
accompanied  him  in  his  cam- 
paigns, and  on  his  sudden  and 
suspicious  death  in  Asia  carried 
his  ashes  with  dutiful  affection  to 
Rome.  The  esteem  in  which  she 
was  held  by  the  people  made  her 
hateful  to  Tiberius,  and  in  30 
A.D.  he  banished  her  to  the  island 
of  Pandataria,  where  she  died  by 
voluntary  starvation  three  years 
later.  Her  statue  in  the  Capitol 
Museum  of  Rome  is  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  Roman  sculpture. 

Agrippina,  the  Younger, 
daughter  of  the  Elder  Agrippina 
and  Germanicus,  was  one  of  the 
most  detestable  women  that  have 
lived.  She  was  born  at  Cologne, 
hence  called  Colonia  Agrippina. 
She  first  married  C.  Domitius 
Ahenobarbus,  by  whom  she  had 
a  son,  afterward  the  Emperor 
Nero.  Her  third  husband  was 
the  Emperor  Claudius,  her  own 
uncle,  whom  she  persuaded  to 
adopt  her  son  Nero,  to  the  injury 
of  his  own  son  Britannicus,  in 
54  A.D.  She  then  proceeded  to 
remove  by  poison  all  Nero's 
rivals  and  enemies,  and  finally 
Claudius  himself.  Her  ascend- 
ency proving  intolerable,  Nero 


Agropyroti 


112 


Agustina 


caused  her  to  be  put  to  death 
in  59  A.D. 

Agropy'ron,  a  genus  of^grasses 
having  some  fifty  species.  In 
the  United  States,  Agropyron 
re  pens,  Couch  Grass  or  Twitch 
Grass,  is  the  best  known  species. 
See  Couch  Grass. 

Ag'ro  Roma'no,  the  territory 
subject  administratively  to  the 
municipahty  of  Rome,  Hes  on 
both  sides  of  the  Tiber,  and  along 
the  Mediterranean  from  the 
Alban  to  the  Sabine  Hills.  It 
consists  of  pasturage  (from  Octo- 
ber to  May),  scrub  and  forest 
(oak,  elm,  ash,  beech,  maple), 
arable  land,  vineyards,  and 
marshes.  Formerly  the  district 
was  extremely  unhealthy  in  sum- 
mer, being  one  of  the  worst 
malaria-infected  regions  of  Italy. 
During  recent  years  the  Italian 
government  has  done  much  to 
alleviate  this  condition  by  the 
use  of  sucn  measures  as  proper 
drainage,  mosquito  netting,  and 
the  planting  of  eucalyptus  trees. 
The  percentage  of  people  suffer- 
ing from  malaria  in  1890  was  30 
per  cent.;  in  1910  it  was  only  5 
per  cent.   See  Campagna. 

Agua,  a'gwa,  a  South  Ameri- 
can species  of  Toad  (Bufo  mari- 
nus),  the  largest  known  (some- 
times 8  inches  long).  The  skin 
is  dark  brown  and  covered  with 
warty  glands;  the  male  has  a  loud, 
snoring  bark.  Taken  to  the 
island  of  Jamaica  to  destroy  the 
rats  that  were  devouring  the 
sugar  cane,  it  multiplied  till  it 
became  a  pest. 

Agua,  a  volcanic  mountain  of 
Guatemala,  Central  America, 
southwest  of  the  city  of  Guate- 
mala. More  than  15,000  feet 
high,  it  ejects  its  hot-water 
streams  from  a  crater  100  feet 
wide,  and  has  twice  destroyed 
the  city. 

Aguada,  a-gwii'da,  town,  Porto 
Rico,  near  the  Bay  of  Aguadilla; 
5  miles  southeast  of  that  town. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
landing  place  of  Columbus  in 
1493.  In  1899  a  destructive  hur- 
ricane visited  the  district.  Pop. 
1,000. 

Aguadilla,  a-gwa-del'ya.  pic- 
turesque town  of  Porto  Rico,  on 
the  west  coast;  65  miles  by  rail 
west  of  San  Juan.  It  has  a  fine 
harbor,  and  is  the  commercial 
outlet  for  the  surrounding  dis- 
trict. Cofi"ee,  sugar,  tobacco,  and 
fruit  are  exported.     Pop.  6,200. 

Aguado,  a-gwii'do,  Alexan- 
dre Marie  (1784-1842),  a 
wealthy  Parisian  banker  of  Jew- 
ish origin,  native  of  Seville. 
During  the  vSpanish  war  of  inde- 
pendence he  fought  with  distinc- 
tion on  the  French  side,  and  rose 
to  the  rank  of  colonel.  Founding 
a  bank,  he  soon  became  one  of 
the  first  bankers  in  Paris.  He 
negotiated  several  Spanish  loans, 
and  Ferdinand  vii.  made  him  a 


marquis.  He  left  a  fortune  of 
$12,500,000. 

Aguardiente,  ii-gwar-di-en'te, 
a  second-class  brandy  very  pop- 
ular in  Spain  and  Portugal.  Also 
a  Mexican  intoxicant  made  from 
the  juice  of  the  agave  (see 
Pulque)  . 

Aguascalientes,  ii'gwas-ka-li- 
en'tas  ('warm  waters'),  state, 
Anahuac  plateau,  Mexico.  It  is 
mountainous  in  the  west,  with 
wide  plains  in  the  east.  The 
products  are  the  usual  grain 
(wheat,  barley),  vegetable,  and 
fruit  crops  of  the  temperate  zone. 
There  are  many  mines,  some  fa- 
mous, producing  principally  sil- 
ver and  copper,  but  also  gold, 
lead,  tin,  iron,  and  mercury. 
Area,  2,969  square  miles;  pop. 
120,000. 

Aguascalientes,  town,  Mexico, 
capital  of  the  state  of  Aguas- 
calientes, on  the  Mexico  Central 
Railway;  350  miles  by  rail  north- 
west of  the  City  of  Mexico.  It 
stands  on  a  plateau  6,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  is  a  pros- 
perous commercial  and  manufac- 
turing centre.  The  town  is  sur- 
rounded by  fine  gardens,  and 
contains  some  handsome  public 
buildings.  The  environs  abound 
in  hot  springs.  It  has  smelting 
works,  potteries,  tanneries,  cot- 
ton mills,  and  tobacco  factories. 
Pop.  45,000. 

A'gue.    See  Malaria. 

Aguesseau,  a-ge-s6',  Henri 
Francois  d'  (1668-1751),  pro- 
nounced by  Voltaire  the  most 
learned  magistrate  that  France 
ever  possessed,  was  born  in 
Limoges.  A  steady  defender  of 
the  rights  of  the  people  and  of  the 
Galilean  Church,  he  successfully 
opposed  the  decrees  of  Louis  xiv. 
During  the  regency  of  the  duke 
of  Orleans  he  became  chancellor 
of  France;  but  in  1718  he  fell  into 
disgrace  by  opposing  Law's  fatal 
system  of  finance.  Twice  later 
h^held  office  as  chancellor. 

AguUar  de  la  Frontera,  a-ge- 
liir'  de  la  fron-ta'ra,  town,  Anda- 
lusia, Spain,  on  the  River  Cabra; 
22  miles  southeast  of  Cordova. 
It  has  a  dismantled  Moorish 
castle.  The  chief  trade  is  in 
corn  and  wine.    Pop.  14,000. 

Aguilas,  a'ge-liis,  town,  Murcia 
province,  Spain;  38  miles  south- 
west of  Cartagena,  on  the  railway 
from  Murcia  to  Granada.  It  is 
a  busy  port  and  bathing  resort  on 
the  Mediterranean,  with  large 
smelters  and  considerable  export 
trade  in  argentiferous  lead,  iron 
ore,  sulphur,  esparto,  and  figs. 
Pop.  16.000. 

Aguilcra,  a-ge-la'ra,  Ventura 
Ruiz  (1820-81),  a  Spanish  doctor 
who  became  a  journalist,  and 
who  played  an  active  part  in  poli- 
tics. He  wrote  poetry  which 
showed  the  influence  of  IBeranger 
and  Lamartine.  Among  his  vol- 
umes are  Ecos  nacionales;  Ele- 


gias;  Armonias  y  Cantares.  His 
complete  works  were  published 
in  1873. 

Aguinaldo,  a-ge-nal'do,  Emil- 
lo  (1870),  Filipino  leader,  who 
first  distinguished  himself  in  the 
insurrection  of  the  Filipinos 
(1896)  against  the  Spanish  colo- 
nists, and  with  American  help 
finally  drove  them  out  of  the 
islands.  Their  annexation  by  the 
United  States  led  to  a  rupture 
between  the  allies  and  a  war  of 
subjugation  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States,  in  which  Agui- 
naldo acted  as  president  of  the 
native  provisional  government. 
On  March  23,  1901,  Aguinaldo 
and  his  staff  were  captured  at 
Palawan,  Luzon,  by  the  Ameri- 
cans, and  he  thereupon  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance. 

Aguirre,  a-ger'ra.  Lope  de 
(1507-61),  one  of  those  daring 
adventurers  whom  Spain  pro- 
duced at  the  time  of  the  conquest 
of  America.  He  saw  the  first 
rising  of  the  Incas,  and  set  out 
down  the  Amazon  to  discover  El 
Dorado,  but  proved  instead  the 
connection  between  that  river 
and  the  Amazon.  He  killed  the 
new  king  of  Peru,  and  was  de- 
feated and  killed  at  Barquisi- 
meto. 

Aguja,  a-goo'ha,  or  Agujon,  a 
voracious  garfish  {Tylosurus  fodi- 
ator)  greatly  feared  by  fishermen 
on  the  West  Mexican  coast.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  the  re- 
lated West  Indian  species. 

Agulhas,  a-gool'yas.  Cape 
(Portuguese  'needles'),  the  most 
southerly  point  of  Africa,  lies 
about  100  miles  southeast  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  lat.  34° 
49' s.,  long.  20°  0'  40"  E.  On  ac- 
count of  its  sharp,  jagged  rocks 
the  point  is  very  dangerous  for 
ships;  fogs  are  frequent,  and  the 
currents  are  uncertain.  In  1849 
a  lighthouse  was  erected  on  the 
point. 

Agulhas  Bank  extends  east- 
ward from  the  Cape  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Great  Fish  River,  a  dis- 
tance of  550  miles. 

Agur,  a  Hebrew  sage,  to  whom 
is  attributed  the  collection  of  wise 
sayings  in  Prov.  xxx.  See  Prov- 
erbs. 

Agusan,  a-gob'siin,  or  Butuan, 
bob-too'an,  river,  Mindanao, 
Philippines,  the  second  in  size  of 
Mindanao,  and  the  third  of  the 
Archipelago.  It  rises  in  Davao 
province,  and  flows  north  for  236 
miles,  traversing  a  chain  of  lakes, 
and  falling  into  Butuan  Bay. 
The  region  drained  is  fertile,  in- 
cluding the  central  valley  of 
Surigao  province. 

Agustina,  a-go6s-te'na  (d. 
1857),  Maria,  the  Maid  of  vSara- 
gossa,  who  encouraged  the  Span- 
iards to  defend  Saragossa  against 
the  French  during  the  sieges 
of  1808  and  1809.  Consult 
Byron's  Childe  Harold,  i.  54-56; 


Ahab 


113 


Ahmed  Mlrza 


and  Southey's  History  of  the  Pe- 
ninsular War.  Her  portrait  was 
painted  by  Wilkie. 

A'hab,  king  of  Israel  (875-853 
B.C.),  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  Omri,  and  the  contemporary 
and  ally  of  Jehoshaphat,  king  of 
Judah.  A  man  of  undoubted  pa- 
triotism and  courage,  Ahab  joined 
these  virtues  to  an  unfortunate 
moral  indifTerence  or  weakness. 
His  marriage  with  Jezebel,  daugh- 
ter of  Ethbaal,  king  of  Tyre,  ce- 
mented an  alliance  designed  to 
act  as  a  counter-check  to  the  am- 
bition of  Benhadad  ii.,  king  of 
Syria;  but  it  fixed  the  worship  of 
Baal  upon  Israel,  and  so  brought 
the  king  into  conflict  with  the 
Prophet  Elijah.  Twice  Ahab  dis- 
comfited the  Syrians,  but  in  a 
third  battle,  at  Ramoth-gilead,  he 
was  mortally  wounded  by  a  ran- 
dom arrow  (1  Kings  xvi.  29-33; 
xxii.  34-40).  His  whole  family 
was  afterward  extirpated  by  Jehu. 

Ahasuerus,  a-haz-u-e'rus,  the 
title  in  Scripture  of  several  kings 
of  Media  and  Persia.  The  best 
known  of  these  is  Esther's  hus- 
band (see  Esther),  who  is  prob- 
ably the  same  as  the  Persian  king 
Xerxes. 

Ahasuerus  is  also  the  tradition- 
al name  of  the  Wandering  Jew 
(see  Jew,  the  Wandering). 

A'haz,  king  of  Judah  (c.  735- 
719  B.C.),  the  Jauhazi  of  the  in- 
scriptions, was  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Jotham.  Being  threat- 
ened by  Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and 
Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  he  sought 
the  protection  of  Tiglath-pileser 
III.  of  Assyria — an  act  denounced 
by  Isaiah— and  ultimately  be- 
came tributary  to  that  power. 
(See  2  Kings  xvi.;  Isa.  vii.) 

A'hazi'ah.  (1.)  King  of  Israel 
(c.  853-852  B.C.),  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Ahab.  He  was  encour- 
aged by  his  mother  Jezebel  in  the 
wicked  ways  of  his  father,  and  in 
his  reign  the  Moabites  revolted 
(2  Kings  iii.  5-7).  '  Ehjah  proph- 
esied that  he  would  never  rise 
from  his  bed,  and  he  died  in  con- 
sequence of  a  fall  from  an  upper 
window.  (See  1  Kings  xxii,  40- 
2  Kings  i.) 

(2.)  King  of  Judah  {c.  843-842 
B.C.),  the  son  of  Jehoram  (of  Ju- 
dah) and  Athaliah,  and  thus  the 
nephew  of  the  foregoing.  In  al- 
liance with  Jehoram  (of  Israel)  he 
made  an  unsuccessful  expedition 
against  Hazael  of  Damascus;  and 
afterward,  while  Ahaziah  was  on 
a  visit  to  his  wounded  kinsman  at 
Jezreel,  an  insurrection  broke  out 
under  Jehu,  in  which  Jehoram 
was  killed  and  Ahaziah  mortally 
wounded.  (See  2  Kings  viii.  25-9 ; 
2  Chron.  xxii.  9.) 

Ahlmelech,a-him'e-lek,  twelfth 
high  priest  of  Israel,  who  at  Nob 
fed  David  with  the  shewbread, 
and  gave  him  the  sword  of  Goliath 
(1  Sam.  xxi.  1-10);  and  who  was 
slain  by  Saul  for  his  kindness  to 
David. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


Ahith'ophel,  a  Gilonite,  one  of 
King  David's  ablest  and  most 
trusted  counsellors,  who  neverthe- 
less joined  the  revolt  of  Absalom. 
When  a  proposal  which  he  had 
made  for  the  procuring  of  David's 
death  was  rejected  on  the  advice 
of  Hushai,  he  rode  home  to  Giloh 
and  strangled  himself  (2  Sam. 
xv.-xvii.). 

Ahlen,  a'len,  town,  Westphalia, 
Prussia,  on  the  River  Werse;  20 
miles  southeast  of  Miinster.  It 
manufactures  linen  and  enamels. 
Pop.  (1910)  10,673. 

Ahlqvist,  al'kvist,  August 
Engelbert  (1826-89),  Finnish 
philologist,  founded  the  ^Momg/ar. 
He  travelled  through  Northern 
Russia  and  Siberia  (1853-8) ;  and 
afterward  became  professor  of 
Finnish  in  the  University  of  Hel- 
singfors.  He  published  grammat- 
ical and  lexicographical  works,  an 
account  of  his  travels,  and  a  vol- 
ume of  poems. 

Ahlwardt,  al'vart,  Theodor 
Wilhelm  (1828-1909),  German 
Orientalist,  was  born  in  Greifs- 
wald.  He  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  there  in  1861. 
His  works,  chiefly  on  ancient 
Arabic  poetry  and  Saracen  his- 
tory, are :  U eber  Poesie  und  Poetik 
der  Araber  (1850) ;  Diwan  desAbu- 
Nowas  (1861);  Divans  of  the  Six 
Ancient  Arabic  Poets  (1870);  An- 
onyme  Arabische  Chronik  (1883); 
Sammlung  alter  Arabischer  Dich- 
^er(1902-3) ;  RubasDiwan  (1904) ; 
and  a  Catalogue  of  Arabic  Mss., 
Royal  Library,  Berhn  (1887-99). 

Ahmadabad.     See  Ahmeda- 

BAD. 

Ahmadnagar.  See  Ahmed- 
nagar. 

Ahmed  I.,  ii'med,  or  Achmet 
(1589-1617),  sultan  of  Turkey, 
son  of  Mohammed  iii.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1603.  In  1606  he 
concluded  the  peace  of  Sitvatorok 
with  Austria,  and  in  1612  termi- 
nated an  unsuccessful  war  with 
Persia. 

Ahmed  II.,  or  Achmet  (1642- 
95),  sultan  of  Turkey,  succeeded 
his  brother  vSolyman  ii.  in  1691. 
His  forces,  led  by  his  great  vizier 
Mustapha  Kopriilii,  were  expelled 
from  Hungary  after  their  crush- 
ing defeat  at  Salankamen  in  1691, 
when  Kopriilii  was  slain. 

Ahmed  III.,  or  Achmet  (1673- 
1736),  sultan  of  Turkey,  a  brother 
of  Mustapha  ii.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded ( 1 703) .  Charles  xii. ,  after 
his  defeat  at  Poltava  (1709),  was 
received  by  him,  and  remained  in 
Turkey  until  1714.  Peter  the 
Great  was  surrounded  near  the 
Pruth  (1711),  and  by  a  treaty  had 
to  surrender  Azov.  So  far  suc- 
cessful, Ahmed  regained  the  Mo- 
rea  from  the  Venetians  in  1715. 
This  brought  on  him  the  hostility 
of  Austria,  and  led  to  the  taking 
of  Belgrade  by  Prince  Eugene 
(1717).  The  Treaty  of  Passaro- 
witz  followed  (1718),  by  which 
Turkey  lost  Belgrade  but  kept 


the  Morea.  A  disastrous  war 
with  Persia  led  to  Ahmed's  depo- 
gition  in  1730. 

Ahmed  IV.    See  Abdul  Ha- 

MID  I. 

Ahmedabad,  a-med-a-biid',  or 
Ahmadabad,  principal  city  of 
Ahmedabad  district,  Bombay 
Presidency,  British  India,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Sabarmati  River; 
about  300  miles  north  of  Bom- 
bay. It  covers  an  area  of  two 
square  miles,  enclosed  within  the 
remains  of  an  ancient  wall  pierced 
by  twelve  gateways.  The  great 
earthquake  of  1819  destroyed  a 
large  part  of  the  city  and  some  of 
its  finest  edifices.  Its  architect- 
ural remains,  however,  are  splen- 
did, and  in  extent  and  beauty 
rank  next  to  those  of  Delhi  and 
Agra.  They  furnish  a  striking 
example  of  the  combination  of 
Hindu,  Mohammedan,  and  Jain 
forms.  The  more  important 
structures  are  the  Jama  Masjid, 
or  Great  Mosque  (1424),  remark- 
able for  its  decorated  minarets; 
the  Ivory  Mosque,  of  white  mar- 
ble, lined  with  ivory  inlaid  with 
gems;  Sidi  Said's  Mosque,  with 
its  two  windows  filled  with 
branches  and  flowers  in  exquisite- 
ly wrought  stone  tracery;  and  the 
modern  Jain  temple  (1848)  of 
white  marble,  just  outside  the 
city  walls. 

Modern  Ahmedabad  is  a  centre 
of  manufacture  and  trade,  and  is 
celebrated  for  its  handicraftsmen, 
including  goldsmiths,  jewellers, 
copper  and  brass  workers,  lacquer 
workers,  wood  and  ivory  carvers. 
Brocaded  silks,  cotton  goods,  gold 
and  silver  lace  and  thread,  pot- 
tery, paper,  shoes,  and  carpets 
are  manufactured.  An  extensive 
trade  in  cotton,  opium,  and  indi- 
go is  carried  on.  The  city  is  the 
headquarters  for  Gujarat  mis- 
sions, and  has  many  schools,  both 
government  and  missionary. 
There  is  a  military  cantonment, 
approached  by  a  magnificent  ave- 
nue of  trees  three  and  a  half  miles 
to  the  north.  Pop.  (1901)  185,- 
889;  (1911)  216,777;  of  district 
(1901)  795,967;  (1911)  827,809. 

Ahmedabad  was  founded  in 
1412  by  Ahmed  Shah.  From 
1512  to  1572  it  declined  in  power, 
but  rose  to  a  position  of  influence 
under  the  Mogul  emperors  (1572- 
1709).  The  British,  under  Gen- 
eral Goddard,  stormed  the  city 
in  1780;  but  it  continued  in  the 
possession  of  the  Mahrattas  until 
1818,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the 
East  India  Company. 

Ahmed  Mirza  (1898),  shah  of 
Persia,  second  son  of  Mohammed 
Ali,  and  lineal  descendant  of  the 
royal  Kajar  line,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  July  16,  1909,  upon  the 
abdication  of  his  father.  His  for- 
mal coronation,  however,  did  not 
take  place  until  July  21,  1914; 
the  government,  in  the  meantime, 
being  in  the  hands  of  a  regent. 
(See  Persia, /^^/ory.) 


Ahmednj^av 


114 


Aigulllette 


Ahmed  nagar,  a-med-nug'ur,  or 
Ahmadnagar,  district,  Deccan, 
Presidency  of  Bombay.  Wheat, 
Indian  millet,  and  grain  are  its 
chief  agricultural  products.  Area, 
6,613  square  miles.  Pop.  (1911) 
945,305. 

Ahmednagar,  capital  of  the 
district,  on  the  River  Sina  (Seena) ; 
125  miles  east  of  Bombay.  The 
fort  stands  about  half  a  mile  to 
the  east  of  the  city.  The  chief 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of 
silk  and  cotton,  and  the  making 
of.  copper  and  brass  vessels.  It 
was  occupied  by  General  Welles- 
ley  in  1803,  and  came  permanent- 
ly under  British  rule  in  1817, 
Pop.  (1911)  42,940. 

Ahmed  Shah  (c.  1724-73), 
founder  of  the  Afghan  or  Durani 
dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Sammaun 
Khan,  hereditary  chief  of  the  Ab- 
dali  tribe.  On  the  assassination 
(1747)  of  Nadir  Shah,  in  whose 
bodyguard  he  had  served,  Ahmed 
retreated  to  Afghanistan,  where 
he  was  chosen  sovereign,  and  was 
crowned  at  Kandahar  the  same 
year.  He  gradually  extended  his 
conquests,  and  left  to  his  son, 
Timur,  an  empire  which  reached 
from  Khorassan  to  Sirhind,  and 
from  the  Oxus  to  the  Indian  Sea. 

Ahriman,  a'ri-man,  or  Ari- 
MANES,  was  the  supreme  evil  spir- 
it of  the  ancient  Persian  religion 
(Zoroastrianism) .  Coeval  with 
Ormuzd,  the  Supreme  Good,  with 
whom  he  was  ever  in  conflict,  this 
'Dark  Spirit'  inevitably  suggests 
the  Jewish  Satan.  The  Zend- 
Avesta  makes  him  the  creator  of 
all  poisonous  snakes,  beasts  of 
prey,  obnoxious  parasites,  etc. 

Ahuachapan,  a-wa-cha-pan', 
town,  Salvador,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Ahuachapan;  50 
miles  west  of  San  Salvador.  The 
department  produces  sugar  cane, 
coffee,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  fruit. 
Pop.  of  town  14,000;  of  depart- 
ment, 60,000. 

Ahuatle,  a'oo-at'l,  a  food  pre- 
pared from  the  eggs  of  a  Mexican 
species  of  ephydrid  fly  by  grind- 
ing them  into  flour.  The  flour  is 
mixed  with  hen's  eggs  to  form 
a  paste,  and  fried  in  small  cakes. 

Ahwaz,  a-waz',  Ahwuz,  or  Ah- 
WAS,  village,  province  Khuzistan, 
Persia;  70  miles  northeast  of  Bas- 
sora.  It  is  notable  for  the  ruins  of 
the  capital  of  Artabanus,  last  king 
of  Parthia.    Pop.  3,000. 

Ai,  a'e,  also  Hai,  Aija,  Aiath, 
a  Canaanite  royal  city,  situated 
to  the  cast  of  Bethel.  It  is  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Abra- 
ham (Gen.  xii.  8),  but  is  remem- 
bered chiefly  for  its  capture  and 
destruction  by  Joshua,  after  the 
severe  reverse  of  the  Israelites  on 
account  of  the  sin  of  Achan  (Josh, 
vii.  2-viii.  29).  The  site  of  Ai  is 
probably  marked  by  the  modern 
Haiyan. 

Aicard,  a-kiir',  Jean  Francois 
Victor  (1848),  French  poet,  was 
born  in  Toulon.  He  has  pub- 
VoL.  I. — Mar.  '16 


lished  several  volumes  of  verse 
— e.g.,  Les  Poemes  de  Provence 
(1874);  La  Chanson  de  VEnfant 
(1876);  Miette  el  Nore  (1880),  an 
idyll  of  Provence;  Lamar  tine 
(1883);  and  Jesus  (1896,  1912). 
He  has  also  written  novels,  as  Le 
Roi  de  la  Camargue  (1891) ;  L'Ame 
d'un  Enfant  (1898);  Tata  (1901, 
1910).  His  dramatic  works  com- 
prise: Au  Clair  de  la  Lune  (1870) ; 
Othello,  ou  le  More  de  Venise 
(1882) ;  Le  Pere  Lebonnard  (1889) ; 
Le  Manteau  du  Roi  (1907) ;  Mau- 
rin  des  Maures  and  L'lllustre 
Maurin  (1908).  In  1913  he  pub- 
lished Hollande  and  Algerie. 

Aid.  See  Aide-t,e- C amp; 
First  Aid. 

Aidan,  a'dan,  St.  (d.  651),  a 
Columban  monk  of  lona,  where 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  about 
635,  in  which  year  he  began  his 
work  of  Christianizing  Northum- 
bria,  in  response  to  the  invitation 
of  Oswald,  king  of  Bernicia.  Fix- 
ing his  see  at  Lindisfarne  (the 
Holy  Isle),  Aidan  founded  there 
the  church  afterward  associated 
with  St.  Cuthbert.  King  Oswy, 
brother  and  successor  of  Oswald, 
continued  to  act  as  Aidan's  patron 
until  the  latter's  death.  Bede  tes- 
tifies to  the  piety,  humility,  and 
fervor  of  this  apostle  of  North- 
umbria.  Consult  Fryer's  Aidan, 
the  Apostle  of  the  North. 

Aide,  a-e-da',  Charles  Ham- 
ilton (1830-1907),  English  nov- 
elist and  song  writer,  was  born  in 
Paris.  He  served  from  1845  to 
1852  in  the  British  army.  Among 
his  works  are :  Eleanor e,  and  Other 
Poems  (1856) ;  Songs  without  Mu- 
sic (1882)  ;  Past  and  Present  (1903) . 
His  novels  and  romances  include: 
Rita  (1859);  Penruddocke  (1873); 
Poet  and  Peer  (1880) ;  Jane  Trea- 
chel  (1899);  Snares  of  the  World 
(1901);  The  Chivalry  of  Harold 
(1907).  He  was  the  author  of  the 
well-known  songs  Remember  or 
Forget  and  The  Danube  River. 

Aide-de-Camp,  ad'd'kan',  or 
Aid,  an  officer  attached  to  the 
personal  staff  of  a  general  officer. 
He  carries  all  orders  on  the  field  of 
battle,  and,  when  thus  acting  as 
the  mouthpiece  of  the  general,  is 
to  be  implicitly  obeyed.  In  gar- 
rison and  quarters  the  aide-de- 
camp superintends  the  general's 
household,  and  acts  as  his  secre- 
tary, assisting  him  in'  his  corre- 
spondence, introducing  military 
officers,  and  aiding  in  dispensing 
the  courtesies  of  his  house.  In 
European  countries  an  aide-de- 
camp on  the  staff  of  a  ruler  or 
governor  is  almost  entirely  a  so- 
cial functionary.  In  the  United 
States  Army,  a  lieutenant-general 
is  allowed  two  aids  and  a  military 
secretary,  with  the  rank  and  pay 
of  lieutenant-colonel.  Three  and 
two  aids,  respectively,  are  allotted 
to  major-generals  and  brigadier- 
generals — selected  in  the  former 
case  from  captains  and  lieuten- 
ants, in  the  latter  from  lieuten- 


ants in  the  army,  but  with  no  ad- 
ditional rank  attached  to  their 
position.  Officers  chosen  as  aids 
must  have  served  three  of  the  pre- 
ceding years  with  their  regiment 
or  corps.  The  appointment  is 
usually  for  five  years. 

Aidin,  i-den'  (Guzel  -  Hissar), 
town,  Asia  Minor,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Menderez,  and  on  the  River 
Meander;  60  miles  southeast  of 
Smyrna.  Morocco  leather,  cot- 
ton, figs,  olives,  and  grapes  are 
exported.    Pop.  36,000. 

Aids.  Under  the  feudal  sys- 
tem aids  were  originally  payments 
to  which  every  tenant  in  chivalry 
was  liable:  (1)  To  ransom  the  per- 
son of  the  lord  when  taken  prison- 
er; (2)  To  make  his  eldest  son  a 
knight;  and  (3)  To  provide  a 
suitable  portion  to  his  eldest 
daughter  on  her  marriage.  Ten- 
ants in  socage  were  liable  only  to 
the  latter  two,  and  the  mesne 
lords  were  prohibited  by  Magna 
Charta  from  exacting  more  than 
these  three.  Aids  were  abolished 
in  1660. 

Aigrette,  a'gret  or  a-gret'  (Ai- 
gret),  the  French  name  of  the 
bird  known  as  Egret  (q.  v.),  the 
lesser  white  heron.  Hence  the 
term  has  come  to  be  used  for  its 
feathery  crest,  for  feathers  in  a 
lady's  head  dress,  or  for  a  similar 
ornament  of  precious  stones. 

Aiguesmortes,  ag-mort',  or 
AiGUES-MoRTES  ('dead  waters'), 
town,  department  Gard,  France; 
18  miles  south  of  Nimes.  It  is 
situated  in  a  large  salt  marsh, 
3  miles  from  the  Mediterranean, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
canal.  Pop.  (1911)  3,866. 

Aiguille,  a-gwel'  (French  'nee- 
dle'), an  instrument  used  by  en- 
gineers to  pierce  a  rock  for  the 
reception  of  gunpowder,  when 
any  blasting  or  blowing  up  is  to 
be  effected.  The  word  is  also 
used  of  the  needle-like  peaks  or 
summits  of  mountains,  especially 
in  the  Alps.    See  Alps. 

Aiguillette,  a-gwi-let'  (diminu- 
tive of  aiguille,  a  needle),  an  or- 
nament of  bullion  cords  or  loops, 
attached  to  the  shoulder  of  the 
uniform  of  certain  military  and 
naval  officers. 

In  the  U.  S.  Army,  aiguillettes 
are  worn  by  the  officers  of  the 
General  Staff  Corps,  of  the  Ad- 
jutant-General's Department, 
of  the  Inspector-General's  De- 
partment, and  of  the  Bureau  of 
Insular  Affairs;  by  aids  to  regi- 
mental officers,  regimental  adju- 
tants, adjutants  of  artillery  dis- 
tricts, adjutants  of  engineer  bat- 
talions, military  attaches,  and  aids 
to  the  President. 

In  the  U.  S.  Navy,  aiguillettes 
are  worn  by  naval  officers  acting 
as  aids  to  the  President  and  Sec- 
retary of  the  Navy,  and  aids  at 
the  White  House;  by  the  personal 
staff  of  flag  officers,  naval  at- 
taches, and  the  aids  to  the  com- 
mandants of  navy  yards,  naval 


Algun 


115 


Alnsworth 


stations,  and  the  Superintendent 
of  the  Naval  Academy. 

Algun,  i'goon,  Aikhun,  or 
Sakhalin  Ula,  town,  Man- 
churia, on  the  Amur  River, 
terminus  of  the  projected  hne 
connecting  the  Amur  and  Si- 
berian Railways.  The  treaty 
which  gave  Russia  the  Amur  re- 
gion was  concluded  here  in  1858. 
Pop.  (1918)  18,546. 

Aljalon.    See  Ajalon. 

Alkawa,  I-ka'wa,  town,  on  the 
west  coast  of  the  island  of  Sado, 
Japan;  40  miles  north  of  Niigata. 
Gold  and  silver  mines  occur  in 
the  vicinity.    Pop.  12,500. 

Aiken,  a'ken,  city,  South 
Carolina,  county  seat  of  Aiken 
county,  on  the  Southern  and 
Augusta-Aiken  Railways;  17 
miles  east  of  Augusta,  Ga.  It 
is  situated  on  a  sand  ridge  at  an 
elevation  of  600  feet,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  pine  forests.  Be- 
cause of  its  mild  climate,  it  is  a 
noted  health  and  pleasure  resort. 
Fertile  farming  lands  surround 
the  city;  corn,  cotton,  wheat, 
oats,  melons,  sugar  cane,  and 
fruits  being  the  chief  crops.  Here 
are  located  Aiken  Institute,  St. 
Angelas  Academy,  The  Aiken 
Preparatory  School  and  Fermata, 
and  two  schools  for  negro  stu- 
dents— the  Schofields  Normal 
and  Industrial  School  and  the 
Emmanuel  Training  School.  Pop. 
(1910)  3,911;  (1920)  4,103. 

Aiken,  William  (1806-87), 
American  legislator,  was  born  in 
C'harleston,  S.  C.  He  was  gradu- 
-itcd  from  the  College  of  vSouth 
Carolina,  was  a  member  of  the 
State  legislature  (1838-43),  gov- 
ernor of  South  Carolina  (1844-6), 
and  member  of  Congress  (1851- 
7).  Though  an  ardent  Demo- 
crat, he  opposed  both  nullifica- 
tion and  secession.  Re-elected 
to  Congress  in  1866,  he  was  not 
permitted  to  take  his  seat. 

Ailantlius,  a-lan'thus,  a  genus 
of  large  Asiatic  or  Australian 
trees  of  the  natural  order  Sima- 
rubaceae  (the  Quassia  family). 
The  best  known  species  is  the 
'Tree  of  Heaven'  (A.  glandulosa) , 
which  was  brought  from  China 
in  1751  and  is  now,  because  of 
its  rapid  growth,  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  Southern  Europe, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  United 
States.  The  bark  is  smooth  and 
brown;  the  leaves  are  short- 
stalked  with  long  petioles;  while 
the  flowers  of  the  male  tree  give 
out  a  very  unpleasant  odor.  The 
wood  is  fine  grained,  satiny,  and 
suitable  for  cabinet  making. 

Ailantlius  Motli,  a  species  of 
silk-spinning  moth  (Bombyx  or 
Philosamia  cynthia) ,  which  lives 
on  the  leaves  of  the  ailantlius 
tree,  and,  like  the  tree,  was  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States 
from  China.  It  measures  about 
5  inches  from  wing  to  wing,  and 
is  olive  brown  in  color,  marked 
with  white  spots  and  bars  of  pur- 
VoL.  I.— Oct.  '22. 


pie  and  white.  The  caterpillar 
bears  tufts  of  white  hairs  ar- 
ranged in  rows.  The  silk  pro- 
duced by  the  ailanthus  moth,  al- 
though inferior  in  quality  to 
mulberry  silk,  is  cheaper  and 
more  durable. 

Aiily,  a- ye',  Pierre  d',  or 
Petrus  de  Alliaco  (1350- 
1420),  French  theologian  and 
prelate,  was  born  in  Compiegne. 
He  was  educated  at  the  college 
of  Navarre,  becoming  its  grand 
master  in  1384.  In  1389  he  was 
made  chancellor  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  and  almoner  and 
confessor  of  Charles  vi.,  after 
which  he  was  successively  bishop 
of  Puy  and  bishop  of  Cambrai. 
He  became  a  cardinal  in  1411. 
His  most  important  service  to 
the  church  was  rendered  at  the 
Council  of  Constance  (1414), 
where  he  maintained  the  super- 
iority of  a  general  council  over 
the  pope,  concurred  in  the  con- 
demnation of  Huss  and  Jerome 
of  Prague,  and  warmly  advo- 
cated reform  in  the  Church.  He 
was  papal  legate  at  Avignon 
from  \418  until  his  death.  His 
works,  chiefly  on  theology,  are 
numerous.  Consult  Tschackert's 
Peter  von  Ailli. 

Ailsa  Craig,  al'sa  krag',  a 
rocky  islet  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland ; 
10  miles  west  of  Girvan.  It  is 
about  two  miles  in  circumference 
and  rises  abruptly  to  a  height  of 
1,114  feet.  The  lighthouse  was 
erected  in  1836. 

Aimak,  I-mak',  a  group  of 
four  Mongol  tribes  {char  aimak) 
which,  with  the  Hazaras,  occupy 
the  region  of  Afghanistan  be- 
tween Herat  and  Kabul,  the 
two  groups  together  numbering 
about  650,000;  the  Aimak  alone 
numbering  about  250,000.  Some 
authorities  consider  the  Hazaras 
as  belonging  to  the  Aimak 
group.  See  Hazaras.  Consult 
McGregor's  Central  Asia;  Elphin- 
stom's  Caubul. 

Aimara,  i-ma'ra,  a  large  car- 
nivorous fish  of  South  America, 
especially  abundant  in  the  Ama- 
zon and  its  tributaries;  also 
known  as  trahira.  It  is  highly 
esteemed  as  food. 

Aimard,  a-miir',  Gu stave, 
(1818-83),  French  novelist,  was 
born  in  Paris.  Shipping  as  a 
cabin  boy  to  America,  he  spent 
ten  years  among  the  Indians  of 
Arkansas  and  Mexico,  where  he 
gathered  themes  for  a  large 
number  of  stories  of  adventure. 
During  the  Franco-German  War 
(1870-1),  he  organized  the  fa- 
mous 'francs-tireurs'  (q.  v.).  His 
many  works  include  Les  trappeurs 
de  r Arkansas  (1858),  Les  pirates 
de  la  prairie  (1859),  and  Les 
scalpeurs  blancs  (1873). 

Aimon.    vSee  Aymon. 

AIn,  aii,  a  river  of  France,  ris- 
ing in  the  Jura  Mountains,  and 
flowing  118  miles  southwest 
through  the  departments  of  Jura 


and  Ain,  until  it  joins  the  Rhone, 
18  miles  above  Lyons. 

Ain,  department  of  Eastern 
France,  bounded  on  the  east  and 
south  by  the  Rhone  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Saone.  It  is  bi- 
sected by  the  Ain  River,  to  the 
east  of  which  is  a  mountainous 
region  containing  some  of  the 
highest  peaks  of  the  Jura  Moun- 
tains, and,  to  the  west,  a  flat  and 
marshy  area.  The  department 
is  agricultural  and  pastoral,  and 
has  an  area  of  2,248  square 
miles.  The  capital  is  Bourg. 
Pop.  (1911)  342,482. 

Ainger,  Alfred  (1837-1904). 
English  clergyman  and  author, 
was  born  in  London.  He  was 
educated  at  King's  College  and 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
becoming  in  1866  reader  at  the 
Temple  Church  and  in  1894, 
master.  In  1887  he  was  made  a 
canon  of  Bristol,  later  serving  as 
chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Queen 
Victoria  and  King  Edward  vii. 
He  is  chiefly  known  in  literature 
as  a  biographer  and  editor  of 
Lamb.  His  works  include  Charles 
Lamb  (1882),  editions  of  Lamb's 
Essays  of  Elia  (1883),  Letters 
(1888),  The  Life  and  Works  of 
Charles  Lamb  (1899-1900),  and 
Crabbe  (1903),  Consult  Sichel's 
Life  and  Letters  of  Canon  A  inger. 

Ainhum,  an'hum,  a  disease, 
said  to  be  peculiar  to  the  negro 
race,  in  which  the  little  toe  is 
gradually  cut  off  by  a  tightening 
band  of  hard  skin.  It  is  of  the 
nature  of  a  local  scleroderma 
(q.  v.). 

Ainmiller,  in'mil-er.  Max 
Emanuel  (1807-70),  German 
designer  of  stained  glass,  was 
born  in  Munich.  He  became  a 
designer  in  the  roj^al  porcelain 
factory  at  Nymphenburg,  and, 
upon  the  founding  of  the  Royal 
Manufactory  of  Stained  Glasses 
at  Munich,  he  was  named  its 
director.  Through  his  efforts 
the  art  of  glass-staining  was 
revived.  Some  of  his  best  work 
is  found  in  the  cathedrals  of 
Cologne  and  Glasgow  and  in  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  London. 

Aino.    See  Ainu. 

Ainswortli,  anz'wurth,  Fred 
Crayton  (1852-  ),  American 
soldier,  was  born  in  Woodstock, 
Vt.,  and  was  graduated  in  1874 
from  the  medical  department  of 
New  York  University.  He  was 
appointed  assistant  surgeon  in 
the  U.  S.  Army  (1874);  major 
and  surgeon  (1891)  ;  chief  of  the 
Record  and  Pension  Office  of 
the  War  Department  with  the 
rank  of  colonel  (1892),  and  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier- general 
(1899).  In  1904  he  became 
military  secretary  of  the  Army 
with  the  rank  of  major-general, 
and  in  1907  adjutant-general, 
retiring  at  his  own  request  in 
1912. 

Ainsworth,  Hk;nrv  (1571-1622 
or  3),  an  English  scholar  whose 


Ainsworth 


115  A 


AIra 


birthplace  is  uncertain,  and 
about  whose  early  life  little  is 
known.  Because  of  his  inde- 
pendent religious  views  he  was 
forced  to  leave  England  in  1593 
and  went  to  Amsterdam,  where 
he  became,  three  years  later, 
pastor  of  the  Brownist  congrega- 
tion. He  wrote  many  exegetical 
and  controversial  works,  the 
most  notable  of  which  is  A 
Defence  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
Worship  and  Ministry  used  in 
the  Christian  Churches  separated 
from  Antichrist,  against  the  Ca- 
vils, Challenges,  and  Contradic- 
tions of  M.  Smyth  in  his  hook 
entitled  'The  Differences  of  the 
Churches  of  the  Separation'  ( 1 609) . 
Consult  Axon's  H.  Ainsworth, 
the  Puritan  Commentator. 

Ainsworth,  William  Harri- 
son (1805-82),  English  novelist, 
was   born   in   Manchester.  He 


vilayet  of  Aleppo,  Syria,  is 
situated  on  the  southern  slope  of 
Mount  Taurus,  the  reputed  site 
of  the  ancient  Antiochia  ad 
Taurum;  60  miles  northeast  of 
Aleppo.  It  has  vinej^ards,  manu- 
factures of  leather,  and  trade  in 
hides  and  cotton.  It  is  a  mili- 
tary post,  and  a  centre  of  Ameri- 
can missionary  work.  Pop.  74,— 
000.  _ 

Ainu,  i'nob,  or  AiNO  (signify- 
ing 'men'),  a  primitive  people 
inhabiting  Yesso,  the  southern 
parts  of  Sakhalin,  and  the 
Kurile  Islands  as  far  as  48°  N. 
lat.  In  former  times  they  also 
occupied  a  large  territory  in 
Hondo,  the  main  island  of 
Japan,  where  their  mixed  de- 
scendants form  part  of  the  pres- 
ent population.  Against  the  en- 
croachments of  the  Japanese,  to 
whom  they  are  known  as  Ebisu, 


rice  beer,  partakes  somewhat  of 
the  nature  of  a  religious  cere- 
mony. Their  language  is  simple 
and  harmonious,  similar  in  struc- 
ture to  that  of  the  Japanese. 
They  have  affinities  in  speech 
and  blood  with  the  people  of 
Kamchatka  and  the  Amur  dis- 
trict. The  present  number  of 
the  Ainu  is  about  17,000. 

Most  of  the  scientific  works 
on  the  Ainu  are  included  by  Von 
Wenckstern  in  his  Bibliography 
of  Japan.  Consult  also  Savage 
Landor's  Alone  with  the  Hairy 
Ainu;  Batchelor's  Ainu  and 
Their  Folk  Lore. 

Air,  in  music.    See  Aria. 

Air,  the  mixture  of  gases  con- 
stituting the  substance  of  our 
atmosphere.  Its  chief  properties 
are  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  with 
negligible  amounts  of  aqueous 
vapor,  argon,  carbon  dioxide,  hy- 


Copyright  by  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

A  Group  of  Ainu. 


undertook  the  study  of  law  but 
in  1826  abandoned  this,  and 
became  a  publisher,  producing 
in  that  year  Sir  John  Chiverton, 
which  for  forty  years  was  re- 
garded as  his  first  work,  but 
which  really  was  written  in 
collaboration  with  John  Aston. 
His  novel  Rockwood  was  pub- 
lished in  1834  and  was  extra- 
ordinarily successful.  Between 
1834  and  1881  he  wrote  some 
forty  novels,  a  few  of  them 
appearing  originally  in  Bentley's 
Miscellany,  Ainsworth' s  Maga- 
zine, and  the  New  Monthly.  His 
works  include  Crichton  (1837), 
Jack  Sheppard  (1839),  Tower  of 
London  (1840),  Old  St.  Paul's 
(1841),  Miser's  Daughter  (1842), 
and  Lancashire  Witches  (1848). 
Consult  S.  M.  Ellis'  W.  H. 
Ainsworth  and  His  Friends. 
Aln-Tab,  in-tab',  town,  in  the 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '22. 


Yebisu,  or  Yemishi,  they  made  a 
most  obstinate  resistance  during 
a  period  of  fully  one  thousand 
years,  but  were  finally  driven 
northward  to  their  present  homes. 

European  in  type,  they  are 
aptly  compared  to  the  Russian 
moujiks;  their  most  striking 
physical  characteristic  is  their 
hairiness  of  skin.  They  are 
taller  than  the  Japanese,  and 
have  dark  brown  eyes  and  regu- 
lar features.  They  are  poly- 
gamous, and  live  in  huts,  under 
their  own  chiefs.  Their  princi- 
pal occupations  are  hunting  and 
fishing.  Shamans  in  religion, 
they  worship  the  sky,  earth,  fire, 
wind,  and  water,  and  employ 
idols  or  inao  made  of  willow 
shavings.  The  bear  is  the  chief 
object  of  actual  worship,  and 
the  annual  bear  feast,  at  which 
they  intoxicate  themselves  with 


drogen,  neon,  xenon,  helium,  and 
krypton.  Formerly,  all  aeriform 
fluids,  now  known  as  gases,  were 
called  'airs'.  See  Atmosphere; 
Gases;  Storm;  Winds. 

Air,  ii-er',  or  Asben,  a  region  of 
French  West  Africa,  situated  in 
lat.  16°-20°  n.  and  long.  6°-9°  E., 
and  comprising  an  area  of  21,000 
square  miles.  Its  mountains, 
ranging  from  4,000  to  5.000  feet 
in  height,  have  a  beneficial  effect 
on  rainfall,  and  the  climate  is 
healthful.  The  palm,  fig,  and 
mimosa  grow  in  the  valleys.  The 
town  of  Asben,  situated  in  the 
south,  is  an  important  caravan 
centre  between  Central  and 
North  Africa.  The  capital  is 
Agades,  and  the  chief  town  is 
Tintellust.  The  population,  which 
is  composed  mainly  of  Tuareg 
tribes,  numbers  about  100,000. 

AIra.    See  Hair  Grass. 


Atr  Bladder 


115  B 


Aircraft  Disasters 


Air  Blad'der,  or  Swimming 
Bladder,  a  sac,  present  in  most 
fishes,  arising  dorsally  from  the 
aUmentary  canal ;  in  the  haddock, 
and  in  some  other  species,  con- 
nection with  the  intestine  is  not 
maintained  throughout  life.  The 
sac  may  be  double,  constricted, 
or  provided  with  side  chambers. 
In  the  Dipnoi  it  serves  as  a  lung, 
while  in  other  fish  its  function  is 
hydrostatic,  although  it  may  al- 
so be  an  accessory  organ  of 
respiration.  The  air  bladder  of 
fishes  affords  the  finest  isinglass. 

Air  Brake.    See  Brakes. 

Air  Cells,  or  Air  Spaces,  min- 
ute intercellular  spaces  in  the 
stems  or  leaves  of  plants,  which 
furnish  the  means  for  the  inter- 
change of  gases  necessary  for 
their  life.  In  terrestrial  plants 
communication  with  the  exterior 
occurs  by  means  of  the  stomata 
(q.  v.).  The  buoyancy  of  many 
aquatic  plants  is  due  to  the  es- 
pecially large  and  numerous  air 
spaces  which  they  contain  (see 
Aquatic  Plants). 

Air  Compressors.  See  Com- 
pressed-Air Motors. 

Aircraft.  See  Balloons;  Fly- 
ing Machines;  Gliders;  Aero- 
nautics. 

Aircraft  Disasters.  Close  to 
twenty  thousand  lives  have  been 
lost  in  flying  since  the  reporting 
of  the  first  aeroplane  fatality  on 
Sept.  17,  1908,  when  Lieut. 
Thomas  E.  Selfridge,  Signal 
Corps,  U.  S.  Army,  was  killed, 
and  Orville  Wright,  who  piloted 
the  aeroplane,  was  seriously  in- 
jured. Over  two  thousand  of 
these  were  lost  in  disasters  to 
dirigible  balloons. 

The  Great  War  (1914-19)  was 
responsible  for  over  fifteen  thou- 
sand fatalities,  the  French  alone 
having  suffered  7,555  air  casu- 
alties, including  1,945  killed, 
2,922  wounded,  1,461  missing,  in 
the  war  zone,  and  1,227  casual- 
ties outside  of  the  war  zone.  A 
total  of  1,998  casualties  was  re- 
ported among  American  military 
aviators  serving  with  the  Ameri- 
can, British,  French,  and  Italian 
armies  overseas  between  March, 
1918,  when  the  first  casualty  was 
reported,  and  Nov.  11,  1918,  the 
causes  being  assigned  as  follows: 
killed  in  action  714;  wounded  in 
action  412;  missing  105;  killed  in 
accidents  161;  injured  in  ac- 
cidents 98;  prisoners  483;  in- 
terned 12;  the  last  two  designa- 
tions being  listed  with  the  casu- 
alties on  account  of  the  implica- 
tion that  something  went  wrong 
with  the  aeroplanes  and  the 
aviators  were  forced  to  land.  At 
home  the  fatalities  in  the  Army 
Air  Service  from  Jan.  1,  1918,  to 
Nov.  8,  1919,  numbered  392, 
being  officially  attributed  to  the 
following  causes:  tail  spin  118; 
collision  61;  nose  dive  47;  side 
sUps  22;  stall  19;  fire  13;  collapse 
of  plane  8;  motor  trouble  6;  loss 
of  control  5;  fall  from  plane  4; 


struck  by  plane  4;  crash  and  fire 
2;  steep  bank  in  strong  wind  1; 
fall  from  aeroplane  when  turned 
upside  down  1;  cause  not  ascer- 
tained 68. 

The  casualties  in  the  U.  S. 
Navy  and  Naval  Reserve  force 
from  April  1,  1917,  to  Nov.  29, 
1918,  numbered  42  officers  and 
75  enlisted  men. 

The  first  dirigible  disaster  oc- 
curred in  1897,  near  Berlin,  when 
Wolfert's  dirigible  exploded,  due 
to  benzine  vapor  ignition,  and 
Wolfert  and  his  assistant  were 
killed.  In  May  1902  the  Bra- 
zilian inventor,  Augusto  Severo, 
was  killed  with  his  French  as- 
sistant Sache.  at  Vaugirard,  near 
Paris,  when  their  dirigible  Pax 
exploded  in  the  air.  On  Sept.  13, 
1902.  the  dirigible  de  Bradsky  ex- 
ploded in  France,  killing  the 
maker,  de  Bradsky,  and  his  en- 
gineer, Paul  Morin. 

The  destruction  of  the  French 
dirigible  Republique,  on  Sept.  25, 
1909,  due  to  faulty  metal  pro- 
pellers, killing  Captain  Marchal, 
Lieutenant  Chaure,  and  Adju- 
tants Reaux  and  Vincenot,  was 
the  first  of  the  disasters  to  large 
airships,  which  now  number  over 
one  hundred. 

The  early  accidents  to  Zep- 
pelins were  singularly  free  of  hu- 
man fatalities,  even  the  score  of 
passengers  of  the  Deutschland 
escaping  with  their  lives  when 
she  was  caught  in  a  storm  with- 
out fuel  to  drive  her  motor  and 
was  partially  wrecked  on  June 
28,  1910,  on  her  seventh  trip. 
Zeppelin  No.  1  was  dismantled 
after  tests  without  accidents.  No. 
2  was  destroyed  by  a  storm  on 
the  night  of  Jan.  17-18,  1906,  no 
lives  being  lost.  No.  3  was 
damaged  when  the  floating  shed 
was  damaged,  and  sank  on  Lake 
Constance,  in  December  1907*. 
No.  4  was  destroyed  by  a  thunder 
storm  while  at  anchor  at  Echter- 
dinger,  on  its  way  to  Friedrichs- 
hafen,  Aug.  5.  1908.  No.  5 
was  carried  aM^ay  by  a  storm 
from  Limburg,  where  it  was  at 
anchor,  on  April  25,  1909,  and 
was  wrecked  on  a  hill.  No.  6 
burned  in  its  shed  at  Oos,  Baden. 
No.  7  was  The  Deutschland,  al- 
ready mentioned.  No.  8,  the 
second  Deutschland,  was  battered 
against  its  shed  and  broken  in 
three  parts  on  May  16,  1918,  as 
it  was  being  taken  out. 

Over  one  hundred  German 
dirigible  airships  were  destroyed 
during  the  war.  The  naval  Zep- 
pelins L-3  and  the  L-4,  521  feet 
long,  54  feet  beam,  62  feet  high, 
with  gas  capacity  of  953,000 
cubic  feet,  in  18  compartments, 
having  a  gross  lift  of  29  tons  and 
a  useful  lift  of  8  tons,  stranded 
and  foundered  in  a  storm  on  Feb. 
17.  1915,  near  Esbjerg.  The 
ships  were  destroyed,  some  mem- 
bers of  the  crews  perished,  and 
some  were  interned. 

The  L-j,  of  the  class  and  size 


of  the  L-3,  was  destroyed  June  7, 
1915,  in  its  shed,  by  bombs 
dropped  by  British  aviators.  On 
the  same  day  L-6,  of  the  same 
class,  was  attacked,  set  afire  and 
destroyed  in  mid-air  near  Ghent, 
with  loss  of  the  entire  crew.  The 
was  shot  down  by  the  naval 
guns  of  the  ships  Galatea  and 
Phaeton  on  May  4,  1916,  off  the 
Schleswig  coast.  The  L-8  and 
the  L-io,  of  the  same  class,  were 
also  wrecked  and  destroj^ed,  the 
first  on  May  14,  1915,  the  second 
by  the  Dunkirk  squadron  of  the 
British  Royal  Navy  Air  Service, 
on  Aug.  16,  1915. 

The  L-18  caught  fire  and  ex- 
ploded on  Nov.  17,  1915,  at  its 
dock  at  Tondern.  The  and 
the  L-iQ  were  hit  by  British  anti- 
aircraft guns  and  foundered  in 
the  North  Sea.  The  L-21  was 
set  afire  and  destroyed  with  the 
entire  crew;  while  the  L-/5  was 
brought  down  on  April  1,  1916, 
and  landed  in  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames,  near  Kentish  Knock, 
where  the  crew  scuttled  the  ship 
and  surrendered.  Over  one  hun- 
dred German  dirigibles  and  about 
a  dozen  British,  French,  and 
Italian  dirigibles  were  destroyed 
in  a  similar  way  during  the  war. 

The  L-27,  which  Germany 
turned  over  to  France  under  the 
terms  of  the  Peace  Treaty  and 
which  was  renamed  the  Dixmude, 
was  lost  over  the  Mediterranean 
in  December  1923.  The  great 
dirigible,  which  had  previously 
broken  all  distance  and  endur- 
ance records  (see  Aeronautics), 
left  France  Dec.  18,  1923,  for  a 
cruise  over  Northern  Africa.  On 
Dec.  21,  at  3  a.m.,  a  radio 
message  announced  that,  having 
encountered  a  storm  area,  she 
was  returning  to  France.  She 
was  never  heard  from  again,  but 
the  body  of  her  commander  was 
recovered  a  few  days  later  off 
the  coast  of  Sicily  and  some 
charred  wreckage  was  subse- 
quently found.  All  of  the  crew 
of  50  were  lost. 

In  the  United  States  the  first 
dirigible  disaster  was  the  ex- 
plosion of  the  Goodyear  dirigible 
Akron,  built  for  Melvin  Vaniman, 
which  caused  the  death  of  Vani- 
man and  his  four  assistants  on 
July  12,  1912.  A  number  of 
American  Army  and  Navy  dirigi- 
bles came  to  grief  during  the  War, 
but  the  most  serious  disasters 
happened  after  the  signing  of 
the  armistice.  A  Goodyear  diri- 
gible exploded  over  Chicago  in 
1919  and  fell  on  a  bank,  killing 
a  number  of  people  in  the  bank 
as  well  as  the  airship  crew;  the 
R-38,  the  Roma,  and  the  Shenan- 
doah disasters  are  of  still  more 
recent  date. 

The  R-38  was  a  rigid  dirigible 
purchased  by  the  U.  S.  Navy 
by  arrangement  with  the  British 
government.  It  was  approxi- 
mately 700  feet  long  and  84.4 
feet  in  diameter,   designed  to 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '25 


Aircraft  Disasters 


116 


Airedale 


make  a  speed  of  about  60  miles 
an  hour,  and  equipped  with  six 
350  H.p.  motors.    On  Aug.  25. 

1921,  the  R-jS,  which  had  been 
named  Z  R-2  by  the  U.  S.  Navy, 
buckled,  crumpled,  and  exploded 
while  cruising  over  the  town  of 
Hull,  causing  the  death  of  17 
Americans,  mostly  naval  officers, 
and  45  British  officers,  officials 
and  men,  only  4  out  of  66  persons 
on  board  surviving  the  tragedy. 

The  disaster  to  the  Roma,  a 
dirigible  bought  in  Italy  by  the 
U.  S.  Army,  occurred  on  Feb.  25, 

1922,  and  caused  the  death  of 
35  persons.  The  reports  of  the 
several  investigations  conducted 
to  ascertain  the  causes  of  this 
tragedy  disagree,  but  the  indica- 
tions are  that  the  basic  mechan- 
ical cause  was  the  breaking  of 
the  transmission  operating  the 
elevator  rudders  used  to  cause  the 
airship  to  go  up  and  down,  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  ship  had  been 
equipped  with  Liberty  motors, 
more  powerful  than  its  original 
Ansaldo  motors,  and  that  the 
additional  speed,  being  over  70 
miles  per  hour,  strained  the  ele- 
vator rudders.  The  following 
account  is  drawn  from  the  re- 
port of  one  of  the  exhaustive 
investigations: 

The  airship  was  proceeding  at 
high  speed  and  at  450  feet  (150 
meters)  height  over  the  Army 
Base  of  Hampton  Roads,  when 
it  suddenly  made  a  strong  nose 
dip.  Lieutenant  Burt,  at  the 
wheel,  tried  to  raise  the  ship  and 
found  that  the  commanding 
wheel  was  turning  loose  and  that 
the  elevators  did  not  respond. 
All  the  engines  were  then  ordered 
slowed  down,  and  Lieutenant 
Burt  observed  that  the  two  rear 
engines  of  each  side  did  slow 
down  but  that  the  front  one  con- 
tinued to  run  at  full  speed.  The 
inclination  thereupon  diminished 
so  that  it  was  possible  to  walk 
on  the  floor  of  the  airship.  Dur- 
ing all  this  time  the  Roma  was 
perfectly  in  keel  and  her  course 
remained  almost  straight,  al- 
though the  direction  wheel  had 
been  abandoned  and  the  eleva- 
tor wheel  was  loose. 

The  airship  was  at  this  time 
passing  very  close  to  a  smoke 
stack  (120  feet)  of  the  Army  Base 
Power  Plant,  and  observers  were 
fearful  lest  she  hit  against  it. 
Continuing,  however,  at  very 
high  speed  she  went  tearing 
against  an  electric  line  at  2,300 
volts,  hitting  the  wires  only  20 
seconds  after  the  occurrence  of 
the  original  accident.  The  wires 
were  torn  and  the  spark  at  break 
gave  fire  to  the  balloon,  where- 
upon the  keel  collapsed  and  the 
nose  smashed  against  the  ground, 
causing  some  gasoline  tanks  to 
break  and  catch  fire.  The  fire  of 
the  envelope  lasted  only  a  few 
seconds. 

All  the  rear  part  of  the  keel 
was  projected  over  the  wreck. 


The  tail  triplane  almost  intact, 
and  having  attached  the  beams 
of  the  keel,  went  to  fall  on  the 
electric  poles  of  a  second  electric 
line  perpendicular  to  the  first 
one;  in  order  to  free  this  line,  it 
was  necessary  to  cut  with  the 
flame  and  with  nippers  all  the 
steel  tubes  of  the  keel  beams. 
Only  1 1  of  the  entire  personnel  on 
board,  numbering  46.  survived. 

The  U.  S.  navy  dirigible  Shen- 
andoah, launched  on  Sept.  4, 
1923  (see  Aeronautics),  was 
destroyed  in  a  storm  near  Cald- 
well. Ohio,  on  Sept.  3,  1925, 
while  on  the  way  from  her 
hangar  at  Lakehurst,  N.  J.,  to 
St.  Louis.  The  airship  first  en- 
countered a  mild  storm,  which 
was  suddenly  followed  by  a 
violent  squall,  subjecting  it  to 
uncontrollable  angle  strains  and 
rapid  vertical  ascent;  the  struc- 
ture broke  into  three  parts,  while 
the  control  cabin  and  the  forward 
wing  cars  were  wrenched  free 
in  the  air.  All  the  officers  and 
men  in  the  control  cabin,  in- 
cluding the  commander  (Lt. 
Comm.  Zachary  Lansdowne) 
were  killed.  The  forward  section, 
with  seven  occupants,  ballooned 
for  about  an  hour  and  landed 
several  miles  from  the  point  at 
which  the  disaster  occurred. 
The  midship  section  crashed  to 
earth  with  three  occupants,  none 
of  them  seriously  injured;  the 
after  section  also  crashed,  land- 
ing 17  occupants  safely.  Of  the 
41  on  board,  14  were  killed  and 
2  seriously  injured. 

The  years  1919-1922  saw  an 
excessive  number  of  aeroplane 
disasters,  costing  hundreds  of 
lives,  mostly  military  and  due  to 
reckless  disregard  for  human 
lives  and  property.  Of  these, 
note  may  be  made  of  the  fall  of 
the  Army  Curtiss  Eagle  ambu- 
lance plane  near  Morgantown, 
Md.,  on  May  28,  1921,  resulting 
in  the  death  of  seven  American 
officers. 

This  flight  was  undertaken, 
despite  warnings  of  an  impend- 
ing storm,  in  an  unbalanced 
plane,  equipped  with  loose  camp 
stools.  The  plane  seems  to  have 
run  into  a  wind  storm.  The 
pilot  flew  low  and  circled  about 
seeking  a  landing  place,  the  air- 
plane tipped  and  nosed  down, 
the  loose  camp  stools  slid  for- 
ward throwing  the  passengers  in 
a  heap  on  the  pilot,  and  the  plane 
was  plunged  downward  by  their 
weight  and  struck  the  ground. 
No  other  explanation  seems 
possible  for  the  failure  to  shut 
off  the  engine,  which  was  the 
mechanical  cause  of  the  fatalities. 

To  check  the  fatalities  in 
the  U.  S.  Army  Air  Service 
orders  were,  issued  in  October, 
1921,  forbidding  the  participa- 
tion of  Army  aircraft  in  exhibi- 
tions, competitions,  and  other 
similar  activities  not  of  military 
character.    In  1923  U.  S.  Army 


aviators  flew  9,093,360  miles, 
with  a  loss  of  only  18  lives. 

The  number  of  civiUan  casu- 
alties has  been  small  compared 
with  the  large  number  of  military 
fatalities,  the  strict  requirements 
of  insurance  companies  in  insur- 
ing aeroplanes  having  had  a 
sobering  effect. 

Aird,  ard.  Sir  John  (1833- 
1911).  English  engineer.  He 
early  became  associated  with  his 
father,  erecting  the  Crystal 
Palace  (1851)  and  constructing 
numerous  large  gas  and  water 
plants  in  England  and  elsewhere. 
He  is  best  known,  however,  for 
the  building  of  the  Assuan  dam 
(q.  V.)  and  the  Assiut  barrage 
(see  Assiut).  He  was  a  member 
of  Parliament  from  North  Pad- 
dington  (1887-1905),  and  was 
chosen  first  mayor  of  Padding- 
ton.  In  1901  he  was  created 
a  baronet  and.  in  recognition 
of  his  feat  at  Assuan,  was  deco- 
rated with  the  Grand  Cordon  of 
the  Medjidie  by  the  Khedive 
of  Egypt. 

Alrd,  Thomas  (1802-1876), 
Scottish  poet,  was  born  in  Bow- 
den,  Roxburghshire.  At  Edin- 
burgh University  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Carlyle  and  James 
Hogg.  and.  encouraged  by  them, 
determined  upon  a  literary  career. 
He  edited  for  a  short  time  the 
Edinburgh  Weekly  Journal,  and 
in  1835  became  editor  of  the 
Dumfriesshire  and  Galloway  Her- 
ald, which  position  he  held  for 
twenty-eight  years.  Although 
praised  by  Carlyle  and  many 
literary  critics,  his  poems,  with 
the  exception  of  the  well-known 
Devil's  Dream,  have  neither  been 
widely  read  nor  admired.  His 
published  works  include  Mart- 
zoufle,  a  Tragedy  with  other  Poems 

(1826)  ;  Religious  Characteristics 

(1827)  ;  The  Captive  of  Fez  (1830) ; 
The  Old  Bachelor  (1845).  His 
Collected  Poems  were  published 
in  1848  (2d  ed.  1856). 

Airdrie,  ar'dre,  borough  of 
Lanarkshire.  Scotland,  11  miles 
east  of  Glasgow.  The  town  has 
brass  and  iron  foundries,  es- 
tablishments for  cotton-weaving, 
machine  shops,  fire-clay  factories, 
and  paper  mills.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  first  free  library  in  Scotland, 
founded  in  1856.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood are  collieries  and  iron 
mines,  the  principal  source  of  the 
town's  prosperity.   Pop.  24,388. 

Aire,  ar,  town,  department  of 
Landes.  France,  on  the  Adour 
River;  112  miles  south  of  Bor- 
deaux. It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop- 
ric dating  to  the  fifth  century 
and  of  a  cathedral  begun  during 
the  reign  of  Louis  xii.  Aire  was 
the  capital  of  the  Visigoths  and 
Alaric  ii.  (q.  v.)  drew  up  his  codo 
of  laws  there.    Pop.  (1911)  4,025. 

Airedale,  ar'dal,  the  valley 
of  the  Aire  River,  Yorkshire, 
England.  It  extends  from  the 
source  of  the  Aire  in  Malham 
Cove  to  Leeds,  a  length  of  about 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '25 


Airedale  Terrier 


116  A 


Airport 


35  miles.  Factories  and  iron 
works  have  sprung  up  along  its 
banks. 

Airedale  Terrier,  one  of  the 

largest  and  tallest  of  the  terriers, 
of  which  there  are  some  fifteen  or 
more  varieties.  The  Airedale  is 
a  splendid  game  dog,  a  good 
watchdog,  keen  and  wide-awake, 
an  excellent  water  dog  and  a 
splendid  companion,  loyal  and 


Rough  Airedale  Terrier 


devoted.  The  coat  should  be 
hard,  rough  and  dense;  head 
long;  muzzle  strong;  eyes,  small 
and  dark.  In  color  the  dog  is 
black  or  grizzled,  with  head  and 
ears  of  tan.  It  weighs  from  40 
to  50  pounds. 

Air  Engines,  engines  in  which 
the  motive  power  is  obtained  by 
the  alternate  heating  and  cooling 
of  a  quantity  of  air  within  a 
closed  vessel,  part  of  which  may 
form  the  motor  cylinder.  The 
expansion  of  the  air  drives  a  pis- 
ton, which  does  the  work,  as  in  an 
ordinary  steam  engine.  In  an  air 
engine  it  is  possible  to  use  very 
high  temperatures  without  being 
inconvenienced  by  correspond- 
ingly high  pressures;  in  this  re- 
spect air  differs  from  steam  and 
other  saturated  vapors.  An  air 
engine  should  therefore  have  a 
high  thermal  efficiency;  but  in 
all  external-combustion  engines 
there  must  necessarily  be  a  con- 
siderable loss  of  temperature  be- 
tween the  furnace  and  the  work- 
ing fluid;  consequently  the  actual 
thermal  efficiency  of  such  engines 
is  low. 

Most  air  engines  work  with 
very  low  pressures,  and  are  there- 
fore bulky  for  the  power  they  de- 
velop. Difficulty  is  also  experi- 
enced in  satisfactorily  heating 
large  quantities  of  air;  and,  in  ad- 
dition, that  part  of  the  air  vessel 
which  is  in  immediate  contact 
with  the  furnace  is  rapidly  burned 
away,  on  account  of  the  high  tem- 
perature to  which  it  is  subjected. 

It  is  seldom  that  a  hot-air  en- 
gine is  now  used  save  in  the 
tropics  where  wood  is  cheap;  else- 
where the  gasoline  engine  has 
replaced  it. 

The  earliest  hot-air  engine  was 
invented  by  Sir  George  Cayley  in 
1807,  afterward  improved  and 
modernized  by  Buckett.  This 
engine  was  practically  on  tne  in- 
ternal-combustion principle.  Of 
the  true  external-combustion  air 


enjgines,  that  invented  by  Robert 
Stirling  of  Edinburgh  in  1816,  and 
afterward  improved  by  his  broth- 
er James,  is  perhaps  the  pioneer. 

Ericsson  Engine. — A  success- 
ful type  of  hot-air  engine  was 
invented  by  John  Ericsson,  the 
builder  of  the  Monitor,  in  1833. 
Ericsson  thought  so  highly  of 
his  engine,  which  he  called  the 
'Caloric,'  that  he  built  a  ship  also 
called  the  'Caloric',  that  was  driv- 
en by  a  400  horse-power  hot-air 
engine.  The  ship,  however,  was  a 
failure.  The  Ericsson  -^ngine  of 
small  capacities  is  now  manu- 
factured by  the  Rider-Ericsson 
Co.  There  are  two  forms  made, 
a  horizontal  and  a  vertical.  In 
the  former,  there  is  one  long 
cylinder,  the  back  end  of  which 
is  heated  by  the  furnace  gases 
coming  from  the  stove;  the  front 
end  is  water  jacketed,  and  thus 
kept  cool.  There  are  two  pis- 
tons— a  displacer  piston,  which 
is  loose  fitting,  at  the  back,  and  a 
motor  piston  at  the  front.  The 
piston  rod  of  the  former  passes 
through  the  latter;  both  are  con- 
nected by  linkwork  to  a  crank 
shaft,  and  have  separate  move- 
ments. The  displacer  piston  is 
used  merely  to  cause  the  air  to 
travel  backward  and  forward  in 
the  cylinder.  When  the  displacer 
piston  is  moved  inward,  the  heat- 
ed air  from  the  back  or  hot  end 
travels  to  the  front,  is  cooled,  and 
the  pressure  falls;  the  motor  pis- 
ton then  makes  its  inward  stroke. 
On  the  outward  stroke  of  the  dis- 
placer the  cool  air  is  forced  to  the 
hot  end,  becomes  heated,  the  pres- 
sure rises,  and  the  motor  piston 
makes  its  out  or  working  stroke. 
The  cycle  is  made  up  of  two 
constant  pressures  and  two  iso- 
thermal lines. 

Consult  B.  Donkin's  Gas,  Oil, 
and  Air  Engines;  Ewing's  The 
Steam  Engine  and  Other  Heat  En- 
gines; Carpenter  and  Diederich's 
Experimental  Engineering. 

Aire-sur-Lys,  ar-siir-les',  for- 
tified town,  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment Pas-de-Calais,  on  the  River 
Lys,  and  at  the  junction  of  three 
canals;  37  miles  bv  rail  west  of 
Lille.  The  beautiful  Church  of 
St.  Pierre  dates  from  the  15th 
century.  The  town  has  cotton 
and  woollen  manufactures,  flour 
mills,  and  trade  in  farm  products. 
Pop.  8,400. 

Air  Gun,  a  weapon  for  propel- 
ling bullets  or  darts  by  the  force 
of  compressed  air,  commonly 
made  like  a  musket,  with  lock, 
stock,  and  barrel.  Its  range  is 
short,  owing  to  the  comparative- 
ly small  propulsive  force  of  com- 
pressed air. 

In  one  of  the  simpler  types  the 
air  is  condensed  in  a  chamber 
above  the  barrel  by  means  of  a 
syringe  in  the  stock.  On  pulling 
the  trigger  a  valve  between  the 
air  chamber  and  the  barrel  is 
opened,  and  the  bullet  is  pro- 


pelled a  distance  of  60  or  80  yards. 
Other  varieties  obtain  greater 
condensation  of  air  by  having  the 
condensing  syringe  detached.  A 
pressure  of  as  much  as  500  at- 
mospheres has  been  attained  with 
a  powerful  condenser,  but  even 
this  is  only  half  the  elastic  force 
of  fired  gunpowder. 

Inventions  for  using  com- 
pressed air  to  fire  large  shot  with 
pieces  of  ordnance  have  been 
patented  by  Bessemer  (1867)  and 
others.  In  1886  Capt.  E.  L.  Za- 
linski  (q.v.),  of  the  U.  S.  Army, 
invented  a  large  pneumatic  gun 
for  throwing  shells  containing 
dynamite.  Air  at  1,000  lbs.  pres- 
sure, supplied  from  eight  reser- 
voirs, each  20  feet  long  by  12 
inches  in  diameter,  was  admitted 
through  one  of  the  trunnions  to  a 
chamber  in  the  gun  just  behind 
the  projectile.  An  automatic 
valve  permitted  a  volume  of  the 
compressed  air  to  escape  into 
this  chamber.  A  shell  containing 
100  lbs.  of  explosives  was  thrown 
3,000  yards.  See  Pneumatic 
Appliances. 

Air-Lift  System.  See  Pumps. 

Air  Lock.    See  Caisson. 

Air  Meter.  See  Anemometer. 

Airolo,  i-ro'lo  (German  Eri- 
els),  village,  Switzerland  (alt. 
3,822  feet),  near  the  head  of  the 
Upper  Ticino  or  Tessin  valley 
(Val  Leventina) ,  in  the  canton  of 
Ticino.  It  is  the  station  at  the 
southern  mouth  of  the  St.  Goth- 
ard  Tunnel  (see  Gothard).  A 
disastrous  landslide  took  place 
here  in  1898.    Pop.  1,840. 

Air  Plants.    See  Epiphytes. 

Airport,  as  defined  by  the 
Air  Commerce  Act  of  1926  is  'any 
locality  either  of  water  or  land 
which  is  adapted  for  the  landing 
and  taking  off  of  aircraft,  and 
which  provides  facilities  for  shel- 
ter, supply,  and  repair  of  air- 
craft, or  a  place  used  regularly  for 
receiving  or  discharging  passen- 
gers or  cargo  by  air.' 

This  definition,  generous  as  it 
is,  would  have  to  be  stretched  to 
allow  the  entrance  of  some  of  the 
'airports'  in  the  United  States 
within  the  meaning  of  the  word, 
but  conditions  are  changing  as 
rapidly  as  in  the  other  branches 
of  the  fast  growing  aeronautical 
industry  and  somewhat  the  same 
conditions  prevail  abroad.  In 
January,  1929,  Germany  had 
more  than  sixty  fields  that  could 
be  called  airports  with  a  hundred 
or  more  emergency  landing  fields 
so  carried  on  the  maps  of  the 
Lufl  Hansa,  the  great  German  air 
trust.  Since  then  new  fields 
have  been  added  and  some  of  the 
old  ones  discontinued. 

In  France  somewhat  the  same 
conditions  prevail  with  emphasis 
on  the  military  availability  of  the 
flying  fields  rather  than  their 
commercial  value.  The  centre 
of  all  flying  is  Le  Bourget,  a 
great  rectangular  airport  on  the 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Airport 


116  B 


Airport 


outskirts  of  Paris  along  one  side 
of  which  the  French  Air  Service 
has  its  hangars  and  on  the  other 
the  various  transport  Unes  oper- 
ating out  of  Paris. 

In  Great  Britain  there  are  one 
great  airport  and  a  number  of 
flying  fields.  Croyden,  London's 
airport,  is  the  centre  of  air  trans- 
portation for  Great  Britain  and 
it  is  perhaps  the  most  completely 
appointed  flying  centre  in  the 
world.  However,  Croyden,  built 
on  Government  appropriations  of 
$600,000  in  addition  to  the  land 
value,  was  scrapped  within  a  year 
and  another  million  was  spent 
equipping  it  for  modern  commer- 
cial air  transport. 

Because  of  the  short  distances 
and  the  very  good  train  service 
commercial  aviation  as  a  national 
transport  has  not  advanced  any- 
where in  Europe  as  it  has  in  the 
United  States,  although  inter- 
national airways  are  many  and 
popular.  Russia  is  an  exception 
to  this  statement  as  far  as  needs 
are  concerned,  and  Russia  is  far 
behind  the  United  States  and  the 
rest  of  Europe  in  airways  and 
airports.  The  situation  there  is 
changing  rapidly,  however,  and  a 
national  society  whose  member- 
ship includes  nearly  every  citizen 
in  the  Soviet  vStates  is  contribut- 
ing millions  of  roubles  annually  to 
the  development  of  both  com- 
mercial and  military  aviation. 

United  States. — At  the  end  of 
1928  according  to  the  latest 
figures  available  from  the  De- 
partment of  Commerce  there 
were  921  airports  in  the  making 
or  proposed  which  was  an  in- 
crease of  499  in  a  single  year. 

A  report  gathered  in  January, 
1929,  put  the  figure  for  existing 
airports  and  landing  fields  in  the 
United  States  at  1324.  Of  this 
number  368  were  municipal,  365 
commercial,  312  auxiliary,  197 
intermediate,  64  army,  16  navy, 
one  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  one  Department  of  Interior. 
It  is  very  likely  that  the  records 
will  disclose  that  many  classed  as 
'auxiliary'  and  'intermediate' 
should  come  under  the  classifica- 
tion of  'emergency.' 

In  March,  1929,  more  than 
1,000  towns  in  the  United  States 
had  announced  definite  plans  for 
constructing  airports  and  statis- 
ticians have  placed  the  amount 
to  be  spent  on  airports  in  the  next 
eighteen  months  at  $500,000,000. 
Efforts  are  now  being  made  by 
the  Department  of  Commerce, 
officials  of  air  transport  lines 
whose  companies  span  many 
States,  and  other  far-seeing  citi- 
zens to  coordinate  in  some  man- 
ner this  vast  growth.  The 
Aeronautics  Branch  of  the  De- 
partment of  (^)nimerce  is  urging 
standardization  of  State  laws 
governing  airports  and  flying  and 
the  necessity  of  seeking  expert 
help  in  laying  out  flying  fields. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


To  this  end  the  Department  of 
Commerce  has  classified  airports 
and  grants  rating  certificates 
based  upon  the  terrain,  general 
equipment  and  facilities  and 
night  flying  equipment.  The 
highest  rating  given  an  airport 
by  the  Department  of  Commerce 
is  the  Class  A-l-A  but  these  rat- 
ings were  scarcely  published  be- 
fore aeronautical  authorities  with 
an  e5'e  to  the  future  began  to 
demand  that  the  first  class  air- 
ports be  larger  than  called  for  by 
the  Government  requirements. 

The  first  letter  in  the  classifica- 
tion concerns  the  general  equip- 
ment and  facilities.  The  numer- 
al has  to  do  with  the  size  of  the 
field  and  the  last  letter  marks  the 
lighting  equipment  and  night 
flying  facilities. 

Government  requirements 
for  a  first  class  airport  at  present 
state  that  before  a  flying  field 
shall  be  rated  at  all  for  com- 
mercial use,  the  landing  area 
shall  be  smooth  and  well  drained, 
and  that  if  sufficient  area  is  not 
available  for  landings  and  take 
offs  in  all  directions,  two  strips 
500  feet  or  more  in  width  and 
crossing  or  converging  at  an 
angle  of  not  lesss  than  60  degrees 
shall  be  provided.  The  maxi- 
mum slope  shall  at  no  point  ex- 
ceed 3  inches  in  10  feet. 

Under  the  heading  'Freedom 
from  Obstructions,'  the  law  re- 
quires landing  or  take  ofT  lengths 
over  these  obstructions  equal  to 
seven  times  the  height  of  the 
obstruction.  This  seven-fold 
distance  is  measured  from  the 
point  that  the  wheels  touch  the 
ground  to  the  obstruction.  For 
example  a  tower  fifty  feet  high  on 
the  edge  of  the  flying  field  would 
mean  that  the  plane  in  taking  off 
in  the  direction  of  the  tower  must 
leave  the  ground  and  be  climb- 
ing for  more  than  350  feet.  This 
distance  under  circumstances  as 
described  would  thus  cut  a  strip 
of  350  from  the  available  landing 
area.  The  ratio  of  7  to  1  is 
standard  at  sea  level  and  in- 
creases at  higher  altitudes  where 
higher  speeds  and  flatter  climb- 
ing angles  are  necessary. 

A  Class  A-l-A  airport  must 
have  at  least  one  hangar,  meas- 
uring not  less  than  80  by  100 
feet  with  an  18-foot  overhead 
clearance.  Its  equipment  must 
include  safe  provision  for  heating 
oil  and  water  and  in  localities 
where  freezing  temperatures  pre- 
vail it  must  be  heated.  One  or 
more  wind  direction  indicators 
must  be  provided;  all  telephone 
and  transmission  line  poles  and 
similar  obstructions  near  tlie  air- 
port shall  be  day  marked  by 
painting  with  alternate  bands  of 
black  and  white  or  chrome  yel- 
low. Other  re(iuirements  are  re- 
pair e(iuipment  for  changing  en- 
gines and  rigging  planes,  weather 
instruments,  radio  receiving  set 


and  loud  speaker,  snow  removal 
equipment  where  it  is  needed, 
first  aid  equipment  including  an 
ambulance  and  litters,  and  special 
office  equipment  for  registering 
incoming  and  outgoing  traffic. 

The  landing  area  for  the  first 
class  rating  shall  provide  at  least 
2,500  feet  of  take  off  or  landing 
runs  in  all  directions,  and  the 
field  shall  be  in  good  condition 
for  landing  at  all  times.  As  an 
alternative  to  this,  where  run- 
ways or  landing  strips  are  pro- 
vided these  shall  be  at  least  500 
feet  wide  and  must  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  provide  landings 
and  take  offs  in  eight  directions 
and  2,500  feet  long  with  clear 
approaches. 

Many  operators  are  convinced 
that  with  the  planes  increasing  in 
size  to  twenty  and  thirty  passen- 
ger transports  now,  with  the 
prospect  of  further  increases  to 
forty  and  fifty  passenger  planes, 
a  take  off  area  providing  less 
than  5,000  feet  straight  away  in 
all  directions  is  inadequate.  This 
means  a  landing  area  either  a 
mile  square,  or  circular  with  a 
mile  long  diameter,  or,  as  some 
engineers  suggest,  in  the  form  of 
an  equilateral  triangle  bounded 
by  mile  long  sides. 

The  night  flying  equipment 
the  Department  has  ruled  must 
include  a  long  range  beacon  with 
a  candle  power  of  not  less  than 
100,000,  proper  distribution  of 
fight  in  the  vertical  plane  to 
make  the  beacon  visible  all 
around  the  horizon  and  to  the 
zenith  or  nearly  so,  for  altitudes 
of  from  500  to  2,000  feet.  An 
illuminated  wind  direction  indi- 
cator, boundary  lights  and  ob- 
struction lights  are  among  the 
other  requirements.  The  bound- 
ary lights  can  be  of  yellow  but 
dangerous  borders  must  be  light- 
ed in  red  and  all  obstructions  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  field  must  have 
their  altitude  marked  by  power- 
ful red  lights.  In  addition  to 
these  illuminations,  flood  light- 
ing and  lighted  roof  markings 
must  be  provided  for  the  hangars 
as  well  as  flood  lighting  for  the 
field.  Besides  all  these  the  air- 
port must  have  a  searchlight 
with  a  parabolic  reflector  not  less 
than  12  inches  in  diameter  and 
with  at  least  a  250-watt  lamp  of 
special  type.  In  some  cases  units 
up  to  24  inches  in  diameter  are 
required  with  1,000- watt  lamps. 

New  York  City  at  present  has 
no  airport  that  qualifies  unless 
one  excepts  the  military  post, 
Mitchel  Field  at  Garden  City, 
Long  Island.  Philadelphia  is  also 
without  a  municipal  flying  field 
of  A-l-A  class,  but  both  these 
cities  are  at  work  on  the  problem. 
Chicago  has  a  good  airport  but 
its  landing  area  at  times  fails  to 
come  up  to  the  specifications  de- 
fined here  and  Cleveland  is  in 
the  same  predicament.  Detroit, 


Air  Pumps 


117A 


Air  Pumps 


in  the  privately  operated  Ford 
Airport  at  Dearborn,  has  a  high 
class  field  and  the  city  is  at  work 
on  a  project  for  a  water  front  air- 
port for  both  sea  and  land  planes. 
San  Francisco,  in  the  Oakland 
air  terminal,  has  a  splendidly 
equipped  field  for  commercial  use 
and  other  cities  all  over  the  coun- 
try are  following  Oakland's 
example. 

Air  Pumps,  any  apparatus  for 
removing  air  from  a  given  space. 
Pumps  for  forcing  atmospheric 
air  into  closed  pressure  chambers, 
or  for  furnishing  a  supply  at  va- 
rious pressures  above  atmospher- 
ic, are  commonly  known  as  com- 
pressors and  blowers,  as  distin- 
guished from  Air  Pumps,  which 
work  at  pressures  below  the 
normal  atmosphere  (see  Com- 
pressed-air Motors;  Blowing 
Machines).  Air  pumps  may  be 
divided  into  two  broad  classes 
— displacement  and  impulse. 

Very  small  hand  compressors, 
such  as  tire  inflators,  are  also 
commonly  called  air  pumps.  The 
infiator  consists  of  a  tube  in 
which  works  a  loosely  fitting  pis- 
ton faced  with  a  leather  cup- 
shaped  valve.  When  the  piston 
is  pulled  out,  air  passes  the  leath- 
er valve  and  fills  the  tube;  and 
when  the  piston  is  pushed  in,  the 
cup  expands,  preventing  the  es- 
cape of  air  past  the  piston,  and 
compelling  it  to  make  its  way 
through  the  tire  valve.    On  the 


Fig.  I. — Cross  Section  of  Wheeler- 
Edwards  Wet- Air  Pump 

piston  being  pulled  out  again,  the 
tire  valve  is  closed  by  the  pressure 
of  the  air  in  the  tire,  the  amount 
of  air  within  it  being  increased  by 
a  definite  ciuantity  at  every  stroke. 

The  mechanism  of  the  usual 
form  of  laboratory  air  pump  is  es- 
sentially the  same  as  that  just  de- 

VOL.  I.— Oct.  '29 


scribed,  except  that  the  valves 
open  in  the  opposite  directions,  so 
that  the  action  is  reversed.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  vessel  or  space  to 
be  exhausted  of  air  is  in  perma- 
nent connection  with  the  tube 
and  piston  by  which  the  exhaus- 
tion is  effected.    It  is  enclosed  in 


bottom  of  the  stroke  it  uncovers 
ports  through  which  the  air  in  the 
condenser  flows  freely  into  the 
vacuum  which  has  been  created 
by  the  descent  of  the  plunger. 
The  advantage  claimed  for  the 
absence  of  suction  valves  is  that 
the  entrance  of  air,  which  has  a 


Fig,  2. — Cross-Sectional  View  of  Rotative  Dry  Vacuum  Pump 


a  glass  bell-shaped  jar,  called  the 
receiver,  which  rests  on  a  perfect- 
ly plane  plate,  the  junction  being 
made  air  tight  by  means  of  a  lay- 
er of  lard.  From  the  centre  of  the 
plate  a  tube  passes  to  the  piston 
chamber,  and  brings  the  space 
within  the  receiver  into  commu- 
nication with  the  space  through 
which  the  piston  works.  This 
piston  may  be  single  or  double 
acting.  In  the  latter  arrangement 
the  valves  are  so  adjusted  as  to 
bring  into  continuous  communi- 
cation the  receiver  and  the  end  of 
the  piston  chamber  which  is  being 
evacuated  by  the  piston.  Dur- 
ing the  return  stroke  this  air  is 
pushed  out  into  the  open  air 
through  an  outward  opening 
valve,  while  the  valve  through 
which  the  air  from  the  receiver 
previously  passed  closes.  Thus 
at  every  half  stroke  the  receiver 
loses  a  definite  fraction  of  the  air 
contained  within  it,  the  fraction 
being  the  proportion  of  the  vol- 
ume of  the  piston  chamber  to  the 
combined  volume  of  the  receiver 
and  piston  chamber. 

Air  or  vacuum  pumps  are  used 
in  connection  with  the  condensers 
of  steam  engines  (see  Condens- 
er) to  remove  the  condensed 
steam  and  the  air  carried  in  with 
the  steam  or  entering  by  leakage. 
An  improved  style  of  wet  vacuum 
pump  for  handling  both  air  and 
water  where  the  highest  vacuum 
is  desired,  as  in  connection  with 
steam  turbines,  is  here  briefly  de- 
scribed. As  will  be  noted  from 
the  cross-vsecfional  view  of  the 
pump  chamber  presented  here- 
with (Fig.  1),  this  pump  contains 
only  one  set  of  valves — namely, 
stationary  discharge  valves  at 
the  head  of  the  pump  barrel. 
When  the  plunger  reaches  the 


very  feeble  tension  at  high  vac- 
uums, is  not  impeded.  While  air 
and  vapors  are  flowing  into  the 
pump  barrel,  any  water  which 
has  accumulated  in  the  bottom  of 
the  pump  is  splashed  out  by  the 
conical  plunger,  and  by  suitably 
shaped  passages,  directed  in 
through  the  open  ports,  tending 
by  inspirator  action  to  compress 
and  drive  in  more  air.  The  rising 
plunger  then  closes  off  the  ports 
and  compresses  the  charge  of  air 
and  vapor  until  the  latter  have  a 
pressure  sufficient  to  lift  the  dis- 
charge valves  at  the  top  of  the 
pump  barrel,  and  escape  to  the 
atmosphere.  As  the  air  lies  on 
top  of  the  water  and  is  discharged 
ahead  of  it,  no  air  is  left  within 
the  pump  barrel,  which  is  an  ad- 
vantage, as  such  air  would  re-ex- 
pand during  the  ensuing  down- 
ward stroke,  and  thereby  dimin- 
ish the  effective  capacity  of  the 
pump  to  take  in  a  new  charge  of 
water  and  vapor  from  the  con- 
denser. With  pumps  of  this  type 
it  has  been  found  possible,  under 
full  load  conditions,  to  maintain  a 
pressure  within  the  condenser  of 
less  than  one  inch  of  mercury — 
that  is,  a  vacuum  of  29  inches 
mercury  with  the  barometer  at  30 
inches.  The  pump  illustrated 
herewith  (Fig.  1)  is  arranged  to 
be  driven  by  steam  cylinders 
placed  above  the  pump  barrel, 
the  motion  being  steadied  by  fly- 
wheels, but  this  type  of  pump 
may  aLso  be  driven  by  electric 
motors  or  by  direct  attachment 
to  the  cross-head  of  the  main  en- 
gine, as  is  sometimes  done  in 
marine  practice. 

In  condenser  practice  it  is 
sometimes  desired  to  withdraw 
the  air  and  water  separately,  in 
which  case  recourse  is  had  to  what 


Air  Pumps 


117  B 


Air  Pumps 


is  known  as  a  rotative  dry  vac- 
uum  pump,  or  dry-air  pump. 

This  is,  in  efifect,  an  air  com- 
pressor working  through  a  range 
of  pressure  from  one  to  two 
inches  of  mercury,  up  to  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  instead  of  from 
atmospheric  to  higher  pressures, 
as  in  air  compressor  practice  in 
general.  The  rotative  dry  vac- 
uum pump  is  distinguished  from 
the  air  compressor  by  more  care- 
ful design  for  the  valves  and 
passages,  to  insure  that  the 
rarefied  air  and  vapors  may 
freely  enter  the  cylinder  at  the 
beginning  of  the  stroke,  and  that 
they  will  be  expelled  completely 
at  the  end  of  the  stroke.  In  the 
dry-air  pump,  which  is  illustrated 
herewith  in  cross  section  (Fig.  2) , 
this  is  accomplished  by  a  special 
combination  of  mechanically  op- 
erated and  poppet  valves.  Com- 
munication between  the  con- 
denser and  the  pump  barrel 
during  the  suction  stroke  is*es- 
tablished  by  a  mechanically 
operated  valve  driven  from  an 
eccentric  on  the  crank  shaft  at 
the  completion  of  the  stroke. 
The  same  valve  serves  to  place 
the  cylinder  in  communication 
with  poppet  valves  which  do  not 
open  to  the  atmosphere  until 
the  pressure  within  the  cylinder 
has  reached  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. At  the  end  of  the  stroke 
the  clearance  space  within  the 
cylinder  and  the  passages  con- 
nected therewith  contain  air  and 
vapors  at  atmospheric  pressure. 
If  these  were  allowed  to  remain, 
they  would  re-expand  during  the 
succeeding  suction  stroke  and 
to  a  certain  extent  would  reduce 
the  capacity  of  the  cylinder  to 
take  in  a  new  charge  of  air 
from  the  condenser.  In  order 
to  get  rid  of  this  compressed  air 
in  the  clearance  space,  a  special 
port  has  been  provided  in  the 
mechanical  valve  shown  in  the 
drawing,  which  places  the  clear- 
ance space  of  what  has  just  been 
the  discharge  side,  for  a  brief 
moment,  in  communication  with 
the  other  end  of  the  cylinder 
which  contains  only  an  uncom- 
pressed charge.  The  remnant  of 
the  compressed  charge  in  the 
clearance  space  then  flows 
through  the  valve  and  mingles 
with  the  charge  which  is  to  be 
compressed,  until  an  equality  of 
pressure  is  reached.  As  it  is  un- 
avoidable that  small  quantities 
of  water  should  be  drawn  in 
with  the  air  in  pumps  of  this 
character,  the  valves  are  placed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  in 
order  to  secure  perfect  drainage. 

Both  types  of  air  pumps  above 
described  are  widely  used  for 
other  purposes  than  condensing 
steam  engines  or  turbines:  for 
instance,  for  withdrawing  vapors 
and  gases  from  evaporating  pans 
and  stills  operated  below  atmos- 
pheric pressure;  in  certain  proc- 
esses of  creosoting,  or  otherwise 


treating  wood,  in  which  air  is 
drawn  out  of  the  pores  of  the 
wood  to  permit  more  easily  the 
entrance  of  the  preserving  liquid; 
in  connection  with  certain  proc- 
esses of  dyeing,  where  it  is 
found  advantageous  to  secure 
more  perfect  evaporation  by- 
means  of  a  vacuum;  and  simi- 
larly, in  certain  methods  of 
curing  tobacco 

A  series  of  rotary  jet  pumps, 
built  upon  the  principle  of  the 
aspirator  and  injector  (q.v.), 
have  become  of  great  importance 
in  recent  years,  supplanting,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  the  recipro- 
cating pumps  for  maintaining 
condenser  vacuums.  The  fore- 
runner of  the  rotary  jets  was 
the  Korting  multi-jet  condenser, 
which  maintained  95  per  cent, 
ideal  vacuum  without  any  mov- 
ing air  pump.  A  ii.umber  of  jets 
sprayed  the  circulating  water 
down  past  a  series  of  eductor 
nozzles  opening  from  the  engine 
exhaust  line.  These  jets  both 
condensed  the  steam  and  swept 
out  non-condensible  gases  by 
velocity  influence.  The  first 
of  the  rotary  jet  pumps  was 
invented  by  M.  Leblanc,  of 
France,  and  introduced  into 
America  by  George  Westing- 
house.  With  this  a  vacuum  has 
been  realized  of  about  99  per 
cent,  ideal. 

A  still  further  improvement 
in  apparatus  for  producing  high 
vacuums  in  steam  -  condenser 
work  is  represented  by  the  Rado- 
jet  vacuum  pump.  It  operates 
on  the  dry-air  principle  and  may 
be  used  to  replace  any  other 
type  of  air  pump.  Its  striking 
features  are  great  simplicity, 
absence  of  moving  parts  and 
the  necessity  of  lubrication, 
small  weight,  and  minimum 
space  occupied.  The  character- 
istic feature  in  the  operation  of 
the  Radojet  is  the  removal  of 
air  by  means  of  steam  jets,  ar- 
ranged to  act  as  ejectors  and 
placed  in  series  so  as  to  form 
two  stages.  A  sectional  view  of 
the  Radojet  pump  is  shown  in 
Fig.  3.  It  communicates  with 
the  condenser  by  way  of  the 
suction  opening  A,  which  opens 
into  a  suction  chamber  B  that 
surrounds  the  upper  end  of  the 
expanding  tube  or  diffuser  C. 
Above  the  end  of  the  diffuser 
and  set  so  as  to  discharge  into 
it  are  the  expansion  nozzles  D 
that  form  the  first-stage  ejector. 
Live  steam  from  an  external 
source  is  admitted  at  R  and 
passes  through  the  strainer  F, 
after  which  a  part  of  it  flows 
through  the  pipe  G,  steam  valve 
H,  and  strainer  /  to  the  nozzles 
D.  In  passing  through  the 
nozzles  the  steam  expands  and 
s(i  is  discharged  at  a  very  high 
velocity  across  the  upper  end 
of  the  chamber  B.  The  steam 
escaping  from  the  nozzles  picks 
up  or  entrains  the  air  and  vapors 


in  the  chamber  B  and  carries 
them  along  into  the  diffuser  C, 
from  which  the  combined 
streams  are  discharged  into  the 
double  passages  J  leading  to 
the  chambers  K  of  the  second- 
stage  ejector.  The  chambers  K 
are  annular  in  form  and  are 
open  at  the  centre,  where  the 
disks   L   and   M   are  located. 


Fig.  3. — Radojet  Vacuum  Pump: 
Sectional  View 


At  the  same  time  that  steam 
enters  the  upper  nozzles  D, 
steam  from  the  supply  E  flows 
by  way  of  the  chamber  N  to  the 
disks  L  and  M.  These  are  so 
shaped  and  placed  that  the 
steam  is  discharged  radially  in 
a  thin  sheet  that  passes  at  high 
velocity  across  the  central  open- 
ings of  the  chambers  K,  entrain- 
ing the  mixture  of  steam  and  air 
from  the  first  stage  and  carrying 
it  into  the  diffuser  0,  at  the 
same  time  compressing  it  to 
atmospheric  pressure.  From 
the  diffuser  it  passes  to  the 
annular  chamber  P  surrounding 
the  diffuser  and  thence  to  the 
outlet  Q.  The  position  of  the 
disk  L  with  respect  to  M  may 
be  adjusted  by  the  screw  R  and 
the  expansion  ratio  of  the  steam 
may  thus  be  changed  as  desired. 

Mercurial  Air  Pumps. — To 
obtain  very  low  pressures — or 
high  vacua,  as  they  are  called — 
recourse  is  had  to  mercury  air 
pumps.  In  these,  mercury  pis- 
tons fall  through  glass  tubes 
much  as  water  slugs  in  the  Le- 
blanc pump  discharge.  The  two 
chief  types  are  described  in  the 

Vol.  I.— 030 


Air  Resistance 


117  B 


Air  Transport  Routes 


article  Vacuum.  With  the  best 
mercury  pumps  it  is  possible  to 
reduce  the  pressure  to  4-mil- 
lionths  of  a  millimetre  of  mercu- 
ry— i.e.,  less  than  100-millionths 
of  an  atmosphere. 

The  highest  vacuum  yet  ob- 
tained— equal  to  a  pressure  of 
0.0000002  mm.  of  mercury — has 
been  produced  by  a  simple  ro- 
tary air  pump  devised  by  W. 
Gaede  of  Germany.  A  cylinder 
revolves  at  high  speed  (up  to 
12,000  r.p.m.)  in  a  casing  with 
an  incomplete  circumferential 
groove.  The  frictional  drag  of 
the  cylinder  on  the  gas  in  the 
groove  forces  the  molecules  to 
one  end,  and  produces  a  definite 
pressure  difference  between  the 
ends  which  is  maintained  at  low 
pressures.  By  using  the  Gaede 
pump  with  an  auxiliary  ex- 
hauster, the  approach  to  com- 
plete exhaustion  of  air  and 
vapors  needed  for  Roentgen-ray 
tubes,  etc.,  is  secured  without  the 
chemical  treatment  or  freezing 
once  employed  to  supplement  the 
mercury  pumps. 

Air  Resistance,  in  Projec- 
tiles.   See  Projectiles. 

Air  Sacs,  in  birds,  are  thin- 
walled  chambers  communicating 
with  the  lungs.  They  not  only 
occur  within  the  body  cavity,  but 
are  usually  continued  into  the 
cavities  of  the  bones,  rendering 
these  pneumatic.  The  presence 
of  these  air  sacs  slightly  lowers 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  body; 
but  their  main  function  is  un- 
doubtedly respiratory.  The  su- 
perficial air  sacs  also  assist  in 
regulating  the  body  temperature. 
In  the  chameleon,  among  the 
reptiles,  the  lungs  develop  pro- 
longations which  seem  to  fore- 
shadow the  air  sacs  of  birds. 

Airstiip.  See  Aeronautics; 
Balloons;  Flying  Machines. 

Air  Space.  See  Ventilation. 

Air  Transport  Routes.  Air 
transportation  was  welded  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  world's 
network  of  transportation  facili- 
ties between  1927  and  1930, 
with  more  than  125,000  miles  of 
civil  airways  in  regular  use  by 
commercial  air  lines  throughout 
the  world  in  the  summer  of  1930. 

The  United  States  and  Ger- 
many each  had  services  over 
more  than  40,000  miles  of  air- 
ways. Latin  America,  including 
American  and  European  owned 
lines,  had  about  25,000  miles  of 
regularly  flown  routes,  with  the 
remainder  in  Australia  and  Asia. 

While  Germany  led  the  world 
in  the  development  of  air  lines 
during  the  early  years  of  trans- 
port development,  the  United 
States  took  the  lead  late  in  1929. 
Passengers,  mail  and  express 
were  being  flown  100,000  miles 
every  24  hours  in  the  United 
States  during  the  summerof  1930, 
serving  a  territory  with  90,000,- 
000  population.  American  air 
lines  were  flying  one-third  the 
Vol.  I.— 030 


distance  between  dusk  and  dawn 
on  lighted  airways,  providing 
night  service  unparalleled  any- 
where else  in  the  world. 

According  to  statistics  com- 
piled by  the  Aeronautical  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce  of  America, 
Inc.,  and  published  in  'The  Air- 
craft Year  Book  for  1930,' 
America's  major  air  transport 
lines  flew  20,242,891  miles  during 
1929  as  contrasted  with  10,472,- 
024  miles  in  1928  and  5,242,839 
miles  in  1927. 

The  American  air  lines  carried 
165,263  passengers  in  1929  al- 
though the  average  rate  per 
mile  was  above  ten  cents.  With 
the  lowering  of  rates  on  most  air- 
ways early  in  1930  came  a  huge 
volume  of  business  which  taxed 
the  facilities  of  the  transport 
companies. 

More  than  6,000.000  pounds 
of  mail  were  carried  over  the 
airways  of  the  United  States  in 
1929,  doubling  the  best  previous 
year's  figures.  Also  outside  the 
boundaries  of  the  United  States, 
air  mail  services  were  extensive, 
with  more  than  50  countries 
authorizing  their  foreign  mail  to 
be  flown  over  international 
routes.  In  China  and  Japan, 
where  the  risks  of  theft  and  delay 
through  the  older  means  of 
transportation  were  current,  air 
mail  was  introduced  to  insure 
greater  regularity  of  service. 
Two  American  companies.  Pan 
American  Airways,  Inc.,  and 
New  York,  Rio  and  Buenos 
Aires  Line,  are  making  remark- 
able progress  in  the  development 
of  a  network  of  airways  in  Latin 
America.  Further  stimulation  of 
traffic  over  these  lines  is  certain 
through  the  cutting  of  the  air 
mail  rates  between  the  United 
States  and  Latin  American  coun- 
tries from  33}4  to  50  per  cent, 
effective  January  1,  1930.  The 
twenty-seven  major  transport 
lines  in  the  United  States  em- 
ployed 619  planes  in  their  services 
during  1929,  594  land  planes, 
seven  seaplanes,  and  19  am- 
phibians. Single-engined  planes 
(480)  outnumbered  all  other 
classes,  principally  because  of  the 
large  number  of  efficient  mail  and 
express  planes  so  equipped. 
Seventeen  had  twin  engines  and 
122  were  tri-motored  planes. 
Air  cooled  engines  had  the  as- 
cendancy over  other  types  with 
836  in  use,  while  169  water  cooled 
motors  were  employed. 

Huge  tri-motored  or  twin- 
motored  planes,  seating  from  10 
to  18  passengers  beside  their 
crews,  were  favored  on  the  ex- 
clusive passenger  lines.  Smaller 
planes  for  from  five  to  eight 
passengers  were  used  on  lines 
feeding  the  trunk  systems. 

The  major  transport  lines  de- 
veloped their  own  air  terminals 
and  intermediate  landing  fields 
on  routes  where  public  facilities 
were    not    available;  installed 


weather  reporting  systems;  and 
perfected  radio  communication 
from  station-to-station  and  with 
planes  in  flight.  They  employed 
2,867  persons,  of  which  372 
were  pilots  and  1,425  mechanics 
or  ground  personnel.  This 
tabulation  demonstrates  graphi- 
cally the  need  for  about  eight 
men  on  the  ground  for  every 
pilot-employee  in  the  air. 

Almost  every  important  rail- 
road in  the  United  States  is 
now  linked  with  some  air 
transport  line  in  providing  com- 
bined air-rail  service  for  mutual 
customers  of  the  air  and  rail 
lines.  Eleven  air  transport 
lines  provide  air-rail  connections 
for  their  through  passengers;  i.e. 
Colonial  Air  Transport,  Maddux 
Air  Lines,  Northwest  Airways, 
Pan  American  Airways,  Southern 
Air  Transport,  Southwest  Air 
Fast  Express,  Standard  Air 
Lines,  Stout  Air  Services,  Trans- 
continental Air  Transport,  Uni- 
versal Aviation  Corporation  and 
Western  Air  Express. 

The  latter  three  provide 
through  service  from  New  York 
to  Los  Angeles  and  San  Francisco 
through  their  railroad  connec- 
tions. Universal  Aviation  Cor- 
poration, extending  its  existing 
lines  to  Garden  City,  Kan.,  and 
entering  into  an  arrangement 
with  the  New  York  Central  and 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe 
railroads,  opened  the  first  coast- 
to-coast  air-rail  service  June  14, 
1929.  After  more  than  a  year  of 
careful  preparation.  Transcon- 
tinental Air  Transport  organized 
especially  for  train  and  plane 
service  between  New  York  and 
Los  Angeles,  began  its  trans- 
continental operations  July  8, 
1929.  It  was  linked  with  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad,  which 
had  a  financial  interest  in  the 
venture,  and  the  Atchison,  To- 
peka and  Santa  Fe  Railroad. 
The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  was 
the  first  to  actively  invest  in  air 
transport.  The    merger  of 

Maddux  Air  Lines  with  Trans- 
continental Air  Transport  No- 
vember 16,  1929,  brought  the 
first  through  air-rail  service 
from  New  York  to  San  Fran- 
cisco. Western  Air  Express, 
flying  between  Kansas  City  and 
Los  Angeles,  linked  its  service 
with  railroads  entering  Kansas 
City  from  the  east  to  provide  a 
third  air-rail  transcontinental 
service. 

Boeing  Air  Transport,  Inc.,  a 
division  of  United  Aircraft  and 
Transport  Corporation,  operates 
the  Chicago-San  Francisco  mail 
(C.  A.  M.  18)  express  and 
passenger  route.  Approximately 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
nation's  air  mail  radiating  into 
Chicago,  Omaha,  Cheyenne  and 
Salt  Lake  is  carried  on  the  Boeing 
end  of  the  transcontinental 
route.  The  first  regular  night 
passenger  service  with  Boeing 


Air  Transport  Routes 


117 


Air  Transport  Routes 


tri-motored  transports  was  in- 
augurated May  1,  1929  on  the 
line  between  Oakland  and  Salt 
Lake  City. 

Canadian-American  Air  Lines, 
Inc.,  a  division  of  the  Schlee- 
Brock  Corporation,  operate  daily 
passenger  service  between 
Minneapolis,  Winnepeg  and  in- 
termediate points,  using  Lock- 
heed monoplanes. 

Canadian  Colonial  Airways, 
Inc.,  a  division  of  the  Aviation 
Corporation,  operates  Foreign 
Air  Mail  Route  1  between  New 
York  and  Montreal  with  ac- 
commodations for  passengers. 
Fairchild  cabin  planes  are  used 
on  the  334  daily  schedule  each 
way. 

Colonial  Western  Airways, 
Inc.,  a  division  of  the  Aviation 
Corporation,  operates  C.  A.  M. 
20  between  Albany,  Buffalo  and 
Cleveland.  Sikorsky  amphibians 
are  used  during  the  summer 
months,  but  Fairchild  cabin 
planes  are  put  into  operation  for 
the  winter  schedule  of  only  one 
trip  daily. 

Colonial  Air  Transport,  Inc., 
another  division  of  the  Aviation 
Corporation,  operates  passenger 
service  between  New  York  and 
Boston  with  four  round  trips  each 
day. 

Delta  Air  Service  links  Dallas, 
Tex.,  with  Birmingham,  Ala., 
by  way  of  Shreveport,  Monroe, 
Jackson,  Tuscaloosa,  Meridan, 
Birmingham,  in  an  eight-hour 
passenger  service.  Embry-Riddle 
Company,  operates  C.  A.  M.  24 
between  Cincinnati  and  Chicago, 
with  accommodations  for  pas- 
sengers as  a  division  of  the 
Aviation  Corporation. 

Maddux  Air  Lines,  operating  a 
599-mile  daily  service  exclu- 
sively for  passengers  between 
Los  Angeles-San  Francisco  and 
Los  Angeles- Tia  Juana  and 
Agua  Caliente  flew  more  than 
1.000.000  miles  during  1929  and 
carried  more  than  40,000  pas- 
sengers. Mamer  Air  Transport 
inaugurated  daily  passenger  ser- 
vice between  Seattle,  Portland, 
Spokane  and  intermediate  cities 
in  1929,  operating  11  planes  on 
the  routes.  Tri-motored  planes 
connecting  with  the  line  at  Liv- 
ingston flew  over  Yellowstone 
National  Park  on  daily  trips  in 
1930. 

Midcontinent  Air  Express, 
closely  affiliated  with  Western 
Air  Express,  operates  a  daily 
passenger  service  between  Den- 
ver and  El  Paso,  making  con- 
nections at  Alberquerque  with 
Western  Air  Express  planes  fly- 
ing between  Los  Angeles  and 
Kansas  City. 

National  Air  Transport,  Inc., 
one  of  the  pioneer  air  mail  con- 
tractors, carries  on  exclusive 
mail  operation  on  three  routes: 
New  York-Chicago,  Chicago- 
Dallas,  and  Tulsa-Ponca  City, 


totaling  1,789  miles  of  airways. 
The  Chicago-Kansas  City  day 
mail  and  express  line  was  ex- 
tended to  Dallas  by  way  of 
Tulsa,  giving  the  Oklahoma 
city  both  day  and  night  service 
through  connections  with  the 
night  line  from  Chicago  to  the 
southwest  over  a  spur  line  from 
Tulsa  to  Ponca  City.  More 
than  8,600  miles  were  being 
flown  every  24  hours,  half  of  the 
mileage  at  night,  to  meet  the 
demands  of  heavy  mail  and 
express  shipments.  United 
Aircraft  and  Transport  Cor- 
poration obtained  control  of  the 
line  in  1930. 

New  York,  Rio  and  Buenos 
Aires  Line  inaugurated  the  first 
mail  and  passenger  service  over 
a  transcontinental  air  line  in 
South  America  September  1, 
1929,  when  the  route  between 
Buenos  Aires  and  Santiago, 
Chile,  was  opened.  The  line  is 
850  miles  in  length,  crossing  the 
Andes  at  17,000  feet  and  is 
operated  on  a  seven-hour-and- 
fifteen-minute  flying  schedule. 
The  first  section  of  the  route 
northward  was  opened  August 
21,  1929,  between  Buenos  Aires 
and  Montevideo,  Uruguay.  Mail 
was  carried  over  the  route  under 
contracts  with  the  governments 
of  Argentina,  Chile  and  Uruguay. 
In  1930  plans  were  completed  for 
extending  the  line  northward 
from  Buenos  Aires  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  opening  a  section 
between  Florida  and  Cuba. 

The  Pan  American  Airways 
system,  including  Pan  American 
Airways,  Inc.,  Mexican  Aviation 
Company,  Pan  American  Air- 
ways of  Texas,  Inc.,  and  Pan- 
American- Grace  Airways  Inc., 
operates  over  12,919  of  airways 
which  bring  scores  of  centres  in 
Central  and  South  America 
within  days  or  hours  of  the 
United  States  as  compared  with 
weeks  of  travel  under  older 
modes  of  transportation.  It 
operates  Foreign  Air  Mail  Con- 
tracts 4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  9.  The 
eight  routes  are:  Miami  to  Para- 
maribo, Dutch  Guiana,  2,787 
miles;  Miami  to  Cristobal,  C.  Z. 
2,074  miles;  Miami  to  Nassau, 
Bahamas,  200  miles;  Cristobal, 
C.  Z.,  to  Curacoa,  Dutch  West 
Indies,  1,023  miles;  Brownsville, 
Tex.,  to  Mexico  City,  472  miles; 
Brownsville  to  Guatemala  City, 
1,155  miles;  Tampico,  Mexico,  to 
Merida,  Yucatan,  766  miles; 
and  Cristobal,  C.  Z.,  to  Buenos 
Aires,  Arg.,  4,442  miles. 

Southern  Air  Express  provides 
exclusive  passenger  service  be- 
tween Jackson,  Miss.,  Mont- 
gomery, Ala.,  and  Atlanta,  Ga., 
over  a  400-mile  route.  Weekly 
vservice  is  maintained  over  the 
route. 

Southern  Air  Transport,  Inc., 
a  division  of  the  Aviation  Cor- 
poration, operates  three  passen- 


ger routes,  totaling  1,334  miles, 
and  four  mail  routes  totaling 
1,634  miles. 

Standard  Air  Lines,  closely 
affiliated  with  Western  Air  Ex- 
press, operates  daily  passenger 
service  from  Los  Angeles  to  El 
Paso. 

Stout  Air  Lines,  the  oldest  ex- 
clusively passenger  air  trans- 
port organization  in  the  United 
States,  extended  its  service  to 
Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.,  South  Bend,  Ind.,  and 
Toledo,  Ohio,  November  1, 
1929.  The  extension  was  made 
on  the  second  anniversary  of 
operation  on  the  Detroit-Cleve- 
land route  and  one  year  of  oper- 
ation on  the  Detroit-Chicago 
division. 

Thompson  Aeronautical  Cor- 
poration operates  a  trans-lake 
service  between  Detroit  and 
Cleveland  with  four  round  trips  a 
day,  making  the  91-mile  flight 
in  55  minutes.  Transcontinental 
Air  Transport,  Inc.,  operates  a 
coast-to-coast  air-rail  service  in 
connection  with  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Santa  Fe  railroads 
with  stops  at  Columbus,  Dayton, 
Indianapolis,  St.  Louis,  Kansas 
City,  Wichita,  Waynoka,  Clovis, 
Alberquerque,  Kingman  and  Los 
Angeles  on  the  airway  division 
of  the  service.  United  States 
Airways,  Inc.,  provides  daily 
service  between  Kansas  City  and 
Denver  exclusively  for  passengers. 

Universal  Aviation  Corpora- 
tion, a  division  of  the  Aviation 
Corporation,  opened  the  first 
coast-to-coast  air  rail  service 
June  14,  1929,  in  conjunction 
with  the  New  York  Central  and 
Santa  Fe  Railroads.  Passenger 
lines  of  the  corporation  operate 
between  Cleveland  -  Chicago  - 
Kansas  City-Garden  City-Kan.; 
between  St.  Louis  and  Chicago; 
between  Chicago-Kansas  City- 
Omaha;  between  Kansas  City- 
Wichita -Oklahoma  City -Tulsa 
and  Dallas. 

Western  Air  Express  operates 
two  mail  routes,  and  also  offers  an 
extensive  passenger  service.  Daily 
passenger  service  is  provided  be- 
tween Los  Angeles  and  Kansas 
City,  1,420  miles  on  a  twelve-hour 
schedule. 

Some  kind  of  aeronautic  deve- 
lopment has  taken  place  in  sixty- 
three  nations,  widely  distributed 
over  every  continent  in  the  world, 
but  this  article  can  mention 
only  the  air  lines  of  some  of  the 
more  important  countries. 

In  Australia,  three  large  com- 
panies operate  six  regular  air 
lines  over  routes  totaling  7,858 
miles,  the  oldest  and  longest  of 
these  services  being  from  Perth 
to  Derby,  a  distance  of  1,467 
miles. 

In  Austria,  the  German  Luft 
Hansa  operates  regular  air  ser- 
vice from  Vienna  by  way  of 
Prague  to  Berlin,  and  by  way  of 

Vol.  I.— 030 


Air  Transport  Routes 


117  C 


Alsne 


Salzburg  to  Munich.  The 
Companie  Internationale  de 
Navigation  Aerienne,  a  French 
line,  links  Vienna,  Prague  and 
Strasbourg  with  Paris.  A 
Polish  lirie,  the  Polska  Linia 
Lotnicza  'Aerolot,  operates  a 
service  to  Warsaw  and  the 
Italian  border;  and  the  Trans- 
adriatica  Societa  Anonima  di 
Navigazione  Aerea  of  Ancona 
provides  a  service  from  Vienna 
to  Venice,  with  connections  for 
other  cities  in  Italy. 

Belgium  has  mail  and  pas- 
senger lines  radiating  from  Brus- 
sels to  London  and  Cologne. 
An  air  line  connecting  Belgium 
with  her  African  colony,  Belgian 
Congo,  is  to  be  opened  in  1930 
over  the  7,500-mile  route  with  an 
air  mail  service  operated  by  the 
Societe  Anonyme  Beige  d' Ex- 
ploitation de  la  Navigation 
Aerienne,  or  S.  A.  B.  E.  N.  A. 
company,  which  holds  the  major 
operating  concessions. 

Bulgarian  air  lines  operate 
from  Bulgaria  to  Jugoslavia, 
Hungary,  Austria,  Czechoslo- 
vakia, Switzerland,  Germany, 
Poland,  France,  Belgium,  Den- 
mark, Spain,  Norway,  Holland, 
Sweden,  Turkey  and  England. 

In  China,  Aviation  Explora- 
tion, Inc.,  a  subsidiary  of  the 
Curtiss-Wright  interests,  was 
organized  as  a  $10,000,000  en- 
terprise to  operate  air  mail 
lines  in  China  under  contract 
with  the  government.  The 
first  lines  to  be  established  con- 
nected Nanking  with  Peking, 
Canton  with  Hankow,  and  Shan- 
ghai with  Hankow  by  way  of 
Nanking. 

The  Czechoslovak  state-con- 
trolled air  lines  run  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  German  Luft 
Hansa  and  Austrian  Air  Traffic 
Company. 

In  France,  Aeropostale,  the 
principal  operator,  maintains 
regular  service  between  Toulouse 
and  Casablanca;  Marseilles  and 
Perpignan;  Casablanca  and  Da- 
kar; France  and  South  America; 
Toulouse  and  Bordeaux;  and 
Marseilles  and  Algiers.  Air- 
Union  operates  lines  between 
Paris  and  London,  Paris  and 
Marseilles;  Antibes  and  Tunis; 
and  Lyon  and  Geneva.  Com- 
pagnie  Internationale  de  Naviga- 
tion Aerienne,  generally  known 
as  Cidna,  grew  out  of  the  Com- 
pagnie  Franco-Roumaine  estab- 
lished in  1920,  and  received 
government  subsidies  from 
France,  Czechoslovakia,  Rou- 
mania,  Jugoslavia,  and  Poland. 
The  Societe  General  de  Trans- 
ports Aeriens,  the  S.G.T.A.  or 
Farman  lines,  operates  daily 
service  between  Paris  and  Am- 
sterdam; Paris  and  Berlin;  and 
Paris  and  Saarbrucken. 

German  aviation  is  identified 
chiefly  with  the  principal  operat- 
ing company,  the  (German  Luft 

Vol.  I— .030 


Hansa,  although  there  is  a  small 
operating  company  in  Bavaria 
known  as  the  Nordbayerische 
Verkehrsfiug.  Some  of  the 
principal  mail  and  passenger 
routes  include:  Berlin-Hanover- 
Amsterdam  -  London;  Berlin- 
Danzig  -  Koenigsburg;  Berlin- 
Hanover  -  Koln  -  Brussels  -  Paris; 
Berlin-Stettin;  Berlin-Hamburg- 
Travemunde  -  Copenhagen  - 
Malmo;  Berlin  -  Leipzig  -  Nurn- 
berg-Munchen;  Berlin-Leipzig- 
Stuttgart-Zurich;  Basel-Barce- 
lona; Berlin-Gleiwitz;  Berlin- 
Frankfurt-Mannheim;  Heidel- 
berg -  Dusseldorf-Essen;  Berlin- 
Dresden- Prag-Wien;  Genf -Zu- 
rich-Budapest;  Freiburg-Stutt- 
gart -  Munchen;  Frankfurt- 
Darmstadt;  Frankfurt  -  Koln; 
Dormund  -  Koln;  Frankfurt  - 
Nurnberg;  Dortmund-Hanover; 
Hanover  -  Magdeburg  -  Berlin; 
Bremen  -  Hanover  -  Leipzig  - 
Prague;  Hamburg- Kiel-Flens- 
burg;  and  Essen-Dusseldorf. 

In  Great  Britain,  Imperial 
Airways,  Ltd.,  operates  the 
principal  air  lines  to  foreign 
countries  with  a  virtual  mo- 
nopoly. Service  is  maintained 
daily  between  London,  Brussels 
and  Cologne,  and  between  Lon- 
don, Paris  and  Basle.  Regular 
service  between  England  and 
India  was  inaugurated  in  March, 
1929,  over  one  of  the  longest  air 
routes  in  the  world,  stretching 
5,000  miles  across  ten  different 
countries. 

In  Italy,  seven  Italian  air 
lines  employ  7O0  aircraft,  mostly 
seaplanes  and  flying  boats,  on 
nearly  a  score  of  lines  throughout 
Italy  and  stretching  into  western 
and  northern  Europe  through 
connections  with  the  important 
German,  French  and  British 
systems.  Services  to  the  Near 
East,  Northern  Africa  and  Spain 
also  are  in  operation  by  the 
Italian  lines  or  through  connec- 
tions at  terminals  outside  Italy. 

In  Poland,  several  semi-private 
air  transportation  companies 
were  in  operation  until  January 
1,  1929,  when  the  government 
decided  that  an  all-government 
organization  should  be  formed  to 
replace  the  subsidized  companies. 
The  new  organization  maintains 
service  between  Warsaw  and 
Danzig;  Warsaw- Poznan;  War- 
saw- Katowice ;  Warsa  w-L  wo  w ; 
Krakow  -  Katowice  -  Brno  -  Vien  - 
na;  Katowice- Vienna;  Katowice- 
Poznan;  and  Poznan- Bydgoszca- 
Gdansk. 

In  Spain:  the  Union  Aerea 
Espanola  air  service  links  Madrid 
and  Seville,  Madrid  and  Lisbon, 
and  Seville  and  Lisbon. 

In  the  Union  of  Socialistic 
Soviet  Republics,  thirteen  air 
lines  provide  passenger,  freight 
and  mail  service.  Most  of  the 
lines  operate  throughout  the 
year  with  the  exception  of  the 
Moscow- Berlin,  Leningrad-Riga 


and  Moscow-Irkutsk  lines,  which 
are  in  service  only  from  May 
until  December.  Although  sever- 
al radiate  from  Moscow,  the 
capital,  most  of  them  provide 
service  to  the  outlying  regions 
such  as  the  Caucasus  and  the 
Central  Asiatic  Republics. 

Airy,  ar'i.  Sir  George  Bid- 
dell  (1801-1892),  English  as- 
tronomer, was  born  in  Alnwick. 
He  was  graduated  as  senior 
wrangler  from  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge  (1823);  was  nomi- 
nated Lucasian  professor  of 
mathematics  in  1826,  and  Plu- 
mian  professor  of  astronomy 
and  director  of  the  New  Cam- 
bridge observatory  in  1828.  In 
1835  he  succeeded  John  Pound 
as  astronomer  royal  and  entered 
upon  a  period  of  activity  at 
Greenwich,  which  extended  over 
forty-six  strenuous  years.  The 
magnetic  department  was  creat- 
ed by  him  in  1838;  and  the 
spectroscopic  department  in 
1868.  He  initiated  also  the 
electrical  registration  of  transits, 
and  the  photographic  record  of 
sun  spots;  observed  the  solar 
eclipses  of  1842,  1851,  and  1860 
in  Italy,  Sweden,  and  Spain 
respectively;  organized  the  tran- 
sit of  Venus  expeditions  in  1874; 
and  was  in  charge  of  the  obser- 
vations for  determining  the 
boundary  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  His  pub- 
lished works  include  Astronom- 
ical Observations  at  Cambridge 
and  Greemvich  (20  vols.,  1829- 
57);  Catalogue  of  2,156  Stars 
(1849);  Ipswich  Lectures  on 
Astronomy  (1851);  Algebraic  il 
and  Numerical  Theory  of  Errors 
of  Observations  (1861);  Undula- 
tory  Theory  of  Optics  (1866);  At- 
mos pheric  Chromatic  Dispersion 
(1869);  Magnetism  (1871). 

Aisha.   See  Ayeshah. 

Aisle,  il,  the  lateral  subdi- 
vision of  a  church  parallel  to 
the  choir,  nave,  or  transept, 
from  which  it  is  divided  by  a 
row  of  columns  or  wall  piers. 
In  Gothic  architecture  the 
breadth  of  the  church  is  divided 
into  three  or  five  parts  by  two 
or  four  rows  of  pillars,  the 
middle  division  being  called  the 
nave  (q.v.),  the  other  the  side 
aisles.  The  word  is  also  popu- 
larly applied  to  the  passage  in 
a  church  or  hall  between  the 
pews  or  seats. 

Aisle,  in  heraldry,  used  when 
the  wings  are  blazoned  of  a  differ- 
ent tincture  from  the  animal. 

Aisne,  an,  department,  North- 
ern France,  comprising  parts 
of  Picardy,  Brie,  and  the  Isle 
of  France  and  forming  for  a 
few  miles  the  French  frontier 
toward  Belgium.  Hilly  in  the 
south,  level  in  the  north,  it 
belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Seine.  It  is  crossed  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  by  the  Osie 
River    (having    its    source  in 


Alsne 


117  D 


Aisne,  Battles  of 


Belgium),  by  the  Aisne  toward 
its  middle  in  a  westerly  direction, 
and  by  the  Marne  in  the  south. 
The  department  is  fertile,  and 
in  normal  times  two-thirds  of 
the  area  is  under  cultivation. 
Wheat  and  the  sugar  beet  are 
the  staple  crops;  flax,  hemp, 
and  hops  are  also  widely  culti- 
vated. Manufactures  are  ex- 
tensive, and  include  iron  found- 
ries, chemical  works,  weaving 
and  spinning  of  cotton,  wool,  and 
silk,  brewing  and  distilling,  flour 
milling,  and  the  manufacture 
of  sugar,  mirrors,  and  agricultu- 
ral implements.  Capital,  Laon. 
Area,  2,868  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1901)  535,583;    (1911)  530,226. 

The  department  was  overrun 
by  the  (jermans  in  the  early 
days  of  the  Great  War  (1914- 
19),  and  was  the  scene  of  some 
of  the  most  bitter  fighting  of 
the  war.  See  Aisne,  Battles 
of;  Chateau- Thierry;  Sois- 
soNS;  St.  Quentin. 

Aisne,  river  (ancient  Axona), 
rises  in  the  department  of 
Meuse,  traverses  the  depart- 
ments of  Ardennes,  Aisne,  and 
Oise,  passing  through  Vouziers 
and  Soissons,  and  joins  the  Oise 
near  Compiegne.  It  is  connected 
by  canals  with  the  other  im- 
portant rivers  of  the  region. 
Length,  175  miles.  See  Aisne, 
Battles  of. 

Aisne,  Battles  of  the,  a 
name  given  to  a  number  of 
engagements  in  the  Great  War 
of  Europe  (q.  v.) .  First  Battle. 
—On  Sept.  12,  1914,  following 
the  retreat  of  the  First  Battle  of 
the  Marne  (see  Marne,  Battles 
of),  the  Germans  occupied  the 
line  of  positions  on  the  Aisne 
and  the  Suippe  which  they 
had  previously  prepared  against 
such  an  emergency,  a  line  which 
is  one  of  the  strongest  defences  in 
Europe.  To  the  north  of  the  Aisne 
valley  rises  a  steep  ridge,  the 
scarp  of  a  great  plateau,  ranging 
in  height  from  200  feet  above 
Compiegne,  in  the  west,  to 
over  450  feet  in  the  high  bluff's 
of  Craonne  in  the  east.  The 
top  of  the  plateau  cannot  be 
seen  from  the  valleys  or  the 
high  ground  to  the  south,  as  it  is 
muffled  everywhere  by  a  cloak 
of  woods  which  dip  over  the 
edge  and  descend  for  some  dis- 
tance toward  the  river.  The 
German  positions  commanded 
all  the  crossings  of  the  river  and 
most  of  the  roads  on  the  south 
bank.  On  the  Suippe  their  posi- 
tion was  even  stronger.  Here 
they  had  a  natural  glacis  before 
them  and  across  the  river  could 
command  the  bare  swelling 
downs  for  miles,  the  blindness  of 
the  crests  making  it  impossible 
for  the  German  trenches  to  be 
detected.  The  line  crossed  the 
Champagne-Pouilleuse.  with  the 
Bazancourt-Grand  Pre  railway 
behind  it.  and  rested  on  the  Ar- 
VoL.  I.— Oct.  '19 


gonne  (q.  v.).  to  the  east  of  which 
the  Crown  Prince's  army  was 
attacking  Verdun  from  Mont- 
faucon  to  the  Woevre  (see  Ver- 
dun. Battles  of). 

Von  Kluck.  with  the  First 
German  Army,  held  the  western 
section  from  the  Forest  of  the 
Eagle  to  the  plateau  of  Craonne. 
He  had  against  him  Maunoury's 
Sixth  French  Army,  three  Corps 
of  the  British  Army  under  Sir 
John  French,  and  D'Esperey's 
Fifth  French  Army.  Von  Bue- 
low  held  the  ground  on  Von 
Kluck's  left,  from  the  Aisne 
crossing  at  Berry-au-Bac,  along 
the  line  of  the  Suippe.  The 
Saxon  general.  Von  Hausen, 
having  fallen  sick,  was  relieved 
of  his  command,  and  the  Saxon 
troops  were  joined  to  Von  Bue- 
low's  forces.  Against  Von 
Buelow  was  ranged  Foch's  Ninth 
French  Army.  The  line  of  North- 
ern Champagne  was  defended  by 
the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  who 
joined  hands  in  the  Argonne 
with  the  Crown  Prince.  The 
French  in  Champagne  were 
Langle's  Fourth  Army  advanc- 
ing against  the  Bazancourt- 
Grand  Pre  line.  The  Crown 
Prince  was  faced  by  Sarrail's 
Third  Army,  which  at  once  en- 
trenched itself  and  enlarged  the 
Verdun  enceinte  in  order  to  keep 
the  big  German  howitzers  out  of 
range.  South  of  the  Woevre, 
linked  with  Sarrail  by  the  forts 
of  the  Meuse.  the  Second  Army 
of  de  Castelnau  was  facing  the 
Bavarians,  while  Dubail  held  a 
portion  of  the  Vosges  and  rested 
his  right  on  Belfort. 

On  Sept  11  and  12  the  Allied 
armies  had  believed  the  enemy 
to  be  in  full  retreat,  but  by  the 
change  of  conditions  which  they 
now  met.  they  were  puzzled  to 
decide  whether  he  meant  to 
make  a  serious  stand  or  was 
only  fighting  delaying  actions 
preparatory  to  a  further  retire- 
ment. As  it  was.  General  Joff"re 
decided  to  make  a  frontal  at- 
tack, which  would  be  the  natural 
course  against  a  retreating  en- 
emy who  had  merely  stopped  to 
show  his  fangs. 

The  first  fighting  was  an  affair 
of  advanced  Allied  cavalry  and 
strong  German  rearguard  ac- 
tion. By  the  close  of  the  day, 
Sept.  13,  most  of  the  Allied  ar- 
mies had  crossed  the  Aisne. 
During  the  next  five  days  there 
was  a  series  of  attacks  and  coun- 
ter-attacks which  resulted  as 
follows:  Maunoury's  Sixth  Army 
had  secured  a  hold  on  the  top 
of  the  plateau  securely  entrench- 
ed above  the  villages  of  Aut- 
reches  and  Nouvron  facing  the 
German  main  works,  while  his 
left  continued  its  flanking  move- 
ment up  the  Oise,  steadily  closing 
in  on  Von  Kluck's  right.  The 
First  Corps  of  the  British  Army 
held    a   key    position    on  the 


Chemin-des-Dames.  D'Esperey's 
Fifth  Army  was  storming  the 
Craonne  escarpment  in  vain. 
Foch's  Ninth  Army  fell  back  on 
Rheims,  while  the  Germans 
held  the  heights  of  Brimont  to 
the  north  and  Nogent  I'Abbesse 
to  the  east  of  that  city,  upon 
which  they  trained  their  artil- 
lery. To  the  right  Langle's 
Fourth  Army,  though  only  three 
miles  from  the  Bazancourt- 
Grand  Pre  railway,  held  its  own 
but  found  it  impossible  to  break 
through  the  barrier. 

Sept.  18  is  known  as  the  end  of 
the  First  Battle  of  the  Aisne, 
as  it  marked  the  conclusion  of 
the  attempt  of  the  Allies  to  break 
down  the  German  positions  by  a 
frontal  attack.  The  past  five 
days  convinced  the  Allies  that 
this  was  no  rearguard  action  but 
a  long-thought-out  defence  of  an 
army  ready  and  willing  for  bat- 
tle. The  forces  were  too  evenly 
matched  to  produce  anything 
better  than  stalemate,  and  con- 
tinued assault  meant  a  useless 
waste  of  life.  The  Allies  en- 
trenched themselves  and  con- 
tinued a  long  campaign  of  sap 
and  mine. 

On  Sept.  20  De  Castelnau  with 
the  newly  formed  Seventh  French 
Army  fell  in  on  Maunoury's  left, 
and  ten  days  later  Maud'huy's 
new  Tenth  Army  took  position 
on  the  left  of  the  Seventh  Army. 
By  the  6th  of  October  Maud'huy 
with  the  aid  of  the  marines  occu- 
pied the  Albert  plateau  in  the 
face  of  a  strong  German  opposi- 
tion. 

Not  less  than  50,000  Germans 
were  put  out  of  action  in  this 
battle,  while  the  Allied  loss  was 
considerably  less. 

Second  Battle— On  April  1, 
1917,  the  Aisne  positions  and 
battle  lines  were  the  same  as 
those  following  the  battles  of 
September  and  October,  1914, 
with  one  exception — in  June, 
1915,  Von  Kluck  had  driven  a 
broad  shallow  wedge  in  the 
Allied  front  which  gave  him  the 
south  bank  of  the  Aisne  from 
Missy-sur-Aisne  to  a  little  east 
of  (^havonne.  (See  Soissons, 
Battle  of).  The  front  upon 
which  a  second  battle  was  then 
planned  was  fifty  miles  of  ver}^ 
difficult  terrain,  the  nature  of 
which  has  already  been  de- 
scribed. With  the  exception  of 
the  front  at  Troyon,  the  Ger- 
mans occupied  the  dominating 
positions. 

Gen.  Nivelle,  of  Verdun  fame, 
was  in  command  of  the  French 
armies  on  this  front.  In  a  new 
offensive  in  which  he  deliberately 
departed  from  the  tactics  of  the 
Somme — the  advance  by  steady 
stages  to  limited  objectives — he 
planned  to  crush  through  the 
German  line  facing  his  front. 
His  plan  was  to  force  the  Aisne 
heights  in  one  bold  assault  from 


Alsne,  Battles  of 


117  E 


Alsne,  Battles  of 


west,  south,  and  southeast;  at 
the  same  moment  to  carry  the 
Rheims  heights  from  the  north; 
and  to  launch  his  centre  through 
the  gap  from  Craonne  to  Bri- 
mont  between  the  other  two  as- 
saults into  the  plain  of  Laon. 
Next  day  a  fresh  army  would  at- 
tack the  Moronvilliers  massif 
to  distract  the  German  counter- 
attack, and  protect  his  own  right 
flank. 

The  French  armies  were  di- 
vided into  three  main  groups — 
the  Eastern,  under  De  Castel- 
nau;  the  Central,  under  Pe- 
tain;  and  the  Northern,  under 
D'Esperey.  A  fourth  group, 
a  reserve,  was  under  Micheler. 
Nivelle  proposed  to  put  into 
action  the  centre  and  right  wing 
of  Micheler's  group  from  Ailette 
to  Rheims — in  order,  the  Sixth 
Army,  under  Mangin,  between 
Laffaux  and  Hurtebise,  and  the 
Fifth  Army,  under  Mazel,  be- 
tween Hurtebise  and  Rheims. 
The  Tenth  Army,  under  Du- 
chesne, was  in  reserve.  East  of 
Rheims,  the  day  after  the  main 
attack,  the  Fourth  Army  under 
Anthoine,  would  begin  the  Mo- 
ronvilliers battle.  It  was  the 
largest  front  of  attack  on  the 
West  since  the  Marne,  and  the 
divisions  of  assault  employed 
were  three  times  those  which 
Haig  had  used  at  Arras  (q.  v.). 

On  the  German  side  the  Army 
Group  of  the  Crown  Prince  ex- 
tended from  the  Oise  to  Verdun. 
In  the  area  of  attack  lay  two 
armies — the  Seventh,  under  Von 
Boehn,  from  La  Fere  to  Craonne, 
and  the  First,  under  Fritz  von 
Below,  from  Craonne  to  Cham- 
pagne. The  front  was  defended 
by  not  less  than  350,000  in- 
fantry, and  by  a  great  mass  of 
artillery  and  machine  guns. 

The  battle  was  preceded  with 
violent  artillery  action  on  the 
fifty-mile  front,  as  a  preparation 
to  baffle  the  Germans  as  to  the 
point  of  attack,  which  was  to  fol- 
low after  an  all-night  blizzard  of 
sleet,  which  cleared  at  dawn. 
The  French  infantry  crossed  the 
parapets  at  6  a.m.,  April  16,  in 
an  attack  on  the  Germans  from 
the  left  of  Laffaux  to  east  of 
Rheims,  and  almost  at  once  the 
pall  of  storm  closed  in  again  on 
the  battlefield. 

Anthoine  opened  his  attack 
on  the  Moronvilliers  massif  the 
next  day.  Then  followed  a  con- 
tinuous battle  of  attacks  and 
counter-attacks  along  the  whole 
line  in  accordance  with  Nivelle's 
plans  until  April  30.  But  as 
Nivelle  did  not  gain  his  objective 
— the  road  to  Laon  was  as  firmly 
barred  as  ever — in  the  time 
calculated,  discouragement  and 
dissatisfaction  arose  through- 
out France,  resulting  in  the  re- 
vival of  the  office  of  Chief  of  the 
General  Staff  in  the  French  War 
Ministry  to  which  Petain  was 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


appointed.  He  ordered  the  re- 
sumption of  the  limited  objective 
tactics.  Finally  on  May  15,  in 
conformity  with  the  new  trend 
of  events,  Petain  succeeded  Ni- 
velle as  Commander-in-chief  of 
the  Frerich  armies  of  the  north 
and  northeast,  and  Foch  suc- 
ceeded the  former  as  Chief  of 
the  General  Staff  in  Paris.  From 
then  until  May  20  the  French 
action  was  mainly  for  the  im- 
provement of  their  lines,  which 
they  held  against  violent  Ger 
man  counter-attacks  on  May 
21,  23,  and  24. 

The  Second  Battle  of  the 
Aisne  lasted  a  little  more  than  a 
month.  It  did  not  achieve  the 
aim  of  the  French  High  Com- 
mand, which  was  the  disloca- 
tion of  the  southern  point  of  the 
Siegfried  Line,  and  to  that 
extent  may  be  written  down  a 
failure,  but  it  was  far  from 
barren  of  results.  It  engaged 
and  destroyed  a  large  num- 
ber of  German  divisions;  it 
used  up  a  quantity  of  the  best 
German  'shock-troops';  and  it 
cost  the  enemy  positions  which 
were  essential  to  his  comfort,  and 
ultimately,  to  his  security.  The 
Germans  had  lost  all  the  banks 
of  the  Aisne,  from  Soissons  to 
Berry-au-Bac  and  all  the  spurs 
of  the  Aisne  heights,  while  the 
French  held  the  centre  of  the 
tablelands.  The  French,  took 
and  held  a  greater  part  of  the 
Chemin-des-Dames  and  all  but 
one  position  in  the  Forest  of 
Vauclerc  on  the  California  Pla- 
teau; in  addition,  they  con- 
trolled the  whole  summit  ridge 
of  the  Moronvilliers  massif. 
The  French  captured  33,900 
prisoners,  including  270  officers, 
227  field  guns,  161  trench  mor- 
tars, and  515  machine  guns. 

The  Second  Battle  of  the 
Aisne,  as  far  as  the  main  oper- 
ations were  concerned,  finished 
with  the  capture  of  the  California 
Plateau  on  May  5,  but  it  con- 
tinued to  drag  out  with  sharp 
and  costly  fighting  for  more 
than  100  days.  The  French 
resisted  continuous  German 
counter-attacks  to  regain  their 
lost  positions,  but  on  June  25 
Petain  launched  an  offensive 
against  the  spur  north  of  Hurte- 
bise. The  spur  was  honey- 
combed by  the  great  limestone 
grotto  known  as  the  Dragon's 
Cave,  the  southern  entrance  of 
which  had  been  closed  by  a  shell 
explosion,  but  the  northern  en- 
trance was  still  in  the  hands  of 
the  Germans  and  their  position 
commanded  the  Vauclerc  Pla- 
teau. After  a  hard  struggle, 
during  the  day  of  June  25,  the 
spur  was  carried,  the  northern 
outlet  of  the  cave  seized,  and 
some  thousand  prisoners  were 
taken. 

Following  the  successes  at 
Verdun  during  August  and  Sep- 


tember, Petain  launched  a  sec- 
ond autumn  battle  against  the 
Germans.  He  chose  that  part  of 
the  Aisne  where  the  enemy  still 
had  a  foothold,  the  western  end 
of  the  Chemin-des-Dames  be- 
tween AUemant  and  Malmaison, 
his  aim  being  to  clear  the  enemy 
wholly  off  the  heights  and  to  ad- 
vance to  the  banks  of  the  Ailette. 
He  chose  the  triangle  between 
the  Aisne-Oise  Canal  and  Sois- 
sons, for  his  attempt,  where,  if 
he  could  press  the  Germans  back 
to  the  flats,  he  would  compel  a 
general  retirement.  His  battle 
was  staged  superbly  with  an 
initial  front  of  four  miles  from 
Laffaux  Mill  to  La  Royers  farm 
where  the  Sixth  Army,  now  under 
Maistre,  attacked  Von  Miiller's 
forces  of  Von  Boehn's  Seventh 
Army.  The  bombardment  be- 
gan October  17  and  was  di- 
rected mainly  to  breaking  the 
roofs  and  sealing  up  entrances  to 
underground  caverns  which  con- 
stituted one  of  the  main  German 
defences. 

Mont  Parnasse,  one  of  the  big- 
gest quarries  behind  Malmaison. 
had  been  shattered  by  16-inch 
shells  several  days  before.  On 
October  22  the  bombardment 
increased  in  fury,  and  at  5:15 
A.M.  the  next  day,  in  rain  and 
fog,  the  French  Infantry  crossed 
the  parapets. 

Their  success  was  immediate 
and  unbroken.  The  first  rush 
brought  them  to  the  line  from  Le 
Fruty  to  the  quarries  of  Boehry. 
The  next  bound  gave  the  centre 
the  fort  of  Malmaison.  The 
German  resistance  in  Mont  Par- 
nasse quarry  gave  way  as  the 
centre  descended  the  northern 
slopes  taking  Chavignon.  This 
position  was  of  extreme  impor- 
tance as  it  gave  a  clear  view  of 
Laon  and  commanded  all  the 
eastern  course  of  the  Ailette. 
Meantime  the  French  left  had 
taken  the  villages  of  Allemant 
and  Vaudesson,  and  the  right 
was  on  the  crest  overlooking 
Pargny  and  Filain.  That  day 
an  advance  of  2§  miles  was 
made  on  a  four-mile  front  with 
8,000  prisoners  and  many  guns. 
The  Germans  were  in  a  position 
in  which  they  could  not  remain. 

During  the  next  three  days 
Maistre  swept  on.  The  Ger- 
mans having  evacuated  Mont  des 
Singes,  he  took  Pinon  in  the  flats, 
pushed  through  Pinon  woods  to 
the  Aisne-Oise  Canal,  and  en- 
tered Pargny  and  Filain.  Pres- 
ently the  two  armies  faced  each 
other  across  the  marshy  valley 
bottom.  The  Germans  were 
in  sore  straits,  for  the  new 
French  positions  commanded 
the  flank  of  the  Forest  of  Coucy, 
enfilading  their  remaining  front 
on  the  Aisne  hills  east  of  Filain. 
On  November  2,  Von  Miiller 
fell  back  altogether  from  the  hills, 
and  the  French  entered  Courte- 


Alsne»  Battles  of 


117F 


Ainse,  Battles  of 


Qon,  Cerny-en-Laonnois,  Allies, 
and  Chevreux,  the  villages  which 
had  seen  the  fiercest  of  the  mid- 
summer fighting.  After  six 
months'  battle  the  Heights  of 
the  Aisne,  on  which  the  Germans 
had,  for  three  years,  been  en- 
trenched, were  again  in  the 
hands  of  the  French. 

Third  Battle. — The  success  of 
Von  Hindenburg's  armies  in  the 
West  during  April  and  May, 
1918,  keyed  the  German  people 
to  a  high  pitch  of  confidence.  The 
Germans  still  had  a  superiority 
in  numbers  over  the  Allies;  they 
also  had  the  strategic  initiative 
and  the  advantage  of  interior 
lines.  Ludendorff  still  aimed  at 
the  separation  of  the  British  and 
French  armies,  and  for  him  the 
vital  terrain  was  still  the  Somme. 
But  he  did  not  consider  that  the 
time  was  ripe  for  the  final  blow, 
^  and  he  resolved  to  repeat  his  Lys 
*  experiment,  and  strike  first  in  a 
different  area — this  time  the 
Aisne — with  the  object  of  ex- 
hausting Foch's  reserves  and 
stripping  bare  his  centre. 

About  May  20  the  Army  group 
of  the  Crown  Prince  had  mus- 
tered forty  divisions  for  the  at- 
tempt, twenty-five  for  the  first 
wave  and  fifteen  in  reserve.  The 
two  armies  allotted  to  the  task 
were  the  Seventh  Army,  under 
Von  Boehn,  on  the  right;  and 
the  First  Army,  under  Fritz  von 
Below,  on  the  left.  They  lay 
between  the  Ailette  and  Rheims, 
wholly  to  the  north  and  east  of 
the  plateau;  while  on  the 
heights  was  a  part  of  D'Esper- 
ev's,  Sixth  French  Army;  under 
General  Maistre,  with  only  the 
Eleventh  Corps  of  four  divisions 
in  line.  On  their  right  lay  the 
British  Ninth  Corps,  under 
Lieut.-Gen.  A.  Hamilton  Gor- 
don, which  had  recently  been 
withdrawn  from  Flanders.  It 
held  the  California  Plateau  and 
the  Craonne,  and  extended  as  far 
south  as  Bermericourt,  with 
three  divisions  in  line,  and  one  in 
reserve  on  the  left  wing.  Around 
Rheims  lay  the  Fifth  French 
Army,  with  Gouraud's  Fourth 
French  Army  on  its  right,  ex- 
tending into  Champagne. 

On  Sunday,  May  26,  1918, 
all  was  quiet  in  the  threatened 
area;  although  the  first  news 
of  an  impending  attack  came 
from  a  prisoner  taken  by  the 
French  that  day.  At  1  a.m.. 
May  27,  a  sharp  bombardment 
began  everywhere  from  the  Ail- 
ette to  the  suburbs  of  Rheims. 
At  4  o'clock  the  infantry  ad- 
vanced, and  in  two  hours  had 
swept  the  French  from  the  crest 
of  the  ridge.  By  nightfall  the 
Germans  had  crossed  the  Aisne, 
and  reached  the  Vesle  in  an  ad- 
vance of  12  miles  on  the  left  of 
the  line.  Von  Below  fared  less 
well  against  the  Ninth  British 
Corps,  which  held  its  second  pj- 
VOL.  I. — Oct.  '19 


sition  throughout  the  day,  but 
was  slowly  driven  back  until  its 
left  linked  with  the  Sixth  French 
Army  at  Fismes. 

The  battle  now  reached  the 
district  of  the  Tardenois,  that 
upland  which  is  the  watershed 
between  the  Aisne  and  the 
Marne.  It  was  LudendorfT's  de- 
sire to  push  for  the  Marne  at  his 
best  speed;  but  the  difficulty  lay 
with  his  flanks.  So  long  as 
Soissons  and  Rheims  held  he 
would  be  forced  by  every  day's 
advance  into  a  narrower  salient. 
On  May  28  he  succeeded  in  forc- 
ing back  the  containing  Allied 
wings.  That  day  the  first  U.  S. 
Division,  brigaded  with  the  Third 
French  Army,  attacked  in  the 
Montdidier  section  and  took  the 
village  of  Cantigny,  along  with 
170  prisoners.  Three  furious 
counter-assaults  failed  to  retake 
the  place.  On  May  29  the 
broadening  of  the  salient  began 
in  earnest,  and  Soissons  fell. 
By  the  close  of  May  30.  the 
Germans  had  advanced  over  30 
miles  in  the  past  72  hours  and 
occupied  10  miles  of  the  Marne 
from  Dormans  to  just  east  of 
Chateau-Thierry.  The  next  day 
the  German  right  made  con- 
siderable advance,  while  Von 
Below's  attacks  at  Rheims  on 
June  1  and  2  were  without  results. 

The  Germans  now  advanced 
their  right,  occupying  a  line  from 
Pontoise  on  the  Oise  to  Favor- 
elles  on  the  Ourcq,  to  the  heights 
of  Chateau-Thierry  as  far  as 
Chezy-sur- Marne.  While  the 
Crown  Prince  had  used  41 
divisions,  thereby  exhausting 
his  reserves,  he  had  not  as  yet 
drawn  upon  the  resources  of 
neighboring  commanders.  The 
situation  was  very  grave.  Conse- 
quently the  French  brought  up 
fresh  reserves.  The  next  three 
or  four  days  saw  a  series  of  at- 
tacks and  counter-attacks  with 
small  gains.  The  American 
troops  had  been  brought  into 
action  on  the  western  and 
southern  side  of  the  salient,  and 
counter-attacked  with  success 
west  of  Torcy,  and  defeated  an 
attempt  to  ford  the  Marne  at 
Jaulgonne,  The  French  and  the 
Americans  took  Neuilly-la-Po- 
terie  and  Bouresches,  and  the 
French  captured  the  important 
Hill  204  above  Chateau-Thierry 
on  June  7.  About  this  time  Von 
Boehn,  having  exhausted  his 
strength,  called  a  halt,  and  ac- 
cording to  practice  announced  a 
victory  including  the  capture  of 
55,000  prisoners  and  650  guns. 

It  had  proved  impossible  to 
carry  away  the  gate-posts  by 
means  of  the  two  armies  already 
engaged,  consequently  it  was 
necessary  to  bring  the  force  on 
the  right  into  action.  On  Sun- 
day, July  9,  Von  Hutier  at- 
tacked the  Allies  on  the  Mont- 
didier-Noyon  front  on  most  of 


which  he  failed — as  there  was 
lacking  an  element  of  surprise — 
except  for  a  local  gain  of  six 
miles  on  a  short  front  in  the  cen- 
tre. The  Germans  continued 
their  former  tactics  but  were  less 
successful,  while  the  French  were 
notably  quicker  in  the  counter- 
attack. 

The  battle  front  was  now  gi- 
gantic, not  less  than  100  miles 
from  Mesnil  St.  George  to 
Rheims.  For  the  rest  of  the 
month  there  was  a  nip-and-tuck 
struggle  without  any  advantages 
to  either  side.  On  June  11,  the 
French  made  a  few  minor  gains 
on  their  left,  and  between  the 
Ourcq  and  the  Marne  the  Amer- 
icans made  a  fine  advance  at 
Belleau  Wood  (q.  v.)  and  took 
300  prisoners.  The  Germans 
made  a  few  local  gains  on  the 
French  left  on  June  12;  but  the 
fruitless  attack  on  the  same 
front  next  day  closed  the  Von 
Hutier  subsidiary  operation. 

Having  failed  on  his  right 
flank,  the  Crown  Prince  now 
made  an  effort  on  his  left.  On 
June  18,  Von  Below,  under- 
rating the  defence  of  Rheims, 
used  only  three  divisions  in  a 
futile  attack  on  that  front.  Al- 
though encircled  on  three  sides, 
the  city  of  Rheims  stoutly  held 
out  with  the  aid  of  the  Allies  on 
the  massif  of  the  Montagne 
of  Rheims  to  the  south  and 
southwest.  This  Montagne  the 
Germans  now  recognized  needed 
serious  effort  before  further  suc- 
cess on  the  Marne  could  be  made. 
For  the  better  part  of  the  month 
silence  fell  on  the  battle-front, 
broken  only  by  attacks  of  the 
French  and  British,  which,  in 
every  case  were  successful. 

Last  Actions  on  the  Aisne. — 
In  the  Second  Battle  of  he 
Marne  (1918),  Mangin  with  the 
Tenth  French  Army  struck  at 
dawn  on  Thursday,  Aug,  1,  and 
by  9  A.M.  took  Hill  205.  That 
hill  was  a  key  position  which 
was  now  held  against  two  coun- 
ter-attacks. Von  Boehn  ad- 
mitted defeat  as  his  front  was 
turned  between  the  Ourco  and 
the  Vesle  and  his  hold  on  oois- 
sons  was  fatally  loosened.  Then 
followed  a  retirement  of  the  Ger- 
man Seventh  Army  while  Man- 
gin  continued  the  advance,  enter- 
tering  Soissons  and  Billy-sur- 
Aisne  the  next  day.  On  Aug. 
4  Von  Boehn-  reached  the  line 
of  the  Aisne  and  the  Vesle, 
This  new  German  position  was 
not  altogether  what  they  desired, 
as  the  Chemin-des-Dames  and 
the  heights  of  the  Vesle  do  not 
form  one  continuous  ridge,  for 
there  is  the  valley  of  the  Aisne 
between;  and  on  the  east  side 
the  hills  die  away  into  levels, 
with  Rheims  as  an  Allied  out- 
post to  menace  that  flank. 
The  Germans  remembered  the 
strength  of  the  Aisne  defenres 


Alsne,  Battles  of 


118 


Alx 


in  1914  and  now  turned  to  them 
as  a  natural  refuge. 

The  German  dream  of  an  at- 
tack on  Amiens  was  gone  for- 
ever, the  initiative  had  passed 
to  the  Allies,  and  Ludendorfif's 
one  aim  was  to  find  security  for 
the  coming  winter.  He  hoped 
the  French  would  waste  their 
strength  on  the  new  Aisne  front. 
He  hoped  in  vain,  as  Foch  had 
no  desire  to  waste  any  time  in 
operations  that  were  not  vital. 

All  was  quiet  on  the  Aisne 
until  6  A.M.,  Sunday,  Aug.  18, 
when  Mangin's  Tenth  Army 
struck  between  the  Oise  and  the 
Aisne.  It  was  a  strictly  lim- 
ited operation  on  a  10-mile 
front.  The  advance  was  a  mile 
in  depth  and  gave  the  French 
the  plateau  west  of  Nampcel 
with  1,700  prisoners.  It  was  an 
adroit  performance,  for  Von 
Boehn,  much  harassed  by  re- 
quests for  reinforcements  every- 
where, disregarded  the  business 
as  only  a  local  attack.  He  with- 
drew his  troops  there  to  the  bat- 
tle zone  and  waited.  The  next 
day  Mangin,  by  cunningly  vary- 
ing his  hour  of  attack  to  the  con- 
fusion of  the  enemy,  pressed  in 
on  a  broader  front  and  took 
Morsain.  On  Aug.  20,  on  a  16- 
mile  front  he  approached  the 
Ailette,  taking  8,000  prisoners 
and  200  guns.  He  had  estab- 
lished himself  firmly  on  the 
western  part  of  the  Heights  of 
the  Aisne,  and  threatened  alike 
the  German  line  on  that  river 
and  their  line  west  of  the  Oise. 
Von  Boehn  used  three  divisions 
of  his  reserve  but  they  were  too 
late  to  save  the  critical  ground. 
The  result  was  that  on  the  even- 
ing of  Aug.  20  the  whole  front 
was  closely  engaged  on  the  100 
miles  between  the  Avre  and  the 
Vesle,  and  Von  Boehn  and  the 
Crown  Prince  had  every  man 
they  could  muster  involved  in 
its  defence.  On  the  night  of  the 
20th  Mangin,  having  done  his 
work,  held  his  hand. 

Mangin  gained  ground  be- 
tween the  Oise  and  Aisne  rivers 
in  an  advance  on  Aug.  30.  The 
next  day  he  pushed  north  of  the 
Ailette  to  the  west  of  Coucy-le- 
Ch^teau,  and  Sept.  5  found  him 
well  north  of  the  Ailette,  while 
his  right  wing  was  moving  east- 
ward along  the  Chemin-des- 
Dames,  and  the  French  and 
Americans  of  the  Sixth  and 
Fifth  Armies  had  driven  the 
Germans  from  the  Vesle.  and 
stood  on  the  crest  between  that 
stream  and  the  Aisne.  Man- 
gin's  pincers  were  also  feeling  at 
the  St.  Gobain  massif,  which 
played  to  the  south  of  the  Sieg- 
fried zone  the  part  which  the 
Drocourt-Queant  Switch  had 
been  meant  to  play  in  the  north. 
Here,  however,  the  French  had 
a  difficult  problem,  for  the  gap 
between  the  St.  Gobain  Forest 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


and  the  Oise  and  the  valley  of 
the  Ailette  were  alike  too  nar- 
row for  an  easy  advance.  By 
Sept.  24  Mangin  had  fought  his 
way  to  the  edge  of  the  Chemin- 
des-Dames. 

On  Sept.  28  Mangin  and 
Guillaumat  struck  between  the 
Ailette  and  the  Vesle.  In  two 
days  this  new  attack  gained  a 
depth  of  3^  miles,  with  the 
Italian  divisions  strongly  press- 
ing the  centre.  By  Sept.  30, 
Mangin's  front  ran  from  Bourg 
to  Filain,  then  along  the  south 
bank  of  the  Ailette  to  the  west 
of  Anizy-le-Chiteau,  while  Guil- 
laumat had  taken  Montigny  and 
Revillion  to  the  east.  On  Oct.  1 
Mangin  had  regained  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  Chemin-des- 
Dames,  and  Guillaumat  had 
reached  the  Aisne  and  cleared 
all  the  land  between  that  river 
and  the  Vesle.  The  Tenth  and 
Fifth  French  Armies  occupied 
the  whole  of  the  Chemin-des- 
Dames  and  the  Germans  were 
in  retreat  from  the  Craonne  Pla- 
teau on  Oct.  11.  These  same 
forces  occupied  more  than  half 
of  the  Laon  massif  during  the 
next  two  days,  with  the  Germans 
in  full  retreat  all  along  the  line. 
On  Oct.  14  Laon  and  LaFere 
were  taken  by  Mangin;  this  with 
the  captures  of  Cambrai  and  St, 
Quentin  completed  the  demolish- 
ment  of  the  key  positions  of  the 
famous  Hindenburg  line. 

A'l'sse,  a-e-sa'.  or  Haidee, 
Mademoiselle  (1694  -  1733), 
daughter  of  a  Circassian  chief, 
was  carried  off  in  early  child- 
hood by  the  Turks,  and  sold  in 
the  slave  market  at  Constanti- 
nople to  the  Count  de  Ferriol, 
French  ambassador  (1698). 
Brought  by  him  to  France,  and 
educated,  she  became  famous  for 
her  extraordinary  beauty  and  ac- 
complishments, as  well  as  for  her 
virtuous  life  amid  the  profligacies 
of  the  court  during  the  Regency. 
Her  letters  to  Mme.  de  Calan- 
drini  and  Chevalier  d'Aydie  were 
published  with  Voltaire's  notes 
(1787).  _ 

Aistulf,  Is'toolf,  or  Astolf 
(d.  756),  king  of  the  Lombards, 
took  possession  of  Ravenna  (752) 
and  threatened  Rome,  where 
Stephen  in.  occupied  the  papal 
throne.  By  the  armed  inter- 
vention, in  755,  of  Pepin,  (q.  v.) 
king  of  the  Franks,  he  was 
forced  to  abandon  his  threaten- 
ing attitude,  and  made  amends 
to  the  pope.  In  the  following 
year  he  laid  siege  to  Rome,  but 
was  attacked  by  Pepin,  who 
compelled  him  to  retire,  and  to 
surrender  Ravenna. 

Aitken,  a  t'  k  e  n,  R~o  B  e'r  t 
Grant  (1864),'  American  'as- 
tronomer, was  born  in  Jackson, 
Cal.  He  was  graduated  from 
Williams  College  (1887;  A.  M. 
1892;  sc.D.  1917),  and  was  in- 
structor in  mathematics,  Liver- 


more  College,  from  1888  to 
1891,  and  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy.  Uni- 
versity of  the  Pacific,  from  1891 
to  1895,  when  he  became  astrono- 
mer at  Lick  Observatory.  He 
lectured  in  astronomy  at  the 
summer  session  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  California  (1908-9,  1913, 
1919),  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Lick  Observatory  Eclipse 
Expedition  to  Flint  Island 

(1908)  .  He  discovered  some 
3,000  double  stars,  and  in  1906, 
was  awarded  the  Lalande  Prize 
by  the  French  Academy  of 
Sciences  for  his  discoveries.  He 
is  editor  of  the  publications  of  the 
Astronomical  Society  of  the  Paci- 
fic (1897-1908,  1911-).and  of  the 
A  dolfo  Stahl  Lectures  in  A  stronomy 
(1919),  and  author  of  Measures 
of  Double  Stars  .  .  .  from  June 
1895,  to  December  1912,  (1914). 
and  The  Binary  Stars  (1918). 

Aitken,  Robert  Ingersoll 
(1878),  American  sculptor,  was 
born  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.  He 
studied  at  the  Mark  Hopkins 
Institute  of  Art,  California,  was 
subsequently  professor  of  sculp- 
ture (1901-04)  in  that  institu- 
tion, and  from  1904  to  1907 
resided  in  Paris.  Among  his 
important  works  are  the  Mc- 
Kinley  Monument  (1903),  Bret 
Harte  Monument  (1904),  Hall 
McAlHster  Monument  (1904), 
and  monument  to  the  American 
Navy,  all  in  San  Francisco; 
monuments  to  William  Mc- 
Kinlev  at  St.  Helena  and 
Berkley,  Cal.,  and  to  Elihu 
Burritt  at  New  Britain,  Conn.; 
basts  of  August  Thomas,  David 
Warfield,  Mme.  Modjeska,  W. 
H.  Taft,  N.  S.  Shaler,  Bret 
Harte,  Henry  A,  Jones,  and 
others;  the  bronze  doors  for 
the  mausoleums  of  B.  J.  Green- 
hut  and  John  W.  Gates;  the 
Bliss  Memorial  at  Woodlawn; 
Bacchante    (1908);     The  Flame 

(1909)  ;  Fragment  (1909),  and 
Michelangelo  at  Work  upon  His 
Statue  of  the  Day  (1912).  For 
the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition 
(1915)  he  executed  four  titanic 
figures — Fire,  Air,  Water,  and 
Earth — and  the  Fountain  of  the 
Earth.  He  is  an  Academician, 
and  a  member  of  the  National 
Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters. 
As  a  captain  in  the  U.  S.  Nation- 
al Army,  he  served  two  years  in 
the  Great  War  (1917-19). 

Aivallk,  i'va-lek,  Aiwalik, 
or  Kydonia  (ancient  Heracleia). 
seaport  town,  Aisa  Minor,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Endremid  (Adramyti), 
66  miles  northwest  of  Smyrna. 
Formerly  a  place  of  consider 
able  trade,  it  was  burned  by  the 
Turks  in  1821,  but  has  since 
revived.  It  exports  oil,  soap, 
skins,  and  flour.  Pop.  25,000. 
chiefly  Greek. 

Aix,  aks  or  as,  small  island 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Cha- 
rente,  department  Charcnte-In- 


Aix 


119 


AkashI 


ferieur,  France.  It  forms  the 
outer  defence  for  Rochefort. 
In  1808  and  1809  naval  battles 
in  the  roads  took  place  between 
English  and  French.  Here  Napo- 
leon, on  board  the  Bellerophon, 
surrendered  to  the  English  (July 
15,  1815). 

Aix,  aks,  or  Aix-en-Provence 
(ancient  Aquce  Sextice),  town, 
France,  in  the  department  of 
Bourches-du-Rhone;  22  miles 
north  of  Marseilles.  It  was 
formerly  the  capital  of  Provence 
and  enjoyed  a  wide  reputation 
as  a  watering-place.  Features  of 
interest  are  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Sauveur,  a  fine  Renaissance 
structure  datmg  from  the  11th 
century;  the  Palais  de  Justice; 
the  Hotel  de  Ville;  and  the 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts  with  an 
excellent  collection  of  paintings. 
The  town  was  formerly  the  seat 
of  the  Facultes  d'Aix,  a  cele- 
brated university  organized  in 
1409  as  the  University  of  Aix, 
but  now  incorporated  with  the 
University  of  Marseilles.  The 
University  library  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  Southern  France.  The 
leading  industries  are  olive  culti- 
vation, cotton  spinning,  flour 
milling,  and  the  manufacture  of 
hats,  ironware,  and  confec- 
tionery.   Pop.  (1921)  29,983. 

Aix-ia-CIiapelle,  -la  sha-pel', 
or  Aachen,  city,  Prussia,  in  the 
Rhine  province,  capital  of  the 
district  of  Aachen,  is  situated  in 
a  fertile  basin  surrounded  by 
wooded  heights,  near  the  River 
Wurm;  40  miles  southwest  of 
Cologne.  It  comprises  an  inner 
or  old  town,  whose  mediaeval 
fortifications  have  been  converted 
into  promenades,  and  an  outer 
modern  town  and  suburbs.  The 
Cathedral,  in  the  centre  of  the 
city,  dates  from  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  who  erected  the 
central  octagonal  chapel  in  796- 
804,  and  whose  traditional  burial 
place  is  located  in  that  edifice. 
It  is  surrounded  by  several 
chapels  of  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  and  is  ad- 
joined by  the  beautiful  Gothic 
choir,  completed  m  1414.  The 
Town  Hall  (1333-70),  a  splendid 
Gothic  building  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Carlovingian  palace,  con- 
tains the  famous  coronation  hall 
(144  feet  by  60  feet)  of  the 
German  emperors. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  is  the  centre 
of  a  rich  coal  district  and  has 
numerous  thriving  industries, 
notably  vspinning  and  weaving 
woollen  fabrics,  and  needle  and 
pin  making.  There  are  also  large 
iron  foundries,  machine  shops, 
and  manufactures  of  bells,  glass 
buttons,  knives,  soap,  cement, 
pottery,  and  crockery.  The  city 
is  an  important  station  on  the 
Belgian-Rhenish  railroads,  and 
carries  on  an  active  trade  in 
cereals,  leather,  wine,  and  timber. 
Pop.  (1919)  145,748. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  was  known  to 


the  Romans  as  Aquisgranutn.  It 
was  often  visited  by  the  Frankish 
kings,  and  was  made  the  capital 
of  his  dominions  by  Charle- 
magne. Here  the  emperors  from 
Louis  the  Pious  to  Ferdinand  I. 
(813-1531)  were  crowned.  In 
1793,  and  again  in  1794,  it  was 
occupied  by  the  French,  and 
remained  in  their  possession 
until  1815,  when  it  passed  to 
Prussia.  In  1897,  the  town  of 
Burtscheid  was  incorporated  with 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  In  November, 
1918,  in  accordance  with  the 
Treaty  ot  Versailles,  it  was 
occupied  by  Belgian  troops. 

Ais-la-Chapeile,  Congress 
of,  a  meeting  held  in  1818,  to 
regulate  the  afifairs  of  Europe 
after  the  Napoleonic  wars.  Its 
principal  object  was  the  with- 
drawal from  France  of  the  army 
of  occupation,  150,000  strong,  as 
well  as  the  re-entrance  of  France 
into  the  alliance  of  the  Great 
Powers.  The  five  nations  there 
assembled  signed  a  protocol 
announcing  a  policy  similar  to 
that  of  the  Holy  Alliance  (q.v.). 

Aix  -  la  -  Cliapelle,  Treaties 
of.  The  first  Peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (166S)  ended  the  war 
carried  on  between  France  and 
Spain  for  the  possession  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands  (see  Louis 
XIV.) . — The  second  Peace  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  (1748)  concluded  the 
War  of  the  Austrian  Succession 
(see  Austria,  History). 

Aix-les-Bains,  -  la-ban'  (an- 
cient Aqua  Graiiance),  town, 
France,  in  the  department  of 
Savoie,  near  the  eastern  shore  of 
Lac  du  Bourget;  9  miles  north 
of  Chambery.  Although  sur- 
rounded by  high  mountains,  it 
enjoys  a  temperate  climate,  and 
is  a  popular  health  resort,  having 
copious  warm  springs  (103°  and 
107°  F.),  charged  with  alu  a 
and  sulphur.  Industries  include 
manufactures  of  hats,  oil,  and 
confectionery,  and  flour  milling. 
Pop.  (1921)  8,764. 

Ajaccio,  a-yat'cho  (ancient 
Adjacium),  capital  of  Corsica, 
is  situated  on  the  west  coast,  at 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Ajaccio. 
It  is  a  winter  resort,  is  the  ter- 
minus of  a  trans-island  railway, 
and  has  a  good  harbor  protected 
by  a  citadel,  and  a  fine  cathedral. 
The  principal  industries  are 
anchovy  and  pearl  fisheries  and 
shipbuilding;  and  there  is  trade 
in  corn,  wines,  olive  oil,  leather, 
wood,  sardines,  corals,  and  cigars. 
Ajaccio  was  the  birthplace  of 
Napoleon  i.,  and  the  'Casa  Bona- 
parte' (Bonaparte's  House)  is 
now  national  property.  Pop. 
(1921)  21,908. 

Ajaion,  aj'a-lon,  or  Aijalon, 
the  modern  Yalo,  town  of  the 
Levites  in  ancient  Palestine, 
northwest  of  Jerusalem.  It  was 
in  the  territory  of  Dan,  and  near- 
by Joshua  won  a  great  victory 
over  five  Canaanite  kings,  the 
sun  and  the  moon  being  described 


(Josh.  x.  12)  as  standing  still 
(Hebrew  'were  silent')  till  the 
rout  was  complete. 

A'jax  THE  Greater,  son  of 
Telamon,  king  of  Salamis,  and  on 
his  mother's  side  a  grandson  of 
iEacus.  He  sailed  against  Troy 
with  twelve  ships,  and  is  repre- 
sented by  Homer  as,  next  to 
Achilles,  the  bravest  and  hand- 
somest of  the  Greeks.  After  the 
death  of  Achilles,  Ajax  and  Ulys- 
ses contended  for  the  arms  of  the 
hero,  and  the  prize  being  ad- 
judged to  Ulysses,  Ajax  in  rage 
and  despair  killed  himself. 

Ajax  the  Less,  son  of  Oileus, 
king  of  the  Locrians.  He  was 
famous  for  swiftness  of  foot  and 
skill  in  hurling  the  spear.  He  led 
forty  ships  to  Troy  and  at  the 
capture  of  the  city  excited  the 
anger  of  Pallas,  who  caused  his 
death  by  drowning. 

Ajmere,  aj-mer',  or  Ajmir, 
ancient  city  of  Rajputana,  India, 
capital  of  the  British  district  of 
Ajmere;  220  miles  southwest  of 
Delhi.  It  is  situated  in  a  rocky 
valley,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
stone  wall  with  five  gateways. 
Many  of  the  streets  are  spacious, 
and  contain  fine  residences, 
besides  mosques  and  temples 
of  massive  architecture.  The 
Daulat  Bagh,  or  Garden  of  Splen- 
dor, now  the  residence  of  the 
British  commissioner,  is  a  beauti- 
ful collection  of  buildings  on  the 
shore  of  an  artificial  lake.  The 
dargah  or  tomb  of  the  Mussul- 
man saint,  Kwaja,  within  the 
town,  is  a  venerated  place  of 
pilgrimage.  There  are  two  col- 
leges— Ajmere  College  (187.5),  af- 
filiated  with  Calcutta  University, 
and  Mayo  Rajkumar,  for  the 
education  of  noble  Rajputs.  Oil 
making  and  the  manufacture  and 
dyeing  of  cotton  fabrics  are  im- 
portant industries,  and  there  is 
trade  in  opium  and  salt.  Ajmere 
was  founded  about  145  a.d.;  it 
was  ceded  to  the  British  in  1818. 
Pop.  (1921)  113,512. 

Aj  mere-Merwara,  mar-wa'ra, 
division  of  Rajputana,  British  In- 
dia, comprising  the  districts  of 
Ajmere  and  Merwara;  area, 
2,711  square  miles.  Millet, 
wheat,  cotton,  and  oil  seed  are 
raised;  but  crops  are  dependent 
upon  an  uncertain  rainfall,  and 
severe  famines  occur.  Pop. 
(1921)  495,271,  mostly  Hindus. 

Ajodliya.    See  Oudh. 

Akabali,  a'ka-b;i,  or  Ak\b\, 
town,  Arabia,  at  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  near  the 
Scriptural  Elath  (Deut.  ii.  8). 
In  1906  the  Turks  occupied  Taba, 
nearby,  but  withdrew  on  an 
ultimatum  from  Great  Britian. 

Al<abali,  Gulf  of,  the  east 
arm  at  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea, 
lying  along  the  coast  of  Arabia. 
It  is  about  100  miles  long  and  15 
miles  wide. 

Akamagaselcl.  See  Shimono- 

SEKI. 

Akaslil,  a'kii-she,   town,  Ja- 
VOL.  I.— March  '27 


Akbar 


120 


Akbmlm 


pan,  in  the  province  of  Harima, 
south  of  Hondo  Island;  12  miles 
west  of  Kobe.  It  is  a  seaside 
resort  on  the  northeast  corner  of 
the  Inland  Sea,  and  has  an  at- 
tractive Shinto  temple.  It  is  the 
place  selected  for  regulating  Jap- 
anese time.   Pop.  (1920)  3.3.107. 

Akbar,  ak'b^r  (i.e.,  'the  Great') 
(1542-1605),  properly  Jelal-UD- 
DiN-MoHAMMED,  Mogul  empcror 
of  India,  the  greatest  Asiatic 
monarch  of  modern  times.  His 
father,  Humayun,  died  when 
Akbar  was  fourteen  years  old; 
and  he  remained  for  four  years 
under  the  tutelage  of  Bairam 
Khan,  a  Turkoman  general, 
who  in  1556,  by  the  victory 
of  Paniput,  secured  for  him  the 
provinces  of  Delhi  and  Agra.  The 
young  prince  took  the  power  into 
his  own  hands  at  the  age  of  eigh- 
teen. At  this  time  only  a  few  of 
the  many  provinces  once  subdued 
by  the  Mongol  invaders  were  ac- 
tually subject  to  the  throne  of 
Delhi;  but  in  ten  or  twelve  years 
Akbar's  empire  embraced  the 
whole  of  India  north  of  the  Vind- 
hya  Mountains.  He  conquered 
and  conciliated  all  the  indepen- 
dent Mohammedan  and  Hindu 
princes  of  Northern  India  from 
Cashmeie  to  Behar.  By  skilful 
manoeuvring,  and  with  the  help 
of  the  able  but  crafty  Abul  Fazl, 
his  historian,  he  induced  the 
learned  doctors  of  his  court  to  de- 
clare him  'a  just  ruler,'  'infallible,' 
and  the  sole  source  of  legislation; 
and,  armed  with  this  authority, 
he  modified  freely  many  princi- 
ples and  practices  which  had  the 
sanction  of  the  Koran. 

The  wisdom,  vigor,  and  human- 
ity with  which  Akbar  adminis- 
tered his  vast  dominions  are  un- 
exampled in  the  East.  He  pro- 
moted commerce  by  constructing 
roads,  establishing  a  uniform  sys- 
tem of  weights  and  measures,  and 
a  vigorous  police.  He  exercised 
the  utmost  vigilance  over  his 
viceroys  and  provinces;  no  extor- 
tion was  practised;  and  justice 
was  impartially  administered. 
For  the  adjustment  of  taxation 
the  lands  were  accurately  meas- 
ured, and  the  statistics  taken, 
not  only  of  the  population,  but 
of  the  resources  of  each  province. 
Akbar's  remarkable  religious  tol- 
eration is  evidenced  by  his 
reform  of  certain  Brahministic 
rites  and  his  permission  of  Hindu 
freedom  of  worship.  He  was 
buried  in  a  noble  mausoleum  at 
Sikandra,  near  Agra.  Consult 
Malleson's  Life. 

A'ked,  Charles  Frederic 
(1864-  ),  Anglo-American 
clergyman,  was  born  in  Not- 
tingham, England.  He  was 
educated  at  Midland  Baptist  and 
University  Colleges,  Notting- 
ham, and  was  ordained  to  the 
Baptist  ministry  in  1886.  From 
1886  to  1907  he  held  pastorates 
at  Syston,  St.  Helena,  Earles- 
town,  and  Liverpool,  and  from 

Vol.  L— March  '27 


1893  to  1907  frequently  visited 
the  United  States  to  preach  and 
lecture.  In  1907  he  became 
pastor  of  the  Fifth  Avenue 
Baptist  Church,  New  York;  in 
1911-15  was  pastor  of  the  First 
Congregational  Church,  San 
Francisco;  in  1919-24  pastor  of 
the  First  Congregational  Church, 
Kansas  City,  Mo.  Since  1925 
he  has  held  charges  in  Los 
Angeles.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Passive  Resist- 
ance League,  organized  in  Eng- 
land to  oppose  the  clerical 
domination  of  common  schools, 
and  was  one  of  the  leading  oppo- 
nents of  the  Boer  War.  He  is  the 
author  of  numerous  religious 
works,  including:  Courage  of  the 
Coward  (1905);  Ministry  of  Rec- 
onciliation (1907);  Mercies  New 
Every  Morning  (1907);  Christo- 
centric  (1907);  Wells  and  Palm 
Trees  (1908);  Old  Events  and 
Modern  Meanings  (1908);  The 
Lord's  Prayer:  Its  Meaning  and 
Message  for  To-Day  (1910); 
Divine  Drama  of  Job  (1913). 

Akee,  a-ke'  (Blighia  sapida),  a 
fruit  tree  belonging  to  the  order 
Sapindaceae,  a  native  of  Guinea, 
introduced  into  Jamaica  toward 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
It  grows  to  the  height  of  twenty 
feet  or  more,  with  numerous 
branches  and  alternate  pinnate 
leaves,  similar  to  those  of  the  ash, 
and  small  white  flowers  on  axil- 
lary racemes.  The  red  fruit  is 
about  three  inches  long,  and  con- 
tains three  black  seeds  sur- 
rounded by  a  pale  pulpy  aril, 
which  is  cooked  and  eaten. 

Akel'dama.  See  Aceldama. 

Ake'ley,  Carl  Ethan  (1864- 
1926),  American  naturalist  and 
explorer,  was  born  in  Orleans 
county,  N.  Y.  He  was  educated 
at  the  State  Normal  School, 
Brockport,  N.  Y.,  and  for  a 
time  was  consulting  engineer  m 
the  Division  of  Investigation, 
Research  and  Development, 
U.  S.  Army,  and  special  assistant 
in  the  concrete  department  of  the 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation, 
for  which  he  invented  the  cement 
gun.  He  was  associated  with  the 
Field  Museum,  Chicago,  in  189.5- 
1909,  and  from  1909  until  his 
death  was  a  member  of  the  staff 
of  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  N.  Y.  While 
on  an  expedition  to  Uganda  to 
collect  specimens  for  the  Mu- 
seum, he  died  in  Kabale,  Nov. 
29,  1926. 

Beside  his  fame  as  a  hunter 
and  explorer  Akeley  was  known 
for  his  invention  of  the  Akeley 
camera,  designed  for  use  in 
natural  history  observations  and 
explorations,  and  for  his  sculp- 
tures, particularly  those  of  ele- 
phants. His  Chrysalis,  a  bronze 
study  symbolic  of  evolution, 
caused  considerable  controversy 
in  religious  and  artistic  circles. 
He  is  the  author  of  In  Brightest 
Africa  (1923). 


AKetn'pIs,  Thomas.  See 
Kempis. 

Aken,  a'ken,  or  Acken,  town, 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Saxony,  on  the  Elbe;  25  miles 
southeast  of  Magdeburg.  It  has 
engineering  and  shipbuilding 
works.     Pop.  10,000. 

Akene.    See  Achene. 

A'kenside,  Mark  (1721-70), 
English  physician  and  poet,  was 
born  in  Newcastle.  Obtaining 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Physic  at 
Leyden,  he  practised  in  North- 
ampton and  later  in  London;  but 
his  arrogance  repelled  his 
patients,  and  he  provoked  Smol- 
lett to  satirize  him  in  Peregrine 
Pickle.  His  most  important 
work.  The  Pleasures  of  Imagina- 
tion, was  published  in  1744. 
Other  works  include  Epistle  to 
Curio,  several  odes  and  hymns, 
and   various   medical  treatises. 

Akerman.    See  Akkerman. 

Akers,  a'kerz,  Benjamin  Paul 
(1825-61),  American  sculptor, 
was  born  in  Saccarappa,  Me.  He 
studied  in  Boston,  and  in  Flor- 
ence and  Rome,  where  in  1855  he 
opened  a  studio.  He  executed 
portrait  busts  of  Milton,  Long- 
fellow, Edward  Everett,  and  Sam 
Houston.  His  other  works  in- 
clude: Evening;  Morning;  Peace; 
Una  and  the  Lion;  The  Dead  Pearl 
Diver;  Pressing  Grapes;  Diana 
and  Endymion;  Benjamin  in 
Egypt;  St  Elizabeth  of  Hungary. 

Akershus,  ak'ers-hus,  or  Ag- 
GERSHUS,  fortress,  Norway,  in 
the  county  of  Akerhus,  on  a 
peninsula  south  of  Oslo  (q.v.). 

AkhaU  a'khal,  populous  oasis 
of  Transcaspia  (often  called 
Akhal-Tekke,  from  its  Tekke 
Turkoman  inhabitants),  near  the 
Atek  oasis,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Kopet  Dagh,  between  the  towns 
of  Kizil  Arvat  and  Luxtabad. 
Length  (with  Atek)  over  30 
miles. 

Akhaltsikta,  a-Kal-tseK',  or 
Akhalzikh,  town,  Republic  of 
Georgia,  near  the  Kura,  3,300 
feet  above  sea  level;  100  miles 
west  of  Tifiis.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
Greek  archbishop.  It  manufac- 
tures silver  ornaments  and  small 
arms  and  weapons.    Pop.  16,000. 

Ak-Hlssar,  ak-his-sar'  (an- 
cient Thyatira),  town,  Asia 
Minor;  50  miles  northeast  of 
Smyrna.  The  streets  are  paved 
with  sculptured  stones,  and  other 
relics  of  antiquity  abound.  It 
has  marble  quarries  and  cotton 
factories.    Pop.  12,000. 

Akhlat,  ilK-lat',  Ardish,  or 
Khelat,  town,  Armenia,  at  the 
western  end  of  Lake  Van.  It  was 
once  the  capital  of  the  Armenian 
kings,  and  is  now  the  see  of  an 
Armenian   bishop.    Pop.  5,000. 

Akhmlm,  iik-mem',  Akhmym, 
or  Ekhmim  (ancient  Khmin; 
Greek  Panopolis),  town.  Upper 
Egypt,  on  the  Nile;  85  miles 
southea.st  of  Assiut.  It  is  famous 
for  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
textiles.     Pop.  (1917)  20,023. 


Akhtlrka 


121 


Akmollnsk 


Akhtirka,  ak-ter'ka,  or  Akh- 
TYRKA,  town,  Ukraine  (for- 
merly Russia),  on  the  Akhtirka 
River,  70  miles  northwest  of 
Kharkov.  It  has  a  famous 
image  of  the  Holy  Virgin,  which 
is  visited  by  many  pilgrims. 
There  is  trade  in  cattle  and  grain, 
and  an  annual  fair  is  held  in 
May.  Fruit  is  produced  in  the 
vicinity.  The  town  was  founded 
by  the  Poles  in  1641.  Pop.  24,000. 

Akiba,  a-ke'ba,  or  Akibah, 
Ben  Joseph,  Jewish  rabbi  of  the 
second  century,  was  born  in 
Syria.  He  was  the  principal? 
teacher  in  a  school  at  Jaffa,  and 
was  executed  by  the  Romans  in 
135  A.D.  for  his  participation  in 
the  revolt  of  the  false  Messiah 
Bar-Cochba  (q.  v.).  He  is  be- 
lieved to  have  written  the, 
Mishna  of  Rabbi  Eliezer. 

A-Kikuyu._  See  Kikuyu. 

Akita,  a'ke-ta,  department, 
northern  part  of  Hondo,  Japan, 
containing  some  of  the  richest 
timber  land  in  the  country. 
Copper,  gold,  iron  pyrites,  as- 
phalt, silver,  and  petroleum  are 
found.  Agriculture,  forestry, 
stock  raising,  mining,  and  weav- 
ing are  the  chief  occupations. 
Area,  4,404  square  miles.  Pop, 
(1910)  862,000. 

Akita  (Kubota),  seaport,  chief 
town  of  Akita  department,  Ja- 
pan, on  the  Ou  Railroad,  between 
Tokyo  and  Aomori;  275  miles 
northeast  of  Tokyo.  Rice  is  the 
chief  export.  Spun  silk,  cloth, 
white  crepe,  and  silver  and  gold 
wares  are  extensively  made. 
Pop.  (1910)  38,000. 

Akka.    See  Acre. 

Akka,  ak'ka,  or  Akoa  (called 
Tikki-Tikki  by  their  Niam- 
Niam  neighbors) ,  a  dwarf  people 
of  Equatorial  Africa,  discovered 
by  Schweinfurth  in  1869.  They 
inhabit  the  region  between  1° 
and  2°  N.  lat.,  among  the  north 
affluents  of  the  River  "Welle. 
They  are  4  to  5  feet  in  height,  of 
brown  complexion  with  the  head 
disproportionately  large,  and 
very  prognathous;  facial  angle, 
60°-66°;  large  mouth;  woolly 
hair;  hirsute,  pot-bellied  body. 
They  live  in  amity  with  the  sur- 
rounding tall  races,  for  whom 
they  act  as  hunters,  being  very 
expert  with  spear  and  arrows. 
They  live  in  the  forest  under 
primitive  conditions,  without 
definite  organization;  but  several 
in  European  environment  have 
shown  remarkable  adaptability. 
See  Dwarfs.  Consult  Schwein- 
furth's  Heart  of  Africa;  Stanley's 
In  Darkest  Africa;  Quatrefages' 
Les  Pygmees  (English  trans.) 

Akkad  ak'ka  d  or  ak'kad 
(Accad)  ,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of 
the  land  of  Shinar  (Gen.  x.  10) 
or  ancient  Babylonia  shown  by 
recent  excavations  (1917-19)  to 
have  been  a  garden  city.  The 
name  is  used  also  of  an  ancient. 
Babylonian  dialect.  This  was  at 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '21 


first  thought  to  belong  to  the 
Ural-Altaic  family  of  speech;  but 
that  view  is  now  abandoned,  and 
all  that  can  be  stated,  with  any 
degree  of  certainty,  is  that  it  was 
an  early  form  of  agglutinative 
language,  and  was  strongly  influ- 
enced by  Semitic  speech.  See 
Babylonia. 

Akkerman  ak-ker-man'  (Ak- 


erman,  Akjerman-Bjelgorod, 
or  Akyerman)  ('white  water'), 
chief  town,  Bessarabia,  formerly 
Russia,  now  Roumania,  stands 
on  the  west  side  of  the  great  lake 
where  the  Dniester  joins  the 
Black  Sea;  about  30  miles  south- 
west of  Odessa.  The  town  has 
many  beautiful  gardens  and  vine- 
yards; there  are  dockyards  and 
salt  works,  and  manufactures  of 
shoes,  wines,  woollen  goods, 
tallow,  and  candles.  There  is  a 
good  harbor,  and  fishing  and 
carrying    trades    are  pursued. 


Akkerman  was  founded  by  the 
Venetians  on  the  site  of  ancient 
Tyras;  and  after  belonging  in 
turn  to  the  Genoese  and  the 
Turks,  became  Russian  in  1812. 
Pop.  30,000,  including  Jews, 
Armenians,  Greeks,  and  Russians. 

Akkra.     See  Accra. 

Akmolinsk,  ak-mo-lyensk' 
{Akmolinskaya  Oblast),  province. 


Siberia,  of  the  general  govern- 
ment of  the  Steppes,  east  of  the 
Sea  of  Aral.  The  northern  part 
is  sandy,  but  fertile  in  the  river 
valleys;  the  centre  has  good 
pasture  and  minerals;  the  south- 
ern part  ('Famine  Steppe')  is 
barren.  Corn,  tobacco,  and  mil- 
let are  gro\/n  in  the  north;  cop- 
per, gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  and 
coal  are  plentiful;  hides,  horn, 
and  salt  are  important  products. 
Industrial  establishments  include 
flour  and  oil  mills,  brick  works, 
tanneries,    soap,    tallow,  and 


Croup  of  Akka  (with  Zanzibaris  to  Show  Comparative  Size). 


Akmollnsk 


12^ 


Alabama 


candle  works,  and  distilleries. 
The  chief  town  is  Omsk.  Area, 
225,077  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1910)  1,047.300. 

Akmollnsk,  town,  province 
of  Akmolinsk,  Siberia,  on  the 
Ishim  River;  280  miles  south- 
west of  Omsk.  Founded  in 
1862,  it  is  an  import  nt  market, 
the  meeting  place  of  the  caravans 
passing  between  Siberia,  Tash- 
kend,  and  Bokhara.  Pop. 
(1910)  10,000. 

Akolmetoi.     See  Accemet^. 

Ako'la,  district,  comprising 
the  fertile  central  valley  of  Berar, 
India.  It  produces  cotton,  mil- 
let, wheat,  and  pulse.  Cotton 
ginning  is  the  chief  indiistry — 
cotton  being  exported  in  large 
quantities  to  Bombay.  The  dis- 
trict is  traversed  by  the  Nagpur 
branch  of  the  Great  Indian  Pen- 
insula Railroad.  Area  (since 
1905),  4,111  square  miles.  Pop. 
775,000. 

Akola,  municipal  town,  Berar, 
India,  on  the  River  Morna  and 
on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula 
Railroad;  53  miles  southwest  of 
Amraoti.  It  is  an  important 
centre  for  the  cotton  trade.  As- 
signed to  the  British  government 
by  the  Nizam,  it  is  now  the  head- 
quarters of  the  British  commis- 
sionership  of  West  Berar.  Pop. 
10,000. 

Akragas.    See  Agrigentum. 

Ak'ron,  city,  Ohio,  county 
seat  of  Simimit  county,  on  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Erie,  the  Bal- 
timore and  Ohio,  the  Northern 
Ohio,  and  the  Akron,  Canton, 
and  Youngstown  Railroads;  35 
miles  south  of  Cleveland.  It  is  a 
prosperous,  modern  city,  with 
fine  residences  and  substantial 
business  buildings,  and  has  22 
parks  and  squares  covering  an 
area  of  about  220  acres,  and 
including  four  playgrounds. 
There  are  144  miles  of  paved 
streets  and  260  miles  of  sewers. 
The  city  purchased  the  private 
water  works  plant  in  April,  1912, 
at  a  cost  of  $840,000.  Improve- 
ments made,  including  a  new 
reservoir,  better  filter  beds,  and 
necessary  extensions,  now  repre- 
sent an  investment  of  nearly 
$9,654,000.  The  University  of 
Akron,  formerly  known  as  Buch- 
tel  College,  is  owned  by  the  mu- 
nicipality, and  there  are  43  public 
and  parochial  schools. 

Akron  is  the  largest  rubber 
manufacturing  centre  in  the 
world,  its  20  rubber  factories  giv- 
ing employment  to  over  75,000 
persons  (1920).  It  also  contains 
the  largest  cereal  mills  and  the 
largest  factory  for  the  manu- 
facture of  fishing  tackle  in  Ameri- 
ca, and  some  of  the  largest 
sewer-pipe  plants.  Extensive 
clay  beds  occur  in  the  vicinity; 
and  a  deposit  of  salt,  just  south 
of  the  city,  is  being  developed. 
Two  large  publishing  houses  are 
also  located  here.  Other  articles 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '21 


of  manufacture  are  automobile 
trucks,  boilers,  furnaces,  flour, 
pottery,  machinery,  agricultural 
implements,  and  electrical  appa- 
ratus. In  1920  there  were  134 
industries  capitalized  at  over 
$333,000,000,  with  manufactured 
products  valued  at  more  than 
$640,000,000  and  an  industrial 
payroll  of  $145,000,000. 

The  municipal  government  is 
based  upon  a  charter,  recently 
amended  to  provide  for  ward 
councilmen,  under  whom  a  chief 
administrator  makes  all  appoint- 
ments and  carries  on  the  execu- 
tive functions  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  funded  indebtedness 
of  the  city,  Jan.  1,  1921,  was 
$5,134,210,  exclusive  of  the  water 
works,  of  which  the  funded  debt 
was  $9,654,000. 

Akron  was  settled  in  1807  and 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1865. 
Portage  Path,  an  Indian  trail 
between  the  Cuyahoga  and  Tus- 
carawas Rivers,  is  an  interest- 
ing bit  of  scenery.  Pop.  (1900) 
42,728;  (1910)  69,067;  (1920) 
208,435. 

Aksakov,  ak-sa'kof,  Ivan 
Sergeievitch  (1823-86),  Rus- 
sian poet  and  publicist,  son  of 
Sergei  Aksakov  (q.  v.),  was  born 
in  Moscow.  He  was  editor  of 
several  Panslavist  journals,  in- 
cluding the  Den  {The  Day; 
1861-5),  the  Moskva  (1867-8), 
the  Moskvich,  and  the  Rus 
(1880-6). 

Aksakov,  Sergei  Timofeie- 
VITCH  (1791-1859),  a  Russian 
writer,  was  born  in  Ufa.  He  oc- 
cupied many  public  offices  until 
1839,  after  which  he  devoted 
himself  to  literature  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  Family  History 
and  Recollections  (1856),  a  mas- 
terpiece of  Russian  literature; 
Memoirs  of  a  Hunter  (1855); 
Winter  Morning;  Netasha. 

Akshehr,  ak-she'h'r,  or  Ak- 
Sheher  (ancient  Philomelium) , 
city,  district  Karamania,  Asia 
Minor,  70  miles  northwest  of 
Konieh.  The  narrow,  ill-kept 
streets  are  bordered  by  mins  of 
mosques  and  other  buildings. 
Carpets  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
15,000.  _ 

Ak-su,  ak-soo'  ('  white  water ') , 
a  very  ancient  city  of  East  Turk- 
estan, formerly  called  Arpadil  or 
Ardabil,  on  the  Aksu  Daria 
River,  at  an  altitude  of  3,500 
feet.  It  is  on  the  South  Tian- 
Shan  route  from  China  to  Sam- 
arkand. By  the  Musart  Pass  it 
is  connected  with  Hi  or  Kuldja, 
and  by  a  caravan  route  with 
Khotan.  There  are  manvifac- 
tures  of  tobacco,  saddlery,  pot- 
tery, and  rude  hide  jars.  Mines 
of  lead,  copper,  and  sulphur  are 
found  in  the  district.  Pop. 
22,000. 

Akyab,  ak-yab',  district,  Ara- 
kan  division,  British  Burma. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  the  rainfall 
very  heavy,  reaching  over  190 


inches  some  years.  Large  areas 
are  devoted  to  the  cultivation 
of  rice.  Petroleum  is  obtained 
from  Boronga  Island.  The  chief 
industries  are  hand  weaving, 
metal  working,  and  rice  milling. 
Important  archaeological  remains 
have  been  found  at  Myohaung, 
the  ancient  capital.  Area,  5,136 
square  miles    Pop.  530,000. 

Akyab,  seaport,  chief  town  of 
Akyab  district  and  headquarters 
of  Arakan  division,  British  Bur- 
ma, at  the  mouth  of  the  Kaladan 
River;  190  miles  southeast  of 
Calcutta.  It  has  a  good  harbor, 
partly  protected  by  Boronga  and 
Savage  Islands.  Rice  is  the  chief 
article  of  export.    Pop.  38,000. 

Al,  or  El,  the  Arabic  definite 
article.  "When  it  comes  before 
words  beginning  with  dentals, 
sibilants,  and  liquids,  the  I  is 
assimilated  to  the  following  con- 
sonant: thus,  Abd-al-Rahman 
becomes  Abd-ar-Rahman.  When 
it  follows  a  word  ending  with  a 
vowel  the  a  is  elided,  as  in  Abu'l- 
Islam;  and  the  same  elision  oc- 
curs after  nouns  in  the  nomina- 
tive case  which  end  in  u,  as 
Abdu'l-Kadir,  Abdu'r-Rahman, 
Harunu'r-Rashid.  In  adjectival 
phrases  it  is  used  with  both  noun 
and  adjective  —  al-Khalafa'u-' 
r-Rashidun,  'the  orthodox 
Caliphs';  but  in  compound 
phrases  with  the  second  noun 
only — Amiru'l-Mu'minin,  'the 
Commander  of  the  Faithful.'  It 
is  seen  as  a  first  syllable  in  many 
English  words  derived  from 
Arabic,  as  alcohol,  alembic,  al- 
manac, alcoran,  alchemy,  al- 
gebra, Alhambra,  almagest,  etc. 
^*  Alabama,  al-a-ba'ma  (popu- 
larly called  the  'Cotton  State'), 
one  of  the  Gulf  States  of  the 
United  States,  is  situated  be- 
tween lat.  35°  and  30°  10'  N. 
and  long.  84°  53'  and  88°  30'  W. 
It  has  Tennessee  on  the  north, 
Georgia  on  the  east,  Mississippi 
on  the  west,  and  Florida  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  south. 
It  has  a  total  surface  of  51,998 
square  miles,  including  719  miles 
of  inland  waters. 

Topography. — The  Appalach- 
ian Mountains  extend  from 
Tennessee  and  Georgia  into  the 
northeastern  part  of  Alabama, 
and  terminate  near  the  central 
part  of  the  State.  They  comprise 
several  generally  parallel  uplifts 
— Raccoon  Mountains  and  their 
extension,  the  Sand  Mountains, 
and  the  Lookout  Mountains, 
With  an  elevation  of  1,600  feet 
at  the  Georgia  line,  they  exhibit 
long,  level  tops  until  near  the 
centre  of  the  State,  where  they 
break  into  foothills  and  ridges, 
among  which  are  large  deposits 
of  iron  and  coal.  The  Cumber- 
land plateau  extends  from  Ten- 
nessee across  the  northern  border 
of  Alabama  to  the  Tennessee 
River.  To  the  northwest  the 
ridges  are  interrupted  by  the  val- 


Alabama 


123 


Aiafoam^ 


ley  of  the  Tennessee  River;  while 
on  the  west  and  south  they  are 
succeeded  by  the  coastal  plain, 
a  broad  lowland  that  occupies  the 
southern  half  of  the  State.  The 
coastal  plain  has  a  gentle  slope 
toward  the  Gulf.  Nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  State  is  wooded, 
and  the  '  forest  belt '  on  the  lower 
coastal  plain  produces  large 
quantities  of  long-leaf  pine. 

Alabama  possesses  unusual  ad- 
vantages for  inland  navigation. 
The  principal  streams  are  the 
Tombigbee,  the  Alabama,  and 
the  Chattahoochee,  which  •  flow 
southward,  and  the  Tennessee, 
which  crosses  the  northern  part 
of  the  State  in  a  westerly  direc- 
tion, in  a  loop  of  200  miles  of 
navigable  water.  The  Tombigbee 
and  Alabama  unite  about  50 
miles  above  Mobile  to  form  the 
Mobile  River.  Navigation  is 
maintained  on  the  Tombigbee 
as  far  as  Columbus,  Miss,  (nearly 
400  miles),  and  on  the  Black 
Warrior,  its  largest  branch,  as 
far  as  Tuscaloosa  (upward  of 
100  miles).  The  Alabama  River 
is  navigable  by  light-draught 
boats  to  Montgomery  (nearly 
400  miles).  It  traverses  the 
richest  forest  and  farming  terri- 
tory of  the  State.  The  Chatta- 
hoochee forms  the  eastern  bound- 
ary of  the  State  for  a  distance 
of  165  miles,  and  is  navigable  as 
far  as  Columbus,  Ga.  The  coast 
line  is  short  and  contains  one 
good  harbor — Mobile  Bay,  an 
estuary  10  to  15  miles  wide  and 
25  miles  long.  The  channel  has 
been  deepened  by  Government 
works  to  30  feet  as  far  as  Mobile, 
the  only  seaport  of  Alabama. 

Climate. — The  uplands,  par- 
ticularly in  the  northeast,  are 
cool  and  healthful,  and  moder- 
ately constant  in  temperature, 
which  ranges  normally  from 
about  40°  in  January  to  83°  in 
July.  In  the  northern  parts  there 
are  occasional  light  snow  and 
hail  storms.  Thunder  storms 
occur  all  the  year  rotmd,  more 
frequently  in  the  summer.  The 
thermometer  rarely  records  95°, 
even  in  the  lowlands;  but  the 
continued  heat  of  the  summer  is 
somewhat  enervating.  In  the 
south,  winds  from  the  Gulf  re- 
lieve the  heat.  The  swampy  dis- 
tricts are  unhealthful  in  summer. 
The  rainfall,  which  occurs  mainly 
in  the  spring,  averages  54  inches 
in  the  north,  increased  to  63 
inches  in  the  south. 

Geology.  —  Extending  from 
Chilton  county,  in  the  centre  of 
the  State,  northeast  to  the 
Georgia  line,  there  is  a  belt 
of  metamorphic  rocks  covering 
about  5,000  square  miles.  The 
series  includes  crystalline  lime- 
stones, slates,  schists,  gneisses, 
and  some  that  are  of  igneous 
derivation ;  they  range  from  Pre- 
cambrian  to  Ordovician  in  age. 
The  metamorphic  belt  is  sur- 
VoL.  1. — March  '22 


rounded  by  Silurian  and  Car- 
boniferous strata,  chiefly  lime- 
stones, shales,  sandstones,  and 
conglomerates,  which  occupy  the 
remainder  of  the  Appalachian 
highland.  On  the  south  the 
coastal  plain  is  floored  by  loosely 
textured  Cretaceous  and  Ter- 
tiary deposits.  The  inner  portion 
of  the  plain  has  a  dark,  rich  soil 
well  adapted  for  cotton  raising, 
and  is  known  as  the  'black 
prairie.'  The  lower  and  outer 
portion  is  sandy,  and  constitutes 
the  'forest  belt.' 

Mining.  —  Alabama  ranks 
thirteenth  among  the  States  in 
the  value  of  its  mineral  products, 
with  a  total  value,  in  1919,  of 
$59,866,040,  an  increase  of  145.8 
per  cent,  over  1909;  34,632  per- 
sons (32,579  wage  earners)  were 
engaged  in  mining  industries. 
Alabama  ranks  third  among  the 
United  States  in  iron  production 
and  seventh  in  coal  production. 

Iron  ores  are  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  metallic  minerals 
found  in  the  State.  The  princi- 
pal deposits  are  hematite,  though 
brown  ore  is  also  worked.  Their 
value  is  enhanced  by  the  fact 
that  they  occur  in  proximity  to 
rich  coal  measures,  which  to- 
gether furnish  the  elements  for 
the  economical  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel.  Birmingham  is 
the  largest  centre  of  this  indus- 
try; and  Jefferson  county,  in 
which  that  city  is  situated,  is  the 
largest  producer  of  both  coal  and 
iron  ore.  Walker,  Bibb,  and 
Tuscaloosa  coanties  are  also 
important  producers  of  coal. 
Gold  has  been  mined  on  a  small 
scale  in  Randolph  county.  Baux- 
ite occurs  in  Cherokee  and  Cal- 
houn counties  and  graphite  in 
Clay  county.  In  building  stones 
and  clay  materials  the  State  is 
well  endowed. 

In  1919  the  value  of  the  prin- 
cipal mineral  products  was  as 
follows:  coal,  $45,359,441  (75.8 
per  cent,  of  the  total  value  of 
mineral  products) ;  iron  ore, 
$12,291,760;  limestone,  $1,340,- 
961;  graphite,  $337,425;  other 
mineral  products,  including  bar- 
ytes,  bauxite,  clay,  marble,  mica, 
mineral  pigments,  pyrite,  and 
sandstone,  $536,453. 

Agriculture  is  the  most  impor- 
tant industry  of  the  State. 
Farms  occupy  (1920)  59.7  per 
cent,  of  the  State  area  and  are 
valued,  with  farm  property,  at 
$690,848,720,  while  the  annual 
crop  yield  amounts  to  $304,348,- 
638  (1920).  While  the  number  of 
farms  decreased  2.6  per  cent,  in 
the  decade  1910-20,  the  value  of 
farm  land  increased  86.6  per 
cent.,  and  of  farm  buildings  79.4 
per  cent.  In  1920  the  total  farm 
area  was  19,576.856  acres,  of 
which  9,893,407  acres  were  im- 
proved. The  average  area  of 
each  farm  was  76.4  acres.  Prac- 
tically one-half  of  the  farms  com- 


prise less  than  50  acres.  Of 
Alabama  farmers,  62.8  per  cent, 
are  white  and  the  remainder  are 
chiefly  negroes. 

Cotton,  the  leading  crop,  is 
produced  throughout  the  State; 
but  the  greater  part  is  grown  in 
the  strip  extending  across  the 
south  central  portion,  known  as 
the  'Cotton  Belt.'  The  industry 
has  declined  in  amount  of  pro- 
duction since  1909  and  Alabama 
now  stands  eighth  in  the  list  of 
cotton-growing  States.  In  1919, 
2,628,154  acres  were  devoted  to 
this  crop,  and  718,163  bales, 
valued  at  $128,551,177,  were 
produced.  Estimates  for  1921 
place  the  yield  at  635,000  bales, 
valued  at  $50,654,000. 

According  to  the  Federal  Cen- 
sus for  1920,  the  acreage,  yield, 
and  value  of  the  other  principal 
crops  in  1919  were  as  follows: 
com,  3.334,204  acres,  43,699,100 
bushels,  $80,843,335;  hay  and 
forage.  705,279  acres,  542,557 
tons,  $13,938,036;  peanuts,  334,- 
239  acres,  6,288,594  bushels, 
$13,206,050;  sugar  cane,  25,302 
acres,  208,342  tons,  $4,228,902; 
sorghum,  52,406  acres,  172,029 
tons,  $2,550,769;  white  potatoes, 
13,397  acres,  886,450  bushels, 
$2,304,769;  dry  peas,  96,582 
acres,  486,126  bushels,  $1,750,- 
050;  oats,  85,398  acres,  1,120,- 
384  bushels,  $1,232,426. 

Stock  Raising. — Farm  animals 
are  being  raised  in  increasing 
numbers,  showing  a  value  in  1920 
of  $107,342,204 — an  increase  of 
$41,747,370  since  1910.  The 
number  of  cattle  reported  was 
1,044,008;  horses  and  colts, 
130.462;  mules  and  mule  colts, 
296,138;  swine,  1,496,893;  goats, 
104,148,  Sheep  have  decreased, 
only  81.868  being  reported  for 
the  State. 

Manufactures. — Alabama  pos- 
sesses unusual  advantages  for 
manufacturing.  The  mineral, 
agricultural,  and  lumber  re- 
sources are  extensive,  and  the 
large  number  of  small  streams, 
rapids,  and  waterfalls  afford  ex- 
cellent water  power.  The  excep- 
tionally rapid  growth  of  manu- 
facturing within  the  past  five 
years  has  been  principally  due  to 
exploitation  of  the  State's  forests 
and  coal  and  iron  deposits.  An- 
other aid  to  industry  is  the  fact 
that  in  Alabama,  as  in  other 
Southern  States,  the  cost  of  living 
is  moderate,  thus  allowing  for  a 
lower  wage  rate.  Child  labor 
above  the  age  of  fourteen  is  per- 
mitted, if  the  child  has  com- 
pleted the  fourth  grade  of  the 
common  school  course,  but  the 
employment  of  children  under 
sixteen  years  of  age  in  mines  and 
at  other  hazardous  occupations  is 
prohibited. 

In  1919  Alabama  had  3,654 
manufacturing  establishments, 
employing  120,889  persons  (107,- 
159  wage  earners),  and  expending 


Alabama 


123A 


Alabama 


$1 17,589,000  in  salaries  and 
wages.  These  establishments 
turned  out  products  valued  at 
$492,731,000,  to  produce  which 
materials  costing  $300,664,000 
were  utilized.  The  value  added 
by  manufacture  was  thus  $192,- 
067,000.  In  1914  the  value  of 
products  was  $178,798,000,  and 
the  value  added  by  manufacture, 
$71,387,000. 

The  principal  industries,  with 
the  value  of  their  products  in 
1919,  are  as  follows:  cotton 
goods,  $79,643,343;  iron  and 
steel,  steel  works  and  rolling 
mills,  $64,980,154;  iron  and  steel 
blast  furnaces,  $57,018,105;  lum- 
ber and  timber  products,  $55,- 
139,362;  oil,  cake,  and  cotton- 
seed, $31,714,872;  coke,  $24,- 
669,105;  railroad  shop  construc- 
tion and  repairs,  $21,233,516; 
iron,  steel,  and  cast-iron  pipe, 
$18,784,305;  steel-ship  building, 
$15,909,618;  fertilizers,  $11,624,- 
913;  foundry  and  machine-shop 
products,  $11,531,480. 

Railways. — The  total  railway 
mileage  on  Jan.  1,  1920,  was 
5,376.  The  principal  lines  are 
the  Southern,  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville,  the  Central  of  Georgia, 
the  Alabama  Great  Southern,  the 
Mobile  and  Ohio,  the  Alabama, 
Tennessee,  and  Northern,  Frisco 
System,  and  the  Tombigbee  Val- 
ley Railroads.  Birmingham  is 
the  most  important  railway 
centre. 

Commerce. — The  value  of  the 
trade  of  Mobile,  the  only  port  of 
Alabama,  in  1920  was  $88,075,- 
932,  of  which  $83,190,201  repre- 
sented exports  and  $4,885,731 
imports.  Cotton,  timber,  live 
stock,  hog  products,  and  bread- 
stuffs,  chiefly  wheat,  flour,  and 
corn,  are  exported. 

Finance. — The  chief  sources  of 
revenue  are  regular  State,  insur- 
ance, corporation,  and  poll  taxes, 
special  school  and  soldier  taxes, 
license  fees,  and  the  hire  of  con- 
victs. The  receipts  for  1920  were 
$11,658,296.34,  and  the  disburse- 
ments, $11,299,607.46.  The  cash 
balance  on  Oct.  1,  1920,  was 
$178,560.21.  The  total  bonded 
State  debt  on  Oct.  1,  1920, 
was  $9,057,000;  the  assessed 
valuation  of  all  taxable  property 
in  1920,  $912,628,446. 

Banks. — On  June  30,  1920,  the 
national  banks  in  Alabama  num- 
bered 102,  with  a  combined  cap- 
ital of  $12,295,000;  a  surplus  of 
$7,886,000;  a  circulation  of 
$9,702,000;  deposits  of  $100,- 
060,000;  loans  of  $91,207,000; 
and  total  assets  of  $154,364,000. 
The  State,  savings,  and  private 
banks  and  loan  and  trust  com- 
panies numbered  251,  with  a 
combined  capital  of  $11,842,000; 
a  surplus  of  $4,823,000;  deposits 
of  $102,565,000;  loans,  $95,080,- 
000 ;  and  aggregate  resources  and 
liabilities  of  $136,352,000. 

Population. — The  Federal  cen- 
VoL.  I. — March  '22 


sus  of  1920  showed  a  population 
of  2,348,174  (white,  1,447,032; 
colored,  900,652;  Indian,  405; 
Chinese,  59;  Japanese,  18). 
Males  numbered  1,173,105,  and 
females  1,175,069.  The  native- 
born  white  population  formed 
60.9  per  cent,  of  the  total;  the 
percentage  of  illiteracy  was  16.1. 
In  1890  the  population  was 
1,513,017;  in  1900,  1,828,697; 
in  1910.  2,138,903. 

In  1920  the  population  of  the 
principal  cities  was  as  follows: 
Birmingham,  178,806;  Mobile, 
60,777;  Montgomery,  the  capi- 
tal, 43,464.  There  are  seven 
other  cities — Bessemer,  Anniston, 
Selma,  Gadsden,  Tuscaloosa, 
Florence,  and  Dothan — having 
over  10,000  population,  and  43 
others  having  less  than  10,000. 
The  total  urban  population  in  the 
State  was  370,431  in  1910;  509,- 
317  in  1920. 

Education. — The  chief  execu- 
tive of  the  public-school  system 
is  the  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion, who  is  assisted  by  the  heads 
of  the  ten  divisions  which  make 
up  the  State  Department  of  Edu- 
cation. He  is  advised  by  a  State 
Board  of  Education  whose  mem- 
bers are  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor. In  1920  the  total  enroll- 
ment in  the  schools  of  the  State 
was  569,755,  of  whom  534,408 
were  in  the  elementary  schools; 
teachers  numbered  about  12,500. 
Of  the  total  enrollment,  401,397 
were  white  and  168,358  colored. 
The  expenditure  from  public 
funds  for  instruction  was  $9,751,- 
172;  about  $2,000,000  additional 
was  expended  from  local  contribu- 
tions. 

Although  the  educational  in- 
terests of  the  State  still  suffer 
from  lack  of  sufficient  revenue, 
the  State  levies  a  three-mill  tax 
and  guarantees  a  permanent 
school  fund.  Counties  may  also 
levy  a  one-mill  special  tax,  a 
three-mill  county  tax,  and,  fi- 
nally, a  three-mill  district  tax  for 
the  maintenance  of  schools. 
State  appropriations  are  made  to 
the  59  county  high  schools,  to 
the  10  State  secondary  agricul- 
tural schools,  to  four  Class  A 
normal  schools,  and  to  the  three 
State  colleges.  State  aid  is 
granted  for  the  construction  of 
rural  school  buildings,  in  accord- 
ance with  plans  furnished  by  the 
State  Department  of  Education. 

The  principal  institutions  for 
higher  learning  include  the  Uni- 
versity of  Alabama  (q.  v.),  at 
Tuscaloosa;  Alabama  Polytech- 
nic Institute  (q.  v.),  at  Auburn; 
Howard  College  (Bapt.),  at  East 
Lake;  Birmingham-Southern 
College  (M.  E.  South),  at  Birm- 
ingham; Saint  Bernard  College 
(R.  C),  at  Saint  Bernard;  Spring 
Hill  College  (R.  C),  at  Spring 
Hill;  four  Class  A  State  normal 
schools  located  at  Livingston, 
Jacksonville,  Troy,  and  Florence; 


one  Class  B  State  normal  school 
at  Daphne;  and  the  following 
colleges  for  women:  Judson  Col- 
lege (Bapt.),  at  Marion;  Athens 
College  (M.  E.  South);  at  Athens; 
Woman's  College  of  Alabama 
(M.  E.  South),  at  Montgomery; 
and  Alabama  Technical  Institute 
and  College  for  Women,  at 
Montevallo.  The  principal  in- 
stitutions for  cole  red  students 
are  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Indus- 
trial Institute  (q.  v.),  at  Tuske- 
gee, and  Birmingham  Baptist 
College,  at  Birmingham. 

Charities  and  Corrections. — 
The  State  charitable  and  penal 
institutions  include  the  hospitals 
for  the  insane  at  Tuscaloosa  and 
Mount  Vernon;  institutions  for 
the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind  at  Tal- 
ladega; Boys'  Industrial  School, 
at  East  Lake;  Home  for  Confed- 
erate Veterans,  at  Mountain 
Creek;  and  the  penitentiaries  at 
Wetumpka,  Speigner,  and  Mont- 
gomery. Convicts  are  employed 
on  State  farms,  and  many  are 
also  leased  to  contracting  firms. 

Government. -The  present  con- 
stitution went  into  effect  on  Nov. 
21,  1901.  According  to  its  provi- 
sions, all  persons  who  had  served 
in  the  armies  of  the  United  States 
or  the  Confederacy,  and  all  de- 
scendants of  such  persons  (the 
so-called  'Grandfather  Clause'), 
and  all  persons  of  good  character 
who  comprehended  the  require- 
ments for  citizenship,  might  reg- 
ister as  life  electors  before  Dec. 
20,  1902.  Additional  qualifica- 
tions were  provided  after  Jan.  1, 
1903,  including  the  ability  to  read 
and  write  any  article  of  the  Con- 
stitution, and  the  pursuit  of  some 
lawful  occupation  or  profession. 
The  ownership  of  a  certain 
amount  of  property  by  the  voter 
or  his  wife  is  acceptable  in  lieu  of 
the  other  requirements.  The 
usual  restrictions  as  to  residence 
in  the  State,  county,  and  precinct 
are  also  in  force.  By  these  re- 
quirements a  large  percentage  of 
the  negro  population  is  dis- 
franchised. 

The  executive  officers  include 
the  Governor,  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor, Secretary  of  State,  State 
Auditor,  State  Treasurer,  Super- 
intendent of  Education,  Attor- 
ney-General, and  Commissioner 
of  Agriculture  and  Industries. 
All  are  chosen  for  four  years,  and 
none  is  eligible  for  re-election. 
The  governor  may  veto  any  bill 
or  any  item  of  an  appropriation 
measure.  A  two-thirds  vote  of 
each  house  of  the  Legislature, 
however,  passes  a  bill  over  the 
governor's  veto.  The  lieutenant- 
governor  presides  over  the  State 
senate,  and  succeeds  to  the  gov- 
ernorship in  case  of  vacancy. 
The  secretary  of  state,  State  au- 
ditor, and  attorney-general  con- 
stitute the  Board  of  Pardons. 

The  Legislature  consists  of  a 
Senate  of  not  more  than  35  mem- 


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bers  and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  not  more  than  106  mem- 
bers. The  sessions  are  held 
quadrennially,  and  are  limited  to 
50  days.  Appropriation  bills 
must  originate  in  the  lower  house, 
and  none  may  be  passed  during 
the  last  five  days  of  the  session. 

The  Judiciary  consists  of  a 
Supreme  Court,  Appellate  Court, 
Circuit  Court,  and  County,  City 
and  Inferior  Courts.  A  Circuit 
Court  is  held  in  each  county  of 
the  State  at  least  twice  every 
year.  Judges  of  the  Supreme, 
Appellate,  Circuit,  and  Probate 
Courts  are  elected  for  a  term  of 
six  years.  Each  precinct  has  two 
justices  of  the  peace  and  one  con- 
stable. The  State  senate,  when 
sitting  as  a  court  of  impeach- 
ment, also  exercises  judicial 
functions. 

Under  the  Reapportionment 
Act  of  1911,  Alabama  has  10 
Representatives  in  the  National 
Congress.  Montgomery  is  the 
State  capital. 

Recent  Legislation. — In  1915 
Alabama  became  a  prohibition 
State  by  re-enacting  the  Prohibi- 
tion Act  which  had  been  repealed 
in  1911.  In  this  same  year  an 
equal  suffrage  measure  was  de- 
feated and  a  child  labor  law  was 
passed.  A  constitutional  amend- 
ment for  a  3-mill  local  school  tax 
and  one  to  place  savings  deposi- 
tors in  sound  banks  on  the-  same 
basis  as  open-account  depositors 
were  carried  in  1916.  A  work- 
men's compensation  act  and  a 
State  income  tax  measure  were 
passed  in  1 9 1 9 .  In  the  summer  of 
1920  a  special  session  of  the 
legislature  convened  and  made 
suitable  provision  for  the  en- 
franchisement of  Alabama 
women  in  accordance  with  the 
Federal  amendment.  A  consti- 
tutional amendment  authorizing 
the  State  to  issue  $25,000,000 
bonds  for  a  State  highway  sys- 
tem was  ratified  in  1920. 

History. — The  State  takes  its 
name  from  the  Alibamo  Indians, 
found  in  the  Gulf  country  by 
De  Soto  in  1540.  The  remnant  of 
De  Soto's  expedition  retired  to 
Mexico  in  1543,"  and  for  more 
than  a  century  this  territory  was 
not  visited  by  white  men.  In 
1682  the  Frenchman  La  Salle 
took  formal  possession  of  the 
country  in  the  name  of  his  sov- 
ereign, calling  it  Louisiana. 
Iberville  (q.  v.)  with  his  French 
colony  came  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  in  1699,  and  in  1702 
Fort  Louis,  on  the  Mobile  River, 
was  built.  In  1711  this  post  was 
moved  to  the  present  site  of  the 
city  of  Mobile,  and  was  for  some 
years  the  seat  of  government  of 
the  colony.  In  1721  Louisiana 
was  divided  into  nine  districts, 
two  of  which  received  the  names 
of  Mobile  and  Alabama. 

On  the  breaking  otit  of  the  war 
between  the  French  and  English, 
Vol.  I. — March  '22 


in  1752,  the  Creek  and  Chicka- 
saw Indians  of  this  region  be- 
came allies  of  the  English.  The 
French  lost  post  after  post;  and 
finally,  in  1763,  all  of  Louisiana 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River 
passed  to  the  English — the  north- 
ern half  being  part  of  Illinois,  the 
southern  (below  32°  30')  being 
assigned  to  West  Florida. 

In  1779  the  southern  half  of 
Alabama  was  seized  by  Spain, 
but  the  greater  part  of  it  was 
relinquished  to  the  United  States 
in  1795.  Alabama  and  Missis- 
sippi were  at  that  time  regarded 
as  part  of  Georgia;  but  in  1798 
the  Territory-  of  Mississippi  was 
created,  and  made  to  include  a 
part  of  what  is  now  Alabama.  In 
1804  the  Territory  was  extended 
northward  to  the  Tennessee  line. 

The  breaking  out  of  the  War  of 
1812  (q.  V.)  gave  the  Lower 
Creeks  encouragement  to  rise 
against  the  Americans,  and  in 
August,  1813,  they  attacked 
Fort  Mims  (q.  v.),  on  the 
Alabama  and  massacred  about 
500  settlers  who  had  taken 
refuge  there.  Severe  punish- 
ment was  meted  out  to  them  by 
General   Jackson   at  Talladega 

(1813)  and    Horseshoe  Bend 

(1814)  . 

In  1817  the  Territory  of  Ala- 
bama was  formed  of  part  of  the 
Territory  of  Mississippi.  Cahaba 
was  selected  as  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment, and  while  the  capital 
was  being  built  Huntsville  was 
inade  the  temporary  capital.  A 
convention  assembled  here  in 
July,  1819,  which  drew,  up  a  con- 
stitution, and  Alabama  was  ad- 
mitted to  statehood  on  Dec.  19 
of  the  same  year.  In  1826  the 
capital  was  removed  from  Cahaba 
to  Tuscaloosa. 

In  1830  the  Choctaws,  and  in 
1832  the  Creeks,  ceded  their 
lands  to  the  United  States,  and 
removed  to  reservations  in  the 
West.  The  Cherokees  followed 
in  1835,  leaving  the  State  free 
from  further  apprehension  of 
Indian  outrages. 

After  a  period  of  notable  pros- 
perity the  State  banking  system 
fell  into  unworthy  hands,  and  in 
1841  it  was  necessary  to  over- 
throw it.  The  State  assumed  the 
indebtedness  of  the  banks,  and 
for  a  time  barely  escaped  finan- 
cial ruin.  An  attempt  to  manip- 
ulate the  State  government  in 
the  interests  of  the  banks'  debt- 
ors was  frustrated  in  1845  by  a 
political  uprising  of  the  people. 
In  1847  the  capital  was  removed 
to  Montgomery, 

On  Jan.  11,  1861,  Alabama 
passed  the  secession  ordinance, 
and  on  Feb.  4  the  Provisional 
Congress  of  the  seceded  States 
met  at  Montgomery.  Selma  be- 
came the  seat  of  an  arsenal  and 
navy  yard.  In  1862  Federal 
troops  took  possession  of  the 
Tennessee  Valley,  and  on  Aug.  5, 


1864,  a  Federal  fleet,  under  Ad- 
miral Farragut,  ran  past  Forts 
Morgan  and  Gaines,  which  de- 
fended Mobile  Bay,  and  destroyed 
the  Confederate  fleet.  The  forts, 
surrounded  by  a  land  force,  sur- 
rendered. (See  Civil  War.)  In 
1865  the  State  fell  into  Federal 
hands,  and  remained  under  mili- 
tary control  until  July  14,  1868, 
when  a  new  constitution  was 
adopted. 

During  the  period  of  Recon- 
struction much  disorder  arose 
from  corrupt  government  and 
violent  party  politics.  The  plan- 
tations had  suffered  during  the 
war  and  the  industrial  spirit  was 
low;  but  when  the  public  debt 
was  set  on  a  sound  footing  (1876), 
and  Northern  capital  began  to 
develop  the  mining  resources, 
there  was  a  revival  of  prosperity. 
A  new  constitution  was  adopted 
in  1875,  which  was  superseded 
by  another  in  1901. 

In  the  Great  War  (q.  v.)  Ala- 
bama was  the  scene  of  much  in- 
dustrial activity.  A  large  ship- 
building plant  was  established  at 
Mobile  and  a  Federal  nitrate 
plant  at  Muscle  Shoals  on  the 
Tennessee  River,  the  first  atmos- 
pheric nitrogen  being  produced 
in  October,  1918.  Floods  in  De- 
cember, 1919,  did  serious  damage 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  State. 
A  serious  coal  miners'  strike  oc- 
curred in  1920.  It  was  accom- 
panied by  much  violence  and  the 
State  National  Guard  was  called 
out  to  preserve  order. 

In  national  politics  the  State 
has  been  uniforrnly  Democratic 
since  1874. 

Bibliography.  —  Consult  His- 
tories by  Brown,  Pickett,  and 
Brewer;  Fleming's  Civil  War  and 
Reconstruction  in  Alabama; 
McBain's  How  We  Are  Governed 
in  Alabama;  Du  Bose's  Alabama 
History;  Owen's  History  of  Ala- 
bama and  Dictionary  of  Alabama 
Biography  (1921). 

Alabama,  The,  a  celebrated 
Confederate  cruiser  during  the 
American  Civil  War.  She  was 
originally  known  as  'No.  290' 
(her  number  in  the  yard  of  the 
builders,  Messrs.  Laird  of  Birken- 
head), and  was  a  wooden,  bark- 
entine-rigged  screw  steamer  of 
1,040  tons,  with  a  speed  under 
steam  of  about  eleven  knots.  On 
July  29,  1862,  the  vessel,  under 
pretext  of  making  a  trial  trip, 
slipped  out  to  sea.  She  made  for 
the  Azores;  was  met  there  by  two 
other  vessels  bringing  armament; 
and  on  Aug.  24  was  commis- 
sioned by  Captain  Semmes,  of 
the  Confederate  navy,  as  the 
Alabama.  Cruising  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  Azores,  she  had 
by  Sept.  14  captured  ten  U.  S. 
ships,  all  of  which  were  de- 
stroyed. After  making  several 
other  captures  between  the  Banks 
of  Newfoundland  and  Marti- 
nique, the  Alabama  next  pro- 


Alabama 


125 


Alacoque 


ceeded  to  Galveston,  then  block- 
aded by  Federal  vessels,  one  of 
which  (the  Hatteras)  she  suc- 
ceeded in  drawing  off  and  de- 
stroying. Thereafter  she  sailed 
for  Cape  San  Roque,  where  she 
captured  many  valuable  prizes. 

The  Federal  Government  now 
took  more  adequate  measures  for 
hunting  her  down.  Semmes  made 
for  Cape  Town,  coaled  there,  and 
went  on  to  the  Strait  of  Sunda, 
where  he  took  several  prizes. 
Being  hampered,  however,  by 
the  presence  of  the  Federal  ves- 
sel Wyoming,  he  sailed  for  the 
Cape  at  the  end  of  1863,  and  ar- 
rived at  Cherbourg  in  June,  1864. 
The  Unitea  States  warship 
Kearsarge  (Captain  Winslow) , 
then  off  Flushing,  promptly  set 
off  for  Cherbourg,  and  awaited 
her  outside  the  territorial  limit. 
In  response  to  a  challenge,  the 
Alabama,  on  Sunday,  June  19, 
steamed  out  of  the  harbor;  and 
after  a  close  engagement,  lasting 
about  an  hour,  was  found  to  be 
sinking,  and  surrendered. 

During  her  short  existence,  the 
Alabama  captured  one  steamer 
and  no  less  than  67  sailing  ves- 
sels. In  addition  to  this  direct 
injury,  the  Alabama  and  several 
other  commerce  destroyers  para- 
lyzed the  American  shipping 
trade,  and  caused  the  transfer  of 
348  ships,  aggregating  more  than 
250,000  tons,  in  one  year  alone 
to  the  British  flag. 

For  the  damage  done  by  the 
Alabama  and  several  other  cruis- 
ers, claims  were  made  by  the 
United  States  against  the  British 
government  for  breach  of  neu- 
trality, on  the  ground  that  Brit- 
ain had  'failed  to  use  due  dili- 
gence ' ;  that  after  the  escape  of 
the  vessel  the  measures  taken  for 
pursuit  and  arrest  led  to  no  re- 
sult; and  that  the  Alabama  had 
been  admitted  into  the  ports  of 
Great  Britain's  colonies.  A  joint 
high  commission,  meeting  in 
Washington,  drew  up  an  agree- 
ment, known  when  ratified  as- 
the  Treaty  of  Washington  (1871), 
by  the  terms  of  which  the  Ala- 
bama Claims  (as  they  were  gen- 
erally called)  were  submitted  to 
an  international  tribunal,  which 
sat  in  Geneva  during  1871—2. 
Under  the  treaty  Great  Britain 
agreed  to  have  the  tribunal  apply 
to  her  conduct  during  the  Civil 
War  certain  rules  embodied  in 
the  treaty,  enjoining  upon  neu- 
tral nations  the  duty  of  diligence 
to  prevent  the  use  of  their  ports 
for  the  fitting  out  of  war  vessels, 
or  for  the  renewal  of  military 
supplies,  or  for  recruitment  of 
men. 

The  court,  presided  over  by 
Count  Federigo  Schlopis  of  Italy, 
was  made  up  of  one  representa- 
tive each  from  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  Italy,  Switzer- 
land, and  Brazil  (Charles  Francis 
Adams  representing  the  United 

Vol.  I.— March  '22 


States,  and  Sir  Alexander  Cock- 
burn  Great  Britain).  In  addi- 
tion, both  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  were  represented 
by  counsel,  the  former  chiefly  by 
Sir  Roundell  Palmer,  and  the  lat- 
ter by  W.  M.  Evarts,  Caleb 
Cushing,  and  Morrison  R.  Waite. 

A  dispute  over  the  indirect 
claims,  which  were  thought  by 
Great  Britain  to  have  been 
dropped,  threatened  to  nullify 
the  treaty;  but  the  danger  was 
averted  through  the  acceptance 
by  both  nations  of  the  tribunal's 
preliminary  decision  that  such 
claims,  being  too  general  to  ad- 
mit of  flnancial  compensation, 
were  not  arbitrable.  The  arbi- 
trators upheld  the  claims  for 
damage  done  by  the  Alabama 
and  the  Florida  and  their  tend- 
ers, and  by  the  Shenandoah  after 
she  had  received  reinforcements 
at  Melbourne.  fThe  award  (signed 
Sept.  14,  1872)  fixed  the  indem- 
nity at  $15,500,000. 

Consult  Semmes'  Service  Afloat; 
Haywood's  Cruise  of  the  'Ala- 
bama'; Admiral  Porter's  Naval 
History  of  the  Civil  War;  Scharf's 
History  of  the  Confederate  States 
Navy;  Balch's  Alabama  Arbitra- 
tion; Hackett's  Reminiscences  of 
the  Geneva  Tribunal  (1911). 

Alabama  City,  town,  Etowah 
county,  Alabama,  on  the  Ala- 
bama Great  .Southern,  Louis- 
ville and  Nashville,  Nashville, 
Chattanooga,  and  St.  Louis,  and 
Southern  Railroads;  57  miles 
northeast  of  Birmingham.  Cot- 
ton manufacture  is  the  most  im- 
portant industry.  Pop.  (1910) 
4,313;    (1920)  5,  432. 

Alabama  Claims.  See  Ala- 
bama, The. 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute, a  co-educational  State  in- 
stitution of  collegiate  grade 
founded  at  Auburn,  Ala.,  in  1872, 
under  Federal  auspices.  It  gives 
instruction  in  agriculture,  general 
science,  chemistry,  home  eco- 
nomics, engineering,  architec- 
ture, pharmacy,  and  veterinary 
medicine.  For  recent  statistics 
see  Table  of  American  Colleges 
and  Universities  under  the  head- 
ing College. 

Alabama  River,  river  of  the 
eastern  United  States,  flowing 
through  the  States  of  Alabama 
and  Georgia.  It  rises  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  latter  State 
in  two  main  branches,  Coosa  and 
Tallapoosa,  which  join  about  10 
miles  north  of  Montgomery,  Ala. 
Its  general  course  is  west,  then 
southwest  to  its  junction  with  the 
»  Tombigbee,  to  form  the  Mobile. 
It  is  320  miles  long,  and  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  six  feet 
draught  as  far  as  Claiborne,  60 
miles  above  its  junction  with  the 
Tombigbee. 

Alabama,  University  of,  a  co- 
educational institution  at  Tus- 
caloosa, Ala.,  forming  part  of  the 
public   school    system    of  the 


State.  It  was  established  in  1820 
on  the  basis  of  a  Congressional 
land  grant  in  1619,  supplemented 
by  a  further  grant  in  1884.  The 
university  comprises  a  Depart- 
ment of  Academic  Instruction, 
with  undergraduate  and  graduate 
departments,  and  a  Department 
of  Professional  Instruction,  with 
schools  of  engineering,  mines, 
law,  education,  medicine,  and 
commerce  and  business  adminis- 
tration. In  1906  a  movement  for 
a  Greater  University  resulted  in 
an  appropriation  with  which 
three  new  buildihgs  have  been 
erected — -Comer  Hall  (engineer- 
ing). Smith  Hall  (geology  and 
biology),  and  Morgan  Hall  (arts 
and  sciences).  For  recent  statis- 
tics, see  Table  of  American  Col- 
leges and  Universities  under  the 
heading  College. 

Al'abaster,  the  name  given  to 
two  minerals,  similar  in  appear- 
ance but  quite  different  in 
composition. 

True  alabaster  is  a  form  of 
gypsum  (q.  v.),  hydrous  calcium 
sulphate,  CaS042H20.  It  is  a 
fine-grained  structure,  pure  white 
or  delicately  tinted,  resembling 
marble  in  appearance,  but  much 
softer.  It  is  quarried  in  Italy, 
England,  France,  and,  to  a  lesser 
extent,  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  It  is  largely  used  in 
sculpture  and  also  as  a  decora- 
tive building  stone.  In  Pisa, 
Italy,  it  has  been  extensively  em- 
ployed as  a  substitute  for  the 
famous  Carrara  marble. 

'Oriental  alabaster,'  known 
also  as  '  onyx  marble,'  is  a  variety 
of  marble,  a  carbonate  of  lime 
which  has  been  deposited  through 
the  action  of  springs,  or  in  caves 
as  stalactites  or  stalagmites.  It  is 
harder  than  true  alabaster  and  is 
often  banded,  translucent,  and  of 
colors  suitable  for  decorative 
purposes.  It  is  found  in  Egypt, 
Algeria,  Persia,  Italy,  and  Mex- 
ico. In  ancient  Egypt  and  Rome 
it  was  used  for  building  purposes, 
sarcophagi  and  statues.  To-day 
it  is  employed  for  stairways, 
mantels,  fireplaces,  etc.  Consult 
Renwick's  Marble  and  Marble 
Working;  Kraus  and  Hunt's 
Mineralogy  (1920);  Crook's  Eco- 
nomic Mineralogy  (1921). 

Alabat,  a-la-bat',  island,  Phil- 
ippines, across  the  mouth  of 
Lamon  Bay,  north  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Tayabas,  Luzon;  length 
15  miles,  width  5  3^  miles.  It  is 
mountainous  and  well  wooded 
with  valuable  timber,  and  has 
good  anchorage.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  Tagalogs. 

Alacoque,  a-1  a-kok' ,  Mar- 
guerite Marie  (1647-90),  a 
nun  and  religious  enthusiast,  was 
born  in  Lauthecour,  France,  and 
took  the  veil  in  the  convent  of  the 
Order  of  the  Visitation  in  Paray- 
le-Monial.  She  was  the  founder 
of  the  devotion  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  and  wrote  several  works 


Alacranes 


126 


Alamo 


on  religious  subjects.  She  was 
beatified  in  1846.  Consult  Lives 
by  Barry,  Tickell,  and  Bougaud. 

Alacranes, a-la-kra'nas,  a 
group  of  small  islands  in  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  from  75  to  90  miles 
north  of  Yucatan  (c.  lat.  22°  24' 
N.;  long.  89°  42'  w.).  There  is  a 
dangerous  reef  15  miles  long  and 
12  miles  wide;  but  there  is  a  safe 
harbor  on  the  south  side  of  the 
group. 

Ala-dagh.    See  Taurus. 

Alad'din,  the  name  of  the  hero 
of  the  'Arabian  Nights'  tale  en- 
titled Aladdin  or  The  Wonderful 
Lamp.  Aladdin,  a  poor  boy  in 
China,  becomes  the  owner  of  a 
magical  lamp  and  ring  which  en- 
able him  to  obtain  possession  of 
anything  he  wishes  through  the 
agency  of  the  powerful  djinns, 
the  'slaves  of  the  lamp  and  the 
ring.'  He  amasses  great  wealth, 
wins  a  princess  for  his  bride,  and 
finally  rules  with  her  as  Sultan. 

Alaghez,a-la-gez',  ALAGHoz.or 
Ali-Ghez,  a  range  of  mountains, 
Transcaucasia,  Russia,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  district  of 
Erivan;  extending  from  west  to 
east.  Alaghez  (13,436  ft.),  the 
highest  point,  is  an  extinct  vol- 
cano. 

Alagoas,  a'la-go'ash  ('lakes'), 
state,  Brazil,  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  lying  between  Pernambuco 
and  Sergipe;  area  22,577  square 
miles.  The  climate  in  the  low 
coast  lands  is  hot  and  damp,  but 
in  the  interior  is  healthful.  The 
soil  is  generally  fertile.  The  inte- 
rior is  mountainous,  and  contains 
iron  and  other  minerals,  which 
are  little  worked.  The  woods 
yield  Brazil  wood,  copaiba  bal- 
sam, and  timber.  Of  the  numer- 
ous lakes,  the  largest  are  Mun- 
dahii  in  the  north  and  Manguaba 
in  the  south.  The  principal  river 
is  the  Sao  Francisco  (q.  v.),  which 
forms  the  boundary  between  Ala- 
goas  and  Sergipe  and  is  famous 
for  its  falls  and  rapids.  Sugar, 
cotton,  and  tobacco  are  the  chief 
crops  and  furnish  the  material  for 
a  few  factories.  The  state  rail- 
roads, controlled  by  the  Great 
Western  of  Brazil,  connect  with 
Pernambuco,  Parahyba,  and 
Natal.  The  capital  and  chief 
port  is  Maceio  (q.  v.).  Alagoas 
is  second  only  to  Rio  Janeiro 
state  in  density  of  population. 
Pop.  (1920)  990,278. 

Alal  Mountains,  a-li'  {Alai 
Tagh),  the  southwest  branch  of 
the  Tian-Shan  (q.  v.),  in  40°  N. 
lat.,  which  spreads  out  like  a  fan 
as  it  drops  toward  the  lowlands  of 
Russian  Turkestan.  This  range 
has  two  parallel  lines,  Alai  proper 
and  Trans-Alai,  on  the  north  and 
south  sides  of  the  Alai  River 
(tributary  of  the  Vaksh,  a  main 
branch  of  the  Upper  Oxus  or 
Amu  Daria).  They  stretch  for 
about  250  miles  along  the  north- 
ern edge  of  the  Pamir,  with  an 
average  elevation  of  15,000  to 
Vol.  I. — March  '22 


18,000  feet  in  the  east.  Peak 

Kaufmann  reaches  25,000  feet. 

Alais,  a-la'  (ancient  Alestum), 
town,  department  of  Gard, 
France,  on  the  Gardon  d'Alais, 
where  it  issues  from  the  Cevennes 
into  the  plain;  12  miles  north- 
west of  Nimes.  It  gives  its  name 
to  a  coal  basin,  including  Bes- 
seges  and  La  Grande  Combe, 
producing  yearly  between  two 
and  three  million  tons  of  coal. 
It  is  an  important  centre  for  the 
silk  trade,  and  glass,  bricks,  tiles, 
and  cloth  are  manufactured.  A 
treaty  was  concluded  here  in 
1629,  which  ended  the  Huguenot 
wars  in  France.    Pop.  25,000. 

Alajuela,  a-la-hwa'la,  chief 
town  of  province  Alajuela  (pop. 
110,254),  Costa  Rica,  on  both 
banks  of  the  Las  Ciruelas  River; 
14  miles  by  rail  north  of  San  Jos6. 
The  two  parts  of  the  city  are  con- 
nected by  a  bridge,  completed  in 
1911.  The  town  has  a  national 
institute,  a  cathedral,  and  an  in- 
dustrial school.  There  is  a  large 
trade  in  sugar  cane  and  tobacco. 
Pop.  (1920)  9.177._ 

Ala-Kul,  a-la-kool',  lake  in  the 
province  of  Semiryechensk,  Rus- 
sian Central  Asia,  in  46°  N.  lat. 
and  82°  E.  long.;  120  miles  east 
of  Lake  Balkhash.  It  is  about  827 
feet  above  sea  level  and  is  nearly 
40  miles  long  and  23  miles  wide. 
A  smaller  lake,  lying  just  north- 
west and  separated  from  it  by 
marshes,  is  sometimes  called  by 
the  same  name,  but  is  more  cor- 
rectly known  as  Sassyk-kul. 

Alaman,  a-la-man',  Lucas 
(1792-1853),  Mexican  statesman 
and  historian,  author  of  Diserta- 
ciones  sobre  la  Hisloria  Mejicana 
(1844-49)  and  Historia  de  Mejico 
(1849-52),  both  works  of  high  au- 
thority. He  represented  the  col- 
ony in  the  Spanish  Cortes  until 
1823,  when  he  returned  to  Mex- 
ico, and  was  successively  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior  and  Foreign 
Minister. 

Alamanni,  a-la-man'ne,  LuiGi 
(1495-1556),  Italian  poet,  was 
born  in  Florence.  Detected  in  a 
conspiracy  against  Cardinal  Giu- 
lio  de  Medici,  he  escaped  to  Ven- 
ice, and  thence  to  France  (1522), 
where  he  enjoyed  the  favor  of 
Francis  i.,  and  later  of  Henry  ii., 
by  both  of  whom  he  was  sent  on 
important  embassies.  His  life 
thereafter  was  spent  in  France, 
where  most  of  his  poems  were 
written.  Among  his  works  were 
La  CoUivazione  (1546),  a  didactic 
poem  on  agriculture  (his  principal 
work,  and  one  of  the  best  of  its 
kind  in  Italian  literature) ;  Girone 
il  Cortese  (1548),  an  epic;  L' Avar- 
chide  (1570);  collections  of 
shorter  poems,  Opere  Toscane 
(1532)  and  Epigrammi  Toscani 
(1570);  Flora,  a.  drama..  Consult 
Raffaelli's  Life. 

Alamans.    See  Ai.emanni. 

Alameda,  city,  Alameda 
county,  California,  on  San  Fran- 


cisco Bay  and  on  the  western 

division  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad;  6  miles  east  of  San 
Francisco,  with  which  it  has 
ferry  connection.  The  College  of 
Notre  Dame  is  situated  here,  and 
the  city  has  a  number  of  public 
parks  and  playgrounds,  an  ex- 
cellent school  system,  and  many 
fine  residences.  It  is  especially 
popular  for  its  beaches  and 
bathing.  While  the  city  is 
largely  residential,  manufactur- 
ing is  of  importance.  The  num- 
ber of  establishments  in  1919 
reached  51,  engaging  7,142 
persons,  and  turning  out  prod- 
ucts to  the  value  of  $25,440,000, 
the  last  figure  representing  an 
813  per  cent,  increase  over  1914. 
Industrial  plants  include  oil  re- 
fineries, packing  plants,  potteries, 
and  manufactures  of  borax, 
aeroplanes,  motors,  ptimps,  and 
engines.  Pop.  (1910)  23,383; 
(1920)  28,806. 

Alamo,  a'la-mo.  The,  a  build- 
ing or  group  of  buildings,  within 
the  limits  of  San  Antonio,  Texas, 
of  historical  interest  because  of 
its  stubborn  though  unsuccessful 
defence  by  Texans  against  a 
vastly  superior  force  of  Mexicans 
under  Santa  Anna  in  1836,  dur- 
ing the  Texan  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence. The  buildings  were 
originally  those  of  the  Franciscan 
Mission  San  Antonio  de  Valero, 
erected  about  1718.  They  in- 
cluded a  church,  convent,  hos- 
pital, and  plaza  surrounded  by  a 
stone  wall  ten  feet  in  height. 

The  Alamo  was  occupied  by 
"the  Texans  during  the  struggle 
with  Mexico  in  1835—6,  and  here 
in  February,  1836,  occurred  the 
conflict  which  made  its  name 
famous.  The  garrison  consisted 
of  about  140  men  (later  rein- 
forced by  32  others  who  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  the  fort)  un- 
der the  command  of  Lieut. -Col. 
William  B.  Travis  (q.  v.),  with 
James  Bowie,  David  Crockett 
(q.  v.),  and  James  Butler  Bon- 
ham  lending  valiant  aid.  The 
siege  lasted  from  Feb.  23  to 
March  6,  when  the  Mexicans 
finally  gained  entrance.  A  hand- 
to-hand  encounter  took  place  and 
only  six  Texans  were  left  alive. 
These  six,  the  same  day,  were 
treacherously  cut  to  pieces  in 
cold  blood.  The  Mexican  forces 
numbered  about  4,000,  of  whom 
about  500  were  probably  killed 
or  fatally  wounded . 

While  the  defence  of  the  Alamo 
seemed  in  one  sense  a  useless  sac- 
rifice of  life,  the  heroism  and 
bravery  of  the  garrison  proved 
such  an  inspiration  to  the  Texans 
that  later,  with  the  rallying  cry 
'  Remember  the  Alamo, '  they 
brought  defeat  to  the  Mexicans 
at  San  Jacinto. 

See  Texas.  Consult  Ford's 
Origin  and  Fall  of  the  Alamo;  De 
Zavala's  History  and  Legends 
of  the  Alamo  (1917). 


Alamos 


127 


Alashehr 


Alamos  ('poplar  trees'),  min- 
ing town,  Sonora,  Mexico,  at  the 
northern  end  of  Sierra  de  Ala- 
mos. The  city  is  about  200  years 
old,  and  the  mines  of  the  vicinity 
(gold,  silver,  and  lead)  were  fa- 
mous in  Spanish  days.  The  ex- 
ports to  the  United  States 
amounted  in  1910  to  $153,675 — 
chiefly  silver,  gold,  and  ore,  and 
cyanide  precipitates.  Pop.  about 
10,000. 

Alamosa,  town,  Conejos 
county,  Colorado,  7,545  feet 
above  sea  level,  on  the  Rio 
Grande  River  and  on  the  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande  Railroad;  100 
miles  southwest  of  Pueblo.  Gold 
and  silver  are  mined  in  the  neigh- 
borhood.   Pop.  (1910)  3,013. 

Aland  Islands  (300,  of  which 
80  are  inhabited),  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  govern- 
ment Abo-Bjorneborg,  Finland, 
Russia;  separated  from  Finland 
by  the  Skiftet  Canal  and  from 
Sweden  by  Aland  Bay  (25  miles 
wide).  The  chief  occupations 
are  hunting,  fishing,  and  agri- 
culture. The  strategic  position 
of  the  islands  constitutes  their 
chief  value.  The  capital  is 
Mariehamn.  They  were  Swedish 
until  1809,  when  they  were  ceded 
to  Russia  by  the  Treaty  of  Fred- 
erikshamn.  After  the  Crimean 
War,  Russia  was  a  party  to  an 
international  convention  which 
forbade  the  maintenance  of  any 
military  or  naval  establishment 
on  the  islands.  Pop.  (est.  1910) 
25,000,  largely  Swedish. 

Alans,  Alani,  a  Sarmatian 
people  who  inhabited  the  steppes 
north  of  the  Caucasus  Moun- 
tains and  the  Black  Sea  during 
the  first  three  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era.  A  large  section 
of  them  were  subdued  and  incor- 
porated by  the  Huns  in  370. 
Subsequently  they  settled  in 
Pannonia,  Lusitania  (411),  and 
Africa  (429). 

Alarcon,  Hernando  de, 
Spanish  navigator,  sailed  from 
Acapulco  in  1540,  and  disproved 
the  idea  that  California  was  an 
island.  He  was  the  first  Euro- 
pean to  explore  the  Colorado 
River,  the  lower  course  of  which, 
with  the  Gulf  of  California,  was 
mapped  by  a  member  of  the  ex- 
pedition. 

Alarcon,  Pedro  Antonio  de 
(1833-91),  Spanish  author  and 
soldier,  was  a  native  of  Guadix, 
in  Granada,  In  1859,  having 
previously  (1857)  published  his 
El  Hi  jo  prodigo,  he  followed  the 
Spanish  army  in  Morocco  as 
newspaper  correspondent,  and 
chronicled  these  experiences  in 
his  Diario  de  un  Testigo  de  la 
Guerra  de  Africa  (1860).  He 
was  sent  to  the  Cortes  by  Cadiz 
in  1864,  and  in  1868  fought  at 


the  Battle  of  Alcolea.  His  novels 
enjoyed  great  popularity  by  rea- 
son of  their  national  spirit,  and 
light,  humorous,  yet  sincere  tone. 
Among  the  best  are  La  Noche- 
buena  del  Poeta  (many  eds.) ;  El 
Escandalo  (1875);  Las  Alpujar- 
ras;  El  Sombrero  de  tres  Picos 
(1874);  El  Nino  de  la  Bola 
(1880).  His  poems  are  repre- 
sented by  the  Poesias  serias  y 
humoristicas  (1870).  Consult  his 
Obras  Escogidas,  with  biography 
(1874). 

Alarcon  y  Mendoza,  Juan 
Ruiz  de  (1581-1639),  Spanish 
dramatist,  was  born  in  Mexico. 
He  was  for  a  time  professor  at 
the  university  of  Mexico  and  a 
magistrate  of  the  supreme  court. 
He  lived  in  Spain  from  1611  until 
his  death,  as  an  officer  of  the 
council  of  the  Indies.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  modern  Spanish 
playwrights  to  embody  types  in 
his  characters,  and  to  make  each 
of  his  plays  convey  a  moral  les- 
son. His  most  famous  comedy, 
La  Verdad  Sospechosa,  enforces 
the  folly  of  lying  and  hypocrisy. 
It  is  to  this  play  that  Corneille  is 
indebted,  as  he  acknowledges,  for 
the  plot  of  Le  Menteur.  Twenty 
of  Alarcon's  plays  still  survive, 
the  most  notable  of  which,  be- 
sides the  above,  are  El  Tejedor 
de  Segovia,  El  S erne j ante  a  si 
mismo,  Todo  es  Ventura,  Las 
Paredes  Oyen,  and  Ganar  Amigos. 
His  style  is  chaste  and  elegant. 
His  principal  plays  are  included 
in  Moratin's  Teatro  Escogido, 
and  in  Ramon's  edition  of  the 
same.  Consult  Ticknor's  His- 
tory of  Spanish  Literature. 

Alaric  I.  (c.  375-410),  king  of 
the  Visigoths  or  Western  Goths, 
was  a  scion  of  the  noble  family  of 
the  Balthings.  During  his  mi- 
nority the  Visigoths  were  in 
vassalage  to  the  Romans;  but 
on  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius,  in  395,  Alaric  led 
the  great  revolt  of  the  Visigoths, 
and  was  elected  as  their  king. 
He  overran  Greece,  and  exacted 
a  heavy  ransom  from  Athens 
itself.  As  a  result,  he  was  able 
to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the 
Emperor  of  the  East  (Arcadius), 
by  which  he  became  vicegerent 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula.  His  growing  power 
and  ambition  led  him  (in  400)  to 
invade  Italy,  the  northern  prov- 
inces remaining  in  his  power 
for  eighteen  months,  until  his 
defeat  at  Pollentia  by  Stilicho. 
In  409,  however,  Alaric  once 
more  invaded  Italy,  and  this 
time  laid  siege  to  Rome.  He 
spared  the  city,  contenting  him- 
self with  a  heavy  ransom;  but 
in  the  following  year,  on  Aug.  24, 
410,  the  imperial  city  was  en- 
tered and  plundered.    The  Em- 


pire of  the  West  was  almost  with- 
in his  grasp,  when  he  died  sud- 
denly at  Cosenza.  See  Goths. 
Consult  Hodgkins'  Italy  and 
Her  Invaders. 

Alaric  II.  (c.  484-507),  eighth 
of  the  Visigothic  kings  of  Spain, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  in- 
fancy on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Evaric  or  Euric,  in  485.  At 
that  period  the  Visigothic  king- 
dom included  almost  the  whole 
of  Spain,  together  with  the 
greater  part  of  Central  and 
Southern  France.  Nearly  all  his 
French  possessions,  however, 
were  wrested  from  him  by  Clovis, 
king  of  the  Franks,  who  inflicted 
a  crushing  defeat  on  the  Visi- 
goths at  Vougle,  near  Poitiers, 
in  507,  when  Alaric  was  among 
the  slain.  Although  a  zealous 
Arian,  he  showed  great  tolerance 
in  religious  matters.  He  enacted 
several  useful  statutes,  and  com- 
piled a  code  of  laws.  The 
Breviary  of  Alaric  II.  See 
Goths. 

Alarodian  Languages,  a  term 
sometimes  applied  to  the  Cauca- 
sian languages,  of  which  Geor- 
gian is  the  chief  division.  The 
group  is  in  the  main  agglutina- 
tive, although  it  frequently  ap- 
proximates inflection.  It  is  not 
impossible  that  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  of  Van  represent  an 
extinct  form  of  Alarodian  speech. 
Consult  Sayce's  Introduction  to 
the  Science  of  Language. 

A  Lasco,  Johannes.  See 
Lasco. 

Ala- Shan,  province.  Southern 
Mongolia,  lying  between  the 
Desert  of  Gobi  (Golbiin-Gobi)  to 
the  north,  the  province  of  Kan- 
su  and  the  Great  Wall  to'  the 
south,  and  the  Hoang-ho  and 
Ala-Shan  range,  or  Khara-Na- 
rim  (11,000  ft.),  to  the  east. 
The  extreme  length  is  about  800 
miles,  the  mean  breadth  about 
480  miles.  It  is  mostly  a  vast 
plain  of  sand,  broken  by  grassy 
steppes,  chalk  downs  covered 
with  saline  deposits,  and  low, 
Unstable,  sandy  hills  rising  to  80 
feet  or  so.  Vegetation  is  almost 
absent;  and  the  fauna  is  poor — 
the  wolf,  fox,  hare,  crow,  crane, 
lizard,  and  serpent.  The  popu- 
lation is  mostly  composed  of  the 
Kalmuck  stock,  near  relatives  of 
the  Kalmucks  of  the  Lower 
Volga  basin.  Their  live  stock 
are  mainly  goats  and  yaks. 
Kirghiz  and  Chinese  compose 
the  rest  of  the  inhabitants. 
Chinese  and  Mongol  caravans 
traverse  Ala-Shan  on  their  way 
to  and  from  Tibet.  The  prov- 
ince was  annexed  to  the  empire 
of  China  in  1636.    Pop.  25.000. 

Alashehr  (ancient  Philadel- 
phia), walled  city,  on  the  Smyrna 
and  Kassaba  Railroad;  74  miles 


Alaska 


127A 


Alaska 


east  of  Smyrna,  Asia  Minor. 
The  mineral  springs  in  the 
vicinity  attract  many  visitors. 
The  waters  are  also  bottled  and 
shipped  to  Smyrna.  There  is 
considerable  trade.  The  town  is 
the  seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop. 
Pop.  over  22,000. 

Philadelphia  was  founded  by 
Attalus  Philadelphus  (c.  150  B.C.) 
on  the  site  of  the  Lydian  village 
Callatebus.  It  was  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  at  the  time  of 
Tiberius,  but  became  again  an 
important  city  in  the  early  Mid- 
dle Ages.  It  was  sacked  by 
Tamerlane  (1402).  There  are 
ruins  of  the  ancient  stadium, 
temples,  and  theatre,  and  of  the 
mediseval  walls  and  castle. 

Alaska,  a  Territory  of  the 
United  States,  comprises  the 
northwestern  extremity  of  North 
America,  west  of  the  141st 
meridian,  and  a  strip  of  coast 
extending  south  to  56°  north  lati- 
tude, with  the  adjacent  islands. 
Its  area  is  590,884  square  miles; 
inlets  and  island  outlines  in- 
cluded, the  coast  is  about  26,000 
miles  long.  The  outermost  of  the 
Aleutian  Islands  is  as  far  west  of 
Skagway  as  that  town  is  west  of 
New  York.  Point  Barrow,  the 
most  northerly  land  of  Alaska, 
lies  more  than  300  miles  north 
of  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  is  with- 
out the  sun  for  forty  days  during 
the  winter  season. 

Topography. — The  shores  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Bering  Sea 
are  comparatively  low  and  flat — ■ 
marshy  plains  or  tundras — with 
a  broad  ofifing  of  shallow  water 
and  outlying  shoals,  and  few 
places  where  a  ship  may  closely 
approach  the  shore.  The  south 
coast,  however,  is  formed  by 
mountains,  the  continuation  of 
the  littoral  ranges  of  British 
Columbia,  making  the  sea-front 
and  the  islands  of  the  Alexander 
Archipelago.  These  islands  rise 
from  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  are  separated  by 
narrow  and  deep  channels,  called 
'sounds,'  affording  a  protected 
waterway  for  ocean  steamers 
almost  continuously  from  Puget 
Sound  to  Cross  Sound,  with 
many  excellent  harbors.  The 
precipitous  coast  is  deeply  in- 
dented with  fiords,  at  the  head 
of  which  glaciers  come  down  to 
the  water,  and  continually  give 
off  small  bergs.  West  of  Cross 
Sound  and  Glacier  Bay  rise  the 
Saint  Elias  Alps,  bordering  the 
coast  for  some  300  miles,  and 
containing  many  peaks  clothed 
with  ice  and  snow  almost  to  their 
bases — exceeding  15,000  feet  in 
altitude;  the  highest  are  Fair- 
weather  and  Saint  Elias  (18,024 
feet).  The  enjoyable  character 
of  the  navigation,  pleasant  cli- 


mate, and  magnificent  scenery 
induce  a  constantly  increasing 
tourist  traffic  in  summer,  which 
is  of  great  benefit  to  the  residents 
of  this  part  of  the  country. 

West  of  the  Saint  Elias  Alps 
and  the  Copper  River,  the  coast 
is  broken  by  the  great  Kenai 
Peninsula  and  Cook  Sound,  and 
is  studded  with  lofty  volcanoes, 
some  active.  The  Yakutat  Bay 
region  has  been  the  scene  of  some 
of  the  greatest  earthquakes  in 
history,  the  tremors  in  Sep- 
tember, 1899,  reaching  over  an 
area  of  1,500,000  square  miles. 
In  1912  the  Kodiak  region  was 
severely  shaken,  and  a  large 
territory  covered  with  ashes  by 
an  eruption  of  Mount  Katmai. 
Inland  is  a  mountainous  plateau, 
forming  the  divide  between  the 
ocean  and  the  Yukon  Valley. 
At  the  head  of  the  Kuskokim 
River  is  the  highest  peak  in 
North  America,  Mount  McKin- 
ley  (20,460  feet).  Southwest 
from  Cook  Inlet  stretch  the 
Alaska  Peninsula  and  Aleutian 
Islands,  extending  almost  to  the 
Asiatic  Coast,  and  consisting  of 
a  line  of  half-submerged,  treeless 
mountain  summits,  mostly  vol- 
canic. 

The  northern  half  of  Alaska  is 
a  plain  of  coast  tundra,  rising 
interiorly  into  low  hills,  and 
gradually  ascending  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  which  form  the  west- 
ern boundary  of  the  Territory, 
and  reach  the  Arctic  Sea  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie 
River. 

About  one-fifth  of  the  drainage 
of  Alaska  is  toward  the  Pacific, 
nearly  one  half  to  Bering  Sea, 
and  the  remainder  toward  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  The  great  Yukon 
River  is  the  principal  stream,  and 
has  a  course  of  ,1,865  miles.  It 
rises  in  British  Columbia,  far  to 
the  southeast  of  Alaska,  and  flows 
westerly  across  the  middle  of  the 
Territory,  in  a  winding,  island- 
studded,  and  shallow  channel, 
for  1,200  miles.  The  Yukon 
is  the  natural  highway  of  Alaska, 
its  waters  being  navigable  in 
summer,  and  its  smooth  ice  coat- 
ing in  winter  affording  an  un- 
equalled sled  road.  The  Kusko- 
kwim  River,  emptying  into 
Bering  Sea,  is  the  second  in  size, 
having  1,000  miles  of  navigable 
waters.  Lying  west  of  the 
Alaskan  range,  it  is  wholly  within 
the  plateau  country.  In  the 
Pacific  system  are  the  Sushitna 
and  Copper  Rivers,  also  the 
smaller  Alsek,  Taku,  and  Stikine. 
In  the  Arctic  Ocean  system  are 
the  Noatak,  Kobuk,  and  Colville 
Rivers. 

Glaciers. — The  largest  gla- 
ciers outside  of  the  Polar  regions 
are  in  Alaska — a  natural  result 


of  the  great  rainfall  (including 
snow)  in  that  country,  ranging 
from  81  inches  to  190  inches 
annually.  The  excess  of  the 
snowfall  over  that  which  can 
melt  during  the  short  summer 
has  formed  large  valley  glaciers, 
thirty  of  which  reach  tide  water. 
The  great  Malaspina  Glacier,  on 
the  northwest  shore  of  Yakutat 
Bay,  covers  1,500  square  miles — 
more  than  the  whole  State  of 
Rhode  Island.  The  Hubbard 
Glacier  extends  inland  28  miles, 
with  many  branches  or  feeders. 
It  discharges  icebergs  contin- 
ually from  a  cliff-like  front 
5  miles  long  and  280  feet  high 
above  the  water,  and  reaching 
far  below  the  surface.  The  Muir 
Glacier  has  a  front  of  3  miles, 
300  feet  in  height,  and  moves 
forward  64  feet  per  day,  tum- 
bling its  bergs  into  the  sea  with 
an  almost  continuous  roar.  The 
Columbia  Glacier  is  4  miles  in 
width  and  300  to  400  feet  high. 
There  are  170  glaciers  important 
enough  to  have  names. 

Climate  and  Products. — 
The  climate  and  products  of  so 
vast  and  varied  an  area  present 
marked  contrasts.  The  north 
has  Arctic  conditions — a  short, 
warm  summer,  and  a  long,  dry 
winter,  with  moderate  snow  and 
excessive  cold,  the  thermometer 
on  the  upper  Yukon  often  mark- 
ing —50°;  the  soil  never  thaws 
more  than  a  few  inches  deep.  In 
the  Nome  region  a  shaft  120  feet 
deep  showed  the  ground  still 
frozen  at  that  level.  The  only 
forest  in  the  northern  section  is 
a  thin  growth  of  spruce,  and  this 
ceases  a  short  distance  north  of 
the  Yukon  Valley.  The  meadows, 
however,  yield  an  abundance  of 
excellent  natural  hay;  while 
planted  hay  and  hardy  cereals 
are  cultivated  in  favored  places. 
Potatoes  and  a  great  variety  of 
other  vegetables  are  raised, 
maturing  with  great  rapidity  be- 
cause of  the  prolonged  sunlight 
they  receive  in  the  long  sub- 
Arctic  days  of  summer.  The 
growing  season,  between  killing 
frosts,  is  from  four  to  five 
months. 

The  southwestern  peninsulas 
and  islands  have  a  foggy,  wet, 
and  chilly  climate,  without  ex- 
cessive cold.  Some  harbors  on 
the  Aleutian  Islands  are  open  all 
winter;  but  those  on  Bering  Sea 
are  closed  by  ice  from  October 
until  late  in  May.  The  Yukon  is 
unnavigable  except  during  the 
three  summer  months,  when 
many  large  and  well-furnished 
steamers  of  light  draught  navi- 
gate it. 

The  southern  coast  has  a  very 
different  climate.  The  high  and 
ice  mountains,  which  border  it. 


Alaska 


127B 


Alaska 


catch  and  precipitate  most  of  the 
moisture  brought  from  the  Pacific 
by  the  prevaiUng  westerly  winds, 
causing  very  frequent  rain  and 
fog  (the  annual  fall  amounting  to 
about  100  inches  in  the  islands 
south  of  Sitka),  and  accounting 
for  the  dryness  of  the  interior. 
The  moist  sea  winds  in  process 
of  condensation  yield  a  large 
amount  of  latent  heat,  making 
the  climate  of  the  south  coast 
equable  and  warm — the  temper- 
ature rarely  sinking  to  zero.  At 
Sitka  the  annual  average  is 
50°  F.  Anything  suitable  to  the 
North  Temperate  Zone  may 
therefore  be  grown,  but  the 
scarcity  of  level  places  and  of 
clearings  has  retarded  develop- 
ment in  this  direction  beyond 
thriving  vegetable  gardens.  All 
this  southern  coast  strip  is 
covered  with  heavy  coniferous 
forests,  consisting  principally  of 
hemlock  and  Sitka  spruce,  the 
latter  spread  over  most  of  the 
Territory  west  of  the  mountains 
and  south  of  the  Yukon  Valley. 
There  are  also  some  willow, 
Cottonwood,  red  cedar,  and  the 
more  valuable  yellow  cedar 
(Cupressus  Nootkaensis),  which 
is  confined  principally  to  the 
south  coast.  Of  other  trees,  a 
large  poplar  is  the  most  im- 
portant. 

Game. — Alaska  is  a  vast  nat- 
ural game  park.  On  its  barren 
northern  shores  are  found  walrus  • 
and  polar  bears;  the  flat,  open 
tundras  and  treeless  plateaus  are 
the  haunts  of  the  caribou  herds; 
in  the  interior  forests  ranges  the 
Alaskan  or  giant  moose,  the 
largest  of  the  moose  family,  with 
horns  spreading  5  to  6  feet;  on 
the  snow-clad  mountains  are  the 
mountain  sheep  and  the  so-called 
mountain  goat,  which  is  less  goat 
than  chamois;  and  in  the  south- 
ern coastal  forests  roam  the 
Sitka  deer.  Fur  seals  and  sea 
lions  inhabit  the  islands;  the 
brown,  black,  glacier,  and  grizzly 
bear  in  a  dozen  varieties  are 
abundant — the  Kodiak  (q.  v.) 
being  the  largest  of  all  bears. 
Ducks,  geese,  swans,  and  sand- 
hill cranes  breed  in  the  number- 
less ponds;  there  are  myriads 
of  shore  birds — plovers,  snipes, 
curlews,  and  sandpipers;  the 
ptarmigan  is  everywhere;  and 
there  are  five  species  of  grouse. 
Alaska's  game  is  protected  by 
strict  game  laws,  a  substantial 
revenue  being  received  from  the 
sale  of  hunting  licenses. 

Mining. — Signs  of  gold  and 
deposits  of  coal  had  long  ago 
been  found  in  various  places; 
but  until  recent  years  the  only 
considerable  mining  was  at  the 
Treadwell  mine,  near  Juneau, 
where  gold  ore  of  low  grade  was 


so  easily  and  cheaply  worked 
that  one  of  the  most  productive 
mines  in  the  world  resulted. 

In  1896-7  the  discovery  of 
rich  gold  placers  in  the  Klondike 
region  of  the  upper  Yukon  Val- 
ley was  followed  by  a  rush  of 
immigration,  which  led  to  the 
discovery  of  productive  workings 
all  along  the  upper  Yukon,  in 
the  Tanana  Hills  (Birch  Creek, 
etc.)  south  of  the  river,  along  the 
Canadian  boundary,  and  else- 
where. This  was  followed  in 
1898-9  by  the  finding  of  gold  in 
the  beach  sands  of  the  north 
shore  of  Norton  Sound,  and  the 
establishment  of  the  town  of 
Nome  (q.  v.). 

The  beach  diggings  were  soon 
exhausted,  however,  and  placer 
mining  is  now  carried  on  in 
the  river  and  creek  bottoms. 
Dredgers  are  employed  in  the 
Seward  Peninsula  that  dig  to  a 
depth  of  16  feet,  and  handle  from 
1,400  to  2,000  cubic  yards  of  dirt 
a  day. 

In  the  thirty-one  years  from 
1880  to  1911,  Alaska's  mineral 
output  totalled  $206,813,594,  of 
which  gold  amounted  to  $195,- 
916,520,  copper  $8,237,594,  and 
silver  $1,500,441.  The  yield  of 
gold  for  1911  was  $17,150,000,  of 
which  more  than  $12,000,000 
came  from  placer  workings — 
half  from  Fairbanks.  Thirteen 
lode  mines  are  worked,  the  prin- 
cipal ones  on  Douglas  Island. 
Canadian  gold  to  the  value  of 
about  $10,000,000  is  also  shipped 
annually  through  Alaska.  The 
silver  output  for  1910  was 
126,480  fine  ounces,  valued  at 
$67,649.  The  recent  discovery 
of  remarkably  rich  tin  placers  in 
Buck  Creek  indicates  that  Alas- 
ka may  become  an  important 
world  source  of  supply  of  that 
metal. 

There  are  a  number  of  produc- 
ing copper  mines;  and  these 
yielded  22,900,000  pounds  of 
copper  in  1911,  as  compared  with 
a  yield  of  4,241,689.  pounds  in 

1910.  Alaskan  mines  and  quar- 
ries also  produced  silver,  tin, 
coal,  marble,  and  gypsum  to  an 
estimated  value  of  $390,000  in 

1911,  an  increase  of  $200,000  over 
1910. 

There  are  two  known  areas  of 
high-grade  coal  in  Alaska — the 
Bering  River  field,  in  the  Con- 
troller Bay  region,  and  the  Mata- 
nuska  field,  north  of  Cook  Inlet. 
The  output  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1911,  was  116,- 
000  tons.  The  Bering  River  field 
is  25  miles  from  tide  water  at 
Controller  Bay,  and  so  far  as  sur- 
veyed shows  26.4  square  miles  of 
anthracite  and  20.2  square  miles 
of  bituminous  coal.  The  Mata- 
nuska  field  is  about  25  miles  from 


tide  water  at  Knik  Arm  (Cook 
Inlet) ;  but  as  this  is  frozen  in 
winter,  the  nearest  open  sea  port 
at  that  season  is  Resurrection 
Bay  (150  miles).  The  Matanuska 
coal  is  sub-bituminous  to  semi- 
bituminous,  with  some  anthra- 
cite. The  coal  varies  from  5  to  36 
feet  in  thickness,  over  an  area  of 
74  square  miles.  Further  sur- 
vey, however,  may  show  a  much 
larger  area.  Other  coal  fielJs 
are  of  lower  grade,  in  known  a:ea 
reaching  1,238  square  miles,  with 
the  probability  that  further  sur- 
vey will  show  them  much  more 
extensive,  as  coal-bearing  rocks 
have  already  been  found  to  cover 
12,644  square  miles. 

There  are  also  great  fields  of 
lignite.  Peat  is  widely  distrib- 
uted, the  climate  favoring  its 
production,  and  the  great  tun- 
dras appear  to  be  underlaid  with 
peat  deposits.  Petroleum  has 
been  developed  in  the  Cook  Inlet 
and  Controller  Bay  districts. 

Fine  marbles  and  other  valu- 
able stones  and  earths  exist  in 
Alaska,  and  are  being  quarried 
and  exported. 

Forestry.  —  The  establish- 
ment of  national  forests  through- 
out Alaska  has  checked  their 
wasteful  destruction.  Lumber- 
ing is  permitted  for  local  needs 
under  scientific  supervision.  Ex- 
cept above  the  5,000-foot  level, 
the  interior  of  Alaska  is  well 
wooded.  There  are  large  areas 
of  dense  forest  in  the  Tanana 
Valley.  Northward  the  wood- 
land is  thinner  and  the  trees 
small.  In  1911  the  timber  cut 
from  the  forest  reserves  amounted 
to  28,248,000  feet. 

Fisheries  and  Furs. — The 
fisheries  of  Alaska  are  exceed- 
ingly rich.  Cod,  halibut,  her- 
ring, and  many  small  food  fishes 
abound  off  the  coast.  There  are 
said  to  be  125,000  square  miles  of 
cod-fishing  banks.  Several  im- 
portant species  ascend  the  rivers 
to  spawn,  the  most  valuable  of 
which  is  salmon.  Throughout 
the  southern  archipelago  many 
establishments  for  catching  and 
preserving  salmon  have  long 
existed. 

During  1909  the  number  of 
persons  employed  in  the  fisheries 
was  12,588;  the  value  of  appa- 
ratus and  vessels,  with  shore 
property,  $9,881,682.  The  prod- 
uct was  201,983,238  pounds, 
valued  at  $11,181,388.  Of  this 
total,  175,028,594  pounds  was 
salmon,  representing  34,692,608 
fish.  The  seven  Alaska  salmon 
hatcheries  liberated  162,228,620 
fry.  In  1911  the  shipment  of 
canned  salmon  was  2,820,066 
cases  (of  48  one-pound  cans). 

Alaska  has  always  been  a  valu- 
able source  of  furs,  which  have 


Alaska 


128 


Alaska 


been  collected  there  by  Russian 
and  American  agencies  for  over 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  The 
most  important  of  these  have 
been  the  pelts  of  the  fur  seals  of 
Bering  Sea,  and  the  sea  otters, 
formerly  common  along  the 
southern  and  Aleutian  coasts. 
These  have  now  become  so  re- 
duced, however,  as  to  be  very 
scarce  and  high  priced.  The  re- 
ceipt of  all  other  commercial 
pelts  from  the  interior  has  also 
been  greatly  lessened. 
/  The  leasing  system  under 
which  sealing  has  been  conducted 
was  abolished  in  1910,  the 
U.  S.  Government  purchasing  the 
property  of  the  North  American 
Commercial  Company.  Under 
the  present  laws  the  Secretary 
of  Commerce  and  Labor  may 
authorize,  with  proper  restric- 
tions, the  taking  of  seal-skins  on 
the  Pribylov  Islands.  These  laws 
also  prohibit  the  killing  of  any 
fur-bearing  animal  in  the  Terri- 
tory, except  by  permit  from  the 
Secretary  of  Commerce  and 
Labor.  An  open  season  is  desig- 
nated for  mink,  muskrat,  and 
other  small  animals,  and  also  for 
the  fox,  lynx,  and  black  bear. 

The  seal  herds  in  1910  were 
estimated  to  contain  145,195  in- 
dividuals, an  apparent  decrease 
of  13,293  in  one  year  alone.  In 
1911  the  catch  of  fur-seal  skins 
was  valued  at  $432,913;  other 
aquatic  furs,  $39,733;  furs  of 
land  animals,  $313,730;  walrus 
and  whalebone  products,  $114,- 
877. 

Agriculture. — The  agricul- 
tural capacity  of  Alaska  is  sur- 
prisingly large.  The  Alaskan 
Agricultural  Bureau,  after  a 
careful  examination  into  the 
area  of  arable  soil,  has  announced 
that  there  is  more  agricultural 
land  in  the  Tanana  Valley  than 
is  now  under  cultivation  in  the 
corresponding  region  of  Norway, 
Sweden,  Finland,  and  the  three 
northern  provinces  of  Russia.  In 
1910  it  was  estimated  that  the 
agricultural  and  grazing  lands 
of  that  valley,  and  the  small  val- 
leys leading  from  it,  amount  to 
9,700,000  acres.  The  total  till- 
able and  pasture  land  of  Alaska 
is  estimat-d  at  64,000,000  acres. 
All  the  crops  which  can  be  raised 
in  Norway,  Sweden,  Finland, 
and  the  northern  provinces  of 
Russia — potatoes,  root  crops, 
barley,  oats,  carrots,  beets,  tur- 
nips, celery — can  be  produced  in 
Alaska. 

In  1910  there  were  222  farms, 
containing  44,544  acres.  Pota- 
toes took  the  lead  in  value  of 
crop  products,  with  $96,815; 
hay  and  forage,  $94,933;  other 
vegetables — turnips,  tomatoes, 
lettuce,  cucumbers,  carrots,  cel- 


ery, etc. — $62,807;  cabbages, 
$20,512. 

Stock  Raising. — Cattle  on 
farms  in  Alaska  in  1910  num- 
bered 811;  in  stables,  356.  Horses 
on  farms,  206;  in  stables,  2,106. 
On  the  ranges  were  16,565  rein- 
deer, in  stables  5,541,  valued  at 
$525,052.  There  were  19,795 
dogs  used  as  work  animals, 
valued  at  $543,134. 

Manufactures. — In  1909  the 
Territory  of  Alaska  had  152  man- 
ufacturing establishments,  which 
gave  employment  to  an  average 
of  3,479  persons  during  the  year, 
and  paid  out  $2,328,000  in  sal- 
aries and  wages.  These  establish- 
ments turned  out  products  to  the 
value  of  $11,340,000,  in  the 
manufacture  of  which  materials 
costing  $5,120,000  were  utilized. 
Alaska  leads  all  the  States  and 
Territories  in  the  production  of 
canned  and  preserved  fish.  In 
1909,  46  establishments,  with 
products  valued  at  $9,190,000, 
were  reported  for  this  industry; 
while  in  1899  there  were  36 
establishments,  with  products 
valued  at  $3,821,000.  The  value 
of  products  (1909)  for  the  lumber 
industry  was  $400,000.  and  for 
printing  and  publishing,  $228,000. 

Transportation  and  Com- 
munication.— A  constant  ser- 
vice of  steamships  is  maintained 
between  Seattle  or  Vancouver 
and  Alaskan  ports;  but  Nome 
can  be  reached  only  between 
July  and  September,  From 
Skagway  the  White  Pass  and 
Yukon  Railroad  (an  excellent 
narrow-gauge  road)  extends  20 
miles  to  the  Canadian  boundary, 
thence  90  miles  to  White  Horse 
Rapids.  Here,  in  summer,  steam- 
boats run  to  and  from  Dawson, 
and  connect  with  boats  down 
the  lower  Yukon;  in  winter,  the 
travel  is  by  stages  (sleighs),  the 
time  between  the  railroad  and 
Dawson  being  ZJA  days.  The 
Alaska  Central  Railroad,  now 
(1912)  under  construction,  runs 
from  Resurrection  Bay  toward 
the  Yukon  country.  The  Copper 
River  and  Northwestern  Rail- 
road is  completed  (1912)  as  far  as 
Chitina  on  its  way  from  Cordova 
to  the  mines  on  Copper  River 
and  beyond.  In  the  Tanana 
country  a  narrow-gauge  railroad 
(45  miles)  connects  Fairbanks 
with  the  principal  placer  mines. 
The  Seward  Peninsula  Railroad 
runs  from  Nome  to  Sheldon 
(85  miles) ;  and  its  extension 
into  the  Kougarok  country  (22 
miles)  is  projected.  Several  short 
lines  of  railway  connect  Nome 
with  neighboring  mining  centres. 
Other  railroads  are  the  Council 
City  and  Solomon  River  (33 
miles);  Yakutat  Southern  (12 
miles);  Golovin  Bay  (6  miles); 


Cook  Inlet  and  Coalfields  (8 
miles). 

The  most  important  event 
of  1911  was  the  opening  of 
the  Copper  River  region  by  the 
completion  of  the  railway  into  it. 
The  needs  for  cheap  fuel  are  being 
met  by  the  use  of  oil-burning 
engines,  and  the  importation  of 
California  crude  oil  is  increasing 
with  a  corresponding  decrease  in 
the  use  of  coal. 

The  Board  of  Road  Commis- 
sioners, under  the  direction  of 
the  U.  S.  Secretary  of  War,  con- 
structs and  keeps  in  repair  wagon 
and  sled  roads  and  trails.  The 
most  important  line  of  travel  is 
the  road  from  Valdez,  the  most 
northerly  open  port,  385  miles 
to  Fairbanks  in  the  Tanana 
country,  which  is  the  centre  for 
several  other  roads  and  trails. 

Postal  service  is  sustained 
throughout  the  interior  all  the 
year  round.  Telegraph  cables  run 
from  Seattle  to  Skagway,  Juneau, 
Sitka,  and  Valdez,  and  from  the 
latter  port  overland  to  the  towns 
and  military  posts  on  the  Yukon; 
and  land  lines  or  wireless  tele- 
graphs connect  these  with  Nome 
and  Saint  Michael.  These  lines 
were  built  and  are  maintained  by 
the  Signal  Service  of  the  United 
States  army,  which  keeps  several 
garrisons  in  Alaska.  The  receipts 
are  more  than  $200,000  a  year. 

Commerce.  —  For  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1911,  the 
total  exports,  excluding  gold  and 
silver,  amounted  to  $15,192,074, 
and  imports  to  $16,911,901.  Of 
these  sums,  only  $1,136,745  and 
$706,171,  respectively,  represent 
trade  with  countries  other  than 
the  United  States.  The  commerce 
with  countries  other  than  the 
United  States  is  confined  almost 
entirely  to  Canada.  The  exports 
for  1905  amounted  to  $11,889,- 
611,  and  the  imports  to  $12,955,- 
165.  The  exports  of  gold  and 
silver  in  1911  amounted  to 
$18,899,419,  compared  with 
$19,801,160  in  1905. 

The  most  important  exports 
for  1911  were:  salmon,  $10,751,- 
057;  other  fish,  $424,655;  furs, 
$487,333;  copper  ore,  $809,160; 
whalebone,  $213,040.  The  lead- 
ing imports  of  domestic  products 
from  the  United  States  were: 
manufactures  of  iron  and  steel, 
$3,759,029;  meat  and  meat  prod- 
ucts, $1,910,957-,  mineral  oils, 
$818,165;  manufactures  of  wood, 
$705,093;  woollen  goods,  $587,- 
576;  spirits,  wines,  and  liquors, 
$604,329;  breadstuffs,  $603,974; 
explosives,  $470,687;  fruits  and 
nuts,  $379,448;  eggs,  $378,923; 
tin  manufactures,  $395,279;  to- 
bacco manufactures,  $478,342; 
leather  manufactures,  $311,029. 

Finance. — Alaska    has  pro- 


Alamos 


127 


Alarm 


Alamos,  a'la-m5s  ('poplar 
trees'),  mining  town,  Sonora, 
Mexico,  at  the  northern  end  of 
Sierra  de  Alamos.  The  city  is 
about  200  years  old,  and  the 
mines  of  the  vicinity  (gold,  sil- 
ver, and  lead)  were  famous  in 
Spanish  days.  Pop.  about  10,000. 

Alamo'sa,  town,  county  seat 
of  Alamosa  county,  Colorado, 
7,545  feet  above  sea  level,  on  the 
Rio  Grande  River  and  on  the 
Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Rail- 
road; 100  miles  southwest  of 
Pueblo.  Gold  and  silver  are 
mined  in  the  neighborhood  and 
farming  and  stock  raising  are  of 
importance.    Pop.  (1910)  3,013. 

Aland  Islands,  o'lan  or  6'lan, 
an  archipelago  including  300  isl- 
ands, of  which  80  are  inhabited, 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia,  separated  from  the 
Finnish  coast  by  the  Skiftet  Ca- 
nal and  from  Sweden  by  Aland 
Bay  (25  miles  wide).  They  cover 
a  total  area  of  about  550  square 
miles,  the  largest  of  the  group 
being  Aland  Island  (247  square 
miles).  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  of  Swedish  origin,  and  the 
principal  occupations  are  hunt- 
ing, fishing,  and  agriculture.  The 
strategic  position  of  the  islands 
constitutes  their  chief  value.  The 
capital  iq  Mariehamn. 

The  Aland  Islands  belonged  to 
Sweden  until  1809,  when  they 
were  ceded  to  Russia  by  the 
Treaty  of  Frederikshamn.  Fol- 
lowing the  destruction  of  the 
fortress  of  Bomarsund  on  Aland 
Island  by  the  allied  fleets  of 
Great  Britain  and  France  during 
the  Crimean  War  (1854),  Russia, 
England,  and  France  entered 
into  a  convention  forbidding  the 
maintenance  of  any  military  or 
naval  establishment  on  the  isl- 
ands. They  were  fortified,  how- 
ever, by  R  ussia  at  the  time  of  the 
Great  World  War  (1914-18),  and 
the  removal  of  the  fortifications 
was  made  one  of  the  conditions 
of  the  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk 
(q.  v..).  A/!ter  Finland's  declara- 
tion of  independence  (1917)  a 
movement  for  the  separation  of 
the  islands  from  that  country  and 
their  reunion  with  Sweden  gained 
a  large  following.  They  were 
seized  by  Sweden  Feb.  19,  1918, 
and  by  Germany  March  3,  1918; 
on  March  15  they  appealed  to  the 
Finnish,  German,  and  Swedish 
governments  for  a  voice  in  the 
matter  of  their  final  disposition, 
which  is 'still  (March,  1919)  unde- 
termin  d.  Pop.  (est.  1910)  25,000. 

Alans,  Alani,  a  Sarmatian 
people  who  inhabited  the  steppes 
north  of  the  Caucasus  Moun- 
tains and  the  Black  Sea  during 
the  first  three  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era.  A  large  section 
of  them  were  subdued  and  incor- 
porated by  the  Huns  in  370. 
Subsequently  they  settled  in 
Pannonia,  Lusitania  (411),  and 
Africa  (429).  They  disappeared 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '19 


as  a  distinct  race  after  the  fifth 
century. 

Al  Araf.    See  Araf. 

Alarcon,  a-lar-kon',  Hernan- 
do DE,  Spanish  navigator,  sailed 
from  Acapulco  in  1540,  and  dis- 
proved the  idea  that  California 
was  an  island.  He  was  the  first 
European  to  explore  the  Colorado 
River,  the  lower  course  of  which, 
with  the  Gulf  of  California,  was 
accurately  mapped  by  a  member 
of  his  expedition. 

Alarcon,  Pedro  Antonio  de 
(1833-91),  Spanish  author,  was 
a  native  of  Guadix  in  Granada. 
He  entered  upon  the  study  of  law 
and  then  of  theology,  but  de- 
serted these  for  the  journalistic 
field.  His  first  and  only  play — • 
Rl  hijo  prodigo — was  produced  in 
1857,  and  in  that  year  he  enlisted 
in  the  Spanish  army  and  saw 
service  in  Morocco,  where  he 
gathered  the  material  for  his 
brilliant  Diario  de  un  testigo  de 
la  guerra  de  Africa  (1860),  fifty 
thousand  copies  of  which  were 
sold  within  two  weeks.  After  his 
return  to  Spain  he  engaged  ac- 
tively in  political  affairs,  serving 
several  terms  as  member  of  the 
Cortes.  He  was  appointed  a 
Councillor  of  State  in  1875,  and 
in  the  same  year  was  elected  to 
the  Spanish  Academy.  His  lit- 
erary work  is  notable  for  its 
freshness  and  vigor,  its  national 
spirit,  and  its  humorous  yet  sin- 
cere tone. 

In  addition  to  the  works  al- 
ready mentioned  Alarcon  pub- 
lished four  long  novels.  El  escdn- 
dalo  (1875),  La  prodiga  (1882), 
El  final  de  Norma,  and  El  nino  de 
la  bola  (1880);  two  shorter  nov- 
els. El  Capitdn  Veneno  and  El 
sombrero  de  tres  picos  (1874;  Eng. 
trans.,  The  Three-Cornered  Hat, 
1918);  and  a  number  of  volumes 
of  short  stories,  travel,  essays, 
and  verse. 

Alarcon  y  Mendoza,  a-lar-kon' 
e  men-do'tha,  Juan  Ruiz  de 
(1581-1639),  Spanish  dramatist, 
was  born  in  Mexico.  He  went  to 
Europe  in  1600,  returned  to 
Mexico  in  1608,  and  in  1611  went 
again  to  Spain,  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  death.  His  first 
volume  of  Comedias  appeared  at 
Madrid  in  1628;  his  second,  at 
Barcelona,  in  1634.  Throughout 
his  lifetime,  he  was  assailed  in 
venomous  lampoons  by  contem- 
porary poets  and  dramatists,  but 
he  is  now  admitted  to  rank  after 
Calderon  and  Lope  de  Vega,  as  a 
dramatist.  He  excelled  in  the 
heroic  drama,  his  best  specimen 
of  this  kind  being  El  tejedor  de 
Segovia;  while  his  mastery  in  de- 
lineating character  is  shown  in 
his  character  comedies,  of  which 
the  best  known  are  La  verdad 
sospechosa  (imitated  by  Cor- 
neille  in  his  Menteur)  and  Las 
paredes  oyen.  Of  his  comedies  of 
intrigue,  the  best  is  Todo  es  Ven- 
tura.  Editions  of  his  works  have 


been  published  at  Madrid  by 
Hartzenbusch  (1848-52),  and  by 
Garcia  Ramon  (2  vols.,  1884). 

Al'aric  I.  (c.  375-410),  king  of 
the  Visigoths  or  Western  Goths, 
was  a  scion  of  the  noble  family  of 
the  Balthings.  During  his  mi- 
nority the  Visigoths  were  in 
vassalage  to  the  Romans;  but 
on  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius,  in  395,  Alaric  led  the 
great  revolt  of  the  Visigoths,  and 
was  elected  as  their  king.  He 
overran  Greece,  and  exacted  a 
heavy  ransom  from  Athens  itself. 
As  a  result,  he  was  able  to  con- 
clude a  treaty  with  the  Emperor 
of  the  East  (Arcadius),  by  which 
he  became  vicegerent  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula. His  growing  power  and 
ambition  led  him  (in  400)  to  in- 
vade Italv,  the  northern  prov- 
inces remaining  in  his  power  for 
eighteen  months,  until  his  defeat 
at  Pollentia  by  Stilicho.  In  409, 
however,  Alaric  once  more  in- 
vaded Italy,  and  this  time  laid 
siege  to  Rome.  He  spared  the 
city,  contenting  himself  with  a 
heavy  ransom;  but  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  on  Aug.  24,  410,  the 
imperial  city  was  entered  and 
plundered.  The  Empire  of  the 
West  was  almost  within  his 
grasp,  when  he  died  suddenly  at 
Cosenza.  See  Goths.  Consult 
Hodgkins'  Italy  and  Her  In- 
vaders. 

Alaric  II.  {c.  484-507),  eighth 
of  the  Visigothic  kings  of  Spain, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  in- 
fancy on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Evaric  or  Euric,  in  485.  At  that 
period  the  Visigothic  kingdom 
included  almost  the  whole  of 
Spain,  together  with  the  greater 
part  of  Central  and  Southern 
France.  Nearly  all  his  French 
possessions,  however,  were  wrest- 
ed from  him  by  Clovis  (q.  v.), 
king  of  the  Franks,  who  inflicted 
a  crushing  defeat  on  the  Visi- 
goths at  Vouille,  near  Poitiers,  in 
507,  when  Alaric  was  among  the 
slain.  Although  a  zealous  Arian, 
Alaric  showed  great  tolerance  in 
religious  matters.  He  enacted 
several  useful  statutes,  and  com- 
piled a  code  of  laws,  The  Brevi- 
ary of  Alaric  II.    See  Goths. 

Alarm,  or  Alarum  (from  Ital. 
alV  arme,  'to  arms'),  originally  a 
call  to  arms,  or  the  signal  for  this 
purpose,  as  the  loud  and  hurried 
peal  of  an  alarm  bell;  as  now 
commonly  used,  a  mechanical  or 
electrical  device  for  arousing  per- 
sons from  sleep  or  for  calling  the 
attention  in  case  of  accident  or 
danger. 

The  most  familiar  example  of 
an  alarm  is  probably  to  be  found 
in  the  common  alarm  clock,  in 
which  the  alarm  mechanism  con- 
sists of  a  hammer  and  bell  with 
an  escapement  that  lets  it  free  at 
any  hour  arranged,  when  a  spring 
or  descending  weight  brings  the 
hammer  to  bear  on  the  bell. 


Alarodlan  Languages 


127  A 


Alaska 


Other  examples  are  the  bell  and 
whistling  buoy  (see  Buoy)  to 
warn  vessels  of  danger;  the  alarm 
whistle  attached  to  a  boiler  to 
give  warning  when  the  water 
sinks  below  the  safety  level ;  auto- 
matic fire  alarms,  as  that  consist- 
ing of  a  weight  which,  when  the 
supporting  string  has  burned 
through,  falls  and  thus  sets  in 
motion  a  bell  mechanism;  the 
alarm  funnel  attached  to  a  cask 
which, is  being  filled  and  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  ring  a  bell  when  the 
liquid  has  reached  a  given  level; 
and  certain  types  of  burglar 
alarm. 

For  the  numerous  varieties  of 
electric  alarms,  see  Electric 
Bells  and  Alarms. 

Alaro'dian  Languages,  a  term 
sometimes  applied  to  the  Cauca- 
sian languages,  of  which  Geor- 
gian is  the  chief  division.  The 
group  is  in  the  main  agglutina- 
tive, although  it  frequently  ap- 
proximates inflection.  It  is  not 
impossible  that  the  cuneiforni 
inscriptions  of  Van  represent  an 
extinct  form  of  Alarodian  speech. 
Consult  Sayce's  Introduction  to 
the  Science  of  Language. 

A  Lasco,  Johannes.  See 
Lasco. 

Ala- Shan,  province.  Southern 
Mongolia,  lying  between  the 
Desert  of  Gobi  (Golbiin-Gobi)  to 
the  north,  the  province  of  Kan- 
su  and  the  Great  Wall  to  the 
south,  and  the  Hoang-ho  and 
Ala-Shan  range,  or  Khara-Na- 
rim  (11,000  ft.),  to  the  east.  The 
extreme  length  is  about  800 
miles,  the  mean  breadth  about 
480  miles.  It  is  mostly  a  vast 
plain  of  sand,  broken  by  grassy 
steppes,  chalk  downs  covered 
with  saline  deposits,  and  low, 
unstable,  sandy  hills  rising  to  80 
feet  or  so.  Vegetation  is  almost 
absent;  and  the  fauna  is  poor — 
the  wolf,  fox,  hare,  crow,  crane, 
lizard,  and  serpent.  The  popu- 
lation is  mostly  composed  of  the 
Kalmuck  stock,  near  relatives  of 
the  Kalmucks  of  the  Lower 
Volga  basin.  Their  live  stock 
are  mainly  goats  and  yaks. 
Kirghiz  and  Chinese  compose 
the  rest  of  the  inhabitants. 
Chinese  and  Mongol  caravans 
traverse  Ala-Shan  on  their  way 
to  and  from  Tibet.  The  prov- 
ince was  annexed  to  the  empire 
of  China  in  1636.    Pop.  25,000. 

Alashehr,  a-la-she'h'r  (ancient 
Philadelphia),  walled  city,  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  Smyrna  and  Kas- 
saba  Railroad;  83  miles  east  of 
Smyrna.  Mineral  springs  in  the 
vicinity  attract  many  visitors, 
and  the  waters  are  also  bottled 
and  shipped  to  Smyrna.  There 
is  a  considerable  trade.  The 
town  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  arch- 
bishop.   Pop.  25,000. 

Philadelphia  was  founded  by 
Attains  Philadelphus  (c.  150  B.  c.) 
on  the  site  of  the  Lydian  village 
Callatebus,  and  is  said  to  have 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '19 


been  one  of  the  Seven  Churches 
of  Asia  referred  to  in  Revelation. 
It  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake at  the  time  of  Tiberius,  but 
became  again  an  important  city 
in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  It  was 
sacked  by  Tamerlane  (1402). 
There  are  ruins  of  the  ancient 
stadium,  temples,  and  theatre, 
and  of  the  mediaeval  walls  and 
castle. 

Alas'ka,  a  '  territory  of  the 
United  States,  comprises  the 
northwestern  extremity  of  North 
America,  west  of  the  141st  meri- 
dian, together  with  a  strip  of 
coast  extending  south  to  56°  n. 
lat.  and  the  adjacent  islands,  and 
the  Aleutian  Archipelago  with 
the  exception  of  Bering  and  Cop- 
per Islands.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean; 
on  the  east  by  the  Northwest 
Territories  of  Canada  and  by 
British  Columbia;  on  the  south- 
west by  the  Pacific  Ocean;  and 
on  the  west  by  Bering  Sea  and 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  Its  area  is 
590,884  square  miles,  including 
both  land  and  water,  exceeding 
in  extent  the  combined  area  of 
Norway,  Sweden,  Finland,  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  and  Ireland.  The 
coast  is  about  26,000  miles  long, 
inlets  and  island  outlines  includ- 
ed. Point  Barrow,  the  most 
northerly  land  of  Alaska,  lies 
more  than  300  miles  north  of 
the  Arctic  Circle,  and  is  without 
the  sun  for  forty  days  during  the 
winter  season. 

Topography . — The  shores  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Bering 
Sea  are  comparatively  low  and 
flat — marshy  plains  or  tundras 
— with  a  broad  offing  of  shallow 
water  and  outlying  shoals,  and 
few  places  where  a  ship  may 
closely  approach  the  shore.  The 
Pacific  Coast,  however,  is  ex- 
tremely mountainous.  In  the 
southeast  the  Coast  range,  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  littoral  ranges  of 
British  Columbia,  forms  the  sea- 
front  and  the  islands  (about 
1,000)  of  the  Alexander  Archi- 
pelago (q.  v.).  These  islands  rise 
from  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  are  separated  by 
narrow  and  deep  channels  and 
'sounds'  affording  a  protected 
waterway  for  ocean  steamers  al- 
most continuously  from  Puget 
Sound  to  Cross  Sound,  with 
many  excellent  harbors.  The 
precipitous  coast  is  deeply  in- 
dented with  fiords,  at  the  head 
of  which  glaciers  come  down  to 
the  water,  and  continually  give 
off'  small  bergs.  West  of  Cross 
Sound  and  Glacier  Bay  rise  the 
Saint  Elias  Alps,  bordering  the 
coast  for  some  300  miles,  and 
containing  many  peaks  exceed- 
ing 15,000  feet  in  altitude,  cloth- 
ed with  ice  and  snow  almost  to 
their  bases;  the  highest  are  Mt. 
Logan,  19,539  feet,  in  Canada, 
and  vSaint  Elias  (q.  v.),  18,024 
feet.  Yakutat  Bay  (q.  v.)  in  this 


region  has  been  the  scene  of  some 
of  the  greatest  earthquakes  in 
history,  tremors  in  September, 
1899,  reaching  over  an  area  of 
1,500,000  square  miles. 

West  of  the  141st  meridian, 
which  forms  the  Canadian  boun- 
dary, the  St.  Elias  range  is  di- 
vided by  the  Chitina  River  Val- 
ley into  the  Chugach  mountains, 
which  follow  the  coast,  and  the 
Nutzotin  mountains,  which  fol- 
low a  northwesterly  direction 
and  form  a  connecting  link  with 


Alaskan  Coast,  and  Alexander 
Archipelago. 


the  Alaska  range.  Between 
these  two  divisions  are  the  Wran- 
gell  mountains,  a  group  of  vol- 
canic origin,  reaching  an  eleva- 
tion of  10,000  ft.  Mount  Wran- 
gell  (14,005  ft.)  is  the  only  peak 
still  active.  The  Alaska  range 
roughly  describes  the  arc  of  a 
circle,  approaching  the  coast  west 
of  Cook  Inlet  and  the  Kenai 
Peninsula.  It  contains  Mount 
McKinley  (q.  v.),  the  highest 
peak  in  the  North  American  con- 
tinent (20,464  ft.).  Southwest 
from  Cook  Inlet  stretch  the  Alas- 
ka Peninsula  and  Aleutian  Isl- 
ands (q.  v.),  or  Catherine  Archi- 
pelago, extending  almost  to  the 
Asiatic  coast,  and  consisting  of  a 


Alaska 


127  B 


Alaska 


line  of  half-submerged,  treeless 
mountain  summits,  mostly  vol- 
canic. 

The  interior  of  Alaska  includes 
a  great  central  plateau,  to  the 
north  of  which  is  the  Endicott 
range,  a  continuation  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  system,  vary- 
ing in  altitude  from  8,000  feet 
toward  the  Canadian  boundary 
to  1,000  feet  as  it  approaches  the 
western  coast.  Beyond  this  lie 
the  Arctic  slope  and  the  fiat 
coastal  plain. 

About  one-fifth  of  the  drain- 
age of  Alaska  is  toward  the  Pa- 
cific, nearly  one-half  to  Bering 
Sea,  and  the  remainder  toward 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  great 
Yukon  River  (q.  v.)  is  the  prin- 
cipal stream,  and  has  a  course  of 
about  2,300  miles  in  Alaska  and 
Canada.  It  rises  in  British  Co- 
lumbia, far  to  the  east  of  Alaska, 
and  flows  westward  across  the 
middle  of  the  Territory,  in  a 
shallow,  winding,  island-studded 
channel,  for  1,200  miles.  The 
Yukon  is  the  natural  highway 
of  Alaska,  its  waters  being 
navigable  in  summer,  and  its 
smooth  ice  coating  in  winter  af- 
fording an  unequalled  sled  road. 
Its  principal  tributaries  are  the 
Tanana,  Porcupine,  White,  and 
Koyukuk.  The  Kuskokwim  (or 
Kuskoquim)  River,  emptying  in- 
to Bering  Sea,  is  the  second  in 
size,  having  1,000  miles  of  navi- 
gable waters.  Lying  west  of  the 
Alaskan  range,  it  is  wholly  with- 
in the  plateau  country.  In  the 
Pacific  system  are  the  Susitna 
and  Copper  Rivers,  also  the 
smaller  Alsek,  Taku,  and  Stik- 
ine.  In  the  Arctic  Ocean  system 
are  the  Noatak,  Kobuk,  and 
Colville  Rivers. 

Glaciers. — The  largest  glaciers 
outside  of  the  Polar  regions  are 
in  Alaska,  170  being  of  sufficient 
importance  to  have  names. 
They  are  located  principally  on 
the  southern  coast,  in  a  region  of 
heavy  precipitation,  and  on  the 
flanks  of  the  higher  mountain 
ranges.  The  great  Malaspina 
Glacier  on  the  northwest  shore 
of  Yakutat  Bay  covers  1,500 
square  miles  —  more  than  the 
whole  State  of  Rhode  Island. 
The  Hubbard  Glacier  extends  in- 
land 28  miles,  with  many  branch- 
es or  feeders.  It  discharges  ice- 
bergs continually  from  a  cliff-like 
front  5  miles  long,  280  feet  high 
above  the  water,  and  reaching 
far  below  the  surface.  The  Muir 
Glacier  has  a  front  of  3  miles,  300 
feet  in  height,  and  moves  forward 
at  the  rate  of  about  6  feet  per 
day,  tumbling  its  bergs  into  the 
sea  with  an  almost  continuous 
roar.  This  glacier  is  said  to  have 
retreated  over  three  miles  in  the 
past  fifteen  years.  The  Colum- 
bia Glacier  is  4  miles  in  width  and 
300  to  400  feet  high. 

Climate — With  its  lofty  moun- 
tains, snow  fields,  and  glaciers, 


its  broad  expanses  of  mossy 
tundra,  and  wide  areas  of  valley 
lands,  Alaska  presents  a  great 
variety  of  climate,  controlled 
largely  by  the  principal  moun- 
tain ranges  and  the  modifying 
effect  of  the  Japan  current.  The 
Territory  is  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  natural  subdivisions  by 
conditions  of  rainfall,  tempera- 
ture, and  latitude. 

Southeast  Alaska,  including  the 
Alexander  Archipelago  and  the 
coastal  region  as  far  west  as 
Cook  Inlet,  is  marked  by  heavy 
rainfall  and  moderate  tempera- 
ture, the  average  temperature  for 
the  three  winter  months  being 
much  like  that  of  New  York  and 
Boston.  The  ports  of  this  region 
are  open  to  commerce  through- 
out the  year.    Along  the  south 


average  winter  temperature  10°. 
Conditions  in  the  Kenai-Susitna 
district,  adjoining  the  Copper 
River  Valley  on  the  west,  are  be- 
tween those  in  the  latter  region 
and  Southeastern  Alaska.  The 
average  summer  temperature  is 
about  54°,  and  the  rainfall  is 
moderate. 

The  great  valleys  of  the  Ta- 
nana and  the  Yukon  comprise 
still  another  division,  protected 
on  the  south  by  the  lofty  range 
of  the  Alaska  Mountains.  The 
average  precipitation  here  varies 
from  13  to  20  inches.  The  aver- 
age temperature  in  summer  is 
approximately  58°  (a  little  higher 
than  in  any  of  the  other  five  re- 
gions), and  the  thermometer 
sometimes  reaches  90°.  The  low 
summer    temperature  averages 


Photo  by  Burton  Holmes,  from  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Cantilever  Bridge  on  the  White  Pass  and  Yukon  Railway,  Alaska 


coast  of  the  Alaska  Peninsula, 
rainfall  and  temperature  are 
moderate  and  here,  also,  the 
harbors  are  navigable  the  year 
around.  In  the  Bering  Sea  coast 
region  from  Bristol  Bay  to  be- 
yond Point  Barrow,  with  its  wide 
areas  of  tundra  and  treeless 
plains,  the  rainfall  and  the  tem- 
perature vary  considerably,  both 
diminishing  toward  the  north. 
The  total  annual  precipitation — 
including  the  snowfall — ranges 
from  7  inches,  at  Point  Barrow, 
to  84  inches  at  Unalaska.  The 
average  temperature  at  Nome  is 
similar  to  that  of  Montreal  and 
Manitoba. 

The  Copper  River  Valley  forms 
a  distinct  climatic  division  with  a 
comparatively  dry  climate,  owing 
to  the  protection  afforded  by  the 
high  Chugach  Mountains,  which 
ward  off  the  heavy  coast  rains. 
The  average  summer  tempera- 
ture at  Copper  Centre  is  54°,  the 


only  a  little  less  than  in  South- 
eastern Alaska. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — The  Alas- 
kan flora  includes  a  considerable 
number  of  timber  trees,  both  in 
the  Pacific  coastal  region  and  in- 
land (see  section  on  Forestry). 
Flowering  plants  and  shrubs  are 
abundant  in  the  valleys,  and  gen- 
tians, saxifrage,  lady  slippers, 
cyclamines,  asters,  etc.,  cover  the 
lower  mountain  slopes,  merging 
into  mosses  and  lichens  in  the 
loftier  altitudes.  There  are  broad 
areas  of  grass  land  in  Southwest- 
ern Alaska  and  in  the  Copper  and 
Yukon  River  valleys. 

Alaska  is  a  vast  natural  game 
park.  On  its  barren  northern 
shores  are  found  walrus  and  polar 
bears;  the  flat,  open  tundras  and 
treeless  plateaus  are  the  haunts 
of  the  caribou  herds;  in  the  in- 
terior forests  ranges  the  Alaskan 
or  giant  moose,  the  largest  of  the 
moose  family,  with  horns  spread- 
VoL.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Alaska 


128 


Alaska 


ing  5  to  6  feet;  on  the  sncvv-clad 
mountains  are  the  mountain 
sheep  and  the  so-called  mountain 
goat;  and  in  the  southern  coastal 
forests  roam  the  Sitka  deer.  Fur 
seals  and  sea  lions  inhabit  the 
islands;  brown,  black,  glacier, 
and  grizzly  bears  in  a  dozen  va- 
rieties are  abundant — the  Kodi- 
ak  bear  (q.  v.)  being  the  largest  of 
all  bears.  Ducks,  geese,  swans, 
and  sand  hill  cranes  breed  in  the 
numberless  ponds,  and  there  are 
myriads  of  shore  birds — plovers, 
snipe,  curlews,  and  sandpipers; 
the  ptarmigan  is  everywhere;  and 
there  are  five  species  of  grouse. 
Among  the  valuable  food  fishes 
are  the  cod,  herring,  halibut,  and 
salmon  of  several  species.  Alas- 
ka's game  is  protected  by  strict 
game  laws,  a  substantial  revenue 
being  received  from  the  sale  of 
hunting  licenses. 

Mining. — Signs  of  gold  and 
deposits  of  coal  were  long  ago 
found  in  various  places  in  Alaska; 
but  until  recent  years  the  only 
considerable  mining  was  at  the 
Treadwell  mine,  near  Juneau, 
where  gold  ore  of  low  grade  was 
so  easily  and  cheaply  worked 
that  one  of  the  most  productive 
mines  in  the  world  resulted.  In 
1896-7  the  discovery  of  rich  gold 
placers  in  the  Klondike  region  of 
the  upper  Yukon  Valley  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  rush  of  immigration, 
which  led  to  the  discovery  of  pro- 
ductive workings  all  along  the 
upper  Yukon,  in  the  Tanana 
Hills,  south  of  the  river,  along  the 
Canadian  boundary,  and  else- 
where. This  was  followed  in 
1898-9  by  the  finding  of  gold  in 
the  beach  sands  of  the  north 
shore  of  Norton  Sound,  and  the 
establishment  of  the  town  of 
Nome  (q.  v.).  The  Fairbanks 
district  was  discovered  in  1902, 
Bonnifield  in  1903,  the  Kantishna 
in  1906,  and  the  Innoko  and 
Iditarod  in  1906-07.  In  addition 
to  placer  mining,  a  large  number 
of  lode  mines  are  worked.  The 
output  of  gold  in  1922  was 
380,769  fine  ounces,  valued  at 
$7,730,000.  Silver  production 
reached  730,000  fine  ounces, 
valued  at  $730,000. 

Copper  mining  dates  from 
1901  but  has  been  carried  on 
on  a  large  scale  only  since  1911. 
The  principal  districts  are  the 
Ketchikan  in  Southeast  Alaska, 
the  Copper  River  basin,  and 
Prince  William  Sound.  Because 
of  the  low  price  of  copper  in 
recent  years,  the  amount  mined 
in  Alaska  has  shown  a  decrease. 
In  1923  the  output  was  valued 
at  $12,630,335. 

There  are  three  chief  areas  of 
high-grade  coal  in  Alaska:  the 
Bering  River  field,  in  the  Con- 
troller Bay  region;  the  Matanus- 
ka  field,  north  of  Cook  Inlet; 
and  the  Nenana  field,  the  two 
latter  being  served  by  the 
Alaska  Railroad.      The  Bering 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


River  field  is  25  miles  from  tide 
water  at  Controller  Bay,  and 
so  far  as  surveyed  shows  26.4 
square  miles  of  anthracite  and 
20.2  square  miles  of  bitumi- 
nous coal.  The  Matanuska  field 
is  about  25  miles  from  tide  water 
at  Knik  Arm  (Cook  Inlet);  but 
as  this  is  frozen  in  winter,  the 
nearest  open  sea  port  at  that 
season  is  Resurrection  Bay  (150 
miles).  The  Matanuska  coal  is 
sub-bituminous  to  semi-bitumi- 
nous, with  some  anthracite.  The 
bed  mined  is  from  5  to  6  feet  in 
thickness.  As  railroad  construc- 
tion makes  the  coal  mines  more 
accessible,  production  shows  a 
steady  increase.  In  1924  Alaska 
produced,  from  twelve  mines, 
120,000  tons  of  coal,  the  largest 
annual  output  in  the  history  of 
the  Territory.  There  are  also 
great  fields  of  lignite,  and  peat 
is  widely  distributed,  the  climate 
favoring  its  production,  and  the 
great  tundras  appearing  to  be 
underlaid  with  peat  deposits. 
Petroleum  has  been  developed  in 
the  Cook  Inlet  and  Controller 
Bay  districts. 

The  total  mineral  production 
of  Alaska  for  the  year  1923  was 
valued  at  about  $20,330,643,  as 
compared  with  $19,506,365  in 
1922.  The  total  production  of 
petroleum,  marble,  gypsum,  plat- 
inum, tin,  and  antimony  in 
1924  was  valued  at  $234,113. 
Lead  valued  at  $57,400  was 
mined. 

Forestry, — The  forests  and 
woodlands  of  Alaska  cover  an 
area  estimated  at  about  156,- 
250  square  miles,  of  which  some 
31,250  square  miles  are  believed 
to  contain  timber  suitable  for 
manufacturing  purposes.  The 
most  valuable  trees  are  the  west- 
ern hemlock,  Sitka  spruce,  west- 
ern red  cedar,  and  yellow  cedar 
in  the  coast  forests,  and  the  white 
spruce,  white  birch,  poplar,  bal- 
sam poplar,  black  cottonwood, 
and  aspen  in  the  interior.  The 
two  great  national  forests,  the 
Tongass  National  Forest  and  the 
Chugach  Reserve,  cover  about 
32,000  square  miles,  the  total 
stand  of  timber  being  estimated 
at  75,000,000,000  board  feet, 
which  includes  the  great  bulk  of 
merchantable  lumber  in  Alaska. 

In  the  fiscal  year  1922  a  total 
of  23,942,000  feet  of  timber, 
yieldi'ig  $41,400,  was  cut  from 
the  national  forests  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  In  the  same 
year,  106,000  feet  were  cut  for 
use  by  the  government  railway. 
During  1923,  a  total  of  31,171,000 
feet  were  cut,  and  sold  at  $53,- 
050.  The  merits  of  Sitka  spruce 
for  aeroplane  construction  having 
been  proved  by  investigation,  a 
number  of  large  contracts  were 
let  for  that  purpose. 

Fisheries  and  Furs — The  fish- 
eries of  Alaska  are  exceedingly 
rich.    Salmon    fisheries  extend 


from  Ketchikan  in  Southeast 
Alaska  along  some  2,000  miles 
of  shore,  to  Bristol  Bay  and 
beyond,  and  are  extremely  im- 
portant, the  annual  catch  being 
approximately  390,460,000  lbs. 
Halibut  fishing  is  carried  on 
off  the  shores  of  Southeastern 
Alaska;  codfish  banks,  said  to  be 
the  most  extensive  in  the  world, 
are  located  along  both  shores  of 
the  Alaska  Peninsula,  and  her- 
ring abound.  Whales  are  also 
caught,  these  and  herring  being 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  oil 
and  fertilizer.  In  1923  fisheries 
gave  employment  to  25,246 
persons,  represented  an  invest- 
ment of  $60,039,677,  and  yielded 
products  worth  $38,678,825;  84 
per  cent,  of  the  total  investment 
was  represented  by  the  salmon 
industry. 

Alaska  has  long  been  an  im- 
portant source  of  furs,  which 
have  been  collected  by  Russian 
and  American  agencies  for  over 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  The 
most  important  of  these  have 
been  the  pelts  of  the  fur  seals  of 
the  Pribylov  Islands  in  Bering 
Sea.  Open  sea  or  pelagic  sealing 
and  indiscriminate  killing  did 
much  to  reduce  the  seal  herds, 
but  in  recent  years  government 
protective  measures  have  brought 
about  a  gradual  increase  in  their 
numbers.  The  leasing  system 
under  which  sealing  was  formerly 
conducted  was  aboUshed  in  1910, 
and  under  the  present  laws  all 
sealing  is  carried  on  under  the 
authority  of  the  Secretary  of 
Commerce.  In  1923  the  Priby- 
lov seal  herd  contained  653,008 
animals  of  all  ages — an  increase 
of  48,036  over  1922.  An  ar- 
rangement exists  whereby  Japan 
and  Great  Britain  are  each  en- 
titled to  15  per  cent,  of  the  skins 
obtained  each  year.  (See  Seal 
Fisheries.) 

Other  valuable  Alaskan  furs 
are  fox,  bear,  ermine,  muskrat, 
mink,  lynx,  marten,  and  otter. 
Fur  farming  is  now  considered 
to  be  upon  a  permanent  basis  in 
Alaska.  In  1925  there  were 
more  than  400  fur  farms  in  the 
Territory,  employing  about  2,500 
persons.  The  estimated  number 
of  animals  was  43,000.  The  kill- 
ing of  all  fur-bearing  animals  is 
under  strict  government  regula- 
tion. 

Agriculture  and  Stock  Raising. 

— The  agricultural  capacity  of 
Alaska  is  surprisingly  large,  the 
total  area  suitable  for  cultiva- 
tion or  grazing,  when  cleared, 
being  estimated  at  about  100,000 
square  miles.  In  1920  (the 
latest  official  census)  there  were 
364  farms,  containing  90,652 
acres;  all  farm  property  was 
valued  at  $1,808,641.  In  1919 
hay  and  forage  was  the  leading 
agricultural  product,  being 
valued  at  $219,075;  potatoes 
were  valued  at  $97,556;  other 


Alaska 


129 


Alaska 


vegetables — cabbage,  turnips, 
carrots,  celery,  tomatoes,  etc. — 
at  $53,211;  cereals  at  $21,441. 

Cattle  on  the  farms  in  Alaska 
in  1920  numbered  640;  in  stables, 
445;  horses  on  farms,  385;  in 
stables,  1,063.  The  reindeer  in- 
dustry was  established  by  the 
government  in  1897-1902,  and 
is  carried  on  under  the  direction 
of  the  U.  S,  Department  of  the 
Interior,  the  reindeer  being  dis- 
tributed among  the  natives  under 
a  system  of  apprenticeship.  The 
total  number  of  reindeer  in  1923 
was  estimated  at  300,000,  valued 


in  1919,  104  establishments,  with 
products  valued  at  $39,161,000. 
The  value  of  lumber  products 
(1919)  was  $950,000,  of  all  other 
manufactures  $1,384,000. 

Transportation  and  Communi- 
cation.— The  development  of 
Alaska  has  been  greatly  hamper- 
ed by  inadequate  transportation 
facilities.  There  are  (1924) 
about  818  miles  of  railroad,  of 
which  the  principal  lines  are  the 
White  Pass  and  Yukon,  which 
extends  from  Skagway  to  the 
Canadian  boundary  and  thence 
to  White    Horse,   Canada;  the 


Fairbanks  (275  miles)  and  for 
200  miles  further  for  vessels  of 
hght  draft;  and  the  Kuskokwim 
for  800  miles,  while  lesser  streams 
are  navigable  for  shorter  dis- 
tances. 

Roads  and  trails  are  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Alaska  Road 
Commission  and  the  Territorial 
Road  Supervisors.  The  Com- 
mission, up  to  June  1924,  had 
constructed  1,498  miles  of  wagon 
roads,  1,088  miles  of  sled  roads, 
6,326  miles  of  permanent  trails, 
and  712  miles  of  temporary 
flagged  trails. 


Copyright  by  Brown  Brotlicrs,  Mew  Yurn. 

Shipping  Supplies  through  the  Rapids  of  the  Tanana  River,  Alaska 


at  $7,500,000,  or  $300,000  more 
than  the  sum  paid  by  the  United 
States  for  the  Territory. 

Manufactures. — In  1919  Alas- 
ka had  147  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, which  gave  employ- 
ment to  an  average  of  7,316 
persons  during  the  year,  and  paid 
out  $10,896,000  in  salaries  and 
wages.  These  establishments 
turned  out  products  to  the  value 
of  $41,495,000,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  which,  materials  costing 
$19,482,000  were  utilized.  Alaska 
leads  all  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories in  the  production  of  canned 
and  preserved  fish.  In  1909 
there  were  46  establishments 
devoted  to  the  industry,  with 
products  valued  at  $9,190,000; 


Copper  River  and  Northwestern 
(197  miles),  from  Cordova  on  the 
coast  to  the  Kennecott-Bonanza 
copper  mine  in  the  Chitina 
Valley;  the  Alaska  Railroad  with 
its  branches  (509  miles),  officially 
completed  on  July  15,  1923. 
Improved  railway  facilities  are 
not  only  rapidly  increasing  min- 
eral production  and  trade,  but 
have  stimulated  tourist  travel  to 
a  marked  degree. 

River  steamers  and  wagon 
roads,  sled  roads,  and  trails,  are 
also  important  factors  in  Alas- 
kan transportation.  During  a 
portion  of  the  year  the  Yukon  is 
navigable,  as  far  as  White  Horse 
in  Canada  (2,200  miles);  the 
Tanana  River  from  Tanana  to 


There  are  about  140  post 
offices,  and  postal  service  is 
maintained  throughout  the  in- 
terior the  year  round.  Telegraph 
cables  run  from  Seattle  to  Skag- 
way, Juneau,  Sitka,  and  Valdez. 
and  from  the  last-named  port 
overland  to  the  towns  and  mili- 
tary posts  on  the  Yukon;  and 
land  lines  or  wireless  telegraphs 
connect  these  with  Nome  and 
St.  Michael.  These  lines  were 
built  and  are  maintained  by  the 
Signal  Service  of  the  U.  vS.  Army. 
There  is  also  telegraph  connec- 
tion between  Alaskan  towns 
and  with  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  Navy  radio  serv- 
ice renders  valuable  assistance 
during  unavoidable  cable  inter- 


VoL.  I. — Mar.  '26 


Alaska 


130 


Alaska 


ruptions.  The  Washington-Alas- 
ka military  cable  facilitates 
government  and  commercial 
communication. 

A  constant  service  of  steam- 
ships is  maintained  between  the 
Puget  Sound  ports  and  Southern 
Alaska;  but  Nome,  St.  Michael, 
and  the  Kuskokwim  River  ports 
can  be  reached  only  between 
July  and  September. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of 
Alaska  is  confined  principally  to 
the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Within  the  fiscal  year  1923  the 
value  of  the  merchandise  re- 
ceived from  the  United  States 
was  $30,781,206;  exports  to  the 
United  States  were  valued  at 
$54,878,426,  including  fish, 
valued  at  $35,829,422  and  cop- 
per, at  $13,347,740. 

Finance. — Alaska  has  no  pro- 
vision for  taxing  real  or  personal 
property,  except  in  municipali- 
ties, where  personal  property  and 
real  estate  may  be  taxed  2  per 
cent,  for  municipal  purposes 
only.  The  revenues  come  from 
licenses  to  conduct  various  busi- 
nesses. The  Territory  has  no 
funded  debt. 

Banks. — Alaska  has  14  terri- 
torial banks  and  3  national 
banks,  under  the  supervision  of  a 
Territorial  Banking  Board, 
created  by  act  of  the  territorial 
legislature  in  1913,  and  consist- 
ing of  the  governor,  the  terri- 
torial treasurer,  and  the  secre- 
tary of  the  Territory.  Inspection 
of  the  banks  takes  place  at  least 
once  each  year,  and  banks  must 
report  their  condition  to  the 
banking  board  at  least  four 
times  a  year  upon  call,  or  oftener, 
according  to  the  discretion  of  the 
board.  The  report  for  the  fiscal 
vear  1924  showed  aggregate 
deposits  of  $6,609,427  in  the 
territorial  banks,  a  combined 
capital  of  $605,000,  and  a  total 
surplus  and  profits  of  $417,609. 

Population. — In  1920  the  popu- 
lation of  Alaska  was  55,036, 
apportioned  as  follows:  white, 
27,883;  Indian,  26,558;  Chinese, 
56;  Japanese,  312;  Negro,  128; 
all  others,  99.  In  1920  males 
numbered  34,539,  and  females 
20,497.  Of  the  Indians,  13,698 
were  Eskimos,  4,657  Athapas- 
cans, 3,895  Tlingits,  and  2,942 
Aleuts.  In  1910  the  population 
numbered  64,356.  Some  20,000 
persons  not  included  in  the 
census  enumeration  spend  a  few 
months  each  year  in  Alaska,  em- 
ployed in  railroad  construction, 
canneries,  and  mines. 

The  Indian  population  is  near- 
ly all  native.  The  Eskimos,  who 
are  slowly  decreasing  in  num- 
bers, inhabit  the  northern  coasts. 
They  are  skilled  boatmen  and 
hunters;  many  of  them  are  em- 
ployed in  the  Nome  region.  (vSee 
Eskimos.)  The  Aleuts,  an  allied 
tribe,  inhaliit  the  Aleutian  Isl- 
ands and  the  Alaskan  Peninsula 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


(see  Aleuts);  the  Tlingits  and 
Haidas  are  found  in  Southeast- 
ern Alaska  (see  Tlingit);  the 
Athapascans  (q.  v.)  dwell  princi- 
pally in  the  interior.  Many  of 
these  tribes  are  employed  in  the 
fisheries,  and  as  helpers  in  mines, 
mills,  and  on  steamboats;  while 
in  winter  they  do  a  large  part  of 
the  local  transportation  by  dog 
train. 

There  are  17  incorporated 
towns  in  the  Territory.  In  1920 
the  largest  towns,  with  their 
population,  were:  Juneau  (capi- 
tal), 3,058;  Ketchikan,  2,458; 
Anchorage,  1,856;  Sitka,  1,175; 
Fairbanks,  1,155;  Cordova,  955; 
Douglas,  919;  Petersburg,  879; 
Nome,  852;  Wrangell,  821;  and 
Seward,  652. 

Education. — Schools  are  main- 
tained in  all  the  incorporated 
towns.  They  are  supported  by 
local  license  fees  and  appropri- 
ation from  the  territorial  treas- 
ury, augmented  by  approxi- 
mately $50,000  from  the  Alaska 
fund.  Provision  is  made  in  these 
schools  for  industrial  training. 
The  Presbyterian,  Roman  Catho- 
lic, Methodist,  Episcopal,  Rus- 
sian Orthodox,  and  other  churches 
provide  additional  educational 
facilities. 

By  an  act  of  Congress  ap- 
proved March  3,  1917,  the  con- 
trol of  the  public  schools  of 
Alaska  was  transferred  to  the 
Territory,  and  immediately  after- 
wards certain  laws  regarding 
schools  were  enacted  by  the 
legislature,  the  act  instituting 
citizenship  night  schools  being  a 
step  toward  the  Americanization 
of  the  foreign-language  peoples. 
During  1923-4,  in  the  56  schools 
outside  incorporated  towns,  there 
were  1,186  pupils  and  70  teachers. 
The  17  schools  in  incorporated 
towns  reported  2,744  pupils  and 
120  teachers.  The  total  cost  of 
instruction  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1923,  was  $387,679.  In 
1920,  24.8  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation were  illiterate.  The  Alaska 
Agricultural  College  and  School 
of  Mines  was  opened  in  Sep- 
tember 1922,  and  in  1924  re- 
ported an  enrollment  of  84 
students,  with  a  faculty  of  12 
professors. 

Government. — By  Act  of  Con- 
gress of  August  24,  1912,  organ- 
ized territorial  government  was 
granted  to  Alaska.  The  legis- 
lature consists  of  a  Senate  of  8 
members,  two  from  each  judicial 
district,  and  a  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  16  members,  four 
from  each  judicial  district.  The 
first  session  of  the  legislature 
convened  at  Juneau,  the  capital, 
on  March  3,  1913.  Regular 
sessions  are  held  biennially,  and 
special  .sessions  may  be  called  by 
the  governor.  Inasmuch  as  Con- 
gress has  reserved  the  right  to 
legislate  on  certain  subjects,  the 
Territory  may  be   said   to  be 


governed  jointly  by  the  local 
legislature  and  Congress  at 
Washington.  The  governor  is 
appointed  by  the  President,  and 
has  the  power  of  veto,  which 
may  be  over-ridden  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  both  houses. 

Alaska  is  constituted,  for  the 
administration  of  justice,  as  a 
judicial  district  having  four  sub- 
divisions, with  centres  at  Juneau, 
Nome,  Valdez,  and  Fairbanks, 
and  with  four  courts.  The  Terri- 
tory is  represented  in  Congress 
by  one  delegate,  who  has  no 
vote. 

History. — The  earliest  histori- 
cal date  connected  with  Alaska 
is  1648,  when  Deshneff,  rounding 
Asia,  navigated  Bering  Strait. 
In  1731  GwosdefT,  a  Russian, 
visited  the  Alaskan  Coast.  But 
the  discovery  of  Alaska  is  gen- 
erally accredited  to  Vitrus  Bering 
(q.  v.),  a  Danish  navigator  in  the 
employ  of  Russia,  who  with 
Chirikoflf  reached  the  Alaskan 
Coast  at  Controller  Bay  near 
Mount  Saint  Elias  in  1741.  In 
1778  the  English  navigator.  Cap- 
tain James  Cook  (q.  v.),  explored 
the  Alaskan  Coas.  as  far  as  Ber- 
ing vStrait.  Vancouver  conducted 
explorations  along  the  coast  in 
1793-4,  and  Franklin  and  Beech- 
ey  in  1826. 

The  first  permanent  settle- 
ment was  made  at  Three  Saints' 
Bay,  on  Kodiak  Island,  by  a 
Russian  trading  company  in 
1783.  In  1799  the  Russian- 
American  Company  was  granted 
a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  by 
royal  charter;  and  the  company 
established  posts  at  Kodiak 
(1792),  Sitka  (1804),  and  other 
points.  This  company  main- 
tained full  control  of  Alaska  un- 
til 1862,  when  owing  to  abuses  its 
charter  was  revoked.  The  Rus- 
sian Government,  however,  took 
no  steps  to  abolish  the  company, 
and  it  remained  in  control. 

In  May  1867  a  treaty  was 
signed  between  the  United  States 
and  Russia,  whereby  Alaska  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States  for 
$7,200,000  in  gold;  and  on  Oct. 
18,  1867,  the  formal  transfer  took 
place  at  Sitka.  For  a  number  of 
years  the  country  was  governed 
by  an  officer  of  the  U.  S.  Array  or 
Navy  stationed  at  Sitka;  and  it 
was  not  until  1884  that  Congress 
made  provision  for  a  civil  gov- 
ernment. 

In  1883  and  1885  two  U.  S. 
Army  officers,  Lieuts.  Frederick 
Schwatka  and  Henry  T.  Allen, 
made  extensive  explorations  of 
the  interior.  The  discovery  of 
gold  in  the  Klondike  (see  Yukon 
Gold  Fields)  in  1896  and  at 
Nome  (q.  v.)  in  1899  attracted 
large  numbers  of  prospectors  to 
Alaska,  and  led  to  systematic 
explorations  by  the  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey.  In  1901  a  survey 
party  traversed  Alaska  from  the 
southerly  limits  to  Point  Barrow. 


Alaska 


131 


Alatrl 


Much  of  the  Territory,  how- 
ever, is  still  unmapped  and  un- 
known geologically. 

When  Alaska  was  acquired  by 
the  United  States,  its  eastern 
boundary  with  Canada  was  in 
dispute.  In  1903  a  commission 
composed  of  representatives  of 
the  United  States,  Canada,  and 
Great  Britain  met  at  London  and 
decided  the  principal  points  in 
favor  of  the  United  States  (see 
Alaska  Boundary  Dispute). 

The  government  has  aided  in 
the  development  of  the  Territory 
by  conduct' ng  experiment  sta- 
tions, under  the  direction  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  for 
the  testing  of  grains  and  other 
seeds  suitable  to  the  climate;  by 
establishing  breeding  stations  for 
cattle;  and  by  encouraging  the 
reindeer  industry  among  the  na- 
tives. The  Coast,  Geological, 
and  Geodetic  Surveys  have  also 
done  valuable  work,  including 
the  extension  of  the  lighthouse 
system  and  important  explora- 
tions. 

The  first  territorial  legislature 
convened  in  1913  and  passed 
measures  for  the  creation  of  a 
territorial  treasury,  the  extension 
of  the  elective  franchise  to  wom- 
en, and  laws  for  the  protection  of 
labor.  More  recent  legislation 
includes  a  direct  primary  act;  an 
act  appropriating  $100,000  for 
defense;  an  act  to  establish  a 
uniform  school  system  and  creat- 
ing a  Territorial  Board  of  Edu- 
cation and  the  office  of  Commis- 
sioner of  Education;  and  an  act 
to  provide  night  schools  to  fit 
adult  aliens  for  United  States 
citizenship.  Following  a  general 
election  of  Nov.  7,  1916,  at 
which  a  prohibition  referendum 
was  carried  by  a  large  majority. 
Congress  in  February  1917 
passed  a  law  making  Alaska 
'bone-dry.' 

Alaska  Coal  Lands  Dispute. — 
Considering  its  abundant  re- 
sources, the  growth  of  Alaska  has 
been  somewhat  disappointing. 
One  of  the  principal  causes  has 
been  the  lack  of  transportation 
facilities  (see  section  on  Trans- 
portation, above),  the  other  the 
restrictions  placed  on  the  devel- 
opment of  the  coal  lands  and 
other  great  natural  resources. 
After  the  discovery  of  the  great 
coal  fields  of  Alaska  (see  section 
on  Mining,  above),  the  U.  S. 
Government  passed  regulations 
(1904)  which  permitted  individ- 
uals to  enter  claims  of  160  acres 
each,  and  between  1904  and  1906 
about  1,000  such  entries  were 
made,  covering  nearly  all  the  de- 
posits of  the  Bering  River  field. 
Most  of  the  claims  were  entered 
by  agents  in  the  names  of  men 
who  had  never  seen  the  lands, 
and  these  claims  passed  into  the 
hands  of  a  few  large  groups  or 
syndicates,  so  that  grave  fears  of 
a  monopoly  were  entertained.  In 


view  of  this  contingency.  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  in  1906  withdrew 
all  coal  lands  from  further  entry, 
and  withheld  the  patents  on 
those  claims  already  filed. 

In  particular  the  claims  of  one 
of  the  largest  syndicates,  known 
as  the  'Cunningham  Group,'  be- 
came the  subject  of  an  investiga- 
tion which  covered  a  period  of 
seven  years.  In  December  1907, 
after  a  series  of  inquiries,  Richard 
Ballinger  (q.  v.).  Commissioner 
of  the  U.  S.  Land  Office,  clear- 
listed  those  claims;  but  a  few 
weeks  later  revoked  his  order 
upon  protest  by  Louis  R.  Glavis, 
chief  of  the  Field  Division  at 
Portland.  In  March  1909  Bal- 
linger became  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  and  in  September  Glavis 
openly  charged  him  and  other 
officials  of  the  Interior  Depart- 
ment with  unduly  favoring  the 
Cunningham  claims.  Glavis  was 
dismissed,  and  Gifi"ord  Pinchot 
(q.  v.).  Chief  Forester,  who  had 
espoused  his  cause,  was  removed 
by  President  Taft.  A  Congres- 
sional Committee  thereupon  in- 
vestigated the  afi'air,  and  by  a 
party  vote  exonerated  Ballinger 
(see  Conservation).  On  June 
26,  1911,  the  Cunningham  claims 
were  finally  cancelled,  and  the 
cancellation  of  nearly  all  the 
other  claims  followed,  thus  clos- 
ing the  lands  to  private  enter- 
prise. The  disposition  of  these 
lands  was  the  subject  of  much 
discussion,  three  plans  for  their 
development  being  suggested— 
sale  of  the  lands,  operation  under 
lease  hy  private  companies,  and 
government  operation.  An  act 
providing  for  lease  of  the  lands, 
under  heavy  restrictions,  was 
passed  in  1914.  See  Alaska 
Boundary  Dispute;  Aleuts; 
Eskimos;  Seal  Fisheries; 
Tlingit;  Yukon  Gold  Fields. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Ban- 
croft's History  of  Alaska;  Bur- 
roughs' Harriman  Alaska  Expe- 
dition (6  vols.) ;  Foster's  The 
Alaskan  Boundary;  Baker's  Geo- 
graphic Dictionary  of  Alaska; 
Brooks'  Geography  and  Geology  of 
Alaska;  Higginson's  Alaska,  the 
Great  Country  (1909);  Under- 
wood's Alaska:  An  Empire  in  the 
Making  (1913);  Greely's  Hand- 
book of  Alaska  (new  ed.,  1914); 
Tuttle's  Alaska:  Its  Meaning  to 
the  World,  Its  Resources,  Its  Op- 
portunities (1914);  Alaska,  Our 
Frontier  Wonderland  (1917),  is- 
sued by  the  Alaska  Bureau  of  the 
vSeattle  Chamber  of  Commerce; 
publications  of  the  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment (Geological  Survey,  Bureau 
of  Fisheries,  War  Department, 
Bureau  of  Education,  and  Thir- 
teenth Census) ;  Reports  of  the 
Governor  of  Alaska. 

Alaska  Iloundary  Dispute,  a 
dispute  involving  the  interpreta- 
tion of  certain  words  in  the 
Anglo-Russian  treaty  of  182,5  de- 
fining the  respective  boundaries 


of  Alaska  and  Canada  between 
Mt.  St.  Elias  and  the  Portland 
Canal.  According  to  the  terms 
of  the  treaty  this  section  of  the 
boundary  line  ran  from  the 
southern  extremity  of  Prince  of 
Wales  Island  along  Portland 
Canal  to  the  56th  parallel,  and 
thence  along  the  summit  of  the 
mountains  parallel  with  the  coast 
to  the  141st  meridian,  or,  where 
the  summit  of  the  mountains 
was  more  than  10  marine  leagues 
from  the  ocean,  along  a  line  par- 
allel with  the  coast  and  10  marine 
leagues  therefrom.  This  line  was 
accepted  as  the  boundary  by  the 
United  States  upon  its  purchase 
of  the  Territory  in  1867,  and  the 
matter  was  not  called  in  question 
till  about  1888,  when  Canada 
claimed  that  the  ten  marine 
leagues  specified  should  be  meas- 
ured not  from  the  actual  shore 
line  but  from  a  fine  drawn  from 
headland  to  headland  directly 
across  such  arms  of  the  sea  as 
Glacier  Bay  and  Lynn  Canal. 
This  claim  was  disputed  by  the 
United  States,  and  in  1903  a  tri- 
bunal of  three  British  (including 
two  Canadians)  and  three  Amer- 
ican jurists  sat  in  London  to 
settle  the  meaning  of  the  treaty. 
The  decision,  which  was  arrived 
at  by  a  vote  of  four  to  two.  Lord 
Alverstone,  the  English  repre- 
sentative, voting  with  the  Amer- 
icans, was  based  on  the  motive 
of  the  treaty,  rather  than  upon  a 
literal  interpretation,  and  the 
award  was  made  in  October, 
practically  sustaining  the  United 
States  claims.  Canada  lost  the 
sea  coast  north  of  54°  40',  but 
was  awarded  the  main  entrance 
to  Portland  Canal.  Consult 
Report  of  the  Alaskan  Boundary 
Commission. 

Alaska  Sable,  the  name  given 
to  the  fur  of  the  skunk  when  dyed. 

Alaska- Yukon-Pacific  Exposi- 
tion. See  Exhibitions;  Seattle. 

Alassio,  a-las'se-6,  commune, 
Liguria,  Italy,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Genoa;  58  miles  southwest  of 
Genoa.  It  is  much  frequented 
as  a  health  resort.  Pop.  (1921) 
5,600. 

Alas'tor,  the  name  given  to 
Zeus  as  the  avenging  deity,  to 
the  Furies,  and  to  one  of  Satan's 
ministers. 

Ala-tau,  ii-la-tou'  ('mottled'), 
a  range  of  lofty  mountains  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  Turk- 
estan and  Mongolia,  and  the 
northerly  limit  of  the  great 
tableland  of  Central  Asia.  The 
five  sierra-like  granite  sub-range-^ 
are  grouped  around  Lake  Issik- 
kul  (elevation,  5,300  feet)  as  a 
central  point.  Their  elevation  is 
from  10,000  to  15,000  feet;  the 
loftiest  peak,  Khan  Tengri,  is 
24,000  feet. 

Alatri,  ii-la'tre,  town,  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Rome,  on  the 
River  Cosa;  45  miles  southeast 
of  Rome.    It  is  located  on  the 

'Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Alatyr 


132 


Albanl 


site  of  the  ancient  Aletrium  and 
contains  well  preserved  fortifi- 
cations of  an  ancient  city.  It  is 
also  remarkable  for  its  remains  of 
Cyclopean  walls,  and  for  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore, 
which  contains  specimens  of 
wood  carving  of  the.  twelfth 
century.  The  chief  industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  cloth  and 
tapestry.    Pop.  7,000. 

Alatyr,  a-la-ter',  or  Alatuir, 
town,  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Simbirsk,  on  the  River  Sura; 
102  miles  northwest  of  vSim- 
birsk.  Industries  include  mill- 
ing, brewing,  and  brick  making. 
The  town  was  founded  bv  Ivan 
the  Terrible  in  1552.  Pop.  25,600. 

Alatyr  River,  in  East  Russia 
CVolga  basin),  rises  in  the  Penza 
hills,  flows  east  across  Nijni- 
Novgorod  government,  and  falls 
into  the  Sura  at  Alatyi. 

Alausi,  a-lou-se',  town,  Ecua- 
dor, Chimborazo  province,  on  the 
Alausi  River,  and  on  the  Guay- 
aquil and  Quito  railway;  89 
miles  east  of  Guayaquil,  at  an 
elevation  of  7,500  feet.  Sulphur 
is  mined  near  by,  and  the  valley 
produces  corn,  wheat,  and  fruit. 
Cotton  cloth  is  manufactured. 
Pop.  (est.  1922)  2,500. 

Alava,  a'la-va,  the  southern 
and  largest,  but  most  sparsely 
populated,  of  the  three  Basque 
provinces  of  Spain.  The  surface 
is  extremely  mountainous,  form- 
ing a  series  of  terraces  of  the 
Cantabrian  Range,  trending 
south  to  the  River  Ebro.  The 
climate  is  mild  in  summer,  but 
the  winter  cold  is  extreme.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  the  inhabitants, 
who  are  chiefly  Basques,  are  en- 
gaged in  agriculture.  Along  the 
Ebro  fruits  and  wine  are  pro- 
duced, while  the  other  valleys 
yield  good  crops  of  maize  and 
hemp.  Cattle  and  sheep  are 
grazed  on  the  uplands;  iron,  cop- 
per, and  lead  are  mined.  The 
capital  is  Vitoria.  Area,  1,175 
sq.  mi.    Pop.  (est.  1922)  99,426. 

Alava,  Don  Miguel  Ricardo 
DE  (1771-1843),  Spanish  general, 
was  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Vitoria.  At  first  a  supporter  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  he  deserted  to 
the  winning  side  in  1811,  and  at- 
tracted the  favorable  notice  of 
Wellington,  who  made  him  a 
general  of  brigade.  Upon  the  res- 
toration of  Ferdinand  vii.  he  was 
imprisoned,  but  was  soon  after- 
ward released  and  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  The  Hague.  He 
returned  to  vSpain,  and  in  1820, 
after  the  revolution,  was  sent  as 
a  deputy  to  the  Cortes,  and  be- 
came a  leader  in  the  party  of  the 
Exaltados.  He  was  instrumen- 
tal in  securing  the  restoration  of 
Ferdinand,  and  was  subsequent- 
ly a  refugee  in  (ireat  Britain,  but 
was  recalled  by  the  regent  Maria 
Christina  (1833),  and  appointed 
ambassador  to  London  (1834) 
and  Paris  (1835). 

Vol.  I. — Mar.  '26 


Alb,  or  Albe  (Latin  albus, 
'white'),  a  white  linen  vestment 
worn  by  the  priest  and  his  assist- 
ants at  the  Holy  Communion. 
It  has  narrower  sleeves  than  the 
surplice,  and  is  bound  about  the 
waist  by  a  cincture.  In  the  an- 
cient church,  newly  baptized  per- 
sons were  obliged  to  wear  a  sim- 
ilar garment  for  eight  days — 
hence  catechumens  were  called 
albati;  and  the  Sunday  after 
Easter,  on  which  they  usually 
received  baptism,  came  to  be 
called  Dominica  in  Albis. 

Al'ba  (ancient  Alba  Pompeia), 
town  and  episcopal  see,  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Cuneo,  on  the 
River  Tanaro;  42  miles  south- 
west of  Alessandria.  It  is  a 
wine-growing  town,  and  the 
birthplace  of  Macrino  d'Alba,  the 
painter.  The  Cathedral  dates 
from  1486.     Pop.  9,000. 

Alba,  Duke  of.    See  Alva. 

Albacete,  al-ba-tha'te,  prov- 
ince. Southeastern  Spain.  The 
northern  part  consists  of  high 
plains,  the  southern  part  is  moun- 
tainous; the  climate  is  generally 
healthful.  Cereals,  especially 
wheat,  many  kinds  of  fruit,  ol- 
ives, and  the  grape  are  culti- 
vated; and  stock  raising  is  car- 
ried on.  Silver,  iron,  copper,  sul- 
phur, and  coal  are  mined.  Man- 
ufactures include  hemp  spinning, 
cloth  making,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  porcelain,  earthenware, 
and  cutlery.  Area,  5,737  square 
miles.     Pop.  (1920)  299,446. 

Albacete,  town,  Spain,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Albacete,  on 
the  railway  from  Madrid  to 
Murcia;  138  miles  southeast  of 
Madrid,  at  an  altitude  of  2,250 
feet.  It  is  famous  for  its  cutlery, 
especially  its  daggers,  the  blades 
of  which  are  engraved  with  sug- 
gestive inscriptions.  There  is 
trade  in  agricultural  products. 
Pop.  (1921)  31,960. 

Al'bacore.    See  Tunny. 

Al'ba  Lon'ga,  the  most  ancient 
city  of  Latium,  situated  on  a 
rocky  ridge  that  runs  along  the 
shore  of  the  Alban  Lake;  about 
20  miles  east  of  Rome.  Accord- 
ing to  legendary  history,  it  was 
built  by  Ascanius,  the  son  of 
^neas,  about  300  years  before 
the  foundation  of  Rome,  which  is 
represented  as  a  colony  of  Alba 
Longa.  It  was  destroyed  during 
the  reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius, 
and  its  inhabitants  were  removed 
to  Rome.  Good  reasons  have 
been  advanced  for  placing  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city  on  the 
south  of  the  lake,  near  Castel 
Gandolfo,  where  remains  of  a 
remarkable  archaic  necropolis 
were  unearthed  in  1817. 

Alban,  61'bcn,  St.,  according 
to  legend  the  first  British  martyr, 
was  born  at  Vcrulamium  in  the 
third  century.  After  a  jc^urncy  to 
Rome,  in  company  with  Amphi- 
balus,  he  adopted  the  Christian 
religion,  and  suffered  martyrdom 


between  286  and  303,  during  the 
reign  of  Diocletian.  Offa,  king 
of  the  Mercians,  erected  in  his 
memory  a  monastery  near  Veru- 
lamium,  and  around  it  grew  up 
the  modern  St.  Albans  (q.  v.). 

Alban  Hills,  or  Mountains,  in 
Italy,  a  volcanic  range  which 
overlooks  the  Campagna,  15  to 
20  miles  east  of  Rome.  The 
slopes  of  the  hills  (2,500  feet)  are 
for  the  most  part  covered  with 
woods,  groves,  and  orchards,  and 
the  summits  are  crowned  with 
numerous  small  towns — e.g.,  Al- 
bano,  Ariccia,  Frascati,  Castel 
Gandolfo,  Genzano.  On  the  south 
edge  of  the  girdle  are  the  crater 
lakes  of  Albano  and  Nemi 
(qq.  v.). 

Albani,  ol'ba-ni,  Roman  family 
which  in  the  fifteenth  century 
was  driven  by  the  Turks  from 
Albania,  and  took  refuge  in  Italy. 
It  produced  a  Pope,  Clement 
XI.  (q.  v.),  and  five  cardinals: 
Giovanni  Gerolamo  (1504-91), 
author  of  several  works  on  juris- 
prudence; Annibale  (1682- 
1751),  author  of  Memorie  sopra 
la  citta  d'Urbino;  Alessandro 
(1692-1779),  who  formed  the 
famous  collection  of  objects  of 
art  in  the  Villa  Albani,  at  Rome; 
Giovanni  Francesco  (1727- 
1803),  bishop  of  Ostia,  and  car- 
dinal when  only  twenty-seven; 
Giuseppe  (1750-1834),  a  patron 
of  music. 

Albani,  Madame  (nee  Marie 
Louise  Emma  Cecile  Lajeu- 
nesse)  (1852-  ),  soprano  vo- 
calist, was  born  in  Chambly, 
near  Montreal,  Canada.  She 
was  trained  in  music  by  her 
father,  Joseph  Lajeunesse,  and 
at  the  age  of  twelve  made  her 
debut  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  from 
which  she  assumed  the  profes- 
sional name  of  'Albani.'  She 
studied  later  in  Paris  and  Milan, 
and  in  1870  sang  in  Messina 
with  a  success  that  was  after- 
ward repeated  in  London  and 
Paris,  the  United  States,  Russia, 
and  elsewhere.  She  retired  from 
public  singing  in  1911  and  de- 
voted herself  to  teaching.  She 
published  •  Fforty   Years  of  Song 

Albani,  or  Akban6,  Frances- 
co (1578-1660),  Bolognese  paint- 
er; studied  under  Calvaert  and 
Ludovico  Carracci.  He  painted 
about  forty-five  altar-pieces;  but 
preferred  idyllic  scenes  from  an- 
cient mythology  or  from  contem- 
porary pastoral  poetry.  His 
twelve  children  were  of  extraor- 
dinary beauty,  and  served  him  as 
models  for  his  Venuses,  Galateas, 
and  angels'  heads.  His  works 
are  in  the  Louvre,  and  in  Flor- 
ence, Dresden,  London,  Milan, 
Turin,  and  Petrograd  (Lenin- 
grad). 

Albani,  Matthias  (1621-73). 
celebrated  Tyrolese  violin  maker, 
a  native  of  Bozen,  was  trained  by 
Staincr.    The  tone  of  his  instru- 


Copyright,  iqiq,  by  Brown  Brothers. 

Copper  River  Bridge  on  the  Copper  River  and  Northwestern  Railroad. 


Copyright,  191Q,  by  Brown  Brothers. 

Lake  Kenai  on  the  U.  S.  Government  Railroad. 

VIEWS  OF  ALASKA. 

Vol.  L— Mar.  '19.  Vol.  L— at  Page  130. 


V 


Albania 


133 


Albany 


merits  is  more  remarkable  for 
power  than  for  quality.  His  son, 
Matthias,  gained  experience  un- 
der the  great  violin  makers  of 
Cremona,  and  finally  settled  at 
Rome.  His  best  violins  arejhardly 
inferior  to  those  of  the  Amatis. 

Albania,  al-ba'ni-a,  an  inde- 
pendent country  of  Southern  Eu- 
rope, stretching  along  the  west 
shore  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
(q.v.);  area,  about  11,000  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  and  east  by  provinces  of 
the  Serb-Croat-Slovene  State 
(Montenegro  on  the  north  and 
Serbia  on  the  east);  on  the  east 
and  the  south  by  Greece;  and  on 
the  west  by  Montenegro  and  the 
Adriatic  Sea. 

The  country  is  traversed  by  a 
number  of  mountain  ranges,  and 
is  high  and  rugged  in  the  interior, 
although  low  and  swampy  toward 
the  coast.  The  climate  is  temper- 
ate and  healthful  in  the  high- 
lands, and  the  soil  is  generally 
fertile.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Drin,  Semeni,  and  the  Viosa; 
the  largest  lake  is  the  Lake  of 
Ohrida. 

The  principal  industries  are 
agriculture  and  stock  raising,  the 
chief  products  of  the  country  be- 
ing tobacco,  wool,  olive  oil, 
timber  and  cattle.  The  small 
areas  now  under  cultivation  are 
worked  in  primitive  fashion,  al- 
though the  regions  along  the 
Adriatic  and  the  Korytza  Basin 
are  capable  of  great  agricultural 
development.  The  country  is 
said  to  possess  rich  mineral  de- 
posits, notably  copper,  coal, 
silver,  gold,  and  lead,  but  these 
resources  are  undeveloped.  Ow- 
ing to  the  unsettled  state  of  the 
country,  commerce  is  at  a  stand- 
still. Albania  occupies  the  unique 
position  among  the  nations  of 
Europe  of  having  no  national 
debt  and  of  possessing  a  gold 
currency. 

The  population  of  Albania  is 
estimated  between  800,000  and 
850,000.  The  inhabitants  (called 
by  themselves  Shkipetars  and  by 
the  Turks  Arnauts)  are  for  the 
most  part  mountaineers  who, 
until  recent  years,  were  given  to 
intertribal  feuds  and  brigandage. 
Formerly  Christian,  fully  two- 
thirds  of  them  have  become  Mo- 
hammedan. The  Christians  are 
about  equally  divided  between 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek 
Churches.  Little  advance  has 
been  made  along  educational 
lines.  The  chief  towns,  with 
their  population,  are  Koritza, 
25,598;  Durazzo,  4,785;  Scutari, 
21,580;  Elbasan,  10,400;  Tirana, 
the  capital,  10,845;  and  Argyro- 
castro,  12,400. 

The  Albanian  language  is  an 
ancient  tongue,  belonging  to  the 
Indo-European  family  of  lan- 
guages, with  a  comparatively 
recent  intermixture  of  Slavonic 
words.    There  is  no  Albanian 


alphabet,  Latin,  Greek,  and 
sometimes  even  Turkish  char- 
acters being  employed. 

Governmental  authority  is 
vested  in  three  distinct  bodies — 
the  Regency  Council,  which  Is 
made  up  of  two  Christians  and 
two  Moslems,  and  which  plays 
the  part  of  a  Chief  Executive; 
the  Council  of  Ministers  com- 
posed of  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments of  the  Government;  and 
the  Parliament,  an  elective  body 
consisting  of  seventy-two  mem- 
bers. 

History. — In  antiquity  Albania 
was  a  part  of  Illyria  (q.v.),  which 
in  the  second  century  B.C.  be- 
came a  Roman  province.  At  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century  a.d.,  the 
invading  Slavs  seized  and  settled 
what  later  became  Servia,  Monte- 
negro, Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and 
Dalmatia,  but  were  unable  to 
conquer  the  Shkipetars,  who  fled 
to  the  mountains.  When  the 
Turks  invaded  Europe  these 
mountain  tribes  fought  stub- 
bornly for  their  independence, 
and,  under  the  leadership  of  the 
heroic  Scanderbeg  (q.v.),  suc- 
cessfully withstood  the  invaders 
from  1443  to  1467.  In  1478,  how- 
ever, the  country  became  a  Turk- 
ish province,  although  the  inhab- 
itants remained  semi-independ- 
ent. The  long  period  of  Turkish 
rule  was  marked  by  frequent  re- 
volts, and  from  1807  to  1822 
Southern  Albania  was  practically 
independent  under  Ali  Pasha 
(q.v.). 

The  nationalist  policy  adopted 
by  the  Young  Turks  after  the 
Turkish  Revolution  of  1908  was 
most  unpopular  in  Albania,  and  a 
general  uprising  took  place. 
While  Turkey  was  in  the  midst  of 
the  Balkan  War  (q.v.),  Ismail 
Kemal  proclaimed  Albanian  in- 
dependence (Nov.  28,  1912),  and 
set  up  a  provisional  government 
at  Valona.  In  April,  1913,  Essad 
Pasha,  an  influential  Albanian, 
erected  an  opposition  govern- 
ment at  Durazzo.  The  formation 
of  an  autonomous  principality 
having  been  agreed  upon  by  the 
European  Powers,  an  Interna- 
tional Commission  of  Control 
was  appointed  by  them  to  assume 
responsibility  for  its  civil  and 
financial  administration.  Early 
in  1914  the  two  rivals  to  the 
throne  were  persuaded  to  resign 
their  claims,  and  Prince  William 
of  Wied  assumed  the  crown  for  a 
brief  period. 

After  the  outbreak  of  the 
Great  War  the  Prince  left  Al- 
bania which,  although  remaining 
neutral,  nevertheless  served  as  a 
battleground  for  Serbians,  Ital- 
ians, Greeks,  and  Austrians.  In 
1917  Albania  was  proclaimed  an 
independent  country  and  a  pro- 
visional government  was  set  up  at 
Durazzo,  but  it  was  practically 
occupied  by  the  Italian  army 
until  1920. 


The  disposition  of  Albania 
having  come  up  before  the  Peace 
Conference,  it  was  decided  in 
January,  1920,  to  partition  the 
country.  The  Albanians  there- 
upon met  in  convention  at 
Lushnja,  formed  a  new  Govern- 
ment, and  organized  for  resist- 
ance. The  Italians  in  Tepelen 
and  Valona  received  the  Alba- 
nian attack  and  peace  was  only 
established  in  August,  1920,  by 
the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Tir- 
ana and  the  withdrawal  of 
Italian  troops  from  Albania. 

Albania's  request  for  admis- 
sion to  the  League  of  Nations 
was  granted  in  December,  1920, 
but  her  status  was  not  fixed  until 
November,  1921,  when  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ambassadors  set  the  boun- 
daries of  the  country,  assigning 
to  Albania  the  disputed  provinces 
of  Scutari,  Koritza,  and  Arghyro- 
castro.  At  the  same  time  the 
Supreme  Council  recognized  the 
government  as  centred  at  Tir- 
ana. The  years  1921-24  were 
exceedingly  unsettled  and  dis- 
turbed by  internal  troubles  and 
governments  rapidly  rose  and 
fell.  In  1925  Ahmed  Bey  Zogu, 
a  native  Albanian,  was  elected 
president  of  the  new  republic  for 
a  period  of  7  years,  but  in  Sep- 
tember, 1928,  he  was  proclaimed 
king  of  the  Albanians  under  the 
title  Scanderbeg  iii.  but  generally 
known  as  Zogu  I. 

Bibliography.  —  Consult  Da- 
ko's  Albania,  the  Master  Key  to 
the  Near  East  (1919);  Chekrezi's 
Albania  Past  and  Present 
(1919). 

Albano,  or  Albano  Laziale, 
al-ba'no  lat-sya'la,  town  of  Italy, 
on  the  south  slope  of  the  Alban 
Hills,  1,230  feet  above  sea  level, 
15  miles  southeast  of  Rome.  It 
is  an  episcopal  see  and  a  favorite 
summer  resort  of  the  wealthy 
inhabitants  of  Rome.  Excellent 
wine  is  made  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  9,400. 

Albano,  Lal<e,  or  Lago  di 
Castello,  a  lake  in  Italy,  sit- 
uated about  12  miles  southeast  of 
Rome.  It  occupies  the  basin  of 
an  extinct  volcano,  and  has  a  cir- 
cumference of  6  miles,  with  a 
depth  of  530  feet.  It  is  recorded 
that,  while  the  Romans  were  at 
war  with  Veil  (390  B.C.),  the  lake 
rose  to  an  extraordinary  height 
in  midsummer,  and  on  the  advice 
of  the  diviners  a  tunnel  was 
opened  through  the  lava  wall 
which  bounds  the  lake  to  drain 
off  its  waters.  This  tunnel,  which 
still  remains  and  continues  to  ful- 
fill its  ancient  office,  is  1  mile  in 
length,  with  a  height  of  7  feet  and 
a  width  of  4  feet. 

Albans,  Saint.  See  Saint 
Albans. 

Albany,  ol'ba-ni,  or  Alban. 
See  Albion. 

Albany,  city,  Alabama,  county 
seat  of  Morgan  County,  on  the 
Tennessee  River  and  the  South- 

VOL.  I.— March  '29 


Albany 


133  B 


Albany 


ern,  and  Louisville  and  Nashville 
Railroads;  89  miles  north  of  Bir- 
mingham. It  comprises  a  tannery, 
lumber  mills,  cottonseed-oil  mills, 
silk  and  hosiery  mills,  and  an  ex- 
tensive railroad  shop.  The  city 
was  formerly  known  as  New 
Decatur.  Pop.  (1910)  6,118; 
(1920)  7,652. 

Albany,  city,  Georgia,  county 
seat  of  Dougherty  county,  sit- 
uated at  the  head  of  navigation 
on  the  Flint  River,  and  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast  Line,  Seaboard 
Air  Line,  Central  of  Georgia, 
Georgia  Northern,  and  Georgia, 
Southwestern  and  Gulf  Rail- 
roads; 107  miles  southwest  of 
Macon.  It  is  an  important  rail- 
road centre,  and  makes  large 
shipments  of  cotton  and  other 
agricultural  products.  With  its 
immense  hydro-electric  power, 
Albany  is  a  manufacturing  cen- 
tre of  importance,  producing 
chiefly  bricks,  lumber,  cotton- 
seed-oil products,  and  fertilizer; 
it  is  also  the  centre  of  a  large  and 
successful  paper  shell  pecan  de- 
velopment. It  has  a  fane  Federal 
Courthouse  and  Auditorium. 
Pop.  (1910)  8,190;  (1920)  11,555. 

Albany,  city,  Missouri,  county 
seat  of  Gentry  county,  on  the 
Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy 
Railroad;  50  miles  northeast  of 
St.  Joseph.  It  is  the  site  of  Pal- 
mer College.  Pop.  (1910)  1,922; 
(1920)  2,016. 

Albany,  city,  capital  of  New 
York  vState,  and  county  seat  of 
Albany  county,  is  situated  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Hudson  River, 
and  on  the  Boston  and  Albany 
(terminus),  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral and  Hudson  River,  the  West 
Shore,  the  Boston  and  Maine, 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Rail- 
roads, and  the  Erie  and  Cham- 
plain  Canals;  145  miles  north  of 
New  York  City,  200  miles  west  of 
Boston,  and  297  miles  east  of 
Buffalo.  There  are  extensive  elec- 
tric street  railways  and  interur- 
ban  connections  with  Schenec- 
tady, Troy,  and  other  neighbor- 
ing cities.  Three  bridges  here 
cross  the  Hudson  River. 

Chief  among  the  public  build- 
ings is  the  State  Capitol,  which 
stands  at  the  head  of  State  Street, 
in  Capitol  Square.  The  corner- 
stone was  laid  in  1871  and  the 
structure  was  recently  completed 
at  a  cost  of  more  than  .S25,- 
000,000.  It  is  in  the  French 
Renaissance  style,  from  the  de- 
signs of  several  architects,  and  is 
approached  by  an  imposing  flight 
of  steps  more  than  100  feet  broad. 
Here  was  formerly  housed 
the  State  library  of  more  than 
500,000  volumes,  and  an  exten- 
sive collection  of  historical  docu- 
ments, manuscripts,  and  pam- 
phlets. On  March  29, 1911,  a  large 
part  of  this  valuable  collection 
was  destroyed  by  fire. 

Northwest  of  the  Capitol  is  the 
new  State  Education  Building, 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '22. 


completed  in  1913  at  a  cost  of 
$5,500,000 — the  first  of  its  kind 
in  the  United  States.  Its  far- 
stretching  facade  of  white  mar- 
ble, with  massive  columns  and 
solid  crowning  wall,  is  most  im- 
pressive. In  it  are  the  offices  of 
the  Regents  of  the  University  of 
the  State  of  New  York  and  the 
State  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, the  State  Museum,  an  audi- 
torium seating  1,000  persons,  and 
the  new  State  library,  stacks  be- 
ing provided  for  2,000,000  vol- 
umes. 

Across  Capitol  Square  are  the 
City  Hall,  a  French  Gothic  struc- 
ture of  red  sandstone,  and  the 
State  Hall.  Other  noteworthy 
edifices  and  institutions  are  the 
Federal  Building,  the  Peniten- 
tiary, Union  Station,  the  home  of 
the  Albany  Institute  and  Histori- 
cal and  Art  Society,  Delaware 
and  Hudson  Building,  the  Fort 
Orange  and  University  Clubs, 
Bender  Laboratory,  State  Nor- 
mal College,  Dudley  Observatory, 
the  graduate  schools  (medicine, 
law,  and  pharmacy)  of  Union 
University,  Convent  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  Albany  Academy 
for  Girls,  Albany  Boys'  Acad- 
emy, and  St.  Agnes'  School.  The 
city  has  25  public  schools,  in- 
cluding a  high  school  completed 
in  1913  at  a  cost  of  $800,000. 
The  old  Schuyler  mansion  is  now 
used  as  a  State  museum.  There 
are  85  churches,  including  the 
Cathedral  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  All  Saints'  Cathe- 
dral, St.  Peter's  Episcopal  Church, 
and  the  Temple  Beth  Emeth. 

The  city  has  broad,  well- 
paved  streets,  and  an  excellent 
boulevard  system.  The  city  parks 
comprise  400  acres,  of  which  the 
largest  is  Washington  Park,  with 
a  lake  1,700  feet  long,  and  con- 
taining Calverley's  statue  of 
Robert  Burns  and  Rhind's  Moses 
at  the  Rock  of  Horeb. 

At  the  junction  of  several  great 
railroads,  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion for  large  steamboats  on  the 
Hudson  River,  and  the  terminal 
point  of  the  Erie  Canal,  Albany  is 
a  distributing  centre  for  a  great 
body  of  commerce,  a  passenger 
junction  of  importance,  and  a 
centre  of  varied  and  numerous 
manufactures. 

According  to  the  U.  S.  Census 
for  1919  there  were  382  industrial 
establishments  with  a  capital  of 
$39,529,000,  and  with  products 
valued  at  $45,455,000.  The  lead- 
ing industries  were  printing  and 
publishing  and  manufacturing  of 
foundry  and  machine  shop  prod- 
ucts, bread  and  bakery  products, 
shirts,  collars  and  cuffs,  men's 
clothing,  tobacco,  lumber,  and 
iron,  wood,  and  brass  articles. 

The  population  was  62,367  in 
1860,  94,151  in  1900,  100,253  in 
1910,  and  113,344  in  1920. 

History. — Albany  is  one  of  the 
oldest  chartered  towns  in  the 


United  States,  having  been  in- 
corporated as  a  city  in  1686. 
Early  in  the  seventeenth  century 
the  site  of  the  present  city  was 
occupied  as  a  .trading  post  by  the 
Dutch,  though  actual  settlement 
was  not  made  until  1624,  when 
some  Walloon  families  came  to 
the  place,  and  erected  a  rude  fort, 
called  Orange  or  Nassau.  Two 
years  later  an  outbreak  of  the 
Indians  occurred,  and  the  settlers 
were  obliged  to  withdraw  for  a 
time  to  New  Amsterdam. 

In  1629  Killiaen  Van  Rens- 
selaer acquired  extensive  tracts 
of  land  on  both  sides  of  the  Hud- 
son River.  These  he  leased  un- 
der the  patroon  system  (^see 
Patroons)  to  Dutch  colonists, 
who  formed  the  colony  of  Rens- 
selaerswyck,  and  founded  the  set- 
tlement of  Beverwyck,  which  be- 
came the  nucleus  of  the  present 
city.  In  1664  the  settlement  was 
transferred  with  the  rest  of  New 
Netherlands  to  the  British  crown, 
and  its  name  was  changed  to  Al- 
bany in  honor  of  the  Duke  of 
York  and  Albany,  afterward 
James  ii. 

During  the  era  of  the  Revolution 
Albany  was  the  meeting  place  of 
delegates  from  the  Colonies  in 
1754,  when  the  Albany  Conven- 
tion (q.v.)  passed  resolutions  in 
favor  of  a  union  for  security  and 
defence;  and  it  was  the  object 
against  which  Burgoyne's  cam- 
paign was  directed  in  1777.  In 
1797  it  became  the  capital  of  the 
State  of  New  York. 

Albany's  prosperity  began  with 
the  completion  of  the  Erie  Canal 
in  1825,  the  population  increas- 
ing from  12,630  in  1820  to  33,721 
in  1840.  In  1839  occurred  the 
disturbances  known  as  the  Anti- 
Rent  War  (see  Anti-Rentism). 
In  1886  the  city's  bicentennial 
was  celebrated.  Consult  Weise's 
History  of  the  City  of  Albany. 

Albany,  city,  Oregon,  county 
seat  of  Linn  county,  on  the  Will- 
amette River,  here  crossed  by  a 
fine  steel  bridge,  and  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad;  80 
miles  southwest  of  Portland. 
The  city  is  situated  in  a  fertile 
valley,  exports  grain,  lumber,  and 
sandstone,  and  has  manufactures 
of  iron,  leather,  flour,  and  furni- 
ture. It  is  the  seat  of  Albany 
College  (Presbvterian).  Pop. 
(1910)  4,275;  (1920)  4,840. 

Albany,  a  district  of  Cape 
Colony,  South  Africa,  northeast 
of  Algoa  Bay.  Here  is  situated 
Grahamstown  (q.v.).  Area,  1,(585 
square  miles;  pop.,  about. 25, 000. 

Albany,  seaport  town,  situated 
on  an  inlet  of  King  George's 
Sound,  Western  Australia;  352 
miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Perth. 
The  harbor,  one  of  the  best  in 
Australia,  is  a  port  of  call  for  the 
great  Australian  liners,  and  a 
fortified  naval  coaling  station. 
Pop.  (1911)  3,586. 

Albany,  Count  d',  the  title 


Albany 


134 


Albedu 


assumed  by  two  brothers,  John 
Sobieski  Stolberg  Stuart  (1797- 
1872)  and  Charles  Edward  Stuart 
(1799-1880),  who  claimed  to  be 
the  lineal  descendants  of  the 
Young  Pretender.  They  were 
the  sons  of  Lieut.  Thomas  Allen, 
R.N.,  but  it  has  not  been  defi- 
nitely proved  that  Allen  was,  as 
he  contended,  the  son  of  Prince 
Charles  Edward.  The  brothers 
saw  service  with  Napoleon  at 
Dresden,  Leipzig,  and  Waterloo. 

Albany,  Louise  Maximi- 
LiENNE  Caroline,  Countess  of, 
daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 
of  Stolberg-Gedern.  She  was 
married  in  1774  to  Charles  Ed- 
ward Stuart,  the  Young  Pre- 
tender, whom  she  later  divorced. 
In  Florence  she  met  the  tragic 
poet,  Alfieri,  who,  through  his 
poems,  immortalized  their  great 
love.  After  the  death  of  Alfieri, 
she  opened  a  salon  in  Florence, 
to  which  flocked  many  of  the 
great  literary  figures  of  the  time. 

Albany  Convention,  an  inter- 
colonial convention  which  met  at 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  on  June  19,  1754. 
Twenty-five  commissioners,  rep- 
resenting the  colonies  of  New 
York,  Massachusetts,  Connecti- 
cut, New  Hampshire,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Rhode  Island,  and  Mary- 
land, as  well  as  delegates  from 
'the  Five  Nations'  (the  Iroquois 
Indians)  assembled,  with  the 
avowed  purpose  of  establishing  a 
closer  union  between  the  English 
colonies  and  of  gaining  the  friend- 
ship of  the  Indians  in  the  face  of 
an  impending  outbreak  of  hos- 
tilities between  the  English  and 
French  colonists.  The  latter  pur- 
pose was  immediately  accom- 
plished. A  plan  of  intercolonial 
union,  drafted  by  Benjamin 
Franklin,  was  adopted,  providing 
for  a  comparatively  centralized 
government,  administered  by  a 
president-general  appointed  by 
the  Crown,  and  a  Grand  Coun- 
cil, composed  of  representatives 
chosen  by  the  assemblies  of  the 
several  colonies.  The  plan  was 
approved  neither  by  the  Crown 
nor  by  the  colonies,  and  the  con- 
vention remains  notable  only  as 
the  first  proposed  plan  of  union 
for  the  American  colonies. 

Albany  Regency,  a  title  gen- 
erally given  to  a  group  of  Dem- 
ocrats of  Albany,  N.Y.,  who  from 
1820  to  about  18.50  controlled  the 
nominating  conventions,  and  had 
great  influence  not  only  in  State, 
but  in  national  affairs.  Their 
motto  was  'To  the  victors  belong 
the  spoils.'  Among  the  group 
were  Martin  Van  Buren,  W.  L. 
Marcy,  Silas  Wright,  and  John 
A.  Dix. 

Albany  River,  a  river  of  On- 
tario, Canada,  rises  in  Lake  St. 
Joseph,  and  flows  into  James 
Bay,  after  a  course  of  320  miles. 
At  a  distance  of  about  120  miles 
from  its  mouth,  it  forms  a  kind  of 
delta  which  provides  a  complete 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '22. 


chain  of  water  communication 
with  Lake  Superior,  Lake  Win- 
nipeg, and  the  Severn  River. 

Al'batross,  a  large  marine  bird 
belonging  the  family  Diome- 
deida?,  closely  resembling  the 
gulls  and  petrels.  There  are  some 
sixteen  or  eighteen  species,  found 


The  Albatross. 


mainly  in  the  southern  tropical  or 
subtropical  seas.  Two  species 
occur  in  the  North  Pacific  as  far 
north  as  Alaska  and  two  other 
species  are  occasionally  seen  on 
the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United 
States;  they  are  exceedingly  rare 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  north  of 
Tampa  Bay. 

The  albatross  is  one  of  the  larg- 
est water  birds  in  existence  and 
has  marvellous  power  of  flight. 
The  wings  are  long  and  narrow; 
the  feet  are  fully  webbed,  with  the 
hind  toe  rudimentary  or  entirely 
absent;  the  beak  is  heavy  and 
powerful,  strongly  hooked  at  the 
end,  and  the  nostril  tubes  are 
placed  one  on  each  side  of  the 
bill  at  its  base.  The  spread  of 
the  wings  may  be  ten  or  twelve 
feet,  but  the  weight  of  the  bird's 
body  rarely  exceeds  16  or  18 
pounds.  The  plumage  is  soft 
and  abundant,  mostly  white,  al- 
though dusky  on  the  upper  parts, 
with  some  black  feathers  on  the 
back  and  wings.  The  bill  is  of  a 
delicate  pink,  inclining  to  yellow 
at  the  tip. 

The  albatross  is  extremely  vo- 
racious; it  feeds  on  fish,  cuttle- 
fish, jellyfish,  and  even  carrion. 
When  food  is  abundant  it  gorges 
itself  like  the  vultures,  and  then 
sits  motionless  upon  the  water, 
so  that  often  it  may  be  easily 
caught.  At  nesting  time  the 
birds  resort  in  large  numbers  to 
various  isolated  oceanic  islands, 
where  they  build  nests  of  mud 
and  grasses.  The  single  egg  is  4 
or  5  inches  long,  of  a  white  color, 
spotted  at  the  larger  end.  The 
nestling  is  white,  and  the  young 
somewhat  brownish  and  of  slow 
growth. 

Among  the  best  known  species 
are  the  wandering  albatross,  D. 
exuUans,  found  all  over  the  south- 
ern oceans,  a  large,  white  bird 
with  a  dark-banded  back;  the 
royal  albatross,  D.  regia,  of  New 
Zealand;  the  short-tailed  alba- 
tross, D.  albalrus,  and  the  black- 
footed  albatross,  D.  nigripes. 
both  occurring  in  the  North  Pa- 


cific; the  spectacled  albatross,  D. 
melanophrys,  sometimes  seen  off 
the  coast  of  California;  and  the 
sooty  albatross,  Phmbelria  fuli- 
ginosa,  which  has  pale  smoky  gray 
plumage,  and  is  found  in  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  sometimes  as  far 
north  as  the  coast  of  Oregon. 

Al-Battani,  iil-bat-ta'ne,  or 
Al-Bategnius,  Mohammed  Ben 
Jabir  Ben  Sinan,  Abu  Abdal- 
LAH  (c.  850-930),  Arab  astron- 
omer and  mathematician.  He 
corrected  some  of  Ptolemy's  re- 
sults, and  improved  the  existing 
calculation  of  the  length  of  the 
year,  giving  it  as  365  days,  5 
hours,  46  minutes,  24  seconds,  a 
period  short  of  the  true  length  by 
only  2  minutes,  26  seconds.  His 
chief  work  is  Mahometis  All^a- 
tenii  de  Molu  Siellarum. 

Albaugb,  aKbo,  John  W. 
(1837-1909),  American  actor 
and  theatrical  manager,  was  born 
in  Baltimore.  His  first  stage  ap- 
pearance was  an  impersonation 
of  Brutus  (1855),  and  he  was  sub- 
sequently known  in  the  standard 
roles  of  Louis  xi.  and  Shylock. 
He  managed  theatres  in  St. 
Louis  (1868-9),  Albany  (1870), 
New  Orleans  (1870-71),  and  later 
in  Washington  and  Baltimore. 

Albay,  al-bi',  a  province  oc- 
cupying the  southeastern  extrem- 
ity of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands. 
It  is  of  volcanic  formation,  in- 
cluding the  volcano  of  Mount 
Mayon  (8,504  feet),  while  along 
the  west  border  extends  the  main 
range  of  Luzon.  The  valleys  are 
watered  by  many  streams,  and 
are  fertile.  The  province  contains 
deposits  of  coal,  gold,  silver,  and 
iron,  as  well  as  medicinal  hot 
springs.  Valuable  woods  are 
abundant,  and  oranges  and  lem- 
ons grow  wild.  The  weaving  of 
textiles,  building  of  boats,  and 
cultivation  of  hemp  are  impor- 
tant industries.  Albay  comprises 
an  area  of  997  square  miles  with  a 
population  of  about  250,000. 

Albay,  town,  Luzon,  Philip- 
pine Islands;  2  miles  southwest 
of  Albay  Gulf,  which  forms  an 
excellent  harbor.  It  is  a  trading 
centre.    Pop.  14,049. 

Albedo,  al-be'do,  a  term  used 
in  astronomy  to  signify  the  pro- 
portion of  incident  light  reflected 
by  a  non-luminous  surface.  This 
is  determined  for  the  various 
planets  by  comparing  the  total 
light  received  from  each  with  the 
size  of  its  visible  disc  and  the  in- 
tensity of  the  solar  rays  falling 
upon  it.  The  following  table 
gives  some  of  the  best  authenti- 
cated results,  absolute  whiteness 
being  taken  as  1: 


Object. 

Albedo. 

Object. 

Albedo. 

0.17 

Vesta — 

.  .  .  .0.74 

Juno  

....0.45 

0.50 

Jupiter .  . 

.  .  .  ,0.(52 

Mars  

 0.26 

Silt  urn.  . . 

 0.52 

 0.18 

Uranus. . 

.  .  .  .0.62 

Neptune . 

.  .  .  .0.45 

It  may  be  added,  for  purposes  of 


Albemarle 


135 


Albert  I. 


comparison,  that  new-fallen 
snow  has  an  albedo  of  0.78; 
white  paper,  of  0.70;  gray  sand- 
stone, clay  marl,  and  quartz  por- 
phyry, severally,  of  0.24,  0.16, 
and  0.11. 

Arbemarle,  town,  county 
seat  of  Stanley  county.  North 
Carolina,  on  the  Southern  Rail- 
way; about  40  miles  northeast 
of  Charlotte.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  Albemarle  Normal  and  In- 
dustrial College,  and  has  cotton 
mills  and  gins,  knitting  mills, 
iron  works,  a  furniture  factory, 
and  lumber  mills.  Pop.  (1900) 
1,382;    (1910)  2,116. 

Albemarle,  Dukes  and 
Earls  OF.  See  Keppel;  Monck. 

Albemarle,  The,  an  iron- 
clad ram  of  the  Confederate 
navy,  built  of  green  pine  tim- 
ber, sheathed  with  railroad  iron, 
and  mounting  six  guns.  On 
April  19,  1864,  she  attacked 
single-handed  the  Federal  squad- 
ron at  Plymouth,  sinking  the 
Southfield,  and  doing  serious 
damage  to  the  other  unarmored 
vessels.  On  May  5  a  fleet  of 
nine  gunboats  was  sent  to 
destroy  her,  but  succeeded  only 
in  inflicting  minor  injuries.  She 
was  sunk  on  Oct.  27,  1864,  by 
Lieut.  W.  B.  Cushing  (q.  v.) 
and  a  boat's  crew,  who  exploded 
a  spar  torpedo  against  her  as 
she  lay  at  her  wharf  at  Ply- 
mouth. 

Albemarle  Island,  or  Isa- 
bella Island,  the  largest  of 
the  Galapagos  Islands  (q.  v.). 

Albemarle  Sound,  an  inlet 
on  the  east  coast  of  North 
Carolina,  extending  inland  in  a 
westerly  direction  more  than  55 
miles;  width,  from  4  to  15 
miles. 

Albendorf,  al'ben-dorf,  vil- 
lage, Silesia,  Prussia;  50  miles 
southwest  of  Breslau.  It  has 
eighteen  gates  named  after  those 
of  Jerusalem,  and  a  model  of  the 
Temple  there,  and  is  visited  by 
150,000  pilgrims  annually. 

Albenga,  al-ben'ga  (ancient 
Albium  Ingaunum),  town  and 
episcopal  see,  province  Genoa, 
Italy,  on  the  West  Riviera,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Genoa;  26  miles  by 
rail  southwest  of  Savona.  It 
has  mediaeval  walls  and  towers; 
remains  of  a  Roman  bridge  built 
by  the  Emperor  Constantius  in 
414-418;  and  a  cathedral  dating 
in  part  from  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury.   Pop.  (1911)  6,882. 

Alberl,  Eugenio  (1817-78), 
Italian  historian,  was  born  in 
Padua.  In  1839  he  published 
Guerre  d'  Italia  del  Principe  Eu- 
genio di  Savoia,  which  was  much 
admired  for  its  scholarship. 
Other  works  are  Vita  di  Cater- 
ina  de  Medici  (1838);  Relazioni 
degli  Ambasciatori  Veneti  at  Sen- 
alo  (1839).  He  founded  the 
Annuario  Storico  Universale 
(1843),  and  was  an  advocate  of 
liberal  principles.  His  last  work 
Vol.  I.—Oct.  '19 


was  II  Problema  delV  Umano 
Destino  (1872). 

A 1  b  e  r  '  n  1 ,  lumber-shipping 
port  and  inlet  on  the  Pacific 
coast  of  Vancouver  Island,  Brit- 
ish Columbia.  The  inlet  is  20 
miles  long,  and  from  a  half  a 
mile  to  a  mile  in  width,  with  a 
fine  natural  harbor  at  its  head. 

Alberonl,  al-be-r5'ne,  Giulio 
(1664-1752),  Spanish  cardinal 
and  statesman,  was  born  in  Firen- 
zuola,  Parma,  the  son  of  an 
Italian  gardener.  During  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
he  served  tinder  Vendome;  and 
in  1713  he  was  appointed  agent 
of  the  Duke  of  Parma  at  the 
court  of  Philip  v.  of  Spain,  where 
he  ingratiated  himself  with  the 
king,  and  eventually  became  car- 
dinal and  prime  minister.  His 
policy  was,  first,  to  check  the 
decline  of  Spain  by  drastic  re- 
forms and  by  the  development 
of  her  resources;  and,  secondly, 
to  annul  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht 
and  Rastadt,  as  being  subver- 
sive of  the  balance  of  power, 
and  disastrous  to  Spain  and 
Italy.  Between  1715  and  1717, 
under  his  vigorous  policy  of  re- 
organization and  reform,  com- 
merce revived,  the  revenue  was 
increased,  and  manufactures 
flourished. 

Alberoni's  ambitious  foreign 
policy,  in  which,  backed  by  the 
queen  (Elizabeth  Farnese),  he 
aimed  at  reannexing  Milan, 
Naples,  Sardinia,  and  Sicily  to 
the  Spanish  crown,  was  less 
successful,  and  at  length,  under 
pressure  from  the  allies,  he  was 
dismissed  in  December,  1719. 
He  took  part  in  the  election  of 
Innocent  xin.  Clement  xii. 
made  him  legate  of  Ravenna; 
but  he  was  replaced  in  1740  and 
retired  to  Piacenza.  Consult 
Rousset  de  Missy's  History 
of  Cardinal  Alberoni;  Bianchi's 
Giulio  Alberoni  e  il  suo  secolo. 

Al'bert,  district  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  separated  by  the  Orange 
River  from  the  Orange  Free 
State.  There  are  coal  mines 
in  the  district.  Capital,  Burgh- 
ersdorp.  Area,  2,635  square 
miles.    Poo.  17,000. 

Albert  (1490-1568),  son  of 
the  margrave  of  Ansbach  and 
nephew  of  Sigismund,  king  of 
Poland,  became  last  grand 
master  of  the  Teutonic  Order  in 
1512.  He  refused  to  do  homage 
to  his  uncle,  who  in  1519  de- 
clared war,  which  was  concluded 
by  a  four  years'  truce  in  1521. 
Four  years  later,  Albert,  having 
thrown  himself  into  the  cause  of 
the  Reformation,  made  a  treaty 
with  Sigismund,  and  became 
hereditary  duke  of  Prussia  under 
the  Polish  crown,  with  the 
right  of  succession  to  the  estates 
of  the  Teutonic  Order.  There- 
after he  devoted  himself  to  his 
dukedom,    establishing  schools 


and  the  Konigsberg  University. 

Albert  (1522-57),  margrave 
of  Brandenburg,  surnamed,  'The 
German  Alcibiades,'  was  born 
at  Ansbach.  He  fought  in  the 
cause  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
in  1544,  and  subsequently  in 
that  of  the  king  of  France.  Re- 
turning to  his  former  allegiance, 
his  conduct  in  Germany  earned 
for  him  so  much  hatred  that  a 
league  was  formed  against  him. 
Defeated  in  a  conflict  with  his 
enemies,  he  was  placed  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire,  and  died 
a  victim  of  his  own  excesses. 

Albert  (1559-1621),  archduke 
of  Austria,  surnamed  'The 
Pious,'  sixth  son  of  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  ii.  Brought  up  at 
the  Spanish  court,  he  entered 
the  church,  and  became  cardinal 
(1577),  archbishop  of  Toledo 
(1584),  and  viceroy  of  Portugal 
(1594).  In  1596  he  was  appoint- 
ed stadtholder  of  the  Nether- 
lands and  carried  on  the  war 
against  the  revolted  people.  De- 
feated at  Nieuwpoort,  he  took 
Ostend  (1604)  after  a  three 
years'  siege,  and  concluded  a 
twelve  vears'  truce  with  the 
Dutch  (1609).  He  ruled  with 
justice  and  moderation  until  his 
death. 

Albert,  k\-hkr\  town,  de- 
partment Somme,  France,  on 
the  River  Ancre;  18  miles 
northeast  of  Amiens.  It  has 
cotton  spinning  and  manufac- 
tures of  paper,  cast  iron,  and 
beet  sugar.     Pop.  (1911)  7,343. 

During  the  Great  War  (1914- 
19)  there  was  desperate  fighting 
in  the  vicinity  of  Albert  in  the 
West  Flanders  campaign  (Sep- 
tember and  October,  1914).  The 
town  was  taken  by  the  Germans 
during  the  Second  Battle  of  the 
Somme  (q.  v.),  March  27,  1918, 
and  was  recaptured  by  British 
forces  Aug.  22,  1918. 

Al'bert  I.  (1875),  king  of 
Belgium,  was  born  April  9,  1875, 
second  son  of  Philippe,  Count 
of  Flanders,  and  of  the  Princess 
Mary  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmar- 
ingen  (sister  of  King  Carol  of 
Roumania);  and  nephew  of 
Leopold  IL  His  father  having 
renounced  his  own  succession, 
Albert  became  heir  apparent  at 
the  age  of  seventeen,  on  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother.  Hav- 
ing joined  the  Grenadiers,  he 
advanced  through  the  various 
grades  of  the  military  profession, 
devoting  especial  attention  to 
details  of  army  management 
and  routine.  He  also  travelled 
extensively,  visiting  the  United 
States  in  1898,  and  in  1909 
making  an  extended  tour  of  the 
Belgian  Congo  (q.  v.).  He 
served  also  in  the  Belgian 
Senate  and  became  an  earnest 
student  of  political  and  econo- 
mic problems.  Upon  the  death 
of  Leopold  IL  on  Dec.  23,  1909, 
he  ascended  the  throne.  He 


Albert  I. 


136 


Albert 


carried  out  numerous  reform 
measures  in  the  Congo,  interest- 
ed himself  especially  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  laboring  classes, 
and  devoted  himself  whole- 
heartedly to  the  welfare  of  his 
country. 

From  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  King  Albert  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  more  ade- 
quate measures  of  national  de- 
fence, and  during  the  Great 
War  (1914-19)  his  unflinching 
determination  to  maintain  Bel- 
gian neutrality  and  the  unfailing 
courage  and  patriotism  with 
which  he  commanded  the  Bel- 
gian forces  in  the  face  of  tre- 
mendous odds  won  the  respect 
and  admiration  of  the  world. 
He  personally  led  his  tr®ops  in 
bMtle,  fighting  side  by  side  with 
the  soldiers  in  the  trenches,  and 
fraternizing  with  them  in  the 
camps.  After  conducting  the 
government  from  Havre  for 
four  years,  he  triumphantly  re- 
entered Brussels  Nov.  22,  1918. 
(See  Belgium.) 

Albert  married,  in  1900,  the 
Princess  Elizabeth  of  Bavaria 
and  to  them  three  children  were 
born — Princes  Leopold  and 
Charles  and  Princess  Marie- Jose. 

Albert  I.  (1100-70),  duke 
of  Brandenburg,  called  'The 
Bear,'  founder  of  the  house  of 
Anhalt.  He  succeeded  his  father, 
Otto  the  Rich,  count  of  Ballen- 
stedt,  in  1123,  and  in  1125  be- 
came duke  of  the  Ostmark  and 
Lusatia.  In  1134  he  was  in- 
vested by  the  Emperor  with  the 
province  of  the  Nordmark,  or 
the  territories  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Elbe  taken  from  the  Slavs. 
These  Albert  transformed  into 
a  German  province.  In  1147  he 
undertook  a  crusade  against 
the  Wends;  and  in  1150  came 
into  possession  of  the  margravate 
of  Brandenburg. 

Albert  I.  (1250-1308),  arch- 
duke of  Austria  and  emperor  of 
Germany,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.  His 
arrogant  claim  to  the  throne  on 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1292 
was  met  by  the  election  of 
Adolphus  of  Nassau,  who  was 
deposed  in  1298,  and  in  the 
same  year  defeated  and  slain 
by  his  rival.  Albert  was  there- 
upon elected  and  crowned  (1298). 
He  joined  France  against  Pope 
Boniface  viii.,  who  had  refused 
to  recognize  his  election,  but 
later  went  over  to  the  Pope 
against  Prance.  Wars  with  the 
Netherlands,  Hungary,  and  Bo- 
hemia followed.  His  despotic 
measures  in  Switzerland  pro- 
voked (1308)  the  revolution 
which  led  to  the  formation  of 
the  Swiss  Confederation.  Al- 
bert's refusal  to  recognize  the 
claim  of  his  nephew,  Don 
John,  to  the  dukedom  of  Swabia 
aroused  a  conspiracy  against 
him,  and  he  was  murdered. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


Albert  III.     (1414-86),  sur- 

named  Achilles,  and  also  Ulys- 
ses, third  son  of  Frederick  I., 
elector  of  Brandenburg,  whom 
he  succeeded  (1440)  in  the  prin- 
cipality of  Ansbach.  He  in- 
herited the  principality  of  Bay- 
reuth  from  his  brother  John  in 
1464;  and  in  1470  received  the 
electorate  of  Brandenburg  from 
his  brother  Frederick  ii.  Under 
his  rule  the  Franconian  lands 
were  reunited  with  Brandenburg. 
He  effectually  resisted  the  at- 
tempts of  the  Teutonic  knights 
to  repossess  themselves  of  the 
Neumark,  and  engaged  in  suc- 
cessful wars  with  Mecklenburg 
and  Pomerania.  He  wrote  the 
Disposilio  Achillea,  a  family  or- 
dinance which  provided  for  the 
future  separation  of  Branden- 
burg and  Ansbach-Bayreuth; 
and,  according  to  Hallam,  first 
legally  established  primogeni- 
ture. 

Albert  III.  (1443-1500),  duke 
of  Saxony,  surnamed  'The  Bold,' 
was  the  younger  son  of  the 
Elector  Frederick  (1443-1500). 
On  their  father's  death,  the 
brothers  Ernest  and  Albert 
ruled  Saxony  in  partnership; 
but  subsequently,  by  the  agree- 
ment of  Leipzig  (1485),  Ernest 
received  Thuringia,  and  Albert 
Meissen.  A  brave  and  accom- 
plished soldier,  Albert  fought 
in  the  wars  of  Frederick  of 
Austria  against  Charles  the 
Bold  (Duke  of  Burgundy)  and 
others.  His  intervention  on 
behalf  of  Maximilian  i.  gained 
him  the  stadtholdership  of  the 
Netherlands,  as  well  as  the 
hereditary  governorship  of  Fries- 
land.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
Albertine  Line  (q.  v.). 

Albert  V.  (1490-1545),  arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg  and  elector 
of  Mainz,  commonly  known  as 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  was 
the  second  son  of  the  elector, 
John  Cicero  of  Brandenburg. 
He  entered  holy  orders;  became 
in  1513  archbishop  of  Magde- 
burg; in  1514  archbishop  and 
elector  of  Mainz;  and  in  1518 
cardinal.  He  was  one  of  the 
principal  adversaries  of  the  Ref- 
ormation, and  Luther  attacked 
him  in  a  pamphlet,  though  at 
first  Albert  had  tried  to  bring 
about  reconciliation  between  the 
two  parties.  In  return  for  the 
payment  of  500,000  florins  he 
granted  his  Protestant  subjects 
in  the  see  of  Magdeburg  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion.  He 
was  the  first  German  prince  to 
admit  the  newly  created  order  of 
the  Jesuits  into  his  dominions. 

Albert,  al-bar',  Alexandre 
Martin  (1815-95),  French  polit- 
ical leader,  a  mechanic  by  trade, 
played  an  active  part  in  the 
revolution  of  February,  1848. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  pro- 
visional government,  and  pre- 
sided over  the  commission  for 


the  organization  of  Louis  Blanc's 
national  workshops.  He  repre- 
sented the  department  of  the 
Seine  in  the  Assembly,  but  suf- 
fered ten  years'  imprisonment 
for  a  political  offence.  In  the 
Siege  of  Paris,  in  1870,  he  served 
on  the  Commission  of  Barricades. 

Al'bert,  Eduard  (1841-1900), 
Austrian  surgeon,  was  born 
in  Senftenberg,  Bohemia.  He 
studied  at  Vienna,  where,  in 
1881,  he  became  professor  of 
clinical  surgery,  after  acting  as 
professor  of  surgery  at  Inns- 
bruck. Results  of  his  important 
researches  appear  in  his  Beitrdge 
zur  Geschichte  der  Chirurgie 
(1878);  Beitrdge  zur  operativen 
Chirurgie  (1878-80);  Lehrbuch 
der  Chirurgie  (1889-91);  Diag- 
noslik  der  chirtirgischen  Krank' 
heiten  (1890);  Zur  Theorie  der 
Skoliose  (1890). 

Albert,  al-bar^  Eugen  Fran- 
cis Charles  d'  (1864),  pianist 
and  composer,  was  born  in 
Glasgow,  the  son  of  a  French 
musician.  He  was  trained  first 
by  his  father,  and  subsequently 
in  London  under  Sir  Arthur 
Sullivan  and  others;  but  he 
owes  much  to  Liszt  and  Hans 
Richter.  With  the  latter  he 
went  to  Vienna  in  1881,  where 
he  made  his  first  public  appear- 
ance and  achieved  marked  suc- 
cess. His  compositions  include 
the  operas  Ghismonda  (1895); 
Die  Abreise  (1898) ;  Kain  (1900) ; 
Tiefland  (1903);  Flolensolo 
(1905);  Der  Geborgte  Ehemann 
(1907);  Liebesketlen  (1912). 

Al'bert,  Francis  Charles 
Augustus  Emanuel  (1819-61), 
Prince  Consort,  husband  of 
Queen  Victoria  of  England,  was 
the  younger  of  the  two  sons  of 
Ernest,  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha.  He  was  born  at  Rosenau 
Castle,  near  Coburg,  and  was 
educated  at  Brussels  and  Bonn 
(1836-8),  where  he  showed  him- 
self an  ardent  student,  acquired 
many  accomplishments,  and  de- 
veloped a  taste  for  music  and 
the  fine  arts.  King  Leopold 
and  Baron  Stockmar  had  long 
contemplated  an  alliance  be- 
tween Prince  Albert  and  his 
cousin  Princess  Victoria,  and  the 
pair  were  brought  together  in 
1836.  When  the  succession  of 
Victoria  was  assured  the  be- 
trothal took  place,  and  on  Feb. 
10,  1840,  the  marriage — which 
was  one  of  real  affection  on  both 
sides — was  solemnized  in  the 
Chapel  Royal,  St.  James'  Palace. 
The  Prince  Consort  ultimately 
became  'a  sort  of  minister, 
without  portfolio,  of  art  and 
education,'  and  in  this  capa- 
city won  much  esteem  and 
popularity.  He  also  interested 
himself  in  agriculture  and  in 
social  and  industrial  reform. 
To  him  was  due  the  great  Ex- 
hibition of  1851,  which  resulted 
in  a  balance  of  $1,000,000,  avail- 


Albert 


137 


Alberta 


able  for  the  encouragement  of 
science  and  art.  His  personal 
character  was  high,  and  he  exer- 
cised great  influence  on  his  chil- 
dren. On  Dec.  14,  1861.  he  suc- 
cumbed to  an  attack  of  typhoid 
fever.  Consult  Sir  T.  Martin's 
Life  of  the  Prince  Consort;  Letters 
of  Queen  Victoria  (1907);  Strach- 
ey's  Queen  Victoria  (1921). 

Albert,  Frederick  Rudolf, 
archduke  of  Austria  (1817-95), 
son  of  the  Archduke  Charles,  was 
born  in  Vienna.  He  fought  at 
Santa  Lucia,  Gravellona,  Mor- 
tara,  and  Novara  (all  1848),  un- 
der Radetzky,  and  as  field  mar- 
shal commanded  the  army  at 
Custozza  (1866).  He  did  much 
to  reorganize  the  Austrian  army, 
and  was  the  author  of  works  on 
military  subjects.  He  married 
the  daughter  of  Ludwig  i.  of 
Bavaria. 

Albert,  Heinrich  (1604-55  or 
56),  musical  composer,  was  born 
in  Lobenstein,  Vogtland.  He 
studied  music  under  his  uncle, 
Heinrich  Schiitz  in  Dresden,  and 
was  appointed  organist  in  the 
cathedral  at  Konigsberg  in  1631. 
His  hymns  were  set  to  music  by 
himself,  and  include  Golt  des  Him- 
mels  und  der  Erde;  Zum  Sterben 
ich  bereitet  bin.  His  secular 
poems  are  noted  for  their  grace 
and  lightness.  They  are  collected 
in  Poetisch-musikalischen  Lust- 
wdldlein. 

Albert,  Joseph  (1825-86), 
German  photographer,  began  his 
professional  career  at  Augsburg 
in  1850,  and  in  1858  settled  at 
Munich.  He  produced  a  large 
number  of  copies  of  famous  pic- 
tures and  drawings  by  what  is 
called  the  Albertype  Process, 
in  which  transparent  gelatin 
plates  were  substituted  for  the 
metallic  ones  formerly  employed. 
See  Process  Work. 

Alberta,  al-bur'ta,  province  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  in- 
cludes the  former  district  of  Al- 
berta, the  western  half  of  Atha- 
basca, and  a  strip  of  the  former 
districts  of  Assiniboia  and  Sas- 
katchewan. It  is  bounded  on  the 
west  by  British  Columbia,  on  the 
south  by  the  international  bound- 
ary (49°  N.  lat.) ;  on  the  east  by 
Saskatchewan;  and  on  the  north 
l)v  the  60°  parallel  of  north  lati- 
tude. Length,  north  to  south, 
750  miles;  average  width,  east 
to  west,  347  miles;  area,  255,285 
square  miles. 

Topography. — Topographic 
conditions  divide  the  province 
into  a  southern  region  of  open 
rolling  country,  treeless  except 
along  the  streams  and  foothills  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  a 
northern  region  of  timbered 
country,  broken  here  and  there 
by  patches  of  prairie.  The  Rocky 
Mountains  have  a  gradual  ascent 
on  their  eastern  side,  but  the  ap- 
proach from  the  west  is  much 


more  abrupt.  Through  these 
mountains  the  best  known  of  the 
passes  leading  from  Alberta  to 
British  Columbia  are  (1)  the 
Crow's  Nest,  (2)  the  Kicking 
Horse,  (3)  the  Yellowhead,  and 
(4)  the  Peace  River. 

The  rivers  of  Alberta  run  for 
the  most  part  from  west  to  east, 
in  conformity  with  the  general 
slope  of  the  province.  In  the 
south  the  Belly  and  Bow  Rivers, 
both  of  which  have  their  sources 
in  the  foothills  of  the  Rockies, 
eventually  unite  to  form  the 
South  Saskatchewan  River, which 
is  joined  farther  east  by  the  Red 
Deer  River.  The  North  Sas- 
katchewan rises  between  52°  and 
53°  N.  lat.,  and  after  receiving  the 
Battle  River  as  its  tributary, 
continues  east  to  join  the  South 
Saskatchewan.  United  under  the 
name  of  the  Saskatchewan  River, 
they  flow  into  Lake  Winnipeg,  in 
Manitoba,  and  eventually  into 
Hudson  Bay  under  the  name  of 
the  Nelson  River. 

The  province  is  divided  at  53° 
28'  N.  lat.  by  a  height  of  land,  to 
the  north  of  which  the  rivers  flow 
toward  the  north  and  east. 
These  rivers  are  the  Athabasca, 
which  empties  into  Lake  Atha- 
basca, ■  and  the  Peace,  which  is 
joined  near  Lake  Athabasca  by  a 
stream  from  the  lake,  and  con- 
tinues its  course  as  the  Slave 
River  to  Great  Slave  Lake. 
Thence  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  it  is 
known  as  the  Mackenzie  River. 

The  most  important  lakes  are 
the  Athabasca  (area  2,842  sq.  m., 
of  which  1,041  are  in  Alberta), 
Lesser  Slave  (area  479  sq.  m.), 
and  Claire  (area  405  sq.  m.). 

The  highest  peak  in  Alberta  is 
Mount  Columbia  (alt.  14,000  ft.). 
There  are  40  other  mountain 
peaks  in  the  province  exceeding 
10,000  feet. 

Climate  and  Soil. — On  account 
of  the  great  size  of  the  province 
and  the  varying  meteorological 
factors,  the  climate  of  Alberta  is 
far  from  uniform.  The  mean  an- 
nual temperature  and  rainfall  of 
three  representative  centres  are 
as  follows:  Calgary,  mean  annual 
temperature,  37.4°,  rainfall,  16 
inches;  Edmonton,  mean  annual 
temperature,  36.7°,  rainfall,  17 
inches;  Fort  Chippewyan,  mean 
annual  temperature,  26.9°,  rain- 
fall, 13  inches.  Calgary,  in  the 
south,  has  an  average  tempera- 
ture of  15°  in  winter;  Edmonton, 
in  the  central  part,  has  an  aver- 
age winter  temperature  of  10°; 
and  Fort  Chippewyan  (lat.  59°  n.) 
has  an  average  winter  tempera- 
ture of  7°.  The  summer  temper- 
atures show  less  variation,  since 
the  altitude  of  the  northern  part 
of  the  province  is  much  less  than 
that  of  the  south. 

The  average  annual  precipita- 
tion for  the  province  as  a  whole 
is  13.35  inches.    The  rainfall  is 


greatest  from  May  to  August — 
the  time  when  rain  is  most 
needed. 

For  the  most  part,  the  soil  is  a 
rich  alluvial  loam,  so  fertile  that 
manure  and  artificial  fertilizers 
are  unnecessary  for  many  years 
after  first  cultivation.  The  loam 
overlies  a  thick  bed  of  clay. 

Geology. — The  geological  con- 
ditions in  Alberta  are  known  only 
in  a  general  way,  as  yet;  although 
every  year  the  information  gath- 
ered by  geological  survey  parties 
becomes  more  localized  and  de- 
tailed. The  southern  part  of 
Alberta  comprises  part  of  the 
third  prairie  steppe,  with  an  alti- 
tude of  2,000  to  3,000  feet.  It 
includes  some  sterile  portions,  but 
as  a  rule  the  soil  is  good.  Prob- 
ably the  larger  part  of  this  dis- 
trict is  occupied  by  Cretaceous 
strata,  overlaid  more  or  less  by 
sands  of  Glacial  or  post-Glacial 
age.  In  the  western  part  the 
Cretaceous  strata  are  succeeded 
by  Cainozoic  deposits,  consisting 
of  sandy  clays  with  associated 
beds  of  coal  varying  from  an- 
thracite in  the  foothills  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  lignite  in 
the  plains.  Toward  the  north  the 
lignite  is  of  a  woody  or  earthy 
character;  it  is  of  better  quality 
in  the  central  and  southwest 
parts  of  the  province.  The  east- 
ern portion  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain chain  enters  Alberta  in  the 
form  of  distinct  ranges  curving 
toward  the  northwest.  Farther 
south  the  ranges  are  much  higher. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — In  the 
south,  where  not  cultivated,  the 
province  is  clothed  in  a  mantle 
of  short  grass  in  the  summer 
season.  Trees  grow  in  clumps 
on  the  hillsides  and  along  the 
river  banks.  The  northern  part 
is  more  thickly  wooded,  and  is 
crossed  by  the  forest  belt.  The 
different  varieties  of  trees  include 
the  poplar  and  birch  in  the  south; 
the  pine,  spruce,  balsam,  and 
Douglas  fir  in  the  north  and  in  the 
mountain  valleys  of  the  west. 

In  the  mountainous  part  of  the 
western  portion  of  Alberta  bears 
and  panthers  are  still  found,  to- 
gether with  moose  and  deer.  The 
coyote  and  occasionally  the  grey 
timber  wolf  are  met  with.  In  the 
mountains  themselves  wild  goats 
and  sheep  afford  good  sport  for 
the  hunter.  Gophers  are  numer- 
ous in  the  plains.  Other  wild 
animals  include  the  porcupine 
and  wolverine.  The  extreme 
northern  part  of  the  province  is 
still  the  home  of  the  hunter  and 
trapper;  and,  with  its  wealth  of 
fur-bearing  animals — mink,  mar- 
ten, otter,  and  muskrat — affords 
a  ready  but  rather  uncertain 
means  of  livelihood  to  the  rapidly 
diminishing  number  of  these  men. 
This  portion  of  Alberta  is  one  of 
the  breeding  places  of  the  migra- 
tory birds  which  have  made  their 

Vol.  I. —Oct.  '24 


Alberta 


137  A 


Alberta 


way  north.  These  include  vast 
numbers  of  geese,  ducks,  part- 
ridges, and  many  varieties  of 
son^  birds. 

Forestry. — The  forests  of  Al- 
berta are  owned  and  controlled 
by  the  Dominion  Government. 
The  chief  forest  area  consists  of 
a  narrow  belt  of  timber,  running 
in  a  northwesterly  direction 
through  the  northern  part  of  the 
province.  There  are  also  scat- 
tered patches  of  trees  throughout 
the  rest  of  the  province,  and  val- 
uable areas  of  timber  on  the  east- 
ern slopes  of  the  Rockies.  The 
lumber  cut  in  1920  was  41,229,- 
000  feet  B.M.,  valued  at  $1,480,- 
186. 

Fisheries. — The  fishing  indus- 
try in  Alberta  is  not  important, 
owing  largely  to  the  fact  that  the 
northern  part  of  the  province  is 
still  thinly  populated;  and  it  is 
there  that  the  sources  of  supply 
are  most  promising.  Whitefish, 
pickerel,  and  pike  occur  in  almost 
all  the  rivers  and  lakes.  Atha- 
basca River  and  Lake  abound  in 
whitefish  of  excellent  quality, 
and  in  time  the  fishing  industry 
in  that  part  of  Alberta  will  un- 
doubtedly take  its  place  as  an 
important  source  of  wealth. 
Close  seasons  have  been  estab- 
lished; but  the  Indians  are  al- 
lowed to  catch  fish  at  any  time 
for  domestic  consumption.  The 
total  value  of  the  fisheries  for  the 
year  1920  was  S529,078. 

Mining. — The  total  value  of 
the  mineral  products  of  Alberta 
in  1921  was  $30,562,229,  ac- 
counted for  chiefly  by  coal.  It  is 
estimated  that  87  per  cent,  of  the 
coal  reserves  of  Canada  are  lo- 
cated in  this  province,  totalling 
over  1,000,000  millions  of  tons. 
The  earliest  fields  of  any  impor- 
tance were  at  Canmore  and  An- 
thracite; while  subsequent  dis- 
coveries have  shown  important 
deposits  at  Crows  Nest,  Bankhead 
and  Drumheller.  The  produc- 
tion of  the  province  for  1920  was 
6,907,765  tons,  of  which  3,419,- 
147  tons  were  bituminous,  3,361,- 
105  tons  lignite,  and  127,513  tons 
anthracite. 

Gold  is  found  in  the  banks  and 
bars  of  most  of  the  great  rivers, 
but  not,  as  a  rule,  in  paying 
quantities.  The  entire  output  of 
the  province  for  1921  was  valued 
at  but  little  over  a  thousand  dol- 
lars. Natural  gas  is  abundant, 
and  is  used  extensively,  especially 
in  the  vicinity  of  Medicine  Hat, 
and  in  the  cities  of  Edmonton 
and  Calgary.  There  are  indica- 
tions of  petroleum  in  various 
parts  of  the  province.  Extensive 
boring  is  going  on  in  the  south- 
ern, central,  western,  and  north- 
ern parts.  Large  deposits  of  bi- 
tuminous sands  are  found  in 
Northwestern  Alberta.  These 
are  now  being  explored  and  inves- 
tigated with  a  view  to  their  use. 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '24 


Agriculture. — Of  a  total  area  of 
161,872,000  acres,  at  least  a  hun- 
dred million  are  available  for  cul- 
tivation. For  agricultural  pur- 
poses the  province  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  parts.  The 
southern  part,  extending  from 
the  international  boundary  to 
Red  River,  north  of  Calgary,  and 
including  the  basin  of  the  South 
Saskatchewan  River,  is  practi- 
cally all  rolling  prairie,  with  little 
timber,  and  an  average  altitude 
of  2,500  feet.  The  rainfall  is  light 
in  the  eastern  and  southeastern 
portions  of  this  section,  and  irri- 
gation is  extensively  practiced. 
The  valley  of  the  Bow  River  con- 
tains the  largest  amount  of  irri- 
gated lands  in  the  province. 
Nearly  a  million  acres  have  been 
rendered  irrigable  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  and  other  agencies. 
Large  new  irrigation  projects  are 
now  (1924)  under  way. 

Central  Alberta  extends  from 
the  Red  River  north  to  the  height 
of  land  separating  the  drainage 
basin  of  the  North  Saskatchewan 
from  that  of  the  Athabasca  River. 
This  is  open  prairie  country,  in- 
terspersed with  stretches  of  pop- 
lar and  spruce,  and  is  suitable  for 
mixed  farming,  though  all  grain 
crops  yield  abundantly.  Clover 
and  timothy  are  grown  here. 

Northern  Alberta  was  for  a 
long  time  considered  quite  un- 
suitable for  agricultural  purposes; 
but  this  opinion  has  been  greatly 
modified  in  recent  years.  In  this 
portion  of  the  province  the  iso- 
thermal lines  run  north  of  north- 
west; and  although  the  winters 
are  extremely  cold,  the  summers 
are  almost  as  hot  and  prolonged 
as  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
province.  The  soil  is  a  rich  dark 
loam  and  produces  wheat  of  the 
best  quality.  The  average  yield 
of  spring  wheat  is  20.62  bushels 
to  the  acre.  Winter  wheat,  the 
leading  crop  in  Southern  Alberta, 
has  a  still  larger  yield. 

The  value  of  the  field  crops  in 
1921  was  $82,780,000.  The  pro- 
duction was  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  table. 


The  output  of  creameries  in 
1922  was  15,417,844  pounds  of 
butter,  of  the  value  of  $5,126,844. 
For  the  same  year  the  produc- 
tion of  cheese  factories  was  931,- 
992  pounds,  valued  at  $183,- 
860. 

Siocli  Raising. — The  ranges  of 
Southern  Alberta  have  long  been 
famous  for  the  low  cost  at  which 
cattle  can  be  raised,  and  the  ex- 
cellence of  the  beef  produced. 
Usually,  the  cattle  require  no 
shelter  in  winter;  and  it  is  pos- 
sible to  leave  them  out  of  doors 
for  the  entire  year,  even  in  the 
Peace  River  district — and  this 
with  but  trifling  loss.  However, 
they  now  receive  much  better 
care,  especially  in  the  winter, 
than  was  profitable  or  possible  in 
the  old  ranching  days.  In  the 
south,  buffalo  and  bunch  grass 
is  cured  on  the  ground,  and  this 
forms  a  nutritive  food  for  the 
cattle.  The  industry  is  gradu- 
ally being  driven  farther  north, 
as  with  the  introduction  of  irri- 
gation facilities,  the  south  is 
being  used  more  for  agricultural 
purposes. 

Figures  for  the  live  stock  in  the 
province  in  1921  were  as  follows: 
horses,  916,510;  cattle,  1,854,202; 
sheep.  523,599;  swine,  574,318; 
poultry,  4,963,565.  There  were 
14  fur  farms  in  the  province  with 
animals  valued  at  $105,460. 

Manufactures. — While  Alberta 
is  essentially  an  agricultural  prov- 
ince, manufacturing  has  shown  a 
steady  growth.  In  1921  there 
were  2,024  industrial  establish- 
ments, with  $55,538,526  capital, 
and  10,324  employees,  which 
paid  out  $12,160,529  in  salaries 
and  wages;  the  total  value  of 
products  was  $66,702,938.  The 
corresponding  figures  for  1916 
showed  584  industrial  establish- 
ments, with  $42,239,693  capital, 
7,255  employees,  $5,074,742  in 
salaries  and  wages,  and  a  total 
value  of  products  of  $30,592,833. 

The  value  of  the  imports  for 
the  fiscal  years  1920  and  1921 
were  $18,883,725  and  $24,227,- 
312;  of  exports  $2,209,910  and 
$1,265,682  respectively. 


Agricultural  Production  in  Alberta 


Crop 

Yield  per  acre  in  bushels 

Total  yield 

in  bushels 

1920 

1921 

1920 

1921 

Winter  wheat  

18.75 

17.25 

1,468,000 

Spring  wheat  

Oats  

20.50 

10.25 

84,461,000 

51,576,000 

37.25 

22.00 

115,091,000 

64,192,000 

Barley  

26.50 

20.50 

12,739,000 

11,657,000 

Rye  

21.25 

9.00 

3,420,000 

1,999,000 

Flax  

7.00 

6.00 

726,000 

171,000 

Potatoes  

166.00 

158.50 

7,136,000 

8,143,000 

216.00 

153.50 

1,609,750 

1,259,000 

*1.30 

*1.00 

*498,000 

*454,900 

Fodder  corn  

*4.25 

*  10.00 

*32,500 

*69,900 

Alfalfa  

*2.25 

*1.75 

*44,800 

62,500 

Tons, 


Photos  by  CouriLSU  of  Canadian  1  uci,.c  u  h 


ALBERTA,  CANADA 

1,  Reapers  on  the  Great  Wheatfields  of  Alberta.  After  Saskatchewan,  Alberta  is  the  greatest  wheat- 
producing  province  of  Canada.  2.  Calgary,  the  Largest  City  in  the  Province  and  the  Eighth  City  in 
the  Dominion.    It  occupies  a  fine  site  at  the  entrance  to  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


Vol.  L— Oct.  '24 


Vol.  L— page  137  B 


Alberta 


137  C 


AlbertI 


Transportation. — Many  of  the 
large  rivers — such  as  the  North 
and  South  Saskatchewan  and  the 
Athabasca — are  used  for  trans- 
portation purposes,  but  generally 
for  local  and  restricted  areas.  It 
is  possible  that  their  usefulness 
may  be  increased  in  the  future  by 
dredging;  but  railways  will  con- 
tinue to  be  more  and  more  im- 
portant as  instruments  of  trans- 
portation. The  official  railway 
figures  for  the  year  ending  Dec. 
31,  1920,  give  a  mileage  of  4,474 
in  the  province.  A  provincial 
government  telephone  system 
operates  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  province. 

Finance. — For  1920  the  govern- 
ment receipts  were  $10,919,776 
and  the  expenditures  $10,423,- 
356.  The  assets  for  1920,  with 
bridges  and  public  buildings  in- 
cluded, were  $49,098,946;.  the 
liabilities,  including  loans,  were 
$44,587,763. 

Population. — The  population 
of  Alberta,  according  to  the  latest 
census  (1921),  is  588,454.  In  1901 
it  was  73,022;  in  1911  it  was  374,- 
295.  The  increase,  therefore,  in 
the  twenty  years  was  over  500,- 
000.  In  1921  it  is  214.159,  or 
57.22  per  cent,  over  that  for  1911. 
The  rural  population  (1921)  is 
365,550;  the  urban  222,904. 
The  population  of  the  principal 
towns  in  1921  was:  Calgary,  63,- 
305,  the  eighth  city  in  the  Do- 
minion; Edmonton  (capital), 
58,821;  Lethbridge,  11,097;  Med- 
icine Hat,  9,634. 

Education. — In  1921  there  were 
in  Alberta  2,826  public  schools  of 
elementary  and  secondary  grade, 
with  an  enrollment  of  135,750 
and  a  teaching  staff  of  5,014. 
There  are  normal  schools  at  Cal- 
gary, Camrose,  and  Edmonton. 
The  provincial  university  is  in 
Edmonton  (see  Alberta,  Uni- 
versity of).  Other  institutions 
of  higher  learning  are  the  Ed- 
monton Jesuit  College,  Robert- 
son College  at  Edmonton,  and 
the  Institute  of  Technology  and 
Art  at  Calgary. 

Government. — The  chief  execu- 
tive of  Alberta  is  a  Lieutenant- 
Governor  appointed  by  the  Do- 
minion Government,  who  holds 
office  for  five  years,  and  exercises 
his  powers  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  provincial  cabinet. 
The  Legislative  Assembly  con- 
sists of  61  members.  The  Domin- 
ion Government  retains  control 
of  the  public  lands,  and  pays  an 
annual  allowance  to  the  provin- 
cial government  in  consideration 
thereof.  The  province  is  repre- 
vsented  in  the  Dominion  Senate 
by  6  members,  and  in  the  House 
of  Commons  by  12  members. 

Alberta  has  five  forms  of  mu- 
nicipal organization:  improve- 
ment districts,  municipal  dis- 
tricts, villages,  towns,  and  cities. 
The  improvement  districts  con- 


sist of  those  sparsely  settled  areas 
where  there  is  either  no  municipal 
organization  whatever  or  an  ex- 
tremely simple  and  elementary 
one.  As  a  rule,  the  improvement 
districts  have  the  same  area, 
usually  18  square  miles,  as  the 
rural  municipalities  into  which 
they  will  ultimately  be  trans- 
formed, and  are  not  regarded  as 
permanent  organizations.  The 
rural  municipality  is  a  permanent 
institution  which  passes  by-laws 
for  the  general  welfare  of  the 
community,  as  those  relating  to 
matters  of  public  health,  hospi- 
tals, public  nuisances,  tree-plant- 
ing, fines  for  misdemeanors,  reg- 
ulating speed  laws,  preventing 
prairie  fires,  erection  of  municipal 
buildings,  and  similar  matters. 
Taxation  is  the  chief  source  of 
revenue  for  the  rural  municipali- 
ties. Villages  are  not  corporate 
bodies  and  have  only  limited 
powers;  villages  having  700  resi- 
dents may  be  established  as 
towns.  Cities  have  their  own 
special  charters  under  which  they 
carry  on  their  business,  most  of 
them  being  inclined  to  own  their 
own  utilities  and  not  to  give 
franchises. 

History. — Alberta  was  first  dis- 
covered and  partially  explored 
and  colonized  by  the  French. 
Fort  La  Jonquiere,  near  the 
present  site  of  Calgary,  was  es- 
tablished by  them  in  1752. 

The  Northwest  Company  of 
Montreal,  the  great  rival  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  estab- 
lished trading  posts  in  Alberta, 
and  built  Fort  Athabasca  in  1778. 
Fort  Chippewyan  was  founded  in 
1788.  This  aroused  the  antago- 
nism of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany, which  looked  upon  North- 
ern Alberta  as  within  its  sphere 
of  influence,  although  the  com- 
pany had  done  little. to  develop 
its  fur-trading  possibilities. 

Somewhat  later,  Alexander 
Mackenzie,  after  following  up 
the  course  of  the  North  SasKatch- 
ewan  River  to  the  height  of  land, 
explored  the  river  which  now 
bears  his  name.  He  also  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  the  Pacific 
Coast  through  the  Peace  River 
Pass,  being  the  first  white  man 
to  cross  Canada  from  ocean  to 
ocean.  The  district  of  Alberta, 
which  formed  part  of  the  present 
province  of  Alberta,  was  organ- 
ized in  1875.  Alberta  was  pro- 
claimed a  province  by  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada  on  Sept.  1,  1905. 

The  provincial  government  was 
the  first  in  the  Dominion  to 
undertake  the  public  operation 
of  the  telephones.  A  Department 
of  Railways  and  Telephones  and 
a  Department  of  Municipal  Af- 
fairs have  been  established.  An 
act  has  been  passed  permi;:ting 
the  exemption  of  improvements 
in  cities  and  towns  from  taxation 
— the  so-called  'Single-Tax'  Act, 


but  this  has  been  abandoned  in 
some  cities  owing  to  difficulty  in 
collecting  the  taxes. 

Bibliography — Consult  Sir  W. 
F.  Butler's  The  Wild  North  Land 
and  The  Great  Lone  Land;  A.  G. 
Cameron's  The  New  North;  A.  C. 
Laut's  Pathfinders  of  the  West; 
Wilson's  The  Great  Company; 
The  Province  of  Alberta  (in 
Porter's  'Progress  of  the  Na- 
tions' series);  Canada  and  Its 
Provinces,  edited  by  Shortt  and 
Doughty. 

Alberta,  University  of,  a 
provincial,  non-sectarian  univer- 
sity, founded  and  supported  by 
the  government  of  Alberta,  Can- 
ada. It  is  beautifully  situated  on 
the  North  Saskatchewan  River, 
in  the  Strathcona  section  of  the 
city  of  Edmonton.  The  Faculty 
of  Arts  and  Sciences  was  opened 
for  lectures  in  September,  1908. 
The  university  proper  occupies 
a  site  of  258  acres  with  an  addi- 
tional 400  acres  devoted  entirely 
to  agricultural  experimental  sta- 
tion work.  There  are  five  fully 
developed  faculties.  Arts,  Applied 
Science,  Medicine,  Law,  and  Agri- 
culture, and  a  School  of  Phar- 
macy. The  staff  consist  of  140,  o} 
whom  88  are  full-time  professors 
and  lecturers.  The  university 
has  a  residential  system.  For 
latest  statistics  see  Table  of  Ca- 
nadian Colleges  and  Universities, 
under  the  heading  College. 

Albert  Edward  Nyanza  (now 
known  as  Edward  Nyanza),  ?. 
lake  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Nile 
basm.  Central  Africa,  of  nearly 
circular  torm,  iving  iust  south  of 
the  Equator,  about  2,900  feet 
above  sea  level,  between  Ankole 
(Uganda  Protectorate)  and  the 
Congo.  It  has  a  circuit  of  140 
miles  and  a  diameter  of  45  miles; 
drains  the  southern  slopes  of 
Mount  Ruwenzori  through  he 
Wami  and  Mpanga  Rivers;  and 
sends  its  overflow  through  the 
Semliki  north  to  the  Albert  Ny- 
anza. It  was  discovered  by 
Henry  M.  Stanley  in  1876,  and 
was  explored  by  him  on  a  second 
journey  in  1889,  and  named  after 
Albert  Edward,  then  Prince  of 
Wales. 

On  most  maps  the  Edward 
Nyanza  is  shown  projecting 
northeast  some  distance  beyond 
the  Equator;  but  this  sheet  of 
water,  formerly  supposed  to  form 
part  of  that  inland  sea,  and 
named  Beatrice  Gulf,  is  now 
known  to  occupy  an  independent 
basin  of  crater-like  formation, 
Lake  Rusango  or  Ruisamba,  sep- 
arated fro-.i  the  Edward  Nyanza 
by  a  tongue  of  land,  and  without 
any  outflow. 

During  the  rainy  season  the 
lake  is  swept  by  severe  storms. 
In  the  dry  season  a  thick  haze 
hangs  over  the  water. 

AlbertI,  Leone  Battista  deg- 
Li    (1404-72),    Italian  writer, 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  "24 


Albert!  ne  Line 


137  D 


Albinism 


architect,  sculptor,  painter,  and 
scholar,  was  born  in  Venice.  He 
spent  most  of  his  life  at  Rome, 
where  from  1432  to  1472  he  was 
papal  abbreviator.  Buildings  at 
Florence  and  Mantua  testify  to 
his  architectural  skill,  his  con- 
stant endeavor  being  to  revive 
the  classical  style.  His  work,  De 
Re  jEdificatoria  (1485),  appeared 
in  numerous  editions,  and  in  1565 
was  translated  into  Italian.  He 
also  wrote  on  painting  and  sculp- 
ture. His  great  work  in  litera- 
ture is  Delia  Famiglia  (1437-41), 
which  contains  a  picture  of  Ital- 
ian life  at  the  time  of  the  Re- 
naissance. Other  important 
works  are  the  Teogenio  and  Delia 
Tranquiliitd  dell'  Anima.  He 
also  wrote  in  Latin,  and  imitated 
classical  models  so  skilfully  that 
his  comedy  of  Philodoxius  was 
long  held  to  be  the  work  of  an 
ancient  writer.  He  is  accredited 
with  the  invention  of  the  cam- 
era obscura.  Consult  Mancini's 
Vita  de  Leon  BaUisia  Alberti. 

Albertine  Line,  the  younger 
of  the  two  dynasties  of  the  Ger- 
man (Saxon)  family  of  Wettin. 
It  was  founded  in  1485;  gained 
the  electoral  dignity  in  1547;  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Poland  in 
1697,  but  lost  it  in  1763;  and 
since  its  foundation  has  ruled  in 
what  is  now  the  kingdom  (since 
1806)  of  Saxony.  The  elder 
branch  is  known  as  the  Ernest- 
ine line,  and  now  rules  several 
of  the  small  Thuringian  (Saxon) 
states  of  Germany.  See  Er- 
nestine Line. 

Albertinelli,  Mariotto  (1474- 
1515),  Florentine  painter,  ap- 
prenticed to  Cosimo  Rosselli. 
He  was  the  friend  and  assistant 
of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  whose  work 
his  paintings  closely  resemble. 
The  National  Gallery,  London, 
has  a  Virgin  and  Child  attributed 
to  him.  His  most  important 
paintings  are  in  Florence,  the 
Louvre  in  Paris,  and  Munich. 

Albertite,  a  solid  bitumen, 
black  in  color,  and  with  a  bril- 
liant lustre,  found  in  Albert 
County,  New  Brunswick,  Can- 
ada. It  is  slightly  soluble  in 
ether  and  carbon  bisulphide,  and 
about  30  per  cent,  will  dissolve 
in  turpentine.  When  heated,  it 
puffs  up  and  emits  gas,  but  does 
not  melt.  It  .occurs  in  true  vein 
deposits  in  a  narrow  belt  about 
50  miles  long,  in  five  distinct 
horizons,  from  the  Cambrian  up 
to  the  Lower  Carboniferous.  It 
is  believed  to  have  originated 
from  infiltrations  of  petroleum 
from  animal  sources.  Albertite 
is  nearly  allied  to  Gilsonite  and 
Grahamite. 

Albert  Lea,  city,  Minnesota, 
county  seat  of  Freeborn  county, 
on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and 
Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 


and  St.  Paul,  the  Minneapolis 
,and  St.  Louis,  and  other  rail- 
roads. It  manufactures  flour, 
bricks,  wagons,  ploughs,  wool- 
lens, and  iron  goods.  Here  is  the 
Albert  Lea  College  for  women. 
The  city  is  picturesquely  situated 
on  Albert  Lea  and  Fountain 
Lakes.  Pop.  (1900)  4,500;  (1910) 
6,192. 

Albert  Nyanza,  a  lake  in  Brit- 
ish East  Africa,  Uganda  Protec- 
torate, in  the  basin  of  the  Nile, 
extending  northeast  to  south- 
west from  about  2°  20'  to  1°  10'  N. 
lat.  It  is  about  110  miles  long 
by  about  20  to  25  miles  broad. 
Together  with  Tanganyika  and 
Edward  Nyanza,  it  occupies  the 
western  rift- valley  of  Eastern 
Equatorial  Africa,  at  an  altitude 
of  2,200  feet.  At  its  southwest 
end  it  receives  the  Semliki  River, 
and  at  its  northeast  end  the 
Somerset  Nile;  while  at  its  ex- 
treme north  its  waters  find  an 
outlet  in  the  White  Nile.  On  the 
east  and  west  the  lake  is  hemmed 
in  by  high  escarpments.  Tne 
south  end  of  the  lake  is  occupied 
by  impenetrable  ambash  forest. 
Discovered  by  Sir  S.  Baker 
(1864) — although  its  existence 
had  been  previously  announced 
by  Speke — it  was  circumnavi- 
gated by  Romolo  Gessi  (1876). 

Albertus  Magnus  (1193-1280) , 
known  also  as  the  '  Universal 
Doctor,'  came  of  a  Swabian  fam- 
ily. He  became  a  Dominican 
monk,  and  afterward  (1260) 
archbishop  of  Ratisbon.  He 
was  a  celebrated  teacher  of  sci- 
ence, theology,  and  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Paris  (1230), 
and  also  at  Cologne,  where  he 
died.  His  vast  knowledge  of 
science  brought  on  him  the  accu- 
sation of  wizardry  and  black 
magic. 

Albertype  Process.  See  Pro- 
cess Work. 

Albertville,  town,  department 
Savoie,  France,  on  the  River 
Arly,  close  to  its  junction  with 
the  Isere;  50  miles  northeast  of 
Grenoble.  It  has  trade  in  slates, 
earthenware,  and  tiles.  Pop. 
(1911)  6,276. 

Albertville,  station,  Congo 
Free  State,  on  Lake  Tanganyika, 
on  the  opposite  shore;  iO  miles 
southwest  of  Ujiji. 

Albi  (ancient  Albiga),  town, 
capital  of  department  Tarn, 
France,  on  the  River  Tarn;  40 
miles  northeast  of  Toulouse.  It 
is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and 
has  trade  in  aniseed  and  wines. 
The  town  suffered  greatly  in  the 
early  thirteenth-century  wars 
against  the  reforming  Albigenses, 
who  derive  their  name  from  it. 
Pop.  (1901)  22,571;  (1911) 
25,100. 

Albia,  city,  Iowa,  county  seat 
of  Monroe  county,  on  the  Chi- 


cago, Burlington,  and  Quincy, 
the  Wabash,  and  other  railroads; 
25  miles  west  of  Ottumwa.  It  is 
in  a  coal  region,  and  exports  agri- 
cultural products.  Pop.  (1900) 
2,889;  (1910)  4,969. 

Albicore,  or  Albacore,  a  spe- 
cies of  tunny  (q.  v.)  found  in  the 
West  Indies. 

Albigenses,  a  name  applied, 
from  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, to  a  sect  of  heretics  living 
in  the  south  of  France;  probably 
derived  from  the  town  Albi, 
where  it  is  said  the  heresy  first 
appeared.  They  professed  the 
same  religious  views  as  the 
Cathari,  the  Patarenes,  and  sim- 
ilar sects,  which  originated  in  the 
eleventh  century  among  the 
Slavs  in  the  Balkan  peninsula. 
Thence  they  spread  to  Italy,  the 
south  of  France,  Germany,  and 
Flanders.  They  believed  in  the 
existence  of  two  principles,  good 
and  evil,  equally  eternal;  and 
they  denied  the  incarnation,  pas- 
sion, and  resurrection  of  our 
Lord.  Their  morality  was  pure, 
even  to  asceticism ;  they  con- 
demned the  procreation  of  chil- 
dren. 

The  Albigenses  were  destroyed 
by  the  so-called  crusade  against 
them  promoted  by  Innocent  iii., 
which  was  headed  by  Simon  de 
Montfort.  It  was  directed  prin- 
cipally against  Raymond  vi.. 
Count  of  Toulouse,  in  whose  do- 
minions the  heretics  were  nu- 
merous. These  unfortunate  peo- 
ple were  slaughtered  without 
pity;  whole  towns  were  de- 
stroyed, including  Beziers,  where 
20,000  perished  at  one  time;  and 
that  part  of  France  was  utterly 
devastated.  The  struggle  lasted 
twenty  years  (1209-29),  and  was 
concluded  only  by  the  complete 
submission  of  Raymond  vii.  (who 
succeeded  his  father  in  1222)  to 
the  conditions  of  the  king  of 
France,  who,  after  the  death  of 
Simon  de  Montfort,  carried  on 
the  crusade.  The  Albigenses 
were  utterly  rooted  out,  except 
a  few  who  fied  to  Piedmont;  and 
the  Inquisition  was  established 
at  Toulouse.  Consult  Donais' 
Les  Albigeois;  Peyrat's  Histoire 
des  Albigeois. 

Albinism,  the  absence  of  pig- 
ment in  man  or  animals;  some- 
times occurring  in  patches,  which 
gives  a  piebald  appearance;  often 
affecting  the  whole  body,  and,  in 
the  true  albino,  even  the  iris  and 
choroid  membrane  of  the  eye. 
In  the  human  albino  the  skin  is 
transparent,  white  and  pink;  the 
hair  white  as  in  old  age;  the  iris 
a  pinkish  gray,  or,  in  negroes, 
blue;  the  '^upil  contracted  and 
bright  red;  and  the  eye  painfully 
sensitive  to  light — the  albino 
being,  consequently,  short-sight- 
ed by  day,  and  seeing  best  at  dusk. 


Albion 


138 


Albula  Pass 


Albinism  is  believed  to  origi- 
nate in  the  chance  sexual  union 
of  two  germ  cells,  both  of  which 
lack  the  normal  pigment  factor. 
The  theory  of  a  hereditary  taint 
is  not  proven,  as  albinos  appear 
in  families  where  no  previous 
examples  were  recorded.  How- 
ever, the  progeny  of  two  albinic 
parents  are  always  albinos.  Al- 
binism has  been  found  to  con- 
form to  Mendel's  law  of  heredity, 
and  to  exhibit  the  recessive  char- 
acter. White  mice,  white  rab- 
bits, white  crows,  white  ele- 
phants, etc.,  are  albinos. 

The  appearance  of  white  flow- 
ers upon  a  plant  bearing  nor- 
mally colored  flowers  is  attrib- 
uted to  plant  albinism.  In  the 
case  of  some  flowers,  it  has  be- 
come specific. 

Albion,  an  ancient  name,  in 
use  (probably)  among  the  early 
Celtic  inhabitants  for  Britain. 
In  the  form  Alban  or  Albany  it 
is  restricted  to  Scotland,  and  es- 
pecially to  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland.  Its  origin  is  conjec- 
turally  connected  with  Gaelic 
alp,  'a  hill,'  and  Latin  albus, 
'white.' 

Albion,  city,  Calhoun  county, 
Michigan,  on  the  Kalamazoo 
River,  and  the  Lake  Shore  and 
Michigan  Southern  and  the 
Michigan  Central  Railroads;  39 
miles  southwest  of  Lansing. 
There  are  manufactures  of  farm- 
ing tools,  harness,  windmills,  and 
iron  goods.  Albion  College 
(q.  V.)  is  located  here.  Pop. 
(1900)  4,519;  (1910)  5,833. 

Albion,  village,  New  York, 
county  seat  of  Orleans  county, 
on  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the 
Rochester  and  Niagara  Falls 
Railroad;  52  miles  northeast  of 
Buffalo.  There  are  stone  quar- 
ries and  manufactures  of  iron 
goods.  Here  is  the  Western 
House  of  Refuge  for  Women. 
Pop.  (1900)  4,477;  (1910)  5,016. 

Albion  College,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  co-educational  insti- 
tution, located  at  Albion,  Mich. 
In  1843  the  institution  was 
opened  as  the  Wesleyan  Semi- 
nary of  Albion,  and  in  1849  its 
name  was  changed  to  the  Wes- 
leyan Seminary  and  Female  Col- 
legiate Institute.  In  1861  it  was 
organized  under  its  present  title. 
Besides  the  regular  College  of 
Liberal  Arts,  there  are  a  prepar- 
atory department,  schools  of 
music,  oratory,  and  the  fine  arts, 
a  normal  course,  and  a  commer- 
cial course.  In  1912  it  had 
512  students  and  27  instructors. 
The  library  contajjied  21,600 
volumes;  the  productive  funds 
amounted  to  $350,000;  and  the 
total  income  was  .f59,253. 

Albion,  New,  the  name  given 
to  the  northwest  coast  of  Amer- 
ica by  Sir  Francis  Drake  on  his 


voyage  of  exploration  in  1579. 
Humboldt  held  that  this  desig- 
nation applied  only  to  the  dis- 
trict between  the  Columbia  Riv- 
er and  the  Bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

Albite,  a  soda  feldspar,  con- 
sisting of  soda,  alumina,  and  sil- 
ica; and  occurring  in  colorless  or 
white,  transparent  crystals.  It 
is  a  frequent  constituent  of  acid- 
ic crystalline  rocks,  and  is  espe- 
cially found  in  granite,  gneiss, 
and  in  some  of  the  crystalline 
schists.  An  opalescent,  pearly 
variety  is  known  as  moonstone 
(q.  v.).    See  Feldspar. 

Albocarbon,  a  name  for  naph- 
thalene, CioHg,  when  used  to 
enrich  coal  gas.  See  Naphtha- 
lene. 

Alboin  (reigned  561-572  or 
574),  the  Lombard  conqueror  of 
Italy.  He  succeeded  his  father, 
Audoin,  in  the  kingship  of  the 
tribe  while  they  were  yet  settled 
in  Pannonia.  He  twice  defeated 
the  Gepidae  (551  and  566) — on 
the  second  occasion  slaying  their 
king,  Kunimond,  whose  daugh- 
ter, Rosamond,  he  then  made 
his  queen.  In  568  the  Lombards 
left  Pannonia,  and  descended 
upon  Italy  by  the  plain  between 
Venice  and  the  Carnic  Alps.  Al- 
boin took  Milan  (569)  and  Pavia, 
which  he  made  his  capital.  His 
rule  was  wise  and  moderate. 
But  having  made  his  wife  drink, 
at  a  feast  in  Verona,  from  a  wine 
cup  made  of  her  father's  skull, 
he  was  slain  by  the  court  cham- 
berlain, her  paramour.  The 
story  has  been  much  used  by 
dramatists,  from  the  Rosmunda 
of  Rucellai  (1525)  through  Ban- 
dello  to  the  Elizabethan  stage. 
Later  versions  are  Davenant's 
first  play.  The  Tragedy  of  Albo- 
vine,  Alfieri's  Rosmunda,  and 
Swinburne's  Rosamund,  Queen 
of  the  Lombards. 

Albona,  town,  Austria,  on  the 
east  side  of  Istria;  20  miles  north- 
east of  Pola;  near  lignite  mines. 
Pop.  (1911)  11,991. 

Alboni,  Marietta  (1823-94), 
celebrated  contralto  vocalist, 
was  born  in  Cesena.  She  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Bertolotti  and 
Rossini,  and  made  her  debut  at 
Bologna  and  Milan  when  only 
fifteen  years  old.  She  attained 
remarkable  success  in  London, 
Paris,  and  the  United  States, 
where  she  visited  in  1852.  She 
was  married  to  Count  Pepoli  in 
1854,  and  retired  from  the  stage 
in  1866.  Her  voice  had  a  range 
of  two  and  a  half  octaves. 

Albornoz,  ^gidius  {c.  1300- 
67),  Spanish  prelate,  was  born 
in  Cuenga,  Spain.  He  was  cre- 
ated (1339)  archbishop  of  Toledo 
by  Alfonso  XL  of  Castile;  fought 
against  the  Moors;  led  the  siege 
of  Algeciras;  and  was  made  a 


knight.  On  account  of  his  de- 
nunciation of  Peter  the  Cruel  he 
had  to  flee  to  Avignon,  where  he 
was  received  by  Pope  Clement 
VI.  and  made  a  cardinal  (1350). 
He  restored  the  papal  authority 
in  Rome  after  the  death  of  Ri- 
enzi  (1354),  and  prepared  the  way 
for  the  Pope's  return.  He  draft- 
ed a  code  of  laws  for  the  Papal 
States,  known  as  the  .^Egidian 
Constitutions. 

Albox,  town,  province  Alme- 
ria,  Spain;  30  miles  southwest  of 
Lorca.  It  manufactures  textiles, 
and  has  two  notable  fairs  each 
year — in  May  and  November. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Albrecht.    See  Albert. 

Albret,  Jeanne  d'  (1528-72), 
only  daughter  of  Henry  il.  of 
Navarre  and  Margaret  of  Valois, 
sister  of  Francis  i.  of  France. 
She  took  an  active  part  in  the 
defence  of  the  Protestants  in 
times  of  persecution.  She  mar- 
ried Antony  of  Bourbon,  and 
after  his  death  (1562)  became 
ruler  of  Navarre,  where  she  gov- 
erned wisely,  and  introduced  the 
Reformation.  Her  son  was 
Henry  of  Navarre,  later  Henry 
IV.,  king  of  France.  Cpnsult 
Freer's  Life. 

Albright  Brethren.  See  Evan- 
gelical Association. 

Albrizzi,  Isabella  Theotoki, 
Countess  of  (1770-1836),  called 
by  Byron  the  'Mme.  de  Stael  of 
Venice,'  was  born  in  Corfu.  She 
married  Joseph  d'Albrizzi,  state 
inquisitor.  Her  beauty  and  tal- 
ents brought  her  the  friendship 
of  Alfieri,  Canova,  and  Byron; 
and  her  circle  was  frequented  by 
many  artists  and  savants.  She 
left  Ritratti  (1807),  a  series  of 
portraits  of  the  distinguished 
Italian  men  of  her  time;  and 
Opere  di  Plastica  di  Canova  (1822) , 
a  study  of  this  artist's  sculp- 
tures. A  collection  of  her  letters 
was  published  by  Barozzi. 

Albrun  Pass  (7,907  ft.)  leads 
from  the  Swiss  valley  of  Binn 
(a  tributary  of  the  Upper  Rhone 
Valley  in  the  canton  Valais)  to 
the  Italian  glen  of  Devero,  which 
joins  the  Tosa  valley  above 
Domo  d'Ossola  (on  the  Simplon 
road).  It  is  a  very  easy  pass, 
and  has  been  much  used  by 
smugglers. 

Albuera,  village,  province  Ba- 
dajoz,  Spain;  15  miles  from  Ba- 
dajoz.  Here  was  fought  the  bat- 
tle, on  May  16,  1811,  in  which 
the  Anglo-Spanish  forces  under 
Beresford  defeated  the  French 
under  Soult.  Pop.  800. 
Albugo.  See  Leucoma. 
Albula  Pass  (7,595  feet)  leads 
from  Bergun  (at  the  head  of  an 
affluent  of  the  Hinter  Rhine,  in 
the  Swiss  canton  Grisons)  to 
Ponte,  in  the  Upper  Engadine. 
It  has  a  carriage  road,  and  a 


Album 


139 


Albuminuria 


hospice  at  the  summit.  A  railway 
tunnel  was  pierced  beneath  it  in 
1898-1902,  at  an  altitude  of  5,981 
feet;  it  is  3  miles,  1,150  yards  in 
length. 

Al'bum  (Latin  'white'),  among 
the  Romans,  was  a  white  tablet 
overlaid  with  gypsum,  on  which 
were  written  the  Annales  Maximi 
of  the  pontifex,  edicts  of  the 
praetor,  and  rules  relative  to  civil 
matters.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
word  was  used  to  denote  any  list, 
catalogue,  or  register  of  saints, 
soldiers,  or  civil  functionaries. 
In  the  universities  on  the  Conti- 
nent, the  list  of  the  names  of  the 
members  is  called  the  album.  In 
more  modern  times,  the  name 
has  been  given  to  a  once  popular 
class  of  publications  distinguished 
for  the  beauty  of  their  illustra- 
tions and  the  magnificence  of 
their  bindings.  At  the  present 
day,  it  generally  refers  to  a  book 
for  holding  photographs,  auto- 
graphs, postage  stamps,  etc.,  or  a 
portfolio  of  prints  or  drawings. 

Albumazar,  al 'bob-ma'zer 
(805-85),  celebrated  Arabian  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Balkh.  He 
wrote  more  than  fifty  works,  sev- 
eral of  which  were  published  in 
Latin  at  Augsburg  (1489)  and  at 
Venice  (1506-15). 

Albu'men  (Albumin),  as  a 
botanical  term,  is  applied  to  the 
store  of  various  reserve  nutritive 
materials  laid  up  for  the  use  of 
the  embryo  within  the  seed.  The 
term  is  applied  to  the  nutritive 
tissue  only  when  it  is  stored 
apart  from  the  embryo  proper, 
either  within  the  embryo  sac 
{endosperm)  or  round  about  it 
Iperisperm) .  It  is  sometimes 
mealy  or  farinaceous,  as  in  the 
cereals;  oily,  as  in  the  poppy; 
horny,  as  in  coffee;  cartilaginous, 
as  in  the  cocoanut;  mucilaginous, 
as  in  the  mallow.  Vegetable 
ivory  is  the  albumen  of  the  palm 
Phylelephas.  See  Albumin. 

Albu'min  (Albumen),  C72Hn2 
N18SO22,  is  one  of  the  simpler 
proteids  (q.  v.)  present  in  animal 
protoplasm.  It  is  a  transparent, 
viscous  substance,  and  is  found  in 
the  blood,  in  all  serous  fluids,  and 
in  many  animal  and  vegetable 
tissues.  Like  all  proteids,  it  con- 
tains the  elements  carbon,  oxy- 
gen, hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  sul- 
phur. The  form  in  which  it  is 
most  widely  known  and  easily 
experimented  with  is  egg  albumin, 
which,  together  with  globulin  (see 
Globulins),  forms  the  white  of 
egg. 

Albumins  are  soluble  in  dis- 
tilled water.  Their  solutions  are 
coagulable  by  a  heat  of  from  70° 
to  73°  c.  They  are  also  soluble  in 
saturated  solutions  of  sodium 
chloride  and  magnesium  sulphate, 
and  in  dilute  saline  solutions;  but 
are  precipitated  by  saturating 
their  solutions  with  ammonium 
sulphate.  Their  action  on  polar- 
ized light  is  laevo-rotatory,  like 


that  of  all  proteids;  but  it  differs 
in  degree  from  the  laevo-rotatory 
action  of  other  proteids.  Also, 
like  all  other  proteids  save  pep- 
tones, albumin  is  colloid — i.e., 
it  will  not  pass  through  an  animal 
membrane.  It  is  coagulated  by 
strong  acids,  such  as  nitric  acid, 
by  tannin,  picric  and  acetic  acids, 
and  by  salts  of  the  heavy  metals, 
such  as  nitrate  of  silver  and  sul- 
phate of  copper  (hence  used  as 
caustics),  by  acetate  of  lead 
(whence  the  astringent  qualities 
of  that  salt),  and  by  other  metal- 
lic salts.  Alcohol  precipitates  it, 
but  the  fresh  precipitate  will 
readily  redissolve  in  water.  If, 
however,  albumin  be  left  long  in 
alcohol,  it  will  be  not  merely  pre- 
cipitated, but  coagulated. 

Albumin  is  used  as  a  mordant 
in  dyeing,  as  a  vehicle  for  the 
sensitive  salts  in  photography, 
and  for  clarifying  purposes  in 
sugar  refining  and  the  making  of 
wine. 

Albumin  and  Digestion. — In  di- 
gestion, egg,  lact,  and  serum  al- 
bumin, all  of  which  are  present  in 
an  ordinary  diet,  go  through  the 
same  stages.  In  the  stomach 
they  first  change  to  acid  albumin 
and  to  albumoses,  through  the 
action  of  pepsin,  with  the  help 
of  hydrochloric  acid.  Albumoses 
are  differentiated  from  albumins 
by  the  following  qualities:  they 
are  not  coagulated  by  heat  or 
alcohol;  they  are  precipitated  by 
nitric  acid,  but  the  precipitate 
disappears  with  the  application 
of  heat,  and  reappears  on  cooling; 
they  are  slightly  diffusible  through 
an  animal  membrane. 

From  acid  albumin  and  albu- 
moses, albumins  change  to  pep- 
tones, under  the  prolonged  action 
of  pepsin,  before  they  leave  the 
stomach.  Peptones  are  distin- 
guished from  the  earlier  stage  of 
albumose  by  being  readily  diffus- 
ible through  an  animal  membrane 
(and  therefore  prepared  for  as- 
similation) ;  they  are  not  precipi- 
tated by  cold  nitric  acid,  nor  by 
ammonium  sulphate,  which  pre- 
cipitates all  other  proteids. 

Most  of  the  albumin  which  en- 
ters the  stomach  passes  into  the 
small  intestine  in  the  form  of  the 
readily  diffusible  peptones,  and  is 
so  absorbed.  Whatever  part  may 
pass  from  the  stomach  as  such,  or 
in  the  intermediate  condition  of 
albumose,  is  acted  on  by  the  tryp- 
sin of  the  pancreatic  juice,  and 
then  forms  alkali  albumin  and 
peptones.  If  the  action  of  tryp- 
sin upon  peptones  be  prolonged, 
it  splits  them  up  into  simpler 
bodies,  of  which  the  chief  are  leu- 
cin  and  tyrosin ;  and  these  are  ab- 
sorbed without  further  change. 
Peptones,  however,  do  not  reach 
the  blood  as  such,  but  as  albumin, 
being  reconverted  in  their  pas- 
sage through  the  gastric  and  in- 
testinal walls.  See  Proteids; 
Digestion;  Food. 


Albu'minoids,  or  Scleropro- 
TEINS,  compound  organic  ni- 
trogenous substances  chemically 
allied  to  proteids,  but  differing 
from  them  and  from  one  another 
in  various  ways.  Generally 
speaking,  albuminoids  are  char- 
acterized by  their  insolubility 
and  their  remarkable  resisting 
power  to  the  action  of  the  diges- 
tive enzymes.  The  chief  recog- 
nized albuminoids  are  Collagen, 
Gelatin,  Keratin,  Elastin,  Ossein 
and  Chitin  (qq.  v.). 

Gelatin  is  the  most  important 
of  the  albuminoids.  It  answers 
to  the  color  tests  for  proteids,  but 
it  does  not  coagulate  in  hot  solu- 
tion. It  is  readily  digestible,  and 
is  converted  in  the  stomach  into  a 
form  not  to  be  distinguished  from 
peptones;  but  whereas  the  pep- 
tones formed  from  albumins  and 
other  proteids  are  highly  nutri- 
tious, the  product  of  the  diges- 
tion of  gelatin  cannot  take  the 
place  of  proteids.  (See  Gelatin.) 

Collagen  forms  the  white  fibres 
of  connective  tissue;  elastin,  the 
yellow  fibres.  Ossein  is  the  chief 
organic  constituent  of  bone,  and 
in  chemical  composition  is  similar 
to  collagen.  Keratin  occurs  in 
nails,  hair,  horns,  and  hoofs,  all 
of  which  are  histologically  re- 
lated to  the  epidermis;  it  is  re- 
markable for  its  large  percentage 
of  sulphur.  Chitin  is  peculiar  to 
the  exo-skeleton  of  any  inverte- 
brate animals.  Elastin  and  kera- 
tin are  particularly  indigestible 
forms  of  albuminoids.  Elastin  is 
apparently  digested  more  by  the 
pancreatic  than  by  the  gastric 
juice,  while  keratin  is  excreted 
practically  undigested. 

The  vegetable  substance  Glu- 
ten, prepared  from  wheat  flour, 
and  as  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  starch,  is  of  a  similar 
character  to  the  animal  albumi- 
noids (see  Gluten). 

Al'buminu'ria,  the  presence  of 
albumin  in  the  urine,  formerly  re- 
garded as  a  sign  of  Bright's  dis- 
ease (q.  v.),  or  nephritis,  is  now 
known  to  occur  also  under  many 
circumstances  not  indicating  seri- 
ous change  in  the  kidneys.  Albu- 
min may  appear  in  the  urine  as  a 
result  of  modification  of  the  me- 
chanical condition  of  the  renal 
circulation — as,  for  example,  liga- 
ture of  the  renal  vein;  in  preg- 
nancy, when  pressure  is  exerted 
on  that  vein;  in  the  later  stages  of 
certain  diseases  of  the  heart;  in 
ague;  and  in  cholera.  It  may  ap- 
pear as  the  result  of  changes  in 
the  blood  consequent  on  pyaemia, 
septicaemia,  and  purpura,  and  as- 
sociated with  scarlet  fever,  diph- 
theria, measles,  enteric  and  other 
fevers.  It  is  also  a  result  of  such 
diseases  of  the  kidney  as  inter- 
stitial nephritis,  waxy  kidney, 
and  fatty  degeneration  of  the 
kidney.  Certain  dietaries  con- 
taining albumin  in  excess  may 
produce  it  tempori_r!ly. 

Vol.  I. — March  '24 


Albumoses 


140 


Alcafilz 


A  simple  test  for  the  presence 
of  albumin  in  the  urine  is  to  boil 
the  urine.  If  turbidity  appears 
which  is  not  dissolved  by  nitric 
acid,  albumin  is  most  likely  pres- 
ent. If  the  urine  be  alkaline,  it 
must  be  acidified  by  acetic  acid 
before  boiling.  Long-continued 
albuminuria  leads  to  great  anae- 
mia and  exhaustion. 

The  Treatment  varies  with  the 
several  causes. 

Albumoses.   See  Albumin. 

Al'bumosu'ria,  or  Propepto- 
nuria, is  a  morbid  condition  in 
which  albumoses  are  present  in 
the  urme.  Traces  are  found  in 
chronic  suppuration,  in  febrile 
diseases,  in  inflammatory  erup- 
tions of  the  skin,  such  as  pem- 
phigus and  urticaria,  and  in  nerv- 
ous diseases.  Recently,  albumose 
in  the  urine  has  been  found  asso- 
ciated with  multiple  myelomata 
of  bones.    For  tests,  see  Urine. 

Albunol,  al-bdb-nyol',  town, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Gra- 
nada, 41  miles  southeast  of 
Granada,  and  3  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  It  produces 
and  exports  wine  and  almonds. 
There  are  lead  mines  in  the  dis- 
trict.  Pop.  8.000. 

Albuquerque,  Eng.  pron. 
al'-bu-kur'-ke,  city.  New  Mexico, 
county  seat  of  Bernalillo  county, 
and  largest  city  of  the  State,  on 
the  Rio  Grande,  and  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe 
Railroad;  66  miles  southwest  of 
Santa  Fe.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
University  of  New  Mexico  (q.  v.), 
a  government  school  for  Indians, 
several  denominational  and  mis- 
sion schools,  and  the  Harvey 
Indian  Museum,  containing  a  re- 
markable collection  of  Indian 
pottery,  baskets,  and  blankets. 
The  Federal  building,  the  "^sleta 
Indian  Pueblo,  and  the  church 
of  San  Felipe  de  Neri,  etitab- 
lished  in  1658,  are  features  jf  in- 
terest. The  city  is  situated  at  an 
altitude  of  nearly  5,000  feet,  and 
its  excellent  climate  has  made  it 
an  important  health  resort. 

Industries  include  foundries 
and  machine  shops,  flour  mills, 
woollen  mills,  railroad  shops, 
lumber  mills,  and  cigar  factories. 
According  to  the  Federal  Census 
for  1919,  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments number  52,  with  a 
capital  of  .S2,418,440,  and  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $3,449,543.  Truck 
farming  and  fruit  growing  are 
also  carried  on,  and  gold,  lead, 
copper,  and  zinc  are  mined  in  the 
neighborhood.  There  is  an  active 
trade  in  live-stock,  hides,  and 
wool.  The  old  town  of  Albu- 
querque was  founded  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1706;  the  modern 
town  dates  from  1882.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1892.  Pop. 
(1900)  6,238;  (1910)  11  020; 
(1920)  15,157. 

Albuquerque,  al-bdo-ker'ka,  or 
Alburquerque,  town,  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Badajoz,  27  miles 

Vol.  I. — March  '24 


northwest  of  Badajoz,  near  the 
Portuguese  frontier.  It  has  an 
ancient  castle  and  walls  dating 
from  the  thirteenth  century. 
Cattle  fairs  are  held  here  in  May 
and  September.    Pop.  10,000. 

Albuquerque,  Affonso  d' 
(1453-1515),  Portuguese  viceroy, 
surnamed  the  'Great,'  also  the 
'Portuguese  Mars,'  was  born  in 
Alhandra,  near  .Lisbon.  He  up- 
held and  extended  the  power  of 
Portugal  in  India  and  the  East 
from  1503  to  1515.  He  captured 
Goa,  making  it  his  capital  (1510) ; 
conquered  the  island  of  Ormuz 
(1507  and  1515),  and  Malacca 
(1511);  and  gradually  subdued 
Malabar,  Ceylon,  and  other  parts 
of  the  East.  He  maintained  strict 
military  discipline,  was  active, 
far-seeing,  wise,  humane,  and 
equitable,  respected  and  feared 
by  his  neighbors,  while  beloved 
by  his  subjects.  Yet  he  did  not 
escape  the  envy  of  courtiers  and 
the  suspicions  of  his  king,  who 
appointed  Soarez,  a  personal 
enemy  of  Albuquerque,  to  super- 
sede him  as  viceroy.  His  Com- 
mentaries, issued  by  his  natural 
son  Braz,  were  translated  by 
Birch,  and  published  by  the 
Hakluyt  Society. 

Albur'num,  or  Sapwood,  is 
that  portion  of  the  wood  of  a  di- 
cotyledonous or  coniferous  tree 
which  lies  between  the  heartwood 
and  the  bark.  It  is  light  in  color 
(hence  its  name),  carries  the  root 
sap  upward,  and  consists  of  a  va- 
riable number  of  the  last-formed 
annual  rings  of  wood  (q.  v.). 

Albury,  6rber-i,  town,  New 
South  Wales,  in  Goulborn  county, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Murray 
River,  190  miles  northeast  of 
Melbourne.  It  lies  in  a  rich 
farming  region,  at  the  head  of 
navigation  for  the  Murray,  about 
1800  miles  from  its  mouth.  Sheep 
raising  is  carried  on.  Pop.  (1921) 
7,747. 

Alcseus,  al-se'us  (c.  600  B.C.), 
of  Lesbos,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Greek  lyric  poets,  who  gave  his 
name  to,  if  he  did  not  invent,  the 
metre  called  Alcaic.  He  was  an 
aristocrat,  a  native  of  Mitylene, 
and  after  a  civil  war  was  exiled 
from  Lesbos.  Only  fragments  of 
his  poems  survive,  but  they  re- 
veal the  spirit  and  vigor  with 
which  he  sang  of  war,  love,  and 
wine. 

The  greater  Alcaic  consists  of  a 
four-footed  line,  of  which  the  first 
foot  is  generally  spondaic,  some- 
times iambic,  the  second  foot 
iambic  hypermetrical,  and  the 
last  two  feet  dactylic.  The  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  the 
line  is  the  caesura,  which  ought  to 
occur  after  the  catalectic  syllable 
at  the  end  of  the  second  foot. 
This  catalectic  syllable  must 
either  naturally  or  in  virtue  of  its 
position,  be  a  long  syllable,  and 
it  is  considered  best  for  it  to  end 
a  word;  but  it  may  be  a  separate 


monosyllabic  word,  or  even  the 
first  syllable  of  a  compound  word. 
The  lesser  Alcaic  consists  of  a 
four-footed  line,  the  first  two  feet 
of  which  are  dactylic,  and  the  last 
two  iambic.  Horace  employs 
Alcaics  in  his  favorite  form  known 
as  'Horatian  Verse.'  Tennyson 
imitates  the  stanza  in  his  Ode 
to  Milton. 

Alca'best.  See  Alkahest. 

Alca'ics.  See  Alc^us. 

Alcala  de  Chisbert,  al-ka-la  da 
chiz-bart',  town,  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Castellon,  on  the 
coast;  25  miles  northeast  of 
Castellon  de  la  Plana.  Pop.  6.400 

Alcala  de  Guadaira,  gwa-di'ra, 
town,  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Seville;  7  miles  southeast  of 
Seville.  It  has  a  beautiful  Moor- 
ish castle.  Olive  cultivation  is 
the  chief  industry.  It  has  also 
flour  mills  and  bakeries.  Pop. 
9.000. 

Alcala  de  Henares,  a-na'ras. 
town.  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Madrid,  on  the  River  Henares; 
21  miles  northeast  of  Madrid. 
It  is  the  garrison  town  for  the 
province,  and  was  the  seat  of  a 
famous  university  founded  by 
Cardinal  Ximenes  in  1508  (trans- 
ferred to  Madrid  in  1836).  Here 
was  printed  in  1517.  in  six  folio 
volumes,  at  an  expense  of  80.000 
ducats,  the  Complutensian  Bible, 
the  first  complete  polyglot  edi- 
tion of  the  Bible,  so-called  from 
the  ancient  name  of  the  town, 
Complutum.  Linen,  soap,  and 
leather  are  manufactured.  Alcala 
de  Henares  was  the  birthplace  of 
Cervantes  and  of  Catharine  of 
Aragon.    Pop.  11.800. 

Alcala  la  Real,  la  ra-al'.  town, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Jaen; 
25  miles  northeast  of  Granada. 
Flour  milling  and  wine  making 
are  the  chief  industries.  The 
town  was  taken  from  the  Moors 
in  1340  by  Alfonso  xi.  of  Castile 
and  Leon.  Its  fine  ancient  abbey 
is  now  used  as  a  hospital.  Pop. 
17,000. 

Alcalde,  al-kal'da,  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Arabic  al-kadi  (see 
Cadi),  'the  judge,'  Spanish  term 
for  the  president  of  the  commune, 
who  exercises  both  judicial  and 
magisterial  offices.     See  Avun- 

TAMIENTO. 

Alcamo,  al'ka-mo,  town,  Sicily, 
in  the  province  of  Trapani;  24 
miles  southwest  of  Palermo.  It 
was  founded  by  the  Saracens  in 
828,  on  the  Monte  Bonifato 
(2,713  feet).  The  Moslem  popu- 
lation was  driven  out  by  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  ii.  in  1233,  when 
the  town  was  rebuilt  at  the  foot 
of  the  Mount.  It  still  preserves 
remains  of  mediaeval  buildings. 
The  nearby  country  is  fertile, 
and  there  is  trade  in  agricultural 
products.    Pop.  (1911)  32,211. 

Alcaniz,  al-kan-yeth',  town, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Teruel, 
60  miles  southeast  of  Saragossa, 
has  a  mediaeval  castle,  and  a  bridge 


Alcantara 


141 


Alchemy 


over  the  River  Guadalupe.  Pop. 
8,000. 

Alcantara,  al-kan'ta-ra  (Ar- 
abic, 'the  Bridge'),  fortified  town, 
province  Caceres,  Spain,  on  the 
Tagus;  34  miles  northwest  of 
Caceres.  It  takes  its  narne  from 
a  Roman  six-arched  bridge,  600 
feet  long,  over  the  River  Tagus, 
built  by  Trajan  (105  a.d.).  Here 
is  the  ruined  monastery  of  the 
knights  of  Alcantara.   Pop.  4,000. 

Alcantara,  port,  Maranhao, 
Brazil,  on  St.  Marcos  Bay;  16 
miles  from  Sao  Luiz.  Vessels  an- 
chor iK  miles  southeast  of  the 
town.  There  is  trade  in  cotton, 
rice,  and  salt.    Pop.  10,000. 

Alcantara,  former  town,  ad- 
joining Lisbon,  Portugal,  but 
since  1885  a  western  suburb  of 
that  city.  A  magnificent  aque- 
duct, resting  on  127  arches,  crosses 
the  Alcantara  Valley  here.  See 
Lisbon. 

Alcantara,  Order  of,  a  religious 
order  of  Spanish  knighthood, 
founded  in  1 156  as  a  military  fra- 
ternity for  the  defence  of  Estre- 
madura  against  the  Moors.  In 
1177  Pope  Alexander  iii.  raised  it 
to  the  rank  of  a  religious  order  of 
knighthood;  and  the  grand  mas- 
tership of  the  order  was  by  Pope 
Alexander  vi.  united  to  the  Span- 
ish crown  in  1494.  The  order 
came  to  be  richly  endowed.  The 
knights  follow  the  rule  of  St. 
Benedict,  a  special  vow  binding 
them  to  defend  the  immaculate 
conception  of  the  Virgin.  In  the 
nineteenth  century  the  order  was 
several  times  suppressed,  and  as 
often  restored. 

Alcaraz,  al-ka-rath',  range  of 
mountains,  province  Albacete, 
Spain;  the  prolongation  to  the 
north  of  the  east  end  of  the  Sierra 
Morena.  The  copper,  tin,  and 
zinc  mines  of  San  Juan  de  Al- 
caraz are  near  the  town  of  same 
name,  which  stands  north  of  the 
range,  and  has  a  ruined  castle  and 
a  Roman  aqueduct.  Pop.  of 
town  5,500. 

Al'catraz',  or  Pelican  Island, 
an  island  in  San  Francisco  Bay,  4 
miles  north  of  San  Francisco; 
1,650  feet  long,  and  rising  130 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  bay. 
Here  are  located  a  fort,  which 
defends  the  Golden  Gate,  a  mili- 
tary prison,  and  the  loftiest  light- 
house on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Alcaudete,  al-kou-da'ta,  town, 
Jaen,  Spain;  20  miles  southwest 
of  Jaen.  It  produces  dried  and 
candied  fruits.    Pop.  10,000. 

Alcazar,  al-kiith'ar,  name  giv- 
en to  several  palaces  built  by  the 
Moors  in  Spain.  The  Alcazar  of 
Segovia  formerly  contained  many 
objects  of  historic  value  remain- 
ing from  the  Moorish  period; 
these  were  destroyed  in  1862  by  a 
fire  which  left  the  mere  shell  of 
the  building.  The  Alcazar  of 
Seville  ranks  second  only  to  the 
Alhambra  (q.  v.)  in  architectural 
beauty,  although  since  its  con- 
VoL.  I.— Mar.  '16 


struction  by  the  Moors  in  the 
twelfth  century  it  has  been  en- 
larged by  several  Spanish  kings, 
who  united  the  Gothic  with  the 
original  style  of  architecture.  It 
contains  many  ancient  treasures. 

Alcazar  de  San  Juan,  al-kath'- 
ar  da  san  hwan'  (ancient  Alee), 
town,  province  Ciudad  Real, 
Spain;  50  miles  from  Ciudad 
Real.  It  is  an  important  railway 
junction;  and  manufactures  gun- 
powder and  nitre.    Pop.  14,000. 

Alcazar-Kebir,  town,  Morocco. 
See  Kasr-el-Kebir. 

Alce'do.    See  Kingfishers. 

Alcedo  y  Herrera,  al-tha'do  e 
er-ra'ra,  Antonio  (1735-?),  Span- 
ish-American soldier  and  writer, 
was  born  in  Quito.  He  held  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the 
Spanish  army,  served  in  Peru  and 
elsewhere,  and  is  remembered  as 
the  author  of  a  Diccionario  Geo- 
grdfico-Historico  de  las  Indias 
Occidentales  6  America  (5  vols., 
1786-9),  a  valuable  work,  an 
English  translation  of  which  ap- 
peared in  London  in  1812-15. 
He  also  compiled  a  Biblioteca 
Americana. 

Alcester,  61'ster,  Frederick 
Beauchamp  Paget  Seymour, 
Baron  (1821-95),  British  admi- 
ral, received  his  peerage  for  his 
services  in  the  Egyptian  cam- 
paign, and  especially  for  the  bom- 
bardment of  Alexandria  (1882). 
He  saw  service  also  in  Burma  and 
the  Crimea,  led  the  naval  brigade 
in  the  Maori  War  (1860-1),  and 
commanded  the  Channel  fleet 
(1874-6)  and  the  Mediterranean 
squadron  (1880-3). 

Alces'tis,  wife  of  Admetus, 
king  of  Pherae  in  Thessaly.  The 
god  Apollo  tended  her  husband's 
flocks  when  exiled  from  heaven 
for  having  slain  the  Cyclopes,  and 
out  of  gratitude  prevailed  upon 
the  Fates  to  grant  Admetus  de- 
liverance from  death,  if  his  father, 
mother,  or  wife  should  die  in  his 
stead.  Alcestis  alone  was  found 
ready  to  give  up  her  life  for  his. 
She  was  brought  back  to  her 
husband  from  the  lower  world  by 
Hercules.  Alcestis  is  the  subject 
of  a  noble  tragedy  by  Euripides 
(q.  v.),  which  Browning  has 
translated  as  Balaustion. 

Alchemil'la.  vSee  Lady's  Man- 
tle. 

Al'chemy — the  early  form  of 
chemistry — was  occupied  chiefly 
with  the  supposed  art  of  making 
gold  and  silver  from  the  baser 
metals.  The  dominant  theory  of 
the  alchemists  was  that  any  of 
the  baser  metals — e.g.,  lead — 
contains  the  same  constituents  as 
gold,  mixed  with  impurities;  and 
that  when  the  latter  are  removed 
by  using  the  philosopher' s  stone, 
the  transmutation  is  effected.  At 
a  later  date  was  added  the  search 
for  the  alkahest,  or  universal  sol- 
vent; the  magisterium,  a  sub- 
stance which  could  convert  all 
metals  into  gold,  and  heal  all  dis- 


eases; and  the  elixir  vitce,  a  uni- 
versal medicine  by  which  human 
life  might  be  prolonged  indefi- 
nitely. 

Tradition  points  to  Egypt  as 
the  birthplace  of  alchemy;  and 
Hermes  Trismegistus  is  repre- 
sented as  the  father  of  it.  Zosi- 
mus  the  Theban  discovered  in 
sulphuric  acid  a  solvent  of  the 
metals,  and  liberated  oxygen  from 
the  red  oxide  of  mercury.  The 
Roman  Emperor  Caligula  is  said 
to  have  instituted  experiments 
for  producing  gold  out  of  orpi- 
ment  (arsenic  trisulphide) ;  and  in 
the  time  of  Diocletian,  the  pas- 
sion for  this  pursuit,  conjoined 
with  magical  arts,  had  become  so 
prevalent  in  the  empire  that  the 
Emperor  is  said  to  have  ordered 
all  Egyptian  works  treating  of 
the  chemistry  of  gold  and  silver 
to  be  burned. 

A  school  of  polypharmacy,  as  it 
has  been  called,  flourished  in  Ara- 
bia during  the  califates  of  the 
Abbasides.  It  appears  that  these 
Arabian  polypharmacists  had 
long  been  engaged  in  calcining 
and  boiling,  dissolving  and  pre- 
cipitating, subliming  and  coagu- 
lating chemical  substances.  They 
worked  with  gold  and  mercury, 
arsenic  and  sulphur,  salts  and 
acids.  Geber  (q.  v.),  in  the  eighth 
century,  discovered  corrosive 
sublimate,  the  process  of  cupella- 
tion  of  gold  and  silver,  and  dis- 
tillation. He  taught  that  there 
are  three  elemental  chemicals — 
mercury,  sulphur,  and  arsenic. 
These  substances,  especially  the 
first  two,  seem  to  have  fascinated 
tUe  thoughts  of  th«  alchemists  by 
their  potent  and  penetrating 
qualities.  To  the  Arab  alchem- 
ists we  owe  the  terms  alcohol, 
alkali,  borax,  elixir. 

From  the  Arabs,  alchemy 
found  its  way  through  Spain  into 
Europe  generally,  where  it  be- 
came entangled  with  the  subtle- 
ties of  the  scholastic  philosophy. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  chiefly 
the  monks  who  occupied  them- 
selves with  alchemy.  The  earli- 
est authentic  works  on  European 
alchemy  now  extant  are  those 
of  Roger  Bacon  (1214-94)  and 
Albertus  Magnus  (1193-1280). 
Roger  Bacon  (q.  v.),  who  was 
acquainted  with  gunpowder, 
condemns  magic,  necromancv, 
charms,  and  all  such  things,  but 
believes  in  the  convertibility  of 
the  inferior  metals  into  gold. 

The  conception  of  the  mediae- 
valists  was  that  gold  was  the  per- 
fect metal,  and  that  all  other 
metals  were  so  many  removes  or 
deflections  from  gold,  in  conse- 
quence of  arrestment,  corrup- 
tion, or  other  accidents.  Al- 
though gold,  being  simply  perfect, 
could  not,  if  mixed  with  the  im- 
perfect, perfect  the  latter,  but 
would  rather  share  its  imperfec- 
tions; yet  were  a  substance  found 
many  times  more  perfect  than 


Alchemy 


142 


Alcldes 


gold,  it  might  well  perfect  the 
imperfect.  Such  a  substance 
would  be  composed  of  purest 
mercury  and  sulphur,  commin- 
gled into  a  solid  mass,  and  ma- 
tured by  wisdom  and  artificial 
fire  into  possibly  a  thousand 
thousand  times  the  perfection  of 
the  simple  body.  This  was  the 
philosopher  s  stone  which  so  many 
devotees  of  alchemy  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  toiled  in  vain  to  fabri- 
cate. Roger  Bacon  followed 
Geber  in  regarding  potable  gold 
— that  is,  gold  dissolved  in  nitro- 
hydrochloric  acid  or  aqua  regia — 
as  the  elixir  of  life. 

Albertus  Magnus  (q.  v.)  had  a 
great  mastery  of  the  practical 
chemistry  of  his  times.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  sulphur  and  mercury 
theory,  he  regarded  the  element 
water  as  still  nearer  the  soul  of 
nature  than  either  of  those  bod- 
ies. Aquinas,  Lully,  and  Basil 
Valentine  (or  Johann  Tholde)  also 
did  much  to  forward  the  prog- 
ress of  chemistry,  though  along 
the  lines  of  alchemy,  in  discover- 
ing the  uses  of  antimony,  the 
manufacture  of  amalgams,  and 
the  separation  of  spirits  of  wine. 

Most  famous  of  all  was  Para- 
celsus (q.  v.),  in  whom  alchemy 
proper  may  be  said  to  have  cul- 
minated. He  held,  with  Basil 
Valentine,  that  the  elements  of 
compound  bodies  were  salt,  sul- 
phur, and  mercury — representing 
respectively  earth,  air,  and  water, 
fire  being  already  regarded  as  an 
imponderable;  but  these  sub- 
stances were  in  his  system  purely 
representative.  All  kinds  of  mat- 
ter were  reducible  under  one  or 
other  of  these  typical  forms ;  every- 
thing was  either  a  salt,  a  sulphur, 
or  a  mercury,  or,  like  the  metals, 
it  was  a  'mixed'  or  compound. 
There  was  one  element,  however, 
common  to  the  four;  a  fifth  es- 
sence or  'quintessence'  of  crea- 
tion; an  unknown  and  only  true 
element,  of  which  the  four  generic 
principles  were  nothing  but  de- 
rivative forms  or  embodiments: 
he  inculcated  the  dogma  that 
there  is  only  one  real  elementary 
matter — nobody  knows  what. 
This  one  prime  element  of  things 
he  appears  to  have  considered  to 
be  the  universal  solvent  of  which 
the  alchemists  were  in  quest,  and 
to  express  which  he  introduced 
the  term  alkahest.  He  seems  to 
have  had  the  notion  that  if  this 
quintessence  or  fifth  element 
could  be  got  at,  it  would  prove 
to  be  at  once  the  philosopher's 
stone,  the  universal  medicine, 
and  the  irresistible  solvent.  An 
often-quoted  saying  of  his  is 
'Vita  ignis,  corpus  lignum'  ('life 
is  the  fire,  the  body  the  fuel'). 

After  Paracelsus,  the  alchem- 
ists of  Europe  became  divided 
into  two  classes.  The  one  class 
was  composed  of  men  of  diligence 
and  sense,  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  discovery  of  new 
Vol.  I —Mar.  '16 


compounds  and  reactions — prac- 
tical workers  and  observers  of 
facts,  and  the  legitimate  ances- 
tors of  the  positive  chemists  of 
the  era  of  Lavoisier.  The  other 
class  took  up  the  visionary,  fan- 
tastical side  of  the  older  alchemy, 
and  carried  it  to  a  degree  of  ex- 
travagance before  unknown.  In- 
stead of  useful  work,  they  com- 
piled mystical  trash  into  books, 
and  fathered  them  on  Hermes, 
Aristotle,  Albertus  Magnus,  Par- 
acelsus, and  other  really  great 
men.  Their  language  is  a  farrago 
of  mystical  metaphors,  full  of  'red 
bridegrooms'  and  'lily  brides,' 
'green  dragons,'  'ruby  lions,' 
'royal  baths,'  'waters  of  life.' 
Silver  was  Diana,  gold  was  Apol- 
lo, iron  was  Mars,  tin  was  Jupi- 
ter, lead  was  vSaturn,  and  so  forth. 
They  talk  of  the  'powder  of  at- 
traction,' which  drew  all  men  and 
women  after  the  possessor;  of  the 
'alkahest,'  or  universal  solvent; 
and  the  'grand  elixir,'  which  was 
to  confer  immortal  youth  upon 
the  student  who  should  approve 
himself  fit  to  kiss  and  quafif  the 
golden  draught. 

It  is  from  this  degenerate  and 
efifete  school  that  the  prevailing 
notion  of  alchemy  is  derived — a 
notion  which  is  unjust  to  the 
really  meritorious  alchemists  who 
paved  the  way  for  genuine  chem- 
istry. Robert  Boyle  believed  in 
the  possibiHty  of  the  alchemistic 
transmutations;  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton in  his  earlier  years  searched 
for  the  philosopher's  stone; 
Goethe  was  sympathetic.  And 
the  leading  tenet  in  the  alchem- 
ists' creed — the  transmutability 
of  other  metals  into  gold  and  sil- 
ver, a  doctrine  it  was  thought 
modern  chemistry  had  utterly 
exploded — receives  not  a  little 
countenance  from  some  of  the 
facts  in  connection  with  allotropy, 
but  especially  from  the  proof  that 
the  emanation  from  radium  is 
tran.sformed  into  helium.  Prob- 
ably radium  itself  arises  by  a  sim- 
ilar transformation  from  urani- 
um ;  perhaps  lead  is  what  remains 
of  the  radium  emanation  when 
the  helium  is  removed;  and  cog- 
nate speculations  point  to  the 
production  of  gold  from  baser 
metals  as  a  not  quite  impossible 
— if  commercially  unprofitable — 
achievement.    See  Chemistry. 

Consult  Rodwell's  Birth  of 
Chemistry;  Berthelot's  Les  Ori- 
gines  de  I'Alchimie;  M.  M.  Patti- 
son  Muir's  The  Story  of  Alchemy, • 
Redgrove's  Alchemy,  Ancient  and 
Modern  (1911). 

Alclbiades,  al-si-bi'a-dez  (c. 
450-404  B.C.),  the  Athenian,  son 
of  Clinias,  was  brought  up  after 
the  death  of  his  father  (447)  by 
his  kinsman  Pericles,  the  great 
statesman.  Born  of  a  noble  and 
wealthy  family,  and  distinguished 
by  great  personal  beauty  and 
transcendent  ability,  he  soon  be- 
came one  of  the  leading  men  in 


Athens;  but  by  reason  of  the  ex- 
travagance and  irregularity  of 
his  private  life,  and  the  master- 
fulness of  his  character,  was  al- 
ways regarded  with  suspicion  by 
the  democracy.  The  Athenians 
feared  that  he  might  attempt  to 
overthrow  their  constitution  and 
make  himself  despot  of  the  city, 
and  their  distrust  prevented  them 
from  making  full  use  of  his  genius ; 
and  so,  according  to  Thucydides, 
led  to  their  own  ruin. 

Alcibiades  was  a  favorite  pupil 
of  Socrates,  who  saved  his  life  in 
battle  near  Potidaea  (431  b.c), 
and  whose  life  he  saved  at  Delium 
(424).  About  422  he  became 
head  of  the  war  party  in  opposi- 
tion to  Nicias.  He  induced  Ath- 
ens to  fight  with  Argos  agaiiast 
Sparta  at  Mantinea  (418),  and  to 
undertake  the  great  expedition  to 
Sicily  (415),  of  which  he  and 
Nicias  and  Lamachus  were  com- 
manders. Implicated  in  the  re- 
ligious scandal  caused  by  the 
mutilation  of  the  busts  of  the 
Hermae,  he  was  summoned  to 
trial,  but  escaped,  and  took  ref- 
uge in  Sparta.  He  induced  the 
Lacedaemonians  to  send  assist- 
ance to  Syracuse,  to  form  an  alli- 
ance with  Persia,  and  to  support 
the  people  of  Chios  in  their  effort 
to  throw  off  the  Athenian  yoke. 
But  Agis  and  other  leading  Spar- 
tans, jealous  of  Alcibiades'  suc- 
cess, ordered  their  generals  in 
Asia  to  have  him  assassinated. 
Discovering  the  plot,  he  fled  to 
Tissaphernes,  a  Persian  satrap, 
who  had  orders  to  act  in  concert 
with  the  Spartans.  He  made 
himself  indispensable  to  Tissa- 
phernes, representing  to  him 
that  it  was  contrary  to  Persia's 
interests  entirely  to  disable  the 
Athenians.  He  then  secured  the 
favor  of  the  Athenians  by  detach- 
ing the  Persian  satrap  Tissa- 
phernes from  the  Spartan  side. 

During  the  next  four  years  Al- 
cibiades gained  the  victories  of 
Abydos  (411)  and  Cyzicus  (410), 
captured  Chalcedon  and  Byzan- 
tium, and  in  407  returned  to 
Athens,  where  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the 
forces.  But  next  year,  in  his  ab- 
sence, his  lieutenant  Antiochus 
lost  the  battle  of  Notium,  and  the 
Athenians  superseded  him.  He 
went  into  voluntary  exile  in  Bith- 
ynia,  and  after  three  years  of 
inactivity  was  assassinated  in 
Phrygia. 

Alcibiades  was  equally  brilliant 
as  statesman  and  soldier,  and 
showed  great  vensatility  in  other 
directions;  but  his  passion  for 
personal  aggrandizement  and  his 
want  of  principle  did  much  to  mar 
his  career.  Consult  Life  by  Plu- 
tarch; Plato's  Symposium. 

Al'cidae.    See  Auks. 

Ah-i'dcs,  a  patronymic  by  which 
Hercules  {q.  v.)  is  often  called,  as 
his  supposed  father,  Amphitryon, 
was  the  son  of  Alcaeus. 


Alcinons 


143 


Alcohol 


Alcinous,  al-sin'5-us,  son  of 
Nausithous,  and  grandson  of  Po- 
seidon; mentioned  in  the  Odyssey 
as  king  of  the  Phaeacians,  in  the 
isle  of  Scheria,  which  later  writers 
have  identified  with  Corcyra 
(Corfu).  He  entertained  Odys- 
seus hospitably,  and  sent  him 
home  after  ten  years'  wanderings. 
He  also  comes  into  the  story  of 
the  Argonauts,  where  he  receives 
Jason  and  Medea,  and  refuses  to 
give  up  Medea  to  the  Colchians. 
His  garden,  as  described  by  Ho- 
mer, was  famous,  and  the  phrase 
'apples  to  Alcinous'  has  the  same 
signification  as  'coals  to  New- 
castle.' 

AFclphron  (flourished  c.  180 
A.D.),  a  Greek  author  of  118 
epistles  professing  to  be  written 
by  fishermen,  countrymen,  cour- 
tesans, parasites — brilliant  char- 
acter sketches,  some  of  them 
based  on  Menander's  plays. 

Alcira,  al-the'ra,  town,  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Valencia,  on  an 
island  formed  by  two  branches  of 
the  River  Jucar;  22  miles  south- 
west of  Valencia.  It  is  a  depot  for 
timber  brought  down  the  river 
from  the  Cuenca  Mountains. 
Oranges  and  rice  are  cultivated. 
Alcira  was  a  Carthaginian  colony, 
and  flourished  under  both  the 
Roman  and  the  Moorish  occupa- 
tions.   Pop.  (1920)  20,818. 

Alclydc,  an  ancient  Celtic 
kingdom  of  Britain,  stretching 
south  from  the  lower  Clyde  to 
the  Solway  Firth.  It  was  merged 
in  the  kingdom  of  Alban  in  945. 
Its  capital  was  Alclyth  or 
Alclyde,  now  Dumbarton. 

Alcmse'on,  in  Greek  legend, 
the  son  of  Amphiaraiis  and 
Eriphyle,  accompanied  the  sec- 
ond expedition  of  the  Seven 
against  Thebes,  and  on  his  return 
slew  his  mother,  having  been 
bound  by  his  father  to  avenge 
him  for  her  faithlessness.  Be- 
coming mad  because  of  his  crime, 
he  wandered  about  pursued  by 
the  Furies,  but  was  at  length 
purified  by  Phegeus,  and  wed 
his  daughter,  giving  her  the 
jewels  of  Harmonia,  which  Eri- 
phyle had  obtained  as  a  bribe. 
Misfortune  soon  overtook  him, 
however,  and  again  he  wandered 
about  until  he  came  to  the  River 
Acheloiis,  where  he  was  again 
purified  and  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  river  god.  For  her  he 
obtained  the  jewels  from  Phegeus 
on  the  pretence  of  dedicating 
them  at  Delphi.  When  his  ruse 
was  discovered  he  was  murdered 
by  the  sons  of  Phegeus. 

Alcmaeon,  physician  and  phi- 
losopher (sixth  century  B.C.),  was 
a  native  of  Crotona,  in  Southern 
Italy.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
disciple  of  Pythagoras,  and  is 
chiefly  distinguished  for  his  ex- 
perimental researches  in  anatomy 
and  physiology,  as  discoverer  of 
the  optic  nerve  and  the  EuvStach- 
ian  tube,  of  the  connections  be- 
tween the  brain  and  the  organs  of 


sense,  and  of  the  spinal  cord.  He 
was  the  first  to  practise  dissec- 
tion, and  to  distinguish  between 
veins  and  arteries. 

Alc'maeon'idae,  a  celebrated 
family  at  Athens,  from  which 
Cleisthenes,  Pericles,  Alcibiades 
(qq.  v.),  and  other  great  Atheni- 
ans were  descended.  A  member 
of  the  family,  Megacles,  was  one 
of  the  archons  who  treacherously 
killed  the  adherents  of  Cylon 
after  their  surrender;  and  about 
594  B.C.  the  whole  family  was 
banished  as  blood  guilty.  Hav- 
ing bribed  the  Delphic  oracle  to 
influence  the  Spartans  to  restore 
them,  they  returned  in  509  B.C. 
But  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War  (432  B.C.)  the 
Spartans  struck  at  Pericles  by 
demanding  that  Athens  should 
expel  this  family,  'the  accursed.' 

Ale' man,  one  of  the  earliest 
Greek  lyric  poets,  was  born  about 
the  middle  of  the  seventh  century 
B.C.  at  Sardis,  in  Lydia,  but  lived, 
first  as  a  slave,  and  afterward  as 
a  freedman,  in  Sparta.  The  first 
to  write  erotic  poetry,  he  com- 
posed in  the  Doric  dialect  Par- 
thenia,  or  songs  for  choruses  of 
virgins,  bridal  hymns,  and  verses 
in  praise  of  love  and  wine. 

Alcmanian  verse  consists  of  a 
line  composed  of  three  dactyls  or 
three  spondees,  followed  by  a 
spondee  or  a  trochee. 

Alcmene,  alk-me'ne,  wife  of 
Amphitrj^on  and  mother,  by 
Zeus,  of  Hercules. 

Alcoba^a,  al-ko-ba'sa,  town, 
province  of  Estremadura,  Portu- 
gal; 60  miles  northeast  of  Lisbon. 
It  has  an  ancient  Cistercian 
abbey  (1148-1222)  containing 
the  tombs  of  four  Portuguese 
kings.  Pop.  2,400. 

Alcock,  ol'kok.  Sir  Ruther- 
ford (1809-97),  British  diplomat 
and  author,  was  born  in  London. 
He  was  appointed  surgeon  to  the 
British  -  Portuguese  forces  in 
Portugal  in  1832,  and  was  trans- 
ferred to  Spain  in  1836.  In  1837 
he  became  lecturer  in  surgery  at 
Sydenham  College,  and  in  1844 
was  named  British  consul  in 
Fuchow,  later  being  transferred 
to  Shanghai.  He  was  consul- 
general  in  Japan  (1858),  and 
minister-plenipotentiary  (1865- 
71)  in  Peking,  China,  and  subse- 
quently devoted  himself  to  the 
betterment  of  hospital  nursing 
establishments.  His  published 
works  include  Medical  Notes  on 
the  British  Legion  in  Spain  (1838), 
Elements  of  Japanese  Grammar 
(1861),  The  Capital  of  the  Tycoon 
(1863),  Art  and  Art  Industries  in 
Japan  (1878). 

Alcoforado,  al-cd-fo-rii'do, 
Marianna  (1640-1723),  a  nun 
of  the  Portuguese  town  of  Beja, 
author  of  the  Letters  of  a  Portu- 
guese Nun  (1669),  which  form  a 
realistic  document  of  tragic  and 
romantic  passion,  noteworthy 
for  autobiographical  candor  and 
psychological  insight.    Living  in 


a  convent,  where  the  rules  were 
rather  lax,  she  met  Noel  Bouton. 
afterward  Marquis  de  Chamilly, 
who  made  love  to  her  and  then 
deserted  her.  To  him  the  letters 
were  addressed.  Consult  Eng. 
trans,  by  E.  Prestage. 

Alcofribas  Nasier,  al-ko-fre- 
ba'  na-sya',  the  nom  de  plume 
under  which  Frangois  Rabelais 
published  Pantagruel;  an  ana- 
gram formed  from  his  own  name. 
See  Rabelais. 

AFcohoI  (Arabic),  a  generic 
term  in  chemistry  for  a  number 
of  compounds  which  are  the  hy- 
droxides of  hydrocarbon  radicals 
(see  Alcohols),  but  usually  ap- 
plied to  one  member  of  the  series 
—viz..  Ethyl  Alcohol,  C2H5OH, 
the  active  principle  of  intoxicat- 
ing liquors. 

Alcohol  may  be  formed  syn- 
thetically from  its  elements  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  oxygen,  but  in 
practice  it  is  always  produced  by 
the  fermentation  of  solutions  con- 
taining sugar.  Originally  the 
juice  of  the  grape  was  used,  as  it 
still  is  in  the  preparation  of  wine 
and  brandy;  but  the  alcohol  of 
commerce  is  now  made  from 
malt  and  one  or  other  of  the  fol- 
lowing raw  materials:  wheat, 
corn,  rice,  millet,  potatoes,  mo- 
lasses, glucose,  cane  or  beet  sugar, 
honey,  milk,  apples,  peaches, 
blackberries,  and  cherries.  The 
manufacturing  operations,  the 
details  of  which  vary  in  different 
countries,  are  divided  into  three 
distinct  stages:  (1)  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  saccharine  liquid  or 
wort;  (2)  the  fermentation  of  the 
wort,  producing  what  is  tech- 
nically known  as  inash;  and  (3) 
the  distillation  (q.v.)  of  the  mash. 

Fusel  oil  and  furfurol  are  im- 
portant by-products  of  distilla- 
tion. They  are  difficult  to  re- 
move entirely,  and  are  responsi- 
ble for  many  of  the  objectionable 
qualities  of  alcoholic  drinks. 
Small  quantities  of  other  alco- 
hols, of  greater  toxicity  in  pro- 
portion to  their  greater  atomic 
weight,  are  also  often  found  mixed 
with  ethyl  alcohol. 

Alcohol  may  be  made  by  the 
fermentation  of  any  liquor  con- 
taining sugar.  In  common 
practice  sugar  solutions  tor  fer- 
mentation are  produced  by 
treating  starch  with  malt.  The 
action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
solutions  on  cellulose  (the  woody 
matter  of  plants)  also  produces 
fermentable  sugars,  and  it  has 
been  proposed  that  alcohol  be 
prepared  on  a  large  scale  by  the 
utilization  of  waste  sawdust. 
Several  attempts,  however,  have 
resulted  in  commercial  failure. 

The  increasing  demand  for  a 
convenient  illuminant  and  fuel, 
especially  in  places  remote  from 
cities,  and  when  it  is  of  advantage 
to  utilize  waste  material,  has  led 
farmers  to  use  such  substances 
as  beet  molasses,  sorghum,  sugar 
beets,  sugar  corn,  canning  wastes. 

Vol.  I.— March  '27 


Alcohol 


143  A 


Alcoholism 


and  potatoes  for  the  production 
of  alcohol.  Frequently  the 
source  gives  the  name  to  the 
alcohol.  (See  Denatured  Al- 
cohol). 

Absolute  or  anhydrous  alcohol 
(C2H5OH)  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  0.794  at  60°  F.  (15.6°  c);  it 
boils  at  173°  f.  (78.4°  c.) ;  and 
freezes  at  —  117.6°  C.  It  is  highly 
inflammable,  its  combustion 
yielding  only  carbonic  acid  and 
water.  It  has  a  strong  attraction 
for  water,  and  when  the  two  are 
mixed  heat  is  evolved,  and  a  con- 
traction in  volume  takes  place. 

No  simple  chemical  test  has 
been  devised  by  means  of  which 
alcohol  can  be  readily  detected. 
When  in  quantity,  it  may  be 
obtained,  mixed  only  with  water, 
by  distillation,  and  is  then 
recognized  by  its  odor  and 
taste.  When  in  small  propor- 
tions, the  best  test  is  to  add  a 
solution  of  potassium  iodide  sat- 
urated with  iodine,  till  the  liquid 
is  a  permanent  brown  color;  then 
add  dilute  potassmm  hydroxide 
solution,  drop  by  drop,  till  the 
brown  color  is  removed.  A  yel- 
low crystalline  deposit  of  iodo- 
form is  produced.  As  several 
alcohol  derivatives  produce  iodo- 
form under  similar  conditions, 
the  test  should  be  confirmed  by 
the  oxidation  of  a  portion  of  the 
suspected  liquid:  if  alcohol  is 
present,  acetic  acid  will  be  pro- 
duced. 

Proof  spirit,  which  is  the  stand- 
ard by  means  of  which  all  mix- 
tures of  alcohol  and  water  are 
judged,  consists  of  50  parts  of 
absolute  alcohol  and  62.71  parts 
of  water  by  volume  (see  Proof 
Spirit). 

Alcohol  is  the  characteristic 
component  of  rum,  brandy, 
whiskey,  gin,  beer,  and  other 
beverages,  being  present  in  ap- 
proximately the  following  per- 
centages: rum,  43  per  cent.; 
whiskey,  43;  brandy,  43;  gin,  37; 
port,  25;  sherry,  21;  champagne, 
10-15;  claret,  9;  bottled  beer, 
7-8;  lager  beer,  4  per  cent.  It  is 
UvSecl  in  the  manufacture  of  chlor- 
oform, chloral,  ether,  essences, 
tinctures,  alkaloids,  liniments, 
and  lotions;  as  a  solvent  for  oils, 
fats,  resins,  and  gums;  in  making 
transparent  soap;  and  for  heating 
and  illumination.  It  is  used, 
also,  to  a  large  extent  as  a  motor 
fuel  for  internal  combustion 
engines  either  alone  or  mixed 
with  other  fuels,  as  gasoline, 
benzene,  etc.  It  is  the  most 
valuable  of  mdustrial  solvents 
except  water. 

Chemically,  alcohol  forms  a 
series  of  esters  with  organic 
acids,  such  as  ethyl  acetate, 
ethyl  propionate,  ethyl  butyrate, 
etc.  It  reacts  with  metallic 
sodium  and  other  metals  of  the 
alkali  family  to  form  ethylates, 
such  as  sodium  ethylate  (C2H6- 
ONa),  having  weak  basic  prop- 
erties.    On  oxidation,  it  yields 


first  acetaldehyde,  and  on  further 
oxidation  acetic  acid.  It  may  be 
dehydrated  bv  sulphuric  acid 
to  yield  ethyl  ether  (  (C2H5)20) 
and  on  further  dehydration, 
ethylene  (C2H4). 

Medical  Action  and  Uses. — 
When  applied  to  the  skin  and 
allowed  to  evaporate,  alcohol 
cools  the  surface  of  the  body, 
and  causes  contraction  of  the 
local  vessels,  with  diminution  of 
the  secretions.  It  may  therefore 
be  employed  as  a  refrigerant  and 
astringent,  to  lessen  the  surface 
temperature  and  check  excessive 
perspiration.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  kept  in  contact  with 
the  skin  without  evaporation,  it 
produces  increased  flow  of  blood 
in  the  part  by  penetrating 
through  the  cuticle,  and  it  may 
be  used  in  this  way  as  a  rube- 
facient when  counter-irritation  is 
desired. 

Taken  internally,  alcohol  is 
completely  oxidized  in  the  body; 
none  of  it  is  retained  or  stored  up, 
nor  does  it  produce  any  body 
that  may  be  stored  up.  Its  food 
value  is  only  its  combustion 
value.  It  is  a  stimulant  in 
small  doses,  and  a  depressant  in 
larger  doses.  It  exerts  a  brief 
stimulating  eft'ect  on  the  heart 
and  circulation  and  on  the  higher 
mental  faculties,  and  it  dilates 
the  surface  blood  vessels,  thus 
causing  more  heat  to  be  given  off 
by  radiation,  with  resulting  low- 
ering of  the  body  temperature. 

When  taken  immoderately  over 
a  long  period,  alcohol  induces 
serious  structural  changes  in 
many  important  organs,  notably 
the  brain,  blood  vessels,  heart, 
liver,  kidneys,  and  stomach. 
(See  Alcoholism.) 

An  important  advance  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  action  of  alcohol 
has  been  made  by  the  researches 
of  Kraepelin  in  Heidelberg.  He  de- 
termined that  small  doses  of 
alcohol  from  the  first  adversely 
influence  the  finer  biain  cells 
and  the  centres  of  latest  and 
highest  intellectual  development. 
Experiments  made  by  Hodge,  on 
the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  mus- 
cular energy  of  dogs,  gave  clear 
evidence  of  the  greater  alertness, 
strength,  and  energy  of  the  non- 
alcoholic dogs.  The  experience 
of  Sir  Frederick  Treves  with  the 
Ladysmith  relief  column  in  the 
South  African  War  may  also  be 
cited  in  this  connection:  Tn 
that  enormous  column  of  30,000 
men  the  first  who  dropped  out 
were  not  the  tall  men,  or  the 
short  men,  or  the  big  men,  or  the 
little  men — they  were  the  drink- 
ers. 

In  keeping  with  the  altered 
views  now  held  as  to  the  action  of 
alcohol  in  health,  a  great  change 
has  come  over  the  practice  of  the 
medical  profession  in  recent  years 
with  regard  to  the  use  of  alcohol 
as  a  therapeutic  agent.  Alcohol 
is  considered  of  distinct  service, 


however,  in  certain  acute  illnesses 
in  children,  and  may  tide  the 
patient  over  the  critical  period  of 
pneumonia,  diphtheria,  and  the 
like;  it  is  valuable  as  an  aid  to 
digestion,  and  as  a  general  tonic 
for  promoting  sleep  in  elderly 
people.  It  is,  further,  of  value  to 
adults  suffering  from  pneumonia, 
typhoid  fever,  and  heart  disease; 
but  whereas  formerly  it  was  em- 
ployed as  a  routine  in  pneum.onia, 
its  use  is  now  exceptional.  The 
indications  for  its  use  are  signs  of 
failing  strength  and  circulation, 
such  as  quick,  feeble,  irregular 
pulse,  with  general  restlessness 
and  prostration. 

See  Alcohols;  Denatured 
Alcohol;  Methyl  Alcohol; 
Alcoholism;  Brewing;  Brandy; 
Whiskey;  Wine. 

Alcoholism,  a  morbid  con- 
dition due  to  the  excessive  use 
of  alcohol.  It  may  be  either 
acute  or  chronic. 

Acute  alcoholism  is  caused 
by  the  rapid  absorption  of  alco- 
holic beverages,  and  is  character- 
ized by  unusually  sharpened 
sense  perception,  animation  and 
exaltation,  impairment  of  judg- 
ment, and  increase  or  perversion 
of  emotion.  Later,  locomotion 
and  all  the  muscular  movements 
become  disordered  and  difficult, 
and  speech  becomes  thick.  In 
other  cases,  anger,  fierce  excite- 
ment, and  violence  result  from 
alcoholic  indulgence,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  great  depression,  gener- 
ally. In  both  classes  of  cases 
stupor  and  sleep  follow. 

Chronic  alcoholism  may  follow 
several  experiences  of  acute 
alcoholism,  or  may  be  caused  by 
continuous  tippling,  'moderate 
drinking,'  in  those  who  have 
never  appeared  to  be  intoxi- 
cated. The  lesions  are  those  of 
the  various  degenerations  of  the 
parenchyma  of  the  viscera,  with 
increased  connective  tissue 
growth,  often  producing  a  fibroid 
replacement.  The  heart  shows 
fatty  infiltration  between  the 
muscular  fibres  or  brown  atrophy 
of  its  muscles  or  fibroid  re- 
placement in  the  myocardium; 
degenerative  changes  are  fre- 
quent in  the  blood  vessels;  the 
liver  may  show  a  combination  of 
cirrhosis,  brown  atrophy,  and 
parenchymatous  and  fatty  de- 
generation, and  the  kidnej's 
usually  show  lesions  character- 
istic of  chronic  nephritis.  The 
lesions  of  the  central  nervous 
system  vary,  but  usually  result 
in  a  deterioration  of  personality 
manifested  in  irritability,  lack  of 
consideration  for  others,  neglect 
of  social  responsibilities,  and  an 
increase  in  the  so-called  'defense 
reactions.'  There  is  permanent 
deterioration  of  judgment,  rea- 
son, and  memory,  beginning  in- 
sidiously and  increasing  inevi- 
tably in  intensity. 

Special  clinical  manifestations 
of  chronic   alcoholism   are  de- 


VOL.  I.— March  '27 


Alcoholometry 


143B 


Alcoy 


lirium  tremens  (q.v.);  acute 
hallucinosis,  or  acute  paranoia; 
dipsomania  (q.v.)  or  periodic 
drunkenness;  alcoholic  trance — 
amnesia;  Korsakoff's  psychosis,  a 
chronic  delirium  developing  in 
patients  suffering  from  alcoholic 
polyneuritis. 

Treatment  consists  in  im- 
mediate measures  to  alleviate 
the  symptoms  and  the  building 
up  of  the  patient  physically  and 
mentally.  Lambert  recommends 
a  mixture  of  belladonna  and 
extract  of  hyoscyamus  and  xan- 
thoxylum,  and  thorough  cathar- 
sis, with  appropriate  measures 
for  stimulation.  He  lays  special 
stress  upon  the  mental  readjust- 
ment of  the  patient.  Unless 
this  can  be  accomplished,  other 
measures  are  merely  palliative. 

Economic  i4s/>ecf5, —Economi- 
cally alcoholism  has  been  held 
responsible  for  a  large  proportion 
of  want  and  pauperism,  vice,  and 
crime.  It  is  an  important  cause 
of  insanity  and  is  often  expressed 
in  the  second  generation  as 
epilepsy  and  weak-mindedness. 
These  far-reaching  social  and 
economic  aspects  have  con- 
stituted it  a  public  problem,  for 
which  various  remedies  have 
been  proposed.  (See  Prohibi- 
tion; Temperance;  Local  Op- 
tion.) 

See  Alcohol;  Drunkenness; 
Intoxication. 

Al'coholom'etry,  the  determi- 
nation of  the  percentage  of  alco- 
hol in  a  liquid.  When  the  alcohol 
is  mixed  with  water  only,  the 
proportion  is  estimated  from  the 
specific  gravity,  which  is  found 
by  means  of  the  specific  gravity 
bottle  or  by  a  hydrometer  (q.v.). 
Tables  are  published  showing  the 
percentage  of  alcohol  (by  volume 
and  weight)  and  of  proof  spirit 
(q.v.),  corresponding  to  the 
specific  gravity.  The  hydrometer 
used  by  the  U.  S.  Internal 
Revenue  officers  is  of  glass 
graduated  to  read  the  volume  of 
proof  spirit,  which  is  equivalent 
to  the  volume  of  the  given 
liquor  at  60°  f.  In  liquors  con- 
taining substances  other  than 
alcohol,  such  as  beer,  the  strength 
can.be  determined  only  after  the 
alcohol  and  water  have  been 
separated  by  distillation. 

Alcohols,  any  one  of  a  large 
class  of  compounrls  in  organic 
chemistry  which  are  formed  by 
the  substitution  of  one  or  more 
hydroxyl  radicals  for  an  equal 
number  of  hydrogen  atoms  in 
the  original  hydrocarbon.  The 
hydrocarbon  methane,  for  ex- 
ample, has  the  formula  CH4; 
by  substituting  the  hydroxyl 
radical  OH  for  one  of  the  hydro- 
gen atoms,  there  is  obtained 
CH3.OH,  or  methyl  alcohol.  Sim- 
ilarly the  formula  C2H6  repre- 
sents ethane,  which  when  one  of 
its  hydrogen  atoms  is  replaced  by 
hydroxyl  yields  C^Hs.QH,  or 
ethyl  alcohol. 


Alcohols  are  classed  chemically 
according  to  the  number  of 
hydroxyl  groups  they  contain. 
Thus  there  are  monatomic  or 
monohydric  alcohols,  as  methyl 
and  ethyl  alcohols;  diatomic  or 
dihydric  alcohols,  as  ethylene  and 
propylene  gycols;  triatomic  or 
trihydric  alcohols,  as  glycerol — 
containing  one,  two,  and  three 
hydroxyl  groups  respectively. 
Alcohols  containing  a  greater 
number  of  hydroxyl  groups  are 
classified  as  polyhydric. 

The  monohydric  alcohols  may 
be  further  classified,  according 
to  the  products  obtained  by 
oxidation,  as  primary,  secondary, 
and  tertiary.  On  oxidation  the 
primary  alcohols  yield  first  alde- 
hydes and  finally  acids  contain- 
ing the  same  number  of  carbon 
atoms  in  the  molecule  as  the 
original  alcohol.  Secondary 
alcohols  yield  first  a  ketone  of 
the  same  number  of  carbon 
atoms  and  on  further  oxidation 
an  acid  of  fewer  carbon  atoms. 
Tertiary  alcohols  are  oxidized 
direct  to  acids  of  fewer  carbon 
atoms.  Ethyl  alcohol  (C2H5.OH), 
yielding  acetaldehyde  (CH3.- 
CHO)  and  acetic  acid  (CH3.- 
COOH),  is  a  characteristic  pri- 
mary alcohol;  iso-propyl  alcohol 
(  (CH3)2CHOH),  yielding  di- 
methyl ketone  (  (CH3)2CO)  and 
acetic  acid  (CH3.COOH),  a 
typical  secondary  alcohol;  ter- 
tiary butyl  alcohol  (  (CH3)3 
COH),  yielding  dimethyl  ketone 
and  acetic  acid,  a  typical  ter- 
tiary alcohol. 

The  alcohols  so  far  discussed 
belong  to  the  so-called  aliphatic 
series.  The  alcohols  of  the 
aromatic  series  which  have  the 
hydroxyl  group  joined  directly  to 
six  carbon  nucleus  are  called 
phenols  and  behave  somewhat 
differently.  For  example,  car- 
bolic acid,  ordinarily  called 
phenol  (CeHsOH),  possesses 
weakly  acid  properties  and  com- 
bines with  metals  to  form  salts, 
such  as  sodium  phenylate  or 
carbolate  (CeHsONa).  The 
aromatic  alcohols  properly  so- 
called  have  the  hydroxyl  group 
in  an  aliphatic  side  chain,  as 
benzyl  alcohol  (C6H5CH2OH), 
and  behave  like  aliphatic  alco- 
hols. 

Alcoran.    See  Koran. 

Alcorn,  al'kern,  James  LysK 
(1816-94).  American  legislator, 
was  born  in  Golconda,  111.,  and 
was  educated  in  Kentucky, 
where  he  served  in  the  legislature. 
In  1844  he  removed  to  Missis- 
sippi, and  there  practised  law  for 
many  years.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Mississippi  legislature,  1846- 
65;  governor  of  the  State,  1868- 
71,  and  U.  S.  Senator,  1871-7. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  Missis- 
sippi levee  system,  and  helped  to 
establish  the  State  Agricultural 
and  Mechanical  College  for 
Colored  Youth. 

ij^lcott,  orkut,  Amos  Bronson 


(1799-1888),  American  trans- 
cendentalist,  writer,  and  teacher, 
was  born  in  Wolcott,  Conn.,  and 
was  educated  in  the  rural  schools 
in  his  neighborhood.  In  1825,  he 
became  teacher  of  a  school  in 
Cheshire,  Conn.,  where  he  intro- 
duced educational  methods  con- 
siderably in  advance  of  his  time. 
Opening  the  Temple  School  in 
Boston  in  1834,  he  made  use  of 
similar  methods,  and  won  the 
hearty  approval  of  many  of  the 
leaders  of  educational  thought, 
but  conservative  and  traditional 
schoolmen  opposed  his  innova- 
tions and  caused  his  removal  to 
Concord. 

There  he  became  the  friend  of 
Emerson,  Thoreau,  Hawthorne, 
and  Channing,  and  was  made 
dean  of  the  Concord  School  of 
Philosophy.  In  1842  he  visited 
England,  and  upon  his  return 
unsuccessfully  attempted  to  es- 
tablish an  community,  'Fruit- 
lands,'  near  Harvard,  Mass. 
Thereafter  he  lectured  on  educa- 
tion, theology,  and  allied  sub- 
jects, in  most  of  the  principal 
cities  of  the  United  States.  His 
chief  works  are:  Conversations 
with  Children  on  the  Gospels 
(1837);  Orphic  Sayings  (1840); 
Spiritual  Culture  (1841);  Tablets 
(1868);  Concord  Days  (1872); 
Table  Talk  (1877);  New  Con- 
necticut, an  A  utobio  graphical 
Poem  (1881,  1877);  Ralph  W. 
Emerson  and  Sonnets  and  Can- 
zonets (1822).  Consult  Sanborn's 
Life  (with  W.  T.  Harris.) 

Alcott,  Louisa  May  (1832- 
88),  American  writer  for  the 
young,  was  born  in  Germantown, 
Pa.,  daughter  of  A.  B.  Alcott 
(q.v.).  She  engaged  in  school 
teaching  and  writing  for  peri- 
odicals, and  in  1855  published 
her  first  book.  Flower  Fables. 
Her  life  as  a  volunteer  hospital 
nurse  during  the  Civil  War 
furnished  material  for  her  Hos- 
pital Sketches  (1865),  and  sup- 
plied a  background  for  several 
of  her  tales.  She  wrote  for 
The  Atlantic  Monthly,  and  pub- 
lished several  other  works  before 
her  first  and  greatest  success, 
Little  Women  (1868;  second 
part,  1869),  which  was  followed 
by  Little  Men  (1871),  with  its 
sequel,  Jos  Boys  (1886).  Other 
works  are:  Moods  (1864,  1881); 
An  Old  Fashioned  Girl  (1869); 
Aunt  Jo's  Scrap  Bag  (1871,  1882); 
Work  (1873);  Eight  Cousins 
(1874);  Rose  in  Bloom  (1876); 
Under  the  Lilacs  (1878);  Jack 
and  Jill  (1880) ;  An  Old  Fashioned 
Thanksgiving  (1882);  Proverb 
Stories  (1882);  5  pinning-  Wheel 
Stories  (1884);  Lulu's  Library 
(1885).  Consult  Lives  by 
Cheney  and  Moses. 

Alcoy,  ill-koi',  town,  Spain, 
in  the  i)rovince  of  Alicante,  34 
miles  north  of  Alicante.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  prosperous  towns 
in  Spain;  the  Molinar  and 
Barchel  Rivers  supplying  power 

Vol.  L— March. '27 


Alcudia 


144 


Aldebaran 


for  paper,  woollen,  linen,  and 
cotton  mills,  and  match  factories. 
Its  cigarette  paper  'papel  de 
Alcoy,'  has  a  far-reaching  reputa- 
tion.   Pop.  (1920)^36.463. 

Alcudia,  al-koo'xHe-a,  Duke 
OF.   See  GoDOY. 

Alculn,  al'kwin,  or  Albinus 
(735-804),  surnamed  Flaccus, 
whose  name  in  English  was 
Ealhwine,  a  noted  scholar  of 
the  eighth  century,  confidant 
and  adviser  of  Charlemagne, 
was  born  in  York.  Educated 
there  under  Archbishop  Egbert 
and  the  teacher  Ethelbert,  he 
succeeeded  the  latter  on  his  pro- 
motion to  the  archbishopric  in 
767,  and  with  Ethelbert's  resig- 
nation (778)  became  head  of 
both  school  and  library.  In  781, 
returning  from  Rome  with  the 
pallium  for  Eanbald,  Ethel- 
bert's successor  in  the  arch- 
bishopric of  York,  Alcuin  met 
Charlemagne  at  Parma,  and  was 
persuaded  by  the  Emperor  to 
settle  in  France,  where  he  re- 
ceived the  abbeys  of  Ferrieres  in 
Gatinais,  St.  Loup  at  Troyes, 
and  St.  Martin  at  Tours. 

In  the  court  at  Aachen  Alcuin 
had  among  his  pupils  the 
Emperor  and  his  sons,  imperial 
counsellors  such  as  Adalhard, 
the  archbishops  of  Mayence  and 
Treves,  Charlemagne's  sister  and 
daughter,  the  nuns  of  the  dio- 
ceses, and  Adalhard 's  sister 
Gundrade,  to  whom  Alcuin 
dedicated  his  philosophical  es- 
say, De  Ralione  Animce. 

Alcuin's  plan  of  instruction 
embraced  the  stages  of  the 
trivium  and  quadrivium,  in  the 
usual  lines  of  such  rhetoricians 
and  grammarians  as  Martianis 
Capella,  Isidore,  and  Priscian; 
but  even  in  these  it  found 
methods  and  symbols  allying  it 
with  that  of  later  periods  of 
renaissance.  The  dialogue,  and 
especially  the  dialogue  in  alle- 
gorical character,  was  a  favorite 
device.  In  his  letters,  too,  Alcuin 
conveyed  instruction;  of  the  232 
that  have  come  down  to  us,  30 
are  addressed  to  Charlemagne. 
In  these  he  congratulates  the 
Emperor  on  victories  over  the 
Huns,  advises  clemency,  outlines 
missionary  schemes,  expounds 
astronomy,  and  touches  on  ec- 
clesiastical events  and  heresies 
of  the  day.  Manners  and  the 
state  of  society  are  also  recorded, 
together  with  the  surroundings 
of  his  earlier  manhood,  in  the 
most  notable  of  his  poems. 
Carmen  de  Pontificibus  et  Sanctis 
Ecclesice  Eboracensis. 

Alcuin  revisited  England  (790- 
2)  in  connection  with  the  renewal 
of  a  treaty  between  the  Emperor 
and  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  but  was 
recalled  to  France  and  in  796 
settled  in  Tours  as  abbot  and 
head  of  the  great  school.  There 
he  died  in  804. 

Alcuin's  theological  writings 
are  not  of  the  first  importance, 

You  I. — March  '27 


nor  are  any  of  his  280  poems  re- 
markable. What  interest  his 
remains  possess  lies  almost  whol- 
ly in  scholastic  and  historical 
work.  The  former  includes 
treatises  on  grammar,  orthog- 
raphy, rhetoric,  and  dialectic, 
and  the  discourse  De  Virtulibus 
el  Viliis — the  latter  the  four 
lives  of  St.  Waast,  St.  Martin, 
St.  Riquier  (or  Richarius),  and 
St.  Willibrord.  The  best  edition 
of  Alcuin's  works  is  that  of 
Frobenius.  Consult  Lorenz' 
Life  (Eng.  trans.);  West's  Alcuin 
and  the  Rise  of  the  Christian 
Schools;  Gaskoin's  Alcuin,  His 
Life  and  Work;  Bishop  Browne's 
Alcuin  of  York;  Page's  The 
Letters  of  Alcuin  (1911). 


Alcyonaria 


Al'cyona'ria,  a  subdivision  of 
the  Anthozoa,  including  Alcyoni- 
um  (q.  V.)  or  Dead  Men's  Fin- 
gers, Sea- Pens  (Pennalula),  Red 
Corals  (Corallium),  and  numer- 
ous other  beautiful  forms.  The 
Alcyonarians  are  mostly  colonial; 
the  polyps,  or  single  members  of 
the  colony,  differ  from  sea  anem- 
ones and  reef  corals  in  having 
eight  branched  tentacles,  instead 
of  simple  tentacles,  in  multiples 
of  six.    See  Corals. 

Alcyone,  al-si'o-ne,  or  Halcy- 
ONE  (Halcyon),  in  Greek  legend 
the  daughter  of  ^olus  and 
Enarete  or  Aegiale,  and  the  wife 
of  Ceyx.  The  pair  led  such  a 
blissful  married  existence  that 
they  compared  themselves  to 
Zeus  and  Hera,  and  Zeus  in 
revenge  turned  them  into  king- 
fishers. According  to  a  later 
legend,  Alcyone,  through  grief 
at  the  loss  of  her  husband  at 
sea,  drowned  herself.  The  gods, 
in  pity,  then  turned  the  pair  into 
kingfishers,  and  gave  them  calm 
weather  for  their  breeding  season. 
The  kingfisher,  or  halcyon,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  breeds  very 
early,  and  its  breeding  season 
is  supposed  to  bring  fine  weather. 
Hence,  the  expression  halcyon 
days. 

Alcyone,  the  brightest  star  in 
the  Pleiades  (q.v.). 

Alcyo'niuin,  or  Dead  Men's 
Fingers,  a  common  ccelenterate 
of  the  sub-class  Anthozoa  (Ac- 
tinozoa),  subdivision  Alcyonaria. 


It  is  found  on  the  coast,  in  some- 
what deep  water,  as  an  irregular- 
ly lobed  mass  of  a  white,  creamy, 
or  orange  color,  attached  to 
stones  and  shells.  The  mass, 
which  is  frequently  about  the 
size  of  a  man's  hand,  is  not  one 
animal,  but  a  myriad  colony. 
When  undisturbed,  the  countless 
individual  polyps  may  be  seen 
projecting  from  the  surface  like 
miniature  sea  anemones,  about 
the  size  of  a  snail's  horns.  Each 
polyp  consists  of  a  contractile 
tube,  with  a  crown  of  eight 
tentacles  round  a  slit-like  mouth, 
and  with  the  margin  of  the  latter 
prolonged  inward  to  form  an 
inner  stomach  tube,  connected 
with  the  outer  wall  by  radial 
partitions  or  mesenteries.  The 
expanded  tentacles  are  seen 
to  be  irregularly  pinnate,  and 
bear  the  usual  stinging  cells. 
The  neck  region,  below  the  base 
of  the  tentacles,  is  strengthened 
by  the  formation  of  knotted 
spicules. 

The  common  species  is  digita- 
tum,  and  of  this  several  varieties 
occur.  A  giant  species  {A.  pocu- 
lum),  found  on  the  coral  reefs  of 
Sumatra  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Singapore,  attains  nearly 
3  feet  in  height  and  18  inches  in 
diameter.  See  Ccelenterata; 
Coral. 

Al'da,  Frances  (1883-  ), 
operatic  soprano,  was  born  in 
Christchurch,  New  Zealand,  and 
was  educated  in  Melbourne, 
Australia.  She  studied  voice 
culture  under  Mme.  Marchesi  in 
Paris,  where  she  made  her  first 
appearance  at  the  Opera  Com- 
ique  in  1905.  She  sang  the  part 
of  Marguerite  in  Faust  at 
Brussels,  and  Louise  in  Char- 
pentier's  opera  of  that  name  at 
Parma  and  Milan.  In  1908  she 
made  her  debut  in  the  United 
States  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  New  York  City,  in  the 
role  of  Gilda  in  Rigoletto.  In 
1911  she  was  married  to  Giulio 
Gatti-Casazza. 

Aldan,  al-dan',  river,  Yakutsk 
government,  Siberia,  rises  in  the 
Aldan  Mountains,  and  flows 
northeast,  then  west,  to  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Lena.  Length, 
1,370  miles. 

Aid  borough,  6ld'bur-o;  collo- 
quially, 6'bro,  village,  England, 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Swale 
and  Ure,  on  Watling  Street;  16 
miles  northwest  of  York.  Near 
it  was  Isurium,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Brigantes,  and  a 
Roman  station.    Pop.  500. 

Aldeb'aran  =  a  Tauri,  a 
standard  first  magnitude  star  of  a 
light  red  color,  showing  a 
spectrum  of  type  k5.  The  name 
signifies  the  'follower'  (of  the 
Pleiades),  and  an  alternative  Ar- 
abic appellation,  Ain-at-Thaur, 
means  the  'eye  of  the  bull.'  Its 
parallax  of  0.057"  corresponds  to 
a  light  journey   of  fifty-seven 


Aldegrever 


145 


Alder 


years,  and  involves  the  conse- 
quence that  Aldebaran  shines 
with  a  total  brilliancy  one 
hindred  times  that  of  the  sun. 
It  is  retreating  from  the  earth 
with  a  velocity  of  35  miles  a 
second. 

It  is  one  of  the  relatively  few 
stars  which  are  both  near  enough 
and  large  enough  to  be  measur- 
able with  the  Mt.  Wilson  inter- 
ferometer. The  apparent  diam- 
eter is  0.020",  which  corres- 
ponds, at  the  distance  of  Aldeb- 
aran, to  a  linear  diameter  of 
32  million  miles,  or  nearly  one 
half  the  diameter  of  Mercury's 
orbit.  Aldebaran  is  one  of  the 
large  stars  of  low  density,  known 
as  'giants,'  which  presumably 
is  in  an  early  stage  of  stellar 
evolution. 

Aldegrever,  al'de-gra-ver,  or 
Aldegrave,  Heinrich,  whose 
real  name  was  Trippenmaker 
(1502-60),  German  painter  and 
engraver,  whose  work  was  prob- 
ably influenced  by  Diirer,  Be- 
ham,  and  Pencz.  His  few  known 
paintings  are  in  Breslau,  Bruns- 
wick, and  Vienna.  Later  he  gave 
himself  wholly  to  engraving,  and 
his  plates  are  finished  with  pre- 
cision and  delicacy. 

Al'dehydes,  a  generic  term 
applied  to  a  class  of  organic  com- 
pounds which  are  produced  by 
the  partial  oxidation  of  the  pri- 
mary alcohols,  and  which  con- 
tain a  group  CHO.  They  are 
intermediate  compounds  between 
the  alcohols  and  acids;  by  reduc- 
ing agents  they  are  converted 
into  alcohols,  and  by  oxidizing 
agents  into  acids.  The  first 
member  of  the  series  is  formal- 
dehyde, which  is  made  by  the 
oxidation  of  methyl  alcohol. 
It  is  a  gas  with  a  pungent  smell, 
and  is  sold  in  a  40  per  cent, 
solution  under  the  name  of  for- 
malin. It  is  largely  used  as  an 
antiseptic  and  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  phenol-formaldehyde  res- 
ins, such  as  bakelite  (q.v.). 
Acetaldehyde  is  made  by  oxidiz- 
ing ordinary  alcohol. 

All  aldehydes  are  easily  oxi- 
dized to  acids — e.g.,  on  oxidiza- 
tion, formaldehyde  yields  formic 
acid  and  acetaldehyde,  acetic 
acid.  They  may  be  reduced  to 
the  corresponding  alcohols.  The 
aldehydes  unite  chemically  with 
ammonia,  with  the  acid  sulphites 
of  the  alkalies,  and  with  hydro- 
cyanic acid.  They  also  precipi- 
tate metallic  silver  from 
ammoniacal  solutions  of  its 
salts,  a  property  utilized  in  the 
manufacture  of  mirrors. 

Aldehydes  are  characterized 
by  a  penetrating  odor.  In 
formaldehyde  and  acetaldehyde, 
as  in  other  members  of  the 
aliphatic  series,  this  is  disagree- 
able, but  aldehydes  of  the 
aromatic  series  frequently  have 
very  pleasant  odors,  being  found 
in  perfumes  and  flower  oils. 
Benzaldehyde  imparts  the  char* 


acteristic  odor  to  oil  of  bitter 
almonds,  cumic  aldehyde  to  oil 
of  cumin,  and  cinnamic  aldehyde 
to  oil  of  cinnamon.  See  Acetal- 
dehyde; Acrolein;  Almonds, 
Oil  of;  Formaldehyde. 

Alden,  ol'den,  Bradford  R. 
(1800-70),  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Meadville,  Pa.,  and  was 
graduated  from  West  Point  in 
1831.  He  was  afterward  com- 
mandant of  cadets  there  (1845- 
52);  and  in  1853  was  severely 
wounded  near  Jacksonville,  Ore., 
in  an  expedition  he  led  against 
the  Rogue  River  Indians. 

Alden,  Cynthia  May  West- 
over  (1862-  ),  American 
author,  was  born  in  Afton,  la., 
was  graduated  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Colorado,  and  received  the 
degree  of  Master  of  Literature 
from  Alfred  University.  She 
served  on  the  editorial  staffs  of 
the  New  York  Recorder,  New 
York  Tribune,  and  the  Ladies' 
Home  Journal,  but  is  best  known 
as  the  founder  of  the  Inter- 
national Sunshine  Society,  and 
for  her  work  for  blind  babies,  in 
whose  behalf  she  has  secured 
legislation  in  several  States. 
She  published  Bushy,  or  Child 
Life  in  the  Far  West;  Manhattan 
(1898);  Women's  Ways  of  Earn- 
ing Money  (1904);  The  Baby 
Blind  (191.5).  She  has  edited 
The  International  Sunshine  Bul- 
letin, a  monthly  publication,  for 
more  than  twenty-five  years. 

Alden,  Henry  Mills  (1836- 
1919),  American  author  and  edi- 
tor, a  descendant  of  John  Alden 
(q.v.),  was  born  in  Mount  Tabor, 
Vt.  He  was  graduated  from  Wil- 
liams College  (1857),  and  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary 
(1860).  In  1863-9  he  was  man- 
aging editor  of  Harper's  Weekly, 
and  from  1859  until  his  death 
was  editor-in-chief  of  Harper's 
Magazine.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Letters  and  a  distinguished 
classical  student.  His  published 
works  include:  The  Ancient 
Lady  of  Sorrow  (1872);  God  in 
His  World  (1899);  A  Study  of 
Death  (189.5);  Magazine  Writing 
and  the  New  Literature  (1908). 
In  collaboration  with  A.  H. 
Guernsey,  he  wrote  Harper's  Pic- 
torial History  of  the  Civil  War  (2 
vols.,  1894-6). 

^  Alden,  Isabella  Macdonald 
(^Pansy')  (1841-  ),  American 
author,  was  born  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.  and  was  educated  at  Ovid 
and  Auburn,  N.  Y.  She  edited 
the  juvenile  periodical  Pansy 
(1873-96),  and  is  the  author  of 
about  75  books  for  young  people 
and  of  a  number  of  volumes  of 
fiction  for  older  readers,  besides  a 
life  of  Christ  under  the  title  The 
Prince  of  Peace. 

Alden,  James  (1810-77), 
American  naval  officer,  was  born 
in  Portland,  Me.  He  served  in 
the  Wilkes  expedition  to  the 
Antarctic  (1838-42),  and  later  as 


lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  War. 
In  the  Civil  War  he  was  succes- 
sively in  command  of  the  South 
Carolina,  the  Richmond,  and  the 
Brooklyn.  He  took  part  in  the 
capture  of  New  Orleans  (April 
24,  1862),  and  in  the  engagement 
at  Mobile  Bay  (Aug.  5,  1864). 
In  1863  he  was  made  captain;  in 
1866,  commodore;  and  in  1871, 
rear  admiral  commanding  the 
European  squadron. 

Alden,  John  (1599-1687),  one 
of  the  Pilgrim  fathers  who  signed 
the  compact  in  the  cabin  of  the 
Mayflower.  His  wooing  of 
Priscilla  Mullens  is  the  subject  of 
Longfellow's  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish.  He  lived  at  Duxbury, 
Mass.,  after  his  marriage;  was  a 
magistrate  for  fifty  years;  and 
was  active  in  public  affairs. 

Alden,  Raymond  Macdonald 
(1873-1924),  American  educator, 
was  born  in  New  Hartford,  N.  Y. 
He  was  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania(1894; 
PH.D.,  1898),  and  was  instructor 
(1899-1901),  assistant  professor 
of  English  literature  and  rhetoric 
(1901-9),  and  associate  professor 
of  English  (1909-11),  in  Leland 
Stanford  University.  In  1911  he 
became  professor  of  English  in 
the  University  of  Illinois,  but  in 
1914  returned  to  Leland  Stan- 
ford, where  he  remained  until  his 
death,  as  professor  of  English. 
His  writings  include:  Rise  of 
Formal  Satire  in  England  (1899); 
The  Art  of  Debate  (1900);  On 
Seeing  an  Elizabethan  Play  (1903) ; 
English  Verse  (1903);  Consolatio, 
an  Ode  (1903);  Knights  of  the 
Silver  Shield  (1906);  Why  the 
Chimes  Rang  (1909);  Introduc- 
tion to  Poetry  (1909).  He 
edited  Shakespeare's  Julius  Coe- 
sar  (1902)  and  Sonnets  (1913, 
1916);  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake 
(1904);  Thoreau's  Walden  (1910); 
Readings  in  English  Prose  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century  (1911);  Es- 
says, English  and  American 
(1918);  Critical  Essays  of  the  igth 
Century  (1921);  Poems  of  the 
English  Race  (1921). 

Alden,  William  Livingston 
(1837-1908),  American  editor 
and  humorist,  was  born  in 
Williamstown,  Mass.,  and  was 
graduated  from  Jefferson  Col- 
lege, Pa.  (1858).  He  was  admit- 
ted to  the  New  York  bar  in  1860; 
served  on  the  editorial  stafT  of  the 
New  York  Times  (1865-85);  as 
U.S.  consul-general  at  Rome 
(1885-9);  and  on  the  staff  of  the 
Paris  Herald  (1890-3).  After 
1893  he  resided  in  London  as 
literary  correspondent  of  the 
New  York  Times.  His  published 
works  include:  Domestic  Explo- 
sives (1878);  Shooting  Stars 
(1879);  Moral  Pirates  (1881); 
Cruise  of  the  Canoe  Club  (1883); 
A  Lost  Soul  (1892);  Among  the 
Freaks  (1896);  Drewitt's  Dream 
(1902);  Ca/  Tales. 

Alder,   ol'd^r,  any  shrub  or 
tree  of  the  genus  Alnus,  of  the 
Vol.  L— March  '27 


Alderman 


146 


AldobrandinI 


order  Betulacece.  (the  Birch  fam- 
ily). The  alders  are  natives  of 
cold  and  temperate  climates;  the 
flowers  grow  in  terminal,  Im- 
bricated catkins,  the  male  and 
female  flowers  in  separate  cat- 
kins on  the  same  plant;  the  fruit 
is  a  compressed  nut  without 
wings. 

The  Common  European  Alder, 
or  Black  Alder  {A.  glutinosa),  is 
found  in  North  America,  Great 
Britain,  and  the  northern  parts  of 
Asia,  attaining  a  height  of  30  to 
60  feet.  It  has  roundish,  wedge- 
shaped  leaves,  lobed  at  the  mar- 
gin, and  irregularly  toothed.  The 
bark,  except  in  very  young  trees, 
is  nearly  black.  The  flowers 
yield    green    dyes;    the  twigs, 


Alder  Tree;  leaf,  twig,  male  (b) 
and  female  (a)  catkins,  and  flower 

pale  brown;  and  the  rough 
bark,  dark  red  dyes.  The  wood 
is  particularly  valuable  on  ac- 
count of  its  property  of  remaining 
for  a  long  time  under  water  with- 
out decay,  and  is  used  for  the 
piles  of  bridges,  pumps,  sluices, 
pipes,  cogs  of  mill  wheels,  and 
similar  purposes.  Several  varie- 
ties of  the  common  alder  are  em- 
ployed in  ornamental  planting, 
especially  the  Golden  Alder,  with 
leaves  of  bright  golden  yellow, 
and  the  Cut-Leaved  Alder,  with 
narrow,  deeply  incised  leaves 
and  graceful  habit. 

The  Gray  Alder  or  Speckled 
Alder  (A.  incana),  a  native  of 
North  America,  and  of  many 
parts  of  Continental  Europe  and 
Kamchatka,  differs  from  the  com- 
mon European  alder  in  having 
acute  leaves,  downy  beneath.  It 
attains  a  rather  greater  height; 
but  in  very  cold  climates  and  un- 
favorable situations  appears  as  a 
shrub.  The  wood  is  white  and 
fine  grained,  but  soft,  and  readily 
rots  under  water.  The  bark  is 
used  in  dyeing.  A.  maritima  is 
the  Seaside  Alder;  A.  serrulata, 
the  Smooth  Alder. 

The  name  Alder  is  also  be- 
stowed on  various  trees  and 
shrubs  that  do  not  belong  to  the 
genus  Alnus.  Of  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  North  American 
Black  Alder  or  Winterberry  {Ilex 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


verlicillata) ,  one  of  the  Holly 
family;  the  Dwarf  Alder  or  Alder 
Buckthorn  (Rhamnus),  of  the 
Buckthorn  family;  and  the  Amer- 
ican White  Alder,  of  the  Heath 
family. 

Alderman,  61'der-mon,  a  title 
derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
ealdorman,  compounded  of  ealdor 
('older')  and  man.  The  term, 
originally  applied  to  a  Teutonic 
head  of  a  privileged  family,  seems 
to  refer  to  a  primitive  constitu- 
tion, in  which  the  chief  authority 
was  held  by  the  oldest  member 
of  a  tribe.  In  Egbert's  time  the 
title  denoted  a  magistrate  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  and  Witan. 
When  the  Danish  jarl  (earl) 
superseded  the  ealdorman,  in  the 
eleventh  century,  the  latter  title 
declined  in  dignity.  It  came  to  be 
used  for  the  heads  of  the  guilds; 
and  as  the  guilds  grew  in  political 
power,  their  aldermen  became  the 
municipal  authorities.  The  term 
is  now  used  in  Great  Britain  to 
denote  the  municipal  magistrate 
immediately  below  the  mayor  in 
rank;  it  is  also  given  to  superior 
county  councillors. 

In  cities  of  the  United  States 
the  aldermen,  forming  the  city 
council,  usually  constitute  a 
legislative  body  with  limited 
powers,  as  in  matters  of  local 
ordinances  and  appropriations, 
police  regulation,  the  care  of 
streets  and  sewers,  etc.  In  some 
cities,  however,  they  hold  sep- 
arate courts,  and  possess  a  cer- 
tain measure  of  magisterial  pow- 
ers.   See  Local  Government. 

Alderman,  Edwin  Anderson 
(1861-  ),  American  educator, 
was  born  in  Wilmington,  N.  C. 
He  was  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina  (1882), 
was  assistant  State  superinten- 
dent of  schools  (1889-92);  pro- 
fessor of  education.  University 
of  North  Carolina  (1893-6); 
president  of  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  (1896-9)  and  of 
Tulane  University  (1899-1904). 
In  1904  he  became  president  of 
the  University  of  Virginia,  He 
is  a  member  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Letters. 
His  publications  include:  Life  of 
William  Hooper;  School  History 
of  North  Carolina;  Life  of  J.  L.  M. 
Curry;  Obligations  -.and  Oppor- 
tunities of  Citizenship;  Southern 
Idealism;  The  Spirit  of  the  South; 
Sectionalism  and  Nationality; 
The  Growing  South;  Virginia — A 
Tribute;  Can  Democracy  Be  Or- 
ganized? Causes  of  the  European 
War;  Some  Tests  of  an  Educated 
Man;  Functions  and  Needs  of 
Schools  of  Education  in  Uni- 
versities and  Colleges;  The  Growth 
of  Public  Education  in  America; 
Memorial  Address  on  Woodrow 
Wilson;  The  Nation  Exalts  Jef- 
ferson; Edgar  Allan  Poe  and  the 
University  of  Virginia;  Mag- 
nanimitas.  He  was  editor-in- 
chief  of  the  Library  of  Southern 
Literature. 


Alderney,  ol'der-ni  (French 
Aurigny;  ancient  Riduna),  the 
most  northerly  of  the  Channel 
Islands  (q.v.),  10  miles  west  of 
Cape  La  Hague;  area,  1,962 
acres.  It  is  separated  from  the 
coast  of  Normandy  by  the  Race 
of  Alderney;  the  treacherous 
Casket  Rocks,  marked  by  three 
lighthouses,  lie  to  the  south- 
west. Agriculture  and  grazing 
are  the  leading  industries,  Alder- 
ney cattle  (see  Cattle),  a  small 
but  handsome  breed,  having 
long  been  celebrated.  The  cap- 
ital is  St.  Anne.  Pop.  (1921) 
1,598. 

Alders  hot,  ol'der-shot,  town, 
England,  in  Hampshire;  on  the 
London  and  Southwestern  and 
the  Southeastern  and  Chatham 
Railways;  35  miles  southwest  of 
London.  Pop.  (1921)  28,756. 
Alder  shot  Camp,  the  largest 
permanent  military  camp  in 
England,  is  situated  near  the 
town. 

Aldhelm,  ald'helm  (Eald- 
helm),  St.  (c.  640-709),  Saxon 
ecclesiastic,  was  educated  at 
Malmesbury  and  Canterbury; 
became  abbot  of  Malmesbury 
about  673,  and  bishop  of  Sher- 
borne in  705.  He  built  the  little 
church  still  standing  at  Brad- 
ford in  Wiltshire.  He  wrote 
Latin  treatises,  letters,  and 
verses,  besides  English  poems 
that  have  perished. 

Aldine  Editions,  al'din  or  61'- 
din,  the  name  .given  to  the  works 
that  issued  (1490-1597)  from  the 
press  of  Aldus  Manutius  (q.  v.) 
and  his  family  in  Venice.  They 
are  distinguished  for  their  beau- 
tiful and  accurate  typography, 
and  are  highly  prized  by  book  col- 
lectors. Many  of  them  are  the 
first  editions  of  Greek  and  Roman 
classics;  others  contain  corrected 
texts  of  modern  classic  writers, 
as  of  Petrarch,  Dante,  and  Boc- 
caccio. Aldus  invented  the  type 
called  italics,  once  called  Aldine, 
and  used  it  in  printing  his  edition 
of  Virgil  (1501) — the  first  octavo 
book  ever  issued.  He  was  also 
the  first  printer  to  introduce  the 
custom  of  taking  some  impres- 
sions on  finer  or  stronger  paper 
than  the  rest  of  the  edition,  and 
the  first  to  use  small  capitals.  The 
Aldine  Press  continued  for  100 
years,  and  printed  908  different 
works.  The  distinguishing  mark 
is  an  anchor,  entwined  by  a  dol- 
phin, with  the  motto  either  of 
Festina  lente  or  of  Sudavit  et 
alsit.  Among  rare  Aldine  works 
are  the  Horce  Beatce  Marice  Vir- 
ginis  of  1497,  the  Virgil  of  1501, 
and  the  Rhetores  Gralci. 

AldobrandinI,  iil-do-bran-de'- 
ne,  a  celebrated  Tuscan  family, 
.settled  in  Florence  about  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century.  Among 
its  chief  members  are:  Silvestro 
ALDOBRANDINI  (1499-1558),  juris- 
consult,  banished  from  Florence 
for  opposing  the  Medici,  entered 
the  service  of  the  papal  court. — 


Aldred 


147 


Alectti 


Ippolito  Aldobrandini,  son  of 
Silvestro,  became  pope  under  the 
title  of  Clement  viii.  (1592- 
1605).  —  Giovanni  Aldobran- 
dini, son  of  Silvestro,  became  a 
cardinal  (1570). — Pietro  Aldo- 
brandini (1572-1621),  nephew  of 
Ippolito,  was  made  cardinal  in 
1590,  and  was  chief  minister  dur- 
ing the  pontificate  of  his  uncle; 
he  was  also  archbishop  of  Raven- 
na.— ToMMASO  Aldobrandini, 
another  son  of  Silvestro,  author 
of  a  Latin  translation  of  Diogenes 
Laertius. — Cinzio  Passero  Al- 
dobrandini, cardinal,  a  grandson 
of  Silvestro  Aldobrandini.  The 
principal  family  died  out  in  1681. 

Al'dred  (Ealdred)  (d.  1069), 
was  the  first  English  bishop  (of 
Worcester)  to  visit  Jerusalem 
(1058)  ;  and  in  1060  was  elected 
archbishop  of  York.  His  archi- 
episcopate  is  noteworthy  for  the 
pope's  refusal  to  grant  him  the 
pallium;  for  his  reform  of  the  ex- 
ternal life  of  the  clergy,  and  the 
modelling  of  his  diocese  after  the 
splendor  of  the  German  Church; 
and  for  his  loyal  yet  independent 
attitude  to  William  the  Conquer- 
or, whom  he  crowned. 

Aldrich,  61'drich  or  61'drij, 
Chester  Hardy  (1862),  Ameri- 
can public  official,  was  born  in 
Pierpont,  Ohio.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  the  Ohio  State  Univer- 
sity (1888);  admitted  to  the  bar 
(1891);  and  practised  law  in  Da- 
vid City,  Neb.  In  1907-10  he 
was  a  member  of  the  State  Sen- 
ate, and  in  1911-13  governor  of 
Nebraska. 

Aldrich,  Nelson  Wilmarth 
(1841-1915),  American  public 
official,  was  born  in  Foster,  R.  I. 
He  was  president  of  the  Provi- 
dence common  council  (1871-3), 
and  a  member  of  the  Rhode  Isl- 
and General  Assembly  (1875-6). 
From  1878  to  1881  he  was  a 
Member  of  Congress;  and  for 
thirty  years  (1881-1911)  he  was 
U.  S.  Senator  from  Rhode  Island. 
During  his  long  period  of  service 
in  the  Senate  he  was  a  member  of 
many  important  committees,  in- 
cluding those  on  rules,  interstate 
commerce,  tariff,  and  finance 
(from  1899  to  1911,  chairman  of 
the  last-named  committee) .  The 
Aldrich-Vreeland  Currency  Law 
of  1908  was  largely  his  creation 
(see  Banking  in  the  U.  S.)  ;  and 
on  the  organization  of  the  Na- 
tional Monetary  Commission 
(q.  V.)  in  1908  he  was  made  its 
chairman.  His  name  is  also 
given  to  the  Payne-Aldrich  Tariff 
Act  of  1909  (see  Tariff). 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey 
(1836-1907),  American  poet,  ed- 
itor, and  author,  was  born  in 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.  He  prepared 
for  Harvard,  but  the  death  of  his 
father  prevented  him  from  taking 
a  college  course.  In  1852-5  he 
was  employed  in  a  banking  house 
in  New  York  City  ;  and  afterward 
held  editorial  positions  with  the 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


New  York  Evening  Mirror,  N.  P. 
Willis'  Home  Journal,  and  the 
New  York  Illustrated  News.  He 
removed  to  Boston  in  1866,  and 
edited  Every  Saturday  until  1874. 
He  was  editor  of  The  Atlantic 
Monthly  from  1881  to  1890,  and 
after  that  year  devoted  himself 
to  literary  work. 

T.  B.  Aldrich  is  best  known 
for  his  graceful  and  artistic  po- 
etry. Notable  examples  are: 
The  Bells  (1855);  Ballad  of  Babie 
Bell  (1856);  Pampinea  (1861); 
Cloth  of  Gold  (1874);  Friar  Je- 
romes Beautiful  Book  (1881); 
Mercedes  and  Later  Lyrics  (1883) ; 
Wyndham  Towers  (1889);  Un- 
guarded Gates  (1895).  Among  his 
prose  works  are:  The  Story  of  a 
Bad  Boy  (1870);  Marjorie  Daw 

(1873)  ,  one  of  the  best  American 
short  stories;  Prudence  Palfrey 

(1874)  ;  Queen  of  Sheba  (1877); 
Stillwater  Tragedy  (1880);  Two 
Bites  at  a  Cherry  (1893);  Sea 
Turn,  and  Other  Matters  (1902) ; 
Ponkapog  Papers  ( 1 903) .  He  also 
wrote  Judith  and  Holofernes 
(1896),  a  narrative  poem,  and  its 
dramatization,  Judith  of  Bethulia, 
which  was  presented  in  Boston 
and  New  York  City  in  1904-05. 
His  Writings  (8  vols.),  published 
in  1897,  were  reissued  in  1907  (9 
vols.).  Consult  E.  C.  Stedman's 
Poets  of  America;  F.  Greenslet's 
Life  (1908). 

Aldrich,  William  Sleeper 
(1863),  American  educator,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and 
was  graduated  from  the  U.  S. 
Naval  Academy  (1883)  and  from 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technology 
(1884).  He  was  professor  of  me- 
chanical engineering  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  West  Virginia  (1893- 
9),  and  of  electrical  engineering, 
at  the  University  of  Illinois 
(1899-1901).  From  1901  to  1911 
he  was  director  of  the  Thomas  S. 
Clarkson  Memorial  School  of 
Technology.  During  the  Span- 
ish-American War  (1898)  he  saw 
active  service  with  Admiral 
Sampson's  fleet.  In  1911-13  he 
was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Recla- 
mation Service;  in  1913-14  acting 
professor  of  mechanical  and  elec- 
trical engineering  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Arizona;  and  in  1914-16 
associate  professor  of  electrical 
engineeiing  at  Colorado  Agricul- 
tural College. 

Aldridge,  ol'drij,  Ira  (1805- 
67),  negro  tragedian,  was  born  in 
Senegambia.  In  1825  he  mi- 
grated to  Glasgow  from  New 
York  in  order  to  study  for  a  mis- 
sionary career;  but  forsaking  the 
pulpit  for  the  stage,  he  made  his 
debut  as  Othello  in  a  small  London 
theatre  in  1826.  He  played  in 
English  towns  till  1852,  and  won 
a  high  reputation  in  Europe; 
which,  however,  London  refused 
to  indorse  (1857), 

Aldringen,  iilt'ring-m  (Al- 
dringer,  Altringer),  Johann, 
Count  (1588-1634),  German  gen- 


eral in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Wallenstein; 
served  under  Collalto  at  Mantua; 
aided  and  succeeded  Tillv  (1632) ; 
and  successfully  campaigned  in 
Wurtemberg  (1631),  Bavaria,  and 
Swabia. 

Aldrovandi,  al-dro-van'de, 
Ulysses  (1522-1605),  Italian 
naturalist,  was  born  in  Bologna. 
He  studied  law,  philosophy,  and 
medicine  there,  and  later  at 
Padua.  In  1549-50  he  was  im- 
prisoned at  Rome  for  heresy. 
Thereafter  he  took  a  medical  de- 
gree at  Bologna  (1553),  and  held 
successively  the  botany  and  nat- 
ural history  chairs  in  that  uni- 
versity. He  established  the  Bo- 
tanical Garden  at  Bologna  in 
1567,  and  formed  a  museum  of 
natural  history.  The  first  vol- 
ume of  his  great  work  on  natural 
history  appeared  in  1599.  Six 
others  appeared  during  his  life- 
time, seven  after  his  death. 

Aldus  Manutius.  See  Manu- 
tius. 

Ale,  the  current  name  in  Eng- 
land for  all  malt  liquor  before  the 
introduction  of  hops  from  the 
Netherlands  (1524).  The  names 
ale  and  beer  are  both  Teutonic, 
and  seem  originally  to  have  been 
synonymous;  and  ale  is  still  the 
name  for  malt  liquor  in  the 
Scandinavian  tongues  (Swedish, 
Danish,  and  Icelandic,  61).  As 
now  used,  ale  is  distinguished 
from  beer  chiefly  by  the  greater 
percentage  of  alcohol  and  sugar. 
See  Brewing. 

Al'eander,  Hieronymus  (1480- 
1542),  Italian  cardinal,  was  born 
near  Venice.  He  was  a  strong 
opponent  of  Luther  at  the  Diet 
of  Worms  (1521),  and  a  persecu- 
tor of  those  who  held  the  Re- 
formed faith,  notably  in  the 
Netherlands.  He  was  author  of 
a  Lexicon  Grceco-Latinium  (1512). 

Aleardi,  a-la-ar'de,  Aleardo 
(1812-78),  Italian  poet  and  pa- 
triot, was  born  in  Verona.  He  was 
professor  (1864)  of  esthetics  in 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at 
Florence;  and  later  a  member  of 
the  Senate.  He  was  frequently 
imprisoned  for  revolutionary  ten- 
dencies. His  Canti  are  elegant 
and  patriotically  inspired,  though 
somewhat  sentimental.  He  also 
wrote  Epistolario. 

Aleatory  Contract,  a'le-a-to-ri, 
an  agreement  'depending  or  not 
depending  on  an  uncertain  event' 
— z.^.,  a  gambling  contract.  Some 
agreements  of  this  character  are 
valid  and  favored  by  law — as 
contracts  of  insurance,  bottomry 
and  respondentia  obligations  in 
maritime  law.  Others,  like  pure 
gambling  contracts,  are  now  gen- 
erally held  illegal.  See  Gam- 
bling. 

Alec'to,  in  Greek  mythology, 
one  of  the  three  Furies  (Alecto, 
Mega^ra,  and  Tisiphone),  denot- 
ing hatred,  jealousy,  and  revenge. 
See  Eumenides. 


Aledo 


148 


Alessandria 


Aledo,  a-le'do,  city,  Illinois, 
county  seat  of  Mercer  county,  on 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  and 
Quincy  Railroad;  180  miles 
southwest  of  Chicago,  and  14 
miles  east  of  the' Mississippi  Riv- 
er. It  has  manufactures  of  tile 
and  brick.  Pop.  (1900)  2,081; 
(1910)  2,144. 

Alegria,  a-la'gre-a,  town,  west 
coast  of  Cebu  Island,  Philippines; 
55  miles  southwest  of  Cebu  town. 
Petroleum  wells  are  in  the  neigh- 
borhood.   Pop.  11,000. 

Aleman,  al'e-man,  Spanish,  a- 
le-miin',  Mateo  (c.  1550-1610), 
Spanish  novelist,  was  born  in  Se- 
ville. He  was  the  author  of  the 
popular  story  of  roguery.  La  Vida 
del  Picaro  Guzman  de  Alfarache 
(1599;  Eng.  trans.),  and  of  Orto- 
grafia  Castellana  (1608).  He  was 
for  twenty  years  in  the  service 
of  the  king  of  Spain.  He  died  in 
Mexico. 

Aieman'ni,  or  Alamans,  a  fu- 
sion rather  than  a  confederation 
of  Teutonic  tribes  who  rose  into 
prominence  during  the  later  years 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  with  which 
they  were  almost  constantly  at 
war  during  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  centuries.  Caracalla  (211 
A.D.)  and  Alexander  Severus 
fought  against  them,  and  Maxi- 
minus  drove  them  beyond  the 
Rhine.  'From  the  source  of  the 
Rhine  to  its  conflux  with  the 
Main  and  the  Moselle  the  formid- 
able swarms  of  the  Alemanni 
commanded  either  side  of  the 
river,  by  the  right  of  ancient 
possession  or  recent  victory,'  says 
Gibbon,  in  describing  their  situa- 
tion on  the  eve  of  the  Battle  of 
Tolbiac,  24  miles  from  Cologne, 
where  they  suffered  a  crushing  de- 
feat at  the  hands  of  the  Franks 
under  Clovis,  in  496.  Thereafter 
they  were  allowed  by  the  Em- 
peror Theodoric  to  settle  in  what 
is  now  vSouthern  Bavaria.  They 
were  the  ancestors  of  the  modern 
Swabians.  From  their  name 
comes  the  French  Allemand  and 
Allemagne,  applied  to  the  whole 
of  Germany. 

Alembert.   See  D'Alembert. 

Alem'bic,  an  apparatus  for  dis- 
tillation used  by  the  alchemists; 
now  superseded  by  retorts  and 
flasks  cf)nnccted  to  a  condenser. 
See  Retort. 

Alcmtcjo,  a-lan-ta'zhoo,  the 
largest  province  of  Portugal,  lies 
north  of  Algarve,  and  stretches 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Spanish 
frontier.  It  is  drained  by  the 
Tagus,  the  Guadiana,  and  the 
Sado.  There  are  detached  moun- 
tain ranges  in  the  east,  with  cork 
trees,  oaks,  and  chestnuts;  to- 
ward the  west  are  treelcvss  plains, 
where  sheep  are  pastured;  the 
coast  is  swampy.  Cereals  are 
grown,  and  there  are  copper  and 
iron  mines,  and  mineral  springs, 
but  very  little  manufacture. 
Chief  town,  Evora.  Area,  9,220 
square  miles.  Pop.  440,000. 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  "16 


Alencon,  a-liin-son',  capital  of 
department  Orne,  France,  on  the 
Sarthe;  110  miles  southwest  of 
Paris.  The  Cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame  (1.55,3-1617)  is  a  Gothic 
edifice,  with  the  remains  of  the 
tombs  of  the  Alengon  family, 
which  were  almost  completely 
destroyed  at  the  Revolution. 
There  are  woollen  and  linen  man- 
ufactures. The  manufacture  of 
the  famous  Alengon  point  lace 
(point  d' AlenQon)  employs  barely 
a  tenth  part  of  the  20,000  hands 
that  once  engaged  in  it  (see 
Lace).  The  town  was  held  by 
the  English  during  the  Hundred 
Years'  War  from  1415  to  1449. 
Pop.  (1911)  17,378. 

Alenc?on,  Dukes  of,  a  branch 
of  the  royal  family  of  Valois, 
descended  from  Charles  of  Valois, 
who  perished  at  the  Battle  of 
Cregy  in  1346.  His  grandson, 
John  I.,  fell  at  Agincourt  in  1415. 
Rene,  son  of  John  ii.,  was  con- 
fined by  Louis  xi.  for  three 
months  in  an  iron  cage  at  Chinon. 
Rene's  son,  who  had  married  the 
sister  of  Francis  i.,  commanded 
the  left  wing  at  the  Battle  of 
Pavia.  With  him  expired  the  old 
House  of  Alengon.  The  duchy 
was  then  given  to  the  Duke  of 
Anjou,  brother  of  King  Charles 
IX.  Louis  XIV.  conferred  it  upon 
his  grandson,  the  Due  de  Berri, 
and  Louis  xvi.  on  his  brother,  the 
Comte  de  Provence.  More  re- 
cently the  title  has  been  borne  by 
the  son  of  the  Due  de  Nemours, 
who  was  son  of  Louis-Philippe. 

Alep'po,  vilayet.  North  Syria, 
Turkey,  extending  from  the  Med- 
iterranean to  the  Euphrates. 
Area,  33,400  square  miles.  Pop. 
1,500,000. 

Aleppo  (Turkish  Haleb-es- 
Shabba;  ancient  Bercea),  city  of 
Northern  Syria,  capital  of  Aleppo 
vilayet;  70  miles  east  of  the  Med- 
iterranean Sea.  It  stands  in  a 
fertile  plain  in  the  valley  of  the 
Koeik  (Kuwek),  which  flows 
through  its  northwestern  quar- 
ter. The  streets  are  well  paved 
and  clean,  and  the  houses  one- 
story  structure's  built  around  at- 
tractive courts.  Enclosing  the 
older  sections  of  the  city  are  the 
remnants  of  a  .Saracenic  wall  with 
seven  gates;  and  in  the  centre 
stands  the  ancient  Citadel,  sur- 
rounded by  a  deep  moat.  Among 
its  many  mosques  the  most  note- 
worthy is  the  Great  Mosque,  oc- 
cupying the  site  of  a  church 
avscribed  to  the  Empress  Helena, 
and  said  to  contain  the  tomb  of 
Zacharias,  father  of  John  the 
Baptist.  European  schools  and 
churches  have  been  established 
by  various  religious  orders. 

Aleppo  was  formerly  the  prin- 
cipal emporium  of  trade  between 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  supplied  a 
large  part  of  the  East  with  fab- 
rics of  silk,  cotton,  and  wool,  gold 
and  silver  stuffs.  Its  trade  is 
still    extensive:    textiles,  hides, 


grain,  wool,  oil,  dried  fruits,  lico- 
rice root,  gall  nuts,  and  butter 
are  exported;  and  European  mer- 
chandise is  imported  in  increasing 
quantity.  The  chief  port  is  Alex- 
andretta  (q.  v.).  Cotton  and  silk 
goods,  embroideries,  and  leather 
goods  are  manufactured;  and 
cereals,  fruits,  and  pistachio  nuts 
are  raised  in  the  vicinity.  The 
climate  is  dry,  and  not  unhealthy. 

The  city  is  one  of  great  antiq- 
uity, Egyptian  monuments  tes- 
tifying to  its  existence  2,000  years 
B.C.  The  present  name  com- 
memorates its  trade  connection 
with  Venice,  active  to  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the 
Cape  route  to  India  robbed  Alep- 
po of  its  importance.  It  was  con- 
quered by  the  Saracens  (636  a.d.)  ; 
sacked  by  Tamerlane  (1402) ;  cap- 
tured by  the  Turks  (1517) ;  devas- 
tated by  earthquakes  (1170  and 
1822) ;  and  ravaged  by  plague 
(1827)  and  cholera  (1832).  Up- 
risings and  massacres  of  Chris- 
tians occurred  in  1850  and  1862. 
Pop.  250,000,  of  whom  30,000 
are  Christians  and  8,000  Jews. 

Aleshki,  a-lesh'ke,  formerly 
Dnieprovsk,  town,  government 
Taurida,  Russia,  on  the  Dnieper. 
It  has  fisheries,  fruit  culture,  and 
an  active  trade.    Pop.  10,000. 

Alesia,  a-le'shi-a,  or  Alexia 
(modern  Alise),  fortified  town, 
ancient  Gaul,  near  the  source  of 
the  Seine,  where  Caesar  besieged 
Vercingetorix.  The  latter  had 
shut  himself  up  with  80,000  Gauls 
in  Alesia  on  a  lofty  hill.  Caesar, 
with  his  army  of  60,000  men, 
completely  surrounded  and  took 
the  place.  Alesia  was  destroyed 
by  the  Normans  in  864.  On  the 
hill  Napoleon  iii.  erected  in  1864 
a  colossal  statue  of  Vercingetorix. 

Alesius,  a-le'shi-us  (Latin  of 
i7a/<?5or  A  Z^'.y),  Alexander  (1500- 
65),  Scottish  Lutheran  divine, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh.  He  was 
canon  at  St.  Andrews,  chosen  for 
his  skill  in  confuting  Luther's 
opinions  to  reclaim  Patrick  Ham- 
ilton; but,  himself  convinced  of 
what  he  attempted  to  confute, 
had  to  flee  to  Germany  (1532), 
where  he  formed  a  friendship  with 
Melanchthon.  Sent  to  England, 
he  met  Cranmer  and  Thomas 
Cromwell  (Earl  of  Ess^),  and 
lectured  at  Cambridge.  In  1540 
he  returned  to  Germany,  and 
held  a  professorship  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder  and  at  Leipzig. 

Alessandria,  a'les-san'dre-a, 
province.  Piedmont,  Italy,drained 
by  the  Tanaro  and  other  affluents 
of  the  Po.  Chief  industries  are 
agriculture  and  silk.  Pop.  (1911) 
807,564. 

Alessandria,  fortified  town  and 
episcopal  see,  capital  of  Alcvssan- 
dria  province.  Piedmont,  Italy, 
on  the  Tanaro;  48  miles  {south- 
east of  Turin.  It  was  built  ( 1 168) 
by  the  Lombard  League  as  a  bul- 
wark against  Frederick  Barbar- 
ossa;  the  citadel  was  built  in 


Alessi 


149 


Alexander 


1728.  There  are  a  cathedral  (re- 
built 1823),  palace,  old  castle, 
and  barracks.  The  town  is  now 
an  important  railway  centre,  and 
manufactures  cotton,  woollen, 
and  linen  goods.  Two  large  fairs 
are  held  here  annually.  It  was 
taken  in  1522  by  Duke  Sforza; 
besieged  by  the  French  in  IG.'j?; 
and  again  taken  by  Prince  Eu- 
gene in  1707.  Near  it  took  place 
the  Battle  of  Marengo  (1800).  A 
stronghold  of  the  Piedmontese 
during  the  insurrection  of  1848- 
49,  it  is  still  one  of  the  strongest 
fortresses  in  Italy.  Pop.  (1901) 
72,109;  (1911)  75,687. 

Alessi,  a-les'se,  Galeazzo 
(1512-72),  Italian  architect,  born 
in  Perugia.  He  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Michelangelo,  de- 
signed several  churches  and  pal- 
aces at  Genoa,  and  the  churches 
of  San  Paolo,  San  Vittoria,  and 
the  Palazzo  Marino  at  Milan. 
Buildings  after  his  designs  may 
also  be  seen  in  Germany  and  Bel- 
gium. 

Alesund.    See  Aalesund. 

Ale'tia.   See  Cotton  Worm. 

Aletschhorn,  a'letch-orn,  sec- 
ond highest  peak  (13,721  feet)  in 
the  Bernese  Oberland;  dominates 
the  great  glaciers  of  Aletsch.  See 
Bernese  Oberland. 

Aleu'rone  Grains,  small  albu- 
minoid granules,  with  definite 
chemical  and  optical  properties, 
found  in  the  endosperm  of  ripe 
seeds. 

Aleutian  Islands,  a-lG'shi-an, 
or  Catherine  Archipelago,  a 
bow-shaped  chain  of  small  islands 
in  the  Northern  Pacific,  extend- 
ing west  from  Alaska  toward 
Kamchatka  for  nearly  1,000  miles, 
between  lat.  52°  and  55°  N.,  and 
long.  172°  E.  and  163°  w.  There 
are  about  70  islands  and  80  islets, 
comprising  four  groups — Nearer, 
Rat,  Andreanof ,  and  Fox  Islands 
— all  of  which  are  included  in  the 
Territory  of  Alaska.  The  prin- 
cipal islands  are  Unimak  (q.  v.), 
the  largest;  Unalaska  (q.  v.),  the 
port  of  entry  for  Western  Alaska 
and  centre  of  the  fur  trade;  Attu 
and  Atka  (qq.  v.). 

The  Aleutians  are  desolate  and 
rocky,  and  are  apparently  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  main  Alaskan 
range.  Many  of  the  peaks  are 
volcanic,  and someare  moderately 
active — notably  Mount  Shishal- 
din  (8,000  feet) ,  the  highest  moun- 
tain of  the  archipelago,  and 
Mount  Makushin  (5,091  feet). 
Two  new  volcanic  islets  rose  from 
the  sea  in  1906-7,  but  were  near- 
ly destroyed  by  an  eruption  in 
the  latter  year.  Mineral  springs 
are  common  in  the  vicinity  of  ex- 
tinct craters.  The  climate  is  like 
that  of  Iceland  (mean  tempera- 
ture, July  .50°,  January  35°). 
Rainfall  is  heavy,  and  fogs  and 
cloudiness  almost  constant.  Prac- 
tically treeless,  the  islands  are 
rich  in  mosses,  berry-bearing 
shrubs,  and  nutritive  grasses. 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


The  surrounding  waters  abound 
in  fish,  and  sea  fowl  are  common. 
Fur-bearing  animals,  formerly 
abundant,  have  been  nearly  ex- 
terminated; but  the  raising  of 
foxes  has  been  undertaken  on 
many  of  the  uninhabited  islands, 
which  have  been  leased  for  the 
purpose  from  the  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment. 

Only  a  few  of  the  islands  are 
inhabited.  At  the  time  of  their 
discovery  by  Vitus  Bering  (q.  v.), 
in  1741,  there  were  many  thriving 
villages  and  a  population  of  about 
17,500  Aleuts  (q.  v.);  but  disease 
and  other  causes  have  gradually 
reduced  their  number  to  about 
1,000.  There  are  about  200 
white  inhabitants. 

Aleuts,  are-oots,  a  tribe  closely 
related  to  the  Eskimos,  inhabit- 
ing the  Aleutian  Islands  and  the 
Alaskan  peninsula.  It  consists  of 
two  main  divisions:  the  Unalas- 
kans  on  Fox  Islands  and  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  mainland,  and  the 
Atkans  on  Andreanof,  Nearer,  and 
Rat  Islands.  At  the  time  of  their 
discovery  by  the  Russians  they 
numbered  20,000  or  more,  but 
they  have  gradually  been  reduced 
by  conquest  and  disease,  until 
in  1910  there  were  only  1,490. 
The  Aleuts  are  small  and  well 
shaped,  with  swarthy  skin,  dark 
eyes,  and  long  black  hair;  bright 
and  quick  witted.  They  live  in 
sedge-covered  huts  or  in  small 
frame  dwellings,  and  subsist  on 
fish,  sea  fowl,  and  berries.  The 
men  are  hunters  and  fishers,  and 
the  women  are  skilled  in  basketry. 
They  are  converts  to  the  Greek 
Church. 

Ale'wife,  a  North  American 
coast,  river,  and  lake  fish,  8  to 
10  inches  long,  so-called  from  its 
rounded,  corpulent  shape.  It  is 
of  the  same  genus  as  the  shad 
(q.  v.),  though  not  so  good  for 
food.  It  is  taken  in  great  quan- 
tities and  salted.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  summer  the  alewife  ap- 
pears in  numbers  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  North  America,  and 
enters  the  rivers  to  spawn.  It  is 
found  in  Chesapeake  Bay  in 
March,  on  the  coasts  of  New 
York  and  New  England  in  April, 
and  on  those  of  the  British  prov- 
inces about  May  1.  It  abounds 
in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  ale- 
wife  is  called  Spring  Herring  in 
some  places,  and  Gaspereau  by 
the  French  Canadians. 

In  Bermuda  the  name  Alewife 
is  applied  to  a  species  of  Pom- 
pano  (q.  v.). 

Al'exan'der,  the  name  of  eight 
popes  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

Alexander  i.  (106-15)  is  be- 
lieved to  have  died  a  martyr. 

Alexander  ii.  (1061-73)  was 
born  in  Baggio,  in  Milan.  He  was 
bishop  of  Lucca  and  papal  leg- 
ate at  Milan  (1057-9);  and  was 
elected  pope  (1061)  through  the 
influence  of  Hildebrand.    He  op- 


posed and  defeated  Pope  Hono- 
rius  II.,  who  was  elected  through 
the  influence  of  the  German 
emperor;  was  opposed  to  the 
divorce  of  the  Emperor  Henry 
IV.;  and  did  much,  under  the 
inspiration  of  Peter  Damiani  and 
Hildebrand  (later  Gregory  vii.), 
to  reform  the  Church. 

Alexander  III.  (1159-81),  Or- 
lando Bandinelli,  one  of  the 
greatest  popes  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  was  born  in  Siena.  He  be- 
came papal  chancellor  in  1153»,' 
and  was  elected  pope  in  1159. 
He  fought  successfully  against' 
the  Emperor  Frederick  Barbaros- 
sa,  who  opposed  to  him  succes- 
sively three  anti  -  popes,  and 
whom  he  forced  to  sign  the 
Treaty  of  Venice  (1177),  for 
which  he  was  hailed  as  defender 
of  the  liberty  of  Italy.  He  was 
successful  also  against  Henry  ii., 
king  of  England,  whom  he  con- 
strained to  do  penance  for  the 
murder  of  Thomas  a  Becket.  In 
1179  he  summoned  the  Third 
Lateran  Council,  which  conferred 
on  the  pope  alone  the  right  of 
canonization,  and  drew  up  the 
laws  under  which  the  election 
of  the  popes  is  still  governed. 

Alexander  iv.  (1254-61),  Ri- 
naldo  de  Conti,  formerly  bishop 
of  Ostia,  was  of  weak  character^ 
and  in  his  struggle  against  Man- 
fred, natural  son  of  Frederick  ii., 
was  defeated  and  compelled  to 
fly  to  Viterbo,  where  he  died. 
The  Flagellants  (q.  v.)  appeared 
in  Rome  in  the  last  year  of  his 
pontificate. 

Alexander  v.  (1409-10),  Pie- 
tro  Filargi,  was  pope  only  ten 
months.  Archbislaop  of  Milan 
in  1402,  cardinal  in  1405,  he  was 
elected  pope  after  Gregory  xii. 
and  Benedict  xiii.  had  been  de- 
posed. He  died  under  peculiar 
circumstances,  and  his  chancellor 
and  successor,  John  xxiii.,  was 
charged  with  having  poisoned 
him. 

Alexander  vi.  (1492-1503), 
Rodrigo  Borgia,  whose  memory 
is  one  of  the  most  abused  in  his- 
tory, was  born  in  1431  in  Jativa, 
Valencia,  Spain.  The  election  of 
his  uncle  as  Pope  Calixtus  iii. 
turned  his  ambition  toward  the 
Church.  At  the  age  of  t went 3^- 
five  he  was  made  a  cardinal,  and 
later  held  the  bishoprics  of  Va- 
lencia (1458),  Porto,  and  Carta- 
gena. The  beautiful  Vanozza 
Catanei,  his  mistress,  bore  hifn 
four  sons  and  a  daughter,  two  of 
whom  were  the  notorious  Caesar 
and  Lucrezia  Borgia  (qq.  v.).  He 
was  elected  pope  in  1492 — ■ 
through  corrupt  practices,  it  is 
claimed — and  figured  conspicu- 
ously in  the  political  events  of 
Italy.  He  endeavored  to  estab- 
lish a  dynasty  for  his  own  family, 
in  the  prosecution  of  which  pur- 
pose he  is  accused  of  having 
shrunk  from  no  means,  not  even 
from  assassination  and  poison. 


Alexander  I. 


150 


Alexander  II. 


Yet  he  showed  himself  an  able 
administrator  and  politician,  a 
patron  of  the  arts  and  sciences, 
and  a  friend  of  the  people.  He 
apportioned  the  New  World  be- 
tween Spain  and  Portugal.  Sa- 
vonarola was  condemned  by  him 
to  be  burned  as  a  heretic.  Caesar 
Borgia,  who  largely  inspired 
Alexander's  policy,  is  Machiavcl- 
li's  type  of  the  statesman.  Con- 
sult Gregorovius'  Lucrezia  Borgia. 

Alexander  vii.  (1655-67), 
Fabio  Chigi,  was  born  in  Siena  in 
1599.  He  was  papal  nuncio  in 
Germany  at  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia (1648),  and  became  car- 
dinal in  1652.  He  was  a  patron 
of  learning,  and  himself  the 
author  of  a  volume  of  poems  in 
Latin.  He  did  much  for  the  im- 
provement of  Rome,  and  con- 
structed the  beautiful  colonnade 
in  the  piazza  of  St.  Peter.  He 
had  a  dispute  with  Louis  xiv.  of 
France,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  papal  see  lost  Avignon  (1662), 
and  the  pope  was  obliged  to  sign 
the  humiliating  Treaty  of  Pisa 
(1664). 

Alexander  viii.  (1689-91), 
Pietro  Ottoboni,  born  in  Venice 
(1610) ,  was  bishop  of  Brescia,  and 
was  elected  pope  in  1689.  He 
assisted  Venice  in  her  struggle 
against  the  Turks;  issued  the 
bull  Inter  Multiplices  against  the 
four  articles  of  the  Galilean 
Church;  and  enriched  the  Vati- 
can Library  with  valuable  mss. 
from  the  library  of  Queen  Chris- 
tina of  Sweden. 

Alexander  I.  (?-330  B.C.),  king 
of  Epirus,  son  of  Neoptolemus, 
came  to  the  throne  in  342  B.C., 
through  the  assistance  of  Philip 
of  Macedon,  whose  daughter 
Cleopatra  he  married  (336  B.C.). 
He  went  to  Italy  to  assist  the 
Tarentines  against  the  com- 
bined forces  of  the  Lucanians  and 
the  Bruttii,  and  was  slain  at  the 
Battle  of  Pandosia  by  the  Luca- 
nians. 

Alexander  II.  (?-c.  242  B.C.), 
king  of  Epirus,  son  of  Pyrrhus 
(q.  v.), succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
272  B.C.  He  conquered  Mace- 
donia, the  kingdom  of  Antigonus 
Gonatas;  but  the  latter' s  son 
Demetdus  seized  from  him  both 
Epirus  and  Macedonia.  Subse- 
quently, Alexander  regained  Epi- 
rus with  the  assistance  of  the 
.^tolians  and  Acarnanians. 

Alexander  I.,  Paulovitch 
(1777-1825),  tsar  of  Russia,  the 
eldest  son  and  successor  of  Paul 
Paulovitch,  was  educated  by 
Laharpe,  a  Swiss  of  high  charac- 
ter and  liberal  ideas.  The  assas- 
sination of  the  Emperor  Paul  in 
March,  1801,  placed  Alexander 
on  the  throne.  His  reign  syn- 
chronizes with  the  stormy  period 
of  Napoleonic  conquest,  aggran- 
dizement, and  decay.  Yet  al- 
though Russia  inevitably  found 
herself  arrayed  against  France, 
Alexander  himself  was  full  of  ad- 
VoL.  L — Mar.  16 


miration  for  Napoleon's  genius. 
He  joined  the  coalition  of  1805 
against  Napoleon;  and  was  pres- 
ent at  the  Battle  of  Austerlitz, 
where  Austria  and  Russia  were 
defeated.  In  1806  he  came  for- 
ward as  the  ally  of  Prussia;  but 
after  the  Battles  of  Eylau  and 
Friedland,  in  1807,  was  obliged 
to  conclude  the  Peace  of  Tilsit. 
In  pursuance  of  its  stipulations, 
Alexander  acceded  to  the  French 
Continental  System,  thus  alter- 
ing entirely  the  foreign  policy  of 
Russia.  The  alliance  of  Alexan- 
der with  Napoleon  could  not, 
however,  be  maintained.  Dur- 
ing the  French  invasion  of  Russia 
(1812),  Alexander  was  not  pres- 
ent with  his  troops,  but  he  took 
an  active  part  in  the  great  strug- 
gles of  1813  and  1814.  At  the 
occupation  of  Paris,  in  1814,  he 
was  the  central  figure  of  the 
politics  and  diplomacy  of  the 
time.  Under  the  unfiuence  of 
Madame  de  Kriidener,  he  was 
instrumental  in  forming  the  Holy 
Alliance  (q.v.)  in  1815.  During 
his  reign  occurred  the  definite  an- 
nexations of  Georgia  and  Finland 
(1809),  and  the  tightening  of  the 
Russian  grip  on  Poland. 

This  enlightened  ruler  founded 
universities  and  schools;  fostered 
trade;  abolished  torture,  the 
secret  tribunal,  and  the  transfer- 
ence of  peasants  as  mere  chattels, 
whether  by  sale  or  by  gift;  and 
reconciled  church  and  people. 
Nevertheless,  his  closing  years 
were  marked  by  reactionary 
measures.  Disappointed  and 
broken  in  spirit,  he  took  refuge  in 
dissipation,  alternating  with  fits 
of  religious  mysticism.  He  died 
at  Taganrog,  on  the  Sea  of  Azov. 
Consult  Joyneville's  Alexander  I. 

Alexander  II.,  Nicolaevitch 
(1818-81),  tsar  of  Russia,  known 
as  the  'Tsar  Liberator,'  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Nicholas  i.,  whom 
he  succeeded  on  March  2,  1855. 
His  reign  is  marked  by  two  great 
wars — the  Crimean  War  (q.  v.), 
which  was  going  on  at  the  time 
of  his  accession,  and  the  war  with 
Turkey  in  1877-8.  Into  the  lat- 
ter he  was  in  great  part  forced  by 
the  Panslavist  party.  Moreover, 
from  1866  to  1881  his  troops  were 
engaged  in  intermittent  and  suc- 
cessful warfare  with  the  Turko- 
man tribes  of  Central  Asia,  and 
the  Russian  frontier  was  ever 
pushed  farther  and  farther  to  the 
southeast.  The  subjugation  of 
the  peoples  of  the  Caucasus  was 
likewise  completed;  and  he  acted 
with  great  severity  in  suppressing 
the  Polish  insurrection  of  1863. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  serfs  in  1861  was 
due  to  the  initiative  of  Alexander 
il;  and  he  also  took  a  keen  in- 
terest in  advancing  internal  re- 
fornas  in  Russia,  especially  the 
reorganization  of  the  judiciary 
and  the  army.  In  1858  he  freed 
the  serfs  attached  to  the  royal 


family,  and  on  March  3  (Feb.  19, 
Old  Style),  1861,  he  issued  a 
ukase  extending  this  emancipa- 
tion to  all  of  the  serfs  of  the 
Empire.  The  landed  nobility 
naturally  opposed  this  policy 
vigorously,  but  the  Tsar  could 
not  be  shaken  in  his  purpose. 
By  means  of  a  government  loan 
the  sometime  serfs  could  buy 
from  the  former  landlords  a 
given  share  of  the  land  which  was 
held  in  trust  by  the  village  com- 
munities. These  changes  result- 
ed in  the  freeing  of  23,000,000 
people. 

The  most  remarkable  feature 
of  the  second  half  of  Alexander's 
reign  was  the  struggle  of  the 
Russian  autocracy  with  the  Ni- 
hilists. Repeated  attempts  were 
made  to  assassinate  the  Tsar.  In 
1879  he  was  shot  at  in  his  capital; 
in  the  same  year  the  train  in 
which  he  was  supposed  to  be 
travelling  was  blown  up;  in  1880 
an  explosion  was  effected  by 
dynamite  below  the  imperial 
apartments  in  the  Winter  Palace 
at  St.  Petersburg.  On  March 
13,  1881,  he  was  fatally  injured 
by  a  bomb  thrown  at  him  near 
his  palace.  Consult  Lives  by 
Laferte  (pen  name  of  his  mor- 
ganatic wife)  and  Tatistshev. 

Alexander  III.,  Alexandro- 
viTCH  (1845-94),  tsar  of  Russia, 
second  son  of  Alexander  ii.,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  his  father;  but  fear  of 
assassination  caused  his  corona- 
tion to  be  postponed  till  1883. 
The  subjugation  of  the  Turko- 
mans in  Central  Asia  was  com- 
pleted. In  1885  hostilities  with 
Great  Britain  over  the  frontier  of 
Afghanistan  seemed  imminent. 
He  broke  away  from  the  Triple 
Alliance  between  Russia,  Ger- 
many, and  Austria,  and  looked 
rather  to  France.  His  home 
policy  was  reactionary.  The 
liberties  of  the  Baltic  provinces 
and  of  Finland  were  curtailed, 
the  Jews  were  oppressed,  and  old 
Russian  orthodoxy  was  favored. 
He  was  plain  and  blunt  in  manner 
('the  Peasant  Tsar'),  and  of 
great  personal  strength.  Con- 
sult Lowe's  Life. 

Alexander  I.  (?  1078- 1124), 
king  of  Scotland,  fourth  son  of 
Malcolm  Canmore,  succeeded 
(1107)  his  brother  Edgar  to  the 
northern  kingdom.  He  married 
Sibylla,  natural  daughter  of  Hen- 
ry I.  of  England;  founded  the 
abbeys  of  Scone  and  Inchcolm; 
initiated  a  diocesan  episcopate; 
and  resisted  the  claims  of  York 
and  Canterbury  to  supremacy 
over  St.  Andrews.  He  died  child- 
less, and  was  succeeded  by 
David  L 

Alexander  II.  (1198-1249), 
king  of  Scotland,  son  of  William 
the  Lion,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1214.  After  continuous  dis- 
putes with  regard  to  the  North- 
umbrian  and   Cumbrian  prov- 


Alexander  III. 


151 


Alexander 


inces,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with 
Henry  iii.  (1217),  and  married 
Joan,  sister  of  the  EngHsh  king. 
Henry,  however,  attempted  to 
force  Alexander  to  give  homage 
(1244),  but  the  matter  was 
peacefully  settled  by  the  Treaty 
of  Newcastle.  Alexander  pro- 
tected the  church,  reformed  the 
laws,  and  by  his  wisdom  and 
courage  brought  prosperity  to 
Scotland. 

Alexander  III.  (1241-86).  king 
of  Scotland,  succeeded  his  father 
Alexander  ii.  when  eight  years 
old,  and  till  1261  was  sore  beset 
by  regencies  of  English  and  Scot- 
tish nobles.  He  is  renowned  for 
his  splendid  architecture,  his  wise 
administration  of  justice,  and  for 
the  defeat  of  Haco  of  Norway  at 
Largs  in  1263,  which  united  the 
Hebrides  to  Scotland.  Exter- 
nally, the  disputes  with  England 
about  homage  began  to  take  a 
form  ominous  of  the  fast-ap- 
proaching struggles  for  indepen- 
dence. On  March  12,  1286,  he 
perished  by  falling  over  a  cliff 
between  Burntisland  and  King- 
horn. 

Alexander  I.  of  Bulgaria 
(1857-93),  titular  prince  of  Bat- 
tenberg,  second  son  of  Prince 
Alexander  of  Hesse  and  his  mor- 
ganatic wife.  Countess  Hauke. 
He  was  elected  first  Prince  of 
Bulgaria  (1879)  under  the  Treaty 
of  San  Stefano  (1878),  and  be- 
came Prince  of  East  Roumelia 
(1885)  without  the  consent  of 
Russia  and  against  the  wishes  of 
Servia.  In  a  campaign  of  a  fort- 
night he  repelled  the  Servian  in- 
vasion (November,  1885),  but  was 
abducted  from  Sofia  by  Russians 
(August,  1886),  and  compelled 
to  abdicate.  Restored  to  free- 
dom after  a  few  days  by  a  coun- 
ter-revolution, he  returned  to  the 
throne,  only  to  abdicate  in  a 
month  because  of  the  difficulties 
thrown  in  his  way  by  Germany, 
Russia,  and  Austria. 

Alexander  I.,  Obrenovitch 
(1876-1903),  king  of  Servia,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Milan  on  the 
latter's  abdication  in  1889,  but 
was  under  the  guardianship  of 
two  regents  till  1893.  In  1900 
he  married  Mme.  Draga,  nee 
Lunyevica,  against  the  wishes  of 
his  advisers  and  the  people.  This 
led  to  the  assassination  of  both 
king  and  queen  at  Belgrade  in 
1903  by  military  officers.  See 
Servia,  History. 

Alexander,  Archibald  (1772- 
1851),  American  clergyman,  was 
born  near  Lexington,  Va.  He 
was  president  of  Hampden-Sid- 
ney  College  (1796-1804),  and 
pastor  of  the  Pine  vStrcet  Presby- 
terian Church,  Philadelphia 
(1807-12).  On  the  establish- 
ment of  Princeton  College,  in 
1812,  he  was  appointed  its  first 
theological  professor.  He  pub- 
lished: Outlines  of  the  Evidences 
of  Christianity  (1823) ;  Treatise  on 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '16 


the  Canon  of  the  Scriptures  (1826) ; 
History  of  the  Patriarchs  (1833); 
History  of  the  Israelitish  Nation 
(1851);  Moral  Science  (posthu- 
mously, 1852). 

Alexander,  Barton  Stone 
(1819-78),  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Kentucky;  was  graduated 
from  West  Point  (1842);  and 
entered  the  engineer  corps  of  the 
U.  S.  Army.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  served  with  distinction  in 
the  campaign  about  Manassas, 
and  in  the  Battle  of  Bull  Run; 
was  Sheridan's  consulting  engi- 
neer (1864);  and  was  bre vetted 
brigadier-general  (1865).  After 
the  war  he  superintended  the 
public  works  in  Maine  (1865-7), 
and  in  1869  became  a  member  oj 
the  Pacific  board  of  engineers  for 
fortifications. 

Alexander,  Boyd  (1873-1910), 
British  explorer,  was  born  in 
Cranbrook,  Kent.  The  most  im- 
portant enterprise  in  which  he 
took  part  was  the  Alexander- 
Gosling  expedition  of  1904-7, 
across  Africa  from  Niger  to  Nile, 
in  which  both  Captain  Claud 
Alexander,  his  brother,  and  Cap- 
tain Gosling,  their  companion, 
lost  their  lives  as  a  result  of  the 
hardships  suffered.  In  March, 
1909,  Boyd  Alexander  proceeded 
to  the  Kamerun  Mountains,  and 
subsequently  left  for  Nigeria.  He 
had  passed  Lake  Chad,  and  was 
on  his  way  eastward  to  the  Nile, 
when  he  was  killed  by  natives  at 
Nyeri,  near  the  Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan  border.  He  wrote  From 
the  Niger  to  the  Nile  (1908),  Last 
Journey  (posthumous,  1912),  and 
many  papers  on  ornithology. 

Alexander,  Charles  McCal- 
LON  (1867),  American  evangelist, 
was  born  in  Maryville,  Tenn.  He 
was  graduated  from  Maryville 
College,  and  studied  at  the 
Moody  Bible  Institute,  Chicago. 
He  engaged  in  organizing  and 
conducting  chorus  choirs  for  evan- 
gelistic work;  and  made  a  world 
tour  (1904-6)  with  R.  A.  Torrey 
(q.  v.),  and  another  with  Mrs. 
Alexander  (1906-7).  Since  1908 
he  has  been  associated  with  J.  Wil- 
bur Chapman  in  conducting  evan- 
gelistic meetings  in  the  United 
States,  Canada,  Great  Britain, 
China,  Japan,  and  Australasia, 
He  has  compiled  many  volumes 
of  Hymns. 

Alexander,  Eben  (1851-1910), 
American  educator,  was  born  in 
Knoxville,  Tenn.,  and  was  gradu- 
ated from  Yale  (1873).  He  was 
professor  of  ancient  languages 
(1873-86)  and  of  Greek  (1886- 
1910)  in  the  University  of  North 
Carolina.  He  was  U.  S.  Minister 
to  Servia,  to  Roumania,  and  to 
Greece  (1893-7). 

Alexander,  Edward  Porter 
(1835-1910),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Washington,  Ga., 
and  was  graduated  from  West 
Point  (1857).  He  joined  the 
Confederate  Army  in  1861;  was 


chief  of  ordnance  and  chief  signal 
officer  in  the  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia  (1861-2);  and  in  1864 
was  promoted  to  brigadier-gen- 
eral. He  fought  in  the  Battles  of 
the  Wilderness  and  Spottsyl- 
vania  as  chief  of  artillery.  After 
the  war  he  was  professor  of  engi- 
neering at  the  University  of 
South  Carolina;  and  later  di- 
rector and  president  of  several 
Southern  railroads.  In  the  Nic- 
aragua-Costa Rica  boundary  dis- 
pute he  served  as  engineer  arbi- 
trator. 

Alexander  (Samson),  Sir 
George  (1858),  English  actor, 
was  born  in  Reading.  In  1879  he 
•made  his  debut  at  Nottingham  in 
The  Snowball;  in  1881  he  joined 
Henry  Irving  at  the  Lyceum; 
and  in  1884  he  accompanied  Irv- 
ing on  his  American  tour.  In 
1890  he  opened,  under  his  own 
management,  the  Avenue  Thea- 
tre in  London;  and  in  1891  re- 
moved to  the  St.  James',  where 
his  career  has  been  a  series  of  suc- 
cesses, and  where  he  produced 
Sunlight  and  Shadow,  The  Idler, 
Lady  Windermere  s  Fan,  Liberty 
Hall,  The  Second  Mrs.  Tanque- 
ray.  The  Prisoner  of  Zenda,  Ru- 
pert of  Hentzau,  The  Princess  and 
the  Butterfly,  The  Tree  of  Knowl- 
edge, The  Ambassador,  If  I  Were 
King,  Old  Heidelberg,  The  Garden 
of  Lies,  The  Man  of  the  Moment, 
His  House  in  Order,  The  Thief, 
The  Thunderbolt,  The  Builder  of 
Bridges,  Money,  and  others.  He 
was  knighted  in  1911. 

Alexander,  George  (1834), 
American  clergyman  and  educa- 
tor, was  born  in  West  Charlton, 
N.  Y.  He  was  graduated  from 
UnionCoUege  in  1866  (D.D.,  1884), 
and  from  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  in  1870,  and  was  or- 
dained in  the  Presbyterian  min- 
istry. He  has  been  pastor  of  the 
East  Avenue  Church,  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.  (1870-83),  and  of 
University  Place  Church,  New 
York  City  (gince  1884) ;  professor 
of  rhetoric  and  logic  at  Union 
College  (1877-83),  and  president 
(1907-09);  president  of  the  New 
York  College  of  Dentistry  (since 
1897) ;  president  of  the  Council 
of  New  York  University  (since 
1909) ;  and  president  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions (since  1903). 

Alexander,  James  (1690-1756), 
American  colonial  lawyer,  was 
born  in  Scotland,  but  siding  with 
the  Pretender,  was  compelled  to 
come  to  America  (1715).  He 
studied  law  and  practised  in  New 
Jersey,  but  in  1735  was  tempo- 
rarily disbarred  for  acting  as  coun- 
sel to  John  Zenger  (q.  v.).  Rein- 
stated in  1737,  he  filled  impor- 
tant public  positions  in  New  Jer- 
sey and  New  York.  With  Frank- 
lin and  others  he  founded  the 
American  Philosophical  Society. 

Alexander,  John  Henry  (1812- 
67) ,  American  physicist,  was  born 


Alexander 


152 


Alexander  Karageorgevltcli 


in  Annapolis,  Md.,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College  there. 
He  served  with  the  geological  sur- 
vey of  Maryland;  and  was  subse- 
quently professor  of  physics  at 
St.  John's  College  and  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  He  was 
U.  S.  delegate  to  the  British 
Decimal  Coinage  Commission 
(1857).  He  pubUshed  a  History 
of  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron  (1840), 
and  A  Universal  Dictionary  of 
Weights  and  Measures  (1850). 

Alexander,  John  White  (1856- 
1915),  American  artist,  was  born 
in  Allegheny,  Pa.  In  1874  he 
went  to  New  York  City,  and  be- 
came an  apprentice  in  the  art  de- 
partment of  Harper's  Weekly, 
where  he  was  associated  with  E. 
A.  Abbey,  Pennell,  and  Pyle.  In 
1877  he  studied  at  Munich,  and 
worked  with  Frank  Duveneck  in 
Polling,  Bavaria.  Later  he  stud- 
ied in  Italy,  Holland,  and  Paris, 
returning  to  America  in  1881. 
He  first  exhibited  at  Paris  in 
1893;  and  in  1894  was  elected  an 
associate  member  of  the  Societe 
Nationale  de  Beaux  Arts;  in  1901 
became  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor;  and  in  1902  a  member 
of  the  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign (president,  1909-15).  He 
was  a  member  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Letters. 

Though  influenced  by  Whistler 
and  by  Japanese  art,  Alexander's 
work  reveals  marked  individual- 
ity. His  color  is  pleasing,  his 
light  and  shade  effects  striking. 
He  is  especially  happy  in  the  por- 
trayal of  feminine  grace.  Among 
his  best-known  canvases  are:  por- 
traits of  Walt  Whitman  (Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art),  Fritz 
Thaulow  (1894,  Wilstach  Collec- 
tion, Philadelphia),  Mrs.  Alexan- 
der (Century  Club,  New  York 
City),  and  Mrs.  Wheaton;  The 
Pot  of  Basil  (1897,  Boston  Muse- 
um) ;  Pandora  (1898) ;  In  the  Cafe 
(Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Philadel- 
phia) ;  The  Green  Bow  (Luxem- 
bourg) ;  Study  in  Green  and  Black; 
The  Engagement  Ring  (Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art);  por- 
traits of  Rodin  (1900)  and  John 
F.  Weir  (1913,  Art  School,  Yale 
University).  His  decorative  work 
includes  six  lunettes  entitled  The 
Evolution  of  a  Book  (Congres- 
sional Library),  and  the  mural 
decorations  Spirit  of  Work,  and 
Triumph  of  Labor  (Carnegie  In- 
stitute, Pittsburgh).  Other  por- 
traits of  noted  persons  include 
O.  W.  Holmes,  John  Burroughs, 
R.  L.  Stevenson,  Joseph  Jeffer- 
son, Daudet,  Loubet,  and  Grover 
Cleveland. 

Alexander,  Joseph  Addison 
(1809-()0),  American  Biblical 
scholar,  son  of  Archibald  Alexan- 
der (q.  v.),  was  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  was  graduated  from 
Princeton  (1826).  He  was  ad- 
junct professor  of  ancient  lan- 
guages and  literature  (1830-33) 
and  associate  professor  of  Orien- 
VoL.  I.— Mar.  '16 


tal  literature  (1833-.50)  at  Prince- 
ton; and  professor  of  church  his- 
tory and  government  and  Biblical 
Greek  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  (1851-60).  He  is  best 
known  for  his  Commentaries  on 
Isaiah  (2  vols.,  1846),  Psalms  (3 
vols.,  1850),  Acts  (1857),  Mark 
(1858),  and  Matthew  (1860). 
Consult  H.  C.  Alexander's  Life. 

Alexander,  Stephen  (1806- 
83),  American  astronomer,  was 
born  in  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  and 
was  educated  at  Union  College 
and  at  Princeton.  He  served  as 
professor  of  mathematics  and  as- 
tronomy (1834-54),  and  professor 
of  astronomy  (1854-78),  at  Prince- 
ton University.  In  1860  and 
1869  he  conducted  expeditions  to 
Labrador  to  observe  solar  ecli  pses. 
He  published:  Physical  Phenom- 
ena Attendant  upon  Solar  Eclipses 
(1843);  Origin  of  the  Forms  and 
the  Present  Condition  of  Some  of 
the  Clusters  of  the  Stars  (1850); 
Exposition  of  Certain  Harmonies 
of  the  Solar  System  (1875). 

Alexander,  Sir  William  (c. 
1567-1640),  American  colonizer, 
was  born  in  Menstrie,  Scotland. 
In  1621  he  received  from  James  i. 
of  England  a  grant  to  the  penin- 
sula now  known  as  Nova  vScotia, 
togetherwithavastand  ill-defined 
tract  of  adjacent  territory — the 
whole  to  be  known  as  Nova  Sco- 
tia, or  New  Scotland,  and  to  be 
held  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  Scot- 
land. In  1629  this  was  supple- 
mented by  a  grant  of  'the  River 
and  Gulf  of  Canada,'  embracing  a 
belt  of  land,  300  miles  in  width, 
extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific.  Alexander  planted  a  Scot- 
tish colony  at  Port  Royal ;  and  in 
1629,  Admiral  David  Kirke,  sent 
out  under  his  auspices,  dispos- 
sessed the  French  in  Canada;  but 
in  1632  Canada  and  Acadia  were 
restored  by  England  to  France, 
and  Alexander's  grants  were  thus 
abrogated.  He  was  made  secre- 
tary of  state  for  Scotland  in  1626; 
created  earl  of  Stirling  and>  vis- 
count of  Canada  in  1633,  and  earl 
of  Dovan  in  1639.  Consult  Slaf- 
ter's  Memoir. 

Alexander,  William  (1726- 
83),  American  Revolutionary  sol- 
dier, known  as  Lord  Stirling, 
was  born  in  New  York  City.  He 
served  in  the  P'rench  and  Indian 
War.  In  1760  he  went  to  Eng- 
land to  claim  the  title  of  the  Scot- 
tish earldom  of  Stirling,  but  his 
claim  was  disallowed  by  the 
House  of  Lords.  On  his  return  to 
America  he  was  surveyor-general 
of  New  York  and  a  member  of 
the  provincial  council;  and  in 
October,  1775,  he  entered  the 
Continental  Army  as  colonel  of  a 
New  Jersey  regiment.  He  cap- 
tured a  British  transport  ship  at 
vSandy  Hook  in  January,  1776, 
for  which  exploit  he  was  made  a 
brigadier-general.  In  the  Battle 
of  Long  Island  (Aug.  27,  1776)  his 
division  met  the  first  British  ad- 


vance; but  ultimately  attacked  in 
the  rear  by  Lord  Cornwallis,  it 
was  almost  destroyed,  and  Alex- 
ander himself  was  captured. 
Subsequently  exchanged,  he  be- 
came a  major-general  in  Febru- 
ary, 1777,  and  afterward  took 
part  in  the  Battles  of  Brandy- 
wine,  Germantown,  and  Mon- 
mouth. Consult  W.  A.  Duer's 
Life;  C.  Rogers'  Memorials. 

Alexander,  William  (1824- 
1911),  Irish  prelate,  was  born  in 
Londonderry,  and  was  graduated 
from  Oxford  University  (1847). 
After  holding  various  benefices 
he  served  as  bishop  of  Derry  and 
Raphoe  from  1867  to  1896,  and 
attained  wide  recognition  as  an 
eloquent  preacher.  In  1893  he 
lectured  at  Harvard  University. 
In  1896  he  was  chosen  archbishop 
of  Armagh  and  primate  of  all 
Ireland.  He  published:  Witness 
of  the  Psalms  (Bampton  Lectures, 
1874) ;  Primary  Convictions;  What 
Think  Ye  of  Christ?  St.  Augus- 
tine's Holiday,  and  Other  Poems 
(1887).  In  1896  he  published  the 
collected  poems  and  hymns  of  his 
wife,  Cecil  Frances  Alexan- 
der. He  wrote  the  Thanksgiving 
Hymn  (1897),  set  to  music  by  Sir 
Arthur  Sullivan. 

Alexander  Archiperago,  or 
Alexander  Islands,  a  group  of 
over  1,000  islands  off  the  west 
coast  of  Alaska;  in  lat.  54°  40'  and 
58°  25'  N.  They  are  inhabited  by 
various  tribes  of  Thiinket  Indi- 
ans. The  most  important  islands 
are  Baranov  (q.  v.),  on  which  is 
located  the  town  of  Sitka  (q.  v.), 
and  Prince  of  Wales  (q.  v.). 

Alexander  Jannse'us  (d.  78 
B.C.)  succeeded  his  brother  Aris- 
tobulus  as  king  of  the  Jews  in  104 
B.C.  With  the  help  ot  Cleopatra 
he  ultimately  repelled  Ptolemy 
Lathyrus  from  Palestine;  but 
throughout  his  reign  he  was  en- 
gaged in  constant  strife  with  the 
surrounding  tribes.  In  the  civil 
conflicts  of  the  Pharisees  and 
the  Sadducees,  with  the  latter  of 
whom  he  sided,  Alexander  exhib- 
ited unusual  cruelty.  An  account 
of  him  is  given  by  Josephus. 

Alexander  John  I.  (Cusa), 
prince  of  Roumania  (1820-73). 
was  born  at  Husshi.  He  joined 
the  patriotic  party  in  1848;  and 
in  1859  was  elected  Hospodar  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  but  was 
not  recognized  by  the  Porte  till 
1861.  Though  justly  popular, 
his  absolutist  tendencies  and  in- 
ability to  cope  with  the  financial 
difficulties  of  the  country  united 
all  parties  against  him.  On  Feb. 
22,  1866,  he  was  forced  to  abdi- 
cate. 

Alexander  Karageorgevitch, 

kii'ra-ga-or'ga-vich  (180()  -  85), 
prince  of  Servia,  was  born  in 
Topola.  He  served  in  the  Rus- 
sian army,  and  in  1842  was  cho- 
sen prince;  but  he  was  deposed  in 
1858.  In  1868  he  was  sentenced 
to  prison  for  twenty  years  as  one 


Alexander  Land 


153 


Alexander  the  Great 


of  the  conspirators  in  the  murder 
of  Prince  Michael. 

Alexander  Land,  in  the  Ant- 
arctic Ocean,  in  lat.  68°  43' s.  and 
long.  73°  10'  w.,  was  discovered 
by  Bellingshausen  in  1821. 

Alexander,  Legends  of.  See 
Alexander  the  Great. 

Alexander  Nevski,  nyef'ske 
(1219-63),  second  son  of  Grand 
Duke  Jaroslav  ii.,  became  prince 
of  Novgorod  (1239) .  The  Tartars 
having  raided  the  south  of  Russia, 
the  Swedes,  Danes,  and  Livoni- 
ans  invaded  the  north,  but  were 
routed  (1240)  by  Alexander  near 
the  Neva,  whence  the  name 
Nevski.  He  succeeded  his  father 
(1247);  and  opposed  Innocent 
IV. 's  attempt  to  reunite  the  East- 
ern and  Western  Churches.  Rev- 
erenced in  life,  he  was  canonized 
after  death.  In  his  honor  Peter 
the  Great  founded  (1710)  a  mon- 
astery near  the  scene  of  his  fa- 
mous victory,  and  created  (1722) 
the  Order  of  Alexander  Nevski. 

Alexander  of  Aph'rodis'ias  (c. 
200  A.D.),  so  called  from  his  birth- 
place in  Caria,  was  styled  the 
'Second  Aristotle'  as  being  the 
greatest  expositor  of  the  peripa- 
tetic school.  He  was  the  head  of 
the  Lyceum  at  Athens,  and  au- 
thor of  numerous  commentaries 
on  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle, 
some  of  which  still  exist,  as  well 
as  of  original  contributions  to 
philosophy.  Of  the  former,  the 
most  important  is  his  commen- 
tary on  the  Metaphysica;  of  the 
latter,  De  Fato  and  De  Animo. 

Alexander  of  Hales,  halz  (d. 
1245),  English  scholastic  theolo- 
gian {Doctor  Irrefragabilis),  hav- 
ing resigned  his  benefice  in 
Gloucestershire,  went  to  Paris  to 
study,  and  was  there  appointed 
professor  in  the  schools.  Having 
resigned  this  position,  he  entered 
the  Franciscan  order  (1222).  He 
was  a  strenuous  supporter  of  the 
papacy,  and  gave  new  authority 
to  the  teaching  of  the  orders. 
His  chief  and  only  authentic  work 
is  the  ponderous  Summa  U niversa 
TheologicE,  written  at  the  com- 
mand of  Pope  Innocent  iv.,  and 
enjoined  by  his  successor,  Alex- 
ander IV.,  to  be  used  by  all  pro- 
fessors and  students  of  theology 
in  Christendom. 

Alexander  Pol'yhis'tor,  a  na- 
tive of  Cotyacum,  in  Lower 
Phrygia,  was  brought  to  Rome 
as  a  slave  in  the  time  of  Sulla. 
He  became  tutor  to  the  children 
of  Cornelius  Lentulus,  and  was 
liberated  by  his  master  (82  B.C.). 
Subsequently  he  accompanied 
Croesus  on  his  travels,  and  died  at 
Laurentum.  He  was  a  volumin- 
ous compiler  of  books  on  histori- 
cal and  geographical  subjects, 
now  only  surviving  in  fragments. 
His  works  were  largely  quoted  by 
Pliny,  Eusebius,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, and  others. 

Alexander    Seve'rus,  Roman 
emperor  (208-235),  was  born  in 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '16 


Area,  Syria.  He  was  adopted  by 
his  cousin,  Heliogabalus;  and  on 
the  murder  of  the  latter  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  the  Praeto- 
rians (222).  He  sought  the  so- 
ciety of  the  learned;  Paulus  and 
Ulpianus  were  his  counsellors; 
Plato  and  Cicero  were,  next  to 
Horace  and  Virgil,  his  favorite 
authors.  Although  a  pagan,  he 
reverenced  the  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  often  quoted  the 
saying:  '  Whatsoever  ye  would 
that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye 
even  so  to  them.'  His  first  ex- 
pedition (231-33)  against  Arta- 
xerxes,  king  of  Persia,  was  success- 
ful; but  he  was  murdered  (235) 
by  Maximinus  on  the  Rhine. 

Alexander  the  Great  (356-323 
B.C.),  son  of  Philip  ii.  (q.v.)  of 
Macedon  and  Olympias  (q.v.), 
daughter  of  Neoptolemus  of 
Epirus,  was  born  at  Pella.  He 
was  educated  in  the  best  culture 
of  the  day;  from  about  343  b.c. 
for  several  years — possibly  until 
335 — Aristotle  was  his  tutor.  It 
was  at  the  Battle  of  Chaeronea,  in 
338  B.C.,  that  Alexander  obtained 
his  first  military  distinction,  the 
cavalry  under  his  command  being 
the  main  factor  in  Philip's  vic- 
tory. In  the  last  year  of  Philip's 
life  Alexander  was  estranged  from 
his  father,  owing  to  the  latter's 
divorce  of  Olympias  and  marriage 
with  Cleopatra,  niece  of  his  gen- 
eral Attains;  even  Alexander's 
legitimacy  was  suspected.  When 
Cleopatra  bore  a  son,  an  assassin 
was  found — probably  by  Olym- 
pias— who  murdered  Philip.  Al- 
exander was  the  gainer  by  the 
crime;  and  though  there  is  no 
evidence  against  him,  it  cannot 
be  asserted  that  his  innocence  is 
incontestable. 

It  was  in  336  b.c.  that  Alex- 
ander ascended  the  throne,  and 
found  himself  surrounded  by 
enemies — the  Greeks,  the  Thra- 
cians,  the  Illyrians,  and  Attains 
— who  supported  the  claims  of 
Cleopatra's  infant  son.  With 
marvellous  rapidity  he  met  and 
conquered  his  foes  in  turn;  the 
Greeks,  overawed  by  his  energy, 
gave  in  without  striking  a  blow; 
and  he  was  elected  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Greek  forces,  for 
the  expedition  against  Persia. 
Meanwhile  Cleopatra  and  her  son 
had  been  murdered  by  Olympias' 
command,  and  Attains  by  that  of 
the  king.  Next  year  he  crushed 
the  Thracians,  advancing  as  far 
north  as  the  Danube. 

In  his  absence  a  report  of  his 
death  reached  Greece.  vScveral 
states  became  restless,  and  Thebes 
took  up  arms,  blockading  the 
Macedonian  garrison  in  the  cita- 
del. But  in  a  fortnight  Alexan- 
der marched  from  Thrace  to 
Boeotia,  outstripi)ing  even  the 
news  that  he  was  alive;  and  as 
the  city  would  not  surrender,  he 
took  it  and  razed  it  to  the  ground, 
sparing  only  the  house  of  Pindar 


the  poet.  Nearly  all  the  inhabit- 
ants were  enslaved.  The  other 
disaffected  states,  particularly 
Athens,  submitted,  and  were  par- 
doned (335  B.C.). 

Alexander  then  prepared  for 
his  conquest  of  Asia,  and  in  the 
spring  of  334  set  out  with  but 
30,000  foot  and  5,000  horse.  In 
May  he  utterly  defeated  the 
Persians  on  the  banks  of  the 
River  Granicus  in  Mysia.  He 
then  advanced  along  the  coast, 
through  Lycia  and  Pamphylia,  to 
Gordium  in  Phrygia,  where  he 
cut  the  famous  Gordian  knot; 
and  thence  into  Cappadocia,  and 
through  the  pass  called  the  Cili- 
cian  Gates,  which  the  Persians 
did  not  defend,  to  Tarsus  in 
Cilicia.  There  he  fell  ill  of  a 
fever,  and  while  ill  received  a 
letter  from  Parmenio  warning 
hirh  that  his  doctor  was  bribed  by 
Darius  to  poison  him.  He  drank 
the  doctor's  medicine,  and  then 
gave  him  the  letter;  his  confi- 
dence was  rewarded  by  a  speedy 
recovery.  In  October  he  defeated 
the  Persian  forces  under  Darius  at 
Issus  in  Cilicia. 

Next  year  (332)  Alexander  sub- 
dued the  cities  of  Phoenicia — 
Tyre  only  after  a  seven  months' 
siege.  The  fall  of  Gaza  opened 
the  road  to  Egypt,  which  he 
entered  in  November,  332.  The 
country  at  once  submitted,  and 
Alexander  was  crowned  king,  for 
which  purpose — as  the  Pharaohs 
were  held  to  be  sons  of  the  god 
Ammon — he  visited  the  oracle 
Ammon  in  the  Libyan  desert,  and 
was  acknowledged  son  of  the  god. 
The  conquest  of  Syria  and  Egypt 
destroyed  the  3ea  power  of  Darius, 
and  left  Alexander  free  to  ad- 
vance against  Persia.  He  did  so 
in  331,  and  in  September  of  that 
year  gained  the  decisive  victory 
of  Gaugamela  (generally  known 
as  Arbela).  His  foes  are  said  to 
have  numbered  a  million  of  men. 
As  a  result  of  the  victory,  Baby- 
lon and  Susa  submitted. 

At  once  Alexander  pressed  on, 
forcing  the  pass  known  as  the 
Persian  Gates,  to  Persepolis,  the 
old  capital  of  the  Persian  king- 
dom, which  he  took — with,  it  is 
said,  $150,000,000  of  treasure. 
His  next  object  was  to  secure  the 
person  of  Darius,  whom  he  pur- 
sued through  Media  into  Parthia. 
Bessus,  satrap  of  Bactria,  seized 
the  king  and  murdered  him;  Alex- 
ander found  him  dying  (?May,330 
B.C.).  Alexander  then  subdued 
Hyrcania  (Tabaristan).  A  revolt 
in  Areia  called  him  back.  He  put 
it  down,  founded  a  city,  Alexan- 
dria Areia  (probably  the  site  of 
the  modern  Herat),  and  conquered 
Drangiana  (Eastern  Afghanistan). 
There  he  discovered  that  Philo- 
tas,  son  of  his  general  Parmenio, 
was  conspiring  against  him. 
Philotas  was  condemned  and 
slain  by  the  Macedonians,  and 
Parmenio  was  executed  by  Alex- 


Alexander  the  Great 


154 


Alexander  the  Great 


ander's  orders  as  an  act  of  pre- 
caution. 

Alexander  then  advanced 
southward  through  Gedrosia  (Se- 
istan  and  Southwest  Baluchistan), 
and  in  the  spring  of  329  reached 
Kandahar — probably  a  corrup- 
tion of  Alexandria.  Then  he 
crossed  the  Paropamisus  (Hindu- 
Kush)  into  Bactria;  thence,  in 
pursuit  of  Bessus,  into  Sogdiana, 
the  country  between  the  Rivers 
Oxus  and  Jaxartes.  He  seized 
Maracanda  (Samarkand),  cap- 
tured Bessus,  and  founded  Alex- 
andria Eschata  ('farthest'),  where 
he  fixed  the  frontier  of  his  em- 
pire at  the  pass  over  the  Tian- 
Shan  Mountains. 

The  year  328  was  spent  in  se- 
curing the  recent  conquests.  It 
was  at  Samarkand  that,  in  a 


more  than  half  his  force..  Upon 
getting  back  to  Susa  he  married 
Statira,  daughter  of  Darius,  and 
Parysatis,  daughter  of  Ochus,  to 
set  his  soldiers  and  officers  an  ex- 
ample in  the  fusion  of  the  races, 
which  was  the  great  object  of  his 
policy. 

In  the  spring  of  324  Alexander 
went  to  Ecbatana,  and  in  that 
year  his  bosom  friend  Hephaes- 
tion  died.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  he  returned  to  Babylon, 
where  he  met  embassies  from  the 
Bruttians,  Lucanians,  and  Etrus- 
cans in  Italy,  the  Carthaginians, 
Celts,  Scythians,  Libyans,  and 
Ethiopians — a  wonderful  testi- 
mony to  his  renown.  His  next 
purpose  was  to  conquer  Arabia, 
for  which  he  began  to  make  prep- 
arations (323  B.C.).    When  all 


thian  empire,  even  the  Parthian 
conquerors  retained  some  tinc- 
ture of  Hellenism,  which  was 
destroyed  only  by  the  Saracen 
conquests  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  centuries.  It  is  not  the 
least  of  Alexander's  claims  to 
greatness  that,  truly  Greek  as  he 
was,  he  was  able  to  disregard  the 
distinction  of  Greek  and  bar- 
barian, and  to  attempt  to  unite 
all  races  in  a  cosmopolitan  em- 
pire. 

As  soldier  and  statesman,  in 
brilliancy  of  strategy,  rapidity  of 
movement,  grasp  of  detail,  and 
breadth  of  organization.  Napo- 
leon alone  among  men  can  com- 
pare with  him;  and  Napoleon's 
work  perished  almost  entirely 
before  he  died.  As  a  man,  Alex- 
ander displayed  a  singularly  lov- 


Sketch  Map  Showing  Campaigns  of  Alexander  the  Great. 


drunken  bout,  he  killed,  to  his 
great  remorse,  his  foster-brother 
Clitus.  In  the  same  year  he 
married  Roxana  (q.  v.),  daughter 
of  a  vSogdian  prince.  In  327  he 
returned  to  Afghanistan,  and 
prepared  to  invade  India,  which 
he  reached  through  the  Khyber 
Pass.  In  326  he  crossed  the  In- 
dus, and  advanced  to  the  Hy- 
daspes  (Sutlej),  where  Porus,  an 
Indian  king,  resisted  stoutly,  but 
was  finally  defeated  after  the 
third  of  Alexander's  three  great 
battles.  Porus  received  his  king- 
dom back  from  Alexander.  He 
thenreached  the  Hyphasis  (Beas), 
which  was  the  limit  of  his  ad- 
vance; his  soldiers  absolutely  re- 
fused to  go  farther,  and  the  king 
had  to  yield  (326).  After  nearly 
losing  his  life  at  the  vsiege  of  Mui- 
tan,  he  made  his  way  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Indus.  Thence  he  marched 
across  Baluchistan  (August,  325 
B.C.)  to  Pura,  losing,  it  is  said, 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '16 


was  in  readiness  for  the  expedi- 
tion, after  a  banquet  to  Nearchus 
followed  by  two  nights  of  carou- 
sal, he  was  attacked  by  a  fever. 
The  report  spread  among  the 
Macedonians  that  he  was  dead, 
and  they  forced  their  way  into 
the  palace,  and  passed  his  couch 
in  single  file;  he  was  able  to  greet 
them  with  a  movement  of  his 
head  and  by  signs.  He  died  a 
few  days  later,  in  the  thirty- 
second  year  of  his  age  and  the 
thirteenth  of  his  reign. 

In  twelve  years  Alexander 
made  himself  master  of  Western 
Asia,  and  left  a  mark  upon  it 
which  centuries  could  not  efface. 
That  he  spread  Greek  civiliza- 
tion even  beyond  the  Euphrates 
was  the  most  enduring  monu- 
ment of  his  fame;  for  though  the 
remoter  provinces  soon  relapsed 
into  barbarism,  yet  when  Meso- 
potamia was  lost  to  the  Seleucids 
by  the  establishment  of  the  Par- 


able character;  he  was  generous, 
warm  hearted,  chivalrous,  brave 
even  to  a  fault;  certainly  not 
naturally  cruel,  though  capable 
of  severity  on  occasion.  For  his 
age  and  position,  his  morality  was 
remarkable.  He  never  stooped 
to  intrigue.  His  marriage  with 
Roxana  was  one  of  affection,  his 
others  of  state  policy.  His  great 
fault  was  excess  in  drinking, 
which  more  than  once  led  him  to 
acts,  such  as  the  murder  of  Clitus, 
quite  inconsistent  with  his  na- 
ture; and  it  was  this  vice,  to- 
gether with  the  labors  he  imposed 
upon  himself,  and  the  many 
wounds  that  he  received,  ever 
fighting  among  the  first  of  his 
men,  that  caused  his  premature 
death. 

Legends  of  Alexander. — It  is 

not  surprising  that  this  illustrious 
figure  has  given  rise  to  many 
legends.  After  the  death  of 
Alexander,  the  Egyptians  claimed 


Alexandra 


155 


Alexandria 


him  to  be  the  son  of  their  last 
native  king,  Nectanebus  ii.  A 
later  version,  from  the  same 
country'  {c.  a.d.  200),  extant  in 
Greek  us.,  was  falsely  ascribed  to 
Pseudo-Callisthenes.  We  meet 
with  versions  in  Latin  (third 
century),  Armenian  (fifth  cen- 
tury), and  Syriac  (seventh  cen- 
tury), the  last  of  which,  having 
originated  in  a  Persian  source, 
makes  Alexander  a  Persian  prince. 
The  Ethiopic  hero  and  his  coun- 
sellor, Aristotle,  are  both  trini- 
tarian  Christians;  the  Hebrew 
Alexander  is  a  student  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel;  he  has  been 
identified  with  the  'two-horned' 
of  the  Arabic  Koran. 

A  portion  of  a  French  poem  by 
Alberic  de  Besangon  (twelfth 
century)  is  still  extant,  and  the 
library  of  Venice  holds  the  MS.  of 
a  later  French  epic  in  decasyl- 
labics. These  were  followed  by 
the  most  popular  French  version 
from  the  old  romance  composed 
(c.  1180)  by  Lambert  h  Court  and 
Alexandre  de  Bernay  (Li  Romans 
d'  Alexandre).  There  are  Ger- 
man versions  (1130)  by  Lam- 
precht;  by  Rudolf  von  Ems,  who 
took  the  story  from  Walter  of 
Chatillon's  Latin  epic;  and  by 
Seifried  (1352).  A  Norman- 
French  metrical  poem  by  Thomas 
of  Kent  is  translated  in  the  Eng- 
lish King  Alisaunder. 

Bibliography.  —  There  are  no 
contemporary  authorities  for  the 
history  of  Alexander;  we  have  to 
depend  on  Arrianus  (Expedition 
of  Alexander),  Quintus  Curtius, 
Plutarch,  Justin,  and  Diodorus, 
who  all  make  use  of  earlier  writers 
whose  works  are  lost.  Dr.  Budge 
has  edited  Syriac  and  Ethiopic 
Lives  of  Alexander.  Consult  D. 
S.  Hogarth's  Philip  and  Alexan- 
der of  Macedon;  B.  L  Wheeler's 
Alexander  the  Great;  J.  W.  M'- 
Crindle's  The  Invasion  of  India 
by  Alexander  the  Great;  J.  P.  Ma- 
hafify's  Progress  of  Hellenism  in 
Alexander  s  Empire;  W.  L.  Bev- 
an's  World's  Leading  Conquerors 
(1913);  Prose  Life  of  Alexander 
(ed.  by  Westlake,  1913). 

Al'exan'dra,  Caroline  Marie 
Charlotte  Louise  Julie 
(1844-  ),  queen-mother  of  Eng- 
land, was  born  in  Copenhagen, 
the  eldest  daughter  of  Christian 
IX.  of  Denmark.  Her  marriage  to 
Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales, 
was  solemnized  on  March  10, 
1863.  On  her  husband's  acces- 
sion as  Edward  vn.  (q.  v.),  in 
1901,  she  became  queen  of  Eng- 
land. Both  as  Princess  of  Wales 
and  as  Queen.  Alexandra  dis- 
played deep  interest  in  philan- 
thropic agencies,  especially  in 
the  London  hospitals,  and  par- 
ticipated actively  m  efforts  on  be- 
half of  wounded  soldiers  and  the 
widows  and  orphans  of  those  who 
had  fallen  in  war.  On  the  death 
of  Edward  vii.  (1910),  she  took 
the  title  of  Queen  Mother. 


Alexandra,  magisterial  division. 
Natal,  on  the  southeast  coast,  be- 
tween the  Unzimkulu  and  Unko- 
mansi  Rivers.  Area,  670  square 
miles.  Pop.  42,500,  including 
1,000  whites  and  6,000  Asiatics. 

Alexandra  Nile.  See  Kagera. 

Alexandrescu,  Grigorie 
(1812-86),  Roumanian  author 
and  statesman,  who  won  great 
popularity  by  his  political  sa- 
tires, and  was  Minister  of  Edu- 
cation under  Alexander  Cuza. 
He  published:  Original  Poetry, 
Elegies,  and  Fables  (1838);  The 
Year  1840,  Old  and  New  Poems 
(1842);  Memories  and  Impres- 
sions (1847);  Meditations  (1843). 

Al'exandret'ta,  Iskanderun, 
or  Scanderoon,  seaport  town, 
North  Syria,  on  the  gulf  of  the 
same  name;  23  miles  north  of 
Antioch.  It  is  the  port  of  that 
city  and  of  Aleppo,  having  a 
fine  sheltered  harbor,  the  best 
on  the  Syrian  coast.  Imports  in- 
clude silic,  silk  goods,  and  manu- 
factures; exports  wool,  butter, 
leather,  liquorice,  and  nut-galls. 
In  the  Great  War,  Alexandretta 
was  occupied  by  the  French  in 
November,  1918.  Pop.  15,000. 

Alexandri,  a-leks-an'dre,  or 
Alecsandri,  Vasile  (1821-90), 
Roumanian  author  and  states- 
man. He  wrote  numerous  plays 
for  the  theatre  at  Jassy  (1844-8); 
took  part  in  the  Roumanian  ris- 
ing of  1848;  was  Minister  of  For- 
eign Affairs  (1859-60);  and 
founded,  with  Negruzzi,  the  re- 
view Convorbiri  Liter  are.  In  1873 
his  famous  drama,  Boierii  si 
Ciocoii,  was  written  and  acted. 
His  martial  songs,  written  during 
the  Russo-Turkish  War  (1877-8), 
were  received  with  enthusiasm, 
and  his  collection  of  Roumanian 
folk  songs  is  meritorious.  In  1874, 
with  his  Cantecul  Gintei  Latine, 
he  won  the  prize  given  by  the 
Society  of  Romance  Languages 
at  Montpellier  for  the  best  poem. 

Al'exan'dria,  one  of  the  most 
famous  cities  of  antiquity,  was 
founded  in  332  B.C.,  by  com- 
mand of  Alexander  the  Great 
(q.  v.).  Situated  about  14  miles 
west  of  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the 
Nile,  on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  and 
on  the  narrow  strip  of  land  sepa- 
rating Lake  Mareotis  from  the 
Mediterranean,  the  city  was 
admirably  placed  to  become  a 
great  emporium.  Nearly  a  mile 
off  lay  the  little  rocky  island  of 
Pharos,  afterward  the  scene  of 
the  labors  of  the  translators  of 
the  Septuagint.  By  order  of 
Alexander,  a  mole,  the  Hepta- 
stadium,  600  feet  broad — now 
twice  that  width — was  run  out 
from  the  mainland  to  the  island, 
thus  converting  the  open  channel 
inside  Pharos  into  two  splendid 
harbors,  the  Northeast  or  Great 
Harbor,  and  the  Southeast  or 
Eunostos,  from  which  a  canal 
ran  into  Lake  Mareotis.  On 
the  northeast  corner  of  Pharos, 


Ptolemy  11.  (Philadelphus)  built 
(B.C.  283)  the  first  lighthouse  (see 
Pharos)  . 

The  plan  of  the  city  was  the 
work  of  the  architect  Dinocrates. 
At  the  east  end,  in  the  quarter 
called  the  Brucheion  or  Basileia, 
stood  the  royal  buildings,  the 
Museum,  for  centuries  the  focus 
of  the  intellectual  life  of  the 
world,  and  the  famous  Library 
(see  Alexandrian  Library). 
Here  also  stood  the  two  Cleo- 
patra needles  (sixteenth  century 
B.C.),  one  of  which  is  now  in 
London  (since  1878),  and  the 
other  (the  Obelisk)  in  New  York 
City  (since  1880);  the  Temple  of 
Poseidon;  the  palaces  of  the 
Ptolemies;  the  mausoleum  of 
Alexander  the  Great  and  of  the 
Ptolemies.  To  the  south  were 
the  Gymnasium  and  the  Hippo- 
drome. In  the  Egyptian  quarter 
(Rhacotis)  stood  the  Serapeum,  or 
Temple  of  Serapis,  containing  a 
second  library  and  the  Pillar  of 
Pompey,  and  at  the  extreme  west 
was  the  Necropolis.  To  the  east 
were  the  race  course  and  suburb 
of  Nicopolis.  Much  of  the  space 
under  the  houses  was  occupied  by 
vaulted  subterranean  cisterns, 
which  were  capable  of  containing 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to 
supply  the  city  for  a  year. 

From  the  time  of  its  founda- 
tion, Alexandria  was  the  Greek 
capital  of  Egypt.  After  the  death 
of  Alexander  the  Great  it  became 
the  residence  of  the  Ptolemies, 
who  made  it,  next  to  Rome  and 
Antioch,  the  most  magnificent 
city  of  antiquity,  as  well  as  the 
chief  seat  of  Greek  learning  and 
literature  (see  Alex*andrian 
School).  It  also  rose  to  be  a 
mighty  trading  centre,  with  a 
mixed  population  of  about  750,- 
000,  consisting  of  Greeks,  Egyp- 
tians, Jews,  Romans,  and  a 
sprinkling  of  other  nationalities. 
It  was  famous  for  its  glass,  paper, 
and  fine  textiles,  and  was  the 
emporium  of  the  world's  com- 
merce, especially  for  wheat. 

Even  when  Egypt  became  a 
Roman  province,  after  its  con- 
quest by  Caesar  (b.c.  48),  Alex- 
andria continued  to  be  the 
greatest  seaport  of  the  empire. 
It  survived  the  cruelties  of 
Caracalla  (a.d.  215),  the  internal 
struggles  between  Christian  and 
pagan  factions  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, and  the  Jewish  persecutions 
carried  on  by  the  patriarch  Cyril 
in  the  fifth  century;  but  it  sus- 
tained a  severe  blow  when  cap- 
tured by  the  fanatical  Arabs  un- 
der Amru  (641).  The  misrule  of 
the  Turks  (who  took  the  city  in 
1517),  the  discovery  of  America 
and  of  the  sea  route  to  India  and 
the  East,  completed  the  tempo- 
rary ruin  of  Alexandria,  until 
toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  it  had  only  about  6,000 
inhabitants. 

In  1806  Alexandria  began  to 
Vol.  I. — March  '24 


Alexandria  156  Alexandria 


revive  under  Mehemet  Ali;  and 
with  the  returning  prosperity  of 
Egypt,  in  modern  times,  it  has 
acquired  fresh  importance.  In 
1798  the  city  was  taken  by  storm 
by  Napoleon;  but  in  1801  it  was 
wrested  from  him  by  the  British. 
In  1882,  during  the  rebeUion  of 
Arabi  Pasha,  the  British  fleet  un- 
der Admiral  Seymour  bombarded 
and  destroyed  the  harbor 
forts. 

Modern  Alexandria  (Turkish 
Iskanderieh  or  Skanderieh)  is  the 
chief  port  and  second  town  of 
Egypt,  and  is  the  station  of  the 
Egyptian  fleet.  There  are  two 
principal  quarters — the  Moham- 
medan, in  the  northern  and  west- 
ern sections  of  the  city;  and  the 
European,  in  the  eastern  section. 
The  latter  centres  in  the  Place 
Mehemet  Ali,  with  a  statue  of 


Mohammed  Ali,  the  public  build- 
ings, and  many  handsome  resi- 
dences. Features  of  the  Arab 
quarter  are  the  Palace  of  Ras-et- 
Tin,  the  Barracks,  and  the  Arse- 
nal. Prominent  among  the  few 
remaining  objects  of  anticiuity 
are  a  monument  of  red  granite, 
88  feet  in  height,  erroneously 
called  Pompey's  Pillar,  and  the 
Catacombs  of  Kom  es-Shiigafa, 
dating  from  the  second  century 
A.D.,  and  unearthed  in  1900. 
The  Museum  of  Graeco-Roman 
Antiquities  contains  an  impor- 
tant historical  collection. 

Alexandria  has  two  harbors. 
The  eastern  or  Great  Harbor  is 
now  accessible  only  for  fishing 
craft;  the  western  harbor,  cover- 
ing more  than  2,000  acres,  and 
protected  by  a  two-mile  head- 
water, is  the  chief  shipping  cen- 
tre. About  nine-tenths  of  the 
entire  trade  of  Egypt  passes 
through   Alexandria.     The  net 

Vol.  I. — March  '24 


registered  tonnage  of  steamers 
arriving  in  1921,  exclusive  of  sup- 
plies and  military  transports, 
was  2,776,193;  of  those  depart- 
ing, 2,759,496.  Exports  include 
grain,  cotton,  beans,  sugar,  and 
rice.  The  city  is  joined  to  the 
Rosetta  branch  of  the  Nile  by 
canal,  and  has  rail  connection 
with  Cairo.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Pop. 
(1917)  444,617,  including  about 
50,000  Europeans,  chiefly  Greeks 
and  Italians. 

Alexandria,  city,  Indiana, 
Madison  county,  on  Pipe  Creek, 
and  on  the  Lake  Erie  and  West- 
ern, and  the  Cleveland,  Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago,  and  St.  Louis 
Railroads;  48  miles  northeast  of 
Indianapolis.  It  is  the  centre  of 
a  rich  fruit,  vegetable  and  grain 
region.     Manufactures  include 


glass,  wire  fencing,  paper,  and 
mineral  wool.  Pop.  (1910)  5,096; 
(1920)  4.172. 

Al'exan'dria,  city,  Louisiana, 
capital  of  Rapides  parish,  on  the 
Red  River,  and  on  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  the 
Louisiana  and  Arkansas,  the 
Alexandria  and  Western,  the 
Missouri  Pacific,  the  Southern 
Pacific,  and  the  Texas  and  Pacific 
Railroads,  and  the  Louisiana 
Railway  and  Navigation  Com- 
pany line;  193  miles  northwest  of 
New  Orleans.  It  has  a  public 
library,  Elks'  Home,  Masonic 
Temple,  and  government  build- 
ing. According  to  the  Federal 
Census  for  1919,  industrial  estab- 
lishments number  52,  with  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $4,349,790.  They 
include  foundries,  machine  shops, 
oil  refineries,  cotton-oil  mills,  a 
creamery  and  packing  plant,  and 
manufactures  of  mattresses, 
brooms,   and   lumber.  Cotton, 


cane,  corn,  alfalfa,  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  garden  truck  are 
grown  in  the  surrounding  region. 
Pop.  (1900)  5,648;  (1910)  11,213; 
(1920)  17,510. 

Alexandria,  city,  Minnesota, 
county  seat  of  Douglas  county, 
on  the  Great  Northern,  and  the 
Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  and  Sault 
Ste.  Marie  Railroads,  and  on  the 
National  Parks  Highway;  130 
miles  northwest  of  Minneapolis. 
The  region  contains  many  lakes, 
and  the  town  is  a  summer  resort, 
The  principal  industries  are 
stock  raising,  flour  milling,  boat 
building,  the  manufacture  and 
packing  of  poultry  and  dairy 
products,  and  the  shipping  of 
mineral  water.  Pop.  (1910) 
3,001;  (1920)  3,388. 

Alexandria,  city,  Virginia,  Ar- 
lington county,  on  the  Potomac 
River,  and  on  the  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio,  the  Southern,  the 
Richmond,  Fredericksburg  and 
Potomac,  and  the  Washington 
and  Old  Dominion  Railroads;  6 
miles  below  Washington,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  steam 
and  electric  lines.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Theological  Seminary  in  Virginia. 
Among  the  prominent  buildings 
are  the  Masonic  Lodge,  where 
the  congress  of  governors  met 
(April  13,  1775)  before  the  de- 
parture of  Braddock's  expedi- 
tion, and  Christ  Church,  of 
which  Washington  was  a  vestry- 
man. The  Potomac  River  here  is 
a  mile  wide,  and  deep  enough  to 
accommodate  large  ships;  and 
the  city  has  important  commerce 
both  by  land  and  water.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Federal  Census  for 
1919,  manufacturing  establish- 
ments number  35,  with  $19,237,- 
830  capital,  and  products  valued 
at  $16,908,023.  They  include 
glass  works,  silk  mills,  machine 
shops,  refrigerator  car  shops,  and 
chemical  laboratories.  Alexan- 
dria was  first  settled  in  1695,  and 
was  formerly  called  Bellehaven. 
Here  in  1775  Braddock  estab- 
lished his  headquarters.  During 
the  Civil  War  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  loyal  section  of  Virginia. 
On  Nov.  2,  1923,  the  cornerstone 
was  laid  here  of  a  great  national 
memorial  erected  by  the  Masons 
of  America  to  George  Washing- 
ton, a  fellow  craftsman.  Pop. 
(1900)  14,528;  (1910)  15,329; 
(1920)  18,060. 

Alexandria,  town,  Ontario, 
Canada,  in  Glengarry  county,  on 
the  Canadian  National  Railway; 
55  miles  southeast  of  Ottawa.  It 
has  manufactures  of  cheese  boxes, 
flour,  office  fixtures,  butter,  car- 
riage and  automobile  bodies,  and 
lumber  products.  Pop.  (1911) 
2,323;  (1921)  2,195. 

Alexandria,  town,  Scotland,  in 
Dumbartonshire,  on  the  river 
Leven;  3  miles  north  of  Dumbar- 
ton. It  has  bleaching  and  dye 
works.  Pop.  12.500. 


Englisli  Milef 
1  —  — 

6               5  lO 

f     M  E  D  I  T  ER  B  A  N 

j  Gez 

E  Ah 

i  ^EXA-VDRIA^^^^ 

-- -    Iskenclei'iyaj  /^^^^^^"^ 

^  =          El-Buricheld.y  \  ^^to^^/S 

■  yyMfi  I 

t&r^^,^^.^..^^   .^^^^L^ 

-  BoJbilimc  Mouth  n^^^ 

E  A  N    ^  E  A  ^'^'-^"^T^^^^ 

RosettcLi)  "]\ 
.  (Rajfehid™ 

M   A   R  Y  0  T  0\ 

ErRiyashatf\ 

Alexandria  and  Lake  Mareotis 


Alexandria 


157 


Alexandrine  Verse 


Alexandria,  district  and  village 
in  the  southeast  of  Cape  Colony. 
The  district  reaches  from  the  sea 
totheZuurberg  Mountains.  Area, 
947  square  miles.     Pop.  10,000. 

Alexandria,  town,  government 
Teleorman,  Roumania,  on  the 
Vede  River;  60  miles  southwest  of 
Bucharest.  It  has  trade  in  grain. 
Pop.  15,000. 

Al'exan'drian  Co'dex  {Codex 
A),  one  of  the  authoritative 
Greek  texts  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, dating  probably  from  about 
450  A.D.     It  was  presented  to 


Charles  i.  of  England  in  1628, 
through  Sir  Thomas  Rowe,  am- 
bassador at  Constantinople,  by 
Cyrillus  Lucaris,  patriarch  of 
that  city,  who  had  taken  it 
thither  on  his  removal  from  Al- 
exandria. Since  1753  it  has  been 
in  the  British  Museum. 

Alexandrian  Library.  This  re- 
markable collection  of  books,  the 
largest  of  the  ancient  world,  was 
founded  by  the  first  Ptolemy  {c. 
300  B.C.),  and  fostered  by  his  son. 
There  were  two  libraries — the 
'Great'  in  the  Museum,  and  the 
'Daughter'  in  the  Serapeum.  In 
the  former  were  close  upon  700,- 
000  volumes.  Under  a  succession 
of  great  librarians — Zenodotus, 
Aristarchus  of  Byzantium,  Cal- 
limachus,  Apollonius  Rhodius — it 
became  a  famous  centre  of  learn- 
ing, to  which  also  the  observato- 
ries, the  zoological  and  botanical 
gardens,  and  the  collections  of  the 
Museum  contributed.  The  Great 
Library  and  Museum  were  de- 
stroyed during  Caesar's  wars 
(B.C.  48-47) ;  but  was  partly  re- 
placed by  the  collection  of  Per- 
gamum,  which  was  presented  to 
Cleopatra  by  Mark  Antony.  The 
Daughter  Library  and  Sera- 
peum were  destroyed  by  com- 
mand of  Theodosius  (a.d.  389). 
The  story  of  the  destruction  cl 
the  Alexandrian  Library  by  Amru 
is  discredited  by  the  best  authori- 
ties, although  to  his  calif  Omar  is 
ascribed  the  saying  that  if  the 
books  in  it  agreed  with  the  Koran 
they  were  useless,  if  they  did  not 
they  were  pernicious,  and  in 
either  case  should  be  destroyed. 

Alexandrian  School.  After 
liberty  and  intellectual  cultiva- 
tion had  declined'  in  Greece,  Al- 
exandria in  Egypt  became  the 
home  and  centre  of  science  and 
literature.  The  thousand  years 
over  which  the  influence  of  the 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


Alexandrian  School  extended  falls 
into  two  periods,  the  Grecian 
(B.C.  332-30),  and  the  Neo-Pla- 
tonist,  merging  into  the  Christian 
(B.C.  30-A.D.  641). 

Ptolemy  Soter,  the  first  ruler 
who  introduced  and  patronized 
Greek  science  and  literature  in 
Alexandria,  was  followed  by  that 
even  more  munificent  patron 
Ptolemy  ii.  (Philadelphus),  who 
regularly  established  the  cele- 
brated Alexandrian  Library  and 
Museum,  which  had  been  begun 
by  his  father.   This  Museum  was 


somewhat  like  a  modern  univer- 
sity, and  within  its  walls  learned 
scholars  both  lived  and  taught. 
They  studied  grammar,  prosody, 
mythology,  astronomy,  and  med- 
icine, and  unfolded  their  informa- 
tion in  long  didactic  poems  in  epic 
form,  full  of  learning,  and  marked 
by  perfect  mastery  of  verse,  but 
often  dull  to  a  degree,  and  marred 
by  numerous  obscure  and  recon- 
dite allusions.  Examples  of  these 
are  the  Argonaulica  of  Apollonius 
Rhodius,  and  the  Alexandra  or 
Cassandra  of  Lycophron.  Other 
writers  of  epics  were  Euphorion, 
Nicander  of  Colophon,  Dionysius, 
Dicaearchus,  Rhianus,  and  Oppi- 
anus.  The  earliest  of  the  elegiac 
poets  was  Philetas  of  Cos;  the 
greatest,  perhaps,  Callimachus. 
Among  the  lyric  poets  were  Phan- 
ocles,  Hermesianax,  Alexander  of 
^tolia,  and  Lycophron.  Out  of 
the  amoebean  verse  or  bucolic 
mime — a  rudimentary  kind  of 
drama — grew  the  best  product  of 
Alexandrian  poetry,  the  Idylls  of 
Theocritus.  The  influence  of  the 
Alexandrian  school  upon  Latin 
literature-  in  the  Augustan  Age 
must  not  be  forgotten.  We  find 
it  in  all  the  contemporary  poets, 
notably  in  Virgil,  the  greatest  of 
the  group. 

vStill  more  active  than  the 
poets  were  the  grammarians,  to 
whom  it  is  mainly  due  that  we 
now  possess  the  masterpieces  of 
Greek  literature.  Among  these 
the  greatest  were  Zenodotus  of 
Ephesus,  Aristophanes  of  Byzan- 
tium, and  Aristarchus  of  Samo- 
thrace;  only  less  eminent  were 
Alexander  of  ^tolia,  Lycophron, 
Callimachus,  and  Eratosthenes. 
Their  chief  service  consists  in 
having  collected  the  writings 
then  existing,  prepeired  corrected 
texts,  and  preserved  them  for 
future  generations. 


In  science  also  we  are  their 
debtors.  Euclid  the  geometri- 
cian, Eratosthenes  and  Ptolemy 
the  geographers,  and  Hipparchus 
the  astronomer  here  laid  the 
foundations  and  extended  the 
borders  of  their  respective  sciences. 
Alexandria  was  also  the  seat  of 
Jewish  learning,  a  school  of 
thought  which  came  under  the 
influence  of  Greek  ideas,  and  of 
which  the  most  illustrious  teacher 
was  Philo. 

Alexandria,  the  last  fortress  of 
paganism,  became  in  turn  the 
stronghold  of  orthodox  Chris- 
tianity through  its  famous  ex- 
ponents, Clement  and  Origen, 
the  great  teachers,  and  Athana- 
sius,  the  steadfast  patriarch  of 
the  city.  It  was  in  Alexandria, 
too,  that  the  Septuagint  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament 
(from  Hebrew  into  Greek)  was 
made. 

Alexandrian  Philosophy  is 

characterized  by  a  blending  of 
the  philosophies  of  the  East  and 
of  the  West,  and  by  a  general 
tendency  to  eclecticism,  as  it  is 
called,  or  an  endeavor  to  recon- 
cile conflicting  systems  of  specu- 
lation, by  bringing  together  what 
seemed  true  in  each.  The  most 
famous  representatives  of  this 
school  were  the  Neo-Platonists. 
Uniting  the  religious  notions  of 
the  East  with  Greek  dialectics, 
they  represent  the  struggle  of  an- 
cient civilization  with  Christian- 
ity; and  thus  their  system  was 
not  without  influence  on  the  form 
that  Christian  dogmas  took  in 
Egypt.  The  amalgamation  of 
Eastern  ideas  with  Christian  gave 
rise  to  the  system  of  the  Gnostics, 
which  was  elaborated  chiefly  in 
Alexandria. 

Alexandrina,  Lake.  See  Mur- 
ray River. 

Alexandrine  Liturgy,  called 
also  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark, 
who  is  said  to  have  composed  it 
for  the  use  of  Egyptian  Chris- 
tians. Still  used  in  .the  church 
of  Alexandria. 

Alexandrine  Verse  is  an  iambic 
metre  consisting  of  twelve  syl- 
lables. The  name  is  derived 
from  the  old  French  romance  of 
Alexandre  le  Grand,  composed 
about  1180  by  Lambert  li  Court 
and  Alexandre  de  Bernay,  in 
which  the  measure  is  first  used. 
It  is  the  standard  measure  in 
French  epic  and  heroic  poetry. 
According  to  the  rules  of  scan- 
sion in  French,  the  ca?sura  must 
always  fall  after  the  sixth  sylla- 
ble; but  this  rule  has  been  neg- 
lected by  most  English  i)octs  who 
have  employed  the  metre.  Eng- 
lish poets  use  the  Alexandrine  oc- 
casionally for  the  sake  of  variety. 
The  .Spenserian  stanza  regularly 
ends  in  one,  and  Dryden  and 
Cowley  use  it  rather  freely  among 
their  decasyllabics.  Pope's  lines 
in  the  Essay  oti  Criticism  are  fa- 
miliar: 


^  vI7NApx*hiHNdxqroCKAroXonjcH 
^  ^Ti  |^ocnroNia"N'K3.iecHNoxorac«^ 

apx'J     0  ^oyo£  jfcu  o  \oyog  rj  [  itpoQ  tov^IioIv  '  nai  ^[to]^  r]v  o  \oyoQ. 

John  i.  I,  as  Given'in  the  Alexandrian  Codex  and  in  Modern  Greek 
Characters. 

'In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the  Word  was  with  God,  and  the  Word  was  God.' 


Alexandrite 


157  A 


Alfalfa 


A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song. 
That,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  its 
slow  length  along. 

The  only  long  English  poem  in 
which  this  metre  is  exclusively 
employed  is  Drayton's  Polyolhion 
(1612-22),  and  the  result  shows 
how  little  it  is  adapted  to  the 
genius  of  our  language.  This 
metre  has  been  employed  in  Ger- 
many by  Opitz,  Riickert,  Frei- 
ligrath,  Geibel,  and  others. 

Alexandrite.      See  Chryso- 

BERYL. 

Alexandriya,  or  Alexandria, 
town,  Kherson  government,  Rus- 
sia, on  the  Kremenchug-Elisa- 
bethgrad  Railway;  150  miles 
northeast  of  Kherson  city.  Its 
chief  industries  are  tanning,  soap 
and  candle  making.  There  is 
cattle  raising.    Pop.  14,000. 

Alexandre  pol,  a'leks-an-dro- 
pol  (formerly  Gumri),  fortified 
town,  government  Erivan,  Trans- 
caucasia, Russia;  80  miles  south- 
west of  Tiflis.  There  is  trade  in 
silk.    Pop.  34,000. 

Alexandrov,  a'leks-an-drof, 
town,  Vladimir  government,  Rus- 
sia; 70  miles  west  of  Vladimir 
city.  There  are  iron  and  steel 
foundries.    Pop.  7,000. 

Alexandrovsk,a-leks-an'drofsk, 
fortified  town,  Ekaterinoslav  gov- 
ernment, on  the  Dnieper;  75  miles 
by  rail  south  of  Ekaterinoslav 
city.  It  is  a  shipping  point  for 
grain.    Pop.  20,000. 

Alexandrovsk,  town,  Siberia, 
the  centre  of  government  in  Rus- 
sian Sakhalin  and  of  the  Alexan- 
drovsk district  in  the  northwest 
of  the  island.  It  has  flour  and 
saw  mills. 

Alexandrovsk-Grushevski, 
groo-shef'ske,  town,  province 
Don  Cossacks,  Russia,  on  the 
Novocherkask;  15  miles  north- 
east of  Novocherkask.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  rich  coal  region.  Pop. 
17,000. 

Alexei,  a-leks-a'  (Alexis), 
called  MiCHAiLOVITCH  (1629-76), 
tsar  of  Russia,  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther, Michael  Feodorovitch,  in 
1645.  He  extended  his  domin- 
ions after  a  successful  war  against 
Poland  (1654-67);  waged  war 
with  Sweden;  extended  his  power 
to  the  east  of  Siberia;  and  put 
down  (1672)  a  revolt  of  the  Don 
Cossacks.  He  codified  the  laws, 
and  opened  up  communication 
with  Western  Europe.  By  his 
second  wife  he  was  the  father  of 
Peter  the  Great. 

Alexei  (Alexius),  called  Pet- 
ROViTCH  (1690-1718),  eldest  son 
of  Peter  the  Great,  was  excluded 
from  the  Russian  succession  be- 
cause of  his  opposition  to  his  fa- 
ther's reforms.  He  fled  to  Vien- 
na, and  thence  to  Naples.  Hav- 
ing returned  to  Russia,  he  was 
imprisoned,  condemned  to  death, 
and  then  pardoned,  but  died  (or 
was  executed)  in  piison  a  few 
days  later.  His  son  became 
Peter  ii. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


Alexeleff,  a-leks-a'yef,  Erghe- 
NYi  IvANOViTCH  (1843),  Russian 
naval  officer,  the  son  of  an  Arme- 
nian father  and  a  Russian  moth- 
er. He  commanded  the  Pacific 
squadron  (1899);  governor  of  the 
province  of  Kwantung;  and  adju- 
tant-general (1901).  He  was  the 
Tsar's  viceroy  in  the  Far  East 
when  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
broke  out  (1904);  and  his  strong 
character  and  obstinate  policy 
helped  to  precipitate  that  war. 
He  is  aide-de-camp  to  the  Tsar. 

Alexeievka,  a-lex-a-iev'ka, 
town,  government  Veronezh,  Rus- 
sia; 75  miles  south  of  Veronezh. 
There  is  sunflower  culture.  Pop. 
14,000. 

Alexinatz,  a-lex'e-natz,  or 
Aleksinac,  town,  Servia,  capital 
of  the  province  of  same  name,  on 
the  Morava;  102  miles  southeast 
of  Belgrade.  It  was  captured  by 
the  Turks  during  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War  (1877-8).  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  tobacco-growing  dis- 
trict.   Pop.  5,500. 

Alex'is,  Nord  (c.  1820-1910), 
Haitian  soldier,  was  born  in  Cape 
Haitien.  He  entered  the  army, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  general. 
He  was  governor  of  the  North- 
ern Haitien  provinces  (1867),  and 
during  the  revolutions  of  1868, 
1888,  1896,  and  1902  served  as 
minister  of  war  of  the  provincial 
government.  He  was  elected 
president  of  Haiti  in  1903,  but  a 
revolutionin  March,  1908, obliged 
him  to  flee  the  country,  and  he 
took  refuge  in  Kingston,  Jamaica. 
See  Haiti,  History. 

Alexis,  WiLLiBALD.  See  Ha- 
ring,  Georg. 

Alex'ius  Comnenus  (1048- 
1118),  nephew  of  the  Emperor 
Isaac  Comnenus,  and  one  of  the 
ablest  of  the  Byzantine  emperors, 
supplanted  (1081)  the  Emperor 
Nicephorus.  From  the  north  and 
east  his  empire  was  assailed  by 
the  Pechnegs  and  the  Turks,  from 
the  west  by  the  Normans ;  and  in 
1096  the  warriors  of  the  First 
Crusade  encamped  before  Con- 
stantinople. But  by  wisdom  and 
courage  he  contrived,  during 
thirty-seven  years,  to  organize 
his  empire — to  put  in  order  the 
finances,  and  reform  the  army. 
His  career  is  fully  recorded  in  the 
Alexiad,  a  prolix  chronicle  writ- 
ten by  his  daughter,  Anna  Com- 
nena,  and  her  husband,  Niceph- 
orus Bryennius.  It  extends  from 
1069  to  1118  A.D.,  and  consists  of 
15  volumes. 

Alfa,  al'fa,  or  Halfa,  the  Ar- 
abic name,  now  naturalized  in 
French,  for  esparto  grass,  partic- 
ularly for  the  varieties  Stipa 
tenacissima  and  Stipa  arenaria. 

Alfadir,  al'fa-dir  {i.e.,  'All- 
Father'),  in  ancient  Scandinavian 
mythology,  a  favorite  name  for 
Odin  (q.  v.). 

Alfalfa,  al-fal'fa,  the  Spanish 
name  for  the  Medicago  saliva,  or 
lucerne,  a  leguminous  plant  high- 


ly valued  for  pasture  and  forage. 
Its  original  home  was  in  South- 
western Asia,  whence  it  has  been 
carried  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  it  was 
introduced  by  the  Spaniards  into 
Mexico  and  South  America;  in 
1854  was  brought  from  Chile  to 
San  Francisco;  and  has  since  be- 
come the  principal  forage  crop  of 
the  Western  United  States.  In 


Alfalfa  or  Lucerne 


the  Eastern  United  States  it  is 
largely  limited  to  areas  of  lime- 
stone soil. 

Alfalfa  is  a  deep-rooted,  long- 
lived  plant  of  the  clover  family, 
bearing  violet  clover-shaped  flow- 
ers in  oblong  racemes,  and  small, 
slightly  hairy  pods,  coiled  spiral- 
ly, enclosing  several  kidney- 
shaped  seeds.  Its  most  charac- 
teristic feature  is  the  long  tap 
root  extending  fifteen  feet  or  more 
into  the  soil,  enabling  the  plant 
to  draw  upon  food  stores  beyond 
the  reach  of  most  field  crops,  and 
to  withstand  extremes  of  drought. 

Alfalfa  is  remarkably  adapt- 
able to  climatic  conditions,  but 
thrives  best  where  the  rainfall 
does  not  exceed  36  inches.  It  re- 
quires a  deep,  fertile  soil,  well 
drained,  rich  in  lime,  and  reason- 
ably free  from  weeds.  Where  the 
soil  lacks  the  bacteria  necessary 
for  forming  the  root  tubercles,  it 
may  be  inoculated  by  the  trans- 
fer of  soil  from  a  successful  field 
or  by  artificial  cultures.  The 
time  for  seeding  varies.  Late 
summer  is  preferred  in  the  East- 
ern and  Southern  States,  thus 
avoiding  the  weeds  of  midsum- 
mer, and  enabling  the  plants  to 
attain  sufficient  growth  to  resist 
winter  killing.  In  the  West, 
spring  planting  is  the  common 
practice.  The  seed  may  be  sowed 
with  a  drill  or  scattered  broad- 
cast, but  should  be  planted  from 

inch  to  1 M  inches  deep,  de- 
pending on  the  character  of  the 
soil.  The  crop  should  be  cut  just 
as  it  is  beginning  to  bloom,  as  it 
rapidly  deteriorates  in  value  after 
the  flowering  period.  The  num- 
ber of  cuttings  in  a  season  ranges 
from  two  or  three  in  the  North  to 
as  many  as  ten  in  the  irrigated 


Alfarabi 


157  B 


Alfonso  X 


districts  along  the  Southern  bor- 
der of  the  United  States. 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  high- 
ly nutritive  and  palatable  of 
feeding  stuffs  (q.  v.).  It  is  easily 
cured,  and  the  great  bulk  of  the 
crop  in  the  United  States  is  used 
as  hay.  It  is  also  an  ideal  soiling 
plant,  and  furnishes  excellent  pas- 
turage for  cattle,  sheep,  horses, 
and  hogs — though  it  may  cause 
bloat  in  cattle  and  sheep.  Al- 
falfa increases  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  by  the  addition  of  nitrates, 
and  may  be  used  to  advantage  in 
rotation  of  crops. 

Two  classes  of  disease  attack 
the  plant:  those  affecting  the 
root,  of  which  root  rot  is  the  most 
common;  and  those  affecting  the 
leaves  and  stems,  as  leaf  spot  dis- 
ease, leaf  rust,  powdery  and  downy 
mildew,  and  the  anthracnose  dis- 
ease. 

According  to  the  U.  S.  Census 
for  1910,  4,707,146  acres  in  the 
United  States  were  devoted  to 
the  raising  of  alfalfa,  with  a  total 
production  of  11,859,881  tons, 
valued  at  $93,103,998.  See  Feed- 
ing Stuffs;  Hay.  Consult  F.  D. 
Coburn's  Book  of  Alfalfa  (1906); 
J.  M.  Westgate's  Alfalfa  (U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  jjq,  1908) ; 
J.  E.  Wing's  Alfalfa  in  America 
(1910). 

Alfarabi,  al-fa-ra'be,  or  Fara- 
Bi  (d.  c.  950),  Arabian  philoso- 
pher, was  born  in  Farab,  beyond 
the  Oxus.  He  studied  at  Bagdad 
and  settled  at  Damascus,  where 
the  calif  assigned  him  a  pension 
till  his  death.  He  led  a  life  almost 
ascetic.  In  his  encyclopaedia  he 
recognized  six  orders  of  sciences 
— language,  logic,  mathematics, 
natural  sciences,  civil  science,  di- 
vine science.  He  popularized 
among  the  Arabs  the  theories  of 
Aristotle,  and  was  the  master  of 
Avicenna.  The  subjects  of  his 
writings  embrace  almost  every 
known  science.  He  was  the  first 
to  attempt  the  compilation  of  an 
encyclopaedia,  the  ms.  of  which  is 
in  the  Escurial. 

Alfieri,  al-fi-a're,  Vittorio, 
Count  (1749-1803),  Italian  poet 
and  dramatist,  was  born  in  Asti, 
Piedmont.  At  fourteen  he  suc- 
ceeded to  a  large  inheritance;  and 
from  1767  to  1772  he  travelled 
widely  in  Europe;  after  which  he 
returned  to  Turin  and  devoted 
himself  to  literary  pursuits.  His 
first  work  was  a  tragedy  on  Cleo- 
patra, staged  at  Turin  in  1775. 
In  1777  he  became  deeply  at- 
tached to  Louise  von  Stolberg, 
countess  of  Albany,  wife  of  Prince 
Charles  Edward,  and  settled  with 
her  first  in  Alsace,  and  later  in 
Paris,  whence  he  was  driven  by 
the  Revolution.  He  returned 
with  Louise  to  Florence,  where 
the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  were 
spent.  In  the  Church  of  Santa 
Croce,  in  Florence,  he  has  a  beau- 
tiful monument  by  Canova,  be- 
VoL.  I.— Mar.  '16 


tween  the  tombs  of  Michelangelo 
and  Machiavelli.  Alfieri's  own 
Memoirs  (Eng.  trans.)  give  an 
excellent  picture  of  his  character. 

Alfieri  published  twenty-one 
tragedies,  six  comedies,  and  one 
'tramelogedia' — a  name  invented 
by  himself.  His  works  are  cold 
and  stiff,  his  plots  simple  even  to 
poverty,  his  verse  hard  and  un- 
pleasing;  but  in  spite  of  this,  he 
did  good  service  to  Italian  trag- 
edy. He  corrected  the  effeminate 
taste  which  had  before  prevailed, 
as  well  as  the  pedantry  of  an  af- 
fected imitation  of  Attic  models. 
The  most  successful  of  his  dra- 
matic works  isAbele,  a  mixture  of 
tragedy  and  opera.  Besides  his 
dramatic  works,  he  left  an  epic 
poem  in  four  cantos,  an  autobiog- 
raphy, many  lyrical  poems,  six- 
teen satires,  and  poetical  trans- 
lations of  Terence,  Virgil,  and 
portions  of  ^schylus,  Sophocles, 
Euripides  and  Aristophanes.  Af- 
ter his  death  appeared  his  Miso- 
gallo,  a  memorial  of  his  hatred  of 
French  anarchy.  Consult  Vernon 
Lee's  Countess  of  Albany;  Ber- 
tana's  Vittorio  Alfieri;  Porena's 
Vita  di  V.  Alfieri  (1904). 

Alfold,  or  PuszTAS,  the  great 
central  plain  of  Hungary,  extend- 
ing from  the  Danube  to  the  Car- 
pathians.   See  Hungary. 

Alfonsine  Tables.  See  Al- 
PHONsiNE  Tables. 

Alfon'so  I.  {El  Conquistador, 
'the  Conqueror')  (1110-85),  ear- 
liest king  of  Portugal,  was  the 
son  of  Henry  of  Burgundy,  con- 
queror and  first  count  of  Portu- 
gal. He  was  two  years  of  age  at 
his  father's  death.  His  mother, 
Theresa  of  Castile,  acted  as  re- 
gent till  1128.  He  defeated  the 
Moors  at  Ourique(July  25,  1139), 
proclaiming  himself  king  of  Port- 
ugal on  the  field  of  battle.  The 
title  was  confirmed  by  the  pope 
three  years  later.  He  took  Lis- 
bon (1147),  and  later  the  whole  of 
Galicia,  Estremadura,  and  Elvas. 
He  died  at  Coimbra. 

Alfonso  V.  (1432-81),  king  of 
Portugal,  called  'the  African,'  was 
six  years  old  when  his  father  died. 
His  uncle  Pedro  acted  as  regent 
until  1448,  when  Alfonso  declared 
him  a  rebel,  and  defeated  him. 
After  an  unsuccessful  campaign 
against  Castile  he  signed  the 
Treaty  of  Alcantara  (1479). 

Alfonso  VI.  (1643-83),  king  of 
Portugal,  succeeded  his  father, 
John  IV.,  in  1656;  but  the  govern- 
ment was  in  the  hands  of  his 
mother,  Luise  de  Guzman,  until 
1662.  In  1666  he  married  a  prin- 
cess of  Savoy,  who  conspired  with 
his  brother  Pedro  against  him; 
and  he  was  forced  to  surrender  to 
the  latter  his  crown. 

Alfonso  III.  (848-910),  sur- 
named  'the  Great,'  king  of  Leon, 
Galicia,  and  the  Asturias,  an  in- 
trepid champion  of  Christendom 
against  the  Moors  in  Spain,  suc- 
ceeded Ordonoi.,  his  father,  in  866. 


In  a  succession  of  hard-fought 
campaigns  he  extended  his  rule 
over  Old  Castile  and  part  of  Port- 
ugal. Popular  discontent,  repre- 
sented by  his  son  Garcias  in  888, 
and  later  by  his  queen,  forced  him 
to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  three 
sons;  but  a  Moorish  invasion  re- 
called him  to  power. 

Alfonso  I.  (d.  1134),  surnamed 
'the  Victorious,'  king  of  Aragon 
and  Navarre,  succeeded  his  broth- 
er Pedro  I.  in  1105.  The  opposi- 
tion of  his  wife,  Urraca  of  Castile, 
from  whom  he  was  separated, 
frustrated  him  in  his  attempt  to 
annex  Castile  on  the  death  of  his 
father-in-law,  Alfonso  vi.  In  his 
successful  warfare  against  the 
Moors  he  seized  Saragossa  and 
Tarragona,  and  inflicted  a  severe 
defeat  upon  them  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Valencia  (1126).  The 
victor  in  twenty-nine  engage- 
ments, he  was  mortally  wounded 
during  the  siege  of  Braga. 

Alfonso  I.  OF  Castile  and  vi. 
OF  Leon  (1030-1109),  son  of  Fer- 
dinand of  Castile  and  Leon,  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Leon  in 
1065.  He  carried  on,  with  vary- 
ing fortunes,  a  long  and  sanguin- 
ary warfare  with  his  brother  San- 
cho,  king  of  Castile;  and  on  the 
assassination  of  the  latter,  in 
1072,  obtained  his  kingdom.  He 
imprisoned  his  younger  brother 
Garcia  until  the  latter's  death. 
He  won  New  Castile  from  the 
Moors,  but  ultimately  sustained 
a  crushing  defeat  at  their  hands 
in  1108. 

Alfonso  V.  OF  Aragon  and  i. 
OF  Sicily  and  Sardinia  (1385- 
1458),  'the  Magnanimous,'  was 
the  son  of  Ferdinand  the  Just, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1416.  In 
1420  Joanna  i.  of  Naples  made 
him  her  heir,  but  revoked  the  gift 
in  1423.  At  her  death,  in  1435, 
Alfonso  claimed  the  kingdom,  but 
was  opposed  by  Duke  Rene  of 
Lorraine,  whom  Joanna  had  ap- 
pointed her  successor.  Rome  and 
Genoa  sided  with  Rene,  and  the 
Genoese  fleet  attacked  and  de- 
feated that  of  Alfonso,  who  was 
taken  prisoner.  Duke  Philip  of 
Milan  set  him  at  liberty,  and 
formed  an  alliance  with  him. 
After  five  years'  warfare  Alfonso 
entered  Naples  in  triumph,  and 
was  recognized  as  its  king  by  the 
pope.  He  was  an  enlightened 
ruler,  and  gave  asylum  to  many 
scholars  who  fled  from  Constan- 
tinople when  it  was  captured  by 
the  Turks. 

Alfonso  X.,  king  of  Leon  and 
Castile  (1226-84),  surnamed  'the 
Wise,'  or  'the  Astronomer,'  suc- 
ceeded Ferdinand  iii.,  his  father 
(1252).  In  1257  he  was  chosen 
king  by  some  of  the  German 
princes;  but  he  had  to  be  content 
with  the  empty  honor.  He  was 
more  successful  in  his  wars  with 
the  Moors,  and  his  victories  over 
them  enabled  him  to  unite  Mur- 
cia  with  Castile.    He  repressed 


Alfonso  Xn 


158 


Alfred  the  Great 


the  rebellion  promoted  by  his  .son 
Philip  (1271),  but  was  diiven 
from  the  throne  by  Sancho,  his 
second  son  (1282).  He  was  a 
patron  of  literature;  completed 
the  codification  of  the  laws,  Leyes 
de  las  Partidas,  which  in  1501  be- 
came the  universal  law  of  the 
land;  and  was  himself  poet  and 


Amadeus  of  Aosta  in  1874.  He 
defeated  the  Carlists  (1876);  re- 
pressed rebellions  in  Cuba;  sub- 
stituted a  less  democratic  consti- 
tution for  that  of  1845;  and  paci- 
fied the  country. 

Alfonso  XIII.  (1886),  king  of 
Spain,  posthumous  son  of  Alfonso 
XII.,  was  proclaimed  king  on  the 


struggle  between  the  clerical  and 
anti-clerical  parties;  and  frequent 
uprisings  in  Morocco  (q.  v.).  In 
1906  Alfonso  married  Princess 
Ena  of  Battenberg,  the  niece  of 
Edward  vii.  of  Great  Britain. 
This  marriage  caused  much  dis- 
content, the  Spanish  clericals 
fearing  the  undue  influence  of  an 
English  princess,  even  though  she 
had  adopted  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  and  a  large  section  of  the 
British  people  resenting  her  ab- 
juration of  Protestantism.  Six 
children  have  been  born  of  the 
marriage.  A  number  of  attempts 
have  been  made  on  Alfonso's  life, 
notably  during  the  marriage  pro- 
cession in  Madrid  (May  31, 
1906),  when  the  king  and  his 
bride  narrowly  escaped  being 
killed  by  a  bomb;  and  on  April 
13,  1913,  when  an  anarchist  fired 
three  shots  at  him.  See  Spain, 
History. 

Alford,  ol'ferd,  Henry  (1810- 
71),  English  scholar  and  poet, 
was  born  in  London.  He  was 
vicar  of  Wymeswold;  rector  of 
Quebec  Chapel,  London  (1853); 
and  dean  of  Canterbury  (1857). 
He  is  remembered  chiefly  for  his 
Greek  Testament  (1849-61);  and 
he  was  the  first  editor  of  The 
Contemporary  Review  (1866-70). 
He  published :  Poems  and  Poeticah 
Fragments  (1831);  The  School  of 
the  Heart,  and  Other  Poems  (1835) ; 
Chapters  on  the  Greek  Poets 
(1841);  A  Plea  for  the  Queen's 
English  (1863);  also  author  of 
several  hymns.  Consult  Life  by 
his  widow. 

Al'fred,  town,  Allegheny  coun- 
ty, New  York,  on  the  Erie  Rail- 
road; 9  miles  southwest  of  Hor- 
nell.  It  is  the  vseat  of  Alfred 
University  (q.  v.).  Pop.  (1900) 
1,615;  (1910)  1,590. 

Alfred  the  Great  (849-901), 
king  of  the  West  Saxons  in  Eng- 
land, was  born  at  Wantage  in 
Berkshire.  He  was  the  youngest 
son  of  King  Ethel wulf;  but  when 
his  brother  Ethelred  died,  in  871, 
Alfred  was  declared  king  by  uni- 
versal consent.  The  young  king 
fought  eight  or  nine  battles  with 
the  Danes  in  the  first  year  of  his 
rule,  winning,  among  others,  the 
Battle  of  Ashdown.  A  period  of 
rest  followed;  but  in  878,  Guth- 
rum.  king  of  the  Danes  in  East 
Anglia,  invaded  Wessex,  and  Al- 
fred retired  for  a  time  to  Athel- 
ney,  in  Somersetshire,  where  tra- 
dition says  that  he  burned  the 
cakes.  Shortly  afterward  he 
gathered  levies  from  three  shires, 
and  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  upon 
the  Danes  at  Edington,  in  Wilt- 
shire. The  Peace  of  Wedmore 
was  concluded,  under  which 
Guthrum  consented  to  become 
Christian  and  to  withdraw  from 
Wessex,  while  the  supremacy  of 
Alfred  was  acknowledged  over 
the  whole  country  south  of  the 
Thames,  and  over  the  greater  part 
of  Mercia. 


Alfonso  XIII.  of  Spain. 


author.  To  improve  the  Ptole- 
maic tables  he  assembled  at  To- 
ledo upward  of  fifty  of  the  most 
celebrated  astronomers  of  that 
age,  who  prepared  the  Alfonsine 
Tables  (q.  v.).  By  his  command 
the  first  complete  history  of  vSpain 
was  written  in  the  Castilian 
tongue,  and  the  Old  Testament 
was  translated  into  Spanish. 

Alfonso  XII.  (1857-8.5),  king 
of  Sjjain,  son  of  the  exiled  Queen 
Isabella,  was  chosen  by  the  pro- 
visional government  to  succeed 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


'  day  of  his  birth  (May  17).  His 
mother,  Queen  Maria  Christina, 
with  the  help  of  Canovas  and 
Sagasta,  ruled  during  his  minor- 
ity (1886-1902),  the  chief  event 
of  which  was  the  loss  of  Cuba 
and  the  Philippines  to  the  United 
States.  Since  Alfonso's  accession 
Spain  has  had  many  internal 
troubles,  notably  the  Barcelona 
rising  of  June,  1909,  owing  partly 
to  the  Morocco  War;  the  arrest 
and  execution  of  Francisco  Ferrer 
(q.  v.),  which  was  due  to  the 


Alfred  the  Great 


159 


Algae 


From  878  to  893  the  land  en- 
joyed comparative  peace,  which 
was  utilized  by  this  enlightened 
king  in  the  consolidation  of  Eng- 
land. He  practically  founded  the 
British  navy;  reorganized  the  na- 
tional   defences;   raised  public 

r  ■ 


r 


buildings  and  reclaimed  waste 
lands;  and  revised  all  existing 
laws,  combining  those  which  he 
found  good  into  a  single  code.  He 
established  schools,  encouraged 
literature  in  the  native  tongue, 
and  improved  the  services  of  the 
church.  This  work  was  again  inter- 
rupted by  war.  A  new  Danish 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


army  appeared  under  Hastings, 
who  for  four  years  kept  Alfred  and 
his  forces  incessantly  occupied. 
Having  once  more  saved  his  coun- 
try, the  great  king  died  (Oct.  27, 
901),  at  the  age  of  fifty- two.  The 
thousandth  anniversary  of  his 


death  was  fittingly  celebrated  in 
1901  in  Winchester,  the  ancient 
capital  of  England. 

Alfred's  principal  writings  are 
as  follows:  A  translation  of  the 
Universal  History  of  Orosius, 
containing  three  original  inser- 
tions by  the  king — a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  North  Central  Europe, 


and  the  account  of  two  voyages  of 
discovery  by  the  explorers  Othere 
and  Wulfstan;  a  translation  of 
Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History, 
which  may  be  due  to  Alfred's  in- 
stigation rather  than  to  his  own 
execution;  a  translation  of  the 
De  Consolatione  Philosophies  of 
Boetius;  a  close  translation  of 
Gregory's  Cur  a  Pastor  alis  and 
Dialogues;  Blooms,  a  common- 
place book  of  'sayings  which  King 
Alfred  collected.'  The  Saxon 
Chronicle  is  due  to  his  fostering 
interest  and  care. 

There  are  Lives  of  Alfred  by 
Asser,  Reinhold  Pauli,  Thomas 
Hughes,  Plummer,  and  Draper. 
Consult  also  Turk's  Legal  Code  of 
Alfred  the  Great;  Bowker's  Stud- 
ies; Conybeare's  Alfred  in  the 
Chroniclers;  Harrison's  Writings 
of  King  Alfred;  Snell's  Age  of  Al- 
fred (1912). 

Alfred  University,  a  non-sec- 
tarian and  co-educational  institu- 
tion at  Alfred,  N.  Y.,  established 
in  1836,  and  chartered  as  a  uni- 
versity in  1857.  It  comprises  the 
College  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  the 
State  School  of  Clay  Working 
and  Ceramics,  the  State  School  of 
Agriculture.  The  Alfred  Theo- 
logical Seminary  is  affiliated.  A 
summer  school  is  conducted  an- 
nually. In  1916  the  University 
had  360  students,  and  a  faculty  of 
42.  The  library  contained  28,000 
volumes.  The  buildings  and 
grounds  were  valued  at  S500.000, 
and  the  income  for  1914-15  was 
$100,000. 

Alfreton,  ol'f^r-tun;  colloq.  of- 
gr-tun,  market  town,  Derbyshire 
England,  on  the  Midland  Rail- 
way; 14  miles  northeast  of  Derby. 
Pop.  (1911)  19,049. 

Alfuras,  al-foo'ras,  or  Hara- 
FURAS,  the  original  inhabitants  of 
Celebes,  but  found  also  in  Burn, 
Ceram,  Jilolo,  the  Sula  Islands, 
and  Northwest  New  Guinea. 
They  are  apparently  of  Malay 
descent,  greatly  modified  by  Pap- 
uan blood. 

Algae,  al'je,  a  large  group  of  sim- 
ple cryptogamous  plants,  includ- 
ing Seaweeds  (q.  v.),  and  the  fila- 
mentous and  microscopic  forms 
which  are  found  in  stagnant  pools 
and  on  moist  surfaces  exposed  to 
the  air,  such  as  damp  soils,  stones, 
and  the  bark  of  trees.  Though 
they  vary  greatly  in  complexity 
— from  a  single  nucleated  speck 
of  protoplasm  at  one  end  of  the 
scale,  to  the  gigantic  Macrocystis 
of  Southern  seas  with  its  fronds 
600  to  800  feet  in  length  at  the 
other  end — algae  never  possess 
true  roots,  stems,  or  leaves,  how- 
ever closely  these  structures  may 
be  simulated.  They  come,  there- 
fore, under  the  general  division 
of  the  Cryptogamia  known  as 
Thallophytcs.  They  are  distin- 
guished from  the  Fungi  (q.  v.), 
which  are  also  Thallophytcs,  by 
the  possession  of  chlorophyll 
(q.  v.),  the  substance  by  means  of 


Algae 


160 


Algarre 


which  new  material  is  assimilat- 
ed under  the  influence  of  sunlight; 
and  by  their  power  of  building  up 
their  organic  materials  out  of 
elementary  inorganic  substances. 
They  are  also  distinguished  from 
Lichens  (q.  v.).  which  consist  of 
algae  and  fungi  living  together  in 
an  intimate  nutritive  relation — a 
high  form  of  Symbiosis  (q.  v.). 

Algae  are  the  simplest  in  organ- 
ization of  all  plants,  being  com- 
posed of  but  one  class  of  cells. 
The  vegetative  body  is  the  thal- 
lus  (q.  v.).  and  the  plant  derives 
its  nourishment  from  the  sub- 
stances held  in  solution  by  the 
water  or  moisture  surrounding  it. 
The  great  majority  of  algae  are 
attached  plants,  and  are  provided 
with  holdfasts  or  rhizoids  corre- 
sponding somewhat  to  the  roots 
of  flowering  plants,  though  with- 
out their  absorptive  function. 
The  holdfast  is  in  some  cases  a 
single  flattened  disc  or  conical 
expansion  of  the  base  of  the  plant ; 
in  others,  a  tuft  of  filaments;  and 
in  still  others  it  resembles  the 
fibrous  roots  of  land  plants,  pene- 
trating deep  into  the  sand  or 
coral  upon  which  it  fastens.  In 
addition  to  these  attached  forms, 
there  is  a  considerable  body  of 
free-floating  or  pelagic  algae,  with- 
out holdfasts  and  unattached  to 
any  substratum.  The  Diatoms 
(q.  V.)  and  the  Gulf  Weed  of  the 
Sargasso  Sea  (q.  v.)  are  of  the 
latter  class. 

The  simpler  forms  of  algae  are 
unicellular  and  colonial;  the  high- 
er forms  comprise  branched  or 
unbranched  chains  or  filaments  of 
cells,  flat  plates  of  cells,  and  more 
complex  organisms,  which  may 
even  approach  the  higher  plants 
in  external  morphology.  The 
reproductive  process  varies  as 
greatly  as  the  external  appear- 
ance— from  simple  cell  division  in 
the  lower  algae  to  highly  special- 
ized sexual  processes  in  the  more 
complex  forms. 

Algae  are  usually  classified  in 
three  orders,  based  on  the  color- 
ing matters  present:  (1)  Chloro- 
PHYCE^  (green) ;  (2)  Ph^ophy- 
CEJE  (brown);  and  (3)  Rhodo- 
PHYCE^  or  Floride^  (red);  to 
which  some  authorities  add  a 
fourth,  Cyanophyce^  (blue- 
green). 

(1)  The  Chlorophyce^e,  or 
Green  Algae,  include  all  those 
forms  in  which  the  green  coloring 
matter  or  chlorophyll  is  not 
masked  by  some  other  pigment. 
They  are  among  the  most  widely 
diffused  of  plant  forms,  occurring 
in  great  variety  in  both  fresh  and 
salt  water. 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  of 
Chlorophyceae  is  Pleurococcus ,  a 
fresh-water  alga,  which  is  abun- 
dant on  damp  surfaces,  and  to 
which  the  green  covering  of  tree 
trunks,  etc.,  is  often  due.  It  is 
a  simple  cell,  or  nucleated  mass 
of  protoplasm,  tinged  green  by 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '16 


chlorophyll,  and  covered  by  a 
cellulose  wall,  multiplying  by 
transverse  division  into  two  or 
four  cells,  which  soon  separate 
Closely  allied  forms  occur  in  wa- 
ter, the  protoplasm  escaping 
through  a  rupture  in  the  cell  wall, 
developing  a  couple  of  delicate 
contractile  filaments  or  cilia,  and 
thus  entering  an  actively  motile 
stage  of  existence.  After  a  time 
the  resting  phase  is  resumed,  the 
cilia  being  withdrawn,  and  a  cell 
wall  redeveloped. 

In  more  complex  forms  of  Chlor- 
ophyceae the  individuals  resulting 
from  fission  may  not  wholly  sep- 
arate, but  may  remain  embedded 
in  a  common  envelope.  A  high- 
ly developed  example  of  such 
a  colony  may  be  seen  in  Volvox 
(q.  v.),  a  constantly  moving 
sphere  of  many  hundreds  of  cili- 
ated individuals,  connected  by 
threads  of  protoplasm  through 
the  envelope,  some  of  which  are 
purely  nutritive  in  function,  while 
others  become  female  reproduc- 
tive cells,  destined  to  form  new 
colonies;  and  others,  again,  divide 
into  numerous  minute  and  active 
male  elements,  which  are  set  free 
to  fertilize  the  ova. 

The  Filamentous  Green  Algae 
are  higher  forms,  in  which  con- 
tinued division  results  in  single 
rows  of  cells  separated  from  each 
other  by  transverse  walls  (Con- 
fervoideae),  as  in  Ulothrix,  a  long, 
dark  green,  hairlike  plant  very 
common  on  stones  in  running 
water,  which  propagates  by  means 
of  motile  zoospores  formed  in  cer- 
tain cells,  and  set  free  to  swim  to 
a  new  site  for  a  new  plant,  and 
also  reproduces  itself  by  means  of 
the  fusion  of  two  free  motile  sex- 
ual cells  {gametes). 

Branching  occurs  at  various 
points  in  the  filamentous  series, 
and  this  readily  leads  to  the  for- 
mation of  bidimensional  (flat) 
cell  aggregates,  such  as  the  com- 
mon green  Ulva  or  sea  lettuce  of 
every  seashore.  Here  we  start 
afresh  with  rejuvenescence  by 
swarm  spores,  capable  of  repro- 
ducing the  parent  plant  without 
conjugation;  in  higher  genera,  at 
least  (Enter  omorpha),  conjuga- 
tion occurs,  and  macrospore  and 
microspore  are  distinguishable; 
while  the  change  from  a  plane  to 
a  tubular  arrangement  of  cells  in 
Enteromorpha  leads  us  to  solid  or 
tridimensional  forms.  An  inter- 
esting example  of  a  filament  con- 
sisting of  a  single  tube  is  Vauche- 
ria,  common  in  moist  soil  in 
greenhouses.  It  has  a  highly  de- 
veloped form  of  sexual  reproduc- 
tion, as  shown  by  the  large  quies- 
cent female  cell  {oogonium)  and 
the  minute  active  male  {anthero- 
zoid). 

(2)  The  PH/Eophyce^,  or 
Brown  Algae,  are  characterized  by 
the  presence  of  a  brown  coloring 
matter — phycophaein — in  addi- 
tion to  the  chlorophyll.  Nearly 


all  of  them  are  marine  forms,  and 
they  include  the  most  highly  dif- 
ferentiated of  the  algae.  For  fur- 
ther information  concerning  them, 
see  the  article  Seaweed. 

(3)  In  the  Rhodophyce/E  or 
Floride^,  Red  Algae,  the  chloro- 
phyll is  obscured  by  a  red  pig- 
ment —  phycoerythrin.  These 
plants  are  almost  wholly  marine, 
and  represent  the  highest  type  of 
reproductive  development  in  the 
algae.  For  further  information, 
see  Seaweed. 

(4)  The  Cyanophyce^,  the  so- 
called  Blue  or  Blue-Green  Algae, 
are  inconspicuous  and  degenerate 
plants,  found  in  fresh  waters.  A 
common  example  is  Anabcena, 
which  often  makes  the  water  of  a 
pond  opaque  and  dirty  green  in 
color,  and  gives  it  a  foul  odor. 

Consult  A.  F.  Arnold's  The 
Sea  Beach  at  Ebb  Tide;  G.  Mur- 
ray's An  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Seaweeds;  WoUe's  Fresh-Water 
Algce  of  the  United  States. 

Algardi,  al-gar'de,  Alessan- 
DRO  (1602-1654),  born  at  Bo- 
logna, ranks  next  to  Bernini 
among  Italian  sculptors  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  ex- 
celled in  the  representation  of  the 
nude.  His  most  important  work 
is  a  colossal  relievo,  in  St.  Peter's, 
Rome,  of  Pope  Leo  Restraining 
Attilafrom  Marching  on  Rome. 

Al'garo'ba,  a  Spanish  name  for 
the  pods  of  several  leguminous 
plants,  principally  those  of  the 
mesquite  tree,  found  from  Colo- 
rado westward  to  California,  and 
southward  through  Central  Amer- 
ica to  the  Argentine  Republic. 
The  pods  form  excellent  food  for 
cattle  and  horses,  and  are  used 
commercially  in  tanning  and  dye- 
ing.   See  Mesquite. 

Algarotti,  al-ga-rot'te.  Count 
Francesco  (1712-64),  Italian 
scholar  and  critic,  was  born  in 
Venice.  His  works  popularized 
abstruse  subjects.  His  Neutoni- 
anismo  per  le  Donne  (1732;  trans- 
lated into  several  languages)  was 
praised  by  Voltaire.  He  travel- 
led through  Europe,  staying  at 
Paris,  Berlin,  Dresden,  and  St. 
Petersburg,  and  was  especially 
honored  by  Frederick  the  Great. 
His  poetry  was  mediocre,  but  his 
Saggi  (essays)  on  art  (1769)  were 
influential  in  Italian  literature. 

Algarve,  al-giir'va,  the  smallest 
and  southernmost  province  of 
Portugal,  between  Alemtejo  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  corresponds 
with  the  administrative  district 
of  Faro  (q.  v.).  It  is  mountain- 
ous in  the  north,  but  with  a  fertile 
coast  belt  on  the  south.  Prin- 
cipal river,  the  Guadiana.  Figs, 
almonds,  olives,  oranges,  and 
vines  are  grown  in  the  lowlands; 
cereals  on  the  higher  ground. 
There  are  tunny,  herring,  and 
sardine  fisheries.  The  Algarves 
are  noted  sailors  and  fishermen. 
Capital,  Faro.  Area,  1,920 
square  miles.   Pop.  280,000. 


ALG>E  ARE  PLANTS  OF  A  SIMPLE  TYPE,  SUCH  AS  SEAWEEDS  AND  MICROSCOPIC  FORMS 

FOUND  IN  STAGNANT  POOLS. 

ALG>C — (A)  Pleurococcus  vulgaris:  details  magnified;  (B)  Volvox  globator;  (C)  Ulothrix  parietina;  (D) 
Vaucheria  terrestris,  showing  fructification  (E)  Anabaena  variabilis;  (F)  Laminaria  saccharina;  (G)  Fucus 
vesiculosus;  (H)  Ulva  latissima;  (J)  Rhodynnenia  laciniata;  (K)  Cladophora;  (L)  Polydes  rotundus;  (M) 
Griffithsia  simplicif ilum.    {A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E  enormously  enlarged;  F,  G,  and  H  much  reduced.) 


Vol.  I —Mar.  '16 


Vol.  I.— at  Page  160 


Algebra 


161 


Algeciras 


Al'gebra,  that  branch  of  pure 
mathematics  which  makes  it  pos- 
sible, by  means  of  letters  and 
other  symbols  (see  Symbols),  to 
simplify  and  generalize  the  solu- 
tion of  arithmetical  questions. 
Algebra  is  an  outgrowth  of  arith- 
metic (q.  v.),  and  is  governed  by 
the  same  fundamental  laws,  but 
differs  from  that  branch  of  math- 
ematics in  a  number  of  important 
points.  In  the  first  place,  the 
operations  of  algebra  and  their 
results  are  more  general  than 
those  of  arithmetic.  In  arith- 
metic, quantities  are  represented 
by  particular  numbers,  which  do 
not  vary  in  value,  and  the  results 
obtained  apply  only  to  particular 
questions.  Thus, 

(5-2)  X  (5  +  2)  =  21. 
In  algebra  the  substitution  of 
letters,  to  which  any  value  may 
be  given,  for  the  particular  num- 
bers of  arithmetic  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  obtain  results  which  are 
equally  applicable  to  all  questions 
of  a  given  class.  Thus,  substitut- 
ing a  for  5  and  b  for  2, 

(a  -h)  (a  -f  &)  =  a2  -  &2. 
Instead  of  the  solution  of  a  single 
problem  we  have  the  general 
principle  that  the  product  of  the 
difference  and  sum  of  any  two 
numbers  equals  the  difference  of 
their  squares,  a  theorem  which 
holds  true  regardless  of  the  values 
of  those  numbers. 

Algebra  has  a  second  advan- 
tage over  arithmetic  in  that  its 
operations  are  often  much  more 
concise,  so  that  many  problems 
which  might  be  solved  arithmet- 
ically are  more  easily  and  more 
quickly  solved  by  algebra.  This 
advantage  is  due  partly  to  the  use 
of  letters  by  which  unknown 
quantities  may  be  expressed,  and 
partly  to  the  fact  that  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  etc., 
are  not  actually  performed  until 
the  problem  has  been  reduced 
to  its  simplest  terms.  Thus,  in 
the  problem,  'Find  two  numbers 
whose  sum  is  8  and  whose  differ- 
ence is  2,'  we  let  x  represent  one 
of  the  numbers  and  8  —  x  the  other. 
Employing  these  symbols,  we 
then  proceed  to  perform  the  same 
operations  which  would  be  neces- 
sary to  verify  their  values  were 
they  already  known. 

The  use  of  symbols  enables  us, 
further,  to  derive  formulae  in 
which  the  operations  are  indi- 
cated rather  than  actually  per- 
formed. Simple  inspection  of  the 
result  of  an  arithmetical  problem 
does  not  reveal  the  method  of  its 
solution;  a  general  algebraic  solu- 
tion, on  the  other  hand,  vshows  at 
once  how  all  the  data  of  the  prob- 
lem are  combined  in  the  result. 
Thus, 

(a -I-  6)2  =  a2-l-  2ah-\-  62 
as  contrasted  with 

(2  +  3)2  =  25. 
The  most  striking  difference 
between  algebra  and  arithmetic 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '16 


is  the  use,  in  the  former,  of  nega- 
tive and  imaginary  numbers, 
which  cannot  be  entertained  in 
arithmetic.  Every  quantity  and 
every  step  in  the  working  of  an 
arithmetical  problem  are  capable 
of  intelligible  conception;  but 
algebra  admits  of  unthinkable 
quantities  and  operations,  as,  for 
example,  \/_  i. 

The  scope  of  algebra  is  not  def- 
initely fixed,  various  opinions 
being  held  as  to  its  limitations. 
In  its  widest  sense  it  may  be 
said  to  include  the  theory  of  num- 
bers (see  Numbers),  the  theory 
of  equations  (see  Equation  and 
Quadratic  Equation),  infinites- 
imal calculus  and  the  calculus  of 
variations  (see  Calculus,  and 
Variations,  Calculus  of),  the 
theory  of  functions  (see  Func- 
tion), and  multiple  algebras,  in- 
cluding quaternions  (q.  v.)  and 
other  vector  analyses  (see  Vec- 
tor). 

Historical. — The  earliest  treat- 
ment of  algebra  is  found  in  an 
Egyptian  MS.  of  1 700  B.c . ,  in  which 
this  simple  equation  occurs:  'Hau 
(heap),  its  seventh,  its  whole,  it 

makes  19,'  that  is,  -y-  -f-  x  =  19. 

Egyptian  algebra,  however,  was 
undoubtedly  rudimentary,  and 
no  trace  of  it  has  been  discovered 
among  the  ancient  Greeks,  who 
seem  to  have  been  acquainted 
with  the  solution  of  equations  in 
geometrical  form  only. 

The  oldest  work  in  the  West  on 
algebra  is  that  of  Diophantus 
(q.  V.)  of  Alexandria,  who  lived 
in  the  fourth  century  a.d.,  and 
whose  Arithmetica  presents  some 
methods  of  simplifying  equations 
which  are  still  in  use.  He  ex- 
plained the  generation  of  powers, 
gave  rules  for  the  multiplication 
and  division  of  simple  quantities, 
and  devoted  special  attention  to 
indeterminate  equations,  which 
are  sometimes  known  as  Diophan- 
tine  problems. 

The  development  of  algebra 
among  the  Hindus  and  the  Arabs 
seems  to  have  preceded  any  fur- 
ther advances  in  European  coun- 
tries. The  work  of  Aryabhatta, 
an  Indian  mathematician  of  the 
sixth  century,  probably  extended 
to  determinate  quadratic  equa- 
tions and  indeterminate  equa- 
tions of  the  first  and  second  de- 
grees. The  first  notable  Arabian 
algebraist  was  Mohammed  ben 
Musa  al-Khwarizmi,  whose  trea- 
tise on  algebra,  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, bore  the  title  Ilm  al-jebr 
wal-muqabala,  from  which  the 
name  algebra  is  presumed  to  be 
derived. 

The  Italian  mathematicians 
led  in  the  renaissance  of  mathe- 
matics in  Europe.  In  1494  Lucas 
Paciolus,  a  Minorite  friar,  pub- 
lished the  first  important  work  on 
the  subject,  and  in  1505  Scipio 
Ferro  discovered  the  solution  of 


one  case  of  quadratic  equations 
(rc3  +  ax  =  b).  Tartalea  of  Brescia 
(died  1557)  carried  cubic  equa- 
tions still  further,  and  imparted 
his  discoveries  to  Cardanus  (q.  v.) 
of  Milan,  who  extended  the  dis- 
covery, and  published,  in  1545, 
the  solution  known  as  'Cardan's 
Rule.'  In  1579  Ludovico  Ferrari 
and  Rafael  Bombelli  gave  the 
solution  of  biquadratic  equa- 
tions. 

In  the  meantime,  algebra  was 
gaining  ground  in  other  European 
countries.  It  was  first  cultivated 
in  Germany  by  Christian  Rudolf, 
1524;  and  Stifel  followed  with 
his  Arithmetica  Integra  in  1544. 
Robert  Recorde  in  England,  and 
Pelletier  in  France,  wrote  about 
1550.  An  important  epoch  is 
marked  by  the  work  of  Vieta 
(q.  V.)  of  France  (1540-1603), 
who  first  used  letters  for  all  quan- 
tities, known  and  unknown.  Har- 
riot, in  England  (1631),  and  Gi- 
rard,  in  Holland  (1629),  carried 
this  work  still  further.  Descartes 
(1596-1650)  used  the  first  letters 
of  the  alphabet  for  known  quan- 
tities, and  the  last  for  unknown, 
and  substituted  x^  and  x^  for  such 
expressions  as  xxx  and  xxxx.  He 
was  the  first  to  apply  algebra  to 
geometry,  and  to  represent  the 
nature  of  curves  by  means  of 
equations.  Other  important  sub- 
jects developed  in  the  seventeenth 
century  were  the  infinitesimal 
calculus,  the  binomial  theory, 
continued  fractions,  the  modern 
theory  of  numbers,  the  theory  of 
probability,  and  the  theory  of 
determinants;  and  among  the 
outstanding  names  are  those  of 
Newton,  Leibniz,  Wallis,  Euler, 
Lagrange,  Fermat,  De  Moivre, 
the  Bernoullis,  and  Pascal. 

In  more  recent  years  the  de- 
velopment of  algebra  has  been 
largely  along  special  lines,  and 
algebras  have  been  formulated 
with  different  fundamental  laws, 
of  which  quaternions  is  an  ex- 
ample. 

In  connection  with  this  article, 
see  the  various  mathematical  ar- 
ticles in  this  work,  including: 


Analysis, 
Binomial. 
Biquadratic. 
Calculus. 

Complex  Number. 

Determinants. 

Differences. 

Equation. 

Fraction. 

Function. 

Groups,  Theory  of. 
Indeterminate  Form. 
Index. 
Involution. 
Logarithms. 


Mathematics.  . 
Numbers. 

Permutations  and 

Combinations. 
Probabilities. 
Quadratic  Equation. 
Quaternions. 
Series. 

Squares,  Method  of 

Least. 
Substitutions. 
Symbols. 

Variations,  Calculus 

of. 
Vector. 


Consult  Merriman  and  Wood- 
ward's Higher  Mathematics;  K. 
Fink's  History  of  Mathematics; 
Smith's  Teaching  of  Elementary 
Mathematics. 

Algeciras,';^al-ha-the'ras,  or  Al- 
GEZiRAS,  town,  province  Cadiz, 
Spain,  the  port  on  the  bay  oppo- 


Alger 


162 


Algeria 


site  Gibraltar  (5  miles).  It  is  a 
well-built  industrial  town,  with 
busy  export  trade  in  leather, 
charcoal,  cork,  and  grain.  The 
bay  was  the  scene  of  a  naval  bat- 
tle between  French  and  English 
fleets  in  1801.  Here,  on  April  7, 
190G,  the  Algeciras  Convention, 
an  international  agreement  con- 
cerning Morocco,  was  concluded 
by  the  European  Powers  (see 
Morocco, //w/o^y).  Pop.  17,000. 

ATger,  Horatio  (1834-99), 
American  author,  was  born  in 
Revere,  Mass.,  and  was  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  (1862).  He 
studied  at  the  Harvard  Divinity 
School;  was  ordained  to  the  pas- 
torate of  the  Unitarian  Church  at 
Brewster,  Mass.  (1864);  and 
afterward  removed  to  New  York 


(1897-9);  and  U,  S.  Senator 
(1902-07).  He  was  the  author 
of  The  Spanish  American  War 
(1901). 

Alger,  William  Rounseville 
(1822-1905),  American  clergy- 
man, was  born  in  Freetown, 
Mass..  and  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  Theological  School.  He 
held  pastorates  at  Roxbury 
(Mass.),  Boston,  New  York,  Den- 
ver, Chicago,  Portland,  and  again 
at  Boston.  He  published:  The 
Poetry  of  the  Orient  (2d  ed.  1861) ; 
A  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine 
of  a  Future  Life  (1861);  Friend- 
ships of  Women  (1867);  Life  of 
Edwin  Forrest  (1877);  The  School 
of  Life  (1881). 

Algeria,  al-je'ri-a,  or  L'Alge- 
RiE,  French  colony  in  North  Af- 


leys;  in  the  middle,  the  region  of 
Steppes — mountainous  plateaus, 
traversed  from  west  to  east  by  a 
chain  of  brackish  lakes  or  marshes 
called  shotts;  farther  south  the 
Algerian  Sahara,  a  rocky  table 
land  with  cultivated  tracts  or 
oases. 

Two  series  of  mountain  chains 
of  the  Atlas  system  cross  Algeria 
from  east  to  west.  The  Lesser  or 
Tell  Atlas  follows  the  coast,  and 
is  intersected  by  rocky  canyons 
and  fertile  valleys.  It  includes 
the  Tlemcen,  Warsenis,  Titeri, 
Jurjura,  Biban,  Dahra,  and  Me- 
jerda  ranges — Lalla  Kedija,  in  the 
Jurjura  range,  reaching  a  height 
of  7,542  feet.  To  the  south,  form- 
ing the  southern  limit  of  the 
middle  table  lands,  are  the  moun- 


City.  He  is  well  known  as  the 
writer  of  about  seventy  books 
of  juvenile  fiction,  which  still 
maintain  their  popularity — most 
of  them  included  in  the  Ragged 
Dick,  Tattered  Tom,  and  Luck  and 
Pluck  series. 

Alger,  Russell  Alexander 
(18,36-1907),  American  soldier 
and  lawyer,  was  born  in  Lafay- 
ette, O.  In  early  youth  he 
worked  on  a  farm,  and  attended 
Richfield  Academy  during  the 
winters.  He  taught  school,  stud- 
ied law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  (1859);  and  after  practising 
a  year  in  Cleveland,  removed  to 
Michigan.  He  served  in  the 
Union  Army  throughout  the 
Civil  War,  and  rose  from  captain 
to  be  major-general  of  volunteers. 
After  the  war  he  engaged  in  the 
lumber  business  at  Detroit,  Mich. 
He  served  as  governor  of  the 
State  (188.5-6) ;  Secretary  of  War 
in  President  McKinley's  Cabinet 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


rica,  occupies  the  central  portion 
of  the  former  Barbary  States, 
between  lat.  30°  and  37°  N.  and 
long.  2°  10'  w.  and  8°  .50'  e.  It  is 
bounded  by  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  north,  and  by  the  vSahara 
Desert  on  the  south,  and  is  sep- 
arated by  conventional  bounda- 
ries from  Tunis  on  the  east  and 
Morocco  on  the  west.  Stretching 
along  the  coast  for  about  550 
miles,  and  inland  for  about  400 
miles,  Algeria  covers  an  area  of 
343,500  square  miles,  of  which 
some  159,000  square  miles  in  the 
south  have  been  acquired  by 
France  since  1901. 

Physical  Features. — The  coast 
line  is  steep  and  rocky,  for  the 
most  part,  and  though  it  has  nu- 
merous indentations,  affords  few 
good  harbors.  F"rom  the  coast 
inward  the  country  is  marked  off 
into  three  distinct  regions:  in  the 
north,  the  Tell — mountainous, 
cultivated  land,  with  fruitful  val- 


tains  of  the  Greater  Atlas,  culmi- 
nating in  Sheliah  (7,585  feet),  the 
highest  point  in  the  country. 

Algeria  has  no  navigable  rivers, 
though  there  are  numerous 
streams,  some  of  which  are  valu- 
able for  irrigation.  The  largest 
are  the  Sheliff  (430  miles),  Sey- 
bouse  (150  miles),  Kebir  or  Rum- 
mel  (140  miles),  and  Sahel  (100 
miles).  Two  remarkable  dried- 
up  river  courses  in  the  Algerian 
Sahara  are  the  Wadi  Igharghar,  a 
channel  750  miles  long,  running 
from  south  to  north,  and  its  trib- 
utary, the  Wadi  Miya.  There 
are  many  lakes,  most  of  them  im- 
pregnated with  salt,  and  exten- 
sive salt  marshes. 

The  climate  of  Algeria  belongs 
to  the  Mediterranean  zone,  char- 
acterized by  the  division  of  the 
year  into  two  seasons — the  rainy 
or  cold  season  (autumn,  winter, 
spring),  and  the  dry  and  hot  sea- 
son (summer).   The  climate  flue- 


Algeria 


163 


Algeria 


tuates  between  the  humidity  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  arid- 
ity of  the  Sahara:  on  the  coast, 
the  temperature  is  very  equable 
(see  Algiers),  while  the  interior 
and  Sahara  are  subject  to  great 
and  sudden  changes. 

The  flora  and  the  fauna,  like 
the  climate,  are  Mediterranean. 
The  trees  and  shrubs  are  chiefly 
evergreens,  the  olive  being  char- 
acteristic. The  forests  are  com- 
posed mainly  of  cork  trees,  ever- 
green oaks,  Aleppo  pines,  cedars, 
elms,  ashes,  maples,  and  cypress- 
es; the  steppes  are  covered  with 
alfa  or  esparto  grass  and  salt- 
loving  plants;  the  date  palm  is  the 
characteristic  tree  of  the  Sahara. 
Jackals,  hyenas,  Algerian  apes, 
wild  boars,  antelope,  red  deer, 
and  wild  goats  are  found.  Birds 
are  numerous,  and  scorpions 
abound  in  the  arid  regions. 

The  country's  mineral  wealth 
is  considerable.  There  are  cop- 
per, zinc,  iron,  lead,  antimony, 
and  mercury  mines,  and  petro- 
leum springs.  Minerals  of  eco- 
nomic importance  are  iron  ore  at 
Ain  Mokra  and  Beni-Saf,  and 
extensive  deposits  of  phosphate 
of  lime,  chiefly  in  the  Tebessa  dis- 
trict. There  are  numerous  hot 
mineral  springs,  as  at  Constantine, 
and  salt  is  a  valuable  product. 

Industry  and  Trade.  —  Al- 
geria is  essentially  an  agricultural 
country.  The  soil  is  highly 
fertile,  especially  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  coast,  and  the  sinking 
of  artesian  wells  has  made  possi- 
ble the  cultivation  of  large  tracts 
of  desert  land.  The  principal 
products  are  cereals  and  wines. 
In  1926,  3,7.53,121  acres  were 
devoted  to  wheat,  3,522,862  to 
barley,  and  628,672  to  oats;  and 
the  production  was  as  follows: 
wheat,  638,488  tons;  barley  493,- 
338  tons;  oats  126,170  tons.  The 
yield  of  wine  for  1926  was  184,- 
857,596  gallons.  Olives  are  cul- 
tivated extensively,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  olive  oil  is  an  impor- 
tant industry.  Cotton,  tobacco, 
flax,  silk,  maize,  potatoes,  beans, 
dira,  and  a  great  variety  of  fruit, 
including  the  orange,  date,  man- 
darin, citron,  banana,  pome- 
granate, almond,  and  fig,  are  also 
grown. 

Forests  cover  over  6,500,000 
acres,  mostly  under  state  or 
communal  protection.  The  chief 
items  of  economic  importance  are 
the  cork  trees,  which  in  1926 
covered  1,099,150  acres,  and  the 
soap  trees  of  the  coast  region. 
Much  of  the  mountain  land  un- 
suited  to  cultivation  is  devoted  to 
grazing,  and  large  tracts  of  forest 
land  are  leased  for  that  purpose. 
The  principal  domestic  animals 
are  mules,  asses,  horses,  sheep, 
camels,  and  goats. 

Fishing  is  of  importance,  5,534 
persons  having  been  engaged  in 
that  industry  in  1926.  Sardines, 


allaches,  anchovies,  sprats,  and 
tunny  are  caught. 

Mining  is  poorly  developed. 
In  1926  the  mineral  output  was 
1,136,929  tons  of  iron  ore,  64,748 
tons  of  zinc  ore,  23,569  tons  of 
lead,  857,247  tons  of  phosphate 
rock,  10,000  tons  of  coal,  and 
1,800  tons  of  petroleum. 

Manufactures  are  negligible. 
The  native  industry  (carpets, 
leather  work,  arms)  is  on  the  de- 
crease; while  that  of  the  Euro- 
peans is  limited  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  agricultural  produce  (flour 
mills  and  distilleries). 

The  trade  of  Algeria  has  in- 
creased steadily  since  the  French 
occupation.  The  total  foreign 
trade  of  1927  amounted  to  4,835,- 
868,000  francs,  imports,  and 
3,520,948  francs,  exports.  The 
greater  part  of  the  country's 
commerce  is  with  France,  fol- 
lowed in  order  by  Great  Britain, 
Morocco,  Spain,  Germany,  and 
the  United  States.  The  principal 
exports  and  their  values  for  1926 
were:  wine  1,315,730,000  francs; 
wheat,  108,164,000  francs;  sheep, 
112,450,000  francs;  tobacco  67,- 
686,000  francs;  cigarettes,  48,- 
599,000  francs;  figs,  229,997,000 
francs;  phosphates,  65,723,000 
francs;  eggs,  35,192,000  francs. 
Hides  and  skins,  wool,  olive  oil, 
zinc  ore,  and  esparto  grass  are 
other  important  items  of  export. 
Imports  are  largely  made  up  of 
manufactured  goods,  and  include 
textiles,  clothing,  machinery,  fur- 
niture, paper,  coffee,  sugar,  and 
vegetable  oil. 

The  railway  system  consists  of 
one  long  line,  parallel  to  the 
coast,  joining  the  large  towns  of 
the  Tell,  and  extending  as  far  as 
Tunis,  with  branch  lines  to  the 
seaport  towns,  and  southward 
toward  the  Sahara.  In  1926 
there  were  2,700  miles  of  railway 
open  for  traffic.  There  were 
3,500  miles  of  national  roads, 
8,121  miles  of  telegraph  lines, 
and  15,007  miles  of  urban  and 
interurban  telephone  lines.  There 
is  regular  air  service  between 
Oran  and  Morocco,  and  -Oran 
and  Spain. 

Peoples. —  The  population  of 
Algeria  in  1926  was  6,064.865,  of 
whom  more  than  872,000  were 
Europeans.  Of  the  native  in- 
habitants, the  Berbers  (q.v.)  pre- 
dominate. They  occupy  prin- 
cipally the  mountain  ranges  and 
the  southern  oases;  are  industri- 
ous and  independent;  Moham- 
medan in  religion,  but  not  prac- 
tising polygamy.  The  Arabs 
inhabit  the  plains  and  steppes, 
principally  in  the  western  portion 
of  the  country;  are  mostly 
nomadic  or  semi-nomadic;  Mo- 
hammedan, and  polygamous. 
There  are  some  Turks,  Negroes, 
and  Moors,  and  about  65,000 
Algerian  Jews. 

The  principal  towns,  with  their 


population  in  1926,  are:  Algiers, 
the  capital,  226,218;  Oran,  150,- 
301;  Constantine,  93,733;  Bona, 
51,895;  Sidibel-Abbes,  43,148; 
Tlemcen,  26,758;  Blida,  24,758; 
Philippeville,  29,242;  Setif,  26,- 
677;  Mascara,  28,033;  Mostaga- 
nem,  26,355. 

Government,  etc. — The  govern- 
ment and  administration  of  Al- 
geria are  centralized  at  Algiers 
under  the  authority  of  the  Gov- 
ernor-General, who  directs  all  de- 
partments except  the  non-Mus- 
sulman services  of  Justice,  Public 
Instruction  and  Worship,  and  the 
Treasury.  He  prepares  the  bud- 
get for  Algeria,  grants  concessions 
for  works,  and  contracts  loans  in 
the  name  of  the  colony.  Since 
1901  the  budget  has  been  distinct 
from  that  of  France.  It  is  voted 
by  the  three  financial  delegations 
— representing  respectively  the 
French  colonists,  the  French  tax 
payers  other  than  colonists,  and 
the  Mussulman  natives — and  by 
the  Superior  Council,  composed 
of  elected  members  and  of  high 
officials.  Associated  with  the 
Governor-General  is  the  Council 
of  Government,  an  advisory  body 
of  high  officials.  The  French 
chambers  alone  have  the  right  of 
legislating  for  Algeria. 

The  Algerian  Sahara,  compris- 
ing the  four  territories  of  Ain 
Sefra,  Ghardaia,  Touggourt,  and 
the  Saharan  Oases,  is  adminis- 
tered separately,  and  has  a  sep- 
arate budget,  but  is  under  the 
Governor- General,  who  repre- 
sents it  in  civil  affairs. 

Northern  Algeria  is  divided 
into  the  three  departments  of 
Oran,  Algiers,  and  Constantine, 
each  sending  one  senator  and  two 
deputies  to  the  French  National 
Assembly.  Each  department  is 
presided  over  by  a  prefect,  as- 
sisted by  a  genera!  council  repre- 
senting both  the  citizens  and  the 
Mohammedan  population. 

There  are  seventeen  courts  of 
first  instance,  commercial  courts, 
and  a  court  of  appeals  at  Algiers. 
Among  the  Mohammedans,  jus- 
tice is  administered  by  the  cadis 
(see  Cadi),  with  appeal  to  the 
French  courts. 

Education  is  supported  by  the 
state.  In  1926  there  were  1,302 
primary  and  infant  schools,  with 
110,031  pupils;  17  secondary 
schools,  with  9,773  pupils;  and 
5  normal  schools.  There  is  a 
university  at  Algiers  with  facul- 
ties of  law,  medicine,  pharmacy, 
science,  and  letters;  and  Moham- 
medan schools  for  higher  learning 
at  Algiers,  Tlemcen,  and  Con- 
stantine. 

The  military  troops  in  Algeria 
consist  of  one  French  army  corps, 
numbering  about  70,000. 

History. — The  history  of  Al- 
geria, the  ancient  Numidia,  is  one 
of  successive  conquests  forced  in 
turn  upon  the  old  Berber  stock. 

Vol,  I.— March  '29 


Algeria 


164 


Algol 


always  persisting  and  resisting. 
In  ancient  times  we  find  the  Nu- 
midians  settled  in  the  eastern 
part,  and  the  Moors  or  Mauri  in 
the  western.  Passing  under  Ro- 
man sway  at  the  close  of  the 
Punic  Wars  (145  B.C.),  the  coun- 
try attained  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity  and  civilization.  But 
its  conquest  by  the  Vandals 
(about  440  A.D,)  threw  it  back 
into  a  state  of  barbarism,  from 
which  it  only  partially  recovered 
after  the  Mohammedan  immi- 
grants had  established  their 
dominion  (about  650  a.d.). 

In  1492  the  Moors  and  Jews 
who  had  been  driven  out  of  Spain 
settled  in  Algeria,  and  revenged 
themselves  on  their  persecutors 
by  acts  of  piracy.  Ferdinand, 
the  Spanish  monarch,  attacked 
them,  and  took  the  city  of  Algiers 
in  1509.  In  1515  Horuk  Bar- 
barossa  (q.v.),  who  had  made 
himself  famous  as  a  Turkish  pi- 
rate chief,  drove  the  Spaniards 
out  of  the  country,  and  estab- 
lished that  system  of  military 
despotism  and  piracy  which  ter- 
rorized the  Christian  natives  of 
the  world  for  many  years  (see 
Barbary  Pirates).  Various  at- 
tempts of  the  European  powers 
to  check  the  operations  of  the 
pirates  failed,  and  no  effective 
action  was  taken  until  1815,  when 
a  United  States  fleet  under  Ste- 
phen Decatur  (q.v.)  compelled 
them  to  cease  depredations  upon 
American  vessels.  Subsequently 
a  British  fleet  bombarded  Al- 
giers, and  put  an  end  to  the  slave 
trade;  but  piracy  still  persisted 
until  1830.  In  that  year  the 
town  of  Algiers  capitulated  to  a 
French  fleet,  and  the  French  took 
possession  first  of  Algiers,  and 
then  of  Algeria. 

The  conquest  was  long,  diffi- 
cult, and  attended  by  numerous 
insurrections.  For  seventeen 
years  the  Arabs  maintained  a 
vigorous  resistance,  and  after 
that  the  Berbers  continued  the 
struggle.  The  important  stages 
in  the  conquest  were  the  conflicts 
between  Marshal  Bugeaud  and 
Abd-el-Kader,  ending  in  the  sub- 
mission of  the  latter  in  1847;  the 
conquest  of  Great  Kabylia  in 
1851  and  1856  -7;  and  the  rising 
of  1871.  In  that  year  the  present 
civil  government  was  organized. 
In  1901  the  conquest  of  the 
French  Algerine  Sahara  was  com- 
pleted. Since  that  time  Algeria 
has  developed  and  prospered  as 
a  general  thing.  Trade  has  in- 
creased, railroads  have  been  built 
and  conditions  generally  have  im- 
proved. During  the  Great  War 
although  German  and  Turkish 
propaganda  was  widespread,  nev- 
ertheless the  mass  of  the  natives 
were  loyal  to  France  and  gave 
generously  of  men  and  food  stuffs, 
nearly  300,000  Algerian  natives 
having  aided  in  the  War. 

Vol.  I. — March  '29 


Bibliography. — Consult  Shoe- 
maker's Islam  Lands  (1910) ;  J.  F. 
Fraser's  Land  of  Veiled  Women 
(1911);  J.  C.  Hyam's  Illustrated 
Guide    to   Algiers    and  Algeria 

(1911)  ;  R.  Humphreys'  Algiers, 
the  Sahara,  and  the  Nile  (1912); 
D.  Pember's  Aspects  of  Algeria 

(1912)  ;  C.  Thomas-Stanford's 
About  Algeria,  Algiers,  Tlemcen, 
Constantine,  Biskra,  Timgad 
(1912);  M.  D.  Stott's  Real  Al- 
geria (1914). 

Algerine  War.  See  Barbary 
Pirates. 

Alghero,  al-ga'ro,  seaport  and 
episcopal  see,  on  the  northwest- 
ern coast  of  Sardinia;  22  miles 
southwest  of  Sassari.  It  has  a 
cathedral  and  many  old  houses. 
Coral  fishing  is  carried  on;  and 
wine  and  olives  are  produced. 
Pop.  10,500. 

Algiers,  al-jerz'  (French  Alger; 
Arabian,  Al-jez-air,  'the  islands'), 
capital  and  chief  port  of  Algeria, 
is  situated  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast,  500  miles  from  Marseilles, 
France.  It  stands  on  the  seaward 
slope  of  high  hills,  and  on  the 
shores  of  a  large  semi-circular 
bay.  The  apex  is  formed  by  the 
Kasbah,  the  ancient  fortress  of 
the  deys  of  Algiers,  which  is  500 
feet  above  the  sea  level,  and  com- 
mands a  view  of  the  whole  town. 
The  present  city  is  divided  into 
two  parts — the  Old  or  High  Town 
and  the  New  or  Low  Town.  The 
latter  differs  but  little  from  Euro- 
pean cities,  and  consists  almost 
entirely  of  wharfs,  warehouses, 
government  houses,  squares,  and 
streets,  principally  built  and  in- 
habited by  the  French.  The 
streets  are  regular,  spacious,  and 
elegant,  the  buildings  of  modern 
design  and  construction.  The 
Old  Town  is  almost  wholly  Moor- 
ish. The  streets  are  narrow 
and  irregular,  and  the  houses  flat- 
roofed,  whitewashed  structures 
crowded  together. 

Algiers  is  the  military  and  civil 
headquarters  of  Algeria,  and  con- 
tains the  supreme  court  of  justice, 
chamber  and  tribunal  of  com- 
merce, Library,  MuvSeum  of  Mus- 
sulman art.  College  (with  courses 
in  law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  sci- 
ence, and  letters'),  and  a  number 
of  mosques. 

With  its  excellent  climate — 
mean  temperature,  64.3°  f.  ;  Jan- 
uary, 54.6°  F.;  August,  78°  F.— 
Algiers  has  become  a  favorite 
winter  resort  for  Europeans,  es- 
pecially those  afflicted  with  chest 
diseases.  The  city  has  two  large 
suburbs,  St.  Eugene  in  the  north 
and  Mustapha  in  the  south. 
Mustapha  Superieur  is  the  resi- 
dential quarter  for  Europeans. 

Algiers  has  railway  connection 
with  Oran,  Constantine,  Tunis, 
and  other  cities;  the  port  has  been 
greatly  improved  by  the  French, 
and  is  safe  and  spacious.  With 
these  facilities  the  city  is  an 


important  trade  centre  and  coal- 
ing station,  its  annual  shipping 
amounting  to  7,000,000  tons — 
chiefly  with  France.  Pop.  (1926) 
226,218. 

During  the  Turkish  period  Al- 
giers was  the  headquarters  of 
piracy  and  slave  dealing.  It  was 
bombarded  by  Duquesne  in  1682, 
by  Lord  Exmouth  in  1816,  and 
captured  by  the  French  in  1830. 
See  Algeria.  Consult  Cook's 
Practical  Guide  to  Algiers,  Algeria, 
and  Tunis. 

Algin,  al'jin,  or  Alginic  Acid, 
a  substance  resembling  albumin, 
but  not  coagulated  by  heat,  is  ob- 
tained from  seaweed,  chiefly  the 
genera  Fucus  and  Laminaria,  as 
a  precipitate  after  boiling  with 
sodium  carbonate  and  adding  hy- 
drochloric acid.  It  is  used  as  a 
dressing  for  fabrics,  and  as  a 
thickening  for  soups  and  jellies. 

Algoa  Bay,  al-go'a,  an  open 
bay  or  roadstead  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  southern  coast  of 
Africa,  southeast  of  Cape  Colony, 
with  a  sheltered  anchorage  except 
toward  the  southeast.  Port  Eliz- 
abeth (q.v.)  lies  in  the  southwest 
angle  of  the  bay,  the  western  horn 
of  which  is  Cape  Recife  (q.v.). 

AFgol,  (S  Persei,was  catalogued 
by  Ptolemy  as  the  Lucida  of  the 
Gorgon.  It  is  the  model  'eclipse 
star,'  varying  in  brightness  from 
2.3  to  3.5  magnitude  in  a  period 


Algol 


of  2  days  20  hours  49  minutes, 
through  the  interpositions  of  a  re- 
volving dark  satellite.  The  light 
changes  of  Algol,  noticed  by 
Montanari  in  1669,  were  method- 
ically observed  and  explained  by 
Goodricke  in  1783;  and  his  occul- 
tation  hypothesis,  discussed  by 
Pickering  in  1880,  was  spectro- 
scopically  verified  by  Vogel  in 
1889.  An  inequality  in  the  time- 
keeping of  the  pair,  compensated 
after  about  140  years,  is  attrib- 
uted by  Dr.  Chandler  to  its  revo- 
lution round  an  obscure  primary 
in  an  orbit  crossed  by  light  in  152 
minutes.  The  opposite  devia- 
tions of  the  eclipses  from  their 
calculated  times  would,  on  this 
supposition,  be  due  to  periodical 
alterations  in  the  distance  from 
the  earth  of  the  eclipsed  body. 
M.  Tisserand,  on  the  other  hand, 


Algoma 


165 


Alhambra 


accounted  for  the  disturbance  by 
the  spheroidal  shape  of  both  the 
bright  star  and  its  companion — 
the  diameter  of  the  first  named 
fieing  about  1,000,000  miles,  and 
the  latter  830,000  miles;  and  their 
joint  mass  seems  to  be  just  two- 
thirds  that  of  the  sun.  Yet  Algol 
must  possess  far  more  than  the 
solar  luminosity.  It  gives  a  heli- 
um spectrum,  and  is  now  purely 
white.  Al-Sufi  classed  it  in  the 
tenth  century  as  a  red  star.  It  is 
approaching  the  sun  at  a  rate  of 
1  mile  a  second. 

Algo'ma,  mining  district. 
Northwest  Ontario,  Canada, 
fronting  Lakes  Huron  and  Supe- 
rior. Copper,  silver,  and  nickel 
abound.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  along 
its  southern  margin.  The  district 
is  now  divided  into  the  provinces 
of  East  Algoma — area,  49,115 
square  miles;  pop.  (1911)  44,628 
— and  West  Algoma — area,  22,263 
square  miles;  pop.  (1911)  28,752. 

Algoma,  city,  Kewaunee  coun- 
ty, Wisconsin,  on  Lake  Michigan, 
and  the  Ahnapee  and  Western 
Railroad;  35  miles  east  of  Green 
Bay.  It  was  formerly  called  Ah- 
napee. Pop.  (1900)  1,738;  (1910) 
2,082. 

Algo'na,  city,  Iowa,  county 
seat  of  Kossuth  county,  on  the 
Des  Moines  River,  and  the  Chi- 
cago and  Northwestern,  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul, 
and  the  Minneapolis  and  St. 
Louis  Railroads;  105  miles  north- 
west of  Des  Moines.  Industries 
are  machine  shops,  foundries,  and 
the  manufacture  of  bricks,  tiles, 
wagons,  and  creamery  supplies. 
Pop.  (1900)  2,911;  (1910)  2,908. 

Algon'kian  Sys'tem,  in  geol- 
ogy, comprising  the  earliest  of  the 
sedimentary  rocks,  lies  below  the 
Cambrian  formation  and  above 
the  Archaean  System  (q.  v.) .  With 
the  latter  it  is  sometimes  classi- 
fied as  the  pre-Cambrian.  TheAl- 
gonkian  consists  of  slates,  quartz- 
ites,  gneisses,  and  other  rocks. 
This  stratum  is  often  scarcely  sep- 
arable from  that  below  it,  owing 
to  the  degree  to  which  metamorph- 
ism  has  proceeded.  Near  the 
Great  Lakes  of  North  America  the 
Algonkian  has  been  still  .further 
metamorphized  through  the  in- 
trusion of  great  masses  of  igneous 
rocks,  and  here  occur  some  of  the 
greatest  iron  and  copper  deposits 
of  the  world.    See  Geology. 

Algonquin,  a  prehistoric  (Ple- 
istocene) basin  in  North  America, 
which  occupied  the  area  of  the 
present  Great  Lakes  north  of  Lake 
Erie. 

Algon'quins,  a  name  applied 
originally  to  a  small  tribe  of 
American  Indians  in  the  province 
of  Quebec;  later  used  to  include 
other  tribes  speaking  the  same 
language;  and  now  used  also  to 
indicate  one  of  the  main  linguistic 
divisions  of  the  North  American 
Indians. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


The  Algonquin  tribes  at  one 
time  extended  from  Newfound- 
land to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  from  Hudson  Bay  to  the  Car- 
olinas — with  the  exception  of  the 
area  occupied  by  the  Iroquois. 
The  Eastern  tribes  early  came  into 
conflict  with  the  European  set- 
tlers on  the  Atlantic  Coast,  and 
after  a  long  struggle  were  van- 
quished, and  their  tribal  organi- 
zation broken  up.  Some  fled  to 
Canada,  where  they  allied  them- 
selves with  the  French;  others 
retired  to  the  Ohio  Valley,  where 
they  made  a  last  desperate  stand 
against  the  encroachments  of  the 
white  settlers  (1780-95).  After 
a  decisive  defeat  by  Gen.  An- 
thony Wayne  (q.  V.)  in  1794,  they 
ceded  the  first  land  west  of  the 
Ohio  to  the  U.  S.  Government 
(1795).  Subsequent  treaties  de- 
prived them  of  the  remainder  of 
the  region,  and  forced  them  still 
farther  west.  In  1910  the  remain- 
ing Indians  of  Algonquin  stock 
numbered  about  82,000,  of  whom 
43,000  were  in  the  United  States, 
and  the  rest  in  Canada. 

Linguistically,  the  Algonquins 
fall  into  four  main  divisions:  the 
Blackfeet,  the  Arapahoes,  the 
Cheyennes,  and  the  Eastern-Cen- 
tral tribes,  including  Crees,  Mon- 
tagnais,  Sauks,  Foxes,  Kickapoos, 
Shawnees,  Ojibways,  Pottawata- 
mies,  Ottawas,  Algonquins,  Peo- 
rias,  Naticks,  Delawares,  Mic- 
macs,  Malecites,  Passamaquod- 
dies,  Penobscots,  and  Abenakis. 

See  separate  articles  on  the  va- 
rious tribes.  Consult  T.  Michel- 
son's  'Classification  of  Algonquin 
Tribes'  (Twenty-Eighth  Annual 
Report  of  the  American  Bureau  of 
Ethnology) ;  Hodge's  Handbook 
of  American  Indians  (1907). 

Al'gorism,  or  Algorithm,  the 
Arabic  system  of  numbers;  a 
name  derived  from  'Al-Kharizmi,' 
the  agnomen  of  Abu  Jafar  Mo- 
hammed, a  mathematician  of  the 
ninth  century  a.d. 

Alguazil,  al-gwa-thel'  (Sp.  al- 
guacil),  an  inferior  officer  of  jus- 
tice in  Spain,  intrusted  with  the 
duty  of  seeing  the  decision  of  a 
judge  put  into  execution.  A  spe- 
cial class,  called  alguaciles  may- 
ores,  is  in  different  municipalities 
either  hereditary  or  elective; 
while  the  alguaciles  menores  are 
ordinary  officers  attached  to  a 
court  of  justice. 

Alhagt,  al-ha'ji,  Arabic  for  a  ge- 
nus of  trees  from  which  a  species 
of  manna  (q.  v.)  exudes. 

Al- Hakim  II.,  al-ha'kim,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Abdur-Rahman 
III.  as  calif  of  Cordova  (901-70). 
During  his  reign  the  Moors  in 
Spain  were  at  the  height  of  their 
power,  and  Al-Hakim  is  remem- 
bered for  his  encouragement  of 
the  arts  and  sciences.  His  library 
is  said  to  have  contained  600,000 
volumes,  afterward  partitioned 
among  various  colleges  and  the 
Academy  of  Cordova. 


Al-Hakim  Ibn  Ot'to  (died  c. 
780),  a  false  prophet  who  came  to 
Merv,  the  capital  of  Khorassan, 
in  774.  He  was  surnamed  Al- 
Mokanna,  'the  Veiled  One,'  be- 
cause he  always  wore  a  mask  in 
public.  Moore  made  him  the 
subject  of  his  poem,  Mokanna,  or 
the  Veiled  Prophet  of  Khorassan. 

Alhama,  al-a'ma  (Arabic  'bath'), 
town,  province  Murcia,  Spain;  19 
miles  southwest  of  Murcia.  The 
town  lies  at  the  foot  of  a  cliff 
crowned  by  a  Moorish  castle.  It 
has  famous  sulphur  springs,  fre- 
quented from  ancient  times.  Pop. 
9,000. 

Alhama  (Arabic,  Al  Ham- 
mam),  town,  province  Granada, 
Spain;  22  miles  southwest  of 
Granada.  It  is  attractively  sit- 
uated; is  a  resort  for  invalids; 
and  has  been  famed  for  its  medic- 
inal springs  since  Roman  times. 
The  upper  town  was  damaged  by 
an  earthquake  in  1884.  Pop. 
8,000. 

Alham'bra  (Arabic,  Kilaat  el- 
Hamara,  'Red  Castle'),  the  pal- 
ace of  the  Moorish  kings  of 
Granada,  was  erected  between  the 
years  1248 and  1350.  TheEmper- 
or  Charles  v.  (1515-56)  destroyed 
part  of  it,  in  order  to  build  a 
newer  palace,  and  PhiHp  v.  (1700- 
46)  further  defaced  it.  In  1812 
the  French  under  Sebastiani 
blew  up  eight  of  the  towers,  and 
an  earthquake  in  1821  did  seri- 
ous damage.  Its  restoration  was 
commenced  by  Queen  Isabella  in 
1862,  but  it  was  again  damaged 
by  fire  in  1890,  and  a  landslide  in 
September,  1915,  caused  its  sup- 
porting wall  to  collapse.  Even  in 
its  present  condition,  it  is  the  most 
characteristic  example  of  Moorish 
architecture  and  ornamentation 
in  Spain. 

The  Alhambra  stands  on  a  lofty 
terrace,  enclosed  by  a  strong  wall 
of  red  brick,  flanked  by  thirteen 
towers.  The  parts  of  the  palace 
still  standing  lie  round  two  rect- 
angular courts — the  Court  of  the 
Myrtles  or  of  the  Fishpond,  and 
the  Court  of  the  Lions;  in  the 
centre  of  the  latter  being  the 
celebrated  Fountain  of  the  Lions, 
a  magnificent  alabaster  basin  sup- 
ported by  twelve  lions  in  white 
marble.  The  Court  of  the  Lions 
is  surrounded  by  arcades  resting 
on  white  marble  pillars.  The 
portieres,  halls,  and  small  gar- 
dens are  of  great  beauty.  The 
characteristic  gloomy  Moorish 
exterior  gives  place  in  the  interior 
to  gorgeous  coloring,  to  the  finest 
carving  in  stone,  to  palm-like 
marble  pillars,  and  to  elaborate 
arabesque  scroll  work. 

The  other  chief  buildings  are 
the  ruined  Alcazaba  {i.e.,  the 
Citadel),  which  is  entirely  sep- 
arate from  the  palace  proper; 
the  Hall  of  the  Ambassadors,  the 
Hall  of  the  Abencerrages,  and  the 
Hall  of  the  Two  Sisters,  which  is 
connected  with  the  baths.  The 


Alhambra 


166 


Ali  Baba 


South  Kensington  Museum  con- 
tains a  complete  series  of  mod- 
els of  the  Alhambra.  See  Ara- 
besque. Consult  Washington 
Irving's  Alhambra;  Jones'  Plans, 
Elevations,  and  Details  of  the  Al- 
hambra; Murphy's  Arabian  An- 
tiquities of  Spain;  Calvert's  The 
Alhambra  (1907). 

Alhambra,  city,  Los  Angeles 
county,  California,  on  the  South- 
ern Pacific  Railroad;  7  miles 
northeast  of  Los  Angeles  city. 
It  contains  the  mission  church  of 


and  he  is  credited  with  the  first 
suggestion  of  spectacles.  Kepler 
made  considerable  use  of  his  writ- 
ings. 

Alhondiga  de  Granaditas,  form- 
erly a  fortified  storehouse,  now  the 
local  prison  at  Guanajuato,  Mex- 
ico, was  the  scene  of  the  first  bat- 
tle of  the  revolution  against  Spain 
(1810).  Here  the  local  govern- 
ment officials  took  refuge,  and 
were  captured,  after  a  vigorous 
defence,  by  Hidalgo  y  Costilla  (q. 
v.),  leader  of  the  insurgents. 


schism  between  the  Shiites  and 
the  vSunnites  (qq.  v.).  He  was 
succeeded,  on  his  assassination, 
by  his  son  Hassan. 

Aliaga,  a-le-a'ga,  pueblo,  Nue- 
va  Ecija  province,  Luzon,  Philip- 
pines; 15  miles  north  of  San  Isi- 
dro.  Five  important  roads  con- 
verge here.    Pop.  13,000. 

A'lias,  in  common  usage,  that 
part  of  an  indictment  describing 
a  prisoner  who  goes  under  one  or 
more  feigned  names,  from  the 
Latin  words  formerly  UvSed  in  the 


^^^^ 

Alhambra. — The  Famous  Court  of  the  Lions. 

The  main  court  of  ihc  Alhambra  takes  its  name  from  the  twelve  lions  that  surround  the  fountain  in  its  centre.  The  basin  of  the 
fountain  is  of  alabaster,  and  the  lions  are  of  white  marble.  The  Court  of  the  Lions  is  116  by  66  feet,  and  is  surrounded  by  arcades 
resting  on  white  marble  pillars. 


San  Gabriel  (founded  1771).  The 
city  is  a  residential  place.  Pop. 
(1900)  808;  (1910)  5,021. 

Alhaurin  el  Grande,  al-ow- 
ren'  el  griin'da,  town,  Andalusia, 
Spain;  14  miles  southwest  of 
Malaga.  It  has  sulphur  baths. 
There  are  ruins  of  Arab  fortifica- 
tions and  of  a  Roman  aqueduct. 
Pop.  8,000. 

Al-Hazan,  al-ha'zen,  or  Al- 
HAZEN  (905-1039),  Arab  astron- 
omer and  optician,  was  a  native 
of  Bassora,  but  afterward  settled 
in  Cairo.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
optics,  which  was  translated  into 
Latin,  and  published  at  Basel  in 
1572,  under  the  title  Oplicce  The- 
saurus. His  account  of  the  power 
of  lenses  is  the  earliest  known, 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


Alhuccmas,  al-oo-tha'mas,  a 
small  island  belonging  to  Spain, ^ 
in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  5  miles' 
southeast  of  Cape  Morro,  on  the 
Moroccan  coast;  lat.  35°  15'  N., 
long.  3°  54'  w.  It  is  fortified  and 
contains  a  prison. 

Ali,  ii'le  (d.  661),  cousin  and 
son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  was 
the  first  to  believe  in  the  mission 
of  the  Prophet,  whom  he  served 
as  an  intrepid  soldier  and  able 
vicegerent.  He  married  Fati- 
ma,  Mohammed's  daughter,  and 
became  the  fourth  calif  (q.  v.), 
succeeding  Othman  (656).  His 
succession  was  bitterly  opposed 
by  Ayeshah,  the  young  widow 
of  Mohammed,  and  her  follow- 
ers, and  was  the  occasion  of  the 


indictment,  alias  dictus  ('other- 
wise called'). 

All  Baba,  a'le  ba'ba,  the  hero 
of  the  story  of  'Ali  Baba  and  the 
Forty  Thieves'  in  the  Arabian 
Nights  Entertainments  (q.  v.).  A 
poor  woodcutter,  hiding  in  a  tree 
from  a  band  of  robbers,  he  over- 
hears the  magic  formula,  'Open, 
Sesame!'  which  opens  the  door  of 
their  cave.  In  the  absence  of  the 
robbers  he  repeats  the  words,  en- 
ters the  cave,  loads  his  asses  with 
treasure,  and  returns  home.  His 
brother  Cassim,  learning  of  his 
good  fortune,  makes  a  similar 
venture.  He  gains  admission  to 
the  cave ;  but,  forgetting  the  magic 
spell,  is  discovered  and  killed  by 
the  thieves.    Learning  that  Ali 


ONE  OF  THE  TOWER  GATEWAYS  OF  THE  ALHAMBRA. 

La  Puerta  Judiciaria,  or  'The  Gate  of  the  Law,'  Built  in  1348. 
Vol.  L— Mar.  '16  Vol.  L— at  Page  166 


AU  Bey 


166  A 


Allen 


Baba  knows  their  secret,  they  at- 
tempt to  destroy  him  also,  but 
are  outwitted  and  themselves 
slain  by  Morgiana,  a  slave  in  Ali 
Baba's  household. 

Ali  Bey,  a'le  ba  (1728-73),  a 
freed  Caucasian  slave  in  Egypt, 
who  gained  a  large  following 
among  the  Mamelukes  (q.v.). 
Having  destroyed  his  rivals,  he 
assumed  the  title  of  sultan  and 
renounced  the  suzerainty  of  the 
Porte  (1768).  He  reduced  Syria 
and  the  west  of  Arabia  to  his  rule; 
but  he  was  defeated  and  wounded 
in  battle  near  Cairo,  and  died 
shortly  afterward  (April,  1773). 

Al'ibi  (Latin  'elsewhere'),  a 
defence  resorted  to  in  criminal 
prosecutions  when  the  accused 
tenders  evidence  that  he  was  else- 
where at  the  time  the  offence  was 
committed. 

Alicante,  a-li-kan'ta,  province. 
Southeastern  Spain,  part  of  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Valencia, 
area,  2,185  square  miles.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  fertile  districts 
of  Spain,  producing  esparto  grass, 
rice,  sugar  cane,  and  fruits.  The 
wine  of  Alicante  is  highly  es- 
teemed. Lead  is  mined.  Pop. 
(est.  1926)  529,934. 

Alicante,  capital  and  chief  city 
of  Alicante  province,  Spain,  on  a 
small  bay  of  the  Mediterranean. 
It  lies  partly  on  the  side  of  a  hill, 
which  is  crowned  by  the  Castle 
of  Santa  Barbara.  The  lower 
part  of  the  city  is  modern  and 
well  built,  and  has  fine  squares, 
public  gardens,  and  promenades. 
Among  the  notable  buildings  are 
the  Bishop's  Palace,  two  nun- 
neries, a  number  of  churches,  and 
the  City  Library  and  Picture 
Gallery.  The  streets  of  the  upper 
section  are  narrow  and  crowded. 

Alicante  is  strongly  fortified, 
and  has  an  excellent  harbor,  pro- 
tected by  two  moles.  It  ranks 
third  among  the  seaports  of 
Spain,  with  export  trade  in  wines, 
raisins,  tropical  fruits,  vegetables, 
oil,  licorice,  and  esparto  grass. 
It  has  large  tobacco  manufac- 
tures. The  climate  is  hot  in  sum- 
mer and  mild  in  winter,  and  the 
city  has  become  a  popular  resort 
for  invalids. 

Alicante  was  the  Roman  Lu- 
cenlum.  In  718  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Moors,  who  were  expelled 
in  1304.  It  suffered  a  siege  by 
the  French  in  1709,  and  by  the 
Federalists  of  Cartagena  in  1873. 
Pop.  (est.  1926)  67,775. 

Alicata,  a'le-ka'ta.    See  Li- 

CATA. 

Al'ice,  city,  Texas,  county  seat 
of  Jim  Wells  County,  on  San  Fer- 
nando Creek,  and  the  Southern 
Pacific  and  the  Texas  Mexican 
Railroads;  40  miles  west  of  Cor- 
pus Christi.  It  has  cotton  gins 
and  bottling  works.  Pop.  (1910) 
2,136;  (1920)  1,880. 

Alice  Maude  Mary,  Princess 
(1843-78).  grand  duchess  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  third  child 


of  Queen  Victoria  (q.v.).  In 
1862  she  married  Prince  Louis  of 
Hesse.  She  took  a  great  interest 
in  art,  literature,  and  philan- 
thropy and  was  much  beloved  by 
the  English  people. 

Alicudi,  a-li-koo'de,  or  Ali- 
CURI  (ancient  Ericusa),  the  most 
westerly  of  the  Lipari  Islands 
(q.v.). 

Aliculuf,  ii'le-koo-loof,  or  Ali- 
KULUF,  a  South  American  tribe, 
inhabiting  the  central  part  of  Ti- 
erra  del  Fuego.  They  are  of  rude 
and  primitive  habits,  but  they 
have  considerable  ingenuity  in 
making  various  weapons  and 
utensils  used  in  hunting  and  fish- 
ing. 

Alien,  al'y^n,  a  person  resident 
in  a  country  to  which  he  does  not 
owe  allegiance  (q.v.)  as  a  subject 
or  citizen.  Aliens  were  formerly 
subject  to  many  legal  disabilities, 
but  the  tendency  of  modern  times 
is  to  place  them  on  the  same  foot- 
ing as  citizens  of  the  state  in 
which  they  are  domiciled,  except 
in  the  exercise  of  political  rights. 

The  status  of  the  alien  is  usu- 
ally fixed  by  treaties  and  inter- 
national custom  and  by  the  law 
of  the  land  in  which  he  is  a  resi- 
dent. In  the  United  States,  his 
standing  is  regulated  by  statutes 
of  the  various  States,  subject  to 
treaties  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment with  foreign  powers.  In 
Great  Britain  his  status  is  laid 
down  by  the  Nationality  and  Sta- 
tus of  Aliens  Act  of  1914. 

Practically  all  civilized  nations 
grant  the  right  of  residence  and 
travel  to  unobjectionable  for- 
eigners, and  accord  to  them  a 
wide  range  of  public  and  private 
rights.  In  no  case,  however,  is 
a  country  bound  to  extend  its 
hospitality  to  an  alien,  and  he 
may  at  any  time  be  deported  or 
refused  admission,  the  grounds 
for  his  exclusion  or  deportation 
being  regulated  by  the  public  in- 
terests of  the  nation  concerned. 
When  an  alien  is  deported,  the 
state  to  which  he  belongs  is 
bound  to  receive  him. 

The  public  rights  usually  grant- 
ed to  aliens  include:  individual 
liberty;  security  of  person  and 
property;  liberty  of  conscience 
and  worship;  freedom  of  the 
press,  within  certain  limits;  free- 
dom of  association  and  assembly, 
though  this  may  be  denied  if  for 
political  purposes;  liberty  to  car- 
ry on  commerce  and  trade,  with 
certain  exceptions;  instruction  in 
the  public  schools.  The  private 
rights  of  aliens  include,  as  a  rule, 
the  ownership  of  real  property, 
but  this  is  denied  in  some  States 
of  the  United  States.  The  right 
to  the  ownership  and  disposal  of 
personal  property  is  practically 
never  denied;  and  rights  in  indus- 
trial and  literary  property  are 
protected  by  international  trea- 
ties or  conventions  (see  Patent; 
Trade  Marks). 


Aliens  may  not,  as  a  rule,  ex- 
ercise the  franchise,  occupy  pub- 
lic office,  or  practise  professions 
requiring  an  oath  of  allegiance, 
such  as  that  of  judge  or  attorney- 
at-law;  and  in  some  States  of 
the  United  States  their  employ- 
ment on  public  works  is  restrict- 
ed. They  are  not  usually  subject 
to  military  duty,  or  to  extraor- 
dinary taxes  and  military  bur- 
dens. They  owe  local  allegiance 
to  the  country  wherein  they  re- 
side, are  liable  to  ordinary  taxa- 
tion, and  are  fully  subject  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  civil  and  crimi- 
nal courts.  An  alien  becomes  a 
citizen  or  subject  by  Naturaliza- 
tion (see  Naturalization). 

Alien  Enemies. — When  a  state 
of  war  exists  between  the  country 
in  which  an  alien  resides  and  that 
to  which  he  owes  allegiance,  he 
becomes  an  alien  enemy,  and  his 
rights  and  privileges  are  greatly 
restricted,  though,  generally 
speaking,  he  is  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  country  as  long  as  he  con- 
ducts himself  as  a  friend. 

Following  the  entrance  of  the 
United  States  into  the  Great 
World  War  in  April,  1917,  meas- 
ures were  taken  by  the  Federal 
Government  to  regulate  the  ac- 
tivities of  alien  enemies  within  its 
jurisdiction.  By  presidential  proc- 
lamation of  April  6,  alien  ene- 
mies were  forbidden  to  have  in 
their  possession  any  firearms, 
ammunition,  explosives,  wireless 
apparatus  or  parts  thereof;  to 
approach  within  one-half  mile  of 
any  fort,  camp,  arsenal,  aircraft 
station,  naval  vessel,  navy  yard, 
or  munitions  factory;  to  write, 
print,  or  publish  any  attack  upon 
the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  Congress,  or  any  person 
in  the  service  of  the  United  States, 
or  upon  any  measure  of  the  Gov- 
ernment; to  abet  any  hostile  acts 
against  the  United  States,  or  to 
give  its  enemies  information,  aid 
or  comfort,  or  to  leave  or  enter 
the  United  States  except  under 
restrictions  to  be  prescribed  by 
the  President.  A  supplementary 
proclamation  of  Nov.  16,  1917, 
set  forth  in  detail  further  restric- 
tions among  which  it  was  re- 
quired of  them  that  they  be  regis- 
tered, that  they  report  at  certain 
intervals  to  specified  authorities, 
and  that  they  obtain  Government 
consent  to  travel  or  change  their 
occupations.  During  the  week  of 
February  4,  1918,  the  registra- 
tion of  unnaturalized  German 
men  in  the  United  States  was 
carried  on  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Department  of  Justice,  the 
penalty  for  wilful  disobedience  of 
regulations  being  internment  for 
the  period  of  the  war. 

On  April  19,  1918,  following  an 
Act  of  Congress  extending  the 
President's  authority  in  the  case 
of  aliens  resident  in  the  United 
States,  the  President  issued  a 
proclamation  relating  to  'all  na- 

VOL.  I. — March  '29 


Alien 


166  B 


Alien 


.tives,  citizens,  denizens,  or  sub- 
jects, of  Germany  or  Austria- 
Hungary,  of  the  age  of  fourteen 
years  and  upwards,'  making 
women,  as  well  as  men,  subject  to 
the  regulations  of  the  proclama- 
tion of  November,  1917.  Regis- 
tration of  women  enemy  aliens 
took  place  during  the  week  of 
June  10,  1918.  With  respect  to 
both  men  and  women  it  was  re- 
quired that  they  should  preserve 
the  peace  towards  the  United 
States,  refrain  from  crime  against 
the  public  safety,  from  actual  hos- 
tility, and  from  giving  informa- 
tion, aid,  or  comfort  to  the 
enemies  of  the  United  States; 
and  that  they  should  comply  with 
all  regulations  promulgated  by 
the  President.  As  long  as  they  so 
conducted  themselves,  'they 
should  be  undisturbed  in  the 
peaceful  pursuit  of  their  lives  and 
occupations,  and  should  be  ac- 
corded the  consideration  due  to 
all  peaceful  and  law-abiding  per- 
sons, except  in  so  far  as  restric- 
tions might  be  necessary  for  their 
own  protection  and  for  the  safety 
of  the  United  States.' 

Any  German  or  Austrian  sub- 
jects, however,  not  conducting 
themselves  as  prescribed,  were- li- 
able in  addition  to  all  other  pen- 
alties under  the  law,  to  restraint, 
or  to  give  security,  or. to  remove 
and  depart  from  the  United 
States  as  prescribed  in  the  Re- 
vised Statutes  and  in  regulations, 
promulgated  by  the  President. 

No  alien  (enemy  alien  or  other) 
in  the  United  States  could  be- 
come naturalized  while  the  war 
continued,  even  though  he  had 
taken  out  first  papers  in  this 
country,  or  though  he  had  be- 
come partially  or  completely 
naturalized  in  some  country 
other  than  the  United  States. 

Internment  of  Enemy  Aliens. — 
Undesirable  aliens  might  be  in- 
terned for  the  period  of  the  war. 
These  included  prisoners  of  war — 
including  members  of  the  enemy 
military  and  naval  forces,  and 
officers  and  seamen  of  enemy 
merchant  vessels — and  civilians 
suspected  or  found  guilty  of  se- 
ditious activities,  as  interference 
with  the  military  preparations  of 
the  Government  or  the  circula- 
tion of  pro-German  propaganda. 
The  treatment  of  such  prisoners 
was  governed  by  the  terms  of  the 
Hague  agreement.  They  might 
not  be  compelled  to  work  at  any- 
thing contributing  to  the  Gov- 
ernment's military  activities; 
they  were  permitted  to  communi- 
cate with  their  friends;  and  if 
they  worked  they  were  paid 
wages  as  officers  and  soldiers  of 
the  same  grade. 

There  were  three  principal  in- 
ternment camps  located  at  Hot 
Springs,  N.  C.,  and  at  F'orts  Mc- 
Pherson  and  Oglethorpe,  Ga. 
The  first  of  these  was  a  large  hotel 
taken  over  by  the  Government, 


while  the  others  were  similar  to 
the  cantonments  (q.v.)  occupied 
by  the  U.  S.  troops  in  training. 
The  prisoners  were  allowed  con- 
siderable liberty  in  developing 
their  own  mode  of  life  and  were 
provided  with  everything  re- 
quired for  their  general  comfort 
and  amusement.  Up  to  August, 
1918,  between  3,500  and  4,000 
enemy  aliens  had  been  interned 
in  the  United  States. 

Alien  Property. — In  order  to 
prevent  the  property  of  alien  ene- 
mies from  being  used  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  enemy  or  in  any  way 
detrimental  to  the  best  interests 
of  the  United  States,  the  Trading 
with  the  Enemy  Act  (q.v.), 
approved  Oct.  6,  1917,  provided 
for  the  appointment  of  an  Alien 
Property  Custodian  with  power 
to  receive  all  money  and  property 
in  the  United  States  due  or  be- 
longing to  any  enemy  or  ally  of 
the  enemy,  as  defined  by  the  act, 
and  'to  hold,  administer,  and  ac- 
count for  the  same  under  the 
general  direction  of  the  President. 

Under  subsequent  proclama- 
tions the  authority  of  the  Cus- 
todian was  defined  as  applied  to 
the  property  of  all  interned  or 
imprisoned  subjects  of  enemy 
nations,  whether  interned  or  im- 
prisoned by  the  United  States 
or  its  allies;  to  the  property  in 
the  United  States  of  persons  resi- 
dent within  enemy  or  ally  of 
enemy  countries,  or  in  territory 
occupied  by  the  military  or  naval 
forces  of  enemy  or  ally  of  enemy 
nations;  to  the  property  of  per- 
sons resident  outside  the  United 
States  and  doing  business  with- 
in enemy  or  ally  of  enemy  ter- 
ritory; to  the  property  of  officials 
and  agents  of  enemy  and  ally  of 
enemy  nations;  to  the  property 
of  wives  of  officers,  officials,  or 
agents  of  enemy  nations,  wives 
of  persons  resident  within  the 
territory  of  Germany  or  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  wives  of  persons 
resident  outside  the  United  States 
and  doing  business  within  enemy 
territory;  to  the  property  of  per- 
sons who  after  April  6,  1917, 
disseminated  propaganda  calcu- 
lated to  aid  any  nation  at  war 
with  the  United  States  or  to  in- 
jure the  cause  of  the  United 
States,  or  its  allies,  or  who  assist- 
ed in  plotting  or  intrigue  against 
the  United  States  or  any  of  its 
allies;  to  the  property  of  persons 
and  firms  included  in  the  Enemy 
Trading  List,  and  of  persons  who 
at  any  time  after  Aug.  4,  1914, 
were  resident  within  enemy  ter- 
ritory; and  to  the  property  of 
corporations  incorporated  in  en- 
emy or  ally  of  enemy  territory 
or  incorporated  outside  the  Unit- 
ed States,  and  doing  business  in 
such  country. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  Act  and 
supplementary  proclamations 
and  orders,  all  persons  holding 
enemy  property,  or  any  interest 


therein,  were  required  to  report 
such  fact  to  the  Custodian,  and 
the  penalties  for  failure  to  re- 
port were  severe.  In  certain  cases 
licenses  might  be  granted  permit- 
ting enemy  property  to  be  re- 
tained or  enemy  business  to  be 
carried  on,  but  all  such  licenses 
were  subject  to  an  accounting 
with  the  Custodian. 

For  all  property  which  came 
into  his  hands  the  Custodian  had 
all  the  powers  of  a  Common  Law 
trustee  except  in  the  case  of 
money,  which  was  deposited  with 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
and  invested  by  the  latter  in 
Government  bonds  or  certificates 
of  indebtedness.  All  property 
other  than  money  was  deposited 
with  banks  and  trust  companies 
as  depositaries  for  the  Alien 
Property  Custodian.  Ordinary 
investments  of  the  small  enemy 
investor  might  be  held  during  the 
war,  and  disposed  of  after  the 
war  in  such  manner  as  Congress 
might  direct;  but  business  enter- 
prises in  which  there  was  a  sub- 
stantial enemy  ownership,  and 
which  were  outposts  of  German 
and  Austrian  industrial  and  com- 
mercial aggression  in  the  United 
States,  might  be  sold  to  American 
citizens  at  public  sale  unless  the 
President  for  good  cause  should 
determine  otherwise.  The  pro- 
ceeds of  property  or  rights  thus 
sold  must  be  deposited  in  the 
United  States  Treasury,  and  the 
money  might  be  invested  and  re- 
invested by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  in  United  States  bonds 
or  in  United  States  certificates  of 
indebtedness. 

To  the  end  of  July,  1918,  over 
25,000  reports  of  enemy  property 
had  been  received  containing  22,- 
500  trusts;  13,000  active  trust 
accounts  had  been  opened  on 
the  books  of  the  Custodian;  and 
$430,000,000  in  money  and  prop- 
erty had  been  taken  over  by  the 
Custodian. 

Among  the  properties  thus 
taken  over  were:  six  large  Ger- 
man-owned New  Jersey  woollen 
mills  of  more  than  $70,000,000 
total  valuation;  a  large  cement 
company  in  New  York  State,  en- 
tirely enemy-owned,  with  a  capi- 
tal stock  of  $2,400,000;  a  group  of 
corporations  in  Hawaii  with  as- 
sets of  more  than  $15,000,000;  a 
large  lumber  company  in  Florida, 
with  a  total  value  of  $3,000,000, 
the  president  of  which  was  in- 
terned for  the  period  of  the  war; 
a  New  York  corporation  engaged 
in  the  operation  of  sugar  planta- 
tions in  Porto  Rico,  with  capaal 
stock  of  par  value  of  $.500,000;  a 
number  of  large  cotton  corpora- 
tions, with  holdings  valued  at 
more  than  $5,000,000;  and  two 
great  metal  corporations,  one  of 
which  was  said  to  have  a  business 
of  some  $70,000,000  a  year. 

Alien  property  in  patents  was 
also  governed  by  the  Trading 


Vol.  I. — March  '29 


Alien  and  Sedition  Acts 


167 


Alimentary  Canal 


with  the  Enemy  Act.  By  its 
terms  any  American  citizen  or 
corporation  might  make  applica- 
tion to  the  President  of  the 
United  States  for  a,  license  to  use 
a  'patented  invention,  trade 
mark,  print,  label,  or  copyrighted 
matter'  owned  by  an  enemy  (or 
ally  of  enemy) ,  and  the  President 
had  authority  to  grant  such 
license  (exclusive  or  non-exclu- 
sive) if  he  deemed  that  the  re- 
quest was  a  bona  fide  one  and 
that  the  granting  of  a  license 
would  be  conducive  to  the  public 
welfare.  When  the  war  ended 
and  until  one  year  thereafter,  the 
original  owner  might  file  a  bill  in 
equity  against  the  licensee  for 
recovery  from  the  license,  'for  all 
use  and  enjoyment,'  of  the  pat- 
ent, copyright,  or  other  such 
property.  It  was  estimated  that 
these  regulations  affected  some 
20,000  patents,  many  of  them  of 
great  importance  to  American  in- 
dustry. In  March,  1928,  Presi- 
dent Coolidge  signed  the  bill  in- 
troduced into  Congress  to  restore 
German  property  seized  during 
the  War.  The  bill  authorized 
the  expenditure  of  not  more  than 
$100,000,000  for  this  purpose. 

See  Allegiance;  Citizen; 
Extradition;  Immigration; 
Naturalization.  Consult  E.  M. 
Borchard's  The  Diplomatic  Pro- 
tection of  Citizens  Abroad  (1915). 

Alien  and  Sedi'tion  Acts, 
four  acts  passed  by  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress and  signed  by  President 
John  Adams  in  June  and  July, 
1798.  (1)  The  first  of  these,  the 
Naturalization  Act  of  June  18, 
1798,  raised  the  period  of  resi- 
dence in  the  United  States  from 
five  to  fourteen  years  in  the  case 
of  alien  immigrants  seeking  citi- 
zenship. This  act  was  repealed 
in  1802.  (2)  The  Alien  Act  of 
June  2.5,  1798,  empowered  the 
President  to  order  out  of  the 
country  all  such  aliens  as  he 
should  judge  dangerous  to  the 
peace  and  safety  of  the  United 
States;  to  remove  forcibly  any 
aliens  who  might  disregard  his 
order,  or  to  cause  their  imprison- 
ment. This  act  expired  in  1804. 
(3)  The  Alien  Enemies  Act  of 
July  6,  1798,  empowered  the 
President,  in  case  of  war,  to  re- 
move or  detain  as  alien  enemies 
all  male  subjects  of  a  hostile  na- 
tion. This  act  is  still  substan- 
tially in  force.  (4)  The  Sedition 
Act  of  July  14,  1798,  provided  for 
the  punishment  by  fine  and  im- 
prisonment of  any  persons  con- 
spiring against  any  measure  of 
the  government  of  the  United 
States,  impeding  the  operation  of 
any  U.  S.  law,  or  uttering  any 
malicious  statement  against  U.  S. 
officials.  This  act  expired  in  1801. 

The  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts 
were  passed  at  a  time  when  war 
with  France  seemed  imminent, 
and  when  the  Federalist  admin- 
istration was  being  denounced  in 


the  Republican  press.  Though 
President  Adams  did  little  to  en- 
force these  acts,  they  were  at- 
tacked with  great  bitterness  by 
the  Republicans.  They,  led  to 
the  passage  of  the  Virginia  Reso- 
lutions (q.v.)  and  Kentucky 
Resolutions  (q.v.) ;  and  hastened 
the  downfall  of  the  Federalist 
Party  (q.v.).  See  United 
States,  History. 

Aliena'tion,  in  law,  a  transfer 
of  the  title  to  property  from  one 
person  to  another,  by  convey- 
ance, and  not  by  inheritance. 
The  transfer  may  be  voluntary, 
as  by  conveyance  or  devise,  or 
involuntary,  as  by  bankruptcy, 
execution,  or  other  creditor's 
process.  The  right  of  free  aliena- 
tion of  freehold  lands  was  first 
secured  to  the  English  landowner 
by  the  statute  Quia  Emptores 
(1290).  It  has  always  formed  a 
part  of  the  American  law  of  real 
property,  restrained  only  in  case 
of  persons  under  legal  disability. 
See  Real  Property. 

Alienation  of  Affections,  the 
act  of  making  one  of  a  married 
couple  averse  to  the  love  and 
affection  of  the  other.  In  the 
case  of  such  estrangement  by  a 
third  party,  the  following  points 
have  been  established  at  law.  A 
husband  is  entitled  to  compen- 
sation for  the  enticing  away  of  his 
wife,  even  if  they  had  not  lived 
happily  together,  that  fact  con- 
stituting no  defence,  although  the 
damages  collected  may  sometimes 
be  less  if  such  is  the  case.  It  has 
been  claimed,  however,  that  a 
woman  has  no  right,  either  at 
common  law  or  under  the  stat- 
utes that  grant  her  the  right  to 
sue,  to  take  action  against  one 
who  entices  her  husband  away 
from  her.  The  defendant's  rank 
and  condition  may  not  be  con- 
sidered in  the  assessment  of 
damages,  and  it  has  been  held 
that  evidence  as  to  the  financial 
condition  of  the  defendant  is  not 
permissible,  although  in  certain 
cases  such  evidence  has  been  said 
to  be  admissible  in  order  that  the 
extent  of  injury  might  be  shown 
the  more  clearly.  See  Husband 
AND  Wife. 

Alien  Immigra'tion.  See  Im- 
migration; Chinese  Immigra- 
tion; Japanese  Question;  Con- 
tract Labor. 

Alien  Property.  See  Alien. 
Alif,  the  first  letter  of  the  Ara- 
bic alphabet  and  of  the  word 
Allah,  is  used  by  Mohammedans 
as  a  symbol  of  the  one  God  or  of 
the  unity  of  the  Godhead,  and  is 
set  as  a  monogram  at  the  head  of 
letters  and  other  writings. 

Aligarh,  a-li-gur',  or  Alighur, 
district,  Meerut  division,  United 
Provinces,  India,  between  the 
Ganges  and  the  Jumna.  Pop. 
(1921)  1,061,745. 

Aligarh,  or  Alighur,  town, 
India,  capital  of  Aligarh  district; 
47  miles  north  of  Agra.    It  ad- 


joins the  town  of  Koil,  which  has 
a  fort  captured  by  Lord  Lake  in 
1803.  Here  is  a  Mohammedan 
Anglo-Oriental  college,  affiliated 
with  the  University  of  Allaha- 
bad. Pop.,  including  Koil  (1921), 
66,963. 

Align'ment,  in  general,  im- 
plies arrangement  in  or  adjust- 
ment to  a  straight  line.  In  mili- 
tary tactics  it  is  applied  to  the 
formation  of  troops  or  of  a  camp; 
in  typography,  to  the  placing  of 
types  in  such  a  way  that  their 
impressions  shall  be  exactly  in 
line;  in  archaeology,  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  menhirs  or  mono- 
liths in  rows.  In  engineering, 
alignment  denotes  the  ground 
plan  of  a  railroad,  fort,  or  field 
work,  as  distinguished  from  the 
gradient  (q.v.). 

Alikhanoff,  a-li-Ka'nof,  Gen- 
eral (1846-1907),  Russian  sol- 
dier, whose  real  name  was  ALi 
Khan  Avaski,  was  born  in  Baku. 
He  was  educated  in  Tifiis  and 
entered  the  Russian  army  as  cor- 
net in  1862,  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major  (1873),  and  became 
aide-de-camp  to  the  Grand  Duke 
Michael,  viceroy  of  the  Caucasus. 
After  being  reduced  to  the  ranks 
because  of  a  quarrel  with  a  supe- 
rior oiificer  (1877),  he  served  as  a 
private  in  the  Turkoman  cam- 
paign (1879),  and  in  1882  was  pro- 
moted to  lieutenant.  He  gained 
the  submission  of  the  Turkoman 
chiefs,  and  was  made  first  gov- 
ernor of  the  new  territory.  In 
1901  he  was  made  major  general. 
His  severe  treatment  of  the  Ar- 
menians is  believed  to  have  been 
the  cause  of  his  assassination  in 
1907  at  Alexandropol. 

Alikuluf.    See  Aliculuf. 

All  ma,  a-le'ma  (Kunja),  river, 
French  Congo,  Africa;  rises  near 
the  source  of  the  Ogowe,  and 
flows  northeast,  east,  and  south- 
east for  400  miles  to  join  the 
Congo,  220  miles  northeast  of 
Brazzaville.  Its  course  was  first 
traced  by  Balloy  in  1878. 

Al'imentary  Canal,  or  Ali- 
mentary Tract,  the  principal 
part  of  the  digestive  apparatus, 
extends  from  the  mouth  to  the 
anus,  having,  in  man,  an  average 
length  of  about  thirty  feet.  It 
consists  of  certain  distinct  and 
important  divisions,  as  follows: 
mouth,  pharynx,  oesophagus, 
stomach,  small  intestine,  and 
large  intestine;  the  entire  passage 
being  lined  with  a  mucous  mem- 
brane, on  a  foundation  layer  of 
muscles  and  fibres.  In  verte- 
brates, the  canal  is  never  in  the 
form  of  a  straight  and  sim.ple 
tube,  but  always  has  its  regional 
differentiations,  each  region,  or 
division,  having  its  particular 
physiological  function,  mechani- 
cal or  chemical,  and  differing 
from  the  others,  also,  in  size  and 
shape.  Some  of  the  parts  are 
long,  narrow  tubes,  and  others 
are  short  sacs,  but  in  some  in- 

VoL.  I. — March  '29 


Ali  Mirza 


167  A 


AUscans 


stances  different  regions  blend 
into  one  another  with  very  httle 
in  the  way  of  boundaries  to  mark 
them.  The  whole  digestive  sj^s- 
tem,  except  for  a  few  auxiUary 
organs  (teeth,  tongue,  jaws,  etc.), 
develops  from  a  simple  embryonic 
tube,  by  means  of  a  process  of 
lengthening,  enlargement,  fold- 
ing, etc.  From  the  upper  or  for- 
ward part  of  the  canal,  in  the 
embryo,  develops  the  respiratory 
system,  closely  related  to  the 
digestive  system. 

The  mouth,  containing  the 
teeth  and  the  salivary  glands,  is 
partially  separated  from  the 
pharynx,  in  mammals,  by  the 
soft  palate.  Next  below  the 
pharynx  comes  the  oesophagus, 
formed  by  a  narrowing  of  the 
alimentary  passage.  Through 
this  the  food  is  carried  by  means 
of  the  contraction  (peristalsis)  of 
the  muscles  forming  the  walls. 
The  length  of  this  tube,  or  pas- 
sage, varies  in  different  animals 
with  the  length  of  the  neck,  two 
extremes  being  represented  by 
the  frog  and  the  heron.  The 
oesophagus,  in  turn,  opens  out 
into  the  large  pear-shaped  pouch 
called  the  stomach,  the  longi- 
tudinal axis  of  which  is  across 
the  body.  The  right  -  (pyloric) 
end  of  this  organ  narrows  down 
to  lead  into  the  duodenum  which 
is  the  first  or  proximal  portion  of 
the  small  intestine,  and  the  left 
(cardiac)  end  is  a  blind  wall.  In 
the  embryo  the  pylorus,  or  re- 
striction, forms  a  closed  valve, 
so  that  the  stomach,  at  that 
stage,  is  a  sac  with  no  opening 
into  the  intestine.  As  the  em- 
bryo develops,  however,  this  re- 
striction disappears  and  the  py- 
loric opening  takes  its  place.  Just 
below  the  cardiac  opening  (from 
the  stomach  into  the  oesophagus) 
the  stomach  has  a  large  lateral 
bulge  (fundus),  and  at  about  the 
middle  the  organ  begins  to  taper 
toward  the  pyloric  end.  The 
stomach  is  concave  at  the  top  and 
convex  at  the  bottom,  the  greater 
curvature  being  along  the  bottom 
edge.  A  parietal  layer  of  peri- 
toneum, or  thick  mucous  mem- 
brane, lines  this  organ.  Below 
the  pylorus  comes  the  intestine — 
often  specified  as  the  small  and 
the  large  intestine.  The  small 
intestine  is  some  22  feet  long,  and 
arranged  in  folds,  or  layers,  one 
on  another.  Subdivisions  of  the 
small  intestine  are  marked  by  the 
entrance  of  the  pancreatic  and 
bile  ducts  into  the  duodenum, 
that  part  of  the  intestine  imme- 
diately below  the  pylorus.  The 
large  intestine,  which  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  small  intestine, 
is  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  letter 
'U,'  enclosing  the  small  intestine. 
From  the  right  side  of  this  loop 
depends  the  coecum,  an  intestinal 
divcrticulation,  which  narrows 
down  into  the  appendix  in  man. 
The  left  side  of  the  loop  leads 

Vol.  I. — March  '29 


into  the  rectum.  The  right,  top, 
and  left  of  the  large  intestine  are 
known  respectively  as  ascending 
colon,  transverse  colon,  and 
descending  colon.  See  Diges- 
tion; Mouth;  CEsophagus; 
Stomach;  Intestines. 

Ali  Mirza,  Mohammed,  a'le 
mer'za,  mo-ham'ed  (1872-  ), 
shah  of  Persia,  son  of  Muzaffar- 
u'ddin,  was  educated  in  Europe. 
He  was  governor-general  of  Azer- 
baijan until  he  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  throne  in  1907.  He 
confirmed  the  grant  of  a  constitu- 
tion made  by  his  father,  but  later 
undertook  to  set  it  aside,  an  at- 
tempt which  led  to  a  popular  up- 
rising. In  July,  1909,  he  was 
deposed  by  the  new  Nationalist 
Assembly,  which  chose  his  eleven- 
year-old  son,  Ahmed  Mirza 
(q.v.),  to  be  his  successor.  Ali 
Mirza  fled  to  Russia,  where  he 
sought  support  to  regain  the 
throne.  In  July,  1911,  with  a 
band  of  Cossacks,  he  landed  in 
Persia,  but  his  forces  were  de- 
feated and  he  was  obliged  to  re- 
turn to  Russia.  (See  Persia, 
History.) 

Al'imony,  in  the  law  of  the 
United  States  and  England,  is  the 
allowance  which  a  wife  is  entitled 
to  receive  out  of  the  estate  of  her 
husband  during  divorce  proceed- 
ings, or  upon  a  judicial  decree *of 
separation  or  divorce.  The  grant- 
ing of  alimony  to  the  husband  out 
of  the  wife's  estate  is  also  allow- 
able, but  instances  of  it  are  rare. 
The  obligation  is  created  by  order 
of  the  court,  usually  as  an  inci- 
dent of  the  proceedings  for  di- 
vorce. Alimony  for  the  mainte- 
nance and  support  of  the  wife 
during  the  divorce  suit,  known  as 
alimony  pendente  lite,  is  usually 
awarded  in  a  lump  sum;  and  in 
addition,  an  allowance  is  gener- 
ally made  to  meet  expenses  rea- 
sonably incurred  by  the  wife  dur- 
ing the  course  of  the  trial,  in  cases 
in  which  she  is  unable  to  conduct 
the  litigation  without  such  aid. 
Permanent  alimony  is  the  allow- 
ance made  to  the  wife  when  the 
decree  is  in  her  favor,  and  is  usu- 
ally granted  as  an  annuity  or  se- 
ries of  payments  to  be  made  at 
regular  intervals  indefinitely. 

There  is  no  rule  as  to  the 
amount  of  alimony  which  may  be 
awarded.  As  much  as  one-third 
or  one-half  of  the  defendant's  an- 
nual income  may  thus  be  appro- 
priated to  the  plaintiff's  estate. 
The  payment  of  alimony  may  be 
enforced  by  contempt  proceed- 
ings and  imprisonment.  In  some 
States  the  decree  of  alimony  may 
be  declared  a  lien  upon  real  es- 
tate, or  a  mortgage  upon  real 
estate  may  be  required  as  se- 
curity. 

Alimony  terminates  with  the 
death  of  either  party.  Remar- 
riage on  the  part  of  the  wife  does 
not  of  itself  release  the  husband 
from  payment,  though  he  may  in 


such  case  apply  to  the  court  for 
an  order  vacating  the  original 
decree.  In  England  permanent 
alimony  is  due  not  after  divorce, 
but  when  the  parties  are  judi- 
cially separated.    See  Divorce. 

Ali  Pasha,  a'le  pasha'  (1741- 
1822),  Turkish  leader  surnamed 
Arslan,  'the  Lion,'  was  born  in 
Tepeleni,  a  village  of  Albania. 
In  his  youth  he  suffered  great 
hardships  and  was  forced  to  be- 
take himself  to  the  mountains, 
but  it  is  said  that  he  accidentally 
discovered  a  chest  of  gold,  with 
which  he  raised  an  army  of 
2,000  men,  and  entered  Tepeleni 
in  triumph.  He  reconciled  him- 
self to  the  Porte  by  helping  to 
subdue  the  rebellious  Vizier  of 
Scutari.  Appointed  lieutenant  to 
the  Derwend  Pasha,  an  officer 
charged  with  the  suppression  of 
brigandage,  he  rendered  the  high- 
roads more  insecure  than  ever, 
sharing  in  the  plunder  of  the 
klephls  (robbers).  The  result 
was  his  temporary  deposition 
by  the  Porte;  but  he  speedily 
bought  back  its  favor.  Shortly 
after  this,  he  did  such  good  ser- 
vice to  the  Turks  in  their  Austro- 
Russian  war  of  1787,  that  he  was 
named  pasha  of  Trikala  in  Thes- 
saly. 

In  1797  he  entered  into  a  brief 
alliance  with  Napoleon.  After  a 
three  years'  war,  he  subdued  the 
Suliots,  for  which  the  Porte  pro- 
moted him  to  be  governor  of 
Rumili.  From  1807,  when  he 
once  more  formed  an  alliance 
with  Napoleon,  All's  dependence 
on  the  Porte  was  merely  nominal. 
Having  failed,  however,  at  the 
peace  of  Tilsit,  to  obtain  Parga, 
on  the  coast  of  Albania,  and  the 
Ionian  Islands,  he  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  the  English.  As  he 
now  deemed  his  power  securely 
established,  he  caused  the  com- 
manders of  the  Greek  Armatoles 
(or  militia),  who  had  hitherto 
aided  him,  to  be  assassinated. 
The  Porte  resolved  at  length  to 
end  the  power  of  this  daring 
rebel;  and  in  1820,  Sultan 
Mahmoud  sentenced  him  to  be 
deposed.  He  was  put  to  death, 
February  5,  1822.  Consult  Da- 
venport's Life. 

Aliquippa,  borough,  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Beaver  County,  on  the 
Aliquippa  and  Southern  and  the 
Pittsburgh  and  Lake  Erie  Rail- 
roads; 20  miles  northwest  of 
Pittsburgh.    Pop.  (1920)  2,931. 

Al'iquot  Part,  a  number 
which  divides  another  exactly 
without  remainder.  Thus  IV2. 
2,  3,  4,  6  are  aliquot  parts  of  12, 
being  contained  therein  respec- 
tively 8,  6,  4,  3  and  2  times. 

Aliscans,  a-los-kiin',  or  Ales- 
chans,  a  twelfth-century  chanson 
de  geste  of  the  Carlovingian  cycle. 
It  deals  with  the  battles  of  Guil- 
laume  au  Court  Ncz  against  the 
Saracens  and  their  emir  Abde- 
rame  (Abdur- Rahman). 


Alison 


167  B 


Alkali  Manufacture 


Arisen,  Sir  Archibald  (1792- 
1867),  British  lawyer  and  histo- 
rian, was  born  at  Kenley,  Shrop- 
shire, and  in  1814  was  called  to 
the  Scottish  bar.  In  1822  he  be- 
came advocate-depute,  and  in 
1834  sheriff  of  Lanarkshire,  which 
post  he  held  until  his  death.  His 
History  of  Europe  from  the  Com- 
mencement of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion to  the  Restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons (14  vols.,  1833-42)  passed 
through  numerous  editions,  and 
was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages. He  wrote  a  continuation 
under  the  title,  The  History  of  Eu- 
rope from  the  Fall  of  Napoleon  to 
the  Accession  of  Louis  Napoleon 
(9  vols.,  1852-59) ;  also  Principles 
of  the  Criminal  Law  of  Scotland 
(2  vols.,  1832-33) ;  The  Principles 
of  Population;  Free  Trade  and 
Protection;  England  in  1815  and 
1845;  Lives  of  Marlborough,  Cas- 
tlereagh,  and  Sir  Charles  Stewart. 
Consult  his  Autobiography. 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald  (1826- 
1907),  British  soldier,  the  son  of 
Sir  A.  Alison  (q.  v.),  was  born  in 
Edinburgh.  He  served  in  the 
Crimean  War;  in  the  Indian  mu- 
tiny as  military  secretary  to  Sir 
Colin  Campbell,  losing  his  left 
arm  at  the  relief  of  Lucknow; 
commanded  the  European  Bri- 
gade in  the  Ashanti  expedition 
(1873-4);  was  in  command 'at 
Alexandria  (1882)  during  the 
bombardment,  before  Wolseley's 
arrival;  led  the  Highland  Brigade 
at  Tell-el-Kebir  (1882);  com- 
mander-in-chief in  Egypt  (1882)  ; 
commanded  the  Aldershot  Divi- 
sion (1883-9) ;  and  was  adjutant- 
general  (1888). 

Aliwal,  al-e-wal',  village,  Pun- 
jab, India,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Sutlej;  9  miles  west  of  Ludhiana. 
It  was  the  scene  of  the  great  bat- 
tle of  the  first  Sikh  war,  in  which 
Ranjit  Singh  was  defeated  by  Sir 
Harry  Smith  (Jan.  28,  1846). 

Aliwal  North,  capital  of  the 
district  of  same  name.  Cape  Col- 
ony, South  Africa,  on  the  Orange 
River;  160  miles  northwest  of 
East  London,  with  which  it  has 
rail  connection.  Nearby  are  the 
Aliwal  sulphur  springs.  Pop. 
5,600  (1,800  whites). 

Aliwal  South.  See  Mossel 
Bay. 

Alizarin,  a-liz'a-rin,  or  Dioxy- 
anthraquinone,  Ci4H602(OH)2,  is 
the  principal  coloring  matter  of 
the  madder  root,  but  is  now  al- 
most entirely  prepared  synthet- 
ically by  the  following  series  of 
reactions:  Anthracene  (q.  v.) 
from  coal  tar  is  first  oxidized  to  an- 
thraquinone,  which,  after  purifi- 
cation, is  converted  by  fuming 
sulphuric  acid  into  sulphonic 
acids.  The  latter  are  neutralized 
by  vsodium  carbonate,  and  then 
heated  under  pressure  with  sodi- 
um hydroxide  and  sodium  chlo- 
rate, alizarin  being  precipitated 
from  the  product  by  hydrochloric 
acid. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


Alizarin  is  a  red  crystalline 
solid,  which  owes  its  dyeing  value 
to  its  power  of  forming  'lakes' 
with  metallic  hydroxides  of  vari- 
ous and  permanent  colors,  ac- 
cording to  the  metal  employed. 
The  hydroxides  in  question,  or 
mordants  (q.  v.),  are  prepared  in 
the  fibres  of  the  material  to  be 
dyed  from  appropriate  salts, 
which  are  of  aluminum  for  red 
(Turkey  red),  iron  for  purple, 
violet,  or  black.  Chromium  mor- 
dants a  dull  purple,  and  with  tin 
chloride  a  bright  yellowish  or- 
ange. The  artificial  alizarin  is 
the  basis  of  an  extensive  series  of 
brilliant  colors  that  are  used  in 
dyeing,  including  alizarin  black, 
blue,  green,  maroon,  orange,  red, 
etc.   See  Dyeing. 

Al'kahest,  or  Alcahest,  the 
universal  solvent  of  the  alchem- 
ists.   See  Alchemy. 

Al'kalies.  The  term  Alkali 
(Arabian)  was  originally  applied 
to  the  soluble  salt  obtained  from 
the  ashes  of  a  sea  plant  {Kali  or 
saltwort),  but  was  afterward  ex- 
tended to  include  a  class  of  sub- 
stances having  similar  properties. 
When  sodium  carbonate  (soda) 
was  made  by  Duhamel,  in  1736, 
from  common  salt,  it  was  named 
'mineral  alkali';  and  the  potas- 
sium carbonate  (potash)  made 
from  plant  ashes  'vegetable  al- 
kali.' 

The  term  alkali  is  now  chiefly 
applied  to  the  hydroxides  of  the 
'alkali  metals' — i.e.,  sodium,  po- 
tassium, and  the  rarer  elements 
Hthium,  rubidium  and  caesium, 
and  the  radical  ammonium;  but 
the  carbonates  of  these  elements, 
as  well  as  ammonia  and  the  com- 
pound ammonias,  or  amines,  are 
included.  The  hydroxides  are 
deliquescent,  and  very  soluble  in 
water.  The  solutions  neutralize 
acids,  forming  salts  in  which  the 
peculiar  properties  of  both  acid 
and  alkali  are  generally  destroyed ; 
act  corrosively  on  animal  and 
vegetable  substances  {i.e.,  are 
caustic  and  poisonous) ;  and 
change  the  tint  of  vegetable  col- 
oring matters,  or  are  said  to  have 
an  alkaline  reaction.  Exposed  to 
the  air  they  absorb  carbon  diox- 
ide, forming  carbonates.  Bari- 
um, calcium,  magnesium,  and 
strontium,  which  are  known  as 
the  metals  of  the  alkaline  earths, 
form  a  group  of  substances  close- 
ly allied  to  the  alkalies.  (See 
Alkali  Manufacture.) 

Alk.aliQS  in  Medicine. — In  solu- 
tion, alkalies  are  used  externally 
as  rubefacients,  and  as  caustics 
in  their  undiluted  form.  Dilute 
solutions  of  potassium  and  sodi- 
um carbonate  relieve  itching  in 
skin  diseases;  caustic  potash  de- 
stroys warts  and  corns;  ammonia 
relieves  the  pain  of  stings  by  bees, 
ants,  and  mosquitoes,  by  neutral- 
izing the  anirnal  acid.  Internal- 
ly, ammonia  is  inhaled  to  relieve 
headache,  as  a  restorative  in 


shock,  and,  taken  in  solution,  aids 
expectoration  in  bronchitis.  Al- 
kalies taken  before  meals  stimu- 
late the  secretion  of  gastric  juire; 
taken  after  meals,  they  act  as 
antacids.  They  are  given  to  in- 
crease the  alkalinity  of  the  blood 
and  to  diminish  the  acidity  of 
urine,  with  the  object  of  prevent- 
ing'or  removing  acid  deposits  in 
the  joints  and  urinary  system. 

The  symptoms  of  Poisoning  by 
alkalies  are  generally  like  those  of 
acids,  but  the  vomit  is  alkaline, 
and  there  is  no  characteristic 
stain  on  the  clothes.  Ammonia 
acts  locally  like  caustic  potash 
or  caustic  soda,  but  may  cause 
suffocation  by  its  pungent  va- 
pors. The  treatment  in  cases  of 
poisoning  by  alkalies  is  to  give 
diluted  vinegar,  lemon  juice  in 
water,  or  any  other  highly  diluted 
acid  drink,  in  small,  frequent 
doses;  and  later,  when  the  alkali 
is  neutralized,  milk,  olive  oil,  and 
demulcent  drinks.  In  the  case  of 
ammonia,  special  attention  must 
be  paid  to  relieving  the  respira- 
tory symptoms,  as  by  placing  the 
patient  in  a  tent  the  air  of  which 
is  rendered  moist  by  steam.  The 
stomach  tube  must  not  be  used. 

Alkali  Lands.  See  Alkali 
Soils. 

Alkali  Manufac'ture.  The 

principal  alkali  is  Sodium  Carbo- 
nate (see  Sodium),  and  the  his- 
tory of  its  manufacture  from  com- 
mon salt  is  in  itself  an  account  of 
the  rise  and  progress  of  chemical 
manufacture;  for  this  industry  is 
closely  involved  with  that  of  sul- 
phuric and  hydrochloric  acid,  of 
chlorine  and  bleaching  powder — 
all  being  essentially  connected. 
The  increased  production  and  the 
lowering  in  price  of  sulphuric  acid 
led  to  its  general  use,  and  to  the 
rapid  growth  of  other  industries, 
notably  the  manufacture  of  alum, 
and  of  calcium  superphosphate 
for  fertilizers.  Cheap  alkali  made 
soap  and  glass  cheap;  and  the 
economical  production  of  bleach- 
ing powder,  a  by-product  of  the 
soda  industry,  encouraged  the 
cotton  and  linen  industries  and 
the  production  of  paper,  in  which 
it  is  largely  used  as  a  decolorizer 
and  purifier.  Sodium  carbonate 
is  manufactured  in  the  United 
States  by  four  processes:  the  Le- 
blanc  or  Black  Ash,  the  Solvay 
or  Ammonia  Soda,  the  CryoHte 
(only  to  a  slight  extent),  and  the 
Electrolytic. 

Leblanc  Process. — The  older, 
or  Leblanc,  process  of  manu- 
facture is  divided  into  three 
stages:  1.  The  preparation  of  salt 
cake,  in  which  sulphuric  acid  is 
heated  in  iron  pots  with  com- 
mon salt.  Hydrochloric  acid  is 
evolved,  and  collected  in  'scrub- 
bers,' or  condensing  towers,  in 
which  a  descending  stream  of  wa- 
ter absorbs  the  ascending  gas. 
The  mixture  is  then  heated  more 
strongly  in  a  reverberatory  fur- 


Alkali  Manufacture 


168 


Alkali  Manufacture 


nace,  from  which  the  product, 
salt  cake,  containing  95  to  98  per 
cent,  of  sodium  sulphate,  is  with- 
drawn. 2.  The  preparation  of 
black  ash,  in  which  chalk  or  lime- 
stone (30  cwt.),  slack  or  powdered 
coal  (20  cwt.),  and  salt  cake  (30 
cwt.)  are  mixed  and  introduced 
into  a  large  revolving  iron  cylin- 
der. The  cylinder  is  heated  by  a 
furnace,  or  by  a  Siemens  gas  pro- 
ducer; the  mass  fuses,  and  then  is 
emptied  into  iron  trucks.  In  the- 
ory the  reactions  taking  place  are 
simple;  but  owing  to  impurities  in 
the  materials,  many  by-products 
are  obtained,  and  black  ash  is  a 
very  complex  mixture,  containing 


1 


Solvay  Tower^ 

The  Solvay  Tower  used  in  the  Ammonia- 
Soda  Process  is  built  up  of  cast-iron  cylin- 
ders (from  15  to  2.5),  each  6  feet  8  inches  in 
diameter,  arid  3  feet  .3  inches  high.  The 
bottom  of  each  cylinder  has  a  central  open- 
ing 1  foot  4  inches  in  diameter,  over  which  is 
placed  a  concave  perforated  plate  supported 
on  light  stays.  Brine  saturated  with  am- 
monia is  forced  in  at  a;  lime-kiln  gas  enters 
at  h,  and  as  it  ascends  through  the  various 
stages  of  the  tower  is  brought  into  contact 
with  all  parts  of  the  descending  stream  of 
brine.  The  liquid,  now  full  of  crystals  of 
sodium  bicarbonate,  is  drawn  off  at  c. 

sodium  carbonate,  soluble  in  wa- 
ter, and  calcium  sulphide,  which 
is  insoluble.  3.  The  Uxivialion  of 
the  black  ash,  or  solution  of  the 
sodium  carbonate,  which  is  ef- 
VOL.  I —Mar.  '16 


fected  in  vats,  fresh  water  being 
used  to  wash  the  nearly  exhaust- 
ed ash,  afterward  passing  on  to 
fresh  ash;  in  this  way  all  the 
sodium  carbonate   is  extracted 


with  a  minimum  quantity  of 
water,  and  a  strong  liquor  is  ob- 
tained. The  tank  liquor  is  boiled 
down  to  obtain  sodium  carbonate, 
which  is  sold  in  three  strengths — 
(1)  vsoda  crystals  or  washing  soda 
(Na2CO3.10H2O),  containing  37 
per  cent,  of  sodium  carbonate, 
equal  to  21.6  per  cent,  of  real  al- 
kali (Na20);  (2)  48  per  cent,  al- 
kali, crystal  carbonate,  or  refined 
soda  ash,  containing  about  80  to 
85  per  cent,  of  vSodium  carbonate; 


(3)  alkali  or  soda  ash — 99  per 
cent,  of  carbonate  and  58  per 
cent,  of  real  alkali  (Na20).  The 
first  two  are  preferred  for  scour- 
ing wool  and  for  domestic  use; 


but  the  58-per-ccnt.  alkali  has 
now  largely  superseded  them  for 
all  other  purposes. 

Caustic  soda  (NaOH)  is  pre- 
pared from  the  tank  liquor  by 
boiling  it  with  slaked  lime.  Tank 
liquor  which  is  to  be  'causticized' 
is  freed  from  sulphide  by  blowing 
air  through  it,  and  then  diluting 
it  to  a  sp.  gr.  1.10.  After  boiling 
with  the  lime,  the  liquor  is  filtered 
from  the  chalk  sludge  and  evap- 
orated.   Finally,  the  hot  caustic 


Salt-Cake  Furnace. 

(a)  Iron  vessel  containing  sulphuric  acid  and  common  salt;  (6)  condensing  tower  to 
collect  the  hydrochloric  acid  gases;  (c)  balling  hearth  of  the  reverberatory  furnace. 


Black- Ash  Furnace. 

id)  Revolving  cylinder  containing  chalk  or  limestone,  slack  or  powdered  coal,  and 
salt  cake;  (e)  fireplace. 


Alkali  Manufacture. — Leblanc  Process. 


Alkali  Manufacture 


169 


Alkali  Soils 


liquor  is  ladled  into  iron  drums, 
in  which  it  solidifies,  and  is  dis- 
tributed. Caustic  soda  is  sold  as 
60  per  cent.,  70  per  cent.,  and  77 
per  cent,  of  real  soda  (Na20),  re- 
spectively equivalent  to  80,  90, 
and  99.5  per  cent,  of  sodium  hy- 
droxide (caustic  soda)  (NaOH). 

SoLVAY  Process. — In  this 
process  water  is  first  saturated 
with  common  salt  and  then  with 
ammonia;  the  resulting  ammoni- 
acal  brine  is  filtered,  cooled,  and 
pumped  into  tall  iron  cylinders, 
divided  into  a  number  of  com- 
partments by  perforated  hori- 
zontal shelves.  Up  this  tower  a 
stream  of  carbon  dioxide  is 
forced,  bubbling  through  the 
liquid  in  numerous  streams 
through  the  holes  in  the  shelves, 
with  the  result  that  it  is  absorbed, 
and  sodium  hydrogen  carbonate 
formed,  NaCl  +  NHs  +  H2O  + 
CO2  =  NaHCOa  +  NH4CI.  The 


and  sodium  aluminate  form.  On 
passing  carbon  dioxide  into  the 
solution  of  the  latter,  sodium 
carbonate  is  formed  and  alumina 
is  deposited.  From  the  latter, 
common  alum  is  made.  This 
process  is  gradually  giving  way 
to  other  methods,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  in  securing  cryolite. 

Electrolytic  Processes.  — 
In  these,  common  salt,  either  in 
solution  or  fused,  is  decomposed 
by  an  electric  current,  2NaCl  = 
2Na  +  CI2,  and  the  resulting  so- 
dium is  converted,  as  a  rule  si- 
multaneously, into  caustic  soda 
(sodium  hydroxide)  by  water, 
2Na  +  2H2O  =  2NaOH  +  H2,  or 
into  sodium  carbonate  by  water 
and  carbon  dioxide,  2Na  +  H2O 
+  C02=Na2C03+H2.  All  of  the 
electrolytic  processes  are  repre- 
sented by  two  general  types: 
(1)  Castner-Kellner,  Rhodin,  and 
Har greaves- Bird,  in  whch  a  solu- 


$10,362,656;  sal  soda  (crystal- 
lized and  hydrated  sodium  car- 
bonate), 87,107  tons,  valued  at 
$1,162,009;  sodium  bicarbonate 
82,800  tons,  valued  at  $1,515,031; 
and  caustic  soda  (sodium  hydrox- 
ide), 131,612  tons,  valued  at 
$5,264,887. 

See  Sodium.  Consult  Lomas' 
Manual  of  the  Alkali  Trade; 
A.  W.  Stewart's  Recent  Advances 
in  Organic  Chemistry  (1908);  G. 
Lunge's  Manufacture  of  Sulphur- 
ic Acid  and  Alkali,  with  Collat- 
eral Branches  (new  ed.,  1909-11); 
F.  H.  Thorp's  Outlines  of  Indus- 
trial Chemistry  (new  ed.,  1909). 

Alkalim'etry,  the  quantitative 
estimation  of  the  amount  of 
alkali,  is  usually  carried  out  by 
adding  an  acid  solution  of  known 
strength  to  a  given  weight  of  the 
substance,  until  the  color  of 
litmus,  or  some  other  indicator, 
shows  the  solution  to  be  neutral. 


EXIT  PIPE 
FOR  CHLORINE 


'BUS  BAR 


OVERFLOW  PIPE 
FOR  CAUSTIC 


FUSED  SALT 


ANODES 


Diagram  of  Aussig  BellTrocess. 


Diagram  Showing  Acker  Process. 


Alkali  Manufacture. — Aussig  Bell  and  Acker  Processes. 


sodium  hydrogen  carbonate  sepa- 
rates in  the  form  of  fine  crystals, 
so  that,  when  the  resulting  sludge 
is  drawn  off  through  filters,  the 
crystals  are  retained  and  the 
solution  of  ammonium  chloride 
passes  on.  The  crystals  are 
dried  and  heated,  by  which  they 
are  converted  into  sodium  car- 
bonate, 2NaHC03  =  Na2C03  + 
H2O  +  CO2.  The  ammonium 
chloride  is  heated  with  lime,  re- 
forming ammonia  to  be  used 
again,  2NH4CI  +  CaO  =  CaClz 
+  2NH3  +  H2O;  while  the  car- 
bon dioxide  from  the  lime  kilns 
provides  the  necessary  carbon 
dioxide  for  the  main  reaction  of 
the  process.  The  principal  de- 
fect of  the  method  is  the  waste  of 
the  chlorine  of  the  salt,  which  be- 
comes locked  up  in  the  almost 
useless  calcium  chloride. 

In   the   Cryolite  Process, 
cryolite,  a  double  sodium  and 
aluminum  fluoride,  is  heated  with 
lime,  whereby  calcium  fluoride 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


tion  of  salt  is  electrolyzed  in  a 
cell  divided  by  a  porous  dia- 
phragm to  separate  the  products 
formed  (in  this  class  also  is  the 
Aussig  Bell  Process,  in  which  the 
separation  of  the  products  is  ac- 
complished by  gravity  instead  of 
a  diaphragm) ;  (2)  those  in  which 
the  sodium  set  free  is  collected  in 
a  metallic  solvent,  such  as  mer- 
cury for  a  solution  of  salt,  or 
molten  lead  (Acker  Process)  if 
fused  salt  is  employed,  this  being 
subsequently  removed  as  caustic 
soda  by  the  action  of  steam. 
The  advantage  of  these  processes 
is  that  valuable  chlorine  gas  is 
obtained  simultaneously.  For  a 
detailed  description  of  the  electro- 
lytic processes,  see  Electro- 
chemistry. 

Statistics. — According  to  the 
IT.  S.  Census  for  1910,  the  output 
and  value  of  the  principal  prod- 
ucts of  alkali  manufacture  during 
1909  were:  soda  ash  (sodium  car- 
bonate), 646,057  tons,  valued  at 


when  from  the  measured  amount 
of  acid  that  has  been  required 
the  amount  of  alkali  can  be  cal- 
culated. 

The  alkalimeter  is  used  for 
this  purpose.  It  consists  of  a 
graduated  glass  tube,  filled  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  con- 
taining as  much  absolute  sul- 
phuric acid  as  would  neutralize 
a  given  weight — say  10  grams 
of  potassium  carbonate.  Then 
10  grams  of  the  article  to  be 
judged  of  is  dissolved  in  water, 
and  sufficient  acid  is  gradually 
added  to  it  from  the  tube  to 
neutralize  the  solution — i.e.,  take 
up  all  the  alkali.  The  purer  the 
article,  the  more  of  the  acid  will 
be  required;  and  if  the  tube, 
which  is  divided  into  100  degrees, 
has  been  emptied  to  the  80° 
mark,  the  imi)ure  article  contains 
80  per  cent,  of  pure  potassium 
carbonate. 

Alkali  Soils,  or  soils  containing 
an  excess  of  soluble  salts,  are  the 


Alkaloids 


170 


Alkaloids 


natural  result  of  a  rainfall  in- 
sufficient to  leach  out  of  the  land 
the  salts  formed  in  it  by  the  con- 
stant weathering  of  the  rock 
powder  of  which  all  soils  are 
largely  composed.  The  alkali 
content  of  such  soils  consists,  in 
the  main,  of  sodium  chloride, 
sodium  sulphate,  and  sodium 
carbonate.  Evaporation  of  the 
soil  moisture  holding  these  salts 
in  solution  brings  them  to  the 
surface,  where  they  accumulate 
in  alkali  spots,  or  more  extensive 
tracts  known  as  alkali  deserts: 
the  white  incrustations  due  to  the 
presence  of  the  sulphates  and 
chlorates  being  known  as  'white 
alkali,'  and  the  dark  incrustations 
due  to  the  carbonate  as  'black 
alkali.' 

The  application  of  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water  by  irrigation,  with- 
out provision  for  under-drainage, 
is  a  frequent  cause  for  the  appear- 
ance of  alkali  in  lands  previously 
thought  to  be  alkali-free.  In 
such  cases,  the  water,  penetrating 
to  the  subsoil,  dissolves  the  salts 
contained  therein,  and  on  evap- 
orating deposits  them  at  or  near 
the  surface. 

Any  considerable  quantity  of 
alkali  in  the  soil  retards  germina- 
tion, exerts  a  toxic  influence  on 
the  crops,  and  except  in  the  case 
of  specially  resistant  plants,  often 
renders  vegetation  impossible. 
Alkali  soils  are  rich  in  plant  food, 
however,  especially  lime  and 
potash,  and  for  that  reason  their 
reclamation  is  of  great  economic 
importance.  This  may  be  ac- 
complished in  various  ways:  by 
counteracting  evaporation  through 
shading,  mulching,  or  maintain- 
ing loose  tilth  in  the  surface  soil; 
using  chemical  antidotes;  remov- 
ing the  salts  from  the  soil  by 
scraping;  supplementing  the  in- 
sufficient rainfall  by  adequate 
under-drainage.  The  lands  may 
also  be  utilized  for  the  production 
of  alkali-resistant  crops,  such  as 
salt-bush,  sorghum,  certain  varie- 
ties of  barley  and  oats,  and  sugar 
beets. 

The  alkali  lands  of  the  United 
States  lie  west  of  the  100th 
meridian,  and  cover  some  850,000 
acres,  or  about  one-tenth  of  the 
irrigated  land  of  that  section. 

See  Soils.  Consult  C.  W. 
Dorsey's  Reclamation  of  Alkali 
Soils,  and  Alkali  Soils  of  the 
United  States  (U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Soils,  Bulletins  Nos.  34  and  35, 
1906);  E.  W.  Hilgard's  Soils; 
T.  H.  Kearney's  The  Choice  of 
Crops  for  Alkali  Lands  (U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  No.  446,  1911). 

Arkalolds,  or  Plant  Bases, 
form  an  important  claims  of  sub- 
stances discovered  by  modern 
chemistry.  They  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  classes — natural 
and  artificial.  The  natural  al- 
kaloids are  found  in  plants  and 
animals,  and  are  often  designated 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


organic  bases.  Those  obtained 
from  plants  are  frequently  their 
active  principles;  but  it  must  not 
therefore  be  assumed  that  when 
a  plant  contains  an  alkaloid  it  is 
of  necessity  the  active  principle, 
which  may  rather  be  a  resin, 
glucoside,  volatile  oil,  or  vegeta- 
ble acid.  Examples  of  artificial 
alkaloids  are  antipyrine,  kairine, 
thalline,  and  acetaniUde  or  anti- 
febrine. 

Most  of  the  natural  alkaloids 
consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  are 
solid  bodies  at  ordinary  tempera- 
ture. A  few,  however,  contain 
only  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitro- 
gen, and  these  are  for  the  most 
part  liquids  which  can  be  dis- 
tilled without  decomposition. 
The  more  important  of  this  class 
are  confine  and  nicotine.  Most  of 
the  alkaloids  show  characteristic 
absorption  spectra,  and  this 
property  is  used  in  determining 
the  composition  of  some  of  the 
more  complex  alkaloids. 

There  is  one  property  com- 
mon to  all  alkaloids,  natural  and 
artificial — namely,  that  they  com- 
bine directly  with  acids  to  form 
more  or  less  stable  salts,  capable 
of  undergoing  double  decomposi- 
tion; e.g.,  quinine  sulphate,  mor- 
phine, hydrochloride,  etc.  The 
alkaloids  are  precipitated  from 
the  aqueous  solutions  of  their 
salts  by  alkalies,  solutions  of 
iodine,  tannin,  potassio-mercuric 
iodide  (Mayer's  Reagent),  chlo- 
rides of  gold  and  platinum. 

Most  of  the  alkaloids  give  an 
alkaline  reaction,  have  an  acrid, 
bitter  taste,  and  are  sparingly 
soluble  in  water,  more  freely  so  in 
alcohol.  The  following  list  con- 
tains the  names  of  the  chief  alka- 
loids, with  the  plants  from  which 
they  are  obtained: 

Alkaloid.  Source. 

Aconitine   Aconite. 

BellSnine} belladonna, 

Beberine   Greenheart. 

Berberine  j 

Caffeine  or  Theine . . .  { 

go'^^'^^  ]   Coca  Leaf. 

hiCgonine  J 

Colchicine   Colchicum  Root. 

Conine   Hemlock. 

Curarine   Curare. 

Cytisine   Cytisus. 

Delphinine   Stavesacre. 

cSXe} 

Ergotine   Ergot. 

Escrine  or  Physostig- 

mine   Calabar  Bean. 

Hyoscyamine  Henbane. 

Jervine   Hellebore. 

Laburnine   Broom. 

LupuHne   Hops. 

Morphine  ] 

Codeine  

Narcotine   [   Opium. 

Thcbaine  or 

Paramorphine  J 

Muscarine   Amanita  Muscaria. 

Nicotine   Tobacco. 

Pilocarpine   Jaborandi. 

Piperine   Black  Pepper. 


Alkaloid.  Source. 

Quinine  1 

Quinidine...  I    Cinchona. 

Cinchoninc. . 
Cinchonidine  J 

Sinapine   Mustard. 

Solanine   Bittersweet. 

ISr}   N„.  Vomica. 

Theobromine   Cocoa  Bean. 

Veratrine   Veratrum. 

There  are  a  number  of  animal 
compounds,  such  as  urea,  found 
in  the  urine  of  the  mammalia,  and 
kreatine  and  kreatinine,  two  con- 
stituents of  flesh,  that  answer 
certain  of  the  tests  of  alkaloids, 
and  therefore  by  some  have  been 
classed  as  alkaloids;  but  they  do 
not  strictly  belong  to  that  class. 
Also,  there  are  some  substances, 
answering  to  the  alkaloidal  tests, 
which  are  found  in  flesh,  both  in 
the  fresh  and  putrefied  state,  and 
which  are  classed  under  the  title 
Ptomaines  (q.  v.). 

The  following  remarks  on  the 
artificial  alkaloids  refer  (1)  to  the 
classification  of  organic  bases, 
and  (2)  to  their  formation. 

(1)  From  the  fact  that  nearly 
all  artificial  organic  bases  are 
actually  constructed  from  am- 
monia, and  that,  whether  artifi- 
cially or  naturally  formed,  they 
exhibit  the  property  of  basicity, 
which  is  a  leading  characteristic 
of  ammonia,  chemists  have  been 
led  to  refer  organic  bases  gen- 
erally to  the  typical  body  am- 
monia, and  to  regard  them  as 
being  constructed  upon  or  de- 
rived from  the  simple  type  NH3. 
Berzelius  believed  that  all  the 
alkaloids  actually  contained  am- 
monia as  an  ingredient  of  their 
composition,  a  view  later  proven 
untenable;  and  it  is  to  Liebig 
that  we  are  indebted  for  the  idea 
that  they  are  derivatives  of  am- 
monia, or,  in  other  words,  amido- 
gen  bases  or  ammonia  in  which 
an  equivalent  of  hydrogen  is  re- 
placed by  an  organic  radical. 
These  bases  are  classified  under 
the  general  term  amines,  applied 
to  all  organic  bases  that  are 
derived  from  ammonia,  NH3. 
(See  Amines.) 

(2)  Although  all  attempts  at 
forming  in  the  laboratory  those 
alkaloids  that  naturally  exist  in 
plants,  such  as  morphine,  quin- 
ine, and  strychnine,  have  hith- 
erto failed,  a  large  number  of 
organic  bases  have  been  pre- 
pared by  artificial  means,  such 
as:  (a)  By  the  destructive  dis- 
tillation of  organic  bodies  con- 
taining nitrogen.  Thus,  in  the 
preparation  of  coal  gas,  four  at 
least  of  these  compounds  are  ob- 
tained —  viz.,  aniline,  picoline, 
quinoline  (or  leukol),  and  pyri- 
dine, {b)  By  the  distillation  of 
certain  nitrogenous  compounds 
with  potassium  hydroxide;  in 
this  way  aniline  is  obtained  from 
indigo,  (c)  By  the  combination 
of  ammonia  with  the  aldehydes 


Alkanet 


171 


Allan 


and  with  certain  volatile  oils 
which  possess  the  properties  of 
aldehydes.  Thus,  acetic  alde- 
hyde yields  dinaethyl-amine,  and 
oil  of  mustard  yields  thiosin- 
amine.  (d)  By  the  substitution 
— by  the  action  of  strong  nitric 
acid — of  one  molecule  of  nitrogen 
dioxide,  NO2,  for  one  atom  of  hy- 
drogen in  certain  hydrocarbons. 
(e)  By  the  processes  of  fermen- 
tation and  putrefaction.  Thus, 
wheat  flour  yields  by  putrefac- 
tion trimethyl-amine,  ethyl-am- 
ine,  and  amyl-amine. 

Most  of  the  alkaloids  are  pow- 
erful poisons;  and  in  cases  of 
poisoning,  there  is  no  general 
antidote.  The  stomach  pump 
or  emetics,  with  copious  draughts 
of  strong  tea,  are  indicated,  if  ap- 
plied quickly  after  ingestion  of 
the  alkaloid;  otherwise,  physi- 
ologic antidotes  are  administered 
under  direction  of  a  physician. 
Some  of  the  alkaloids  are  an- 
tagonistic in  their  action — e.g., 
strychnine  and  physostigmine, 
atropine  and  morphine;  thus  one 
may  become  an  antidote  for 
another.  The  isolation  and  de- 
tection of  alkaloids  from  organic 
materials,  as  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  or  cadavers,  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult  and  frequently 
questionable,  owing  to  the  pres- 
ence of  ptomaines,  which  possess 
all  the  general  characteristics  of 
alkaloids. 

See  separate  articles  on  the 
principal  alkaloids.  Consult 
Stewart's  Recent  Advances  in  Or- 
ganic Chemistry  (1908);  T.  A. 
Henry's  The  Plant  Alkaloids 
(1913). 

Al'kanet,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  family  Boraginaceae,  native 
to  Europe  and  the  Levant.  It 
includes  the  Common  Alkanet 
{Anchusa  officinalis),  the  Ever- 
green Alkanet  {A.  sempervirens) , 
and  A.  tinctoria,  to  which  the 
name  Alkanet  or  Alkanna  is  com- 
monly applied.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  the  root  of  the  last- 
named  species,  sometimes  known 
as  Alkanna  Root,  and  to  the  red 
coloring  matter  which  is  extract- 
ed from  it  in  the  form  of  a  paste. 
This  is  readily  soluble  in  oils  and 
alcohol,  and  is  used  by  perfumers 
and  in  the  composition  of  stains 
and  varnishes. 

Al-Khwarizmi,  al-Ku'wa-riz'- 
me,  or  Al-Khowarezmi,  Arab 
mathematician,  born  in  Khoras- 
san,  who  lived  at  the  beginning  of 
the  ninth  century.  He  was  libra- 
rian to  the  Calif  Al-Mamun  at 
Bagdad.  After  composing  two 
astronomical  tables  called  Sind 
Hind,  based  on  the  Indian  system 
Sindhanta,  he  wrote  an  algebra 
(founded  on  that  of  Brahmagup- 
ta)  which  was  the  source  of  all 
subsequent  mediaeval  works  on 
the  subject.  He  was  also  author  of 
the  first  book  of  arithmetic  show- 
ing the  Indian  system  of  nota- 
tion. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


AI-Kindi,  al-kin'di,  Abu  Yu- 
SUF,  mathematician  and  philoso- 
pher, was  born  at  Basra  in  the 
ninth  century.  The  Arabs,  who 
call  him  the  philosopher,  look 
upon  him  as  the  founder  of  their 
philosophy.  He  wrote  on  almost 
all  the  sciences  known  in  his  day, 
and  is  especially  distinguished  as 
a  writer  on  logic  and  on  mathe- 
matics, and  as  a  commentator  on 
Aristotle. 

Alkmaar,  alk-mar',  town,  prov- 
ince North  Holland,  Netherlands; 
20  miles  northwest  of  Amster- 
dam, on  the  North  Holland  Canal 
(16^  feet  deep).  The  Town 
House  and  the  Church  of  St. 
Laurence  (fifteenth  century)  are 
notable,  Lt  manufactures  sail 
cloth,  sea  salt,  soap,  vinegar,  and 
leather,  and  has  an  important 
trade  in  excellent  cheese,  also  cat- 
tle, grain,  and  butter.  Alkmaar 
held  out  against  the  Duke  of 
Alva,  who  besieged  it  in  1573. 
Here,  on  Oct.  18,  1799,  the  Duke 
of  York  signed  a  capitulation. 
Pop.  22,000. 

Alkoran.    See  Koran. 

Allada,  al-la'da,  town,  Daho- 
mey, French  West  Africa;  25 
miles  west  of  Whydah.  Pop. 
10,000. 

Allagash.    See  Alleguash. 

Al'Iah  (from  Ar.  al,  'the';  and 
ilah,  'worthy  to  be  adored';  cf. 
Hebrew  Eloah) ,  the  word  used  by 
the  heathen  Arabs  to  denote  their 
chief  god,  and  adopted  by  Mo- 
hammed as  the  name  of  the  one 
true  God.  The  word  forms  the 
substance  of  the  battle  cry  of  Mo- 
hammedans— 'La  Ilaha  Illallah!' 
('There  is  no  God  save  Allah'). 
See  Mohammedanism. 

Allahabad,  al'la-ha-bad',  dis- 
trict. United  Provinces,  India.  It 
is  well  watered,  and  is  mainly  ag- 
ricultural. Chief  city,  Allahabad 
(q.  v.).  Area,  2,810  square  miles. 
Pop.  1,500,000. 

Allahabad  ('city  of  God'),  city 
and  capital  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces, India,  occupies  the  fork  of 
the  Rivers  Ganges  and  Jumna; 
390  miles  southeast  of  Delhi. 
The  nucleus  of  the  city  seems  to 
have  been  the  native  fort,  which 
rises  directly  from  the  banks  of 
both  rivers  with  artificial  defences 
of  great  strength  toward  the  land 
side.  On  the  west  and  northwest 
lie  the  civil  station,  cantonments, 
and  city  proper.  The  fort,  which 
dates  from  1575,  is  of  red  stone, 
and  is  approached  by  a  handsome 
domed  gateway.  Within  are  the 
ancient  Palace  of  Akbar,  part  of 
which  is  now  the  Arsenal,  and  the 
famous  Pillar  of  Asoka  (240  B.C.). 

With  the  exception  of  a  few 
ancient  monuments  of  elaborate 
workmanship,  the  native  part  of 
the  city  consists  of  mean  houses 
and  narrow  streets.  The  Euro- 
pean quarter  is  much  superior, 
with  handsome  residences  and 
broad  avenues  of  trees.  The 
Khusru  Bagh,  with  the  mausole- 


ums of  Prince  Khusru  and  his 
mother  and  sister,  and  the  Great 
Mosque  are  the  most  noteworthy 
features  of  the  native  town.  In 
the  European  city  are  the  govern- 
ment offices  and  courts,  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican 
Cathedrals,  Mayo  Memorial  and 
Town  Hall,  Muir  Central  Col- 
lege, the  University,  free  public 
library,  hospital,  theatres,  ba- 
zaars, and  other  public  buildings. 

The  position  of  Allahabad  ren- 
ders it  naturally  a  centre  of  com- 
merce and  civilization.  It  com- 
mands the  navigation  of  the 
Ganges  and  of  the  Jumna,  both  of 
which  are  crossed  by  bridges  at 
this  point.  It  is  on  the  direct  wa- 
ter route  between  Calcutta  and 
the  Upper  Provinces;  and  is  a 
main  station  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
and  East  Indian  Railways.  The 
cotton,  sugar,  and  indigo  prod- 
ucts of  the  fertile  district  of  Alla- 
habad are  brought  in  large  quan- 
tities into  the  city;  and  there  is  a 
brisk  local  trade  in  gold  and  silver 
ornaments  and  European  furni- 
ture. 

The  situation  of  Allahabad,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  holy  streams 
of  India,  renders  it  a  much-fre- 
quented place  of  pilgrimage  for 
the  purposes  of  religious  ablution. 
Every  year  the  Magh-mela,  a  re- 
ligious fair  of  great  antiquity,  at- 
tracts some  250,000  pilgrims  to 
the  city,  while  the  Kmnbh-mela, 
held  every  twelfth  j^ear,  has  been 
attended  by  a  million  people. 
Pop.  (1901)  172,082;  (1911)  171,- 
697. 

The  modern  city  was  founded 
by  Akbar  in  1575,  although  the 
Aryans  possessed  an  ancient  city 
on  this  site  called  Prayag  or  Prag 
('place  of  sacrifice'),  a  name  still 
retained  by  the  Hindus.  It  was 
ceded  to  the  British  in  1801;  and 
during  the  Indian  Mutiny  of  1857 
was  the  scene  of  a  massacre  of 
British  officers  by  mutinous  se- 
poys. 

Al'laman'da,  a  tropical  Ameri- 
can genus  of  the  Apocynaceae 
(q.  v.),  cultivated  in  hothouses 
for  the  sake  of  its  large  beautiful 
yellow  flowers.  A.  calhartica,  a. 
native  of  the  West  Indies,  has 
violently  emetic  and  purgative 
properties. 

Allan,  David  (1744-96),  Scot- 
tish painter,  known  as  the  'Scot- 
tish Hogarth,'  was  born  in  Alloa. 
He  settled  in  Edinburgh  in  1780. 
He  anticipated  Wilkie  in  Scottish 
character  painting,  as  in  his 
Scotch  Wedding,  Highland  Dame, 
and  Repentance  Stool.  He  illus- 
trated Ramsay's  Gentle  Shepherd. 

Allan,  Sir  Hugh  (1810-82), 
Canadian  ship  owner,  was  born 
at  Saltcoats,  Ayrshire,  Scotland. 
He  emigrated  to  Canada  in  1826, 
and  by  1835  had  become  junior 
partner  in  the  chief  shipping  firm 
of  Montreal.  In  1853  he  organ- 
ized the  Allan  Line  of  steamships, 
and  was  knighted  in  1871.  In 


Allan 


172 


Allegheny  College 


1872-3  he  obtained  a  charter 
from  the  Canadian  Government 
for  building  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Raihoad,  but  the  Pacific  scandal 
which  resulted  led  to  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  company. 

AUan,  Maud  (1879),  Cana- 
dian-American dancer,  was  born 
in  Toronto,  and  removed  with 
her  parents  to  San  Francisco. 
She  early  began  the  study  of 
music,  performing  in  public  as  a 
pianist  at  twelve  years  of  age; 
continued  her  musical  education 
in  Berlin  and  Vienna;  but  after- 
ward adopted  classical  dancing  as 
a  profession.  She  made  her  debut 
as  a  dancer  at  the  Vienna  Con- 
servatory of  Music  (1902) ;  subse- 
quently appeared  at  Brussels  and 
other  Continental  cities;  in  Lon- 
don at  the  Palace  Theatre  in  The 
Vision  of  Salome  (1908);  and  in 
New  York  City  in  1910. 

Allan,  Sir  William  (1782- 
1850),  Scottish  historical  painter, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh.  He  stud- 
ied at  the  Trustees'  Academy 
with  Wilkie  for  a  fellow  pupil; 
and  later  entered  the  schools  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  London. 
After  nine  years  of  travel  in 
Russia  and  Turkey,  he  settled  in 
Edinburgh  (1814);  was  elected 
R.A.  (1835);  succeeded  Wilkie  as 
Limner  to  the  Queen  for  Scot- 
land (1841) ;  and  was  knighted  in 
1842.  Among  his  works  are: 
Peter  the  Great  Teaching  His  Sub- 
jects Shipbuilding  (painted  for 
the  Tsar) ;  The  Stirrup  Cup  (Na- 
tional Gallery,  Edinburgh) ;  John 
Knox  Admonishing  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots. 

Allantoin,  a-lan'to-in,  C4H6N4- 
O3,  a  crystalline  substance  oc- 
curring in  the  allantoic  fluid,  in 
foetal  urine,  and  in  the  urine  of 
many  animals  shortly  after  birth. 
It  may  be  obtained  chemically  by 
the  oxidation  of  uric  acid  or  by 
heating  urea  with  glyoxylic  acid 
for  a  prolonged  period.  It  was 
discovered  by  Vauquelin  in  1790, 
and  has  been  employed  to  en- 
courage epithelial  formation  in 
wounds  and  ulcers. 

Allantois,  a-lan'to-is,  an  im- 
portant foetal  membrane  by 
means  of  which  the  embryos  of 
reptiles  and  birds  breathe,  while 
in  most  mammals  it  is  converted 
into  the  Placenta  (q.  v.),  the  or- 
gan by  which  the  developing 
young  both  feed  and  breathe.  At 
a  very  early  stage  in  the  embryo 
of  reptile,  bird,  and  mammal,  the 
allantois  appears  as  a  bud  from 
the  posterior  part  of  the  food 
canal;  and  rapidly  increasing  in 
size,  grows  out  of  the  embryo 
into  a  space  provided  for  it  by 
the  amnion.  It  becomes  richly 
supplied  with  blood  vessels,  and 
in  birds  and  reptiles  comes  to  lie 
close  beneath  theeggshell,  through 
whose  pores  the  respiratory  inter- 
change occurs. 

The  early  stages  of  develop- 
ment are  the  same  in  mammals; 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


but  in  all  except  monotremes  and 
marsupials,  the  allantois  and  its 
blood  vessels  later  form  a  connec- 
tion with  the  maternal  blood  ves- 
sels of  the  uterine  wall,  thus  con- 
stituting the  placenta.  At  birth 
or  hatching,  when  the  lungs  come 
into  play,  the  extra-embryonic 
portion  of  the  allantois  becomes 
functionless,  and  is  cast  off;  but 
the  internal  portion  may  persist 
in  the  lower  animals  as  the  uri- 
nary bladder. 

In  the  human  being  the  allan- 
tois diminishes  as  the  lungs  begin 
to  functionate,  and  it  ultimately 
contracts  and  becomes  a  ligamen- 
tous remnant.  This  last  fact  is  a 
link  in  the  evolutionist's  chain  of 
proof  that  the  allantois  has  been 
developed  from  the  urinary  blad- 
der of  amphibians.  See  Embry- 
ology. 

Allegan,  al'e-gan,  city,  Michi- 
gan, county  seat  of  Allegan  coun- 
ty, on  the  Kalamazoo  River,  and 
the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern,  the  Pere  Marquette, 
and  the  Michigan  Central  Rail- 
roads; 32  miles  south  of  Grand 
Rapids.  Industries  include  plan- 
ing, paper,  and  flour  mills,  and 
carriage,  furniture,  and  casket 
factories.  The  adjacent  river  fur- 
nishes valuable  water  power.  Pop. 
(1900)  2,667;  (1910)  3,419. 

Allega'tion,  in  law,  the  formal 
declaration  or  statement,  by  a 
party  to  a  suit,  of  the  issue  which 
he  undertakes  to  prove.  If  the 
claim  or  defence  would  be  insuffi- 
cient without  it,  it  is  known  as  a 
material  allegation.  In  ecclesias- 
tical law  the  term  is  used  of  the 
statement  of  all  the  facts  in  sup- 
port of  a  contested  suit.  The 
allegation  of  faculties  is  the  state- 
ment, by  a  wife  seeking  alimony, 
of  her  husband's  property.  See 
Pleadings. 

Alleghany  Mountains,  al'i-ga- 
ni,  a  range  of  the  Appalachian 
system,  traversing  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  West  Virginia,  and 
Virginia  in  a  southwesterly  direc- 
tion, and  forming  the  watershed 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Mississippi.  In  the  northern  por- 
tion the  AUeghanies  have  an  ele- 
vation of  about  2,000  feet;  gradu- 
ally increase  toward  the  south; 
and  reach  a  height  of  4,500  feet  in 
Virginia.  They  are  composed  of 
stratified  rocks  of  the  Silurian, 
Devonian,  and  Carboniferous 
ages,  and  are  rich  in  timber  and 
minerals,  especially  coal  and  iron. 
The  name  AUeghanies  is  some- 
times applied  to  the  entire  Appa- 
lachian system.  See  Appala- 
chians. 

Alleghany  Plateau,  the  west- 
ernmost division  of  the  Atlantic 
highlands,  including  several  of 
the  Eastern  and  Middle  States, 
and  extending  from  the  centre  of 
New  York  southward  into  Ala- 
bama and  westward  into  Ohio 
and  Kentucky.  On  the  east  it 
slopes  abruptly  into  the  valleys  of 


the  AUeghanies,  but  on  the  west 
falls  away  gradually  toward  the 
prairies  of  the  Ohio  basin.  Alti- 
tudes range  from  2,000  to  4,000 
feet.  The  nprthernmost  portion 
of  the  Plateau,  in  New  York,  is 
known  as  the  Catskill  Mountains 
(q.  V.) ;  the  southern  portion,  in 
Tennessee  and  Alabama,  as  the 
Cumberland  Tableland  (see  Cum- 
berland Mountains)  ;  while  be- 
tween lie  the  mountains  of  East- 
ern Kentucky,  W^est  Virginia, 
and  Western  Pennsylvania,  inter- 
sected by  repeatedly  branching 
valleys.  The  Plateau  is  well 
wooded,  and  is  rich  in  bituminous 
coal,  oil,  and  natural  gas. 

Al'leghen'y,  former  city  of 
Pennsylvania,  since  1907  a  part 
of  the  city  of  Pittsburgh  (q.  v.), 
is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Allegheny  River,  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Monongahela  to 
form  the  Ohio.  It  is  on  the  Pitts- 
burgh, Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago, 
the  Cleveland  and  Pittsburgh, 
the  Pittsburgh  and  Newcastle, 
and  the  Pittsburgh  and  Erie  Rail- 
roads (Pennsylvania  System), 
and  is  the  terminus  of  the  West- 
ern Pennsylvania,  the  Pittsburgh 
and  Western,  and  the  Buffalo, 
Rochester,  and  Pittsburgh  Rail- 
roads. Allegheny  now  forms  the 
North  Side  of  Pittsburgh,  to 
which  it  is  joined  by  eight  bridges 
across  the  Allegheny  River. 

Allegheny  is  an  important  resi- 
dential and  manufacturing  cen- 
tre, and  is  the  seat  of  numerous 
educational  and  philanthropic  in- 
stitutions. The  latter  include  the 
Western  Theological  Seminary 
(q.  v.),  the  Theological  Semina- 
ries of  the  United  and  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Churches,  the  Al- 
legheny Observatory  (q.  v.),  and 
the  Carnegie  Library,  with  music 
hall  and  art  gallery.  Here  also 
are  located  the  Western  vState 
Penitentiary,  three  hospitals,  and 
several  industrial  schools.  Prin- 
cipal parks  are  City  Park  (100 
acres)  and  Riverview  Park  (217 
acres).  The  leading  industries 
are  iron  and  steel  rolling  mills  and 
car  and  locomotive  works.  Paint, 
plumbing  supplies,  salt,  leather, 
and  stoves  and  ranges  are  also 
manufactured. 

Allegheny  was  laid  out  in  1788, 
was  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1840,  and  was  consolidated  with 
Pittsburgh  in  1907.  Pop.  (1900) 
129,896;  (1910)  132,283.  See 
Pittsburgh. 

Allegheny  College,  a  co-edu- 
cational institution  located  at 
Mcadville,  Pa.,  founded  under 
Presbyterian  auspices  in  1815, 
and  controlled  by  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  since  1832.  Its 
curriculum  comprises  courses  in 
the  arts  and  sciences,  with  post- 
graduate work  leading  to  the  de- 
gree of  m.a.  In  1915  there  were 
24  instructors  and  400  students; 
and  the  library  contained  31,000 
volumes.     The    buildings  and 


Allegheny  Observatory 


173 


Allegory 


grounds  were  valued  at  $650,000; 
the  income  for  1915  was  S85,000. 
Allegheny  Observatory,  one  of 

the  principal  astronomical  ob- 
servatories in  the  United  States, 
was  founded  in  1859  by  the  Al- 
legheny Observatory  Society,  in 
Allegheny,  Pa.  In  1867  it  was 
transferred  to  the  Western  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  now  the 
University  of  Pittsburgh  (q.  v.), 
and  in  1905  its  site  was  removed 
from  Observatory  Hill  to  River- 
view  Park,  Pittsburgh.  It  pos- 
sesses a  30-inch  photographic  re- 
fractor, the  most  efficient  instru- 
ment of  its  kind  in  the  world;  a 
13-inch  refractor,  objective  by 
Alvan  Clark;  and  other  valuable 
instruments;  and  a  well-supplied 
library.  It  was  one  of  the  first 
observatories  in  the  United  States 
to  establish  and  maintain  a  pub- 
lic time  service.  Director,  Frank 
Schlesinger,  ph.d. 

Allegheny  River,  one  of  the 
head  streams  of  the  Ohio  River 
(q.  v.),  rises  in  Potter  county. 
Pa.,  nearly  2,000  feet  above  sea 
level.  It  follows  a  general  south- 
westerly course  for  about  325 
miles,  and  unites  with  the  Mo- 
nongahela  (q.  v.)  at  Pittsburgh 
to  form  the  Ohio.  It  is  navigable 
for  nearly  200  miles  above  that 
city,  whence  by  the  Ohio  and  the 
Mississippi  navigation  reaches 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Drainage 
area,  11,000  square  miles. 

Alle'giance,  in  the  strict  legal 
sense,  is  the  duty  of  every  subject 
to  submit  to  the  authority  of  the 
government  under  which  he  lives, 
or  of  his  sovereign,  in  return  for 
the  protection  which  he  receives. 
In  a  free  state  it  may  be  defined 
as  the  obligation  of  every  citizen 
to  support  the  constitution  and 
laws,  and  to  perform  the  duties  of 
citizenship  (q.  v.)  both  in  peace 
and  war.  The  obligations  em- 
braced in  allegiance  include  those 
of  bearing  arms  in  defence  of  the 
state,  of  contributing  to  its  main- 
tenance, of  revealing  any  conspir- 
acy against  it,  and  generally  per- 
forming the  public  duties  of  a 
good  citizen.  The  present  con- 
ception of  allegiance  is  the  result 
of  a  long  process  of  development 
from  the  notion  of  the  fealty  due 
from  a  vassal  to  his  feudal  lord, 
based  on  an  oath  of  fealty;  and 
this  survives  in  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance exacted  of  aliens  on  natu- 
ralization, of  public  officers,  mem- 
bers of  the  bar,  etc. 

Allegiance  may  be  an  absolute 
and  permanent  obligation,  such 
as  that  which  the  citizen  or  sub- 
ject owes  to  his  government  or 
sovereign;  or  it  may  be  local  and 
temporary,  such  as  that  of  an 
alien  to  the  government  under 
which  he  is  resident  (see  Alien). 
Again,  it  may  be  natural,  such  as 
is  due  from  every  native  subject 
from  his  birth,  or  it  may  be  ac- 
quired by  naturalization.  Alle- 
giance is  due  quite  independently 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '10 


of  any  express  promise  to  be 
faithful,  and  all  subjects  or  citi- 
zens, whether  they  became  such 
by  birth  or  by  naturalization,  are 
bound!  to  the  duty  of  allegiance 
so  long  as  that  status  continues. 

It  was  formerly  held  by  all  the 
nations  of  Europe  that  the  tie  of 
allegiance,  once  formed,  could 
not  be  severed  by  the  voluntary- 
act  of  a  subject;  but  the  contrary 
view,  maintained  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  has 
now  been  generally  accepted,  and 
the  right  of  a  person  to  change  his 
allegiance  at  will  is  admitted  by 
England  and  the  leading  Euro- 
pean states,  though  still  disputed 
by  Russia  and  Turkey  (see  Nat- 
uralization). 

Under  the  present  law  of  Ger- 
many, subjects  of  that  country 
are  expressly  permitted  to  pre- 
serve their  native  citizenship,  al- 
though they  have  become  natu- 
ralized citizens  of  another  coun- 
try. Such  a  dual  allegiance,  how- 
ever, is  incompatible  with  the  law 
of  the  United  States,  since  every 
applicant  for  naturalization  must 
declare  on  oath  that  he  absolutely 
and  entirely  renounces  'all  alle- 
giance and  fidelity  to  any  foreign 
prince,  potentate,  state,  or  sov- 
ereignty, and  particularly  by 
name  to  that  prince,  potentate, 
state,  or  sovereign  of  which  he 
was  beiore  a  citizen  or  subject.' 

See  Alien;  Citizenship;  Nat- 
uralization. 

Al'legory  (Greek  alios,  'other'; 
agoreuo,  T  speak'),  a  form  oi  com- 
position in  which  one  series  of 
events  or  qualities  is  treated  as 
typical  of  anothei  series  of  events 
or  qualities  expressed  or  under- 
stood. Allegory  is  a  representa- 
tion oi  hfe,  and  is  valued  in  pro- 
portion as  its  details  correspond 
with  the  details  of  actual  exist- 
ence; while  Its  chief  interest  con- 
sists in  the  orderly  development 
of  the  analogies  between  the  type 
and  the  thing  typified. 

As  a  rule,  allegory  is  used  in 
order  to  impart  some  human  in- 
terest to  metaphysical  and  ab- 
stract subjects.  Hence  religious 
or  moral  teaching  has  been  its 
usual  theme  in  all  ages;  but  this 
connection  is  not  a  necessary  one. 
Nor  is  its  use  confined  to  litera- 
ture, for  such  pictures  as  Holman 
Hunt's  Light  of  the  World  are  as 
much  allegories  as  Bunyan's  Holy 
War.  The  allegorical  reference 
may,  moreover,  be  double  as  well 
as  single,  though  only  at  the  risk 
of  its  effectiveness.  Thus,  in 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  Arthur 
stands  for  the  virtue  Magnificence 
in  general,  with  a  particular  refer- 
ence at  times  to  Leicester,  and  at 
other  times  to  Sidney;  while  Brit- 
omart  signifies  both  Chastity  and 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

Some  of  the  parables  of  Christ 
are  allegories  of  the  highest  type, 
as  that  of  the  Prodigal  Son; 
but  others,  such  as  the  picture  of 


the  Pharisee  and  the  publican 
who  went  up  to  the  Temple  to 
pray,  are  merely  vivid  transcripts 
of  contemporary  or  universal  life 
and  character.  A  good  example 
of  the  allegorical  method  is  con- 
tained in  St.  Paul's  reference  to 
the  armor  of  faith  (Eph.  vi.  13- 
17).    (See  Parable.) 

The  origins  of  allegory  may  be 
found  in  the  writings  of  Plato, 
who  used  it  in  its  simpler  forms 
in  order  to  provide  his  pupils 
with  a  convenient  means  of  pas- 
sage from  the  world  of  appear- 
ance to  the  world  of  ideas  or  of 
reality.  From  him  the  method 
descends  through  Philo  Judaeus 
(B.C.  20-54  A.D.),  who  applied  it 
to  the  interpretation  of  the  He- 
brew Scriptures;  to  Origen  (a.d. 
185-254),  who  popularized  it  in 
connection  with  Christian  the- 
ology; while  its  employment  by 
Pope  Gregory  the  Great  in  his 
commentary  on  Job  stamped  it 
with  the  approval  of  authority. 
A  further  stage  is  indicated  by 
Martianus  Capella's  Marriage  of 
Mercury  with  Philology  (439  a.d.), 
where  it  is  employed  to  illustrate 
the  mediaeval  scheme  of  educa- 
tion. 

But  the  real  flourishing  of  alle- 
gory dates  from  the  time  of  the 
Romaunt  of  the  Rose.  This  cele- 
brated work  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  first  of  which,  written  by 
William  de  Lorris  (c.  1240),  is  an 
elaborate  exposition  of  the  chival- 
ric  idea  of  love;  the  second,  by 
Jean  de  Meung  (1260-1320),  is  an 
ironical  travesty  of  the  whole  sys- 
tem. It  was  translated  and  imi- 
tated by  Chaucer,  and  influenced 
through  him  the  course  of  Eng- 
lish poetry  for  two  centuries. 

Meanwhile,  however,  Lang- 
land,  in  his  Vision  of  Piers  Plow- 
man (1362),  had  adapted  allegory 
to  the  purpose  of  moral  and  social 
satire.  The  form  next  passed 
under  the  hands  of  Spenser,  who, 
in  his  Faerie  Queene  (1590),  ap- 
plied it  to  the  description  of  Aris- 
totle's twelve  virtues.  A  new 
school  branches  off  from  Spenser, 
the  most  prominent  productions 
of  which  were  Giles  Fletcher's 
Christ's  Victory  and  Triumph 
(1610),  and  Phineas  Fletcher's 
Purple  Island  (1633),  the  latter 
being  an  elaborate  description  of 
the  human  body. 

Allegory  had  meantime  run  its 
course  in  the  drama.  Allegorical 
figures  had  always  appeared  in 
the  miracle  play  (q.  v.),  and  the 
separation  of  the  allegorical  from 
the  historical  elements  in  these  re- 
sulted in  the  morality  play  (q.  v.)  of 
the  early  Elizabethan  era,  which 
discusses  problems  of  human  life 
by  means  of  such  highly  general- 
ized figures  as  J uventus,  Mundus, 
Freewill,  etc.  The  morality  in 
turn,  when  its  brief  course  was 
run,  handed  over  its  allegorical 
machinery  to  the  masque  (q.  v.), 
with  such  changes  as  the  transi- 


Allegretto 


174 


AUen 


tion  from  moral  teaching  to 
court  compliment  rendered  indis- 
pensable. 

Since  the  decay  of  the  Spense- 
rian school  there  has  been  no 
regular  English  school  of  allegory; 
but  numerous  independent  works 
have  appeared,  embracing  some 
of  the  finest  compositions  of  this 
class.  We  have  the  allegory 
of  religious  experience  in  Bun- 
yan's  Pilgrim's  Progress  (1678), 
and  his  Holy  War  (1682);  the 
allegory  of  political  satire  in 
Dryden's  Absalom  and  Achitophel 
(1681),  and  of  religious  debate  in 
his  Hind  and  Panther  (1687) ;  and 
the  allegory  of  scholastic  and 
ecclesiastical  satire,  respectively, 
in  Swift's  Battle  of  the  Books  and 
The  Tale  of  a  Tub  (1704).  Later 
examples  are  Addison's  Vision  of 
Mirza  {Spectator,  No.  159),  and 
Thomson's  Castle  of  Indolence 
(1748);  while,  in  our  own  day, 
Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King  is 
meant  to  contain  beneath  its  ap- 
pearance of  a  heroic  poem  a  rep- 
resentation of  the  eternal  war  be- 
tween flesh  and  spirit  in  human 
life.  Maeterlinck's  fairy  play, 
L'Oiseau  Bleu  ('The  Blue  Bird') 
(1909),  which  represents  man  in 
his  search  for  human  happiness, 
assisted  by  the  material  neces- 
saries of  Hfe,  such  as  bread,  sugar, 
milk,  etc.,  who  take  an  active 
part  in  the  play — as  opposed  to 
the  elemental  forces  of  nature, 
who  hinder  him  in  his  quest — is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  ex- 
amples of  the  allegory  in  modern 
literature.  Consult  Courthope's 
History  of  English  Poetry  (vol.  i.) ; 
Saintsbury's  Flourishing  of  Ro- 
mance and  Rise  of  Allegory. 

Allegretto,  al-la-gret'to,  a  mu- 
sical term  indicating  a  tempo 
slower  than  allegro  (q.  v.),  but  not 
so  slow  as  andante  (q.  v.). 

Allegri,  Antonio.    See  Cor- 

REGGIO. 

Allegro,  al-la'gro  (Italian,  'live- 
ly'), the  fourth  of  the  five  princi- 
pal degrees  of  movement  in 
music,  implying  that  the  piece  is 
to  be  performed  in  a  quick  or 
lively  style,  nearly  intermediate 
between  andante  and  presto  (qq. 
v.).  Allegro,  like  all  the  other 
degrees  of  movement,  is  often 
modified  by  additional  terms, 
such  as  allegro  non  tanto,  allegro 
ma  non  troppo,  allegro  moderato, 
maestoso,  giusto,  commodo,  vivace, 
assai,  di  molto,  con  brio,  etc.  As 
a  substantive,  allegro  is  used  as 
the  name  of  a  complete  piece  of 
music,  or  a  movement  (usually 
the  first)  of  a  symphony,  sonata, 
or  quartette. 

Al'leguash  River,  or  Allagash, 
in  Northern  Maine,  is  a  branch 
of  the  St.  John  River  (q.  v.). 
Length,  200  miles. 

Allelne,  al'en,  Joseph  (1634- 
68),  English  nonconformist  di- 
vine, was  born  in  Devizes,  and 
ministered  at  Taunton  until  his 
ejection  with  the  two  thousand 
Vol.  I— Mar.  '16 


in  1662,  Together  with  the 
grandfather  of  the  Wesleys,  he 
became  an  itinerant  preacher, 
and  was  frequently  fined  and 
imprisoned.  He  wrote  Alarm  to 
the  Unconverted,  of  which  20,000 
copies  were  sold  at  once  (1672), 
and  50,000  on  its  republication. 
His  literary  Remains  were  pub- 
lished in  1674. 

Alleine,  Richard  (1611-81), 
English  Puritan  clergyman,  was 
born  in  Ditcheat,  Somerset.  He 
was  for  twenty  years  rector  of 
Batcombe,  and  after  being  eject- 
ed in  1662,  faithfully  preached  as 
occasion  offered.  His  chief  work 
is  VindicicB  Pietatis  (1660). 

Alleluia.    See  Hallelujah. 

Allemande,  al-i-mand',  a  Ger- 
man national  dance  (hence  the 
French  name,  meaning  'Ger- 
man'), originally  Swabian,  in 
various  kinds  of  waltz  tempo,  in- 
troduced into  France  in  the  time 
of  Louis  XIV.,  and  popular  on  the 
stage  under  Napoleon  i.  The 
name  has  also  been  used  for  an 
orchestral  composition  in  slow 
and  measured  time. 

Allen,  Alexander  Viets  Gris- 
WOLD  (1841-1908),  American  the- 
ologian, was  born  in  Otis,  Mass., 
and  was  graduated  from  Kenyon 
College  (1862)  and  Andover  The- 
ological Seminary  (1865).  Forfor- 
ty  years  (1867-1908)  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  church  history  in  the 
Episcopal  Theological  Seminary, 
Cambridge,  Mass.  He  published: 
Continuity  of  Christian  Thought 
(1884) ;  Life  of  Jonathan  Edwards 
(1889) ;  Religious  Progress  (1894) ; 
Christian  Institutions  (1897);  Life 
and  Letters  of  Phillips  Brooks 
(1900);  Freedom  in  the  Church 
(1907).  .Consult  Slattery's  Life 
(1911). 

Allen,  Charles  Grant  Blair- 
FiNDiE  (1848-99),  EngHsh  au- 
thor, better  known  as  Grant 
Allen,  was  born  in  Alwington, 
near  Kingston,  Ontario,  Canada, 
and  was  graduated  from  Oxford 
University  (1871).  He  was  prin- 
cipal of  Queen's  College,  Spanish 
Town,  Jamaica  (1874-7),  after 
which  he  resided  in  London,  Eng- 
land, and  devoted  himself  to 
literature.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  works  intended  to  convey 
scientific  instruction  in  a  popular 
style,  inclxxding:  PhysiologiccLl  Aes- 
thetics (1877);  Color  Sense  (1879); 
The  Evolutionist  at  Large,  and  Vi- 
gnettes from  Nature  (1881);  Colin 
Clout's  Calendar  (1883);  Flowers 
and  Their  Pedigrees  (1884);  Story 
of  the  Plants  (1895);  Evolution  of 
the  Idea  of  God  (1897).  He  also  pub- 
lished more  than  thirty  novels, 
which  include:  Philistia  (1884); 
Babylon  and  In  All  Shades  (1S86) ; 
The  Devil's  Die  (1888) ;  The  Wom- 
an Who  Did  (1895);  Bride  of  the 
Desert  (1896).  Consult  E.  Clodd's 
Life. 

Allen,  Edward  Patrick 
(1853),  American  Roman  Cath- 
olic prelate,  was  born  in  Lowell, 


Mass.  He  was  educated  at 
Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  Em- 
mitsburg,  Md.,  and  was  ordained 
to  the  priesthood  (1881).  He 
served  as  professor  of  English 
and  Greek  at  Mount  St.  Mary's 
College  (1881-2),  and  as  presi- 
dent (1884-97) ;  and  held  charges 
at  the  Cathedral  of  Boston  (1882) 
andatFramingham,  Mass.  (1883- 
4).  In  1897  he  became  bishop  of 
Mobile,  Ala. 

AUen,  Elisha  Hunt  (1804- 
83),  American  diplomat,  was 
born  in  New  Salem,  Mass.,  and 
was  graduated  from  Williams 
College  (1823).  He  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts bar.  He  served  in  the 
Maine  legislature  ( 1 836-4 1,1846); 
in  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representa- 
tives (1842-5) ;  and  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts legislature  (1849).  He 
was  U.  S.  consul  at  Honolulu 
(1852-6);  chief  justice  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  (1857-76);  and 
minister  from  Hawaii  to  the  Unit- 
ed States. 

Allen,  Elizabeth  Chase  Akers 
(1832-1912),  American  writer  of 
verse,  was  born  in  Strong,  Me. 
Her  first  literary  work  was  issued 
under  the  pseudonym  'Florence 
Percy.'  Her  familiar  poem,  Rock 
Me  to  Sleep,  Mother  (1859),  first 
appeared  in  The  Saturday  Even- 
ing Post,  and  was  later  included 
in  a  volume  of  Poems  (1866-9). 
She  also  published:  Queen  Cath- 
arine's Rose,  and  The  Silver 
Bridge  (1885) ;  Two  Saints  (1888) ; 
Proud  Lady  of  Stavoren  (1897); 
Ballad  of  the  Bronx  (1901);  Sun- 
set Song  . 

Allen,  Ethan  (1739-89),  Ameri- 
can Revolutionary  patriot  and 
soldier,  was  born  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.  About  1769  he  moved  to 
the  region  known  as  the  'New 
Hampshire  Grants.'  When  the 
governor  of  New  York  claimed  ju- 
risdiction over  that  territory,  and 
issued  new  grants  to  the  land, 
Allen  became  the  leader  of  those 
who  resisted  the  encroachments 
of  the  New  York  claimants.  De- 
feated in  a  land  suit  at  Albany 
(1771),  the  original  settlers  de- 
termined to  defend  their  claims 
by  force,  and  organized  the 
'Green  Mountain  Boys'  (q.  v.), 
with  Allen  as  commander.  Hos- 
tilities resulted,  the  New  York 
governor  declared  him  to  be  a 
felon  and  an  outlaw,  and  a  price 
was  set  for  his  arrest.  (See  Ver- 
mont, History.) 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Revo- 
lution Ethan  Allen  offered  his 
services  to  the  American  cause, 
and  on  May  10,  1775,  at  the 
head  of  the  Green  Mountain 
Boys,  surprised  and  captured 
Fort  Ticonderoga,  forcing  the 
commander  to  surrender  'in  the 
name  of  the  Great  Jehovah  and 
the  Continental  Congress'  (see 
Ticonderoga).  Subsequently  he 
served  under  General  Schuyler. 
He  joined  Montgomery's  expedi- 


Allen 


175 


AUen 


tion  to  Canada;  was  captured  by 
the  British  near  Montreal  (Sept. 
25,  1775);  was  sent  a  prisoner 
successively  to  England,  Halifax, 
and  New  York;  and  was  not  ex- 
changed until  May,  1778. 

Upon  Allen's  release  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  brevetted  him 
lieutenant-general,  and  later  brig- 
adier-general. Meanwhile,  in  a 
renewed  controversy  with  New 
York,  Allen  devoted  himself  to 
establishing  the  freedom  of  Ver- 
mont. Between  1779  and  1783 
he  carried  on  a  correspondence 
with  General  Haldimand,  British 
governor  of  Canada,  resulting  in 
a  charge  of  treason,  but  the  alle- 
gations were  not  substantiated. 
In  1787  he  removed  to  Burling- 
ton, Vt.,  where  he  died  in  1789. 
He  published:  The  Narrative  of 
Colonel  Ethan  Allen's  Captivity; 
A  Vindication  of  the  Opposition 
of  the  Inhabitants  of  Vermont  to 
the  Government  of  New  York 
(1779);  Reason  the  Only  Oracle  of 
Man  (1784).  Consult  Lives  by 
H.  Hall  and  Jared  Sparks. 

Allen,  Fred  Hovey  (1845- 
),  American  author,  was 
born  in  Lyme,  N.  H.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  Hartford 
Theological  Seminary  (1875), 
studied  abroad,  was  ordained  to 
the  Congregational  ministry,  and 
held  various  pastorates  in  and 
near  Boston  (1875-1902).  He 
brought  to  America  the  art  of  ar- 
tistic reproduction  of  paintings, 
produced  the  first  photogravure 
plates  made  in  America,  and 
wrote  the  first  book — Master- 
pieces of  Modern  German  Art 
(1884) — illustrated  by  American- 
made  photogravure  plates.  He 
invented  a  process  for  steel  facing 
copper  plates  and  a  press  for 
printing  photogravure  plates. 
Among  his  published  books  are 
Glimpses  of  Parisian  Art  (1882); 
Recent  German  Art  (1885);  Great 
Cathedrals  of  the  World  (1886); 
Popular  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion   (1887);   Famous  Paintings 

(1887)  ;  Grand  Modern  Paintings 

(1888)  . 

Allen,  Grant.  See  Allen, 
Charles  Grant. 

Allen,  Harrison  (1841-97), 
American  anatomist,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  and  was  graduated 
in  medicine  from  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  (1861).  He 
served  as  a  surgeon  in  the  U.  S. 
Army  (1862-5);  was  professor  of 
comparative  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania (1865-95);  surgeon  in 
the  Philadelphia  Hospital;  and 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery 
in  the  Philadelphia  Dental  Col- 
lege. He  wrote:  Outlines  of  Com- 
parative Anatomy  and  Medical 
Zoology  (1867);  Studies  in  the 
Facial  Region  (1874);  Analysis  of 
the  Life  Form  in  Art  (1875);  Sys- 
tem of  Human  Anatomy  (1880). 

Allen,  Henry  Watkins  (1820- 
66),  American  soldier  and  public 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '23 


official,  was  born  in  Prince  Ed- 
ward county,  Va.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Marion  College,  Mis- 
souri, studied  law,  and  practised 
in  Grand  Gulf,  Miss.  He  served 
in  the  Texan  War  against  Mexico 
(1842),  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Mississippi  (1846)  and  of  the 
Louisiana  (1853)  legislature. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  fought 
in  the  Confederate  Army;  was 
wounded  at  Shiloh  and  Baton 
Rouge;  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  In  1864  he 
was  elected  governor  of  Louis- 
iana; and  afterward  founded  and 
edited  The  Mexican  Times.  He 
published  Travels  of  a  Sugar 
Planter  (1861). 

Allen,  Horace  Newton  (1858- 

),  American  diplomat,  was 
born  in  Delaware,  O.,  and  was 
graduated  from  Ohio  Wesleyan 
University  (1881)  and  Miami 
Medical  College  (1883) .  He  was 
sent  as  a  Presbyterian  missionary 
to  China,  and  in  1884  went  to 
Korea,  where  he  saved  the  life  of 
one  of  the  princes,  and  was  ap- 
pointed medical  officer  to  the 
Korean  court.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  first  Korean  legation  to 
the  United  States  (1888);  secre- 
tary of  the  U.  S.  legation  in 
Korea  (1890);  and  U.  S.  consul- 
general,  minister  resident,  and 
plenipotentiary  in  Korea  (1897- 
1905).  His  published  works  in- 
clude Korean  Tales  (1889) ;  Chron- 
ological Index  of  the  Foreign  Re- 
lations of  Korea  (1900-03);  Ko- 
rea: Fact  and  Fancy  (1904); 
Things  Korean  (1908). 

Allen,  Horatio  (1802-89), 
American  civil  engineer,  was 
born  in  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  and 
was  graduated  from  Columbia 
University  (1823).  He  entered 
the  service  of  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  Canal  Co.,  and  in  1829, 
at  Honesdale,  Pa.,  ran  the  first 
locomotive  ('Stourbridge  Lion') 
in  America.  He  was  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  South  Carolina  Rail- 
road (1829-34);  president  of  the 
Erie  Railroad;  assistant  engineer 
of  the  Croton  aqueduct  (1838- 
42) ;  and  consulting  engineer  for 
the  Brooklyn  Bridge  and  the 
Panama  Railway.  He  invented 
the  swiveling  truck. 

Allen,  Ira  (1751-1814),  Amer- 
ican Revolutionary  soldier  and 
patriot,  was  born  in  Cornwall, 
Conn.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  Vermont  and  was  associ- 
ated with  his  brother  Ethan  Al- 
len (q.  V.)  in  the  land  grant  dis- 
putes between  New  Hampshire 
and  New  York  (see  Vermont, 
History).  During  the  Revolu- 
tion he  vServed  as  colonel  of  militia 
and  major-general  of  the  Ver- 
mont troops;  member  of  the  Ver- 
mont legislature  (1776-7);  State 
treasurer  and  surveyor-general; 
and  State  commissioner  to  Con- 
gress (1780-1).  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  University  of 
Vermont  (1789),  and  delegate  to 


the  State  constitutional  conven- 
tion in  1791.  From  1795  to  1801 
he  was  imprisoned  in  London  and 
in  Paris  on  the  charge  of  furnish- 
ing arms  to  Irish  rebels. 

Allen,  James  Lane  (1849-  ), 
American  author,  was  born  near 
Lexington,  Ky.,  and  was  gradu- 
ated from  Transylvania  Univer- 
sity. After  serving  as  professor 
of  Latin  and  higher  English  in 
Bethany  College,  W.  Va.,  he  re- 
moved to  New  York  City  in 
1886,  and  devoted  himself  to  lit- 
erature. He  is  a  member  of  the 
National  Institute  of  Arts  and 
Letters.  Among  his  many 
works,  which  deal  chiefly  with 
Kentucky  life,  are:  Flute  and  Vio- 
lin (1891) ;  The  Blue  Grass  Region 
of  Kentucky  (1892) ;  The  Kentucky 
Cardinal  ( 1 895) ;  Aftermath  ( 1 896) ; 
A  Summer  in  Arcady  (1896);  The 
Choir  Invisible  (1897);  The  Reign 
of  Law  (1900);  The  Mettle  of  the 
Pasture  (1903);  The  Bride  of  the 
Mistletoe  (1909);  The  Doctor's 
Christmas  Eve  (1910);  The  Hero- 
ine in  Bronze  (1912);  The  Last 
Christmas  Tree  (1914) ;  The  Sword 
of  Youth  (1915);  The  Kentucky 
Warbler  (1918);  The  Emblems  of 
Fidelity  (1919). 

Allen,  Joel  Asaph  (1838-  ), 
American  naturalist,  was  born  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  and  studied 
under  Louis  Agassiz  at  the  Law- 
rence Scientific  School,  Harvard. 
In  1865,  1869,  and  1873  he  ac- 
companied scientific  expeditions 
to  Brazil,  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  Florida;  in  1871  he  became 
assistant  in  ornithology,  Museum 
of  Comparative  Zoology,  Har- 
vard; and  in  1885  a  curator  in 
the  American  Museum  of  Nat- 
ural History,  New  York.  His 
numerous  scientific  works  in- 
clude :  On  the  Mammals  and  Win- 
ter Birds  of  Eastern  Florida 
(1871);  American  Bisons  (1876); 
Monographs  of  North  American 
Rodentia  (with  E.  Coues,  1877); 
History  of  North  American  Pin- 
nipeds (1880);  Mammalia  of 
Southern  Patagonia,  .  and  Influ- 
ence of  Physical  Conditions  in  the 
Genesis  of  Species  (1905);  Onto- 
genetic and  Other  Variations  in 
Musk-Oxen  (1913). 

Allen,  Joseph  Henry  (1820- 
98),  American  scholar,  was  born 
in  Northborough,  Mass.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  (1840) 
and  Harvard  Divinity  School 
(1843),  and  served  various  pas- 
torates until  1878.  He  con- 
ducted a  boys'  school  in  North- 
borough  for  ten  years;  was 
lecturer  on  church  history  at 
Harvard  (1878-82);  and  edited 
The  Unitarian  Review  (1887-98). 
He  published:  Hebrew  Men  and 
Times  (1861);  Our  Liberal  Move- 
ment in  Theology  (1882);  Chris- 
tian History  in  Its  Three  Great 
Periods  (3  vols.,  1882-3);  Uni- 
tarianism  Since  the  Reformation 
(1894).  With  J.  B.  Greenoughhe 
edited  several  Latin  text  books^ 


Allier  River 


170 


Alliteration 


well;  there  are  rich  meadows, 
large  forests,  and  good  fishing. 
Coal  is  mined  at  Commentry, 
Doyet,  and  other  places;  iron, 
manganese,  antimony,  and  cop- 
per in  other  parts.  The  cele- 
brated mineral  waters  of  Vichy 
come  from  this  department. 
Capital,  Moulins.  Area,  2,850 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1921)  370,- 
950. 

Allier  River,  in  France,  rises 
among  the  mountains  of  Lozere, 
flows  north,  and  joins  the  River 
Loire  (q.  v.).  Length,  233  miles. 

Al'ligator,  a  member  of  the 
reptilian  sub-class  Crocodilia, 
which  includes  also  the  true  croc- 
odile and  the  gavial   (qq.  v.). 


the  female  constructs  a  compact 
conical  or  rounded  nest  of  sand 
and  flags  or  marsh  grass,  in  which 
she  lays  between  100  and  200 
eggs.  The  heat  of  the  sun  and 
the  warmth  and  moisture  gener- 
ated by  the  decaying  vegetation 
complete  the  process  of  incuba- 
tion in  about  sixty  days. 

Alligators  are  hunted  chiefly 
for  their  hides,  which  are  used 
extensively  for  bags,  portfolios, 
etc.,  and  also  for  their  teeth, 
which  are  of  fine  ivory.  Many 
live  and  stuffed  animals  are  sold 
to  tourists,  and  thousands  have 
been  destroyed  merely  for  sport. 
The  eggs  are  eaten,  and  the 
flesh  is  sometimes  used  as  food. 


Chinese  Alligator 


The  alligator  family  comprises 
three  genera — the  Alligator,  the 
Caiman,  and  the  Jacare — that 
differ  from  crocodiles  in  their 
shorter  and  broader  head;  the 
presence  of  pits  on  the  upper  jaw, 
which  receive  the  first  and  fourth 
lower-jaw  teeth;  the  limited  ex- 
tent of  the  union  between  the  two 
lower  jaws;  and  the  separation 
between  the  scales  of  neck  and 
back.  Generally,  however,  they 
resemble  crocodiles  both  in  habit 
and  structure — e.g.,  in  the  lizard- 
like body,  with  powerful  tail  and 
short  legs;  the  body  armature  of 
the  skin;  the  abundant  teeth  fixed 
in  sockets;  the  large  head,  with 
very  solid  skull  and  nostrils  at 
the  end  of  the  snout;  the  double 
ventricle  of  the  heart.  Their 
feet  are  less  webbed  and  their 
habits  less  perfectly  aquatic, 
though  they  are  powerful  swim- 
mers. 

Of  the  true  alligators  there  are 
only  two  species — the  American 
or  Florida  alligator  (A .  mississip- 
piensis),  iound  in  the  rivers  and 
swamps  from  Southern  North 
Carolina  to  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
a  little  known  Chinese  species 
{A.  sinensis). 

At  birth  the  alligator  is  about  8 
inches  long,  glossy  black  or  dark 
brown,  with  orange  stripes  ring- 
ing the  tail  and  body.  Under 
favorable  conditions  the  rate  of 
growth  averages  about  one  foot  a 
year  for  the  first  ten  years,  the 
male  reaching  a  length  of  12  or 
13  feet,  the  female  seldom  exceed- 
ing 7  or  8  feet.  The  brightly  col- 
ored rings  disappear  with  age, 
and  the  color  becomes  a  dull, 
greenish  black.  Alligators  feed 
on  fishes,  birds,  mammals,  and 
sometimes  on  their  own  young. 
They  are  exceedingly  shy,  and 
seldom  attack  man  except  in  self- 
defence.  After  the  mating  season 

Vol.  I. — March  '24 


Their  numbers  have  thus  been 
greatly  reduced,  although  the 
State  of  Florida  has  enacted  laws 
for  their  protection.  See  Cai- 
man; Jacare.  Consult  A.  M. 
Reese's  The  Alligator  and  Its 
Allies  (1915). 

Alligator  Apple.  See  Custard 
Apples. 

Alligator  Fish  (Podothecus  aci- 
penserinus),  a  species  of  fish  be- 
longing to  the  order  Agonidae, 
found  in  the  Strait  of  Fuca,  Puget 
Sound,  and  other  inlets  along  the 
Northeast  Pacific  Coast.  It  is 
about  a  foot  long,  its  body  being 
encased  in  a  coat  of  mail  formed 
by  a  series  of  overlapping  plates. 

Alligator  Gar  {Lepidosteus 
tristcechus) ,  a  species  of  gar-pike 
found  in  the  waters  of  Central 
America,  Mexico,  Cuba,  and  the 
Gulf  States  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  of  a  greenish  color,  and  at- 
tains a  large  size — from  6  to  10 
feet.  It  is  not  edible.  See 
Gar-Pike. 

Alligator  Lizard,  any  species 
of  the  genus  Sceloporus,  family 
Iguanidae,  which  includes  a  num- 
ber of  small  forms  common  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  America.  They 


Alligator  Lizard 

are  brightly  colored  below,  chief- 
ly on  the  throat;  the  back  is 
usually  dull  in  color,  with  a  few 
markings;  the  head  lacks  spines, 
the  scales  are  flat,  and  there  is  no 
gular  fold.  They  are  exceedingly 


quick,  and  are  quite  harmless. 
The  striped  'Fence  Lizard'  of  the 
Eastern  and  Central  States  is  a 
familiar  species. 

Alligator  Pear,  or  Avocado, 
known  also  as  Midshipman's  But- 
ter and  Vegetable  Marrow,  is  a 
juicy,  edible  fruit  obtained  from 
a  small  tree  of  the  order 
Lauraceae,  native  to  subtropical 
America.  It  varies  in  shape  and 
size,  but  resembles  a  large  pear. 
The  outer  covering,  which  may 
be  soft  and  pliable  or  hard  and 
granular,  is  green  in  some  varie- 
ties, and  brown,  yellow,  or  purple 
in  others.  The  pulp  has  a  fine 
creamy  texture,  and  a  delicate 
flavor. 

Alligator  Tree.     See  Liquid- 

AMBAR. 

Alligator  Turtle,  or  Terrapin. 
See  Snapping  Turtle. 

Alligator  Wood,  the  timber  of 
the  West  Indian  tree,  Guarea 
grandifolia. 

I '  Al'lingham,  William  (1824- 
89),  Irish  poet,  was  first  a  bank 
clerk  and  then  an  officer  of  the 
customs.  In  1870  he  retired 
from  the  civil  service  to  become 
sub-editor  of  Eraser's  Magazine 
under  Froude,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  editor  in  1874.  His 
first  volume  of  verse  appeared  in 
1850,  under  the  title  Poems,  and 
was  followed  in  1854  by  Day  and 
Night  Songs,  in  which  his  lyric 
talent  is  best  seen.  His  longest 
poem  was  Laurence  Bloomfield, 
or  Rich  and  Poor  in  Ireland 
(1864).  AUingham  had  early 
and  close  associations  with  most 
of  the  pre-Raphaelite  Brother- 
hood, with  Browning,  Clough, 
Carlyle,  and  other  literary  fig- 
ures. Consult  Letters  of  D.  G. 
Rossetti  to  William  AUingham 
(ed.  by  Birkbeck  Hill) ;  Diary  (ed. 
by  H.  AUingham  and  D.  Radford). 

Al'lison,  William  Boyd  (1829- 
1908),  American  public  official, 
was  born  in  Perry,  Ohio.  He  was 
educated  at  Allegheny  and  West- 
ern Reserve  Colleges,  studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the 
Ohio  bar  (1850).  In  1857  he  re- 
moved to  Dubuque,  la.;  was  a 
member  of  Congress  (1863-71); 
and  for  thirty-five  years  U.  S. 
Senator  (1873-1908).  His  name 
was  given  to  the  Monetary  Act 
of  1878,  and  he  was  U.  S.  repre- 
sentative at  the  Brussels  Mone- 
tary Conference  of  1892. 

Allit'era'tion  is  the  recurrence 
of  the  same  letter  at  the  begin- 
ning of  several  words  in  a  com- 
position. As  a  method  of  procur- 
ing emphasis  it  has  been  much 
favored  among  Teutonic  and 
Finno-Ugrian  peoples,  and  con- 
stantly recurs  in  English  popular 
phrases  like  'kith  and  kin,'  'bed 
and  board,'  etc.  In  all  old  Teu- 
tonic poetry  alliteration  is  the 
prevailing  metrical  distinction,  as 
in  ancient  Gaelic  poetry  it  is 
combined  with  assonance. 

The  normal  Anglo-Saxon  verse, 
which  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of 


Allium 


177 


Allotropy 


purely  alliterative  measures,  con- 
sists of  two  hemistichs,  each  con- 
taining two  accents.  The  first 
laemistich  generally  contains  two 
alliterating  words,  and  the  second 
one — e.g.: 

'Fyrst  forth  gewat; 
Flota  waes  on  ythum.' 
'Time  went  by;  the  ship  was  on 
the  waves'  (Beowulf,  210).  In 
the  case  of  vowels,  alliteration 
was  made  by  the  recurrence  of 
different  letters. 

Outside  of  Anglo-Saxon  times, 
the  only  work  of  first-rate  import- 
ance in  which  this  measure  is  em- 
ployed in  English  is  the  Piers 
Plowman  of  Langland;  and  his 
use  of  it  is,  from  a  metrical  point 
of  view,  very  licentious.  In  pop- 
ular estimation,  however,  both  in 
romances,  such  as  Gawain  and  the 
Green  Knight,  where  it  is  com- 
bined with  an  elaborate  stanzaic 
arrangement,  and  in  popular  char- 
acter sketches,  such  as  Dunbar's 
Twa  Marriit  Wemen  and  the 
Wedo,  it  survived  even  into  Eliza- 
bethan times. 

Most  of  the  Elizabethan  crit- 
ics, and  many  of  the  greatest 
writers,  such  as  Sidney  and 
Shakespeare  (in  Love's  Labor's 
Lost),  ridicule  its  indiscriminate 
employment.  'E.  K.,'  the  first 
editor  of  Spenser's  Shepherd's 
Calendar,  speaks  with  contempt 
of  the  'ragged  rake-helly  rout 
that  hunt  the  letter' ;  but  his  own 
master  makes  frequent  use  of  the 
device — e.g.:  - 

'In  woods,  in  waves,  in  wars  she  wonts  to 
dwell, 

And  will  be  found  with  peril  and  with 
pain' 

(Faerie  Queene,  bk.  ii.  canto  iii. 
line  41).  And  perhaps  no  more 
perfect  example  of  its  use  can 
be  produced  than  Shakespeare's 
'Full  fathom  five  thy  father  lies.' 
A  fine  example  of  its  effect  occurs 
in  the  lines  of  Coleridge: 
'The  fair  6reeze  Wew,  the  white  /oam  /lew, 

The  /urrow  /ollowed  free.' 

The  use  of  alliteration  is  not 
confined  to  poetry,  however.  In 
Anglo-Saxon  prose,  the  homilies 
of  ^Ifric  contain  long  passages 
where  alliteration  is  consistently 
employed.  It  was  also  one  of  the 
distinctive  features  of  the  euphu- 
ism which  Lyly  (q.  v.)  made  fash- 
ionable at  the  court  of  Elizabeth, 
but  it  has  never  been  extensively 
employed  in  English  prose. 

Alliteration  in  rhyme  and  folk 
sayings  is  also  a  strong  character- 
istic of  Finno-Ugrian  speech.  In 
modern  German  literature  it  has 
been  used  with  good  effect  by 
Goethe,  Heine,  W.  Jordan,  and 
Richard  Wagner.  Consult  Guest's 
English  Rhythms  (ed.  by  W.  W. 
Skeat) ;  Saintsbury's  History  of 
English  Prosody  from  the  Twelfth 
Century  to  the  Present  Day  (1907). 

Ariium,  a  genus  of  Lihaceae, 
including  about  250  species,  na- 
tives chiefly  of  the  temperate  and 
colder  regions  of  the  Northern 
Vol.  I. —Mar.  '16 


Hemisphere.  They  are  peren- 
nial, or  more  rarely  biennial,  her- 
baceous plants,  with  bulbous 
roots,  flat  linear  or  cylindrical 
leaves,  and  flowers  on  a  central 
stem  —  sometimes  accompanied 


Allium. 
1,  Floret;  2,  bulb. 


by  bulbils,  arranged  in  dense 
heads  or  umbels,  which  may  fall 
off  and  develop  new  plants.  Gar- 
lic, Onion,  Leek,  Shallot,  Chive, 
and  Rocambole  (qq.  v.)  are  spe- 
cies of  this  genus  in  common  cul- 
tivation. They  possess  a  sul- 
phurous volatile  oil,  to  which  the 
acrid  taste  and  characteristic 
odor  of  the  genus  are  due. 

Allman,  61'man,  George  James 
(1812-98),  Scottish  zoologist;  re- 
gius  professor  of  botany  in  Dub- 
lin University  (1844-55);  regius 
professor  of  natural  history  and 
keeper  of  Natural  History  Muse- 
um, Edinburgh  (1855-70);  presi- 
dent of  the  British  Association 
(1879);  was  a  learned  student  of 
the  lower  forms  of  animal  life. 
He  wrote :  Monograph  of  the  Fresh- 
water Polyzoa  (1856);  Monograph 
of  the  Gymnoblastic  Hydroids 
(1871-2). 

All-mouth,  a  fish.  See  An- 
gler. 

Alloa^  al'o-a,  seaport  on  the 
River  Forth,  in  county  Clack- 
mannan, Scotland;  35  miles 
northwest  of  Edinburgh.  It  has 
a  good  harbor;  and  shipbuilding 
is  carried  on.  There  are  brew- 
eries, distilleries,  worsted  facto- 
ries, pottery  works,  and  glass  and 
iron  manufactures.  Coal  is  ex- 
ported.   Pop.  (1911)  1L893. 

Allobroges,  a-lob'ro-jez,  a  tribe 
of  ancient  Gaul  who  dwelt  be- 
tween the  Rhodanus  (Rhone)  and 
the  Isara  (Isere),  as  far  north  as 
the  Lacus  Lemannus  (Lake  of 
Geneva).  Their  chief  town  was 
Vienna  (Viennc).  They  were 
conciuered  in  121  B.C.,  but  not 
finally  pacified  until  Julius  Caesar 
settled  the  country.  In  63  B.C. 
Catiline  intrigued  with  their  em- 
bassy, and  was  betrayed  by  them 
to  Cicero. 


Al'locu'tton,  the  formal  ad- 
dress or  exhortation  by  a  Roman 
general  to  his  soldiers;  hence  the 
public  addresses  of  the  pope  to 
his  clergy  or  to  the  Church  gener- 
ally. The  papal  court  makes  use 
of  this  method  of  address  when  it 
desires  to  guard  a  principle  which 
it  is  compelled  to  give  up  in  a  par- 
ticular case,  or  to  reserve  a  claim 
for  the  future  which  has  no 
chance  of  recognition  in  the  pres- 
ent. The  Pope's  allocutions  are 
affixed  to  the  door  of  the  Vatican. 

Allodial,  a-16'di-al,  a  legal  term 
denoting  strictly  the  independent 
ownership  of  land  as  distin- 
guished from  feudal  tenure.  Prior 
to  the  establishment  of  Feudal- 
ism (q.  V.)  all  lands  were  allodial. 
That  system,  however,  converted 
all  holdings  by  a  subject  into 
tenancies  or  estates,  the  land  be- 
ing held  of  a  superior  lord,  and  all 
lands  in  the  state  being  held, 
mediately  or  immediately,  of  the 
king  as  lord  paramount.  Thus  in 
England  the  crown  is  considered 
as  the  only  allodial  or  indepen- 
dent land  owner,  all  others  hold- 
ing their  lands  in  subordination. 

In  the  United  States,  the  title 
to  land  is  essentially  allod  al,  ev- 
ery tenant  in  fee  simple  having 
unqualified  dominion  over  it;  and 
though  technically  the  land  is 
said  to  be  in  fee,  implying  a  feud- 
al relation,  actually  no  such  rela- 
tion exists.  In  some  States  the 
lands  have  been  formally  declared 
to  be  allodial.  See  Property; 
Real  Property;  Tenure. 

Allogamy,  a-log'a-mi,  cross  fer- 
tilization in  plan ts.  See  Flower ; 
Sex. 

Allop'athy  (Greek,  alios,  'oth- 
er,' pathos,  'disease'),  a  mode  of 
curing  diseases  by  producing  a 
condition  of  the  system  opposite 
to  that  characteristic  of  the  dis- 
ease; a  name  invented  by  Hahne- 
mann to  indicate  the  standard 
system  of  medical  treatment,  as 
opposed  to  homoeopathy  (q.  v.). 

Allori,  al-lo're,  Cristofano 
(1577-1621),  Florentine  painter; 
studied  under  his  father,  Alessan- 
dro  Allori  (1535-1607),  and  under 
Santo  di  Tito.  His  chief  work, 
Judith  with  the  Head  of  Holo- 
f ernes,  in  which  the  beautiful 
Judith  is  the  portrait  of  his  mis- 
tress, and  the  head  of  Holofernes 
that  of  himself,  is  in  the  Pitti 
Gallery,  Florence.  He  also  paint- 
ed admirable  portraits  of  distin- 
guished contemporaries. 

Allotment,  the  distribution 
among  subscribers  of  the  shares 
of  stock  of  a  corporation  or  of 
corporate  or  other  bonds  (see 
Stock).  In  England  the  term  is 
more  commonly  employed  to  de- 
note the  distribution  among  cot- 
tagers or  small  farmers  of  waste 
lands  to  be  devoted  to  agricul- 
ture, under  the  Allotments  Acts. 

Allot'ropy,  the  faculty  pos- 
sessed by  certain  chemical  ele- 
ments of  existing  in  forms  that 


^lowance 


178 


Alloys 


possess  entirely  different  proper- 
ties while  still  being  composed 
of  the  same  kind  of  atoms.  Phos- 
phorus, sulphur,  carbon,  silicon, 
and  oxygen  exhibit  this  property 
in  a  striking  degree.  Two  kinds 
of  phosphorus  are  well  known — 
one  a  colorless,  wax-like  solid,  ex- 
ceedingly poisonous  and  sponta- 
neously inflammable;  the  other  a 
red  powder,  neither  poisonous 
nor  spontaneously  inflammable. 
Each  can  be  converted  into  the 
other  without  adding  to  or  taking 
from  it;  they  are  both  composed 
only  of  phosphorus;  and  when 
burned,  equal  weights  of  them 
yield  the  same  weight  of  phos- 
phorus pentoxide.  Lampblack, 
graphite,  and  diamonds  consist 
solely  of  carbon;  yet  they  all  ap- 
pear very  different. 

Allotropy  is  believed  to  be 
due  to  a  difference  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  atoms  in  the  mole- 
cule; this  is  known  to  be  the  case 
in  the  intimately  related  oxygen 
and  ozone,  of  which  the  former 
molecule  contains  two  atoms  (O2) , 
the  latter  three  (O3).  There  is 
also  a  varying  energy  content,  as 
different  forms  give  out  a  differ- 
ent amount  of  heat  when  burned. 

Similar  phenomena  in  com- 
pound substances  are  known  as 
Polymerism  (q.  v.)  and  Isomer- 
ism (q.  v.). 

Allow'ance,  in  a  military  sense, 
is  additional  money  allowed  an 
officer,  soldier,  or  regiment  for  a 
particular  purpose  or  expense,  in 
lieu  of  provisions,  clothing,  horses, 
or  barracks.  In  the  U.  S.  Army, 
the  term  is  also  used  for  the  sup- 
plies themselves,  or  for  the  quan- 
tity allowed. 

Al'loway,  village,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Doon,  parish 
of  Ayr,  Ayrshire,  Scotland.  It 
contains  the  cottage,  now  con- 
verted into  a  museum,  in  which 
Robert  Burns  was  born.  The 
'haunted  kirk,'  now  in  ruins, 
where  Tam  o'  Shanter  saw  the 
dance  of  the  witches,  stands  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  poet's 
birthplace. 

Alloys.  An  alloy  is  usually  a 
mixture  or  compound  of  two  or 
more  metals  (see  Metals);  al- 
though in  some  cases  the  mixture 
of  a  metal  and  a  non-metal — e.g., 
steel  and  carbon — is  also  called 
an  alloy.  Some  alloys,  especially 
of  the  precious  metals,  occur  in 
nature — as  gold,  which  is  never 
found  pure,  but  contains  silver  or 
copper;  and  platinum,  which  al- 
ways occurs  with  one  of  its  asso- 
ciated elements,  as  iridium.  Al- 
loys are  usually  prepared  artifi- 
cially, by  fusing  the  components 
together  in  order  to  impart  spe- 
cial properties,  such  as  to  in- 
crease hardness,  fusibility,  or 
toughness,  to  alter  color,  or  to 
give  a  definite  electrical  resist- 
ance. Thus,  carbon  and  man- 
ganese harden  iron;  tin  and  bis- 
muth lower  the  melting  point  of 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


lead;  arsenic  toughens  copper, 
and  aluminum  increases  its  te- 
nacity. Sometimes  a  second  met- 
al makes  the  first  cast  sounder; 
thus,  aluminum  is  added  to  steel, 
and  phosphorus  to  copper. 

Alloys  are  either  (1)  mechani- 
cal mixtures  which  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be  solidified  solutions 
of  one  or  more  components  in 
each  other;  (2)  definite  chemical 
compounds;  or  (3)  mixtures  of 
these  two  classes.  Some  metals 
unite  with  evolution  of  heat,  oth- 
ers with  absorption:  aluminum- 
copper,  platinum-tin,  and  bis- 
muth-lead belong  to  the  former 
class;  lead-tin  to  the  latter. 
When  mercury  is  mixed  with  an- 
other metal,  the  compound  is 
termed  an  amalgam  (q.  v.). 

Alloys  retain  the  essential 
properties  of  metals — e.g.,  they 
possess  metallic  lustre,  and  con- 
duct heat  and  electricity  well. 
But  when  the  metals  form  com- 
pounds with  certain  non-metallic 
elements,  as  sulphur  or  chlorine, 
their  general  properties  are  quite 
changed. 

In  an  alloy  the  specific  heat 
and  the  coefficient  of  expansion 
are  always  the  means  of  those  of 
its  component  metals.  But  in 
other  physical  properties  a  varia- 
tion takes  place.  This  is  the  case 
with  specific  gravity,  which  may 
be  the  mean  of  the  constituent 
metals,  or  greater  or  less  than  the 
mean.  Increase  in  density  indi- 
cates that  the  metals  have  con- 
tracted— i.e.,  that  the  metallic 
molecules  have  approached  each 
other  more  closely ;  while  decreavse 
in  density  denotes  a  separation  of 
the  molecules  to  greater  distances 
from  each  other.  The  strength  of 
cohesion  ot  an  alloy  is  generally 
greater  than  that  of  the  mean  co- 
hesion of  the  metals  contained 
therein,  or  even  of  that  of  the 
most  cohesive  of  its  constituents, 

A  curious  fact  may  be  men- 
tioned in  regard  to  the  solubility 
of  alloys.  Platinum  by  itself  is 
quite  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but 
if  it  be  alloyed  with  silver  the 
compound  may  be  completely  dis- 
solved. Silver,  on  the  other  hand, 
readily  dissolves  in  nitric  acid, 
but  it  will  not  do  so  when  mixed 
with  a  large  quantity  of  gold. 

Important  Alloys. — The  most 
useful  alloy  in  the  arts  is  brass. 
Several  kinds  are  made,  varying 
in  composition  from  equal  parts 
of  copper  and  zinc,  to  5  parts  of 
copper  with  1  of  zinc.  (See 
Brass.)  Copper  and  tin  form  a 
number  of  well-known  alloys, 
among  them  bronze,  gun  metal, 
bell  metal,  and  speculum  metal 
(qq.  v.).  In  these  the  propor- 
tions vary  from  equal  parts  of 
copper  and  tin,  to  10  parts 
copper  with  1  of  tin.  Aluminum 
bronze  (q.  v.),  an  alloy  resembling 
gold  in  appearance,  varies  in 
composition  from  95  of  copper 
and  5  of  aluminum  to  90  of  cop- 


per and  10  of  aluminum.  Man- 
ganese bronze  is  brass  with  a  small 
percentage  of  manganese. 

German  silver  (q.  v.)  is  an  alloy 
composed,  in  its  best  quality,  of  2 
parts  of  zinc,  4  of  copper,  and  1  of 
nickel.  Cupro-nickel  for  bullets 
is  80  copper  and  20  nickel.  Bab- 
bitt metal  for  machinery  bearings 
contains  70  to  85  copper,  5  to  20 
tin,  and  the  rest  antimony  or 
zinc;  white  beaj-ing  metal  is  76 
lead,  18  antimony,  6  tin.  Britan- 
nia metal  (q.  v.)  generally  con- 
sists of  about  90  parts  of  tin,  8 
of  antimony,  and  2  of  copper. 
Nickel-copper  alloys  are  used  in 
the  United  States.  Belgium,  and 
Germany  for  coins.  Pewter  (q.  v.) 
is  a  tin  alloy  which  was  more  used 
formerly  than  now,  and  common- 
ly consists  of  4  parts  of  tin  to  1  of 
lead.  Type  metal  (q.  v.)  is  a  com- 
pound of  lead,  antimony,  and  tin; 
fusible  metal  (q.  v.)  is  an  alloy  of 
variable  composition  that  melts 
at  low  temperatures.  Soft  solder 
is  a  mixture  of  tin  and  lead;  hard 
solder,  of  copper,  zinc,  and  other 
metals  (see  Soldering  and  Braz- 
ing). 

An  alloy  formed  of  9  parts  of 
platinum  and  1  of  iridium  is  em- 
ployed for  the  standard  metre 
measures  by  the  International 
Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures, 
as  well  as  for  the  standard  metre 
itself,  deposited  in  the  Bureau  des 
Archives  of  France  in  Paris.  A 
copy  of  the  latter  is  also  pre- 
served in  the  office  -of  the  U.  S. 
Geodetic  and  Coast  Survey  at 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Iron  and  Steel  Alloys. — Iron 
and  manganese  unite  in  all  pro- 
portions: steel  with  14  per  cent, 
manganese  is  very  hard,  tena- 
cious, and  ductile;  ferro- man- 
ganese is  cast  iron  with  30  to  85 
per  cent,  manganese.  Up  to  7 
per  cent,  nickel  increases  the  te- 
nacity of  steel;  from  8  to  15  per 
cent,  the  alloys  are  brittle;  from 
20  per  cent,  upward  the  alloys  are 
tough,  malleable,  and  almost  non- 
corrodible.  Steel  with  2  per 
cent,  chromium  is  hard,  and  re- 
sists penetration  to  a  high  degree; 
ferro-chrome  may  contain  80  per 
cent,  chromium  and  11  percent, 
carbon.  From  1  to  2  per  cent, 
aluminum  hardens  steel;  in  pig 
iron  it  causes  separation  of  graph- 
ite; in  steel  it  helps  to  produce 
good  castings;  ferro-aluminum 
generally  has  10  per  cent,  of  the 
latter.  For  these  and  other  steel 
alloys,  see  the  article  Steel,  Al- 
loy Steels. 

Gold  and  Silver  Alloys. — The 
proportion  of  alloy  in  gold  and 
sterling  silver  coin  and  plate  is 
regulated  by  law.  Sterling  silver 
consists  of  11  oz.  2  dwt.  of  silver 
and  IS  dwt.  of  copper  in  the  troy 
pound — i.e.,  it  contains  7.5  per 
cent,  of  copper.  When  gold  is  to 
be  used  for  coins,  jewelry,  or 
plate,  it  requires  to  be  alloyed 
with  copper  or  silver,  or  with 


AU  Saints  Bay 


179 


Alma  College 


both,  in  order  to  harden  it. 
There  are  five  legal  standards  for 
articles  made  of  gold — i.e.,  al- 
loyed gold,  apart  from  coin. 
These  are  commonly  22, 18, 14,  12, 
and  10  carat  gold.  These  figures 
represent  the  number  of  parts  of 
pure  gold  in  every  24  parts  of  the 
alloy  used  by  the  goldsmith  or 
jeweller.  English  sovereigns  are 
made  of  a  mixture  of  22  parts 
gold  to  2  of  copper,  and  this  is 
called  22-carat  or  standard  gold. 
In  Germany,  Italy,  and  the  United 
States,  standard  gold  for  the  coin- 
age is  21.6  carats. 

In  the  United  States,  it  is  de- 
clared by  law  that  the  standard 
for  both  gold  and  silver  coins 
shall  be  such,  that  of  1,000  parts 
by  weight,  900  shall  be  of  pure 
metal,  and  100  of  alloy.  That  is 
to  say,  the  gold  coins  and  the 
silver  coins  consist  respectively  of 
900  parts  of  either  gold  or  silver, 
with  100  parts  of  copper  alloy, 
which  may  contain  a  certain  neg- 
ligible amount  of  silver. 

See  Metallurgy;  Electro- 
Metallurgy;  Soldering  and 
Brazing. 

Consult  Hiorns'  Mixed  Metals; 
Roberts-Austen's  Introduction  to 
Metallurgy;  Thurston's  Treatise 
on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other 
Alloys;  Howe's  Iron,  Steel,  and 
Other  Alloys;  Brannt's  Metallic 
Alloys  (3d  ed.  1908). 

All  Saints  Bay,  province  of 
Bahia,  Brazil;  37  miles  long,  and 
27  miles  wide.  It  is  an  excellent 
harbor,  guarded  by  the  island  of 
Itapasica  (18  miles  long,  3  wide). 
The  town  of  Bahia  (q.  v.)  is  on 
the  northern  side. 

All  Saints  Day  (Nov.  1),  All- 
Hallows-Tide,  All  Hallows, 
or  Hallowmas,  a  church  festival, 
dedicated  to  all  the  saints  collec- 
tively, which  originated  in  the 
seventh  century  when  the  Pan- 
theon at  Rome  was  consecrated 
as  the  Church  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin Mary  and  All  Martyrs  (608). 
The  festival  was  finally  author- 
ized by  Gregory  iv.  in  835.  See 
Halloween. 

All  Souls  College.  See  Ox- 
ford. 

All  Souls*  Day  (Nov.  2) ,  a  fes- 
tival of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  that  has  for  its  object  to 
assist  souls  in  purgatory  by  pray- 
ers and  almsgiving.  It  was  first 
instituted  in  993  at  the  monas- 
tery of  Cluny,  from  which  the 
observance  quickly  spread  every- 
where. 

All'spice,  the  dried,  unripe 
berry  of  a  species  of  Pimento 
(q.  v.),  an  evergreen  tree  of  the 
order  Myrtacese,  native  to  the 
West  Indies,  and  chiefly  culti- 
vated in  Jamaica.  It  is  about 
the  size  of  a  small  pea,  and  has  a 
warm,  aromatic  flavor  suggestive 
of  cinnamon,  clove,  and  nutmeg, 
a  characteristic  from  which  it  de- 
rives its  name.  The  name  is 
sometimes  applied  to  other  aro- 
VOL.  I. — Mar.  '10 


matic  plants,  such  as  the  Caly- 
canthus  (q.  v.). 

All'ston,  Washington  (1779- 
1843),  American  painter  and  au- 
thor, was  born  in  Waccamaw, 
S.  C,  and  was  graduated  from 


Allspice,  with  Flower  and  Fruit. 

Harvard  (1800).  He  studied  art 
under  Benjamin  West  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  London,  at  Paris,  and 
at  Rome.  In  1811  he  established 
a  studio  in  London,  where  he 
worked  until  his  return  to  Ameri- 
ca in  1818.  He  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  seclusion  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.  He  was  a  man 
of  lofty  aspirations,  but  a  poet 
rather  than  a  painter;  and  his  art, 
though  often  admirable  as  a  dec- 
oration, was  too  little  bavsed  upon 
nature  to  be  of  the  highest  rank. 
Among  his  important  canvases 
are:  Dead  Man  Revived  (1810, 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Philadel- 
phia) ;  St.  Peter  Liberated  by  the 
Angel;  The  Prophet  Jeremiah 
(Yale  College) ;  Belshazzar  s  Feast 
(Boston,  unfinished) ;  Spalatro's 
Vision  of  the  Bloody  Hand;  The 
Flood,  and  A  Spanish  Girl  (Met- 
ropolitan Museum,  New  York 
City) ;  portraits  of  Benjamin  West 
(Boston)  and  S.  T.  Coleridge 
(National  Portrait  Gallery,  Lon- 
don) .  His  literary  work  includes : 
The  Sylphs  of  the  Seasons  (poem, 
1813);  Monaldi  (novel,  1841); 
Lectures  on  Art  (1850).  Consult 
J.  B.  Flagg's  Life  and  Letters. 

All  the  Talents  Ministry.  See 
Grenville,  Lord. 

Allu'vion  takes  place  where 
land  is  gained  from  the  sea  by  the 
washing  up  of  sand  and  earth. 
By  the  law  of  England,  if  the 
addition  to  the  soil  thus  made  be 
by  small  and  imperceptible  de- 
grees, it  goes  to  the  owner  of  the 
land  immediatel}^  behind;  but  if 
the  alluvion  be  a  sudden  and  con- 
siderable acquisition  from  the 
shore,  the  ground  acquired  shall 
belong  to  the  crown.  In  the  Unit- 
ed wStates,  alluvion  signifies  the 
increase  of  the  earth  on  a  shore  or 
the  bank  of  a  river  by  the  force  of 
the  water,  gradually  and  imper- 
ceptibly made.  The  proprietor 
of  the  bank  is  the  gainer,  as  in 
England.  Where  an  open  space 
by  the  water's  edge  is  public,  the 
public  is  entitled  to  the  alluvion. 
See  Accretion. 


Allu'vium,  in  Geology,  depos- 
its which  were  supposed  to  have 
been  formed  subsequent  to  the 
Flood,  while  diluvium  included 
the  strata  produced  by  it.  In 
modern  geological  classification, 
these  two  terms  have  ceased  to  be 
used  in  this  sense.  By  alluvium 
is  now  meant  any  earthy  material 
deposited  by  the  ordinary  opera- 
tion of  water.  It  includes  all 
stream  deposits,  such  as  accumu- 
lations of  sand,  mud,  gravel, 
boulders,  etc.,  in  river  beds  and 
at  the  foot  of  mountain  slopes; 
deposits  left  by  inundation  of 
flood  plains,  lacustrine  deposits, 
river  bars,  river  deltas.  See 
Delta;  Denudation. 

Allward,  Walter  Seymour 
(1875),  Canadian  sculptor,  was 
born  in  Toronto.  When  nineteen 
years  old  he  was  commissioned  to 
execute  the  figure  of  Peace  that 
surmounts  the  Northwest  Rebel- 
lion Monument  in  Queen's  Park, 
Toronto.  Other  works  by  him,  all 
in  Toronto,  include  busts  of  Lord 
Tennyson  and  Sir  Wilfrid  Lau- 
rier;  heroic  statues  of  Gen.  J.  G. 
Simcoe  and  Sir  Oliver  Mowat; 
the  South  African  Monument, 
commemorating  the  Canadian 
heroes  in  the  Boer  War;  and  the 
monument  of  J.  Sandfield  Mac- 
donald  (1908). 

Al'ma,  city,  Gratiot  county, 
Michigan,  on  Pine  River,  and  the 
Ann  Arbor  and  Pere  Marquette 
Railroads;  90  miles  northwest  of 
Grand  Rapids.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Alma  College  (q.  v.).  Chief  in- 
dustries are  flour  mills,  beet  sugar 
factories,  and  the  manufacture  of 
furnaces,  auto  trucks,  gas  en- 
gines, and  lumber  products.  Pop. 
(1900)  2,047;  (1910)  2,757. 

Alma,  al'ma,  river  in  Russia, 
rises  in  the  Chatyr-dagh,  flows 
west,  and  falls  into  the  Black  Sea 
near  Cape  Lukul,  17  miles  north 
of  Sebastopol  harbor.  This  river 
was  forced  in  a  brilliant  engage- 
ment by  the  Anglo-French  army 
on  Sept.  20,  1854,  during  the 
Crimean  War  (q.  v.). 

Almacantar.     See  Almucan- 

TAR. 

Almack*s,  ol'maks.  About  the 
year  1763  a  Scotsman  named 
M'Caul  opened  a  gaming  club  in 
Pall  Mall,  London,  known  as 
Almack's  Club.  It  was  famed 
for  high  play,  and  included  among 
its  members  the  Duke  of  Port- 
land, C.  J.  Fox,  Gibbon,  and  W. 
Pitt.  In  1765  M'Caul  opened 
large  Assembly  Rooms  in  King 
Street,  St.  James's,  London, 
where  fashionable  subscription 
balls  were  held  during  more  than 
seventy  years.  He  died  wealthy 
in  1781,  bequeathing  the  rooms 
to  his  niece,  after  whom  they 
were  called  'Willis'.'  They  were 
closed  in  1890,  but  were  later  re- 
opened as  a  restaurant. 

Alma  College,  a  coeducational 
institution  located  at  Alma, 
Mich.,  established  in  1887  under 


Almada 


180 


Almanac 


the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church.  It  specializes  in  the 
liberal  arts  course,  granting  the 
degrees  of  a.b.  and  b.s.  In  1915 
there  were  23  instructors  and  285 
students;  the  library  contained 
25,750  volumes.  The  buildings 
and  grounds  were  valued  at 
$172,823;  the  endowment  funds 
totalled  $401,000;  and  the  budget 
was  $37,000.  Its  largest  bene- 
factor was  Am  mi  W.  Wright, 
whose  gifts  amounted  to  more 
than  $400,000. 

Almada,  al-mii'da,  town,  Es- 
tremadura  province,  Portugal,  on 
the  Tagus  River,  opposite  Lis- 
bon. The  fortress  of  San  Sebas- 
tian occupies  the  heights  above 
the  town.  It  is  an  important 
wine  centre.  The  Adissa  gold 
mines  are  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
8,000. 

Almaden,  al-ma-dan',  town, 
province  Ciudad  Real,  Spain;  48 
miles  southwest  of  Ciudad  Real. 
It  is  noted  for  its  rich  quicksilver 
mines,  yielding  an  annual  output 
of  2,500,000  pounds.    Pop.  8,500. 

Almagest,  al'ma-jest,  the  Arab 
title  of  the  principal  work  of 
Ptolemy  (q.  v.),  the  Alexandrian 
astronomer.  This  monumental 
treatise,  composed  between  140 
and  150  a.d.,  is  divided  into  thir- 
teen books.  The  first  two  con- 
tain introductory  matter,  and  lay 
down  as  postulates  the  sphericity 
of  the  earth,  and  its  immobility  at 
the  centre  of  the  revolving  stellar 
sphere.  The  third  treats  of  the 
length  of  the  year,  and  of  solar 
theory.  The  fourth  deals  with 
the  theory  of  the  moon,  and  an- 
nounces the  discovery  of  an  in- 
equality in  its  motion.  The  fifth 
book  explains  the  construction 
and  use  of  the  astrolabe,  and 
the  method  of  determining  lunar 
parallax.  The  sixth  discusses 
solar  and  lunar  eclipses.  The 
seventh  and  eighth  include  an  ex- 
position of  precession,  and  a  cata- 
logue of  1,028  stars.  The  con- 
cluding five  books  are  occupied 
with  the  theories  of  the  several 
planets,  and  give  the  improve- 
ments in  epicyclical  machinery 
by  which  the  Ptolemiac  system 
was  laboriously  perfected.  The 
Almagest  is  the  great  codex  of 
Greek  astronomy.  It  embodies 
nearly  all  that  was  worth  pre- 
serving, and  maintained  its  au- 
thority during  fourteen  centuries. 

Almagra,  al-ma'gra,  the  Arabic 
name  of  an  ochreous  earth  of  a 
fine  deep  red  color,  used  in  India 
for  staining  the  skin,  in  Spain  for 
coloring  tobacco,  and  generally, 
under  the  name  of  Indian  red,  as 
a  paint,  and  as  a  powder  for  pol- 
ishing silver. 

Almagro,  al-mii'gro,  town,  Ciu- 
dad Real  province,  Spain;  12 
miles  vsoutheast  of  Ciudad  Real 
city.  It  has  important  lace  man- 
ufacture.   Pop.  8,000. 

Almagro,  Diego  de  (?1475- 
1538) ,  S  pa  n  i  s  h  conq  uistador, 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  "10 


whose  name  is  derived  from  the 
town  near  which  he  was  discov- 
ered as  a  foundling.  He  emi- 
grated to  America  in  1514,  and 
lived  in  turn  at  Darien  and  Pan- 
ama. He  accompanied  Pizarro 
on  his  successful  expedition  to 
Peru  (1526-33),  when  the  wealth 
of  the  Incas  was  won  (see  Pizar- 
ro, Francisco);  but  Pizarro 
withheld, from  him  his  portion  of 
the  spoils.  In  1535  the  Emperor 
Charles  v.  made  Almagro  gov- 
ernor of  the  region  which  is  now 
occupied  by  Chile,  then  called 
New  Toledo.  Pizarro  had  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  the  adjoining 
territory,  and  boundary  disputes 
soon  arose  between  the  two.  In 
the  factional  war  that  ensued, 
Almagro  was  finally  defeated  at 
Las  Salinas  (April  26,  1538),  and 
shortly  af terward  executed .  Con- 
sult Prescott's  Conquest  of  Peru. 

Al'ma  Ma'ter  (Latin  'nourish- 
ing mother')  is  a  name  given  to 
a  university  or  higher  school  by 
those  who  have  derived  instruc- 
tion from  it. 

Al-mamun,  al-ma-moon',  or 
Mamoun,  called  also  Abdallah 
(786-833),  one  of  the  Abbaside 
dynasty  of  califs,  son  of  Haroun 
al-Raschid,  attained  the  throne  of 
Bagdad  after  a  war  with  his  elder 
brother,  Al-Almin,  in  813.  He 
continued  the  illustrious  tradi- 
tions of  his  father;  patronized 
learning;  procured  Arabic  trans- 
lations of  numerous  Greek  works 
on  philosophy,  astronomy,  and 
medicine;  and  encouraged  prac- 
tical science,  especially  astron- 
omy. He  died  in  Cilicia  during  a 
campaign  against  the  Greek  Em- 
peror Theophilu:^. 

Al'manac,  a  word  probably  de- 
rived from  the  Arabic  al-manah, 
'the  sun  dial,'  was  originally  ap- 
plied by  Roger  Bacon  in  1267  to 
permanent  tables  showing  the 
apparent  movements  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies.  In  general  usage, 
Almanac  refers  to  a  year  book  of 
dates  and  tables  giving  a  calendar 
of  days  and  months,  and  usually 
including  ecclesiastical  fasts  and 
feasts,  the  age  of  the  moon,  the 
tides,  the  exact  time  of  the  sun's 
rising  and  setting,  dates  of 
eclipses,  and  the  position  of  the 
planets  throughout  the  year. 
The  earlier  almanacs  included 
numerous  astrological  predic- 
tions, brief  treatises  on  theology, 
proverbs,  poetry,  and  morals; 
the  modern  almanac  partakes 
more  of  the  nature  of  an  encyclo- 
paedia, and  in  many  cases  is  a 
storehouse  of  useful  information 
and  statistics. 

The  oldest  known  copy  of  such 
a  work,  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum,  dates  back  to  the  times 
of  Ramesos  the  Great  of  Egypt 
(1200  B.  c).  It  is  written  on 
papyrus,  in  red  ink,  and  covers  a 
period  of  six  years.  The  entries 
relate  to  religious  ceremonies,  to 
the  fates  of  children  born  on  given 


days,  and  to  the  regulation  of 
business  enterprises  in  accordance 
with  planetary  influences. 

Tables  of  this  kind  were  un- 
doubtedly used  by  other  ancient 
peoples,  and  the  Roman  fasti 
(q.  V.)  were  in  many  respects  akin 
to  the  almanac  of  to-day.  Of  a 
similar  nature  were  the  'clog  al- 
manacs,' squares  of  wood,  brass, 
or  bone  notched  to  indicate  Sun- 
days and  other  fixed  festivals, 
which  were  introduced  into  Eng- 
land at  the  time  of  the  Norman 
Conquest.  From  the  thirteenth 
to  the  fifteenth  century  almanacs 
were  written  on  vellum  and  parch- 
ment; and  manuscripts  of  that 
period  are  preserved  in  the  libra- 
ries of  the  British  Museum  and 
British  universities. 

The  first  printed  almanac  was 
published  in  Vienna  in  1457  by 
Purbach,  and  this  was  followed  in 
1473  by  the  almanac  of  Regio- 
montanus,  covering  the  years 
1475-1506.  Engel  of  Vienna  com- 
menced the  publication  of  an 
almanac  in  1491;  Stbfier  of  Tu- 
bingen in  1524.  In  1533  Rab- 
elais published,  at  Lyons,  his  al- 
manac for  that  year,  and  renewed 
the  publication  in  1535,  1548,  and 
1550. 

The  first  almanac  printed  in 
England  was  Richard  Pynson's 
Kalendar  of  Shepardes  (1497), 
translated  from  the  French.  It 
was  soon  followed  by  others,  and 
in  the  later  years  of  Henry  viii. 
almanacs  were  in  common  use. 
Elizabeth  and  James  i.  granted  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  to  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  and  the  Station- 
ers' Company,  under  whose  pat- 
ronage flourished  such  produc- 
tions as  Lilly's  Merlini  Ephem- 
eris  (1644-81),  Poor  Robin's  Al- 
manac (1664-1824) ,  and  Moore's 
Almanac — the  last  named  reach- 
ing an  annual  sale  of  more  than 
half  a  million  (1743-1820).  In 
1828  the  British  Almanac  was 
first  issued  by  the  Society  for  the 
Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge. 
Since  1870  the  British  Almanac 
and  Companion  have  been  the 
principal  almanacs  published  by 
the  Stationers'  Company.  Whit- 
aker's  Almanack,  started  in  1869, 
has  acquired  a  high  reputation, 
and  since  1913  has  been  sup- 
plemented by  The  International 
Whilaker. 

In  France,  prophetic  almanacs 
were  especially  popular,  particu- 
larly after  the  prediction  of  the 
death  of  Henry  ii.  in  the  alma- 
nac of  Nostradamus.  Henry  ill. 
prohibited  the  insertion  of  any 
political  prophecies,  and  the  pro- 
hibition was  renewed  by  Louis 
XIII.  in  1628.  In  1852  almanacs, 
among  other  national  chapbooks, 
were  pronounced  so  deleterious 
that  their  circulation  was  greatly 
restricted.  At  the  present  day, 
the  most  important  French  alma-, 
nac  is  the  Almanack  National 
(formerly  Almanack  Royal),  be- 


Almanac 


181 


Almeida 


gun  in  1679;  the  most  popular  is 
the  Almanack  Hachette. 

In  Germany,  the  Almanack  de 
Gotka,  published  annually  at 
Gotha  by  the  great  geographical 
house  of  Perthes,  has  a  cosmopol- 
itan character.  It  was  begun  in 
1764,  in  the  German  language,  in 
which  it  was  continued  until  Na- 
poleon I.  became  emperor,  when 
it  was  changed  to  the  French  lan- 
guage. Since  the  Franco-Ger- 
man War  (1871)  it  has  been  pub- 
lished in  both  tongues. 

United  States. — The  first  alma- 
nac printed  in  the  United  States 
was  that  of  Captain  William 
Pierce,  issued  in  1639;  while  the 
oldest  almanac  of  which  there  is 
a  copy  extant  was  Samuel  Dan- 
forth's,  printed  by  Matthew  Day 
in  1646.  Another  early  almanac 
was  the  Kalendarum  Pennsilvani- 
ense  of  Samuel  Atkins,  printed  in 
1685  by  William  Bradford.  In 
1732  Benjamin  Franklin  (q.  v.) 
published  the  first  issue  of  Poor 
Rickard's  Almanac,  which  was 
continued  for  twenty-five  years, 
and  which  was  justly  celebrated 
for  its  wit  and  wisdom.  Ames' 
Astronomical  Diary  and  Almanac, 
an  annual  cyclopaedia  of  informa- 
tion and  amusement  (1726-64), 
won  much  popularity.  Nathaniel 
Low  began  his  series  of  almanacs 
in  1762;  Isaiah  Thomas  in  1774; 
Nathan  Daboll  in  1773;  Charles 
R.  Webster  in  1758;  Robert  B. 
Thomas  his  Old  Farmer' s  A  Imanac 
in  1793;  and  Dudley  Leavitt  his 
almanac  in  1794.  The  last  four 
of  these  are  still  issued  annually. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  number  of  al- 
manacs has  increased  rapidly. 
Their  constant  use  makes  them 
valuable  advertising  mediums, 
and  for  this  reason  they  are  issued 
by  various  commercial  enter- 
prises, especially  patent  medicine 
concerns,  and  distributed  gratis. 
The  various  religious  denomina- 
tions also  publish  almanacs  or 
year  books  devoted  to  their  in- 
terests, as  do  many  of  the  trades 
and  professions.  The  most  im- 
portant and  comprehensive  pres- 
ent-day almanacs  are  issued  by 
the  large  newspapers;  these  in- 
clude the  New  York  World  Al- 
manac and  Encyclopcedia,  Brook- 
lyn Daily  Eagle  Almanac,  Chi- 
cago Daily  News  Almanac  and 
Year  Book,  New  York  Globe  Al- 
manac and  Year  Book,  and  New 
York  Tribune  Almanac  and  Polit- 
ical Register.  In  1915  appeared 
the  first  number  of  the  American 
Wkitaker  Almanac  and  Encyclo- 
pcedia. 

Nautical  Almanacs. — Of  great 
scientific  importance  and  indis- 
pensable information  in  astron- 
omy and  navigation  are  the  offi- 
cial almanacs  published  by  many 
of  the  national  governments. 
They  contain  full  details  of  as- 
tronomical phenomena,  especial- 
ly the  elements  used  in  finding  a 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


ship's  latitude  and  longitude,  the 

predicted  positions  of  sun,  moon, 
planets,  and  such  stars  as  are  use- 
ful to  the  navigator,  etc.  In  the 
United  States,  the  American 
Epkemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac 
was  first  published  in  1853,  and  is 
issued  from  the  offices  of  the 
Navy  Department  at  Washing- 
ton. It  is  printed  three  years  in 
advance,  for  use  on  long  voyages. 
In  Great  Britain,  the  Britisk 
Nautical  Almanac  (first  projected 
in  1767)  is  published  by  the  Ad- 
miralty. In  France  the  corre- 
sponding astronomical  almanac  is 
the  Connaissance  des  Temps  (be- 
gun 1679),  now  published  by  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes;  in  Ger- 
many, the  Berliner  Astronom- 
isches  Jahrbuck. 

Almansa,  al-man'sa,  city,  prov- 
ince Albacete,  Spain;  40  miles 
southeast  of  Albacete.  It  pro- 
duces grain,  saffron,  and  sheep, 
and  has  textile  industries.  Here 
was  fought  the  great  battle  (April 
25,  1707)  which  practically  de- 
cided the  war  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession in  favor  of  Philip  v.,  duke 
of  Anjou.    Pop.  12,000.  _ 

Al-Mansur,  al-man-soor'  ('the 
Victorious'),  title  assumed  by 
Abu- J  AFAR  (c.  707-775),  second 
calif  (754)  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Abbasides.  He  was  a  cruel  and 
treacherous  prince,  and  perse- 
cuted the  Christians  in  Syria  and 
Egypt.  In  war  he  had  but  little 
success,  Spain  and  Africa  falling 
away  from  the  eastern  califate. 
He  removed  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment to  Bagdad,  which  he  built 
(764)  at  immense  cost.  He 
caused  the  Elements  of  Euclid  to 
be  translated  from  the  Syriac, 
and  the  fables  of  Bidpai  from  the 
Persian. 

Alma  -  Tadema,  al-ma-ta'de- 
ma,  Sir  Lawrence  (Laurens) 
(1836  -  1912),  English  painter, 
was  born  near  Leeuwarden,  Neth- 
erlands. He  began  the  study  of 
art  at  the  Antwerp  Academy  un- 
der Gustav  Wappers,  and  later 
entered  the  studio  of  Baron 
Henri  Leys  in  Brussels.  His 
early  pictures  were  mainly  illus- 
trative of  Frankish  life,  and  his 
first  important  works  were  Clo- 
tilde  at  the  Tomb  of  Her  Grand- 
children (1858)  and  The  Educa- 
tion of  the  Children  of  Clovis 
(1861).  In  1863  he  turned  to 
Egyptian  subjects;  and  a  few 
years  later  devoted  himself  to  de- 
picting ancient  Greek  and  Roman 
life.  In  1870  he  removed  to  Lon- 
don; became  a  naturalized  British 
subject  (1873);  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy 
(1879);  and  was  knighted  (1899). 
lie  was  also  honored  by  many 
British  and  foreign  art  associa- 
tions and  educational  institu- 
tions. His  work  is  characterized 
by  tliorough  knowledge  of  arcluc- 
ology,  enabling  him  to  depict 
with  great  fidelity  the  ancient 
civilization  of  the  Franks,  Egyp- 


tians, and  Greeks;  by  scholarly 
composition;  and  particularly  by 
effective  painting  of  marble  and 
bronze. 

Prominent  among  his  canvases 
are  the  following:  How  They 
Amused  Tkemselves  in  Egypt  3,000 
Years  Ago  (1863) ;  Fredegonda  and 
Pretextatus  (1864);  An  Egyptian 
at  His  Doorway  (1865);  Entrance 
to  a  Roman  Tkeatre  (1866);  Pyr- 
rhic Dance  (1869);  The  Vintage 
Festival  (1870);  A  Reading  from 
Homer;  A  Roman  Emperor  (1871) ; 
TheDeatk  oftke  First  Born  (1873) ; 
A  Picture  Gallery,  and  A  Sculp- 
ture Galley  (1874);  Four  Seasons 
(1877);  Fredegonda  (1878);  On 
the  Way  to  the  Temple  (1879); 
Sappko  (1881);  Hadrian  in  Brit- 
ain   (1884);    The  Apodyterium 

(1886)  ;  The  Woman  of  Ampkissa 

(1887)  ;  Tke  Roses  of  Heliogabalus 

(1888)  ;  Caracalla  and  Geta;  Spring 
(1894);  Gold  Fisk  (1900);  Tke 
Finding  of  Moses  (1905) ;  A  Fam- 
ily Custom  (1909);  Voices  of 
Spring  (1910).  Consult  Lives  by 
G.  M.  Ebers,  P.  C.  Standing,  and 
Zimmern;  W.  C.  Monkhouse's 
Britisk  Contemporary  Artists;  R. 
Dircks'  Tke  Later  Work  of  Alma 
Tadema  (1910). 

Alma  -  Tadema,  Laurence, 
English  author,  daughter  of  Sir 
L.  Alma-Tadema  (q.  v.),  was 
born  in  Brussels,  Belgium.  Since 
1870  she  has  lived  in  London.  In 
1907-8  she  gave  a  series  of  public 
readings  in  the  United  States. 
She  has  published:  Tke  Crucifix; 
Loves  Martyr;  Realms  of  tke  Un- 
known King;  Wings  of  Icarus; 
Fate  Spinners  (1900);  Herb  o' 
Grace  (1901);  Songs  of  Woman- 
kood  (1903);  Four  Plays  (1905); 
Tales  from  My  Garden  (1906); 
Meaning  of  Happiness,  and  A 
Few  Lyrics  (1909);  Poland,  Rus- 
sia, and  tke  War  (1915). 

Almeh,  al'me,  Alme,  or  Almai 
(Arabic  dlim,  'wise,'  'learned'),  a 
class  of  Egyptian  singing  girls  in 
attendance  at  festivals,  entertain- 
ments, or  funerals.  The  Ghawa- 
zee,  or  dancing  girls,  are  of  a 
lower  order.   See  Nautch  Girls. 

Almeida,  al-ma'i-da,  fortress, 
province  Beira,  Portugal,  be- 
tween the  River  Coa  and  the 
Spanish  frontier.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1762,  and  by 
the  French  in  1810.    Pop.  2,300. 

Almeida,  town,  Espirito  Santo, 
Brazil,  on  the  Reis  Magos  River; 
20  miles  north  of  Victoria.  The 
Jesuits  formed  the  first  settle- 
ment here  in  1580.    Pop.  5,000. 

Almeida,  Francesco  d'  (d. 
1510),  famous  Portuguese  soldier, 
son  of  the  second  count  of  Abran- 
tes.  For  his  services  against  the 
Moors  he  was  made  (1.505)  vice- 
roy of  the  Portuguese  possessions 
in  the  East  Indies.  He  fortified 
existing  factories,  or  established 
new  ones,  at  Cannanore,  Cochin, 
and  Quilon,  and  in  Ceylon  and 
Mauritius.  Important  events  of 
his  administration  were  the  con- 


Almeida-  Garrett 


182 


Almond 


elusion  of  a  commercial  treaty 
with  Malacca,  and  the  discovery 
of  Madagascar  and  the  Maldive 
Islands  by  his  son.  In  1507  he 
ravaged  Goa  and  other  seaports 
on  the  coast  of  Hindustan,  and 
destroyed  the  Moslem  fleet  at 
Diu.  When  Albuquerque  arrived 
from  Portugal  with  orders  to  su- 
persede him,  Almeida  refused  at 
first  to  give  way;  but  in  1509  he 
sailed  for  Europe,  and  was  slain 
in  an  engagement  in  Saldanha 
Bay,  South  Africa. 

Almeida-Garrett,  al-ma'i-da- 
gar-ret',  Joao  Baptista  da  Silva 
Leitao  d'  (1799-1854),  Portu- 
guese poet,  was  born  in  Oporto. 
He  played  an  active  part  in  the 
liberal  movement  of  1820,  and 
subsequently  devoted  himself  to 
the  high  task  of  founding  a  na- 
tional and  romantic  drama.  He 
is  the  author  of  some  of  the  best 
dramas  of  modern  Portuguese 
literature — e.g.,  Auto  de  Gil  Vi- 
cente (1838);  Dona  Filippa  de 
Vilhena  (1840) ;  Alfageme  de  San- 
tarem  (1841);  Frei  Luiz  de  Sousa 
(1844)  ;  Camoens  (1825),  a  poem 
in  which  he  sings  the  praises  of 
the  famous  poet  of  his  fatherland ; 
the  epic  Dona  Branca  (1826) ;  the 
poems  Bernal-Francez  (1829)  and 
Lirica  de  Joao  Minimo  (1829); 
Romanceiro  (3  vols.,  1851-3),  a 
collection  of  Portuguese  folk 
tales;  Folhas  Cahidas  (1852),  a 
volume  of  lyrics,  and  his  finest 
production. 

Almeirim,  al-ma-ren',  town, 
district  Santarem,  Portugal;  42 
miles  northeast  of  Lisbon;  for- 
merly the  summer  residence  of 
the  kings  of  Portugal.  Pop. 
6,000. 

Almelo,  al-ma-16',  town,  prov- 
ince Overyssel,  Netherlands;  21 
miles  by  rail  northeast  of  Deven- 
ter.  There  is  linen  manufacture. 
Pop.  10,500. 

Almendralejo,  al-men-dra-la'- 
ho,  town,  province  Badajoz, 
Spain;  31  miles  southeast  of  Bad- 
ajoz city.  Grain,  oil,  and  wine 
are  produced.    Pop.  13,000. 

Almeria,  al-ma-re'a,  province 
of  Southeast  Spain,  extends  from 
the  slopes  of  the  Alpujarras  range 
to  the  Mediterranean.  It  ^s  inter- 
sected by  the  Rivers  Almeria  and 
Almanzora.  Prod  uces  f  ruit ,  wine, 
and  olives.  Almeria  province 
consists  of  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  ancient  kingdom  of  Granada. 
Area,  3,300  square  miles.  Pop. 
355,000. 

Almeria,  capital  of  Almeria 
province,  Spain,  and  an  impor- 
tant Mediterranean  port,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Gulf  of  Almeria;  120 
miles  east  of  Malaga.  It  is  a 
bishop's  see,  and  has  a  Gothic 
cathedral  built  in  1524.  On  the 
hills  to  the  west  of  the  city  are 
the  ancient  castle  of  San  Cristo- 
bal and  the  old  Moorish  alcazaba. 
The  harbor  is  large  (177  acres) 
and  well  fortified,  and  is  sheltered 
by  two  long  piers.  There  is  ex- 
VoL.  I.— Mar.  '16 


port  trade  in  fruits,  especially 
grapes,  for  which  the  city  is  fa- 
mous; iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc, 
and  esparto  grass.  Sugar,  white 
lead,  and  macaroni  are  manufac- 
tured. 

Almeria,  founded  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians, was  known  to  the  Ro- 
mans as  Urci.  It  reached  its 
highest  prosperity  under  Moorish 
dominion  in  the  Middle  Ages.  At 
that  time  it  had  about  150,000 
inhabitants,  and  flourished  alike 
in  arts,  industry,  and  commerce, 
being  the  great  port  of  traffic 
with  Italy  and  the  East.  It  was 
captured  by  Alfonso  vii.  of  Cas- 
tile in  1147;  recaptured  by  the 
Moors;  and  came  into  the  perma- 
nent possession  of  Spain  in  1489. 
Pop.  (1900)  47,326;  (1910)  45,198. 
!  Almiqui,  iil-me'ke,  a  small  in- 
sectivore  of  Cuba,  which,  with  its 
closely  related  species,  the  Agou- 
ta  (q.  V.)  of  Haiti,  constitutes 
the  family  Solenodon.  They  are 
about  the  size  and  appearance  of 
large  rats,  but  with  shrew-like 
head  and  teeth,  and  a  long, 
naked  tail.  They  dwell  in  moun- 
tainous country,  remaining  hid- 
den by  day  and  seeking  their  food 
at  night. 

Almissa,  al-me'sa  (Slav.  01- 
mis),  town,  Austria,  on  the  Dal- 
matian coast;  13  miles  southeast 
of  Spalato.  It  has  vineyards  and 
wine  industry.   Pop.  16,000. 

Alraodovar  del  Campo,  al-mo- 
do'var  del  kam'po,  town,  prov- 
ince Ciudad  Real,  Spain;  22  miles 
southwest  of  Ciudad  Real  city. 
It  is  in  an  important  mining  dis- 
trict.   Pop.  13,000^ 

Almogia,  al-mo-he'ii,  town, 
province  Malaga.  Spain;  10  miles 
northwest  of  Malaga.  Wine,  figs, 
almonds,  and  raisins  are  pro- 
duced.  Pop.  6,500. 

Almohades,  al'mo-hadz,  or 
Muwahhadis,  a  dynasty  of  Ber- 
ber princes  who  expelled  the  Al- 
moravides  (q.  v.) ,  and  who  reigned 
over  a  large  part  of  Northwest 
Africa  and  the  southern  half  of 
Spain  during  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries.  Founded  as  a 
Moslem  sect  by  Mohammed-ibn- 
Tumart,  the  Almohades  con- 
quered Morocco  under  Abd-ul- 
Mumen,  and  extended  their 
power  to  Spain,  transferring  their 
capital  to  Seville  in  1170  under 
Abu  Yakub  (1163-84).  Yakubi., 
or  El  Mansur  ( 1 184-99) ,  inflicted  a 
defeat  upon  the  Castilians  at  Al- 
arcos  in  1195;  but  his  successor. 
En  Nasir  (1199-1214),  was  de- 
feated by  the  kings  of  Aragon, 
Castile,  and  Navarre  at  the  Bat- 
tle of  Navas  de  Tolosa  (1212). 
The  Almohades  lost  all  power  in 
Spain  during  the  next  few  years; 
but  they  continued  in  Morocco 
until  1269,  when  the  revolt  of  the 
nomad  tribes  put  an  end  to  their 
rule.  Consult  Ibn-Khaldun'sf/w- 
toire  de  Berberes  (French  transla- 
tion); Dozy' s  Histoire  des  Almo- 
hades (French  translation). 


Almon,  al'mon,  John  (1737- 
1805),  London  bookseller  and 
journalist,  was  born  in  Liverpool. 
Establishing  himself  in  Piccadilly 
as  a  book  and  pamphlet  seller,  he 
edited  and  issued  numerous  mis- 
cellaneous publications,  among 
which  were  the  Parliamentary 
Register  (1774)  and  the  General 
Advertiser  (1784).  In  1770  he 
was  fined  $50  for  selling  a  paper 
containing  a  reprint  of  Junius' 
Letter  to  the  King.  He  was  a 
friend  of  John  Wilkes  (q.  v.)  for 
thirty  years,  and  issued  his  Cor- 
respondence (5  vols.,  1805). 

Almond,  a'mund,  the  name  ap- 
plied both  to  the  tree  and  the 
fruit  of  a  genus  (Prunus  amygda- 
lus)  of  the  order  Rosaceae,  native 
to  Western  Asia  and  Northern 


Almond. 


a,  Flower;  h,  fruit. 

Africa,  but  now  found  growing 
throughout  Southern  Europe. The 
almond  tree,  which  is  similar  to 
the  peach  tree,  is  from  20  to  30 
feet  high;  its  flowers  are  similar 
to  peach  blossoms;  its  leaves  lan- 
ceolate with  serrated  edges;  and 
it  has  a  peach-like  fruit.  The 
outer  part  of  this  fruit  is  a  dry, 
fibrous  husk,  which  gradually 
shrinks  up  and  splits  at  maturity; 
the  pit  or  stone  is  the  almond  of 
commerce.  The  wood  of  the  al- 
mond tree  is  hard  and  of  a  red- 
dish color,  and  is  used  by  cabinet 
makers. 

Almonds  are  of  two  kinds, 
Sweet  and  Bitter.  Sweet  almonds 
are  hard,  soft,  and  paper  shell. 
They  contain  a  large  quantity  of 
a  bland  fixed  oil,  emulsin,  gum, 
and  mucilage  sugar;  are  of  an 
agreeable  taste,  and  very  nutri- 
tious; and  are  used  for  desserts, 
in  confectionery,  and  medicinally 
in  an  emulsion,  which  forms  a 
pleasant,  cooling,  diluent  drink. 
In  commerce,  the  long  almonds  of 
Malaga,  known  as  Jordan  al- 
monds, and  the  broad  almonds  of 
Valencia  are  most  valued.  Bitter 
almonds  contain  the  .same  sub- 
stances as  sweet  almonds,  and 
in  addition  amygdalin  (q.  v.), 
from  which  is  obtained  a  peculiar 
volatile  oil  (see  Almonds,  Oil  of). 

In  the  United  States,  almonds 
are  cultivated  chiefly  in  Califor- 


Almonds,  Oil  of 


183 


Alnwick 


nia,  where  they  are  grown  by- 
budding  into  seedlings  of  either 
the  bitter  or  sweet  variety.  They 
require  a  hght,  well-drained  soil, 
and  are  exceedingly  resistant  to 
drought.  According  to  the  U.  S. 
Census,  the  production  for  1909 
was  6,793,539  pojinds,  valued  at 
$711,970.  Large  quantities  are 
also  imported  from  France,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  the  Levant. 

The  Dwarf  Almond  {A.  nana) 
is  a  low  shrub  (2-3  feet)  similar 
to  the  common  almond.  Its  fruit 
is  also  similar,  but  much  small- 
er. It  is  used  as  an  ornamental 
shrub. 

Almonds,  OU  of.  The  fixed  oil 
of  almonds  is  prepared  from  either 
bitter  or  sweet  almonds  by  crush- 
ing and  pressing.  It  is  a  glyceryl 
oleate  with  a  mild,  nutty  taste, 
and  a  specific  gravity  of  .910  to 
.915  at  25°  c.  (77°  F.) .  It  does  not 
solidify  above  14°  f.  That  pre- 
pared from  sweet  almonds  is  sim- 
ilar to  olive  oil,  and  is  used  as  a 
substitute. 

The  essential  oil  of  almonds,  or 
Benzaldehyde  (CeHsCHO),  is 
prepared  from  the  cake  that  is 
left  after  the  expression  of  the 
fixed  oil  from  bitter  almonds. 
The  amygdalin  (q.  v.)  of  the  bit- 
ter almond  (see  Almond)  is  bro- 
ken up  by  the  emulsin,  in  the 
presence  of  water,  into  the  vola- 
tile oil  of  almonds,  prussic  or  hy- 
drocyanic acid  (see  Hydrocyanic 
Acid)  and  glucose.  On  distilla- 
tion the  oil  and  prussic  acid  unite 
to  form  the  crude  essential  oil  of 
almonds.  This  is  poisonous  from 
the  presence  of  prussic  acid,  but 
may  be  purified  bj^  means  of  sul- 
phate of  iron  and  lime. 

The  yield  of  crude  essential  oil 
is  variable,  ranging  from  4  to  9K 
lbs.  from  1,000  lbs.  of  bitter  al- 
monds; and  this  is  again  reduced 
by  about  10  per  cent,  during  its 
purification  from  prussic  acid. 
It  is  employed  as  a  flavoring 
agent,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
perfumes  and  dyes.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  oil  of  bitter  al- 
monds now  used  in  commerce  is 
prepared  artificially  from  toluene, 
obtained  from  coal  tar,  which  is 
chlorinated,  and  the  product 
heated  with  lime  and  water  under 
pressure. 

Al'moner,  an  official  charged 
with  the  dispensing  of  gifts  and 
alms.  Of  monastic  origin,  the 
office  afterward  extended  to  the 
households  of  sovereigns,  feudal 
lords,  etc.,  and  to  public  institu- 
tions such  as  hospitals.  The 
Grand  Almoner  of  France  was 
one  of  the  principal  officers  of  the 
court  and  of  the  kingdom,  usually 
a  cardinal. 

Almonte,  al-mon'ta,  town, 
Lanark  district,  Ontario,  Canada, 
on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway; 
35  miles  southwest  of  Ottawa. 
It  has  machine  shops  and  woollen 
and  knit  goods  factories.  Pop. 
(1901)  3,023;  (1911)  2,452. 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


Almonte,  town,  Huelva  prov- 
ince, Spain;  35  miles  southwest  of 
Seville.    Pop.  7,000. 

Almonte,  Juan  Nepomuceno 
(1803-69),  Mexican  general  and 
diplomat,  was  born  in  Valladolid, 
and  was  educated  in  the  United 
States.  He  served  in  the  Texan 
War  of  1836  on  the  staff  of  Santa 
Anna,  and  was  captured  at  the 
Battle  of  San  Jacinto.  He  subse- 
quently acted  as  minister  of  war 
under  Bustamente,  as  minister  to 
the  United  States  (1841-6,  1853), 
and  as  minister  to  France  (1857). 
In  the  Mexican  War  he  took  part 
in  the  Battles  of  Buena  Vista, 
Cerro  Gordo,  and  Churubusco. 
He  became  a  partisan  of  Maxi- 
milian in  the  latter's  invasion  of 
Mexico;  was  made  dictator  of 
Mexico  (1862);  was  appointed  re- 
gent and  grand  marshal  by  Max- 
imilian (1864);  and  was  again 
minister  to  France  (1866-9). 

Almora,  al-mo'ra,  chief  town, 
Kumaun  division,  Northwest 
Provinces,  India,  on  a  ridge  in  the 
Almora  Hills,  5,450  feet  above 
sea  level.  For  centuries  it  was  the 
stronghold  of  native  rulers.  Dur- 
ing the  Gurkha  War  of  1815  it 
came  into  the  possession  of  the 
British.  Ramsay  College  is  lo- 
cated here.    Pop.  11,000. 

Almoravides,  al-mo'ra-vidz,  or 
MuRABTis,  a  Berber  dynasty 
which  reigned  over  North  Africa 
and  Southern  Spain  during  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 
Originating  in  a  sect  founded  by 
Abdallah-ibn-Yasin,  the  Almora- 
vides began  in  1053  to  subjugate 
the  Berber  tribes  of  the  desert. 
Led  by  Abu-Bekr,  they  extended 
their  power  to  Morocco,  which 
was  completely  conquered  under 
Yusuf-ibn-Tashfyn.  In  1080  this 
ruler  also  conquered  the  kingdom 
of  Tlemcen,  and  in  1086  he 
crossed  to  Algeciras  and  defeated 
Alfonso  VI.  at  Zalaca.  When 
Yusuf  died  (1106),  after  a  reign  of 
forty  years,  his  son  Ali  iii.  suc- 
ceeded to  a  kingdom  stretching 
from  the  Sahara  to  the  Ebro. 
Madrid,  Lisbon,  and  Oporfo  were 
added  to  these  dominions  by  Ali; 
but  the  ceaseless  attacks  by 
Christian  armies,  and  the  grow- 
ing power  of  the  rival  Almohades 
(q.  v.).  broke  the  dynasty  of  the 
Almoravides,  which  came  to  an 
end  with  All's  son  Tashfyn. 
Consult  Ibn-Khaldun's  Histoire 
des  Berberes  (French  translation 
by  vSlane) ;  Dozy's  Histoire  des 
Musulmans  d'Espagne  (English 
translation  by  F.  G.  Stokes  as 
Spanish  Islam,  1913). 

Aim q vis t,  alm'kvist,  Karl 
Jonas  LuDwiG  (1793-1866),  Swe- 
dish author,  was  born  in  .Stock- 
holm. In  1829  he  became  rector 
of  a  large  school  there,  and  sub- 
sequently devoted  himself  to  lit- 
erature. He  fled  to  America  in 
1851,  having  been  charged  with 
murder  and  forgery;  returned  in 
1865,  and  lived  at  Bremen  as 


Professor  Westermann.  He  pub- 
lished: The  Book  of  the  Thorn 
Rose,  a  collection  of  romances; 
The  Palace;  It's  All  Right;  The 
Mill  at  Skdllnora;  Araminta  May; 
Grimstahama' s  Settlement. 

Almshouse,  an  institution  for 
the  charitable  support  of  persons 
suffering  from  old  age  or  poverty. 
See  Poor  Law. 

Almucantar,  al'mu-kan'ter,  or 
Almacantar,  an  astronomical 
instrument  consisting  of  a  small 
telescope  carried  by  a  float  swim- 
ming in  a  tank  of  mercury,  and 
revolving  round  an  imaginary 
perpendicular  axis,  so  as  to  de- 
scribe a  small  horizontal  circle 
passing  through  the  pole  of  the 
heavens.  The  transits  of  stars 
cutting  this  circle  in  different  azi- 
muths give  the  means  of  deter- 
mining instrumental  and  clock 
corrections,  the  right  ascensions 
and  declinations  of  the  stars,  as 
well  as  the  latitude  of  the  place  of 
observation.  The  method  is  com- 
promised by  fewer  risks  of  error 
than  that  of  meridian  determina- 
tions, to  which  it  serves^as  an  al- 
ternative. An  improved  instru- 
ment of  this  type  was  invented 
and  perfected  between  1879  and 
1884  by  Dr.  S.  C.  Chandler 
(q.  V.) .  Similar  instruments  have 
been  erected  at  Durham  Univer- 
sity, England,  and  at  Case  School 
of  Applied  Science,  Cleveland, 
Ohio.  In  both  a  plane  mirror  is 
employed  as  an  auxiliary  to  a 
horizontal  telescope  six  inches  in 
aperture. 

Almunecar,  al-moon-ya'kar, 
seaport,  Andalusia,  Spain;  33 
miles  south  of  Granada.  It  has 
trade  in  cotton,  sugar,  and  fruit. 
Pop.  8,000. 

Al'my,  John  Jay  (1815-95), 
American  naval  officer,  was  born 
in  Newport,  R.  1.  He  entered  the 
U.  S.  Navy  as  a  midshipman 
(1829),  was  commissioned  lieu- 
tenant (1841),  and  was  active  on 
the  African  coast  in  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  slave  trade  (1843-5). 
He  served  in  the  Mexican  War, 
assisting  in  the  capture  of  Vera 
Cruz  (1847).  During  the  Civil 
War  he  was  commander  of  the 
South  Atlantic  squadron,  en- 
gaged in  blockade  service.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  on  duty  in  the 
Brooklyn  Navy  Yard,  and  was 
commander  of  the  Pacific  squad- 
ron. He  was  promoted  commo- 
dore (1869)  and  rear-admiral 
(1873),  retiring  in  1877. 

Al'nus.    See  Alder. 

Alnwick,  an'ik,  town,  North- 
umberland, England;  32  miles 
north  of  Newcastle.  It  was  fre- 
quently besieged  by  the  Scots  be- 
tween 1083  and  1448.  On  the 
south  bank  of  the  river  stands  the 
castle  of  Alnwick,  the  residence 
of  the  dukes  of  Northumberland; 
al)()ut  a  mile  to  the  west  is  Aln- 
wick Abbey,  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  in  1147  by  Eustace 
Fitz-John.    Pop.  (1911)  7,041. 


Aloe 


184 


Alp  Arslan 


Aloe,  al'S,  a  genus  of  Liliaceae, 
of  about  100  species,  native  to  the 
Mediterranean  region,  Western 
Asia,  and  South  Africa,  and  ex- 
tensively naturalized  in  all  warm 
countries.  The  species  vary  in 
height  from  a  few  inches  to  30 
feet;  the  leaves,  arranged  in -the 
form  of  a  rosette,  are  permanent, 
thick  and  fleshy,  lanceolate  in 


African  Aloe,  Showing  Inflores- 
cence and  Section  of  Flower. 

shape,  and  with  spiny  margins; 
the  flowers  are  small  yellow  or  red 
tubular  blossoms  growing  in  clus- 
ters on  simple  or  branched  stems. 

Aloes  are  much  cultivated  as 
decorative  plants,  especially  in 
public  grounds  and  gardens. 
Their  chief  value,  however,  lies  in 
their  medicinal  properties,  the 
drug  aloes  (q.  v.)  being  prepared 
from  the  juice  of  the  leaves  of 
certain  species.  A  beautiful  vio- 
let color,  obtained  from  the  leaves 
of  the  Socotrine  aloe,  affords  a 
fine  transparent  medium  for  min- 
iature painting. 

The  so-called  American  Aloe 
is  a  totally  different  plant  (see 
Agave)  . 

Aloes,  the  inspissated  juice  of 
the  leaves  of  various  species  of 
aloe  (q.  v.),  especially  A.  soco- 
Irina,  perryi,  purpurascens,  spi- 
cata,  arborescens,  vera,  arahica, 
linguiformis,  and  mitriformis.  It 
is  a  stimulating,  purgative  drug 
with  an  intensely  bitter  tavSte, 
and  owes  its  chief  properties  to 
active  principles  known  as  aloins. 
The  chief  commercial  varieties 
are  Socotrine,  Barbadoes,  Cape, 
East  Indian,  Clear,  and  Caballine 
aloes.  Of  these,  only  Barbadoes 
aloes  (active  principle,  C17H20O7) 
and  Socotrine  aloes  (active  prin- 
ciple, CifiHieO?)  are  recognized  by 
the  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia. 

In  the  mouth  and  stomach, 
aloes  in  medicinal  doses  stimu- 
lates the  secretions  and  acts  as  a 
bitter  tonic.  Its  cathartic  action 
is  on  the  colon  and  rectum,  and  it 
also  stimulates  the  flow  of  bile 
and  tends  to  increase  the  men- 
'Strual  flow.  Excessive  doses  of 
aloes  may  produce  hemorrhoids 
through  congestion  of  the  pelvic 
vessels. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '10 


Aloes  Wood,  Agila  Wood,  or 
Eagle  Wood,  called  also  Lign 
(Lignum)  Aloes,  is  the  heart- 
wood  of  certain  species  of  Aqui- 
laria — trees  related  to  the  laurel, 
and  native  to  Eastern  Asia.  It 
contains  a  dark-colored,  fragrant, 
resinous  substance,  and  when 
burned  diffuses  a  sweet  aromatic 
odor  for  which  it  is  highly  valued. 
As  this  wood  admits  of  a  high 
polish,  and  exhibits  a  beautiful 
graining,  precious  gems  were  for- 
merly set  in  it;  and  it  was  cut  into 
fantastic  forms  and  worn  in  head 
dresses,  etc.  Many  medicinal 
virtues  have  been  ascribed  to  it. 

Aloidse,  al-o-i'de,  Alceid^,  or 
Aload^,  in  Greek  mythology, 
Ephialtes  and  Otus,  the  gigantic 
sons  of  Iphimedia  and  Poseidon. 
They  made  war  on  the  gods,  and 
attempted  to  pile  Mount  Ossa 
upon  Olympus  and  Pelion  upon 
Ossa. 

Al'oins.    See  Aloes. 

Along,  Allong,  or  Halong,  a 
bay  of  the  Gulf  of  Tong-king,  to 
the  northeast  of  the  Red  River 
delta.  It  has  a  fine  sheltered  road- 
stead. 

Alopecia,  al-o-pe'shi-a  or  -si-a 
(Greek  'fox  mange'),  the  tech- 
nical term  for  baldness.  See 
Hair,  Diseases  of. 

Alopecurus.  See  Foxtail 
Grass. 

Alora,  a'lo-ra,  town,  province 
Malaga,  Spain;  20  miles  north- 
west of  Malaga.  It  is  pictur- 
esquely situated  on  the  River 
Guadalhorce,  and  has  interesting 
mediaeval  ruins.  A  fruit  centre, 
especially  famed  for  its  Manza- 
nilla  olives.  Its  mineral  springs 
are  highly  valued.    Pop.  11,000. 

Alo'sa.    See  Shad. 

Alost,  a'lost  (Flemish  Aalst), 
fortified  town,  province  of  East 
Flanders,  Belgium;  16  miles  by 
rail  southeast  of  Ghent.  It  con- 
tains the  fine  Church  of  St.  Mar- 
tin. Linen,  silk,  and  cloth  are 
woven,  and  there  is  trade  in  hops. 
Pop.  (1910)  33,895. 

Aloy'sia.    See  Verbena. 

Aloysius,  St.    See  Gonzaga, 

LUIGI. 

Alpac'a  {Lama  pacos  or  Au- 
chenia  pacos),  a  South  American 
animal,  a  semi-domesticated  rel- 
ative of  the  llama  (q.  v.),  but 
smaller  than  the  latter.  The  al- 
paca is  a  native  of  the  Andes, 
from  the  Equator  to  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  but  is  most  frequent  in 
the  high  mountains  of  Peru  and 
Chile,  almost  on  the  borders  of 
perpetual  snow,  where  it  is  kept 
in  flocks  by  the  Peruvian  In- 
dians. In  form  it  somewhat  re- 
sembles the  sheep,  but  differs 
from  that  animal  in  its  longer 
neck  and  the  erect  carriage  of  the 
head.  Its  motions  are  free  and 
active,  its  ordinary  pace  a  rapid 
bounding  canter.  The  eyes  are 
large  and  beautiful. 

Although  occasionally  used  as 
a  beast  of  burden,  the  alpaca  is 


chiefly  prized  for  its  long,  fine 
fleece,  which  is  of  a  silken  texture, 
and  of  an  uncommonly  lustrous, 
almost  metallic  appearance.  The 
wool,  if  regularly  shorn,  grows 
about  6  or  8  inches  in  a  year;  but 
if  allowed  to  remain  upon  the  an- 
imal for  several  years,  attains  a 
much  greater  length.    Its  color 


The  Alpaca. 


varies  from  black  to  yellowish 
brown  or  almost  white. 

The  alpaca  furnished  the  Peru- 
vian aborigines  with  material  for 
blankets  and  ponchos;  and  about 
1836  the  wool  began  to  be  ex- 
ported to  Europe  through  the 
efforts  of  Sir  Titus  Salt,  whose 
mills  at  Saltaire  are  still  the  fore- 
most in  Great  Britain.  The  fab- 
ric manufactured  is  cool,  light, 
and  durable,  ^yith  a  dull  shine, 
and  is  used  for  fine  clothing  and 
for  covering  umbrellas.  Much, 
however,  of  the '  so-called  alpaca 
is  a  mixture  of  silk  and  wool, 
woven  to  resemble  the  texture  ot 
true  alpaca  cloth.  Attempts  to 
accHmatize  the  alpaca  in  other 
countries  have  failed. 

Al'parga'ta,  a  kind  of  footwear 
used  by  the  laboring  classes  of 
Spain  and  Central  America.  It 
has  a  sole  of  jute  or  hemp  rope, 
with  a  low  upper  part  of  canvas, 
and  is  fastened  by  means  of  tapes 
sewed  at  the  back,  and  tied 
around  the  ankle.  Machinery 
has  recently  been  invented  for 
braiding  the  rope  and  forming  the 
soles.  In  1914  vSpain  exported 
637,242  dozen  pairs,  valued  at 
$974,980. 

Alp  Arslan,  alp'  iir-slan,  'Val- 
iant Lion'  (1029-72),  second  sul- 
tan of  the  Seljuk  dynasty  of  Per- 
sia, whose  name,  Mohammed- 
ibn-Daoud,  was  assumed  on  his 
conversion  to  Islam.  He  became 
ruler  of  Khorassan  (1059),  and  of 
Persia  (1063),  his  kingdom  ex- 
tending from  the  Tigris  to  the 
Oxus.  He  captured  Ca^sarea  in 
Cappadocia  (1067-8).  and  con- 
quered Georgia  and  Armenia.  In 
his  attempts  against  the  Byzan- 
tine empire  he  was  thrice  defeat- 
ed by  the  Emperor  Romanus 
Diogenes;  but  obtained  a  decisive 
victory  in  1071,  and  captured 
the  Emperor.  Alp  Arslan  then 
marched  upon  Turkestan,  but 
was  killed  by  a  prisoner  whom  he 
had  condemned  to  death. 


Alpena 


185 


Alphabet 


Alpe'na,  city,  Michigan,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Alpena  county,  on 
Lake  Huron,  and  the  Detroit  and 
Mackinaw  Railroad;  200  miles 
north  of  Detroit.  Manufactures 
include  saw,  shingle,  and  veneer 
mills,  machine  shops,  cement  and 
paper  factories,  and  tanneries. 
Lumber  and  mineral  products 
are  exported  in  large  quantities. 
According  to  the  U.  S.  Census  for 
1910,  there  were  58  industrial 
estabUshments,  with  $5,798,000 
capital,  and  products  valued  at 
$3,964,000.  Pop.  (1900)  11,802; 
(1910)  12,706. 

Al'penhorn,  or  Alphorn,  a 
long  bugle  horn  made  of  wood, 
used  by  Swiss  peasants,  who  by 
this  means  communicate  with 
each  other  over  long  distances. 

Alpes-Basses.  See  Basses- 
Alpes. 

Alpes-Hautes.  See  Hautes- 
Alpes. 

Alpes  Maritimes,  alp  ma-re- 
tem',  the  most  southeasterly  de- 
partment of  France,  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
confines  of  Italy;  known  as  the 
French  Riviera.  It  surrounds 
the  independent  state  of  Monaco. 
The  department  is  roughly  trian- 
gular in  shape;  its  most  northerly 
and  highest  point  is  the  Cime 
de  Tinibras.  One  of  the  most 
mountainous  districts  of  France, 
its  climate  varies  according  to  lo- 
cality, the  genial  winter  of  the 
coast  contrasting  greatly  with  the 
severity  of  the  highlands  a  few 
miles  inland.  The  mistral,  which 
prevails  in  the  winter  months, 
brings  intense  cold,  except  to 
sheltered  places.  Large  herds  of 
sheep  are  pastured  in  the  Alps  in 
summer;  olives,  vines,  and  fruits 
are  cultivated  on  the  littoral;  in 
the  Plaine  de  Grasse  large  quan- 
tities of  flowers  are  grown  for  the 
manufacture  of  perfumes.  The 
silkworm  is  reared,  and  honey  is 
largely  produced  and  exported. 
The  tunny,  anchovy,  and  sardine 
fisheries  are  important.  Capital, 
Nice.  The  department  was  cre- 
ated in  1860,  when  the  left  bank 
of  the  Var  was  ceded  to  France. 
Area,  1,482  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1901)  293,213;  (1911)  356,338. 

Alph,  'the  sacred  river'  of 
Coleridge's  Kubla  Khan,  is  an 
imaginary  stream,  althoughplaced 
by  the  poet  in  a  real  locality,  the 
'Xanadu'  mentioned  in  Purchas 
his  Pilgrimage  as  the  site  of  the 
summer  palace  erected  by  Kublai 
Khan  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Alpha  and  Omega,  al'fa,  o-me'- 
ga  or  o'mi-ga,  the  first  and  the 
last  character  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet, a  name  applied  to  the  Deity, 
who  is  the  'beginning  and  the 
ending'  (Rev.  i.  8). 

Alphabet  (so  called  from  alpha 
and  beta,  the  first  two  Greek  let- 
ters) means  a  set  of  graphic  signs, 
denoting  vSounds  by  whose  com- 
bination words  can  be  visibly 
represented.  It  is  distinguished 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


from  other  systems  with  such 
signs  by  having  no  pictures  or 
ideograms  (see  Hieroglyphics) 
intermixed;  from  a  syllabary  by 
having  no  character  express  a 
consonant  and  vowel  at  once. 
Ideally,  no  letter  should  denote 
more  than  one  sound,  and  these 
should  be  elementary;  actually, 
some  letters  in  all  do  double  duty 
or  even  more,  and  some  represent 
compound  ones  as  well. 

Introductory. — Pure  alphabetic 
writing  is  used  by  all  leading 
modern  peoples  except  Chinese 
and  Japanese,  and  has  a  known 
history  of  nearly  3,000  years  in 
about  200  forms,  of  which  about 
50  are  now  in  use.  Yet  prob- 
ably only  one  was  invented  first 
hand,  and  the  symbols  even  of 
that  were  not  coined  outright, 
but  were  selected  from  existent 
forms.  This  common  parent — 
certainly  of  all  living  ones — is 
Semitic,  which  as  Phoenician  is 
found  so  well  developed  by  about 
900  ]g.c.  as  to  prove  a  much  ear- 
lier birth — although  probably  not 
before  1200  to  1000  B.C.  Each 
new  step  in  research  reduces  the 
number  of  alphabets  supposedly 
independent  of  this  one. 

The  genesis  of  the  alphabet  was 
humbler,  and  therefore  more 
practical,  than  that  of  our  pro- 
jected 'universal  languages' — 
Volapiik,  Esperanto,  Ido,  etc. 
It  was  designed,  not  to  supplant 
other  languages,  or  even  to  be  a 
key  for  understanding  them,  but 
only  to  simplify  writing  the  in- 
ventors' own.  Several  peoples 
had  systems  for  so  doing,  but 
these  were  -  cumbersome  and  in- 
efficient; and  when  a  much  sim- 
pler one  was  found  in  use  by  sea 
traders,  their  customers  eagerly 
adopted  it. 

These  systems  all  began  as 
pictures:  first  as  such  only,  to  be 
understood  as  the  objects  them- 
selves (soldiers,  boats,  cattle, 
totems,  etc.) ;  then  as  ideograms, 
symbols  of  objects  or  ideas  (hand 
to  mouth  for  'food'  or  'hunger,' 
hand  for  'five,'  eye  between  two 
doors  for  'to  listen,'  etc.);  then 
as  rebuses,  implying  not  the 
thing,  but  its  name.  This  last 
had  three  stages:  first,  the  whole 
word,  as  if  a  cow  and  a  cat  for 
'Cow-per' ;  secondly,  syllabic,  as  a 
Chinaman,  a  carpet,  and  a  gopher 
for  'Chi-ca-go';  thirdly,  that  of 
initials  only,  but  always  mixed 
with  the  others,  as  a  lion,  an  ass, 
and  a  sofa  for  'lasso.' 

This  series  —  pictorial,  ideo- 
graphic, phonetic — is  found  to- 
gether before  history  begins,  but 
conventionalized  into  rough  sym- 
bols easier  to  make;  sometimes 
still  recognizable,  oftener  not. 
Several  scripts  by  about  1500 
B.C.  had  advanced  to  a  mi.xed 
ideographic  and  phonetic  like  the 
Egyptian,  or  a  syllabary  like  the 
Babylonian  and  Hittite,  Cretan 
and  Cypriote;  these  were  clumsy, 


but  not  beyond  practical  use  as 
business  then  was.  Some  Semitic 
people  hit  on  the  shorthand  idea 
of  dropping  ideographs  and  vow- 
els alike;  selected  a  set  of  conso- 
nants and  semi-vowels  to  express 
the  remaining  sounds,  and  use  as 
a  counting  system;  and  thus 
started  on  its  course  the  greatest 
tool  of  civilization. 

This  much  seems  certain:  the 
alphabet  is  a  Semitic  invention 
(but  see  section  Semitic  Alphabets, 
further  on).  The  order,  forms, 
and  names  of  letters  confirm  it, 
and  the  very  name  'alphabet'  wit- 
nesses it.  Alpha  and  beta  mean 
nothing  in  Greek,  while  their  Se- 
mitic analogues  mean  'ox'  and 
'house.'  The  oldest  fairly  dat- 
able alphabetic  monument  is  the 
Moabite  Stone  (q.  v.),  900-850 
B.C.;  older  by  perhaps  a  century 
are  fragments  of  three  bowls 
found  in  Cyprus,  dedicated  to 
Baal  of  Lebanon,  with  Phoenician 
inscriptions;  from  Sinjirli  (Zen- 
jirli)  are  like  Aramaic  inscriptions 
of  some  800  B.C.;  while  the  Sabae- 
an  script  of  South  Arabia  dates  to 
715  B.C.,  but  began  much  earlier. 
All  are  written  from  right  to  left; 
contain  consonants  only  (the 
characters  given  later  vowel  val- 
ues in  the  tables  being  consonants 
here),  22  in  the  first  ones;  and 
while  differing  so  greatly  in 
forms,  values,  and  number  of  let- 
ters as  to  show  that  no  one  was 
copied  from  the  other,  were  evi- 
dently all  derived  from  a  much 
older  common  source — as  was  the 
Greek,  which  has  some  forms  an- 
tedating even  the  Cyprus  bowls. 
Which  Semitic  stock  framed  the 
prototype  is  not  provable;  but 
few  question  the  voice  of  anti- 
quity connecting  it  solely  with 
the  Phoenicians.  Greek  tradition 
is  unanimous  that  Greece  had  its 
alphabet  thence,  and  from  the 
Greek  spring  the  Latin  and  ours 
and  the  Slavonic. 

Sources  of  the  Alphabet. — This 
provenance  is  often  confuvsed 
with  a  totally  different  question: 
Where  did  they  find  their  mate- 
rial? Did  they  simplify  any  one 
system,  make  an  eclectic  one,  or 
invent  the  characters  outright? 
The  latter  may  be  dismissed: 
they  wrote  things  to  read,  not 
puzzles.  Eight  ideographic  sys- 
tems are  specially  noted,  of  which 
three  do  not  concern  us — the 
Chinese,  which  also  begot  the 
Japanese  syllabaries,  and  the 
Mexican  and  Easter  Island  pic- 
ture writing.  The  alphabet  mak- 
ers' possible  quarries  are,  there- 
fore: (1)  the  Egyptian  hieratic,  a 
script  modification  of  the  hiero- 
glyphics; (2)  the  Euphrates  Val- 
ley cuneiform,  whence  sprang  the 
Acha?monid  Persian  syllabary;  (3) 
the  Hittite,  perhaps  the  ancestor 
of  (4)  the  Cretan  and  (5)  the 
Cypriote  syllabaries;  with  (6)  an 
imagined  'signary'  apart  from, 
and  possibly  independent  in  ori- 


Alphabet 


185  A 


Alphabet 


gin  of,  all  these,  used  in  common 
by  the  Mediterranean  peoples 
from  5000  B.C.  onward  (Professor 
Petrie's  theory) ;  and  (7)  an  im- 
agined Semitic  ideographic  sys- 
tem from  which  the  Phoenician 
letters  were  directly  taken.  The 
quest  is  along  three  lines — (1) 
history,  (2)  forms,  (3)  names. 

(1)  History. — This  leads  no- 
where, with  one  significant  excep- 
tion. The  Phoenicians  were  close 
neighbors  and  trading  partners  of 
all  these  peoples.  They  formed 
the  western  and  southern  border, 
and  were  part  of  the  natural  sea- 
board of  the  Assyrian  and  Hittite 
empires;  they  had  trading  colo- 
nies in  the  Egyptian  capitals,  and 
borrowed  art  objects  and  designs 
from  them;  they  lay  across  a  nar- 
row sea  from  Cyprus,  and  were 
next  the  Philistines,  themselves 
a  refugee  colony  from  Crete  or 
the  near  Asian  mainland  after  the 
Doric  invasion.  They  might  well 
use  and  remodel  the  system  of 
any.  But  it  is  certain  that  what 
they  did  use  about  1400  b.c. 
was  the  Assyro- Babylonian  cunei- 
form, in  which  they  sent  all  offi- 
cial and  private  correspondence  to 
Egypt,  and  were  answered  in  the 
same,  not  in  Egyptian  (the  letters 
found  at  Tell-el-Amarna) .  The 
new  alphabet  is  the  only  system 
they  are  found  using  when  the  next 
later  records  appear;  and  though 
some  centuries  had  elapsed, 
at  no  time  would  they  have  de- 
moralized business  and  displeased 
customers  and  officials  by  setting 
them  to  learn  a  cryptic  system. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no 
proof  that  they  intended  it  for 
outside  use;  while  the  facts  that 
every  other  country  adopting  it 
remodelled  it  to  its  own  needs, 
and  that  Babylonia,  its  supposed 
mother,  refused  to  adopt  it  at  all, 
and  simplified  its  own  syllabary 
instead,  evince  that  it  was  only 
for  home.  Historically,  then,  the 
choice  lies  between  Babylonian 
and  native  Semite,  leaning  to  the 
latter. 

(2)  Names. — In  this  regard  the 
facts  are  still  stronger  to  the  same 
effect.  Twelve  of  the  Phoenician 
letter  names  have  familiar  North 
Semitic  meanings,  six  being  from 
two  parts  of  the  body  (hand, 
palm,  eye,  mouth,  head,  tooth, 
in  this  order),  and  the  rest  com- 
mon objects  (ox,  house,  door, 
water,  fish,  'his  mark';  so  J.  P. 
Peters) ;  in  each  set  grouped  in 
sequence  by  meaning  (hand  and 
part,  head-parts,  house  and  part, 
water  and  fish),  whence  the  for- 
mer idea  of  phonetic  sequence  is 
wrong.  Four  more,  as  vSemitic 
consonant  triliterals,  are  prob- 
ably unrecorded  words;  the  other 
six  are  meaningless  syllables.  Of 
the  twelve,  eleven  are  found  in 
the  Babylonian  syllabary,  and 
Zimmern  says  eight  belong  to  its 
shortened  form,  in  the  same  order 
as  in  Phoenician.    None  of  the 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


names  have  any  meaning  in  other 
languages. 

(3)  Forms. — Here  there  is  no 
outlet  on  any  existent  theory. 
Despite  the  above,  cuneiform  has 
no  characters  at  all  like  the  al- 
phabetic, though  some  scholars 
have  forced  a  resemblance;  others 
have  called  in  the  Babylonian 


nician,  and  the  names  none;  the 
chronological  bar  is  the  same  as 
above;  and  when  Egypt  did 
frame  an  alphabet,  it  seems  to 
have  been  modelled  on  the  Phoe- 
nician, not  the  reverse.  The 
Cretan  linear  script  divscovered  by 
Arthur  Evans  and  the  Cypriote 
syllabary  both  have  much  greater 


Egyp- 
tian 
Hieratic. 

Semitic 

Greek 

Cyril- 

Latin 

Phce- 
nician 
Cyprus. 

Other 
North 
Semitic. 

Of 
Thera. 

Old 
Eastern. 

Old 
Western. 

lic 

I'D,, a 

sian). 

Oldest. 

Un- 
cial. 

V 

4A 

1 

a 

A/1 

Ci 

Q 
/ 

8 

B 

i 

D 

D 

L 

D 

■  m 

S 
-9 

1  r 

1  1 

a 

r 

A 

LI 

f<c; 

l>  u 

r 
A 

3c  < 

D  Q 

C 

d 

m 

1 

1  1 

t — 

FY 

L  V 

E 

e 

t 

-Jim 

-i- 

-r 

I 

-T- 

X 

Q 
0 

3 

z 

B 

H 

B  H 

W 

z 

BH 

CP 

® 

0ffiO 

0 't' 

SSI 

1 

1 

\ 

1 

V 

^1 

K 

K 

1\ 

>  K 

a' 

h/\ 

A 
l\ 

L 

X 

r 

M 
r  I 

Y 

m. 

r 

N 

/  f 

f 

1  = 

+  X 

X 

0 

? 

o 

0 

V-v- 

0 

0 

0 

Go 

■h- 

7 

P9 

r  n 

P 

n 

IP 

9 

9Q 

\ 

p 

n 

P 

SDH 

r 

w 

c 

r 

xjf. 

T 

T 

T 

T 

f 

Development  Based  on  Phoenician  22-Letter  Alphabet. 


hieroglyphics  from  which  they 
sprang;  but  the  Phoenicians 
would  hardly  have  taken  for  a 
new  commercial  improvement  a 
system  many  centuries  disused. 
De  Rouge's  theory  of  a  simplifi- 
cation of  the  Egyptian  hieratic 
(of  c.  2000  B.C.)  long  held  sway, 
and  still  has  some  prestige,  chiefly 
because  Egyptian  was  studied 
first.  But  few  of  the  forms  really 
bear  much  likeness  to  the  Phoe- 


resemblances  to  the  alphabet,  but 
less  than  some  enthusiasts  claim. 

Both  names  and  forms  were 
quite  certainly  taken  from  some 
one  universally  familiar  source, 
that  no  one  might  be  puzzled  or 
hindeted;  and  it  is  absurd  to  sup- 
pose that  in  this  new  system  the 
forms  were  not  imderstood  as 
rough  pictures  of  the  names. 
This  suggests  the  true  explana- 
tion, close  to  the  oldest  and  obvi- 


Alphabet 


185  B 


Alphabet 


ous  one  of  the  ideographic  system, 
and  kin  to  the  'signary,'  both  un- 
traceable :  namely,  that  they  were 
part  of  a  common  Semitic  if  not 
general  Levant  set  of  drawing 
symbols,  used  in  schools  and  out- 
side, and  their  initial  value  recog- 
nized by  all — like  our  'A  was  an 
archer,'  etc.  (Clodd),  where  the 
pictures  alone  convey  the  alpha- 
bet to  all  adults,  only  in  the  East 
long  conventionalized  into  popu- 
lar outlines.  Several  of  them  tell 
their  own  story  even  yet,  the 
shapes  being  too  pictograptaic  to 
scout  or  mistake;  e.g.,  the  horns 
of  aleph  (ox),  the  fingers  of  yod 
(hand)  and  kaph  (palm),  the 
wave  of  mem  (water),  reduced  for 
nun  (fish),  the  round  eye  'am, 
the  notched  tooth  sin,  and  the 
'mark'  tau;  the  original  square 
form  of  beth  must  have  been  what 
is  still  a  child's  picture  of  a  house. 
Some  show  it  to  this  day  in  the 
English  alphabet,  as  Aa,  B,  Kk, 
Mm  inverted,  Oo,  Tt.  Both  ob- 
jects and  outlines  were  special  to 
no  country,  were  familiar  from 
babyhood,  and  their  values  equal- 
ly so  in  all  Semitic  lands.  The 
unfamiliar  and  now  lost  words 
probably  had  to  be  used  because 
no  familiar  objects  began  with 
these  letters;  the  mere  syllables 
probably  began  none  picturable, 
but  the  'primers'  most  likely  in- 
cluded sound  signs  also.  It  is 
very  significant  that  never  more 
than  two  picturable  words  come 
in  succession  without  one  of  these 
apparently  arbitrary  signs  be- 
tween; and  that  three  of  the  syl- 
lables and  two  lost  words  are 
'bunched'  in  one  spot  between 
daleth  and  yod.  Did  the  primers 
thus  insert  hard  signs  between 
easy  ones  to  make  them  easier  for 
children  to  learn? 

That  the  alphabet  was  based 
on  such  direct  picture  forms  was 
seen  by  the  first  speculators  on  its 
origin,  and  is  now  pityingly  ig- 
nored as  folk  science.  It  is  not 
the  only  case  where  rough  com- 
mon sense  has  hit  right,  and  over- 
subtle  scholarship  has  wandered. 

The  Semitic  Alphabets. — The 
absence  of  vowels  leads  F.  Pra- 
torius  to  deny  that  they  were 
alphabets  at  all;  merely  sylla- 
baries with  vowels  understood, 
the  Greeks  really  inventing  the 
alphabet  proper.  But  this  seems 
fantastic;  the  number  of  vowels 
currently  syllabizing  the  conso- 
nants in  the  cuneiform  shows 
that  they  could  not  all  have  been 
understood,  and  the  later  device 
of  adding  them  by  points  is  equal 
evidence  that  they  were  needed. 
The  facts  seem  rather  to  be,  that 
vowels  are  less  vital  in  vSemitic 
than  Aryan  tongues;  that  even 
so,  as  common  with  devices  for 
brevity,  it  was  at  first  overdone 
and  afterward  relaxed;  and  that 
even  in  Aryan  they  are  conve- 
nient, but  not  indispensable.  Take 
any  sentence  in  this  paragraph  and 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


devowelize  it,  and  no  one  will  have 
difficulty  in  understanding  it. 
Phoenician  script  was  also  used 
by  the  Carthaginians,  and  by  the 
Hebrews  before  the  Exile  (Siloam 
inscription),  while  the  Maccabean 
princes  revived  it  on  their  coins. 
The  Samaritan  alphabet  is  its 
most  direct  descendant. 

The  Aramaic  alphabet  is  of 
fundamental  importance,  because 
of  its  numerous  descendants.  It 
gradually  assumes  a  distinctive 
character;  by  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  the  transformation  is  com- 
plete (inscription  of  Tema).  Af- 
ter the  Exile  the  Jews  adopted 
this  alphabet,  and  a  distinctive 
Hebrew  variety  exists  from  the 
Christian  era  onward.  The  latter 
is  marked  by  a  tendency  to  bend 
final  strokes  round  to  the  left  (^ 
is  the  same  letter  as  L).  This 
was  a  step  toward  cursive  writ- 
ing, which  at  last  comes  into  use, 
although  never  in  Bible  Mss.  The 
Syriac  is  another  descendant  of 
the  Aramaic  alphabet.  As  in  He- 
brew, aspirated  consonants  were 
indicated  by  dots,  and  points 
or  modifications  of  Greek  vowels 
were  used  to  indicate  vocaliza- 
tion. From  it,  through  the  ac- 
tivity of  Nestorian  missionaries, 
was  developed  the  Tibetan  alpha- 
bet; and  it  is  also  the  parent  of 
the  Iranian  alphabets  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  the  Indian  on  the 
other.  The  former  group  in- 
cludes the  Avestan  script  with 
the  closely  related  Pahlavi  alpha- 
bet, as  well  as  Armenian  and 
Georgian;  while  the  Indian  com- 
prises the  Sanskrit  characters 
with  all  their  modifications,  such 
as  Pali,  Gujarati,  and  Bengali. 
The  Hebrew  vowels  date  from  the 
sixth  or  seventh  century  a.d.,  and 
the  innovation  may  have  fol- 
lowed a  Syriac  model. 

From  a  Nabatean  variety  of 
the  Aramaic  alphabet  comes  the 
Arabic.  It  has  profoundly  altered 
the  characters  of  the  parent  al- 
phabet, and  so  confused  seven 
of  them  that  diacritical  marks 
are  required  to  distinguish  them. 
There  are  now  twenty-eight  con- 
sonants. The  numerical  order  of 
the  alphabet  is  the  old  one,  the 
six  new  consonants  being  at  the 
end.  The  grammatical  order  is  a 
rearrangement  according  to  the 
present  resemblance  of  the  signs. 
The  vowels  are  indicated  only 
meagrely. 

The  Sabaean  or  Himyaritic  al- 
phabet of  Southern  Arabia  seems 
to  be  a  development  of  the  primi- 
tive Semitic  alphabet:  Hommel 
thinks  it  the  original,  but  is  not 
followed.  The  dialect  is  usually 
divided  into  Sabaean  proper  and 
Minaean,  with  much  the  same  al- 
phabet. The  Ethiopian  syllabary 
is  an  offshoot  from  it. 

Causes  of  Change.  —  Many 
causes  have  transformed  the  Se- 
mitic alphabet  into  offshoots  al- 
most unrecognizable  of  kinship. 


Their  divergences  are :  (1)  innum- 
ber  of  letters,  (2)  in  forms,  (3)  in 
values  or  pronunciation. 

(1)  Number. — Quite  the  most 
peculiar  feature  in  their  history, 
significant  of  a  single  parentage 
and  the  unique  conjunction  that 
led  to  the  birth  of  that,  is  their 
clinging  near  its  scanty  numerical 
limitation;  though  it  fell  far  be- 
low representing  even  its  own 
sounds,  much  less  others'.  Of 
course,  in  each  case  some  new 
letters  have  had  to  be  added,  and 
old  ones  dropped  or  put  to  new 
uses,  or  the  system  would  be  un- 
serviceable; but  to  this  day  none 
has  ever  been  made  a  full  vehicle 
for  the  sounds  of  a  language — 
sometimes  scarce  half;  and  none, 
left  to  natural  growth,  have  gone 
very  much  beyond  the  original 
number  of  22.  Greek  has  24; 
English,  26;  Hebrew,  22,  helped 
out  with  vowel  points;  Arabic,  28. 
Only  those  deliberately  remade 
by  scholars,  as  the  Cyrillic  (Rus- 
sian)- and  Sequoyah's  Cherokee 
alphabet,  come  near  thorough- 
ness. 

(2)  Forms. — Wholly  new  forms 
are  rare,  though  not  unknown. 
Its  very  nature,  which  must  not 
be  a  cryptogram,  but  widely  in- 
telligible, greatly  restricts  such 
inventions.  Hence  letters  needed 
for  extra  sounds  are  usually  va- 
ried by  a  slight  'lip,'  or  an  exten- 
sion from  old  ones  phonetically 
related:  e.g.,  C  G,  I  J,  (/  c/,  2  2. 
Still,  Anglo-Saxon  added  to  the 
Latin  alphabet  the  runic  'thorn' 
(p) ;  and  Cyril,  having  a  free 
hand,  extended  the  Greek  script 
for  Slavonic  by  new  letters  of  un- 
known origin,  such  as  K  (zh) 
and  0)  (sh),  the  latter  still  further 
differentiated  in  Russian  to  lu, 
(shch). 

Changes  in  form  of  letters  re- 
taining their  old  relative  place 
and  value  are  sometimes  made 
for  ornament's  sake  by  a  class  of 
scribes,  but  result  far  more  from 
unpurposed  variation  through 
two  great  causes:  (1)  ease  and 
speed  gained  by  first  simplifying 
them,  then  connecting  them  by 
ligatures  not  to  lift  the  pen,  the 
whole  making  havoc  of  old  shapes ; 
(2)  character  of  writing  materials 
and  instruments,  the  latter  most- 
ly dictated  by  the  former.  Wood 
is  cut  with  a  sharp  knife;  wax  and 
clay  graven  with  a  point  or  a 
blunt  stylus;  leaves,  skin,  and 
paper  daubed  with  a  brush  or 
written  on  with  a  pen.  Thus, 
runes  are  angular,  not  to  split  the 
wooden  tablet;  clay  characters 
are  wedge  shaped  ('cuneiform'), 
from  the  broad  stroke  narrowing 
as  it  closes;  and  writing  on  palm 
leaves,  as  in  Ceylon,  is  round. 
With  our  own  quill  pens,  the  in- 
strument  dictates  the  unshaded, 
blotty  form,  since  if  pressed  hard 
it  makes  no  mark  at  all;  and  va- 
rious shapes  are  made  to  favor  it. 
Convenience  also  may  change  the 


Alphabet 


186 


Alphabet 


point  of  beginning  a  letter,  and 
speedily  transform  it  altogether. 

One  great  cause  of  change,  hith- 
erto unnoticed,  is  that  a  scribe's 
eyes  may  see  the  image  inverted 
vertically  or  sidewise  (children 
often  do  this  till  trained),  and  the 
hand  so  draws  it.  This  was 
greatly  helped  on,  at  first,  by  writ- 
ing i3ovo-Tpo</)Tj56f  ('plough-turn' — 
alternately  right  to  left  and  left 
to  right) ;  then  by  the  adoption  of 
the  natural  order  solely,  making 
it  instinctive  to  whirl  the  shape 
around.  The  effect  of  both,  and 
especially  the  latter  group,  is 
strikingly  confirmed  by  the  fact 
that  the  Greeks  who  named  and 
most  employed  the  plough-turn, 
and  the  Latins  who  took  theirs 
from  the  Greeks  direct,  had  re- 
spectively nine  and  seven  letters 
so  inverted  sidewise,  thus: 

Cb)  r  n  ( 
CU-t.)C!P  (d)  L>l  C\)0 

besides  vertical  inversions  like  w 
for  12,  and  half  turns  as  M  into  2, 
Phoenician  aleph  into  A,  etc. — 
parallelled  in  other  systems  and 
other  characters.  Of  course,  all 
these  influences  acted  much  more 
rapidly  when  an  alphabet  was 
'edited'  for  a  new  people,  who 
had  no  need  of  adhering  to  ac- 
cepted forms  in  fear  of  puzzling 
their  correspondents.  In  modern 
times,  printing  has  fixed  the  gen- 
eral forms  beyond  change. 

(3)  Values. — Change  in  pho- 
netic values  on  a  great  scale 
takes  place  whenever  an  alphabet 
is  applied  to  a  new  language, 
since  in  few  cases  do  its  sounds 
coincide  exactly  with  the  old. 
Signs  thus  useless  may  be  utilized 
for  quite  alien  sounds,  or  be  mod- 
ified a  little,  and  given  ratably 
modified  values.  Both  are  con- 
stantly exemplified  in  the  reduc- 
tion to  script  of  languages  previ- 
ously unwritten :  the  transcription, 
usually  now  in  Roman  letters, 
requires  always  numerous  dia- 
critical marks  (separate  or  at- 
tached), and  some  brand-new 
characters  or  the  use  of  current 
ones  for  new  purposes.  Inverted 
Roman  letters,  Greek  letters,  fig- 
ures (especially  8),  are  a  few  of 
the  devices  to  avoid  cutting 
wholly  new  types.  Values  also 
change  greatly  inside  national 
usage,  which,  besides,  never  is  or 
was  at  all  uniform.  The  former 
arises  from  its  being  utterly  im- 
possible and  undesirable  to  keep 
spelling  abreast  of  the  endless 
change  in  sonancy — a  leading  ar- 
gument used  against  'scientific' 
spelling;  and  from  almost  no 
vowels  and  not  all  consonants 
being  ever  pronounced  alike  by 
all  classes  or  in  all  districts  at  any 
time. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


Genealogy  of  the  English  AU 
phabet. — The  Greeks  must  have 
learned  the  alphabetic  system 
from  Phoenician  traders  in  the 
^gean  as  early  as  the  ninth  cen- 
tury B.C.  The  forms  underwent 
little  change  at  first,  and  writing 
was  probably  right  to  left;  some- 
what later  it  became  boustrophe- 
don,  already  explained;  and  before 
600  B.C.  the  more  natural  left-to- 
right  was  adopted.  Between  the 
ninth  and  seventh  centuries  the 
minuscules — the  small  letters  of 
our  Greek  books — were  evolved. 
By  550  B.C.  the  Greek  alphabet, 
in  all  essential  respects,  had  at- 
tained its  final  development.  But 
it  early  began  to  separate  into 
two  types:  the  Eastern  or  Ionic, 
adopted  as  the  official  alphabet  of 
Athens  in  403  B.C.,  when  the 
Thirty  Tyrants  were  driven  out; 
and  the  Western  or  Chal- 
<i\  cidian  (named  from  Chal- 

tf-'  ..^  cis  in  Euboea,  the  early 
(^/  ^ /  colonizer  of  Southern 
JW  {yy^  Italy),  which  was  the 
^  source  of  the  Italian  al- 
phabets and  our  own.  The 
chief  differences  are  those 
which  still  distinguish  ours  from 
the  Greek  alphabet.  In  the  West- 
ern, F  and  Q  were  retained;  H 
remained  a  breath,  instead  of  be- 
coming a  vowel ;  and  A,  n,  P,  2,  H, 
became  L,  P,  R,  S,  X. 

The  primitive  alphabet  of  It- 
aly, from  which  the  English  is 
derived,  belonged  to  the  Western 
Greek  type.  As  early,  probably, 
as  the  ninth  century  B.C.  it  was 
carried  by  the  Chalcidians  of 
Euboea  to  Cumae,  near  Naples, 
which  was  a  colony  of  Chalcis. 
It  became  the  parent  of  five  local 
Italic  alphabets — Oscan,  Etrus- 
can, Umbrian,  Faliscan,  and 
Latin.  Owing  to  the  political 
supremacy  of  Rome,  the  Latin 
ultimately  displaced  the  other 
national  scripts  of  Italy,  and  be- 
came the  alphabet  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  and  afterward  of  Latin 
Christendom,  thus  spreading  over 
Western  Europe,  America,  and 
Australia,  and  becoming  the  dom- 
inant alphabet  of  the  world. 

At  the  time  of  the  early  empire, 
the  Romans  employed  two  forms 
of  their  letters — capitals  for  in- 
scriptions; and  for  business  and 
correspondence,  degraded  cursive 
forms,  which  are  known  to  us 
chiefly  from  graffiti  scribbled  by 
schoolboys  on  the  walls  of  Pom- 
peian  houses.  These  two  Roman 
scripts  are  respectively  theisources 
of  our  printed  capitals  and  small 
types.  Out  of  the  Roman  cursive, 
the  Irish  semi-uncial  was  devel- 
oped as  a  book  hand  about  the 
sixth  century  A.D.  Through  vScot- 
land  it  was  introduced  into  North- 
umbria  by  Irish  monks,  and  l)e- 
came  the  basis  of  the  beautiful  Ca- 
roline minuscule,  so  called  because 
itaroseinthe  reign  of  Charlemagne, 
in  the  calligraphic  school  at  Tours, 
founded  by  Alcuin  of  York. 


Owing  to  its  intrinsic  merits, 
consisting  in  its  legibility,  and 
the  ease  with  which  it  could  be 
written,  the  Caroline  minascule 
rapidly  became  the  book  hand  of 
Europe;  but  after  the  twelfth 
century  it  began  to  degenerate 
into  the  black  letter,  which  was 
imitated  in  the  types  of  the  earli- 
est printers,  and  is  still  retained 
in  German  books.  The  Roman 
printers,  however,  reverted  to  the 
Caroline  forms,  which  now  go  by 
the  name  of  'Roman'  type. 

The  wide  difference  existing 
between  the  forms  of  our  capital 
and  smaller  letters  is  thus  ex- 
plained. We  have,  in  fact,  two 
alphabets,  both  dating  from  the 
first  century  a.d.,  in  concurrent 
use.  Thus  the  forms  a,  b,  d,  r,  g, 
m,  h,  are  derived  from  the  old 
Roman  cursive,  while  A,  B,  D, 
R,  G,  M,  H,  are  the  Roman  cap- 
itals. 

In  the  English  alphabet  the 
order  of  the  letters  does  not  differ 
greatly  from  the  Phoenician  ar- 
rangement, but  the  few  changes 
are  historically  instructive.  The 
last  Phoenician  letter  was  t,  which 
in  our  alphabet  is  followed  by 
six  letters,  u,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z.  Of 
these,  u  dates  from  the  ninth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  having  been  differenti- 
ated by  the  Greeks  out  of  F,  and 
placed  after  t,  the  last  of  the  old 
letters.  Originally,  u  and  v  were 
only  the  medial  and  initial  forms 
of  the  same  letter.  In  the  tenth 
century  a.d.  the  first  came  to  be 
used  for  the  vowel,  and  the  sec- 
ond for  the  consonant,  because 
in  Latin  words  the  consonant 
usually  occurs  at  the  beginning, 
and  the  vowel  in  the  middle  of 
words,  and  the  two  forms  were 
regarded  as  separate  letters,  and 
placed  side  by  side  in  the  alpha- 
bet. So  also  with  w,  which  arose 
in  the  eleventh  century  as  a  liga- 
ture, like  ae,  fi,  or  &,  the  ligature 
for  et.  It  was  originally  written 
vu,  and  then  vv. 

The  letter  x  was  developed  out 
of  samekh  (s),  about  the  seventh 
century  B.C.,  and  was  placed  at 
the  end  of  the  old  Latin  alphabet. 
In  the  time  of  Cicero  the  Ro- 
mans borrowed  Y  from  the  Greek 
alphabet,  to  denote  the  sound  of 
upsilon,  and  placed  it  at  the  end 
of  the  alphabet  after  X.  Soon 
afterward,  Z  was  also  borrowed 
from  the  Greek  alphabet  and 
placed  after  Y.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  the  English  alphabet 
from  the  French  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  being  used  in  English,  as 
in  Latin,  only  to  spell  words  of 
foreign  origin.  The  letters  I  and 
J,  like  U  and  V,  were  the  medial 
and  initial  forms  of  the  same  let- 
ter; but  since  the  consonantal 
sound  usually  occurs  at  the  be- 
ginning of  words,  and  the  vowel 
sound  in  the  middle,  J  was  con- 
veniently appropriated  in  the  fif- 
teenth century  for  the  consonant, 
and  I  for  the  vowel. 


Trowbridge 


185 


Troy 


perience,  he  studied  art  in  Paris 
under  J.  P.  Laurens  and  Ben- 
jamin Constant.  He  exhibited 
both  paintings  and  etchings  for 
several  years  at  the  Paris  Salon, 
and  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposition 
in  1904.  Some  of  his  illustra- 
tions were  made  for  A.  F.  San- 
born's Paris  and  the  Social  Revo- 
lution (1905). 

Trow 'bridge,  William  Petit 
(1828-92),  American  engineer, 
was  born  in  Oakland  county, 
Mich.  He  was  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1850,  and  in  1852 
was  assigned  to  duty  on  the  U.  S. 
primary  triangulation  survey  of 
the  coast  of  Maine,  and  after- 
wards made  surveys  on  the  Ap- 
pomattox and  James  rivers  in 
Virginia.  In  1853-56  he  was  em- 
ployed on  government  surveys 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  1856 
retired  from  the  U.  S.  engineer 
corps  with  the  rank  of  captain,  to 
become  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  University  of 
Michigan.  In  1858  he  became  an 
assistant  engineer  on  the  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey,  and  was  assigned 
duties  on  the  Gulf  coast.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  army 
engineer  offices  in  New  York, 
and  was  employed  in  designing 
fortifications  and  other  military 
works.  He  was  also  constructing 
and  supervising  engineer  on  the 
defences  around  New  York  har- 
bor. In  1865  he  was  appointed 
manager  of  the  Novelty  Iron 
Works,  New  York,  and  in  1869- 
76  was  professor  of  dynamic  en- 
gineering in  Yale.  In  1876  he 
became  head  of  the  mining  de- 
partment of  Columbia  School  of 
Mines,  N.  Y.  He  was  author  of 
Heat  as  a  Source  of  Power  (1874) 
and  Turbine  Wheels  (1879). 

Troy,  the  name  usually  em- 
ployed to  denote  both  the  coun- 
try (Troad  or  Troas)  and  the 
chief  city  (Ilios,  Ilion,  or  Ilium) 
of  the  people  known  as  Trojans, 
situated  in  the  northwestern 
corner  of  Asia  Minor. 

'The  tale  of  Troy  divine,' 
which  forms  the  background  of 
the  Iliad  of  Homer,  is  that  Paris 
(Alexander),  son  of  Priam,  king 
of  Troy,  carried  off  Helen,  wife 
of  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta; 
that  the  Achaean  princes,  under 
the  command  of  Menelaus' 
brother,  Agamemnon,  king  of 
Mycenae,  undertook  to  recover 
Helen;  that  the  Achaeans,  having 
besieged  Troy  for  nine  years, 
eventually  sacked  the  city  and 
recovered  Helen. 

A  half  century  ago  this  tale  was 
usually  regarded  as  mere  legend; 
that  it  now  ranks  once  more  as 
history,  in  its  main  outlines  at 
least,  is  due  to  the  work  of 
Heinrich  Schliemann  (q.  v.),  who 
explored  (1870  to  1890)  the  site 
of  the  ancient  city,  and  of  his 
successor  Dorpfeld  (1893  and 
1894). 

Vol.  XII.— Mar.  '23 


The  mound  of  Hissarlik,  the 
site  of  Troy,  is  3K  miles  from 
the  ^gean  and  SH  miles  from 
the  Hellespont.  The  rivers  of 
Homer — the  Scamander  (now 
the  Menderez)  and  the  Simois 
(Dumbrek-su) — have  both  been 
identified,  their  courses  corre- 
sponding exactly  with  the  Ho- 
meric description.  On  the  site 
of  the  mound  9  successive  settle- 
ments have  been  traced  and  de- 
termined, as  follows:  (1)  An 
early  settlement  with  a  wall 
built  of  small  stones  and  clay; 
implements  mostly  of  stone;  the 
pottery  primitive.  Its  date  was 
perhaps  3000  to  2560  B.C. 
(2)  A  prehistoric  fortress,  with 
strong  ramparts  and  large  houses, 
built  of  bricks;  it  had  been  three 
times  destroyed  and  rebuilt.  Its 
pottery  was  of  the  kind  called 
monochrome,  and  many  objects 
of  gold,  silver,  and  bronze  were 
discovered  in  it.  It  dated  from 
2500  to  2000  B.C.  (3,  4,  5) 
Prehistoric  settlements,  villages 
rather  than  towns,  which  were 
successively  built  on  the  debris 
of  (2).  The  houses  were  of  small 
stones  and  sun-dried  bricks;  the 
pottery  was  like  that  of  the  pre- 
vious settlement  but  scarce. 
These  settlements  may  have  cov- 
ered the  period  from  2000  to 
1500  B.C.  (6)  A  Mycenaean  for- 
tress including  a  larger  area  than 
any  of  the  preceding  settlements, 
with  huge  walls,  towers,  and 
houses  of  wrought  stones.  Its 
pottery  was  of  the  developed 
monochrome  order,  with  My- 
cenaean imported  vases.  Its  date 
may  be  placed  at  from  1500  to 
1200  B.C.  or  later.  (7  and  8) 
Greek  settlements  again  of  the 
character  of  villages;  the  houses 
of  a  simple  kind,  built  of  stone, 
and  containing  both  monochrome 
ware  and  also  nearly  all  known 
kinds  of  Greek  pottery.  These 
cover  the  period  from  about 
1000  B.C.  to  the  first  century  B.C. 
(9)  The  acropolis  of  the  Grseco- 
Roman  town  of  New  Ilion,  which 
possessed  a  famous  temple  of 
Athena,  and  magnificent  build- 
ings of  marble;  Roman  pottery 
and  inscriptions  are  found.  This 
city  existed  from  the  first  cen- 
tury B.C.  to  A.D.  500.  At  first  it 
was  a  place  of  little  importance 
but  being  embellished  and  ex- 
tended by  Alexander,  Lysima- 
chus  and  Julius  Caesar,  it  at- 
tained some  importance.  During 
the  Mithridatic  War,  85  B.C.,  it 
was  taken  by  Fimbria  and  suf- 
fered great  injury.  It  was  plun- 
dered by  the  Turks  in  1306  and 
has  since  lain  in  ruins. 

Of  these  various  settlements 
Schliemann  had  not  really  dis- 
covered more  than  the  first  five. 
It  was  the  second  settlement 
which  he  identified  with  the 
Homeric  Troy;  Dorpfeld's  dis- 
coveries now  make  it  certain, 
however,  that  the  identification 


must  be  made  with  the  sixth. 
The  style  of  building  corresponds 
more  closely  with  that  found  in 
other  Mycenaean  cities,  and  the 
Mycenaean  pottery  fixes  the  date 
with  even  greater  certainty. 
Lastly,  huge  pithoi,  or  jars,  have 
been  found  similar  to  those  of 
Cnossus  in  Crete,  which  cer- 
tainly date  about  1500  B.C.  and 
later. 

The  wall  which  remains  is  16 
feet  thick  and  20  feet  high,  slop- 
ing inwards;  above  this  stood  a 
vertical  wall,  7  or  8  feet  thick  and 
of  unknown  height.  The  main 
gate  is  on  the  south.  The  north- 
east tower  was  found  to  have 
been  built  out  to  shelter  a  large 
well  or  cistern,  14  feet  square  at 
the  top,  and  descending  26  feet 
into  the  solid  rock.  Behind  these 
walls  the  town  rose  in  successive 
terraces.  Other  existing  build- 
ings are  a  series  of  stone  chambers 
containing  large  jars,  some  of 
which,  when  found,  were  still  full 
of  pease  or  barley,  and  several 
houses  on  the  first  terrace.  In 
the  sixth  city  no  treasures  of 
metal  were  found;  but  in  the 
second  city  Schliemann  found,  in 
May,  1873,  a  mass  of  treasure, 
comprising  two  diadems  of  gold 
chains,  six  bracelets,  many  ear- 
rings, and  two  cups  of  gold,  six 
silver  vases,  several  silver  bars — 
perhaps  used  as  money — copper 
axeheads  and  spear-heads,  copper 
daggers,  and  copper  cups  and 
pots.  Most  of  these  are  now  in 
the  Volker  Museum  at  Berlin; 
much  of  the  rest  is  in  the  museum 
at  Constantinople. 

Consult  Schliemann's  Ilios 
(1881)  and  Troja;  Schuchhardt's 
Schliemann's  Excavations;  Annual 
of  the  British  School  of  Athens  for 
1894-5;  H.  R.  Hall's  Mycenean 
Age;  Tsountos  and  Manatt's 
Mycenean  Age;  Ridgway's  Early 
Age  of  Greece;  and,  especially, 
Dorpfeld's  Troja  and  Ilion. 

Troy,  city,  Alabama,  county 
seat  of  Pike  county,  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast  Line  and  the 
Central  of  Georgia  Railroads;  45 
miles  southeast  of  Montgomery. 
The  State  Normal  School  is  lo- 
cated here.  Troy  is  an  important 
shipping  point  for  cotton,  and 
manufactures  fertilizers  and  cot- 
ton-seed oil.  It  was  first  settled 
about  1830,  and  its  present 
charter  was  granted  in  1880. 
Pop.  (1910)  4,961;  (1920)  5,696. 

Troy,  city.  New  York,  county 
seat  of  Rensselaer  county,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson 
River,  at  the  eastern  terminus  of 
the  New  York  State  Barge 
Canal,  and  on  the  Boston  and 
Maine,  the  Delaware  and  Hud- 
son, and  the  New  York  Central 
Railroads;  7  miles  north  of 
Albany.  Daily  passenger  steam- 
boat lines  connect  it  with  New 
York,  and  freight  lines  with 
various  coast  cities.  Electric 
roads   run    west    through  the 


RELICS  OF  ANCIENT  TROY. 
1.  Ancient  Trojan  jewelry.   2.  Helios  and  his  team;  metope  from  the  Temple  of  Athena.   3.  The  hill  of  Troy.  4.  Northeast  tower 
of  Grecian  staircase,    5.  The  theatre,  j.  6.  Trojan  jewelry.    7..  Arch  of  the  Roman  Aqueduct  in  the  Thymbrios  valley.  ^8.  Walls  of 
various  periods. 

Vol.  XII.— Mar.  '23 


Alphabet 


187 


Alps 


In  the  Latin  and  English  al- 
phabets the  seventh  letter  is  g; 
while  in  Phoenician,  as  well  as  in 
old  Greek,  the  seventh  letter  is  z 
(the  sixth  being  F,  later  dropped 
in  Greek).  The  third  letter  ori- 
ginally had  the  value  of  g,  but  its 
symbol,  C,  came  in  Latin  to  have 
both  sounds,  c  and  g.  This  was  in- 
convenient, and  the  form  G  was 
differentiated  out  of  C,  to  denote 
the  latter  sound,  and  was  trans- 
ferred in  the  third  century  B.C. 
to  the  seventh  place,  hitherto  oc- 
cupied by  z,  which  had  fallen 
out  of  use,  and  was  only  rebor- 
rowed two  hundred  years  later 
for  the  transliteration  of  Greek 
words. 

English  letters  are  named  on 
the  same  principle  as  in  the  Latin 
alphabet.  The  vowels  are  called 
by  their  sounds;  the  consonants, 
by  the  sound  of  the  letter  com- 
bined with  the  easiest  vowel, 
which,  for  convenience  of  utter- 
ance, precedes  the  continuants 
and  follows  the  explosives.  Thus 
we  have  ef,  el,  em,  en,  er  or  ar,  es, 
but  be,  de,  ge,  pe,  te — because  ef 
is  easier  to  pronounce  than  fe, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  be  is 
easier  than  eb.  The  letters  k,  q, 
and  X,  are  each  combined  with 
the  appropriate  vowel,  for  facility 
of  pronunciation.  The  name  of 
2  is  an  exception  to  the  rule.  It 
was  called  zed  and  not  ez,  because 
the  letter,  with  its  Greek  name 
zeta,  was  introduced  into  the 
Latin  alphabet  from  the  Greek 
after  the  Latin  letters  had  ac- 
quired the  names  by  which  we 
know  them.  The  pronunciation 
zee,  now  the  popular  sound  in  the 
United  States,  appears  in  an 
English  pronouncing  dictionary 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  has 
never  been  recognized  by  British 
scholars.  Z  is  also  known  as 
izzard  or  izzet,  a  word  of  uncertain 
etymology.  It  may  be  added 
that  h  is  not  called  by  its  sound 
(as  in  German  hah),  but  is  known 
as  aitch  {cf.  French  ash).  Fur- 
ther, the  hard  sound  of  c  and  of 
g  is  ignored  in  their  names  see 
and  jee. 

The  Greek  alphabet  was  the 
source  not  only  of  the  Latin,  but 
of  the  other  national  alphabets 
of  Europe.  The  'runes,'  which 
formed  the  alphabet  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian nations,  were  based  on 
forms  of  the  Western  Greek  let- 
ters. Dr.  Isaac  Taylor  held  that 
they  were  taken  over  about  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  from  Greek 
colonies  on  the  Black  Sea  by 
Gothic  tribes  who  then  inhabited 
the  region  south  of  the  Baltic  (see 
Runes).  Professors  Hempl  and 
Gundermann  think  that  they 
were  derived  from  North  Italian 
tribes.  The  Welsh- Irish  'ogams' 
(see  Ogam)  are  probably  a  devel- 
opment of  the  runes  from  the 
Teutonic  invasions  of  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries  a.d.  The 
Mceso-Gothic  alphabet  was  con- 
structed by  Ulfilas  (q.  v.)  in  the 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


fourth  century,  by  a  combination 
of  the  Runes  and  the  contem- 
porary Greek  uncials.  The  Cop- 
tic alphabet,  used  in  Egypt,  was 
also  derived  from  the  Greek  un- 
cials of  the  fourth  century  a.d., 
with  six  additional  characters 
borrowed  from  the  Egyptian  De- 
motic, a  cursive  script  derived 
from  the  hieroglyphic  writing. 
The  Slavonic  alphabets,  of  which 
the  Russian  is  the  most  important, 
were  obtained  from  the  ninth 
century  Byzantine  uncial,  with 
some  additional  characters  de- 
rived from  ligatures  employed  in 
the  Greek  cursive  writing.  The 
obscure  Albanian  alphabet  is  a 
debased  form  of  minuscule  Greek. 

See  Orthography;  Pronun- 
ciation; and  the  separate  articles 
on  the  letters  of  the  English  al- 
phabet. 

Bibliography.  —  The  standard 
English  work,  though  antiquated 
in  many  respects,  is  Taylor's  The 
Alphabet;  a  popular  and  interest- 
ing booklet  is  Clodd's  Story  of  the 
Alphabet.  The  best  monograph 
on  the  origin  of  the  alphabet  is 
Dr.  J.  P.  Peters'  last  article  in 
Journal  of  the  American  Oriental 
Society  (1907) .  Consult  also  Ber- 
ger's  Histoire  de  I'Ecriture  dans 
I'Antiquite;  for  the  Semitic  scripts, 
Clarke's  Origin  and  Varieties  of 
the  Semitic  Alphabet;  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  Sanskrit  alphabet, 
Biihler's  Indische  Paldographie; 
for  the  Greek  scripts,  Kirchoff's 
Studien  zur  Geschichte  des  Griech- 
ischen  Alphabets;  for  the  Greek 
and  Latin  in  their  later  develop- 
ment, Thompson's  Greek  and 
Latin  Palceography;  for  the  Cre- 
tan scripts,  Arthur  Evans'  Scrip- 
ta  Minoa  (vols.  i.  and  ii.,  1910- 
11);  for  the  Cypriote,  F.  Pratori- 
us'  article  in  the  Annual  Report 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
(1907). 

Alpha  Bays.  See  Radioac- 
tivity. 

Alpheus,  al-fe'us,  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  god  of  the  River 
Alpheus,  the  chief  stream  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  which  flows  past 
Olympia  to  the  Ionian  Sea.  The 
legend  of  Alpheus'  love  for  the 
nymph  Arethusa  is  that  the  god 
surprised  her  while  bathing  in 
the  river,  and  pursued  her;  but 
Artemis  transformed  her  into  an 
underground  spring,  which  re- 
appeared as  a  fountain  on  the 
island  of  Ortygia,  close  to  Syra- 
cuse, Sicily.  Alpheus,  taking  a 
similar  form,  followed  her,  and 
came  to  the  surface  of  the  sea  as  a 
fresh- water  spring  near  the  foun- 
tain of  Arethusa.  (Ovid,  Meta- 
morphoses, V.  572.)  The  legend 
is  the  foundation  of  Shelley's 
poem  Arethusa. 

Alphonsine  Tables,  al-fon'sin, 
or  Alfonsine,  improved  astro- 
nomical tables  drawn  up  by  fifty 
celebrated  astronomers  at  Toledo 
in  1252.  under  the  patronage  of 
Alfonso  x.  (q.  v.)  of  Castile,  and 
first  printed  in  1483. 


Alphonso.  See  Alfonso. 

Alpine  Clubs.  See  Moun- 
taineering. 

Alpine  Plants,  a  name  given 
to  plants  found  at  elevations  ap- 
proaching the  limit  of  perpetual 
snow  in  the  Alps,  and  also  to 
plants  belonging  to  other  moun- 
tainous regions,  whose  natural 
place  of  growth  is  near  snows  that 
are  never  melted.  On  the  Andes, 
near  the  Equator,  at  an  elevation 
of  12,000  to  15,000  feet  above  sea 
level,  many  kinds  of  plants  are 
found,  of  humble  growth,  resem- 
bling in  their  general  appearance 
those  which  occur  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland  at  an  elevation 
of  6,000  feet;  and  these  again  re- 
semble the  species  which  in  Lap- 
land grow  upon  hills  of  little  ele- 
vation, or  which,  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Siberia,  are  found  at  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Similar  plants 
occur  also  in  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains. 

The  small  spaces  clear  of  snow 
in  these  high  regions  possess  a 
characteristic  flora,  the  plants  of 
which  are  distinguished  by  a  low 
diminutive  habit,  and  an  inclina- 
tion to  form  a  thick  turf;  fre- 
quently, also,  by  a  covering  of 
woolly  hairs;  while  their  stems  are 
often  either  partly  or  altogether 
woody,  and  their  flowers  are  in 
proportion  remarkably  large,  of 
brilliant  colors,  and  in  many  in- 
stances very  odoriferous. 

With  these  are  associated  a 
number  of  delicate  ferns  and  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful  mosses.  Cryp- 
togamic  plants  are  generally 
found  in  alpine  regions  in  much 
greater  abundance  than  else- 
where; and  their  great  beauty, 
even  when  dried,  makes  them 
favorites  with  plant  collectors. 
Edelweiss,  gentians,  azaleas,  rho- 
dodendrons, primulas  (qq.  v.), 
and  many  minute  ferns  belonging 
to  the  vegetation  of  mountains, 
are  now  successfully  grown  in 
rock  gardens.    See  Arctic  Life. 

Alps,  the  great  European 
mountain  system  that  extends  in 
the  form  of  a  crescent  from  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa  westward  to  the 
French  frontier,  northward  on  the 
borders  of  France  and  Italy,  and 
northeast  through  Switzerland 
and  Western  Austria.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
hilly  ground  of  Switzerland  and 
the  upper  plain  of  the  Danube; 
on  the  east  by  the  low  plains  of 
Austria;  on  the  south  by  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  the  plains  of  Lom- 
bardy,  and  the  Gulf  of  Genoa; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  plains  of 
Provence  and  the  valley  of  the 
Rhone.  The  Apennines  (q.  v.) 
join  it  at  its  western  extremity, 
separated  only  by  the  Pass  of 
Altare  {Col  d' Altar e),  while  the 
Dinaric  Alps  (q.  v.),  on  the  east, 
link  it  with  the  Balkan  range. 
The  Alpine  system  is  about  650 
miles  in  length,  and  varies  in 
width  from  30  miles  to  160  miles. 
Total  area,  90,000  square  miles. 


Alps 


188 


Alps 


Divisions. — In  describing  the 
manifold  ranges  of  the  Alpine 
system,  three  main  divisions  are 
commonly  distinguished:  (1)  the 
Western  Alps,  extending  from  the 
Mediterranean  coast  to  the  Sim- 
plon  Pass;  (2)  the  Central  Alps, 
stretching  from  the  Simplon  Pass 
to  Reschen  Scheideck  and  the 
Stelvio  Pass;  and  (3)  the  Eastern 
Alps,  comprising  the  remainder 
of  the  system. 

(1)  The  Western  Alps,  though 
they  have  a  general  north-and- 
«outh  trend,  are  characterized  by 


chain  of  Mont  Blanc  and  the 
Pennine  Alps,  which  include  most 
of  the  loftiest  peaks  of  the  entire 
system,  among  them  Mont  Blanc 
(q.  v.),  15,782  feet,  Monte  Rosa 
(q.  v.),  15,217  feet,  Nord  End. 
15,132  feet,  Dom  (q.  v.),  14,942 
feet,  Lyskamm,  14,889  feet, 
Weisshorn  (q.  v.),  14,804  feet, 
and  Matterhorn  (q.  v.),  14,781 
feet. 

(2)  The  Central  Alps  include 
the  Bernese  Oberland,  from  Lake 
Geneva  to  Lake  Lucerne,  the 
Furka  Pass,  and  the  Reuss  valley, 


Oetzthal,  and  vStubai  ranges,  from 
Reschen  Scheideck  and  the  Stel- 
vio to  the  Brenner  Pass;  the 
Lombard  Alps,  from  Lake  Como 
to  the  Adige  valley;  the  Central 
Tyrolese,  Dolomites  of  South 
Tyrol,  and  the  Southeastern  Alps, 
which  include  the  Carnic,  Julie, 
and  Karawankan  ranges.  The 
general  elevation  of  the  eastern 
division  is  less  than  that  of  the 
other  two;  the  culminating  peak 
is  the  Gross  Glockner  (q.  v.),  12,- 
461  feet. 

Passes  and  Routes. — The  pas- 


The  Mont  Blanc  Range  from  the  Flegere. 

1,  Aiguille  du  Tour;  2,  Aiguille  d'Argent;  3,  Aiguille  Verte;  4,  Aiguille  du  Dru;  5,  Aiguille  du  Moine;  6,  Les  Grands  Jorasses;  7, 
Aiguille  de  Charmoz;  8,  Aiguille  de  Blaitiere;  9,  Aiguille  du  Plan;  10,  Aiguille  du  Midi;  11,  Mont  Blanc;  12,  Dome  du  Gouter;  13, 
Aiguille  du  Gouter. 


The  Jungfrau,  Etc.,  from  the  Faulhorn. 

14,  Schwarzhorn;  15,  Wellborn;  16,  Wetterhorn;  17,  Berglistock;  18,  Great  Schreckhorn;  19,  Finsteraarhorn;  20,  Eiger;  21,  Monch 
22,  Aletschhorn;  23,  Jungfrau;  24,  Breithorn  (Lauterbrunnen). 


The  Monte  Rosa  Range  from  the  Gornergrat. 

25,  Monte  Rosa;  20,  Lyskamm;  27,  28,  Castor  and  Pollux  (Zwillinge);  29,  Breithorn;  30,  Little  Matterhorn;  31,  Matterhorn; 

32,  Tete  Blanche. 


irregular  mountain  groups  and 
tortuous  valleys.  The  chief 
ranges  are  the  Maritime  Alps, 
near  the  Mediterranean  coast; 
the  Cottian  Alps,  north  of  these, 
whose  highest  summits  are  Monte 
Viso  (12,609  feet)  and  Viso  di 
Vallante  (12,048  feet) ;  the  Dau- 
phine  Alps,  separated  from  the 
Cottian  range  by  the  valley  of 
the  Durance,  and  reaching  their 
point  in  the  Pointe  des  Ecrins 
(q.  v.),  13,462  feet;  the  Graian 
Alps,  forming  the  boundary  be- 
tween Savoy  and  Piedmont,  and 
attaining  in  the  Grand  Paradis  an 
elevation  of  13,324  feet;  and  the 
Vol.  L— Mar.  '10 


with  the  Finsteraarhorn  (q.  v.), 
14,026  feet,  Aletschhorn  (q.  v.), 
13,721  feet,  and  Jungfrau  (q.  v.), 
13,669  feet;  the  Lepontine  or 
Helvetian  Alps,  from  the  depres- 
sion of  the  Simplon,  along  the 
plateau  and  masses  of  St.  Goth- 
ard,  to  the  Spliigen  Pass;  the 
Rhajtian  Alps,  between  the  Inn, 
the  Adda,  and  the  Upper  Adige; 
the  Todi  range,  a  northern  con- 
tinuation of  the  Bernese  Ober- 
land; and  the  Alps  of  Northeast 
Switzerland. 

(3)  The  Eastern  Alps  include 
the  Alps  of  Bavaria,  the  Vorarl- 
berg,  and  Salzburg;  the  Ortler, 


sage  of  the  Western  Alps  is  made 
by  eight  principal  roads:  (1)  The 
military  way.  La  Corniche,  a 
coast  road  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps 
from  Nice  to  Genoa,  parallel  to 
which  a  railroad  runs.  (2)  The 
causeway  over  the  Col  de  Tenda 
(q.  v.),  between  Cuneo  and  Ten- 
da,  made  in  1779;  6,145  feet.  (3) 
The  high  road  over  Mont  Genevre 
(q.  v.),  connecting  Provence  and 
Dauphine  with  Turin;  6,102  feet 
(4)  The  carriage  road  made  by 
Napoleon  in  1805,  over  Mont 
Cenis  (q.  v.),  connecting  Savoy 
with  Piedmont;  6,193  feet.  (5) 
The  Pass  of  the  Little  St.  Ber- 


Alps 


189 


Alp* 


nard  (see  Bernard),  connecting 
Geneva,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont; 
7,179  feet.  (6)  The  Pass  of  the 
Great  St.  Bernard  (see  Ber- 
nard), connecting  the  valley  of 
the  Rhone  with  Piedmont;  8,111 
feet.  (7)  The  magnificent  road 
over  the  Simplon  (q.  v.),  con- 
structed by  Napoleon  (1801-6), 
and  connecting  the  Valais  with 
the  confines  of  Piedmont  and 
Lombardy;  6.592  feet.  (8)  The 
Matterjoch,  between  the  Great 
St.  Bernard  and  Monte  Rosa, 
connecting  Piedmont  with  the 
Valais.  In  addition,  there  are 
many  smaller  branching  roads, 
which  form  a  close  network  of 
communication. 

The  Central  Alps  are  crossed 
by  four  principal  roads:  (1)  The 
Pass  of  St.  Gothard  (q.  v.),  con- 
necting Lucerne  with  Lago  Mag- 
giore;  6,936  feet,  (2)  The  San 
Bernardino  Pass  (q.  v.),  made  in 
1819-23,  by  way  oi  the  Swiss 
Grisons  and  Sardinia;  6,770  feet. 
(3)  The  Spliigen  Pass  (q.  v.),  con- 
necting the  sources  of  the  Rhine 
with  the  Adda;  6,946  feet.  (4) 
The  Wormserjoch,  or  Ortler  Pass, 
opened  by  Austria  in  1824,  con- 
necting the  Tyrol  with  Lom- 
bardy. Besides  these  great  roads, 
leading  south  into  Italy,  there  are 
two  which  lead  north  from  the 
valley  of  the  Rhone,  and  cross  the 
Bernese  Alps,  over  the  Grimsel 
Pass  (q.  v.),  7,100  feet  high,  and 
the  Gemmi  Pass  (q.v.),  7,641  feet 
high;  while  another,  the  Furka 
Pass  (q.  v.),  7,992  feet,  separates 
the  Bernese  Alps  from  the  Le- 
pontine  group. 

The  roads  over  the  Eastern 
Alps  are  lower  and  more  numer- 
ous. The  principal  ones  are: 
(1)  The  Brenner  Pass  (q.  v.), 
by  far  the  most  important,  which 
connects  the  Tyrol  with  Lom- 
bardy; 4,485  feet.  (2)  The  Stel- 
vio  Pass  (q.  v.),  from  the  Adige 
valley  to  the  Adda  valley;  9,055 
feet.  (3)  The  road  from  Venice 
to  Salzburg,  at  an  elevation  of 
5, 100  feet.  (4)  The  road  over  the 
Carnic  Alps,  which  leads  to  Lay- 
bach  and  the  valleys  of  the  Ison- 
zo  and  Tagliamento.  (5)  The 
roads  from  the  Danube  at  Linz  to 
Laybach.  (6)  The  Arlberg  Pass 
(q.  v.),  between  Switzerland  and 
Austria;  5,912  feet.  (7)  The 
Reschen  Scheideck  (q.  v.),  lead- 
ing from  Landeck,  near  Inns- 
bruck to  Meran. 

Railways  and  Tunnels. — Be- 
sides the  great  trans-Alpine  sys- 
tems, the  principal  Alpine  rail- 
ways are:  (1)  Geneva  to 
Chamonix.  (2)  Geneva  to  Brieg 
for  the  Simplon,  via  St.  Maurice. 
(3)  Berne  to  Interlaken,  via 
Thum;  Interlaken  by  Lauter- 
brunnen  and  Mtiren  for  the 
Jungfrau,  with  branch  for  Grin- 
delwald.  (4)  Lucerne  to  Brienz, 
via  Meiringen.  (5)  Lucerne  to 
Alpnach  and  Monte  Pilatus.  (6) 
Lucerne  to  Zurich,  via  Rothreuz 
VojL.  I.— Oct.  '19 


and  Zug.  (7)  Zug,  via  Arth  (for 
the  Rigi),  to  Vitznau.  (8)  Lu- 
cerne by  Arth-Goldau  and  the  St. 
Gothard  Tunnel  to  Bellinzona 
and  Lugano.  (9)  Zurich,  via 
Rapperschwil,  to  Weesen  and 
Glarus  for  Linththal.  (10)  Zu- 
rich, via  Weesen  and  Lanquart 
(a)  to  Davos- Platz,  (&)  Coire  and 
Thusis  and  the  Albula  Pass. 

Light  railways  ascend  the  Rigi. 
Uetliberg,  Pilatus,  Generoso,  Sal- 
vatore.Brienzer  Rothhorn,  Roch- 
ers  de  Naye,  Grand  Revard, 
Saleve,  Stanserhorn,  Gornergrat, 
and  Gurten.  The  Jungfrau  rail- 
way rises  from  6,772  feet  to  the 
top  of  the  peak  at  13,428  feet. 

The  highest  carriage  roads  pass 
over  the  Stelvio  from  Austria  to 
Italy,  Col  du  Galibier,  Umbrail 
from  Switzerland  to  Italy,  Great 
St.  Bernard,  and  Furka. 

Railway  tunnels  have  been 
pierced  under  a  number  of  the 
passes.  Three  of  these  afford 
communication  with  Italy:  the 
Col  de  FrejuG,  17  miles  west  of 
Mont  Cenis.and  generally  known 
as  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  (see 
Cenis)  ;  the  St.  Gothard, between 
Lakes  Lucerne  and  Maggiore 
(see  Gothard)  ;  and  the  Simplon 
(q.  v.),  between  the  Upper  Rhone 
Valley  and  Lago  Maggiore.  A 
fourth  trans- Alpine  railroad  lead- 
ing into  Italy  passes  over  the 
Brenner.  The  Arlberg  (q.v.)  tun- 
nel joins  Switzerland  and  Aus- 
tria, and  the  Wocheiner,  with 
those  beneath  the  Pyhrn  and 
Hohe  Tauern  Passes,  makes  pos- 
sible direct  communication  be- 
tween Vienna  and  Trieste.  The 
Lotschberg  tunnel  (q.  v.),  opened 
in  1911,  along  with  the  Simplon, 
furnishes  a  direct  through  route 
from  Milan  to  Berne,  and  thence 
to  Calais.  (See  Tunnels  and 
Tunnelling.) 

Mountaineering  and  Health 
Resorts. — The  chief  mountain- 
climbing  centres  are  Grindelwald 
(for  Eiger  and  Wetterhorn),  Cha- 
monix (for  Mont  Blanc),  Zer- 
matt  (for  the  Matterhorn),  Cour- 
mayeur,  Macugnaga,  and  Pon- 
tresina  (for  Piz  Languard,  etc.). 
See  Mountaineering. 

Among  the  most  frequented 
health  resorts  are  Davos-Platz 
(East  Switzerland),  St.  Moritz, 
Samaden  and  Sils  Maria  (Upper 
Engadine),  Pontresina,  Tarasp, 
Bergiin,  St.  Beatenberg,  Heiden, 
Urseren,  Engelberg,  Seelisberg, 
Miirren, Grindelwald,  Interlaken, 
Gersau,  Lugano,  Vevey,  Lau- 
sanne, Bex,  Bormio,  Faulhorn, 
Rotzlach,  and  Yverdon  (qq.  v.). 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the 
Alps  is  characterized  by  cold  win- 
ters, pleasant  summers,  and  dis- 
agreeable springs,  with  frequent 
cyclonic  storms.  The  average 
annual  temperature  on  the  north- 
ern border,  at  1,500  feet,  is  about 
40°  F.;  average  summer  temper- 
ature, about  65°  F.  A  maximum 
of  90°F.  -'s  not  uncommon  in  sum- 


mer, and  zero  is  often  reached  in 
winter.  On  the  southern  slopes, 
at  800  feet,  the  yearly  average  is 
about  54°  F.,  the  summer  aver- 
age 72°  F.,  and  the  winter  35°  f. 

The  annual  rainfall  varies  from 
25  to  40  inches  in  the  north, 
steadily  increasing  toward  the 
south,  till  it  reaches  90  inches  on 
the  Italian  slopes. 

Geology. — The  geological  his- 
tory of  the  Alps  is  one  of  succes- 
sive periods  of  upheaval,  due  to 
pressures  from  northwest  and 
southeast,  which  have  folded, 
broken  up,  and  in  some  cases 
overturned  the  strata  of  the 
earth's  crust.  The  higher  and 
central  ranges  consist  principally 
of  crystalline  rocks  of  the  Silu- 
rian, Devonian,  Carboniferous, 
and  Permian  systems.  The  Tri- 
assic  strata  are  developed  chiefly 
in  the  Eastern  Alps,  where  they 
comprise  massive  limestones  and 
dolomites  of  marine  origin,  re- 
markable for  their  fossils,  which 
show  a  commingling  of  Palaeozoic 
and  Mesozoic  forms.  Liassic 
strata  are  noted  at  Schambelen 
(Aargau,  Switzerland)  for  their 
abundant  and  beautifully  pre- 
served insect  remains.  The  Ju- 
rassic system  is  developed  chiefly 
in  the  low  grounds  of  Switzer- 
land, whence  it  extends  into  the 
Jura  Mountains.  The  Creta- 
ceous system  appears  on  both 
sides  of  the  Alps,  the  most  promi- 
nent feature  of  the  system  being 
its  massive  hippuritic  limestones. 
The  Eocene  is  represented  most 
prominently  by  massive  num- 
mulitic  limestones,  and  by  un- 
fossiliferous  sandstones  (flysch), 
which  extend  along  the  northern 
part  of  the  Alps  from  the  south- 
west of  Switzerland  to  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Vienna.  The  Oligo- 
cene  and  Miocene  are  best  de- 
veloped in  Switzerland,  where 
they  form  some  of  the  better 
known  mountains  at  the  foot 
of  the  Alps,  such  as  the  Righi, 
the  Rossberg,  etc.  They  consist 
chiefly  of  conglomerates,  sand- 
stones, and  similar  strata.  The 
Pleistocene  is  well  represented  by 
a  great  variety  of  superficial  ac- 
cumulations, of  which  the  most 
noteworthy  are  the  ancient  mo- 
raines, erratics,  and  perched 
blocks,  fluvio-glacial  detritus, 
and  other  memorials  of  the  gla- 
cial period. 

Precious  stones  are  found  in 
abundance  among  the  crystalline 
rocks  of  the  central  ranges.  Min- 
ing and  smelting  become  more 
and  more  productive  as  we  ad- 
vance east.  Gold  and  silver  are 
found  in  Tyrol,  Salzburg,  and 
Carinthia;  copper  in  the  French 
Alps,  Tyrol,  and  Styria;  and  lead 
near  Villach,  in  Carinthia.  Ca- 
rinthia and  Styria  produce  large 
amounts  of  iron,  and  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  quicksilver  is  ex- 
tracted at  Idria,  in  Carniola.  The 
Alpine  region  is  rich  in  salt;  and 


Alps 


190 


Aleace- Lorraine 


mineral  springs,  hot  and  cold,  are 

innumerable. 

Glaciers,  Rivers,  and  Lakes. — 

In  every  part  of  the  Alps,  glaciers 
occur,  from  the  Maritime  Alps  at 
one  extremity  to  the  Dolomites 
at  the  other;  and  these  form  a 
striking  feature  of  Alpine  sce- 
nery. The  total  number  of  gla- 
ciers is  said  to  exceed  1,100,  while 
their  combined  area  is  estimated 
at  about  1,500  square  miles.  The 
largest  and  longest  is  the  Great 
Aletsch,  in  the  Bernese  Oberland, 
with  a  length  of  16|  miles,  and 
an  area  of  about  50  square  miles. 
The  Unteraar  and  Fiescher,  also 
in  the  Bernese  Alps,  are  each  10 
miles  long.  The  Gorner,  in  the 
Pennines,  and  the  Mer  de  Glace 
(q.  v.),  at  Chamonix,  are  Qj 
miles;  the  Argentiere  6^  miles, 
and  the  Lower  Grindelwald  65 
miles.    (See  Glaciers.) 

The  Alpine  system  is  the  cen- 
tre of  radiation  for  some  of  the 
largest  rivers  of  Europe.  The 
northern  slope  is  drained  by  the 
Rhine  (q.  v.)  and  its  tributaries, 
the  Reuss,  Aar,  and  Thur,  and  by 
the  lUer,  Lech,  Isar,  Inn,  and 
Enns,  branches  of  the  Danube 
(q.v.).  The  Drave  and  Save,  also 
tributary  to  the  Danube,  drain  the 
eastern  slope;  the  Tagliamento, 
Piave,  Brenta,  Adige,  and  the 
northern  branches  of  the  Po  (q.v.) 
drain  the  southern  slope;  and 
the  Upper  Rhone  (see  Rhone), 
Durance  (q.  v.),  and  Isere  (q.v.) 
drain  the  western  slope. 

A  chain  of  lakes  encircles  both 
the  northern  and  southern  bases 
of  the  Alps — the  former  at  an  ele- 
vation of  1.200  to  2,000  feet,  the 
latter  from  600  to  700  feet;  while 
other  lakes  are  found  in  the  heart 
of  the  system.  Among  the  last 
are  Lucerne  (q.  v.),Brienz  (q.  v.), 
Walenstadt,  and  Thun.  To  the 
south  are  Maggiore,  Lugano, 
Como,  Iseo,  and  Garda  (qq.  v.); 
and  on  the  northern  borders  are 
Geneva,  Zurich,  Constance,  Chi- 
emsee,  Konigssee  and  Hallstatt 
(qq.  v.). 

Fauna. — The  Alpine  Moun- 
tains present  many  peculiarities 
worthy  of  note  in  the  animal 
kingdom.  On  the  sunny  heights 
the  insects,  especially  butterflies, 
are  both  varied  and  numerous. 
The  larger  lakes  are  often  rich  in 
fish;  and  salmgn  and  trout  are 
sometimes  caught  in  ponds  6,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  frog,  newt,  black  salaman- 
der, and  other  amphibia  occur  at 
considerable  elevations.  Birds 
are  comparatively  few,  although 
the  lofty  mountains  are  inhabited 
by  eagles,  hawks,  and  various 
species  of  owls.  Among  quadru- 
peds are  the  steinbok  or  ibex, 
chamois,  bear,  wolf,  lynx,  wild- 
cat, and  marmot. 

For  the  flora  of  the  Alps,  see 
Alpine  Plants. 

See  Bernese  Oberland  Alps; 
CoTTiAN  Alps;  Dauphink;  Dol- 
VoL.  I.— Oct.  '19 


OMiTES;  Graian  Alps;  Lepon- 
TiNE  Alps;  Maritime  Alps; 
Ortler  Group;  Pennine  Alps; 
Rh^tian  Alps;  Southeastern 
Alps;  Todi. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Ball's 
Hints  and  Notes  for  Travellers  in 
the  Alps  (new  ed.  by  W.  A.  T. 
Coolidge),and  Alpine  Guide;  Um- 
lauft's  The  Alps  (Eng.  trans,  b^ 
L.  Brough);  J.  Tyndall's  The 
Glaciers  of  the  Alps;  M.  Conway 
and  W.  A.  T.  Coolidge's  Climh- 
ers'  Guides  (10  vols.);  E.  F. 
Gribble's  The  Story  of  Alpine 
Clinibing;M.  Conway's  The  Alps; 
W.  A.  T.  Coolidge's  The  Alps  in 
Nature  and  History  (1908);  T.  G. 
Bonney's  The  Alpine  Regions  of 
Switzerland,  and  The  Building  of 
the  Alps  (1912);  A.  Lunn's  The 
Exploration  of  the  Alps  (1914). 

Alpujarras,  al'poo-har'ras 
(Arabian  Al-Busherat),  mountain 
chain  in  the  province  of  Granada, 
Spain,  running  parallel  to  and 
forming  a  branch  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  range.  The  scenery  is 
wild  and  picturesque,  and  in  its 
fastnesses  the  Moriscos  (q.  v.)  of 
Granada  found  their  last  refuge. 
Their  descendants,  called  '  New 
Christians, 'still  linger  in  separate 
villages.  _ 

Alruna*  al-roo'na,  name  given 
to  a  witch  or  prophetess  by  an- 
cient Teutonic  tribes;  also  small 
image,  carved  from  mandrakes, 
used  in  certain  superstitious  rites. 
The  word  is  connected  with 
runes. 

Alsace  -  Lorraine,  al-sas'-lor- 
an',  French  province,  from  1871 
to  1918  an  imperial  territory  or 
Reichsland  of  the  German  Em- 
pire, to  which  it  was  ced3d  by 
France  at  the  close  of  the 
Franco-German  War  (see  His- 
tory). It  covers  an  area  of 
5,605  square  miles  (Alsace,  3,202 
square  miles;  Lorraine,  2,403 
square  miles).  Alsace  embraces 
the  western  half  of  the  Rhine 
Valley  and  the  eastern  half  of 
the  Vosges  Mountains  and  their 
valleys.  Lorraine,  which  lies 
northwest  of  Alsace,  consists  of  a 
low  plateau,  drained  by  the  Saare 
in  the  east  and  by  the  Moselle  in 
the  west.  The  111  rises  in  South- 
ern Alsace  and  enters  the  Rhine 
at  Strasbourg  (Strassburg).  The 
climate  is  mild  and  the  rainfall 
abundant. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  occu- 
pation, 50  per  cent,  of  the  area 
being  cultivated,  and  15  per  cent, 
meadow  and  grass  land.  The 
chief  crops  are  hay,  wheat,  oats, 
potatoes,  barley,  rye,  tobacco, 
hops,  and  sugar  beets.  The  pro- 
duction of  wine  is  important, 
62,122  acres  being  under  vine 
cultivation  in  1917,  with  a  yield 
of  2,672,318  gallons  of  wine. 
About  30  per  cent,  of  the  area  is 
covered  with  forest,  of  which 
practically  three-fourths  belongs 
to  the  state  and  public  and  cor- 
porate bodies.  Lorraine  possesses 


rich  mineral  resources,  especially 
iron  and  coal  fields;  salt  and 
building  stone  are  abundant.  In 
1913,  the  latest  year  for  which 
statistics  are  available,  mineral 
products  were  as  follows:  iron 
ore,  21,136,265  metric  tons; 
coal,  3,795,932  tons;  salt,  76,672 
tons.  The  chief  industries  are 
mining,  the  manufacture  of 
cotton,  woollen,  linen  and  silk, 
and  iron  and  steel.  Tanning, 
brewing,  and  distilling  are  also 
carried  on.  Transportation  facil- 
ities include  a  canal  system, 
5,000  miles  of  roads,  and  over 
1,300  miles  of  railway. 

Under  the  German  regime 
Alsace  -  Lorraine  was  adminis- 
tered by  a  governor  (Statthalter) 
appointed  by  the  emperor,  resi- 
dent at  Strasbourg  and  assisted 
by  a  ministry.  Local  laws  were 
made  by  the  emperor,  and  were 
confirmed  by  the  diet  of  two 
chambers — the  upper  chamber, 
consisting  of  representatives  of 
the  religious  bodies,  the  uni- 
versity, the  larger  cities,  cham- 
bers of  commerce,  agricultural 
and  craftsmen  bodies,  and  im- 
perial appointees;  the  lower 
house  elected  by  the  people. 
Alsace-Lorraine  had  by  the 
terms  of  the  constitution  of  1911 
three  representatives  in  the 
Federal  Council  (Bundesrat) ,  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  or 
imperial  lieutenant,  and  15 
deputies  in  the  Imperial  Diet 
(Reichstag) . 

During  the  latter  course  of  the 
Great  War  (1914-1919),  the  re- 
claimed portions  were  adminis- 
tered directly  by  the  French 
Minister  of  War.  Immediately 
after  the  signing  of  the  Armistice 
(Nov.  11,  1918)  three  commis- 
sioners were  appointed  to  act  for 
the  French  Government  in  the 
three  principal  divisions  of  the 
provinces— Lorraine,  Lower  Al- 
sace, and  Upper  Alsace,  exercis- 
ing general  administrative  power 
in  their  respective  territories. 
By  a  subsequent  decree  pro- 
vision was  made  for  fuller  co- 
operation of  the  three  com- 
missioners; the  executive  power 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  an 
Under  Secretary  of  State;  and 
a  Superior  Council  was  organ- 
ized composed  of  minor  provin- 
cial officials  and  leading  citizens 
from  the  three  districts. 

The  population  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  in  1900  was  1,717,451; 
in  1910  1,874,014.  The  prevail- 
ing religion  is  Roman  Catholic. 

History. — In  Caesar's  time  Al- 
sace was  occupied  by  Celtic 
tribes.  From  the  tenth  century 
it  formed  part  of  the  Gerrnan 
empire,  under  various  sovereign 
dukes  and  princes,  latterly  of 
the  House  of  Hapsburg;  till  a 
part  of  it  was  ceded  to  France  at 
the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648), 
and  the  rest  fell  a  prey  to  the 
aggressions  of  Louis  xiv.,  who 


Alsace-Lorraine 


191 


Alsberg 


seized  the  free  city  of  Strasbourg 
(1681).  By  the  Peace  of  Rys- 
wick  (1697)  the  cession  of  the 
whole  was  ratified.  Lorraine  was 
also  included  in  Charlemagne's 
empire;  was  constituted  a  king- 
dom under  Lothair  ii.;  and  was 
divided  in  959  into  the  duchies  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Lorraine,  of 
which  only  the  former  retained 
its  name.  This  passed  to  France 
in  1766.  In  1871,  by  the  Treaty 
of  Frankfort  at  the  close  of  the 
Franco-German  War  (q.  v.),  Al- 
sace and  Lorraine  were  ceded  to 
Germany. 

The  policy  of  Germany  in  Al- 
sace-Lorraine was  one  of  alter- 
nate coercion  and  conciliation. 
In  1874  the  provinces  were 
placed  under  the  legislative  con- 
trol of  the  Imperial  Diet;  in  1877 
the  powers  of  the  provincial 
♦  council  were  extended  to  include 
legislation  and  the  right  of  voting 
the  budget;  and  in  1879  the  seat 
of  administration  was  changed 
from  Berlin  to  Strasbourg,  the 
office  of  statthalter  was  created, 
and  more  liberal  provisions  for 
self-government  were  made.  Dis- 
satisfaction still  prevailed,  how- 
ever, and  the  German  govern- 
ment renewed  its  repressive 
policy  from  1881  to  1891.  The 
use  of  the  French  language  was 
greatly  restricted,  French  news- 
papers and  societies  were  sup- 
pressed, and  all  travellers  enter- 
ing the  provinces  from  France 
were  required  to  present  pass- 
ports. 

A  period  of  greater  leniency 
followed,  and  in  1911  a  new 
constitution  was  granted,  which 
provided  for  legislative  auton- 
omy and  representation  in  the 
Federal  Council;  though  it  also 
provided  for  imperial  control 
of  the  new  legislature,  and 
placed  certain  restrictions  on  the 
power  of  the  provincial  represen- 
tatives. In  1913  attempts  to  re- 
strict the  circulation  of  French 
newspapers  and  to  suppress  asso- 
ciations contrary  to  the  public 
peace  met  with  decided  opposi- 
tion; while  the  Zabern  Incident 
(q.  V.)  provoked  an  anti-Prussian 
demonstration,  and  brought 
about  a  crisis  in  the  territorial 
diet. 

Early  in  the  Great  War  (1914- 
19)  French  forces  invaded  Al- 
sace-Lorraine, and  throughout 
the  war  the  provinces  were 
openly  regarded  by  Germany  as 
enemy  territory.  French  news- 
papers were  suppressed,  the 
use  of  the  French  language  was 
prohibited,  and  the  country  was 
stripped  of  wealth  and  property 
much  after  the  manner  of  Bel- 
gium and  Northern  France. 
After  the  signing  of  the  armistice 
steps  were  immediately  taken 
for  the  formal  return  of  the  'lost 
prpvinces'  to  France. 

By  the  peace  treaty  the 
territories  ceded  in  1871  by 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


France  to  Germany  were  restored 
to  France  with  their  frontiers 
as  before  1871 — to  date  from  the 
signing  of  the  armistice,  Nov.  11, 
1918.  See  Europe,  Great  War 
of;  Peace  Conference. 

Consult  E.  Barker's  The  Sub- 
merged Nationalities  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire  (1915);  F.  Y. 
Eccles'  Alsace-Lorraine  ('Ox- 
ford Pamphlets,'   1914-15);  R. 


Putnam's  Alsace  and  Lorraine, 
5  8  B.C.- 187  1   A.D.   (  19  15)  ; 

Hazen's  Alsace-Lorraine  under 
German  Rule  (1917);  Phillip- 
son's  A /sace-Lorratne,  jPast,  Pres- 
ent and  Future  (1918);  G.  W. 
Edwards'  Alsace-Lorraine  (1919). 

Alsatia,  al-sa'shi-a,  a  former 
sanctuary  for  criminals  and  debt- 
ors in  London,  England,  called 
after  Alsace  (as  a  debatable  coun- 
try between  France  and  Ger- 


many). It  included  the  precincts 
of  the  Carmelite  House  of  White- 
friars  in  London,  but  lost  its 
privilege  in  1697.  The  name  is 
first  met  with  in  1623 ;  and  in  1688 
Shadwell  wrote  his  comedy,  The 
Squire  of  Alsatia  (1688),  Scott's 
authority  for  some  of  the  finest 
scenes  in  the  Fortunes  of  Nigel. 

Als'berg,  Carl  Lucas  (1877), 
American  biochemist,  was  bom 


in  New  York  City.  He  was 
graduated  from  Columbia  (1896), 
and  from  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians and  Surgeons  (1900),  and 
studied  abroad  at  Strasbourg 
and  Berlin  ( 1 900-03) .  He  served 
as  assistant  and  instructor  in 
physiological  and  biological 
chemistry  at  Harvard  (1903-08), 
and  as  biological  chemist  in  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture 


AI  segno 


192 


Altar 


(1908-12).  and  in  1912  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Chemistry,  succeeding  H.  W. 
Wiley. 

Al  segno,  alsa'nyo  (Italian  'to 
the  sign'),  in  musical  score,  di- 
rects the  musician  to  turn  back 
from  the  bar  thus  marked  to  the 
sign  :  5 :  and  begin  again  at  that 
place,  continuing  to  the  first 
double  bar. 

Alscn,  al'sen,  a  fertile  island 
in  the  Baltic  Sea,  near  the 
southern  end  of  the  Little  Belt. 
It  is  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  the  Sound  of  Alsen,  12 
miles  long  and  from  a  few 
yards  to  2|  miles  wide.  For- 
merly Danish,  it  was  united  to 
the  Prussian  province  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein  in  1S64.  Area  120 
square  miles.  Pop.  28,000, 
mostly  Danish  speaking. 

Al  Slrat,  al-se-rat',  in  Mo- 
hammedan teaching  the  bridge 
to  Paradise,  over  the  abyss  of 
Hell,  no  wider  than  a  razor's 
edge. 

Alsop,  61'sup,  Richard  (1761- 
1815),  American  author,  was 
born  in  Middletown,  Conn.  He 
was  educated  for  the  business 
world,  but  devoted  himself  to  lit- 
erature, associating  himself  with 
a  group  of  writers  known  as  the 
'  Hartford  Wits,'  including  Benja- 
min Trumbull,  Lemuel  Hopkins, 
and  Theodore  D  wight.  He 
was  the  chief  contributor  to  The 
Echo,  a  series  of  pamphlets  issued 
by  them  betv/een  1791  and  1795, 
satirizing  the  public  papers  and 
political  fads  of  the  day.  He 
published  also  Monody  on  the 
Death  of  Washington  (1800);  The 
Enchanted  Lake  of  the  Fairy 
Morgana  (1808);  Narrative  of 
the  Adventures  and  Sufferings  of 
John  R.  Jewett  (1815);  The 
Charms  of  Fancy  (posthumous- 
ly, 1856). 

Alsop  Claim.  See  Chile,  His- 
tory. 

Alster  River,  al'ster,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Elbe  (q.  v.),  which 
it  joins  at  Hamburg.  Length 
32  miles. 

Alstroemcrla,  al'stre-me'ri-a. 
or  Alstromf.r's  Lily,  a  genus  of 
Amaryllidacese  (q.  v.).  cultivated 
for  its  flowers  and  curiously 
twisted  leaves.  Notable  species 
are  A.  salsilla,  a  native  of  Peru, 
cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  its 
tubers  being  eaten  like  those  of 
the  potato;  A.  ovata,  grown  in 
Chile  for  its  tubers;  and  A. 
pallida,  also  grown  in  Chile,  from 
which  a  kind  of  arrowroot  is 
prepared. 

Alt,  a  term  applied  to  the  notes 
of  the  octave  above  the  treble 
stave,  beginning  with  G;  the 
notes  in  the  next  octave  above 
are  termed  in  allissimo. 

Alta'Ic.  See  Ural-Altaic. 

Altai  Mountains,  al-ti'  or 
al-te',  or  Kin-Shan  ('golden 
mountains'),  one  of  the  principal 
mountain  systems  of  Central 
Vol.  L—Oct.  '19 


Asia,  lies  between  lat.  45°  and 
54°  N.,  on  the  borders  of  Mon- 
golia, Zungaria,  and  Siberia.  The 
Great  Altai,  Southern  Altai,  or 
Ek-tag  extends  from  the  region 
of  the  Gobi  Desert,  northwest 
between  Mongolia  and  Zungaria, 
and  across  the  Siberian  frontier 
to  fall  away  into  the  steppe 
region  of  European  Russia. 
North  of  this  range,  and  parallel 
to  it,  is  the  Northern  Altai, 
which  reaches  its  highest  point 
in  Mount  Byelukha  (14,000 
feet).  The  Tarbagatai  (q.  v.) 
range,  to  the  west,  stretching 
from  Zungaria  across  the  Si- 
berian frontier,  is  sometimes 
also  included  in  the  Altai  sys- 
tem. 

The  Altai  region  is  alpine  in 
character,  having  deep  and  wild 
gorges,  immense  glaciers,  beauti- 
ful lakes,  such  as  Teletsk  (1,600 
feet  above  sea  level),  and  fertile 
valleys.  The  outskirts  or  steppes 
(q.  V.)  are  colonized  by  Russian 
agriculturists.  The  former  popu- 
lation was  of  Ural-Altaic  (q.  v.) 
stock,  of  which  nearly  45.000  Kal- 
mucks, Teleutes,  and  Kumand- 
intses  remain.  The  Altai  are 
composed  chiefly  of  schists  and 
granite, with  intrusions  of  igneous 
rocks,  and  Palaeozoic  strata  on 
the  outer  margins.  The  mineral 
resources  include  gold,  silver, 
iron,  copper,  and  jasper.  Birches, 
poplars,willows,  and  larches  grow 
in  the  valleys,  and  cedars,  pines, 
and  firs  higher  up.  Among  the 
fauna  of  the  region  are  reindeer, 
elks,  stag,  wolves,  bears,  and 
sheep.  The  chief  centre  of  ad- 
ministration is  the  town  of  Bar- 
naul (q.  v.).  Consult  S.  Turner's 
Siberia  (2d  ed.  1911). 

Altair,  al-tar',  a  Aquilae,  a  white 
star  of  0.74  photometric  magni- 
tude. Dr.  Elkin's  parallax  ot 
0.282",  corresponding  to  a  light 
journey  of  fourteen  years,  indi- 
cates for  Altair  a  total  luminosity 
tenfold  that  of  the  sun.  Its  spec- 
trum is  of  the  Sirian  type,  but  the 
absorption  lines  are  exceptionally 
wide  and  diffuse.  It  is  approach- 
ing the  sun  with  a  velocity  of  24 
mile?  a  second  (Vogel). 

Altamatia  River,  6l-ta-ma-h6', 
in  Georgia,  is  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Oconee  and  Ocmulgee 
Rivers  (qq.  v.)  in  Montgomery 
county, whence  it  flows  southwest 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  55  miles 
below  Savannah.  It  is  navigable 
for  small  vessels  to  Macon  and 
Milledgeville.  Length.  155  miles. 

Altamura,  al-ta-moo'ra,  town, 
province  of  Bari,  Italy;  42  miles 
by  rail  northwest  of  Taranto.  It 
has  a  Norman  cathedral  dating 
from  1220.  Good  wine  is  pro- 
duced in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  26,- 
000. 

Ai'tar  (Latin  altare,  'a  high 
place'),  a  raised  structure  on 
which  sacrifices  (see  Sacrifice) 
are  offered,  in  use  by  man  since 
the  dawn  of  religious  worship. 


The  altars  used  in  pagan  times 

were  of  two  types:  those  which 
stood  low  before  the  images 
within  the  temple,  that  the 
worshipper  kneeling  thereon 
might  offer  up  his  supplication; 
and  those  used  for  burnt  offer- 
ings, which  were  placed  before 
the  temple  door.  The  early 
Jewish  altars  were  often  simply 
built  of  rough  stones.  Altars  of 
gold  for  incense  and  brass  for 
sacrifice  constituted  an  impor- 
tant part  of  the  Tabernacle  of 
Moses  and  the  Temple  of  Solo- 
mon. The  Jewish  and  Oriental 
altars  were  generally  either 
square  or  oblong;  those  of 
Greece  and  Rome  were  often 
round.  Among  both  Jews  and 
pagans  the  altar  provided  a 
protection  to  fugitives  and  slaves, 
which  it  was  sacrilege  to  violate  , 
(see  Sanctuary). 

In  the  early  Christian  Church 
the  altar  was  a  portable  structure 
of  wood;  but  the  custom  of  cele- 
brating the  liturgical  service  on 
the  marble  sepulchre  of  the  mar- 
tyrs in  the  catacombs  led  to  the 
introduction  of  stone  altars;  and 
the  Council  of  Epone  in  France 
(509  A.D.)  decreed  that  none 
should  be  consecrated  with 
chrism  unless  built  of  stone.  The 
altar  early  assumed  a  monu- 
mental form;  elaborate  designs 
were  carried  out  in  sculpture, 
painting,  and  carving;  and  its 
rectangular  base  frequently  en- 
closed the  body  of  a  martyr. 
When  the  altar  was  a  simple 
structure,  it  was  covered,  during 
the  celebration,  with  ante-pendia, 
or  elaborately  ornamented 
wooden  frames.  In  the  first 
ages  of  Christianity  there  was 
only  one  altar  in  a  church;  but 
from  an  early  time  the  Latins 
have  used  more  than  one,  the 
principal  altar  being  called  the 
high  altar. 

The  altar  piece,  a  picture  or 
framed  sculpture  in  relief  of  a 
religious  nature,  placed  on  or 
near  the  altar,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  forms  of  Christian  art; 
and  some  of  the  most  famous 
works  of  art  are  altar  pieces.  As 
a  rule,  they  consist  of  one  or  more 
pictures — when  of  two,  they  are 
called  a  diptych  (q.  v.);  when  of 
three,  a  triptych  (q.  v.).  They 
are  frequently  provided  with 
painted  shutters,  which  may  be 
closed  in  order  to  conceal  the 
principal  subject. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
the  rubrics  require  that  all  altars 
shall  be  of  stone;  but  the  stone 
itself — the  tablet  or  mensa — may 
be  only  large  enough  to  hold  the 
host  and  chalice,  and  may  rest 
on.  or  be  inserted  in,  a  board  of 
wood.  The  mensa  must  always 
be  provided  with  relics  enclosed 
within  it,  and  be  consecrated  by 
a  bishop. 

In  the  Church  of  England,  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation, 


Altar  Piece 


193 


Alternating  Motion 


Archbishop  Laud  caused  the  altar 
to  be  replaced  from  the  body  of 
the  church,  where  it  had  been 
transplanted,  to  the  upper  end  of 
the  chancel.  In  1845  the  court 
of  arches  decided  that  there  are 
no  altars  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, but  only  holy  tables  or  com- 
munion tables.  In  the  churches 
of  other  Protestant  denomina- 
tions the  form  of  the  altar  and  its 
use  are  determined  by  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
observed. 

See  Communion;  Eucharist; 
High  Place;  Baldachin;  Rere- 

DOS. 

Consult  M.  Jastrow's  Religion 
of  Babylonia  and  Assyria;  G.  G. 
Scott's  Essay  on  the  History  of 
English  Church  Architecture;  W. 
Lowrie's  Monuments  of  the  Early 
Church  (1906) ;  H.  C.  Bowerman's 
Roman  Sacrificial  Altars  (1913). 

Altar  Piece.    See  Altar. 

Altaz'imuth,  or  Altitude  and 
Azimuth  Instrument,  essentially 


Altazimuth  or  Universal  Transit 
Instrument. 

a  large  theodolite  (q.  v.)  for  de- 
termining the  altitudes  and  azi- 
muths of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
and,  indirectly,  their  right  ascen- 
sions and  declinations,  these  being 
deducible  from  the  former,  pro- 
vided that  the  times  of  observa- 
tion are  known.  In  this  form  of 
instrument,  a  telescope  revolving 
on  a  horizontal  axis  is  rigidly  at- 
tached to  a  graduated  vertical 
circle  read  by  microscopes;  while 
the  whole  can  be  rotated  above  a 
fixed  horizontal  circle,  the  rcad- 
mgs  of  which  give  positions  in 
azimuth.  The  altazimuth  (in- 
vented by  Olaus  Romer  of  Copen- 
hagen in  1090)  is  availaljle  for 
measurements  in  all  parts  of  the 
sky;  and  it  was  with  a  combina- 
tion of  this  type,  completed  by 
Ramsden  in  1789,  that  Piazzi 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


made  the  observations  for  his 
great  star  catalogue.  The  altazi- 
muth in  portable  form  is  useful 
for  many  observations,  but  in 
the  observatory  much  of  this 
class  of  work  can  be  done  with 
greater  accuracy  with  the  merid- 
ian circle.  The  altazimuth  may 
be  used,  however,  to  observe 
heavenly  bodies  not  in  the  merid- 
ian. 

Altdamm,  alt'damm,  town, 
Pomerania,  Prussia,  at  the  head 
of  the  Dammscher  See;  5  miles 
east  of  Stettin.  Pop.  (1910)  7,- 
282. 

Altdorf,  alt'dorf,  or  Altorf, 
capital  of  Swiss  canton  of  Uri,  on 
the  St.  Gothard  Railway;  21 
miles  southeast  of  Lucerne,  and  2 
miles  from  Fliielen,  its  port  on 
Lake  Lucerne.  The  town  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  legend  of  William 
Tell,  of  whom  it  has  a  fine  statue. 
Pop.  (1910)  3,837. 

Altdorfer,  alt'dorf -er,  Al- 
BRECHT  (c.  1480-1538),  painter, 
architect,  engraver,  one  of  the 
'Little  Masters'  of  Germany,  was 
born  in  Ratisbon.  He  was  influ- 
enced by  Diirer.  and  was  active 
•chiefly  at  Ratisbon.  A  close  stu- 
dent of  nature,  he  has  been  called 
the  father  of  landscape  painting. 
The  most  important  of  the  twen- 
ty-five known  paintings  by  him 
is  the  Battle  'between  Alexander 
and  Darius  (Munich).  Of  his 
engravings.  111  are  on  copper 
(some  etched),  and  64  are  wood 
cuts. 

Alten,  al'ten,  Karl  August, 
Count  von  (1764-1840),  Hano- 
verian general,  fought  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  in  1803  went  to 
England.  He  served  under  Wel- 
lington in  the  Peninsula,  covering 
Sir  John  Moore's  retreat  to  Co- 
runna,  and  commanding  Wel- 
lington's light-armed  troops  at 
Salamanca,  Vittoria,  Orthez,  and 
other  battles,  and  in  the  cam- 
paign of  Waterloo.  Returning  to 
his  native  country,  he  in  1831 
became  Minister  of  War,  and  in 
1832  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

Altena,  al'te-na.  town,  prov- 
ince Westphalia,  Prussia,  on  the 
Lenne;  38  miles  by  rail  southeast 
of  Dortmund.  It  has  large  iron 
and  other  metal  industries.  Here 
are  the  ancestral  castle  of  the 
counts  von  der  Mark.  Pop. 
(1910)  14,579. 

Altenburg,  al'ten-boorc/?,  city, 
Germany,  capital  of  the  duchy  of 
vSaxe-Altenburg,  near  the  Plcisse 
River;  24  miles  south  of  Leipzig. 
The  ducal  castle  (fourteenth  cen- 
tury, rebuilt  1865-70)  crowns  a 
steep  rock  above  the  town.  The 
Technikum,  Court  Theatre,  Ob- 
vscrvatory,  and  new  Museum  are 
among  its  modern  structures. 
Cigars,  hats,  brushes,  gloves,  and 
woollen  yarn  are  manufactured; 
and  there  arc  iron,  coke,  brick, 
and  cement  works.  The  town  was 
the  scene  of  the  'Prinzenraub' — 
i.e.,  the  attempted  abduction  in 
1455  of  the  Saxon  princes  Albert 


and  Ernest  by  Kunz  von  Kaufun- 
gen.  Pop.  (1900)  37,110;  (1910) 
39,977. 

Altenessen,  al'ten-es'sen,  com- 
mune, province  Rhine,  Prussia; 
2  miles  north  of  Essen.  It  has 
coal  mines.    Pop.  (1910)  40,682. 

Altenstein,  al'tm-shtln,  a  sum- 
mer castle  of  the  dukes  of  Saxe- 
Meiningen,  13  miles  southeast  of 
Eisenach,  Thuringia.  It  is  his- 
torically associated  with  the  seiz- 
ure of  Luther  in  1521  when  re- 
turning from  Worms. 

Altera'tion.  Generally  speak- 
ing, any  change  in  a  written  legal 
instrument  which  in  effect  sub- 
stitutes a  different  legal  instru- 
ment for  the  original  one  voids 
it  at  common  law  as  against  a 
party  not  assenting  thereto. 
Such  changes  as  tearing  off  a 
blank  portion  of  the  paper  or 
substituting  a  small  for  a  capital 
letter  are  immaterial.  In  the 
United  States,  alteration  by  a 
stranger,  or  by  accident  or  inno- 
cent mistake,  do  not  invalidate 
the  instrument,  if  its  original  tenor 
can  be  ascertained.  The  same 
rule  also  obtains  in  several  of  the 
States,  as  well  as  in  England, 
with  regard  to  a  holder  in  due 
course  of  an  altered  negotiable  in- 
strument, such  as  a  Bill  of  Ex- 
change. See  Negotiable  Instru- 
ments; Cancelling  of  Deeds. 

Al'teratives,  in  medicine,  a 
term  applied  to  remedies  that 
'improve  the  nutrition  of  the 
body  without  exerting  any  very 
perceptible  action  on  individual 
organs'  (Lauder  Brunton).  This 
group  includes  a  number  of  sub- 
stances of  the  most  diverse  char- 
acters and  properties,  having  this 
only  in  common,  that  their  mode 
of  action  is  obscure,  though  the 
results  are  often  of  the  greatest 
value.  Among  the  most  impor- 
tant alteratives  are  various  prep- 
arations of  arsenic,  mercury,  io- 
dine, phosphorus,  and  gold;  cod 
liver  oil,  colchicum,  guaiacum,  sar- 
saparilla.  As  examples  of  their  ac- 
tion may  be  cited  the  beneficial 
effect  of  mercury  and  iodides  in 
the  various  morbid  processes  of 
syphilis;  of  cod  liver  oil  and 
iodides  in  strumous  diseases;  of 
arsenic  in  inflammations  of  the 
skin. 

Alter  Ego,  al'ter  e'go,  express- 
ing an  intimate  friend,  was  offi- 
cially employed  in  the  kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  designate 
the  administrative  plenipoten- 
tiary or  general  vicar  of  the  king. 

Alterna'ting  Current.  See 
Electricity,  Current;  Dyna- 
mo AND  Motor. 

Alternating  Motion,  a  term 
used  in  mechanics  to  indicate 
motion  backward  and  forward,  as 
opposed  to  rotation  (q.  v.).  Thus, 
the  reciprocating  parts  of  a  steam 
engine  are  in  alternating  motion, 
which,  as  approximately  in  this 
case,  is  frequently  a  simple  har- 
monic  motion.  See  Harmonic  Mo- 
tion. 


Alternation  of  Generations 


194 


Althorp 


Alternation    of  Generations, 

common  to  both  plant  and  ani- 
mal life,  is  the  alternate  occur- 
rence in  one  life  history  of  two  or 
more  forms  differently  produced. 

Plants. — A  period  arrives  in  ' 
the  life  of  every  plant  when  single 
cells  become  detached  from  the 
organism  with  which  they  have 
hitherto  been  identified,  and  en- 
ter upon  a  phase  of  independent 


(2) 


development.  Cells  of  this  char- 
acter are  known  as  reproductive 
cells,  and  the  plants  resulting 
from  them  as  generations.  Only 
in  the  lowest  plant  forms,  how- 
ever, are  the  successive  genera- 
tions alike.  Even  in  certain  algae 
and  fungi,  and  in  practically  all 
mosses  and  ferns,  the  generations 
that  proceed  from  one  another 
are  dissimilar:  gametophytes,  in 
which  sexual  reproduction  takes 
place,  alternating  with  sporo- 
phytes,  in  which  reproduction 
is  accomplished  by  means  of 
asexual  unicellular  spores.  The 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  *16 


fertilized  egg  of  the  gametophyte 
develops  into  a  sporophyte,  from 
whose  spores  in  turn  gameto- 
phytes arise. 

Thus  in  mosses  the  asexual 
generation  of  spores  are  small 
brown  capsules  which  stand  up 
like  spears  from  the  green  tufts; 
while  the  alternate  sexual  gen- 
eration are  minute  green,  leaf- 
like organisms  produced  on  damp 


earth  by  the  germination  of  the 
fallen  spores.  The  latter  produce 
egg  cells  and  microscopic  active 
male  cells  or  spermatozoids, 
which  conjugate  and  give  rise 
again  to  the  asexual  generation. 
(See  Mosses.)  In  flowering 
plants  the  same  law  of  alternating 
generations  holds  true;  althougli 
the  sexual  generation  lies  con- 
cealed within  the  spore-bearing 
plant. 

Animals. — Among  animals  al- 
ternation of  generations  is  of 
common  occurrence,  especially  in 
the  lower  forms.  1 1  is  exemplified 


in  its  simplest  phase  in  the  Cce- 
lenterata  (q.  v.),  in  which  a  colony 
of  asexual  polyps  produces  by 
budding  a  jelly-fish  or  medusoid. 
The  latter  in  turn  gives  rise  to  the 
sexual  elements,  through  the  con- 
jugation of  which  the  asexual 
polyp  colony  arises  to  begin  a  new 
cycle.  In  this  way  a  sexual  gen- 
eration possessed  of  considerable 
powers  of  locomotion  alternates 
with  a  sedentary  asexual  genera- 
tion {metagenesis) . 

More  complicated  are  the  con- 
ditions which  exist  in  certain 
higher  animals,  as  nematode 
worms,  whose  eggs  develop  into 
hermaphroditic  larvae  that  be- 
come parasitic  within  the  bodies 
of  certain  hosts,  where  they  pro- 
duce self-fertilized  eggs  which  es- 
cape from  the  host  and  produce 
sexual  worms  (heterogony) .  An- 
alogous, yet  having  in  some  cases 
a  series  of  generations  in  the 
cycle,  is  the  method  of  reproduc- 
tion among  many  worms,  insects 
of  all  grades,  and  some  Crustacea, 
of  which  the  aphids  oflter  a  famil- 
iar example  (see  Aphids).  In 
these,  forms  which  reproduce  by 
means  of  unfertilized  eggs  alter- 
nate with  those  in  which  the  nor- 
mal sexual  process  takes  place 
iheterogenesis) . 

See  Biology;  Reproduction; 
Parthenogenesis;  Spore.  Con- 
sult Steenstrupp's  On  the  Alterna- 
tion of  Generations  (Eng.  trans.). 

Al'terna'tor,  Electric,  or  Al- 
ternating-Current Dynamo,  is 
a  machine  designed  to  supply 
electrical  energy  in  the  form  of 
an  alternating  electric  current,  in 
exchange  for  some  form  of  me- 
chanical energy  supplied  to  it. 
See  Dynamo  and  Motor. 

Altgeld,  alt'geld,  John  Peter 
(1847-1902),  American  public 
official,  was  born  in  Germany, 
and  when  three  months  old  was 
brought  by  his  parents  to  Mans- 
field, O.  He  served  in  the  Civil 
War;  subsequently  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  Missouri 
bar  (1869).  In  1875  he  removed 
to  Chicago,  where  he  became 
judge  of  the  superior  court  (1886- 
91),  and  governor  of  the  State 
(1893-7) .  While  governor  he  par- 
doned the  Chicago  anarchists 
Fielden,  Schwab,  and  Neebe.  He 
was  an  advocate  of  free  silver  and 
of  prison  reform.  He  published: 
Our  Penal  Machinery  and  Its  Vic- 
tims (1886) ;  Eight- Hour  Movement 
(1890);  Live  Questions  (1899). 

Althse'a,  a  genus  of  the  Mal- 
vaceae, including  the  Marsh  Mal- 
low, Hollyhock,  and  Rose  of  Sha- 
ron (qq.  v.). 

Alttisea,  or  Althea,  according 
to  Greek  legend,  the  mother  of 
Meleager  (q.  v.). 

Althing,  the  Icelandic  parlia- 
ment.   .See  Iceland. 

Alt'tiorn,  or  Tenor  Saxhorn, 
a  valve  bugle  in  El*  or  F,  used  in 
military  bands.   See  Saxhorn. 

Al'tiiorp,  Lord.  See  Spencer 
Family. 


Alternation  of  Generations  in  Ccelenterata. 

(1)  Fertilized  egg,  from  which  arises  the  free  swimming  larva  or  planula  (2).  This 
fixes  itself,  and  grows  mto  the  young  polyp  (3).  This  smgle  polyp  buds,  and  gives  rise 
to  a  '  sea-fir '  colony  (4).  Three  polyps  of  this  colony  are  shown  on  a  larger  scale  (5), 
two  of  which  are  giving  rise,  by  budding,  to  members  of  the  second  or  medusoid  genera- 
tion (M),  seen  in  successive  stages  of  growth.  Later,  these  medusoids  float  away  as 
independent  organisms  ((i),and,  becoming  mature  jelly-fishes  (Medusa,  etc.),  produce 
eggs  and  sperms.    (Figs.  2-6  after  Aliman.) 


Altin-Tagh 


195 


Altrincham 


Altin-Tagh,  al-tin'-tag',  or 
Altyn-Tagh,  range  of  moun- 
tains in  Central  Asia,  stretching 
southwest  to  northeast,  and 
forming  part  of  the  northern 
boundary  of  Tibet.  Highest 
known  altitude,  14,000  feet. 

Al'titude,  in  astronomy,  is  the 
height  of  a  heavenly  body  above 
the  horizon.  It  is  measured  not 
by  linear  distance,  but  by  the 
angle  which  a  line  drawn  from 
the  eye  to  the  heavenly  body 
makes  with  the  plane  of  the  hori- 
zon, or  by  the  arc  of  a  vertical 
circle  intercepted  between  the 
body  and  the  horizon.  Altitudes 
are  taken  in  observatories  by 
means  of  a  telescope  attached  to 
a  graduated  circle,  which  is  fixed 
vertically.  The  telescope  being 
directed  toward  the  body  to  be 
observed,  the  angle  which  it 
makes  with  the  horizon  is  read 
off  the  graduated  circle.  The  al- 
titude thus  observed  must  receive 
various  corrections — the  chief 
being  for  parallax  and  refraction 
— in  order  to  determine  the  true 
altitude.  At  sea  observations  of 
altitude  are  made  with  the  sex- 
tant. The  correct  determina- 
tion of  altitudes  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  problems  of 
astronomy  and  navigation.  See 
Sextant;  Altazimuth;  Lati- 
tude AND  Longitude. 

Alt'man,  Benjamin  (1840- 
1913),  American  merchant,  art 
collector,  and  philanthropist,  was 
born  in  New  York  City,  and 
there  built  up  the  great  depart- 
ment store  that  bears  his  name. 
He  was  an  art  collector  of  ex- 
quisite taste,  and  at  his  death 
left  his  remarkable  collection  of 
paintings,  statues,  rugs,  enamels, 
and  tapestries  to  the  Metropoli- 
tan Museum  of  Art,  the  largest 
gift  ever  made  to  that  institution. 
His  charities  were  extensive. 

Altmiihl,  alt'miil,  river,  Ba- 
varia, a  left-bank  tributary  of  the 
Danube,  rising  on  the  western 
border  of  the  country.  It  enters 
the  Danube  between  Ratisbon 
and  Ingolstadt.  Length,  103 
miles. 

Alto,  a  musical  term,  strictly 
applicable  to  the  male  voice  of 
the  highest  pitch,  counter  tenor, 
but  also  used  to  denote  the  lowest 
range  of  the  female  voice,  con- 
tralto (q.v.).  In  ordinary  four- 
part  music  the  alto  part  is  an  es- 
sential constituent  with  the  so- 
prano, tenor,  and  bass. 

Alto  is  the  Italian  term  for  the 
tenor  violin. 

Alt-Ofen.    See  Budapest. 

Alton,  ol'tun  (ancient  Aule- 
ton),  market  town  and  parish, 
Hampshire,  England,  at  the 
source  of  the  Wey;  17  miles 
northeast  of  Winchester.  It  has 
an  ancient  church,  with  portraits 
of  Henry  vi.,  its  founder,  and  of 
several  bishops.  Brewing  and 
paper  making  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries, and  there  are  extensive 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '23 


hop  and  corn  fields  in  the  neigh- 
borhood.   Pop.  (1911)  5,555. 

Alton,  city,  Illinois,  Madison 
county,  on  the  Mississippi  River, 
and  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and 
Quincy,  the  Chicago  and  Alton, 
the  Chicago,  Peoria,  and  St. 
Louis,  the  Cleveland,  Cincin- 
nati, Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  and 
other  Railroads;  21  miles  north  of 
St.  Louis.  The  city  occupies  an 
elevated  and  picturesque  situa- 
tion. It  is  a  railroad  and  manu- 
facturing centre,  and  makes  ag- 
ricultural and  mining  imple- 
ments, machinery,  glass,  and 
flour.  Industrial  establishments 
in  1914  numbered  76,  with  $8,- 
695,000  capital,  and  products 
valued  at  $12,865,000.  Near  by, 
at  Godfrey,  is  the  Monticello 
Ladies'  Seminary,  and  at  Upper 
Alton  are  Shurtleff  College, 
founded  in  1836,  and  the  West- 
ern Military  Academy.  The 
first  settlement  was  made  at 
Alton  by  the  French,  in  1807. 
In  1837  one  of  the  first  riots 
against  the  Abolitionists  oc- 
curred here.  Elijah  P.  Lovejoy 
(q.v.)  was  killed  by  a  mob,  and 
his  printing  establishment 
wrecked.  Pop.  (1900)  14,210; 
(1910)  17,528;  (1920)  24,682. 

Altona,  al'to-na,  city,  in  the 
southern  part  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein,  is  situated  above  the  right 
bank  of  the  Elbe,  immediately 
west  of  Hamburg,  with  which  it 
forms  commercially,  though  not 
municipally,  one  community. 
The  Churches  of  the  Trinity 
(1743)  and  St.  John  (1873),  the 
monument  to  Von  Bliicher  (1832) , 
the  Rathaus,  before  which  stands 
a  Monument  of  Victory  dedi- 
cated to  the  9th  army  corps  in 
the  Franco-German  war,  and  the 
Municipal  Museum  are  of  in- 
terest. North  of  the  city  lies 
Stellingen,  containing  Hagen- 
back's  Zoological  Park,  one  of 
the  famous  animal  collections  of 
the  world.  Altona  has  a  fine 
harbor  accommodating  large 
ocean-going  craft,  and  there  are 
extensive  docks.  Its  imports 
amount  to  more  than  $17,500,- 
000,  and  its  exports  to  more  than 
$10,000,000  annually.  Indus- 
tries include  shipyards,  brewer- 
ies, iron  foundries,  flour  mills, 
cotton,  woollen,  glass  and  soap 
factories.  In  1901  a  free  harbor 
wasopened.  Pop.  (1910)  172,634; 
(1919)  168,729. 

Alton  Park,  town,  Tennessee, 
Hamilton  county,  on  the  Tennes- 
see, Alabama,  and  Georgia  Rail- 
road; a  few  miles  south  of  Chat- 
tanooga.   Pop.  (1920)  3,020. 

Altoona,  aI-t(K)'na,  city,  Blair 
county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad;  117  miles 
east  of  Pittsburgh,  and  237  miles 
northwest  of  Philadelphia.  It 
lies  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Al- 
leghany Mountains,  1,180  feet 
above  sea  level.  Prominent 
buildings  are  the  Penn  Alto  Ho- 


tel, High  School,  Junior  High 
School,  Altoona  and  Mercy  Hos- 
pitals, and  Mechanics  Library. 
Lakemont  Park,  noted  for  its 
landscape  gardening  and  a  beau- 
tiful artificial  lake,  is  near  by, 
and  the  famous  Horsechoe  Bend 
on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  is 
four  miles  west  of  the  city.  The 
chief  industries  centre  in  the  ex- 
tensive shops  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,  which  cover  200  acres 
and  employ  over  12,000  work- 
men. These  shops  have  a  large 
output  of  locomotives,  passenger 
and  freight  cars.  According  to 
the  United  States  Census  of 
Manufactures  for  1919,  indus- 
trial establishments  number  64, 
with  13,692  wage-earners,  a  total 
capital  of  $28,066,769,  and  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $53,946,093.  Pop. 
(1900)  38,973;  (1910)  52,127; 
(1920)  60,331. 

Altoona  (Allatoona)  Pass,  in 
Bartow  county,  Georgia,  the 
scene  of  a  hard-fought  battle  in 
the  Civil  War.  In  October,  1864, 
General  Sherman,  during  his  op- 
erations about  Atlanta,  Ga.,  made 
Altoona  a  base  of  supplies,  which 
the  Confederate  General  Hood 
sought  to  capture,  detailing  Gen. 
S.  G.  French,  with  4,000  men,  for 
that  purpose.  General  Corse, 
with  2,000  men,  was  ordered  from 
Rome,  Ga.,  to  defend  the  post. 
On  Oct.  5  a  long  day's  fighting  en- 
sued at  Altoona  Pass,  with  a  loss 
cn  each  side  of  about  700  in 
killed,  wounded  and  missing. 
The  Confederates  withdrew  on 
the  approach  of  Federal  rein- 
forcements. 

Alto-relievo,  al'to-re-lya'vo,  or 
Alto-rilievo  ('high  relief),  a 
term  applied  to  sculptured  forms 
which  stand  out  by  at  least  half 
their  true  proportionate  thick- 
ness from  the  background.  The 
metopes  of  the  Parthenon  and 
the  Pergamon  frieze  in  the  Ber- 
lin Museum  are  typical  examples. 
See  Sculpture. 

Altorf.    See  Altdorf. 

Altotting,  alt-et'ing,  town, 
Bavaria,  Germany,  near  the 
River  Inn;  60  miles  by  rail  north- 
east of  Munich.  It  possesses  a 
chapel  with  a  black  wooden  im- 
age of  the  Virgin  (the  Black  Vir- 
gin), dating  from  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, which  has  attracted  pil- 
grims for  centuries.  Another 
chapel  contains  the  tomb  of 
Tilly.  There  are  iron  works. 
Pop.  (1910)  5,408. 

Altranstiidt,  alt'ran-stet,  vil- 
lage, Saxony,  near  Leipzig.  Here, 
on  Sept.  24,  1706,  was  concluded 
the  treaty  between  Charles  xii. 
of  Sweden  and  Augustus  ii.,  king 
of  Poland  and  elector  of  Saxony. 
Pop.  700. 

Altrincham,  ol'tring-am,  town, 
Cheshire,  England,  on  the  rail- 
way from  Manchester  to  Chester, 
and  on  the  Watling  Street;  9 
miles  southwest  of  Manchester. 
The  Bridgewater  Canal  affords 


Altruism 


196 


Alumina 


communication  with  the  Man- 
chester Ship  Canal.  There  are 
large  linotype  works  and  engi- 
neering and  cabinet-making  in- 
dustries, but  the  chief  occupa- 
tion is  the  raising  of  fruit  and 
vegetables  for  Manchester  mar- 
kets. There  is  an  aerodrome 
here.  Pop.  (1921)_20,461. 

Altruism,  al'troo-iz'm,  a  term 
brought  into  use  by  Comte  (al- 
truisme),  and  introduced  into 
English  by  his  Positivist  follow- 
ers, denoting  (1)  the  other- re- 
garding or  social,  as  opposed  to 
the  egoistic,  instinct  or  impulse 
in  human  nature;  (2)  this  in- 
stinct or  impulse  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  conscious  principle — 
the  ethical  principle  which  makes 
the  good  of  others  the  paramount 
end  of  human  action.  That  al- 
truism cannot  be  an  exclusive 
principle  in  ethics  is  evident, 
however,  since  the  individual,  if 
he  knows  what  is  good  for  others, 
can  hardly  be  ignorant  of  his  own 
good,  and  it  would  be  paradoxical 
to  maintain  that  he  can  never 
promote  his  own  good  directly. 
Herbert  Spencer  discusses  the 
antagonism  of  egoism  and  altru- 
ism, and  their  ultimate  'concilia- 
tion' in  the  course  of  social  evo- 
lution. But  he  applies  the  term 
'altruistic'  not  merely  to  actions 
prompted  by  conscious  regard 
for  others,  but  to  all  other-bene- 
fiting actions,  whether  motived 
by  regard  for  others  or  not.  This 
ambiguity  is  important  from  an 
ethical  point  of  view,  since  ac- 
tions which  benefit  others  may 
be  performed  from  merely  ego- 
istic motives.    See  Ethics. 

Altruists,  Society  of.  See 
Communistic  Societies. 

Altsohl,  alt 'sol,  town,  Czecho- 
slovakia, 80  miles  north  of  Buda- 
pest. It  has  mineral  springs. 
Pop.  7,000. 

Altstatten,  alt'stet-en,  town, 
canton  St.  Gall,  Switzerland,  a 
station  on  the  Rorschach-Chur 
Railway;  9  miles  southeast  of  St. 
Gall.  It  is  situated  at  an  alti- 
tude of  1,700  feet,  and  has  sul- 
phur springs.  Pop.  (1900)  8,743; 
(1910)  9,378. 

Altus,  city,  Oklahoma,  county 
seat  of  Jackson  county,  on  the 
Kansas  City,  Mexico  and  Orient, 
the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas, 
and  the  St.  Louis-San  Francisco 
Railroads;  147  miles  southwest  of 
Oklahoma  City.  It  lies  in  an 
agricultural  and  stock-raising 
district.  Pop.  (1910)  4,821 ;  (1920) 
4,522. 

Altwasser,  alt'vas-cr,  town, 
Silesia  province,  Prussia;  35 
miles  southwest  of  Breslau.  It 
has  coal  mines  and  important 
manufactures  of  porcelain,  ma- 
chinery, and  mirrors.  Pop. 
(1900)  12,144;  (1910)  17,321. 

Alt-Zabrze,  alt'zab'zhe,  town, 
Prussia,  Upper  vSilesia,  Germany; 
120  miles  southwCvSt  of  Warsaw. 
It  is  the  seat  of  iron  foundries, 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '23 


engineering  works,  and  coal 
mines.    Pop.  10,640. 

Aludel  Furnace,  a  furnace  for- 
merly used  in  the  reduction  of 
mercurial  ores.  The  vapor  given 
off  is  condensed  in  tubes  or  ves- 
sels of  glass  or'  earthenware, 
called  aludels. 

Al'um,  Common  Alum,  adouble 
salt,  sulphate  of  potassium  and 
aluminum,  KA1(S04)2.12H20, 
may  be  had  in  the  form  of  glassy, 
colorless,  octahedral  (sometimes 
cubical)  crystals,  or  as  a  white 
powder  obtained  by  pulverizing 
these. 

The  principal  methods  of  prep- 
aration are:  (1)  by  roasting  alun- 
ite,  a  mineral  found  in  Italy  and 
Hungary,  and  extracting  with  hot 
water;  (2)  from  alum  shale;  (3) 
from  bauxite  or  cryolite.  It 
tastes  first  slightly  sweetish,  then 
distinctly  sour,  with  noticeable 
astringent  action.  It  renders 
gelatin  insoluble;  is  soluble  in 
glycerin;  100  parts  by  weight  of 
water  at  20°  c.  dissolve  15.1  parts 
of  alum;  at  100°  C,  357.5  parts  of 
alum.  Water  solutions  are  acid 
in  action,  evolving  carbon  dioxide 
gas  when  mixed  with  carbonates, 
a  property  applied  in  the  manu- 
facture of  inferior  baking  pow- 
ders. Alum  crystallizes  very 
readily  from  solution,  and  is  thus 
easily  purified. 

Alum  is  used  as  a  mordant  (es- 
pecially for  delicate  colors)  be- 
cause it  readily  yields  aluminum 
hydroxide,  the  effective  agent.  A 
similar  use  is  in  the  preparation 
of  lakes.  Other  applications  are 
in  the  tanning  of  glove  kid  and 
other  light  leather,  in  the  sizing 
of  paper,  in  the  purifying  of 
water,  in  medicine  as  an  astrin- 
gent and  haemostatic,  in  fire- 
proofing  fabrics  and  hardening 
plaster  of  Paris,  and  in  making 
inferior  baking  powders.  In 
most  of  its  uses  it  is  being  re- 
placed by  aluminum  sulphate. 

The  term  alum  is  used  in  a 
general  sense  to  denote  any  one 
of  a  class  of  isomorphous  com- 
pounds having  the  general  for- 
mula RM(A04)2.12H20,  in  which 
R  represents  one  of  the  ele- 
ments caesium,  potassium,  ru- 
bidium, silver,  sodium,  thallium, 
and  the  ammonium  group  NH4; 
M,  aluminum,  chromium,  gal- 
lium, indium,  iron,  manganese; 
and  A,  sulphur  or  selenium.  In 
naming  these  compounds,  when 
R  is  potassium,  M  aluminum,  or 
A  sulphur,  these  are  not  men- 
tioned— thus,  soda  alum,  NaAl- 
(S04)2.12H20,  iron  alum,  KFe- 
(S04)2.12H20;  otherwise  it  is 
necessary  to  specify  the  several 
elements — e.g.,  ammonium  iron 
alum  NH4Fe(S04)2.12H20. 

Burnt  alum  is  a  white,  anhy- 
drous, slightly  basic  substance 
made  by  heating  common  alum, 
which  first  melts  in  its  water  of 
crystallization,  then  gradually  be- 
comes   completely  dehydrated. 


Chrome  alum,  potassium  chrom- 
ium sulphate,  KCr(S04)2.12H20, 
occurs  in  reddish-violet  crystals 
(a  by-product  in  the  manufacture 
of  alizarin  and  anthraquinone), 
and  is  used  in  photographic  fixing 
or  hardening  baths.  Concentrated 
alum  is  aluminum  sulphate  (q.v.). 
Neutral  alum,  a  basic  compound 
KAl2(OH)3(S04)2,  is  used  as  a 
mordant  and  in  clarifying  water. 
Roman  alum,  common  alum  as 
produced  at  the  extensive  works 
in  the  vicinity  of  Rome,  occurs  in 
crystals  usually  cubical  and 
slightly  orange  red  from  finely 
divided  ferric  oxide,  an  impurity 
easily  removed  by  recrystalliza- 
tion. 

Alu'mina,  Aluminum  Oxide. 
AI2O3,  a  compound  of  aluminum 
(53.0  per  cent.)  and  oxygen,  of 
great  technical  importance.  It 
is  found  in  nature  in  many  forms: 
(a)  as  corundum  (q.v.),  rhombo- 
hedral  crystals,  colorless,  or 
brown  from  the  presence  of  im- 
purities; exceeded  in  hardness 
only  by  the  diamond,  boron  car- 
bide, and  carborundum,  hence  a 
valued  abrasive;  (b)  as  ruby, 
rich,  deep  red,  hexagonal  crys- 
tals, the  color  being  due  to  small 
quantities  of  chromium;  valuable 
as  a  gem,  and  used  to  minimize 
friction,  as  axle  bearings  for 
watches  and  other  measuring  in- 
struments; (c)  as  sapphire,  hex- 
agonal crystals,  colored  blue  by 
traces  of  titanium;  valued  as  a 
gem;  (d)  as  emery,  coarse,  granu- 
lar, gray  or  blackish,  containing 
ferric  oxide,  useful  as  an  abrasive. 
A  fine-grained  variety  is  used  for 
grinding  glass  and  steel.  Ground 
to  different  degrees  of  fineness, 
it  is  applied  in  the  manufacture 
of  emery  paper  and  cloth  used  for 
polishing. 

Alumina  may  be  prepared  from 
aluminum  hydroxide  by  strong 
ignition,  or  from  bauxite  by  melt- 
ing it  in  the  electric  furnace  with 
carbon  added  to  remove  impur- 
ities. It  is  colorless,  yielding  a 
white,  tasteless  powder  insoluble 
in  water. 

Alumina  is  little  susceptible  to 
chemical  action.  When  made 
from  the  hydroxide  by  moderate 
heat  it  is  soluble  in  acids,  but 
when  strongly  heated  it  is  hard, 
fusible  with  difficulty  (melting 
point  about  1,880°  c),  and  ex- 
tremely resistant  to  the  action  of 
acids.  When  it  is  fused  with 
caustic  alkalies  or  acid  sulphates, 
soluble  aluminum  compounds 
are  formed. 

Alumina  is  the  indirect  source 
of  the  metal  Aluminum.  The 
principal  source  of  this  metal  is 
bauxite,  which  is  first  dehydrated 
and  purified,  thus  yielding  alu- 
mina, which  is  then  dissolved  in 
fused  cryolite  and  submitted  to 
electrolysis  for  reduction.  (See 
Aluminum. 

Alumina  prepared  from  bauxite 
and  fused  in  the  electric  furnace 


Aluminum 


197 


Aluminum 


is  known  under  the  commercial 
name  of  Alundum,  and  is  finding 
many  useful  applications,  chiefly 
as  a  refractory  material,  though 
also  used  as  a  filtering  medium 
and  as  an  abrasive  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cut  glass  and  lenses. 
Its  melting  point  is  very  high 
(about  2,050°  c).  (See  Alun- 
dum.) 

Alumina  is  the  principal  mate- 
rial for  the  preparation  of  syn- 
thetic or  artificial  rubies  and 
sapphires,  an  industry  which  is 
assuming  importance.  It  is  al- 
ways one  of  the  products  formed 
in  the  Goldschmidt  alumino- 
thermic  process  for  the  reduction 
of  oxides. 

Aluminum  or  Aluminium 
(Al,  27.0),  a  soft,  silvery  white 
metal,  extremely  malleable,  and 
of  high  ductility.  With  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  only  2.70,  it  is  the 
lightest  metal  in  common  use. 
It  melts  at  659°  c  (1185°  f).  The 
tensile  strength  of  cast  aluminum 
is  11,000-14,000  pounds  per 
square  inch;  working  by  rolling 
will  double  this  value,  but  on 
annealing  the  worked  material  the 
strength  drops  to  about  the  cast 
value;  in  the  form  of  wire  the 
values  are  somewhat  higher,  and 
in  small  sizes  of  hard-drawn  wire 
the  strength  may  go  to  55,000 
pounds.  The  strength  of  the 
metal  may  be  materially  in- 
creased by  allowing  up  to  33,000 
pounds  for  cast  metal,  and  cer- 
tain types  of  alloys,  by  working 
and  heat-treating,  may  be 
brought  up  to  80,000  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

About  half  of  the  aluminum 
produced  is  used  in  the  pure 
form,  as  sheet,  wire,  bars,  rods, 
tubes,  foil,  or  powder,  while  the 
other  half  goes  into  the  various 
types  of  alloys,  chiefly  as  cast- 
ings. The  largest  consumer  of 
aluminum  is  the  automobile  in- 
dustry; modern  cars  have  been 
made  much  lighter  by  the  exten- 
sive use  of  aluminum  in  body 
construction,  engine  parts  and 
fittings.  Current  development  in 
aircraft  construction  has  been 
largely  dependent  on  the  devel- 
opment in  the  use  of  high- 
strength  aluminum  alloys.  Alu- 
minum and  its  alloys  are  exten- 
sively used  in  the  manufacture 
of  cooking  utensils,  for  apparatus 
in  the  dairy  industry  and  in  cer- 
tain branches  of  the  chemical 
industry;  in  steel  metallurgy, 
aluminum  is  used  as  a  deoxidizer 
for  the  liciuid  steel;  aluminum 
foil  is  widely  used  to  replace  lead 
or  tin  foil  in  the  wrapping  of  to- 
bacco, chocolate,  and  the  like; 
aluminum  powder  is  used  as  a 
paint  pigment  and  as  grains,  in 
the  precipitation  of  gold  and 
silver  in  the  cyanide  process  (see 
Gold  and  Silver),  and  in  the 
reduction  of  metallic  oxides  by 
the  thermite  process  (([.v.) ;  in  the 
form  of  wire  and  cable,  aluminum 
is  a  serious  competitor  of  copper 


as  an  electrical  conductor  for 
high-tension  transmission  lines: 
and  besides  these  there  are  in- 
numerable other  uses  where  the 
light  weight  and  permanent  char- 
acter of  the  metal  make  it 
specially  applicable. 

The  properties  that  contribute 
particularly  to  the  metal's  useful- 
ness are:  lightness;  color;  ability 
to  take  high  polish;  ability  to 
form  alloys  of  high  strength; 
ductility;  malleability;  good  re- 
sistance to  oxidation;  resistance 
to  corrosion  by  nitric  acid  and 
practically  all  organic  acids; 
high  electrical  conductivity;  ease 
of  v/orking  and  machining. 

Aluminum  was  first  isolated  by 
Wohler  in  1827,  but  the  first  at- 
tempts at  the  commercial  pro- 
duction of  the  metal  were  not 
until  1854,  when  Ste.  Claire  De- 
ville  developed  the  process  of 
reducing  aluminum  chloride  by 
means  of  metallic  sodium.  His 
efforts  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  aluminum  industry,  and  this 
process  was  used  for  30  years, 
until  the  development  of  the 
present  electrolytic  process. 

Alloys. — While  the  light 
weight  of  aluminum  is  of  great 
value  in  its  technical  applica- 
tions, its  low  tensile  strength  is  a 
disadvantage;  to  overcome  this, 
numerous  alloys  have  been  de- 
veloped in  which  the  strength  is 
materially  increased.  The  chief 
alloying  agents  are  copper,  silicon 
and  zinc,  particularly  for  casting 
metal;  e.g.,  92Al:8Cu;  90Al:7Cu; 
2Zn:lFe;  95Al:5Si;  87Al:13Si; 
83Al:3Cu:15Zn;  iron,  nickel, 
manganese,  magnesium,  and 
other  metals  are  also  frequently 
introduced.  The  alloy  most  used 
Jot  rolling,  forging  and  heat- 
treating  is  duralumin,  which  usu- 
ally carries  3.5-4.5  per  cent,  cop- 
per, 0.5-1.0  magnesium,  0.5-1.0 
manganese  and  such  silicon  and 
iron  as  were  in  the  aluminum 
from  which  the  alloy  was  made. 
Although  not  originally  added  as 
a  constituent  of  the  alloy,  it  has 
since  been  found  that  the  silicon 
is  an  important  factor  in  the  be- 
havior of  the  alloy  during  heat 
treatment. 

Compounds. — The  compounds 
of  aluminum  of  greatest  com- 
mercial importance  are  the  oxide 
and  sulphate.  Most  of  the  pure 
alumina  of  commerce  is  produced 
by  the  chemical  purification  of 
bauxite;  the  oxide  also  occurs  in 
nature  in  the  form  of  the  gems 
ruby  and  sapphire,  and  the  min- 
erals emery  and  corundum, 
which,  on  account  of  their  hard- 
ness, are  UvSed  as  abrasive  mate- 
rials; artificial  corundum  is  also 
produced  by  fusing  bauxite  in 
the  electric  furnace.  (vSee  Al- 
umina.) The  chief  salt  of  alu- 
minum is  the  sulphate;  a  stnall 
proportion  of  the  output  of  this 
salt  is  combined  with  am- 
monium, sodium  or  potassium  to 
form    the    corresponding  alum 


(q.v.).  Small  tonnages  of  alu- 
minum chloride  are  also  pro- 
duced. 

Though  never  occurring  in 
nature  in  the  metallic  form  alu- 
minum is  one  of  the  most  abun- 
dant of  the  chemical  elements, 
being  exceeded  only  by  oxygen 
and  silicon.  Although  it  is 
mostly  found  as  a  silicate,  as  in 
clays,  or  feldspars,  the  only 
source  from  which  the  metal  is 
commercially  recovered  is  baux- 
ite (q.v.),  a  hydrated  oxid, 
which,  if  pure  would  be  AI2OI3.- 
2H2O,  but  which  always  carries 
some  silica  and  small  amounts  of 
other  impurities,  and  has  part  of 
its  aluminum  replaced  by  iron. 

Aluminum  is  produced  com- 
mercially by  the  electrolysis  of  a 
solution  of  the  purified  oxide, 
alumina,  in  fused  cryolite.  The 
heat  generated  by  the  passage  of 
the  current  through  the  bath  is 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  tem- 
perature above  the  melting  point 
of  the  mixture,  the  metal  being 
set  free  at  the  surface  of  the 
cathode  and  the  oxygen  at  the 
anode.  The  furnace  in  which 
the  operation  is  carried  on  is  a 
rectangular  box  of  sheet  steel  with 
a  heavy  lining  of  carbon,  which 
serves  as  a  refractory  lining  and 
at  the  same  time  acts  as  cathode; 
the  anode  consists  of  several 
heavy  blocks  of  carbon  dipping 
into  the  liquid  bath.  The  metal 
liberated  at  the  cathode  collects 
in  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  and 
is  periodically  drawn  off;  the 
oxygen,  liberated  on  the  surface 
of  the  hot  carbon  anodes,  attacks 
them  and  gradually  burns  them 
away,  mostly  as  carbon  mon- 
oxide, but  partly  as  carbon  diox- 
ide. Although  the  basis  of  the 
bath  is  essentially  cryolite,  a 
double  fluoride  of  aluminum  and 
sodium,  it  is  sometimes  modified 
by  the  addition  of  other  fluorides, 
particularly  fluorspar,  the  fluo- 
ride of  calcium,  and  aluminum 
fluoride.  The  electrolyte  carries 
about  20  per  cent,  of  alumina, 
and  as  this  is  removed  by  the 
action  of  the  current,  more  is 
added.  The  temperature  is 
maintained  at  about  900-950°  c. 
(1650-1750°  F.).  An  ordinary 
commercial  cell  uses  8,000-10,000 
amperes  at  6.5-7.5  volts;  about 
one  third  of  this  voltage  is  re- 
quired to  supply  the  voltage  of 
decomposition  of  the  bath,  and 
two  thirds  to  overcome  the  re- 
sistance of  the  bath  and  supply 
the  heat  necessary  to  maintain 
the  bath  in  a  liquid  condition; 
practice  has  shown  that  it  is 
necessary  to  generate  the  needed 
heat  electrically  in  the  bath,  since 
it  cannot  be  successfully  applied 
from  an  outside  source.  The  or- 
dinary product  carries  99  per 
cent,  aluminum,  the  chief  impuri- 
ties being  iron  and  silicon;  second 
grade  metal  runs  98-99  per  cent,, 
and  by  taking  special  precaution 
as  to  the  purity  of  the  raw  mate- 

Vol;  I.— Oct.  '28 


Aluminum  Bronze 


197  A 


Alva 


rials  a  special  grade  running  99.5 
may  be  produced.  The  Hoopes 
process  for  electrolytically  refin- 
ing the  impure  metal  will  produce 
high  grade  material  running 
99.98  per  cent,  aluminum.  This 
process  was  developed  during  the 
years  1923-25  but  has  not  been 
commercially  operated,  due  to 
the  lack  of  sufficient  demand  for 
high  purity  metal.  A  unique 
feature  of  the  refining  process  is 
the  utilization  of  three  successive 
layers  of  different  specific  grav- 
ity. In  the  reduction  cell  the 
cathode  is  at  the  bottom,  the 
anode  at  the  top,  and  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  electrolyte  must  be 
controlled  so  that  the  metal  pro- 
duced stays  in  the  bottom,  in 
contact  with  the  cathode,  in- 
stead of  floating  to  the  top  in 
contact  with  the  anode.  In  the 
refining  cell,  the  electrodes  are 
reversed,  the  anode  being  at  the 
bottom,  and  the  cathode  at  the 
top.  In  order  to  ensure  the  ac- 
cumulation of  the  pure  metal  at 
the  cathode,  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  cryolite  bath  is  increased 
by  the  addition  of  barium  fluo- 
ride, so  that  the  pure  aluminum 
readily  floats  on  it.  The  impure 
metal  for  the  anode  must  then  be 
still  heavier  than  the  electrolyte, 
to  stay  in  the  bottom  of  the  cell 
in  contact  with  the  anode,  and 
this  is  done  by  alloying  it  with 
sufficient  copper  to  make  its  spe- 
cific gravity  greater  than  that  of 
the  bath.  In  this  way  three  suc- 
cessive layers  of  material  are 
maintained,  the  impure  anode, 
the  electrolyte,  and  the  pure 
aluminum. 

Statistics. — The  world's  pro- 
duction and  consumption  of  alu- 
minum has  grown  rapidly  during 
recent  years.  In  1897  the  world's 
production  was  3,200  metric  tons; 
in  1927  it  was  212,000  metric 
tons.  Of  this  total  production 
the  United  States  has,  on  the 
average,  produced  40  per  cent., 
and  Canada  10  per  cent.,  the 
other  50  per  cent,  being  pro- 
duced in  Europe,  chiefly  in  Ger- 
many, Norway,  Switzerland  and 
France.  In  addition  to  its  own 
production  the  United  States  im- 
ports an  average  of  20,000  metric 
tons  a  year. 

Consult  Liddel's  Handbook  of 
Non-Ferrous  Metallurgy  (1926)  ; 
Anderson's  Metallurgy  of  Alumi- 
num and  Aluminum  Alloys  (1925) ; 
Corson's  Aluminum  (1926). 

Aluminum  Bronze.  Alumi- 
num forms,  with  copper,  several 
light,  very  hard  white  alloys; 
also  a  yellow  alloy,  which,  though 
much  lighter  than  gold,  is  similar 
to  it  in  color.  This  gold-like  al- 
loy, which  is  ordinary  aluminum 
bronze,  contains  from  5  to  10  per 
cent,  of  aluminum,  and  is  very 
strong.  It  was  discovered  by  Dr. 
Percy  of  London.  For  many  years 
it  has  been  manufactured  into 
watch  chains,  pencil  cases,  and 
other  small  ornamental  articles. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '28 


Alum  Root,  a  name  given  in 
the  United  States  to  two  native 
plants,  very  different  from  each 
other,  but  agreeing  in  the  power- 
ful astringency  of  their  roots, 
which  are  used  medicinally. 
One  of  these  plants  is  Geranium 
maculalum  (see  Geranium).  The 
root  contains  a  large  percentage 
of  tannin.  The  property  of  as- 
tringency belongs,  in  an  inferior 
degree,  to  some  other  species  of 
geranium,  and  the  kindred  gen- 
era, erodium  and  pelargonium. 

The  other  American  plant  to 
which  the  name  alum  root  is 
given  is  Heuchera  americana,  a 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Saxi- 
fragaceae,  an  order  in  which  as- 
tringency is  also  a  prevalent 
property.  The  root  is  a  power- 
ful styptic,  and  is  used  to  form  a 
wash  for  wounds  and  obstinate 
ulcers. 

Alun'dum,  an  artificial  crys- 
talline oxide  of  aluminum  (AI2O3) , 
used  as  an  abrasive  and  a  refrac- 
tory. It  is  produced  by  fusing 
bauxite  in  the  electric  furnace 
and  by  controlling  the  process 
the  alundum  may  be  made  of 
varying  degrees  of  hardness, 
sharpness,  and  toughness.  The 
crystals  are  crushed  and  passed 
through  sieves  to  segregate  the 
different  sizes  of  grains,  com- 
bined with  a  binder,  and  pressed 
into  wheels  for  cutting,  grinding, 
or  polishing.  A  wheel  of  alun- 
dum will  do  from  two  to  six  times 
as  much  work  as  an  emery  wheel, 
and  with  greater  rapidity. 

Alundum  is  also  made  into 
crucibles,  muffles,  tubes,  slabs, 
and  a  number  of  other  forms  for 
a  variety  of  uses  where  its  re- 
sistance to  high  temperature  and 
corrosion  is  valuable. 

Ar unite,  or  Alumstone,  a 
hydrous  sulphate  of  aluminum 
and  potassium,  containing  38.6 
per  cent,  of  sulphur  trioxide,  37 
per  cent,  of  alumina,  11.4  per 
cent,  of  potash,  and  13  per  cent, 
of  water.  It  occurs  as  white, 
finely  granular  masses,  resem- 
bling limestone.  It  is  soluble  in 
sulphuric  acid.  Hardness,  4; 
specific  gravity,  2.6.  After  roast- 
ing and  lixiviation,  alum  is  ob- 
tained in  solution.  While  the 
mineral  is  seldom  found  pure  in 
nature,  its  deposits  are  of  im- 
portance as  a  possible  source  of 
both  potash  and  alumina.  Ex- 
tensive deposits  are  mined  near 
Rome,  Italy,  in  Tuscany,  Hun- 
gary, and  New  South  Wales,  and 
deposits  have  recently  been 
found  in  Utah  and  Nevada. 

Alu'nogen,afibrousaluminum 
sulphate,  found  in  volcanic  de- 
bris, clays,  feldspathic  rocks 
which  contain  pyrites,  and  often 
as  an  inflorescence  on  walls  of 
mines  and  caves. 

Aluta,  river  of  Europe.  See 
Olt. 

Alva,  city,  Oklahoma,  county 
seat  of  Woods  County,  on  the 
Salt  Fork  of  the  Arkansas  River, 


and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and 
Santa  Fe  and  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island,  and  Pacific  Railroads;  100 
miles  northwest  of  Guthrie.  It 
has  a  State  normal  school.  Pop. 
(1910)  3,688;  (1920)  3,913. 

Alva,  town,  Scotland,  in  Clack- 
mannanshire; 6^  miles  north- 
east of  Stirling.  Plaids,  serges, 
shawls,  tartans,  and  other  wool- 
len fabrics  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  (1911)  4,332;  (1921)  4,107. 

Alva,  or  Alba,  Ferdinand 
Alvarez  de  Toledo,  Duke  of 
(1508-82),  Spanish  general  and 
prime  minister,  was  descended 
from  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
families  of  Spain.  He  entered 
the  army  a  mere  youth,  and 
became  a  commander-in-chief  at 
thirty  years  of  age.  His  skilful 
defence  of  Navarre  and  Cata- 
lonia gained  him  his  rank  as  Duke 
of  Alva. 

When  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Netherlands  revolted  against  the 
tyranny  of  Spain  and  the  Inquisi- 
tion, the  Duke  of  Alva's  counsel 
was  to  suppress  the  insurrection 
with  rigor.  The  king  according- 
ly sent  him  to  the  Netherlands  in 
1567,  with  unlimited  power  and  a 
large  military  force.  His  first 
step  on  arriving  was  to  establish 
what  was  called  the  'Bloody 
Council,'  a  tribunal  which  con- 
demned all  without  distinction 
whose  opinions  appeared  dubi- 
ous, or  whose  wealth  excited 
jealousy.  Alva,  rendered  still 
more  savage  by  a  defeat  which 
befell  his  lieutenant,  the  Duke  of 
Aremberg,  sent  Counts  Egmont 
and  Horn  to  the  block.  He  after- 
ward defeated  Prince  Louis,  and 
compelled  William  of  Orange  to 
retire  to  Germany;  upon  which 
he  entered  Brussels  in  triumph 
on  Dec.  22,  1568.  His  execution- 
ers shed  more  blood  than  his 
soldiers;  and  none  now  withstood 
his  arms  except  Holland  and  Zee- 
land.  But  these  provinces  con- 
tinually renewed  their  efforts 
against  him,  and  succeeded  in 
destroying  the  fleet  which  had 
been  equipped  by  his  orders. 
Recalled  by  his  own  desire  in 
1573,  he  resigned  the  command 
of  the  troops  to  the  mild  Don 
Louis  de  Requesens. 

Alva  soon  lost  the  royal  favor 
for  sheltering  his  son  from  the 
consequences  of  a  misdemeanor, 
and  retired  to  his  castle,  till,  in 
1580,  he  was  recalled  to  a  com- 
mand in  the  war  against  Portu- 
gal, the  crown  of  which  Philip 
claimed  as  his  hereditary  right. 
He  quickly  drove  out  Don  An- 
tonio, who,  as  grandson  ofr^  John 
III.,  had  taken  possession  of  the 
throne,  and  overran  the  country 
with  his  accustomed  cruelty  and 
rapacity.  He  seized  the  treasures 
of  the  capital  himself,  while  he 
allowed  the  soldiers  to  plunder 
without  mercy  the  suburbs  and 
the  surrounding  country.  Philip, 
dissatisfied  with  these  proceed- 
ings, desired  to  have  an  investiga- 


AlTarado 


197  B 


Alyaites 


tion  of  the  conduct  of  the  Duke; 
but  the  haughty  bearing  of  the 
latter,  and  the  fear  of  a  revolt,  in- 
duced him  to  abandon  it.  Shortly 
after,  Alva  died  at  Thomar,  Jan. 
12,  1582,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
four. 

Alva  had  a  haughty  carriage,  a 
hard  voice,  and  a  dark  and  gloomy 
countenance.  He  was  cruel, 
avaricious,  and  a  fanatic.  It  has 
been  said  of  him  that  during  sixty 
years  of  military  service  he  never 
lost  a  battle,  and  never  allowed 
himself  to  be  surprised.  Consult 
Motley's  Dutch  Republic. 

Alvarado,  seaport,  Mexico,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  River  Alvarado;  38  miles 
southeast  of  Vera  Cruz,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rail. 
Rice  and  cacao  are  exported. 
Pop.  4,000. 

Alvarado,  Juan  Bautista,  a 
Californian,  who  raised  a  revolt 
against  Mexican  authority  in 
1836,  and  routed  the  Mexicans 
in  a  single  battle  at  San  Buena- 
ventura. He  was  president  of 
California  from  1836  until  1842, 
when  he  was  deposed. 

Alvarado,  Pedro  de  (1495- 
1541),  Spanish  adventurer,  was 
born  in  Badajoz.  After  an  ex- 
ploring expedition  to  Yucatan 
(1518),  he  sailed  in  February, 
1519,  with  Cortes  and  his  little 
band  from  Havana,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  all  the  incidents  of 
the  conquest  of  Mexico.  He  held 
the  City  of  Mexico  during  the 
absence  of  his  chief,  and  mas- 
sacred in  the  midst  of  a  fete  a 
great  number  of  disaffected  Aztec 
nobles.  In  the  famous  night  re- 
treat of  July  1,  1520  {la  noche 
triste),  he  commanded  the  rear 
guard,  and  covered  himself  with 
glory  by  his  reckless  courage.  On 
his  return  to  Spain,  the  Emperor 
Charles  v.  appointed  him  gov- 
ernor of  Guatemala.  Numerous 
adventurers  followed  him  to  the 
New  World,  and  Alvarado  soon 
embarked  on  the  Pacific  a  force 
of  five  hundred  soldiers  for  the 
capture  of  Quito.  He  landed 
near  Cape  San  Francisco,  whence 
he  penetrated  into  the  heart  of 
the  country,  crossing  the  Andes 
by  a  daring  march.  In  the  in- 
terior he  was  met  by  some  of  the 
troops  of  Pizarro,  headed  by  Al- 
magro;  but  chivalrously  disclaim- 
ing any  intention  to  interfere  with 
his  countryman's  rights,  he  agreed 
to  retire  on  receiving  an  indem- 
nity for  his  arduous  undertaking. 
On  his  next  visit  to  Spain  he 
cleared  himself  from  the  mis- 
representations of  Pizarro  with 
such  success  that  he  received  the 
government  of  Honduras,  in  ad- 
dition to  Guatemala.  He  died  in 
Mexico  during  an  expedition 
against  the  revolted  Chichimecas 
of  New  Galicia. 

Alvarez,    Don   Jose  (1768- 


1827),  Spanish  sculptor,  was  born 
in  Priego,  and  studied  at  Paris. 
He  was  commissioned  by  Napo- 
leon to  carry  out  work  at  the 
Quirinal.  Ylis  Ganymede,  Adonis, 
and  Antilochus  and  MemnonplsLced 
him  in  the  front  rank  of  sculptors 
of  his  time.  Ferdinand  vii.  of 
Spain  made  him  court  sculptor. 

Alvarez,  Luis  (1841-1901), 
Spanish  painter,  was  born  in 
Madrid.  He  first  attracted  no- 
tice by  his  picture  Caesar's  Wife, 
Calpurnia,  which,  with  Isabella 
the  Catholic,  is  now  in  the  Royal 
Palace  at  Madrid.  He  also 
painted  the  large  historical  can- 
vases of  Philip  II.  (Escorial), 
The  Cardinal  in  San  Giovanni, 
and  The  Embarkation  of  King 
Amadeus  at  Spezia.  Subsequently 
he  devoted  himself  with  success 
to  genre  painting — e.g.,  A  Fune- 
ral, The  Marriage  of  Pauline 
Borghese,  The  Charity  Bazaar,  The 
Heir's  Picture. 

Alvary,  Max  (1856-98),  Ger- 
man singer,  was  born  in  Diissel- 
dorf,  and  studied  under  the  Ital- 
ian maestro  Lamperti.  He  made 
his  debut  (1882)  at  the  Court 
Theatre,  Weimar,  in  the  part  of 
Stradella.  His  first  American  ap- 
pearance was  at  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  New  York,  in  1884, 
in  the  part  of  Don  Jose  in  Carmen. 
The  climax  of  his  career  was 
reached  with  his  rendering  of 
Siegfried  at  the  same  Opera 
House  in  1889.  He  also  sang 
Wagnerian  drama  with  success 
at  Bayreuth. 

Alvensleben,  Konstantin  von 
(1809-92),  Prussian  general, 
served  through  the  Danish  War 
and  the  war  with  Austria,  and  in 
1860  was  appointed  to  a  post  at 
the  war  office.  He  commanded 
at  Koniggratz,  and  as  commander 
of  the  Third  Army  Corps  (1870- 
71)  played  a  distinguished  part  in 
the  Franco-Prussian  War.  His 
brothers,  Gustav  and  Albrecht, 
won  distinction,  the  former  in 
arms,  the  latter  in  statecraft. 

Alverstone,  Lord  (1842),  for- 
merly Sir  Richard  Everard 
Webster,  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant and  successful  British  law- 
yers of  modern  times,  chiefly  in 
commercial,  railway,  and  patent 
cases.  He  was  called  to  the  bar 
(Lincoln's  Inn)  in  1868;  repre- 
sented Launceston  (1885)  and  the 
Isle  of  Wight  (1885-1900)  in  the 
House  of  Commons;  and  was  At- 
torney-General three  times  under 
Lord  Salisbury.  In  1900  he  be- 
came Lord  Chief  Justice  of  Eng- 
land, and  held  this  office  until 
Oct.  16,  1913,  when  he  resigned 
and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Rufus 
Isaacs.  He  represented  the  Brit- 
ish government  in  the  arbitra- 
tions relating  to  the  Bering  Sea 
with  Sir  Charles  Russell  (1893), 
and  Venezuela  (1898-9);  was 
Master  of  the  Rolls  (1900);  pre- 


sided over  the  tribunal  which     a  •  / 
settled  the  Alaska  Boundary  Dis-    J) /^/J 
pute  (q.v.)  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  (1903); 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  Historical  mss. 

(1910)  .  As  Attorney-General  he 
conducted  what  was  practically 
the  prosecution  in  the  Parnell 
Commission  (1888-9). 

Alverthorpe,  town.  West  Rid- 
ing, Yorkshire,  England;  2  miles 
northwest  of  Wakefield.  Indus- 
tries include  market  gardening, 
brick  making,  coal  mining,  dye- 
ing, and  yarn  and  cotton  manu- 
factures. Pop.  13,000. 

Alvinczy,  Joseph,  Baron  von 
(1735-1810),  Austrian  field  mar- 
shal, distinguished  himself  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  and  in  the  war 
with  the  Turks  (1788-92).  In  the 
wars  between  Austria  and  France 
he  defeated  the  French  at  Neer- 
winden,  Landrecy,  Charleroi,  etc., 
in  1792;  but  was  defeated  at 
Hondschoote  (Sept.  6,  1793).  He 
was  afterward  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  forces  in 
Italy;  repulsed  Napoleon  at  Cal- 
diero  (1796),  but  was  defeated  at 
Arcole  (Nov.  15-17,  1796)  and  at 
Rivoli  (Jan.  14,  1797).  this  last 
involving  also  the  fall  of  Mantua. 
He  was  later  appointed  governor 
in  Hungary,  and  field  marshal  in 
1808. 

Alvord,  Benjamin  (1813-84), 
American  soldier  and  writer,  was 
born  in  Rutland,  Vt.  After  being 
graduated  from  West  Point,  he 
saw  service  in  the  second  Semi- 
nole War,  and  in  the  war  with 
Mexico.  He  was  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  (1862-5); 
paymaster  at  New  York  City 
(1865-7),  and  at  Omaha,  Neb. 
(1867-72);  and  paymaster-gen- 
eral of  the  U.  S.  Army  (1876-81). 
He  wrote:  Tangencies  of  Circles 
and  of  Spheres  (1855);  The  Inter- 
pretation of  Imaginary  Roots  in 
Questions  of  Maxima  and  Minima 
(1860). 

Alvord,  Corydon  A.  (1812- 
74),  a  well-known  printer  of  il- 
lustrated books  in  Vandewater 
Street,  New  York.  He  dealt 
largely  in  facsimiles  of  old  books 
and  prints,  having  ancient  type 
fonts  made  for  the  purpose.  He 
retired  to  Hartford  in  1871,  and 
devoted  himself  to  a  history  of 
the  town  and  of  Winchester. 

Alwar,  or  Alwur,  native  state 
in  Rajputana,  India.  Area,  3,144 
square  miles;  pop.  (1911)  791,688. 
Its  capital  is  Alwar,  about  85 
miles  southwest  of  Delhi.  Pop. 

(1911)  60,000. 

Alyattes,  King  of  Lydia 
(reigned  c.  617-523  B.C.),  made 
war  against  Cyaxares  of  Media; 
expelled  the  Cimmerians  from 
Asia;  took  Smyrna,  and  thus  pro- 
vided his  kingdom  with  a  port. 
Before  his  death  all  Asia  Minor 
west  of  the  Halys — i.e.,  the  old 


198 


Amalgam 


Hittite  empire — was  included  in 
his  kingdom.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Croesus.  His  tomb, 
situated  north  of  Sardis,  near 
Lake  Gygaea,  was  one  of  the  won- 
ders of  antiquity. 

Alypius,  a  Greek  writer  on 
music,  who  flourished  at  Alex- 
andria in  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  a.d.  His  works,  under 
the  title  Introductio  Musica,  were 
collected  and  published,  with  a 
commentary  and  notes,  by  Mei- 
bom  in  1652,  and  by  Jans  in  1895. 
They  contain  the  key  to  scales 
and  modes  of  Greek  music. 

Alyssum,  a  genus  of  crucifer- 
ous, European  plants.  A.  saxa- 
tile  is  a  golden-fiowered,  shrubby 
plant  suitable  for  rock  gardens. 
A.  maritimum  is  the  fragrant  an- 
nual known  as  Sweet  Alyssum. 

Alzey,  town,  Germany;  20 
miles  southwest  of  Mainz.  It 
carries  on  brewing  and  tanning. 
It  is  mentioned  in  the  Nibelungen- 
lied;  was  a  free  imperial  city;  and 
in  1689  was  burned  by  the  French. 
Pop.  (1910)  8,332. 

A.M.,  abbreviation  of  (1)  Anno 
Mundi,  'in  the  year  of  the  world' ; 
(2)  Ante  Meridiem,  'before  noon'; 
and  (3)  Artium  M agister,  'master 
of  arts.' 

Amadavat,  one  of  the  weaver 
birds  (q.v.),  a  native  of  East  In- 
dia, but  found  in  captivity  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  It  is  about 
four  inches  long,  and  has  a  thick, 
conical  beak,  which  in  the  male  is 
blood  red,  in  the  hen  partly  black. 
The  adult  male  has  the  head  and 
under  body  fiery  red,  the  upper 
part  gray,  and  the  rump  yellow- 
ish. The  plumage  of  the  female 
is  quite  plain.  The  amadavat 
has  a  pleasing  song.  It  should  re- 
ceive the  same  care  as  the  canary. 

Amadeo  (Omadeo),  Giovanni 
Antonio  (1447-1522),  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  was  born 
in  Pavia.  He  helped  in  the  deco- 
ration of  the  Certosa  at  Pavia, 
and  executed  some  sculptures  for 
the  tomb  of  Gallas  Visconti  in  the 
church  of  the  same;  but  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  statues  in  the 
Chapel  Colleoni  at  Bergamo,  re- 
garded as  among  the  best  speci- 
mens of  Renaissance  sculpture  in 
j  Lombardy.  He  also  took  part  in 
'  the  construction  of  the  Cathedral 
at  Milan. 

Amadeus,  the  name  borne  by 
several  princes  of  the  house  of 
Savoy,  of  whom  the  most  notable 
are:  Amadeus  v.  (1249-1323), 
'the  Great,'  Count  of  Savoy;  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle,  Philip  (1285); 
engaged  in  continual  warfare,  and 
among  his  last  actions  forced  the 
Turks  to  raise  the  siege  of  Rhodes. 
— Amadeus  viii.  (1383-1451), 
succeeded  his  father,  Amadeus 
VII.  (1391).  He  was  created 
Duke  of  Savoy  (1416),  and  his 
dominions  were  greatly  increased ; 
but  he  retired  to  a  monastery  at 


Ripaille  (1419).  He  was  elected 
Pope  (1439)  under  the  name  of 
Felix  v.,  but  resigned  in  favor  of 
Nicholas  v.  (1449). 

Amadeus  I.  of  Spain  (1845-90), 
second  son  of  Victor  Emmanuel 
of  Italy,  was  chosen  king  of  Spain 
(1870),  but  in  vain  tried  to  act  as 
constitutional  king  in  a  country 
unfitted  for  constitutional  gov- 
ernment. He  abdicated  in  1873, 
and  retired  to  Italy  as  Duke  of 
Aosta. 

Amadis,  a  much-used  name  in 
the  chivalric  poetry  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  chiefly  associated  with 
the  adventures  of  Amadis  of 
Gaul.  It  is  believed  that  the 
earliest  forms  of  the  story  were  a 
lost  Castilian  version,  perhaps 
about  1250,  and  a  Portuguese 
version,  also  lost,  composed  about 
1370  by  Vasco  de  Lobeira  of 
Porto.  Instead  of  these,  we  have 
a  Spanish  version  of  almost  a 
hundred  years  later,  written  by 
Garci-Ordofiez  de  M  ontal  vo  about 
1465,  but  first  printed  in  1508. 
The  work  is  wearisome  from  its 
length,  but  it  contains  many  pa- 
thetic and  striking  passages,  and 
has  great  value  as  a  mirror  of  the 
manners  of  the  age  of  chivalry. 

Montalvo  added  another  book 
containing  the  adventures  of  Es- 
plandian  (1510),  the  eldest  son  of 
Amadis  and  Gloriana.  The  twelfth 
book,  printed  in  1546,  narrates 
the  exploits  of  Don  Silves  de  la 
Selva,  son  of  Amadis  of  Greece 
and  Finistea.  The  French  trans- 
lators increased  the  series  of  ro- 
mances from  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  books;  the  German,  to  thirty. 
Lastly,  a  Frenchman,  Duverdier, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  brought  the  his- 
tory of  Amadis  and  the  series  of 
about  fifty  volumes  to  a  close  in 
his  Roman  des  Romans. 

Amador  -  Guerrero,  Manuel 
(1833-1909),  played  an  impor- 
tant part  when  the  state  of  Pan- 
ama separated  from  Colombia 
(1903)  and  became  an  indepen- 
dent republic.  The  crisis  was  car- 
ried through  with  the  help  of  the 
United  States,  and  Amador- 
Guerrero  became  the  first  presi- 
dent of  the  new  republic  of  Pan- 
ama (1904-8). 

Amadou,  or  German  Tinder, 
a  fungus,  Polyporus  fomenlarius, 
growing  on  trees,  is  cut  into  slices 
and  beaten  into  a  felt;  it  has  been 
used  to  plug  wounds  and  stop 
bleeding.  The  felt  steeped  in 
saltpetre  forms  German  tinder. 

Amagasaki,  town,  Honshu, 
Japan;  20  miles  east  of  Kobe. 
Pop.  12,000. 

Amager,  or  Amak,  a  flat,  low, 
fruitful  island  off  the  east  coast  of 
Zealand,  10  miles  long  and  5 
broad.  It  is  the  most  densely 
populated  part  of  Denmark,  and 
is  the  kitchen  garden  of  Copen- 
hagen.  Pop.  20,000. 


Amakosa,  or  Ama-Xosa.  an 
important  branch  of  the  Bantu 
nation,  inhabiting  the  Transkei, 
Tembuland,  and  Pondoland. 
Their  complexion  is  dark  brown; 
hair,  nose,  and  lips  of  negro  type; 
good  height  and  well  propor- 
tioned; in  character  intelligent 
and  brave;  weapons,  assegai  and 
club  or  knobkerry;  religion,  ani- 
mistic. See  Bantu. 

Amaldar,  the  governor  of  a 
province  under  the  Mohammedan 
rule  in  India. 

Amalekites,  a  nomadic  Arab 
people  of  great  antiquity,  inhab- 
iting the  desert  region  southwest 
of  Palestine.  In  Gen.  xxxvi.  12, 
they  are  traced  to  Amalek,  grand- 
son of  Esau;  but  there  are  evi- 
dences that  they  were  in  existence 
even  before  Abraham.  The  Amal- 
ekites opposed  the  Israelites' 
march  from  Egypt  to  Canaan; 
they  harassed  them  after  their 
settlement;  and  only  after  the 
victories  of  Saul  and  David  over 
them  did  they  sink  into  insignifi- 
cance, to  be  finally  exterminated 
in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  Arabian 
annalists  give  many  details  re- 
garding the  Amalekites;  outside 
the  Old  Testament  we  have  little 
reliable  information  concerning 
them. 

Amalfi,  seaport  and  archiepis- 
copal  see  of  Italy,  Salerno  prov- 
ince, on  the  north  shore  of  the 
Gulf  of  Salerno;  22  miles  south- 
east of  Naples,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  road  hewn  like  a 
shelf  out  of  the  rock.  It  lies  in  a 
ravine  at  the  base  of  Monte  Cer- 
reto  (4,314  feet),  and  is  much  vis- 
ited on  account  of  the  fine  coast 
scenery.  The  Cathedral'  of  S. 
Andrea  dates  from  the  eleventh 
century,  and  was  restored  in  1891. 
First  a  Byzantine  station,  Amalfi 
developed  into  an  independent 
republic,  which  was  overcome  by 
Roger  of  Sicily  (1131).  At  this 
period  it  was  a  powerful  rival  of 
Pisa  and  Genoa,  with  50,000  in- 
habitants, and  the  sea  laws  bear- 
ing its  name  {Tabula  Amalphi- 
tana)  were  observed  by  nearly  all 
the  seafaring  nations  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury the  sea  began  to  wash  away 
the  lower  parts  of  the  town,  and 
in  1343  it  was  devastated  by 
an  inundation.  At  the  present 
time  it  has  manufactures  of 
macaroni,  soap,  and  paper.  Pop. 
7,500. 

Amalfi,  town,  Colombia;  60 
miles  northeast  of  Medellin.  Pop. 
8,000. 

Amalgam,  an  alloy  of  mercury. 
All  metals  except  iron  and  plati- 
num form  amalgams — some,  like 
sodium  and  potassium,  combining 
with  great  energy;  while  others, 
like  lead,  bismuth,  and  tin,  require 
the  application  of  heat.  When 
the  mercury  is  in  excess  the  amal- 
gam is  usually  liquid,  otherwise 


Amalla 


199 


Amaryllis 


it  is  pasty  or  solid.  Amalgams 
may  be  produced  by  direct  con- 
tact of  a  metal  with  metallic  mer- 
cury or  with  a  solution  of  a  salt  of 
mercury;  by  the  addition  of  mer- 
cury to  a  saturated  solution  of  a 
metallic  salt;  by  contact  of  a 
metal  with  mercury  in  dilute 
acid;  and  by  electrolysis  of  a 
metallic  salt,  with  mercury  as  the 
negative  electrode. 

Amalgamation  is  employed  on 
a  small  scale  in  some  processes  of 
gilding,  the  silver  or  other  metal 
being  overlaid  with  a  film  of  gold 
amalgam,  and  the  mercury  being 
then  driven  off  by  heat.  But  its 
most  extensive  use  is  in  separat- 
ing gold  and  silver  from  certain  of 
their  ores  (see  Gold;  Metallur- 
gy). Copper  amalgam  is  used  in 
dentistry;  silver  and  tin  amal- 
gams for  silvering  metals  and 
mirrors;  and  zinc  amalgam  in  the 
manufacture  of  frictional  elec- 
trical machines.  See  Alloys. 

Amalia,  a-ma'le-a,  Anna 
(1739-1807),  duchess  of  Saxe- 
Weimar-Eisenach,  daughter  of 
the  Archduke  of  Brunswick- 
Wolf  enbiittel,  was  born  in  Wolf- 
enbuttel.  She  married  Duke 
Ernst  August  Constantine  of 
Weimar  (1756),  after  whose 
death  (1758)  she  became  regent 
for  her  son  Karl  August.  She 
encouraged  commerce  and  in- 
dustry, but  is  specially  remem- 
bered as  a  generous  patron  of 
art  and  letters  whose  court 
was  frequented  by  the  most 
distinguished  writers  of  the  day, 
including  Herder,  Goethe>  Wie- 
land,  and  Schiller. 

Amalthsea,  am-al-the'a,  in 
Greek  mythology,  the  nurse  of 
Zeus,  most  frequently  represent- 
ed as  a  goat.  The  legend  runs 
that  Zeus  broke  off  one  of  the 
horns  and  endowed  it  with 
power  to  become  filled  with 
whatever  its  possessor  desired. 
It  thus  became  a  symbol  of 
prosperity  and  riches. 

Amana  Community.  See 
Communism. 

Amani'ta,  a  genus  of  fungi, 
nearly  allied  to  the  mushrooms 
(Agaricus).  Several  of  the  species 
are  edible,  notably  the  delicious 
Orange  (A .  Ccesarea) ,  but  the  ma- 
jority are  poisonous.  A.  mus- 
caria,  common  in  British  woods, 
and  found  also  in  the  United 
States,  is  one  of  the  most  dan- 
gerous fungi.  It  is  sometimes 
called  fly  agaric.  The  cap  is  of 
an  orange-red  color,  with  white 
warts,  the  gills  white,  and  the 
stem  bulbous.  It  contains  a  bit- 
ter and  narcotic  principle,  resem- 
bling in  its  physiological  action 
that  of  Indian  hemp  (hashish), 
and  is  used  by  the  natives  of 
Kamchatka  to  produce  intoxica- 
tion. 

Aman-Jean,  a-man'  jan',  Ei> 
MOND  Francois  (1860-  ), 
French  portrait  painter,  was  born 
in  Chevry-Cossigny .    He  is  essen- 


tially a  decorative  designer  and 
portrait  painter,  his  chief  paint- 
ings including  portraits  of  Jules 
Case  and  of  Paul  Verlaine,  and 
the  Jeune  fille  au  Paon.  In  the 
Luxembourg  there  are  two  car- 
toons or  tapestries — La  beaute 
and  Le  regret  du  passe.  The 
Carnegie  Institute  of  Pittsburgh 
has  his  decorative  panel  La 
Vasque.  He  excels  in  pastel 
work. 

Amapala,  a-ma'pa-la,  town, 
Honduras,  on  the  northern  shore 
of  Tigre  Island,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Fonseca;  about  950  miles  north- 
west of  Panama.  It  is  the  largest 
Pacific  port  of  Honduras,  and  is 
also  an  important  commercial  out- 
let for  Nicaragua  and  Salvador. 
Silver,  hides,  timber,  coffee,  and 
indigo  are  exported.   Pop.  3,000. 

Amara,  a-ma'ra,  town,  Tur- 
key, in  Basra  province,  on  the 
River  Tigris;  180  miles  south- 
east of  Bagdad.  Pop.  10,000. 

Am'aranth  (Amaranthus) ,the 
leading  genus  of  Amaranthaceae, 
an  order  differing  from  Cheno- 
podiaceae  (q.v.)  in  the  possession 
of  a  crowded  bracteate  inflores- 
cence and  membranous  perianth. 
A.  caudatus  ('Love-Lies-Bleed- 
ing')  whose  spikes  are  sometimes 
several  feet  in  length.  A.  specio- 
sus,  A .  hypochondriacus  ('Prince's 
Feather'),  and  other  species,  are 
common  annuals.  A.  tricolor, 
from  China,  is  cultivated  in  the 
Southern  United  States,  and  is 
popularly  known  as  'Joseph's 
Coat.'  The  dry  red  bracts  which 
surround  the  flower  of  A. 
caudatus  retain  their  freshness 
for  a  long  time  after  being 
gathered,  for  which  reason  the 
plant  has  been  employed  from 
early  times  as  an  emblem  of  im- 
mortality. _ 

Amarapura,  um-a-ra-poo'ra  ' 
('city  of  the  gods') ,  a  former  cap- 
ital of  Upper  Burma,  on  the 
River  Irawadi;  9  miles  northeast 
of  Ava.  The  greater  part  of  the 
city  was  destroyed  by  a  fire  in 
1810,  and  again  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1839.  In  1859  the 
court  removed  to  Mandalay. 
A  colossal  bronze  statue  of 
Buddha  is  its  chief  feature. 
Little  remains  of  the  old  city  but 
some  rows  of  beautiful  trees  and 
ruins  of  many  famous  pagodas. 
Pop.  (1810)  170,000;  now  about 
8,500. 

Am'ara-Sin'ha,  or  Amara- 
SiMHA,  Sanskrit  grammarian, 
who  flourished,  according  to 
various  authorities,  in  56  B.C., 
the  fifth  century  a.d.,  and  the 
eleventh  century,  the  second 
date  being  the  most  generally 
accepted.  He  was  a  Buddhist 
and  his  only  surviving  work  is  the 
Amara-Kosha,  a  Sanskrit  vocabu- 
lary of  about  10,000  words 
metrically  arranged. 

Amargo'sa  River,  river  of 
Nevada  and  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, which  flows  into  a  deso- 


late region,  below  sea  level, 
known  as  Death  Valley  or 
Amargosa  Desert,  lying  between 
36°  and  37°  n.  lat.  See  Death 
Valley. 

Amari,  a-ma're,  Michele 
(1806-89),  Italian  historian.  Ori- 
entalist, and  statesman,  was 
born  in  Palermo.  In  1834  he 
published  Fondazione  della  Mon- 
archia  dei  Normanni  in  Sicilia, 
and  in  1841  Un  Periodo  delle 
Istorie  Siciliane  del  Secolo  XIII, 
a  study  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers, 
which  was  quickly  prohibited 
and  he  fled  to  France.  He  re- 
turned to  Italy  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  Sicilian  insurrection  of 
1848,  on  its  conclusion  going  to 
Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  literary  pursuits,  and  in  1859 
returning  to  Italy  to  join  Gari- 
baldi. He  was  made  senator 
(1861),  and  was  minister  of 
public  instruction  (1862-4).  He 
was  professor  of  Arabic  at  Pisa, 
and  afterward  at  Florence  till 
his  retirement  in  1878.  Other 
works  are  La  Sidle  et  les  Bour- 
bond  (1849);  Storia  dei  Musul- 
manni  di  Sicilia  (1853-73);  AUre 
Narrazioni  del  Vespro  Siciliano 
(1886). 

Amaril'lo,  city,  Texas,  county 
seat  of  Potter  County,  on  the 
Fort  Worth  and  Denver  City, 
the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa 
Fe,  and  Chicago,  Rock  Island, 
and  Gulf  Railroads;  300  miles 
northwest  of  Fort  Worth.  The 
city  is  in  a  rich  agricultural  and 
stock-raising  district,  and  in  the 
midst  of  rich  oil  and  natural  gas 
fields,  and  due  to  the  com- 
mercial development  of  the  whole 
region  has  had  a  remarkable 
growth  in  the  past  two  decades. 
The  leading  industries  are  oil 
refining,  grain  elevators,  zinc 
smelting,  dairying,  structural 
steel  works,  flour  mills,  helium 
gas  plant,  carbon  black  plants, 
and  railway  shops.  Pop.  (1910) 
9,957;  (1920)  15,994;  (1930) 
45,383. 

Amarna  Tablets.  See  Tell- 
el-Amarna. 

A  maryllidaceae,  am-a-ril-i-da'- 
se-e,  or  Amaryllide^,  a  natural 
order  of  petaloid  monocotyle- 
dons, essentially  distinguished 
from  Liliaceae  by  their  inferior 
ovary,  and  including  many  spe- 
cies distinguished  by  the  beauty 
of  their  flowers.  There  are  nearly 
1,000  known  species,  natives  of 
tropical  or  sub-tropical,  and  more 
sparingly  of  temperate  regions. 
Among  these  are  different  species 
of  Narcissus,  Amaryllis,  Alstroe- 
meria.  Pancratium,  etc.;  and  to 
this  order  belong  the  Snowdrop, 
Snowflake,  and  American  Aloe 
{Agave).  See  Agave;  Amaryllis; 
Alstrcemeria;  Blood  Flower; 
Narcissus;  Polianthes. 

A  maryriis,  a  genus  of  bulbous- 
rooted  plants  of  the  order  Am- 
aryllidacea?,  formerly  including 
many  species  now  assigned  to 

Vol.  I.— 030 


Amasa 


200 


Amazon 


other  genera.  A.  belladonna,  or 
the  Belladonna  Lily  (q.v.).  a 
native  of  South  Africa,  is  the 
best  known  species.  Others  are 
A.  formosissima,  extensively  cul- 
tivated as  a  garden  flower,  and 
bearing  beautiful  red  blossoms; 
A.  sarniensis,  a  hardy  species 
commonly  known  as  the  Guern- 
sey Lily  (q.v.);  A.  amahilis,  A. 
josephincB,  and  A.  vitlata. 

Amasa.    See  Joab. 

Amasia,  a-ma'se-a,  town,  vila- 
yet of  Sivas,  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
Yeshil  Irmak;  100  miles  south- 
east of  Sinope.  It  has  an  excel- 
lent bazaar,  a  number  of  Moham- 
medan institutions  for  higher 
learning,  and  several  missionary 
schools  for  the  Armenian  popula- 
tion. It  is  a  centre  of  the  silk 
industry,  and  exports  silk,  flour, 
and  wheat.  Pop.  60,000. 

Amasis,  a-mc'sis,  or  Aahmes, 
the  name  of  two  ancient  Egyp- 
tian kings,  the  first  of  whom 
reigned  about  1600  B.C.  Amasis 
II.  (570-526  B.C.),  under  whose 
reign  Egypt  prospered  greatly, 
opened  the  country  to  commercial 
relations  with  Greece,  is  said  to 
have  married  a  Greek  wife,  and 
was  visited  by  Solon,  Thales, 
and  Pythagoras.  In  legendary 
lore  it  was  he  who  advised  Poly- 
crates  to  fling  his  ring  into  the 
sea. 

Amateur,  in  sports,  according 
to  the  Intercollegiate  Association 
of  Amateur  Athletics  of  America, 
'one  who  engages  in  sport  solely 
for  the  pleasure  and  physical 
benefits  he  derives  therefrom, 
and  to  whom  sport  is  nothing 
more  than  an  avocation.'  Dis- 
qualifications are  declared  to  be: 
Competition  for  a  reward  di- 
rectly or  indirectly;  the  use  of 
a  false  name;  unsportsman- 
like conduct;  the  granting  of  per- 
mission to  use  one's  name  to  pro- 
mote the  sale  of  articles  used  in 
sport;  acting  as  a  solicitor  or 
salesman  in  the  sale  of  such  arti- 
cles; and  engaging  in  business 
where  reputation  as  an  athlete  is 
the  prime  asset. 

Basketball,  billiards,  boxing, 
fencing,  gymnastics,  handball, 
hurdle  racing,  jumping,  lacrosse, 
pole  vaulting,  putting  the  shot, 
throwing  the  discus  and  weights, 
running,  swimming,  tugs  of  war, 
walking,  and  wrestling  in  the 
United  States  are  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Amateur 
Athletic  Union,  which  lays  down 
the  following  conditions  of  com- 
petition: 'No  person  shall  be 
eligible  to  compete  in  any 
athletic  meeting,  game,  or  enter- 
tainment given  or  sanctioned  by 
this  Union  who  has  (a)  received 
or  competed  for  compensation 
or  reward,  in  any  form,  for  the 
display,  exercise,  or  example 
of  his  skill  in  or  knowledge 
of  any  athletic  exercise,  or  for 
rendering  personal  service  of  any 
kind  to  any  athletic  organization, 


or  for  becoming  or  continuing  a 
member  of  any  athletic  organiza- 
tion; or  (b)  has  entered  any  com- 
petition under  a  name  other  than 
his  own,  or  from  a  club  of  which 
he  was  not  at  that  time  a  member 
in  good  standing;  or  (c)  has  know- 
ingly entered  any  competition 
open  to  any  professional  or  pro- 
fessionals, or  has  knowingly  com- 
peted with  any  professional  for 
any  prize  or  token;  or  (d)  has 
issued  or  allowed  to  be  issued  in 
his  behalf  any  challenge  to  com- 
pete against  any  professional,  or 
for  money;  or  (e)  has  pawned, 
bartered,  or  sold  any  prize  won  in 
athletic  competition;  or  (/)  is  not 
a  registered  athlete.  ' 

Certain  conditions  of  residence 
and  membership  are  also  speci- 
fied, and  it  is  provided  that  no 
prizes  shall  be  given,  competed 
for,  or  accepted  other  than  'suit- 
ably inscribed  wreaths,  diplomas, 
banners,  badges,  medals,  time- 
pieces and  mantel  ornaments,  or 
articles  of  jewelry,  silverware,  ta- 
ble or  toilet  service, unless  author- 
ized by  the  Registration  Com- 
mittee.' 

Into  such  sports  as  tennis, 
curling,  quoits,  polo,  canoeing, 
and  American  football,  the  spirit 
of  professionalism  seldom  enters. 
Others,  such  as  bicycle  racing  in 
America  and  football  in  England, 
are  dominated  by  professional  in- 
terests. 

Amati,  a-ma'te,  a  famous 
family  of  violin  makers,  who  re- 
sided in  Cremona. 

Andrea  (c.  1520-1611),  found- 
er of  the  Cremona  school  of  violin 
making,  built  violins,  tenors  and 
basses,  now  very  rare;  the  violins 
mostly  small,  of  high  model;  the 
sound  holes  Brescian  in  charac- 
ter; the  tone  small,  but  very 
sweet. 

Antonio  (1550-1635)  and  Ge- 
RONiMO  (1556-1630),  sons  of  An- 
drea, worked  together  for  many 
years,  and  produced  a  large  num- 
ber of  beautiful  and  highly  prized 
instruments.  Though  signing 
their  instruments  conjointly, 'each 
usually  made  his  own.  Antonio 
retained  his  father's  Brescian 
type  of  sound  hole,  but  lowered 
the  arching  considerably;  his 
workmanship  is  fine  in  every  re- 
spect. Geronimo  discarded  the 
wide  and  pointed  form  of  the 
Brescian  sound  hole  and  substi- 
tuted a  much  more  graceful  form, 
which  was  reproduced  and  im- 
proved by  his  son  Nicola.  The 
tone,  though  not  seeming  very 
powerful,  carries  remarkably  well 
and  is  rich,  sweet,  and  flexible. 

Nicola  (1596-1684),  the  great 
man  of  the  family,  son  of  Geroni- 
mo, followed  his  father's  model 
until  about  1625,  when  he  de- 
signed a  model — since  known  as 
the  'grand  Amati' — which  has 
not  been  excelled  in  grace  and  ele- 
gance of  form,  exquisite  work- 
manship, and  sweet  and  respon- 


sive tone.  He  had  many  pupils, 
of  whom  Antonius  Stradivari 
was  the  most  famous.  • 

Amatitlan,  a-ma-te-tlan',  de- 
partment, Guatemala,  Central 
America,  contains  Lake  Ama- 
titlan (area,  20  miles),  on  which 
the  capital  Amatitlan,  15  miles 
southwest  of  the  city  of  Guate- 
mala, is  situated.  The  town  is 
known  also  as  St.  Juan  de  Ama- 
titlan, and  was  founded  by  the 
Jesuits.  The  chief  industry  is  the 
production  of  cochineal,  and 
there  are  hot  springs  in  the 
neighborhood  and  a  trade  in 
salt,  raw  silk,  and  fruit.  Pop. 
37,000. 

A  ma  to,  a-ma'to,  Pasquale 
(1878-  ),  Italian  baritone, 
was  born  in  Naples,  and  was 
educated  as  a  civil  engineer. 
He  studied  music  in  the  Naples 
Conservatory  (1897-1900),  and 
in  1900  made  his  debut  at  the 
Teatro  Bellini,  Naples,  as  Ger- 
mont  in  Traviata.  He  toured 
Italy,  Germany,  England,  Egypt, 
and  South  America,  and  was  at 
one  time  leading  baritone  at  La 
Scala,  Milan.  In  1909-14  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  Company,  New  York 
City,  and  since  that  time  has 
been  engaged  in  concert  work. 

Am'aton'galand,  or  Tonga- 
land,  an  undulating  strip  of  na- 
tive territory  on  the  east  coast  of 
South  Africa,  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Natal,  extending  along 
the  coast  for  about  60  miles,  and 
from  the  Swaziland  border  to  the 
sea.  The  Kosi  River  forms  the 
boundary  between  Zululand  and 
Amatongaland.  The  Tongas  are 
a  branch  of  the  great  Bantu  race, 
not  so  warlike  as  their  neighbors, 
but  good  workers  in  the  South 
African  labor  market.  Amaton- 
galand was  annexed  to  Natal 
(q.v.)  in  1897. 

Amauro'sis  (Greek  'a  darken- 
ing') is  total  loss  of  vision  caused 
by  diseases  not  directly  involving 
the  eye.  The  term  amblyopia  is 
more  frequently  used.  See  Am- 
blyopia. 

Amazl'ah,  eighth  king  of  Ju- 
aah,  who  succeeded  Joash  his 
father.  He  fought  against  Edom 
and  Israel,  but  in  the  latter  in- 
stance he  was  defeated  (2  Kings 
xiv.  12),  held  in  captivity,  and 
killed  by  conspirators  fifteen 
years  later  (2  Kings  xiv.  19). 

Am'azon,  the  largest  river 
of  South  America,  and  in  the 
volume  of  its  waters  and  the 
extent  of  its  basin  the  greatest 
in  the  world.  It  rises  in  the 
Peruvian  Andes,  crosses  the 
continent  in  a  northeasterly  di- 
rection, and  empties  into  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  after  a  course  of 
about  3,300  miles.  The  main 
stream  is  seldom  more  than  three 
or  four  degrees  from  the  Equator, 
which  it  reaches  at  its  mouth. 
For  a  considerable  distance  it 
forms   the    boundary  between 


Vol.  I.— 030 


Amazon 


201 


Amazon 


Peru  and  Ecuador,  but  its  course 
lies  chiefly  in  the  northern  half  of 
Brazil.  The  drainage  area  of  the 
Amazon  is  estimated  at  2,500,000 
square  miles,  and  with  its  tribu- 
taries it  is  said  to  afford  over 
25,000  miles  of  waterway  suitable 
for  steam  navigation.  Many  of 
the  narrow  side  channels  so  char- 
acteristic of*  the  adjacent  forest 
plains  are  navigable  also,  either 
by  steamboat  or  smaller  craft,  so 
that  the  length  of  navigable 
waters  in  the  entire  Amazonian 
system  is  probably  not  less  than 
50,000  miles. 

The  Upper  Maranon,  which  is 
generally  regarded  as  the  upper 
course  of  the  Amazon,  rises  in 
Lake  Lauricocha,  in  lat.  10°  30' s. 
and  long.  76°  30'  w.,  at  an  alti- 
tude of  11,980  feet.  Obstructed 
here  and  there  by  rapids  in  its 
upper  course,  it  becomes  naviga- 
ble below  the  Pongo  de  Manser- 
iche,  only  250  miles  from  the  Pa- 
cific coast,  at  Payta,  and  thence 
to  the  sea  affords  a  clear  water- 
way of  2,700  miles.  It  is  soon 
joined  by  the  Huallaga  and  Uca- 
yali  on  the  right  bank,  and  the 
Napo  on  the  left  bank,  below  the 
town  of  Iquitos.  From  this  point 
the  distances  navigable  by  steam- 
ers at  all  seasons  are :  on  the  Hual- 
laga, 500  miles  (to  Yurimaguas) ; 
on  the  Ucayali,  770  miles;  on  the 
Napo,  350  miles;  and  on  the 
Maranon,  to  Barja,  450  miles. 

From  Tabatinga,  on  the  Bra- 
zilian frontier,  to  Manaos  the 
river  is  known  as  the  Solimoes, 
and  in  this  section  receives  the 
tributaries  Javary,  Judahy,  Ju- 
rua,  and  Purus  on  the  right  bank, 
and  the  Iga  or  Putumayo  and 
Yapura  on  the  left  bank,  all  navi- 
gable for  considerable  distances. 
At  Manaos  the  Rio  Negro,  which 
is  connected  by  the  Cassiquiare 
with  the  Orinoco,  and  has  a  large 
navigable  tributary,  the  Rio 
Branco,  enters  on  the  left  bank; 
and  100  miles  farther  down  is  the 
confluence  with  the  Madeira,  the 
greatest  of  all  the  tributaries. 
This  river  has  its  headwaters  in 
the  highlands  of  Bolivia.  The 
Mamore,  known  in  its  upper 
course  as  the  Guapay,  rises  near 
Cochabamba,  at  a  height  of  13,- 
000  feet,  traverses  Bolivia,  and 
receives  the  Guapore  from  Mat- 
to  Grosso,  and  the  Beni,  swollen 
by  the  waters  of  the  Madre  de 
Dios,  then  takes  the  name  of  Ma- 
deira, and  enters  the  Amazon 
after  a  course  of  more  than  2,000 
miles.  Above  and  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Beni  the  bed  is 
obstructed  by  rapids  for  230 
miles. 

From  Manaos  steamers  ply 
regularly  up  the  Solimoes  to 
Iquitos,  1,150  miles;  up  the  Jurua 
to  Marary,  1,090  miles;  along  the 
Purus  to  Anajaz,  1,400  miles, 
with  change  of  steamers  at  Hyu- 
tanaham;  on  the  Madeira  to  San- 
to Antonio,  700  miles;  and  on  the 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '16 


Negro  to  Santa  Izabel,  420  miles. 
Ocean  steamers  ascend  to  Ma- 
naos, more  than  1,000  miles  from 
Belem  (Para),  and  some  to  Iqui- 
tos. Of  the  lower  tributaries  of 
the  Amazon,  the  Tapajos  (1,100 
miles)  and  Xingu  are  navigable 
only  for  short  distances — the  for- 
mer to  Itaituba,  200  miles,  and 
the  latter  to  Souzel. 

At  its  mouth  the  Amazon  is 
joined  by  the  Tocantins  (q.  v.), 
the  great  central  waterway  which 
traverses  Brazil  for  about  1,500 
miles  from  south  to  north.  The 
Tocantins    is    navigable  below 


Porte  Nacional;  and  the  Ara- 
guaya, its  chief  tributary  (1,700 
miles),  is  navigable  in  its  upper 
course  from  Itacaiu  to  the  rapids 
of  Santa  Maria,  a  distance  of  740 
miles. 

The  fall  of  the  Amazon  after 
it  emerges  from  the  Andes  is 
slight,  amounting  approximately 
to  one  foot  in  eight  miles,  from 
the  Brazilian  frontier  to  the  sea, 
a  distance  of  about  2,000  miles. 
The  current  is  generally  placid, 
averaging  about  2M  miles  an 
hour,  though  it  varies  somewhat 
with  the  incline,  and  may  be  as 
much  as  5  miles  an  hour  in  the 
more  contracted  channels  during 
times  of  flood.  Between  Taba- 
tinga and  Manaos  the  river  has  a 
breadth  of  2K  to  4  miles,  and  it 
gradually  widens  as  it  approaches 
the  sea,  until  at  its  mouth  it  is  50 
miles  across.  In  places  through- 
out its  course  it  expands  to  the 
dimensions  of  a  lake,  as  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Jurua,  where  it 
measures  from  10  to  16  miles  in 
full  flow. 

The  waters  of  the  Amazon  are 
discharged  through  a  single  chan- 
nel, sweeping  around  to  the  north 
of  the  island  of  Marajo  (q.  v.) 
at  the  rate  of  4,000,000  to  5,000,- 
000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
principal  entrance  to  the  river, 
however,  is  to  the  south  of  this 
island,  by  the  Rio  Para,  through 
which  the  Tocantins  pours  its 
waters  into  the  sea.    The  two 


estuaries  are  connected  by  an  in- 
tricate network  of  narrow  pas- 
sages and  channels.  The  Atlan- 
tic tides  ascend  the  Amazon  for 
a  distance  of  more  than  400  miles, 
and  in  the  more  shallow  waters  of 
the  estuary  produce  a  formidable 
bore  (pororoca),  rising  from  5  to 
12  feet,  and  forming  a  barrier 
from  shore  to  shore  (see  Tides). 
The  fresh  water  of  the  river  is 
perceptible  180  miles  out  into  the 
Atlantic. 

For  the  greater  part  of  its 
course  the  Amazon  flows  through 
level,  densely  wooded  lowlands. 


which  are  intersected  in  all  direc- 
tions by  stagnant  backwaters, 
narrow  side  channels,  or  furos, 
and  shallow  lagoons.  Islands  are 
numerous,  especially  in  the  lower 
river,  where  they  are  formed  by 
narrow  cross  streams  connecting 
the  tributary  rivers.  Many  of 
these  islands  are  thickly  wood- 
ed. 

The  river  begins  to  rise  in  No- 
vember, and,  swollen  by  heavy 
tropical  rains,  continues  to  in- 
crease in  volume  until  June,  when 
it  reaches  an  average  maximum 
depth  of  120  feet.  During  this 
period  the  adjoining  country  is 
inundated,  many  of  the  islands 
disappear  completely,  and  the 
scattered  lagoons  and  sluggish 
furos  are  united  in  a  great  inland 
sea.  In  its  lower  course  the  river 
is  seldom  less  than  150  feet  deep, 
even  in  periods  of  low  water. 

The  climate  of  the  Amazon 
basin,  though  hot  and  very  damp, 
is  greatly  mitigated  by  trade 
winds  which  blow  from  the  east 
with  little  interruption  through- 
out the  dry  season.  The  average 
temperature  is  84°  f.,  and  the 
average  annual  rainfall  is  about 
100  inches.  Dense  forests,  al- 
most impenetrable  on  account  of 
the  enormous  growth  of  lianas, 
or  woody  vines,  of  countless  spe- 
cies, cover  the  greater  part  of  the 
valley.  Tall  grasses,  willows,  and 
trumpet  trees  abound  on  the 
more  recent  alluvial  tracts  at  the 


Amazon  Ant 


202 


Ambassador 


river  borders,  and  rubber  trees, 
palms,  dyewoods,  and  valuable 
timber  trees  grow  in  profusion 
beyond.  The  western  part  of  the 
valley  is  more  elevated  than  the 
rest  of  the  great  forest;  and  be- 
tween its  tributary  streams  there 
are  occasionally  found  lofty 
mountain  spurs,  connected  with 
the  grand  range  of  the  East  An- 
des. This  region  affords  qui- 
nine-yielding barks,  coca,  cocoa, 
sugar,  coffee,  palm  wax,  ipecac- 
uanha, copaiba,  sarsaparilla,  va- 
nilla, and  other  valuable  vegeta- 
ble products. 

The  Amazonian  fauna  is  ex- 
ceedingly rich.  In  the  river  and 
its  tributaries  are  fish  of  many 
species,  alligators,  turtles,  and 
manatees.  The  forests  abound  in 
insects  and  birds,  and  in  mam- 
mals of  arboreal  habits,  notably 
tapirs,  monkeys,  ant-eaters,  and 
sloths.  Boa  constrictors  and  an- 
acondas are  among  the  poisonous 
reptiles,  and  there  are  several 
varieties  of  lizards,  chief  among 
which  is  the  iguana. 

The  mouth  of  the  Amazon  was 
discovered  in  1500  by  Vicente 
Yafiez  Pinzon  (q.  v.),  who  as- 
cended the  river  for  a  distance  of 
about  50  miles;  and  its  upper 
reaches,  as  far  as  the  Pongo  de 
Manseriche,  were  explored  in 
1538  by  Alonzo  de  Mercadillo. 
The  first  descent  of  the  river  from 
the  Upper  Maranon  to  the  At- 
lantic was  made  in  1540  by  Fran- 
cisco de  Orellana  (q.  v.),  who 
gave  it  its  present  name  because 
of  the  Amazons  or  female  war- 
riors he  encountered  on  his  jour- 
ney. Steam  navigation  was  be- 
gun in  1853,  and  the  river  was 
opened  to  the  commerce  of  all  na- 
tions, with  certain  restrictions,  in 
1867.  The  principal  exports  of 
the  valley  are  India  rubber,  cocoa, 
and  Brazil  nuts.  The  chief  ports 
are  Macapa,  Santarem,  Obidos, 
Manaos,  Teffe,  and  Tabatinga. 

See  Brazil;  South  America. 

Consult  Agassiz'  A  Journey  in 
Brazil;  Wallace's  Travels  on  the 
Amazon  and  Rio  Negro;  Bates'  A 
Naturalist  on  the  River  Amazon 
(1910);  Mozans'  Along  the  Andes 
and  Down  the  Amazon  (1911); 
Pearson's  Rubber  Country  of  the 
Amazon  (191 1) ;  A.  Lange's  In  the 
Amazon  Jungle  (1912),  and  The 
Lower  Amazon  (1914);  Wood- 
roffe's  The  Upper  Reaches  of  the 
Amazon  (1914);  P.  Fountain's 
The  River  Amazon  from  its  Sources 
to  the  Sea  (1914). 

Amazon  Ant.    See  Ant. 

Amazonas,  a-mii-zo'nas,  the 
northernmost  and  largest  of  the 
states  of  Brazil,  occupying  a  large 
part  of  the  basin  of  the  Amazon 
River.  The  greater  part  of  the 
state,  particularly  south  of  the 
river,  is  covered  with  forests 
(selvas)  containing  a  variety  of 
timber  and  other  natural  prod- 
ucts, chief  among  which  is  India 
rubber,  extracted  from  the  Hevea. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '16 


Along  the  Rio  Negro  and  Rio 
Branco  are  vast  plains  where  cat- 
tle are  fed.  The  climate  is  hot, 
and  the  soil  extremely  fertile. 
Coffee,  rubber,  Brazil  nuts,  salted 
fish,  and  turtle  oil  are  exported. 
Capital,  Manaos.  Area,  732,250 
square  miles.   Pop.  275,000. 

Amazonas,  a  department  of 
Peru,  in  the  Amazon  basin, 
bounded  by  Ecuador  on  the 
north,  and  the  departments  of 
Loreto,  Libertad,  and  Cajamarca 
on  the  east,  south,  and  west.  It 
consists  mainly  of  virgin  forest, 
but  its  soil  is  fertile.  Tobacco 
and  sugar  cane  are  produced,  and 
gold  is  mined.  Capital,  Chacha- 
poyas.  Area,  14,130  square 
miles.    Pop.  60,000. 

Amazonas,  territory  of  Ven- 
ezuela, in  the  south,  having  Bra- 
zil on  the  south  and  east,  and 
Colombia  on  the  west.  Area, 
20,000  square  miles.  Pop.  50,000. 

Am'azons,  according  to  Greek 
legend,  a  warlike  race  of  women, 
who  lived  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Caucasus,  and  invaded  Asia 
Minor,  Thrace,  Greece,  Egj'^pt, 
and  other  countries.  They  were 
governed  by  a  queen,  and  once 
every  year  met  a  neighboring 
race  of  men,  the  Gargareans,  to 
propagate  their  race;  they  re- 
tained only  female  children,  the 
males  being  killed,  or  handed  over 
to  the  Gargareans.  They  are  said 
to  have  cut  or  burned  off  their 
right  breasts  to  give  them  free- 
dom in  using  weapons,  especially 
the  bow. 

Probably  the  legend  is  a  remi- 
niscence of  the  conquests  of  the 
Hittites,  who  descended  from  the 
Caucasian  direction  and  overran 
all  Asia  Minor,  founding  Ephesus 
and  other  cities,  and  whose  great 
nature  goddess,  the  Artemis  or 
Diana  of  the  Ephesians,  was  at- 
tended by  multitudes  of  armed 
priestesses.  In  ancient  art  the 
Amazons  are  represented  in  the 
Hittite  tunic,  and  wielding  the 
Hittite  double-headed  axe. 

There  are  tales  of  Amazons 
also  in  South  America,  whence 
the  name  of  the  great  river;  and 
women  were  until  recently  armed 
and  drilled  in  Dahomey,  West 
Africa.  Consult  F.  M.  Bennett's 
Religious  Cults  Associated  with  the 
Amazons  (1912). 

Ama-Zulus.    See  Zulus. 

Ambaca,  iim-ba'ka,  chief  vil- 
lage of  Loanda,  Angola,  and  the 
centre  of  a  coffee-growing  dis- 
trict. It  is  connected  by  a  nar- 
row-gauge railway,  220  miles 
long,  with  Loanda. 

Ambala.    See  Umballa. 

Ambalema,  am-ba-la'ma,  city, 
department  of  Tolima,  Colombia, 
on  the  Magdalena  River;  60  miles 
west  of  Bogota.  It  is  a  thriving 
city,  and  the  centre  of  a  tobacco- 
growing  region.    Pop.  10,000. 

Ambas'sador,  the  highest  rank 
of  diplomatic  agents  between 
states.    Their  grades  were  offi- 


cially settled  by  the  Congresses 
of  Vienna  in  1815  and  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1818,  as  (1)  ambassa- 
dors, including  the  papal  nuncio; 
(2)  envoys  extraordinary  or  min- 
isters plenipotentiary;  (3)  charges 
d'affaires.  Above  the  last  named 
have  since  been  placed  ministers 
resident.  The  first  two  were  accred- 
ited by  sealed  letters  of  plenary 
powers  from  and  to  the  respec- 
tive sovereignties,  and  had  the 
right  of  personal  audience  with 
the  sovereigns  sent  to.  The  chief 
distinctions  were  that  the  first 
were  resident,  and  the  second 
special;  the  second  were  a  choice 
of  the  government,  but  not  neces- 
sarily of  the  sovereign,  and  the 
first  therefore  might  enjoy  more 
confidential  intimacy.  The 
charges  were  accredited  only  to 
the  ministers  of  foreign  affairs. 

The  ambassador  by  old  use  and 
need  was  his  sovereign  pro  tern., 
with  like  powers  and  rank.  He 
went  out  in  royal  state — from 
Great  Britain  in  a  warship;  was 
so  received,  and  so  travelled;  his 
splendor  gauged  his  country's  po- 
sition, till  Prussia  financed  home 
armies  by  saving  foreign  show. 
He  stood  covered  in  the  foreign 
royal  presence,  and  took  prece- 
dence of  all  but  princes  of  the 
blood.  Precedence  over  other 
ambassadors  stood  for  recogni- 
tion of  national  lead,  and  des- 
perate fights  for  it  often  menaced 
the  very  objects  of  the  embassy; 
the  Vienna  Congress  ended  them 
by  the  rule  of  seniority  of  arrival. 
The  senior  ambassador  is  still 
called  the  dean  of  the  diplomatic 
body,  where  old  forms  are  pre- 
served. In  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  rank  was  dropped  for  a 
while  because  Nicholas  i.  would 
not  send  ambassadors  to  France. 
The  telegraph  has  left  them  little 
of  the  old  power,  and  their  dis- 
tinction depends  mainly  on  the 
persons;  but  ceremonial  dignities 
are  implied,  including  the  title  of 
Excellency.  The  name  ambassa- 
dor is  still  withheld  from  envoys 
to  any  but  important  states.  The 
United  States  never  used  it  till 
1893,  when  Congress  authorized 
the  President  to  accredit  ambassa- 
dors to  any  state  represented  by 
that  grade  at  Washington.  The 
rank  is  now  given  its  ministers  to 
Mexico,  Brazil,  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, and  Chile  on  this  side,  and 
Great  Britain,  France,  Russia, 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  It- 
aly, and  Japan  on  the  other. 

By  international  law,  an  am- 
bassador, and  his  suite  and  house- 
hold, are  exempt  from  allegiance 
to  the  foreign  state  and  the  juris- 
diction of  its  tribunals.  By  the  le- 
gal fiction  of  Extra-Territoriality 
(q.  V.)  the  ambassador's  residence 
is  regarded  as  an  extension  of 
his  country's  territory.  Ambassa- 
dors are  allowed  free  exercise  of 
their  religion,  without  regard  to 
local  law;  are  exempt  from  taxa- 


Ambato 


203 


Ambleside 


tion;  and  have  usually  a  limited 
right  of  free  import.  But  they 
must  respect  the  country's  laws 
and  customs,  and  it  is  a  high  of- 
fence to  interfere  in  its  internal 
affairs.  From  the  nature  of  his 
usefulness  the  ambassador's  ac- 
ceptability is  purely  personal; 
and  no  state  is  bound  to  receive 
a  persona  non  grata,  or  give  rea- 
sons for  his  being  such,  unless  it 
chooses.  It  may  complain  to  his 
sovereign,  demand  his  recall,  can- 
cel his  privileges,  or  eject  him 
peremptorily  if  thought  danger- 
ous, at  its  own  peril  of  arousing 
ill  will. 

Before  declaring  war,  a  state 
usually  'severs  diplomatic  rela- 
tions' by  recalling  its  own  ambas- 
sador and  dismissing  the  other 
state's  ambassador;  but  the  sev- 
ering of  diplomatic  relations  is 
not  always  followed  by  war.  In 
both  cases,  the  interests  of  ci- 
ther's subjects  in  the  other  state 
are  entrusted  to  the  ambassador 
of  a  neutral  power. 

Ambassadors  extraordinary  are 
special  envoys,  usually  to  make 
some  treaty.  See  Diplomacy; 
Diplomatic  Service. 

Ambato,  am-ba'to,  town,  Leon 
province,  Ecuador;  80  miles  south 
of  Quito,  and  8,850  feet  above 
sea  level.  It  has  shoe  factories, 
and  trade  in  sugar,  cochineal,  and 
grain.  In  1913  the  construction 
of  a  railway  from  Ambato  to 
Curaray  was  begun.  An  erup- 
tion of  Cotopaxi  destroyed  the 
town  in  1698.    Pop.  10,000. 

Amber,  a  fossil  resin,  arises 
from  the  exudation  of  coniferous 
trees,  as  is  shown  by  its  composi- 
tion and  physical  properties,  by 
its  occurring  in  drops  and  glob- 
ular masses  which  resemble  the 
resin  seen  exuding  from  the  bark 
of  pine  trees,  and  by  its  common 
association  with  fossil  wood.  It 
is  of  a  clear  brownish-yellow 
color,  varying  in  shade,  and  is 
often  clouded  with  irregular 
streaks.  It  has  a  perfectly  con- 
choidal  fracture,  is  slightly  brit- 
tle, emits  an  agreeable  odor  when 
rubbed,  melts  at  about  536°  f. 
(280°  c),  and  burns  with  a  bright 
flame  and  pleasant  smell.  It  has 
a  hardness  of  only  2  to  2M,  and  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.065  to  1.070. 
When  rubbed  it  is  negatively 
electrified,  and  from  this  prop- 
erty, which  was  well  known  to 
the  ancients,  the  word  'electric- 
ity' has  been  derived  (Greek  elek- 
tron,  'amber'). 

Amber  is  used  principally  in 
the  manufacture  of  mouthpieces 
for  pipes  and  cigar  holders,  beads, 
necklaces,  and  ornaments.  It  is 
soluble  in  alcohol,  and  forms  the 
basis  of  certain  varnishes.  When 
distilled  it  yields  succinic  acid  and 
a  fine  lampblack.  Amber  orna- 
ments which  have  been  worn  for 
a  considerable  time  gradually  as- 
sume a  rich,  dark,  ruddy  color, 
which  is  much  prized.  Amber 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '16 


had  formerly  a  high  reputation 
as  a  medicine,  but  the  virtues 
ascribed  to  it  were  almost  en- 
tirely imaginary.  It  is  regarded 
as  a  charm  against  disease  and 
witchcraft.  A  large  part  of  the 
amber  of  commerce  is  artificial, 
being  made  from  copal,  camphor, 
and  turpentine,  or  is  prepared 
from  chips  of  natural  amber 
fused  under  pressure.  It  may  be 
distinguished  from  amber  by  its 
lower  melting  point,  and  by  its 
readily  softening  in  cold  ether, 
which  leaves  real  amber  unaf- 
fected. 

Amber  is  found  chiefly  on  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic,  between  the 
Frisches  Haff  and  the  Kurisches 
Haff  in  East  Prussia,  and  on  the 
shores  of  Pomerania,  West  Prus- 
sia, Schleswig-Holstein,  and  Den- 
mark. Small  quantities  are  also 
obtained  from  the  coasts  of  Sicily 
and  the  Adriatic,  in  different 
parts  of  Europe,  in  Siberia,  Green- 
land, Kamchatka,  Australia,  the 
United  States,  and  elsewhere.  It 
occurs  in  certain  dark  sands  and 
clays,  from  which  it  is  washed 
out  by  the  action  of  the  sea,  and 
in  beds  of  carbonized  wood. 
Natural  amber  usually  contains 
flaws  and  impurities;  fragments 
of  bark,  leaves,  ants,  flies,  etc., 
which  adhered  to  the  sticky  sur- 
face and  were  enveloped  by  the 
exudation,  being  the  most  fre- 
quent enclosures. 

Amber  beads  have  been  found 
in  the  royal  tombs  of  Mycenae  in 
Greece,  in  Scandinavian  relics  of 
the  Stone  Age,  in  the  ancient  pile 
dwellings  of  Switzerland,  and  in 
Etruscan  ruins.  Amber  was  well 
known  to  the  Romans,  and  is  de- 
scribed by  Pliny.  Between  1837 
and  1899  it  was  partly  mined, 
partly  gathered  after  storms  by 
private  monopolists;  but  in  the 
last-mentioned  year  the  Prussian 
mines  were  bought  by  the  gov- 
ernment. ' 

Amber-fish,  any  of  several 
carangoid  fishes  (genus  Seriola), 
allied  to  the  pompano  (q.  v.),  and 
of  graceful  form  and  a  color  sug- 
gesting amber.  The  best-known 
species  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  is 
the  Great  Amberjack  {Seriola 
lalandi) ;  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
the  highly  valued  Yellowtail  (5. 
dorsalis) . 

Amberg,  am'bercA,  ancient 
capital  of  the  Upper  Palatinate, 
Bavaria,  on  the  River  Vils;  35 
miles  east  of  Nuremberg.  It  is 
still  surrounded  with  walls  and 
moats,  which  have  been  trans- 
formed into  parkways.  Notable 
edifices  are  the  Church  of  St. 
Martin,  Library,  Agricultural 
and  Industrial  School,  and  Muni- 
cipal Hospital.  It  has  iron  mines 
and  iron  works,  and  manufac- 
tures of  earthenware,  ironware, 
and  firearms  (state  factory). 
Nearby  the  French  army  under 
Jourdan  was  defeated  by  Arch- 
duke Charles,  Aug.  24,  1796. 


Pop.  (1900),  22,039;  (1910)  25,- 
222. 

Ambergris,  am'ber-gres,  a  fat- 
ty substance  often  found  floating 
in  the  sea,  or  cast  up  on  tropical 
beaches  in  lumps  of  from  half  an 
ounce  to  a  hundred  pounds  in 
weight,  and  highly  valued  for 
making  perfumes.  Its  nature 
and  origin  were  formerly  uncer- 
tain, but  it  is  now  known  to  be  a 
concretion,  similar  to  bezoar 
(q.  v.),  formed  in  the  stomach  and 
intestines  of  sperm  whales,  from 
whose  bodies  it  has  frequently 
been  saved. 

When  taken  directly  from  the 
whale,  ambergris  is  of  a  deep  gray 
color,  a  waxy  consistency,  and  a 
disagreeable  odor,  which  gradu- 
ally becomes  sweet  and  earthy  on 
exposure  to  the  air.  It  has  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  .780  to  .920,  melts 
at  about  145°  F.  into  a  fatty  res- 
inous liquid,  and  is  soluble  in  oils. 
It  is  readily  dissolved  in  hot  al- 
cohol, producing  a  peculiar  bril- 
liant white  crystalline  substance 
called  Amhrein,  believed  to  be 
identical  with  cholesterin  (q.  v.). 
When  treated  by  the  perfumer, 
ambergris  becomes  one  of  the 
most  useful  of  his  natural  bases. 

Ambert,  ah-bar',  ancient  town, 
department  Puy-de-D6me, 
France,  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the 
Don;  35  miles  southeast  of  Cler- 
mont. It  has  manufactures  of 
lace,  paper,  ribbon,  and  cheese. 
Pop.  (1911)  7,863. 

Ambidexterity.  See  Right- 
Handedness. 

Am 'bier,  borough,  Montgom- 
ery county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  Rail- 
road; 17  miles  north  of  Philadel- 
phia. It  is  in  a  rich  agricultural 
district,  and  has  a  large  chemical 
factory  and  an  asbestos,  shingle, 
slate,  and  sheathing  plant.  There 
are  numerous  points  of  historic 
interest  nearby,  and  the  town  is  a 
popular  summer  resort.  Pop. 
(1910)  2,649. 

Ambler,  James  Markham 
Marshall  (1848-81),  American 
surgeon,  was  born  in  Fauquier 
county,  Va.,  and  was  educated  at 
the  Medical  School  of  tlje  Uni- 
versity of  Maryland.  In  1879  he 
accompanied  G.  W.  De  Long 
(q.  V.)  as  surgeon  to  the  Jeannette 
Arctic  Expedition.  When  the 
Jeannette  was  crushed  in  the  ice 
floes  of  Siberia,  the  explorers  took 
to  the  ice  on  sledges  for  the  Lena 
River,  arid  the  whole  party  suc- 
cumbed to  starvation.  Ambler's 
body  was  afterward  found  (1882) 
and  was  buried  at  Monument 
Hill,  in  the  Lena  Delta. 

Am'bleside,  .  market  town, 
Westmoreland,  England,  beauti- 
fully situated  near  the  northern 
end  of  Lake  Windermere.  Rydal 
Mount,  for  many  years  the  resi- 
dence of  Wordsworth;  Fox  How. 
a  summer  retreat  of  Dr.  Arnold; 
and  the  Knoll,  where  Miss  Mar- 
tineau  lived  and  died,  are  all  in 


Amblyopia 


204 


Ambrose 


the  neighborhood.  It  is  a  favor- 
ite tourist  resort.  Woollen  cloth 
is  manufactured.  Pop.  (1911) 
2.553. 

Amblyo'pia  (Greek  'dim  sight- 
edness'),  defective  or  diminished 
vision.  Scientifically,  the  term 
is  supposed  to  apply  only  to  those 
cases  which  cannot  be  more 
strictly  classified  after  ophthal- 
moscopic examination.  It  is 
therefore  more  seldom  used  as  ex- 
act knowledge  extends.  The  prob- 
able causes  of  amblyopia  may  be 
arranged  as  follows:  (1)  toxic; 
(2)  functional,  without  retinal 
changes;  (3)  changes  in  the  optic 
nerve;  (4)  cerebral  changes;  (5) 
defective  development.  The  first 
includes  tobacco  amblyopia,  which 
is  very  common;  heavy  smokers 
are  often  affected.  The  defect  is 
at  first  limited  to  the  central  field 
of  vision,  and  occurs  in  both  eyes, 
there  being  often  a  blind  spot  for 
red  and  green.  Sometimes  a 
misty  sensation  is  complained  of. 
It  sometimes  leads  to  total  blind- 
ness, unless  tobacco  is  discon- 
tinued. In  functional  amblyopia 
there  is  transient  loss  of  sight, 
complete  or  partial,  which  comes 
on  suddenly  and  lasts  from  a  few 
minutes  to  an  hour;  one  form  of 
this  is  hysterical,  which  is  usually 
unilateral.  Amblyopia  is  most 
frequently  seen  with  congenital 
squint;  it  usually  occurs  with 
long-sightedness. 

Amblyop'sis,  a  bony  fish, 
found  in  the  Mammoth  Cave 
_(q.  V.)  of  Kentucky,  and  interest- 
ing as  illustrating  in  the  rudimen- 
tary condition  of  its  eyes  the  ef- 
fects of  darkness  and  consequent 
disuse.  It  measures  only  a  few 
inches  in  length,  is  colorless,  and 
has  its  small  eyes  covered  by  the 
skin.  It  seems  able,  however,  to 
hear  acutely,  and  the  wrinkles  of 
skin  on  its  head  are  regarded  as 
special  feeling  organs.  See  Blind 
Fish. 

Amblyp'oda,  an  order  of  ex- 
tinct ungulate  mammals  which 
flourished  in  the  Eocene  (q.  v.) 
period,  but  which  left  no  descend- 
ants. Many  were  as  large  as  an 
elepha^,  but  in  their  general  ap- 
pearance must  have  more  resem- 
bled the  hippopotamus.  The 
most  perfect  specimens  have  been 
obtained  from  the  Eocene  beds  of 
the  Western  United  States. 

Amblystoma.    See  Axolotl. 

Am 'bo,  in  early  Christian 
churches,  a  reading  desk  or  pul- 
pit from  which  the  lessons  were 
read  or  the  sermon  preached  at 
the  regular  services. 

Amboise,  an-bwaz'  (ancient 
Ambalia),  town,  France,  depart- 
ment Indre-et-Loire,  on  the  River 
Loire;  16  miles  east  of  Tours. 
It  has  manufactures  of  steel  and 
woollen,  and  trade  in  wine,  leath- 
er, and  cloth.  The  town  possesses 
an  ancient  castle,  in  which 
Charles  viii.  was  born  and  died, 
and  Abd-el-Kader,  the  Algerian 
Vol.  I.~Oct.  '17 


Arab  chief,  was  imprisoned 
(1848-52).  In  the  Castle  of  Clos- 
Luce,  near  Amboise,  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  died  (1519).  Amboise  ac- 
quired ill  fame  through  its  oubli- 
ettes, or  subterranean  cells,  con- 
structed for  political  prisoners  by 
Louis  XI.    Pop.  (1911)  4,660. 

The  town  is  noted  for  the  Con- 
spiracy of  Amboise,  formed  by  the 
Huguenots  against  Francis  ii.  in 
1560,  and  the  Treaty  of  Amboise 
(1563),  between  Catharine  de' 
Medici  and  the  Prince  of  Conde, 
by  which  the  Protestants  of 
France  were  granted  the  free  ex- 
ercise of  their  worship  in  the 
feudal  dominions  of  the  king,  and 
received  an  indemnification  for 
the  losses  they  had  suffered. 

Amboise,  am'bwaz,  Georges 
d'  (1460-1510),  cardinal,  and 
Prime  Minister  of  Louis  xii.  of 
France,  was  born  near  Amboise. 
He  was  made  bishop  of  Montau- 
ban  in  his  fourteenth  year,  and 
archbishop  of  Rouen  in  1493,  be- 
coming Prime  Minister  in  1498. 
He  was  made  cardinal  by  Pope 
Alexander  vi.,  after  whose  death 
he  aimed  at  the  popedom,  and, 
failing  to  secure  it  (1503),  be- 
came strongly  opposed  to  the 
Popes.  He  died  at  Lyons,  leav- 
ing a  large  fortune  accumulated 
by  not  over-scrupulous  means. 

Amboy'na,  or  Amboina,  an 
island  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
one  of  the  smallest,  but  one  of  the 
most  important,  and  though  hot, 
the  most  healthy  of  the  Moluccas 
group.  It  consists  of  two  penin- 
sulas, connected  by  a  narrow  isth- 
mus, and  is  a  hilly  island  (4,020 
feet).  Until  1873  the  cultivation 
of  cloves  was  jealously  restricted 
to  this  island.  The  soil  is  abun- 
dantly fertile,  and  the  island  is 
clothfd  with  vegetation.  The 
Netherlanders  took  Amboyna 
from  the  Portuguese  in  1605,  and 
in  1623  destroyed  the  British  set- 
tlement in  the  Amboyna  massa- 
cre. Great  Britain  held  the  is- 
land in  1796-1802,  but  it  passed 
again  to  the  Netherlands  in  1814. 
Including  the  adjacent  Uliasser 
group,  the  area  is  300  square 
miles,  and  the  population  about 
40,000. 

The  town  of  Amboyna — pop. 
8,000 — has  a  good  harbor;  it  is 
the  principal  fortified  post  of  the 
Dutch  in  this  part  of  the  East 
Indies. 

The  rcvsidency  of  Amboyna — 
pop.  300,000 — embraces  the  is- 
lands of  Amboyna,  Buru,  Ceram, 
and  the  island  groups  of  Aru, 
Banda,  Kei,  Tenimber,  and  the 
Southwest  Islands.  Their  chief 
products  are  sago,  rice,  maize, 
sweet  potatoes,  timber,  cloves 
and  other  spices,  cocoanuts,  caje- 
put  oil,  trepang,  cocoa,  and  nut- 
megs.   See  Moluccas. 

Ambracia,  am-bra'shi-a,  an- 
cient town  of  Greece,  on  the 
north  of  the  Ambracian  Gulf 
(Gulf  of  Arta),  in  Epirus.  Col- 


onized by  the  Corinthians  about 
630  B.  c,  it  soon  attained  to  great 
wealth  and  importance.  Pyrrhus 
made  it  his  capital;  later  it  joined 
the  ^tolian  League,  and  was 
taken  by  the  Romans  in  189  B.  c. 

Ambrldge,  borough,  Beaver 
county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Ohio  River  and  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad;  16  miles  northwest  of 
Pittsburgh.  Industries  are  metal 
moulding,  bridge  building,  and 
the  manufacture  of  tubes.  Pop. 
(1910)  5,205. 

Ambrine,  a  preparation  of 
wax,  paraffin,  and  resin  for  the 
treatment  of  burns  and  wounds, 
was  discovered  by  Barthe  de 
Sandfort,  a  French  surgeon,  about 
1900,  and  came  into  extended  use 
during  the  Great  War,  The  mix- 
ture is  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  150°  F.,  and  applied  to  the  in- 
jured surface  with  a  brush  or 
atomizer;  a  layer  of  cotton  dress- 
ing is  then  put  on,  followed  by  a 
second  application.  The  ambrine 
hardens,  excluding  all  air  and 
moisture  from  the  wound,  new 
flesh  begins  to  form,  and  after  a 
month  or  two  healing  is  complete. 
The  crust  of  ambrine  is  easily  re- 
moved, leaving  the  skin  smooth 
and  white. 

Ambrose,  St.  (c.  340-397),  pa- 
tron saint  of  Milan,  and  one  of 
the  most  famous  of  the  ancient 
fathers  of  the  Christian  Church. 
He  was  born  in  Gaul,  but  went 
when  young  to  Rome.  Having 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the 
study  of  law,  he  was  appointed 
prefect  of  Liguria  and  .^Emilia, 
with  Milan  as  his  centre.  In  this 
office,  his  gentleness  and  wisdom 
won  for  him  the  esteem  and 
love  of  the  people.  On  the 
death  of  Bishop  Auxentius  in 
374,  Ambrose,  though  a  layman, 
was  elected  to  the  vacant  see  of 
Milan.  Having  sold  his  goods, 
and  distributed  the  proceeds 
among  the  poor,  Ambrose  pro- 
ceeded to  fit  himself  for  his  new 
ofiice  by  a  course  of  theological 
study,  under  Simplician,  a  pres- 
byter of  Rome.  In  the  theologi- 
cal conflicts  that  raged  over  the 
question  of  Christ's  divinity,  Am- 
brose took  up  a  resolute  position 
against  Arianism.  When  the 
Emperor  Valentinian  and  his 
mother  Justina  sought  the  use  of 
two  churches  in  the  diocese  of 
Milan  for  the  Arians,  the  bishop 
stoutly  resisted  their  requests 
(384).  Six  years  later  he  admin- 
istered a  severe  reproof  to  the 
Eastern  Emperor  Theodosius  for 
having  permitted  the  massacre  of 
7,000  inhabitants  of  Thessalon- 
ica;  and  the  Emperor  underwent 
eight  months  of  penance.  On  the 
assassination  of  Valentinian  and 
the  usurpation  of  Eugenius  in 
392,  Ambrose  fled;  but  when 
Theodosius  defeated  the  usurper 
he  returned  to  Milan,  and  contin- 
ued there  till  his  death,  in  397. 
The  life  of  Ambrose  was  written 


Ambrose  Channel 


205 


Ambulance 


by  Paulinus,  and  dedicated  to 
Augustine. 

Though  ambitious,  Ambrose 
was  amiable  and  generous.  As  a 
statesman  he  was  vigorous  and 
indomitable;  as  a  theologian  he 
was  both  a  scholar  and  a  philos- 
opher, his  knowledge  of  Greek 
enabling  him  to  bring  the  East 
and  the  West  closer  together.  His 
most  valuable  legacy  to  the 
church  is  his  hymns,  and  the  im- 
provements he  introduced  into 
the  service.  (See  Ambrosian 
Chant.) 

Am'brose  Channel,  the  main 
ship  channel  entering  New  York 
harbor,  is  40  feet  deep,  miles 
long,  and  from  1,850  to  2,000  feet 
wide.  It  is  easily  navigable  for 
ships  of  37  feet  draught  travelling 
at  moderate  speed,  and  has  a 
maximum  high  water  capacity  of 
44  feet.  The  dredging  of  the 
Channel  was  authorized  by  the 
river  and  harbor  act  of  1899,  and 
the  work  was  completed  in  1913, 
70,000,000  cubic  yards  of  earth 
and  sand  having  been  removed 
from  the  ocean  floor.  The  chan- 
nel was  opened  to  vessels  of  29 
feet  draught  and  over,  or  600  feet 
or  more  in  length,  in  1907,  and  to 
all  steamers  not  having  tows,  in 
1909.  Two  lighthouses — one  on 
Staten  Island,  2K  miles  inshore, 
and  the  West  Bank  Light,  dVs 
miles  out — safeguard  the  Chan- 
nel at  night. 

After  the  United  States  entered 
the  Great  War  (1917)  it  became 
of  prime  importance  to  guard  this 
main  channel  to  New  York  har- 
bor, in  the  event  of  submarine 
attack.  A  submarine  net  of 
heavy  wire  was  theref  ore  stretched 
across  'The  Narrows,'  with  a 
small  'gate'  left  open  by  day  for 
the  passage  of  vessels,  but  closed 
at  night. 

Ambro'sia,  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy the  food  of  the  gods,  which 
bestowed  immortal  youth  and 
beauty  upon  all  who  partook  of 
it.  The  Sanskrit  amrila,  the  elix- 
ir of  the  gods,  corresponds  to  the 
Greek  ambrosia. 

Ambrosia  Beetles,  a  name  ap- 
plied to  the  timber-boring  beetles 
of  several  genera  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  species,  common  through- 
out North  America.  They  are 
small,  elongate  insects,  dull  brown 
in  color,  with  compact  cylindrical 
bodies  and  short  legs,  and  differ 
from  the  bark  beetles  (q.  v.)  in 
that  they  penetrate  deeply  into 
the  wood  of  forest  and  fruit  trees 
and  feed  upon  ambrosia,  a  coat- 
ing of  certain  minute  fungi  propa- 
gated on  the  walls  of  their  bor- 
ings. These  borings  are  a  tenth 
of  an  inch  or  less  in  diameter, 
ramifying  widely,  and  having 
numerous  short  branches  which 
may  serve  as  brood  chambers. 
The  fungus  that  coats  the  walls  of 
the  galleries,  producing  a  dark 
characteristic  stain,  is  planted 
and  cultivated  by  the  females, 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '18. 


and  furnishes  food  for  both  larvae 
and  adults.  As  a  rule,  dying  and 
diseased  trees  and  shrubs  are  at- 
tacked, but  some  species  pene- 
trate only  healthy  plants.  In 
many  cases  the  vitality  of  the  tree 
is  not  affected,  although  the  value 
of  the  wood  as  timber  is  consider- 
ably diminished. 

The  most  destructive  of  the 
Ambrosia  Beetles  are  those  of  the 
genus  Platypus.  Other  varieties 
are  Corthylus  punctatissimus  and 
columbianus,  and  various  species 
of  Xyleborus,  Monarthrum,  Xy- 
loterus,  and  Gnathotrichus.  Con- 
sult Bulletin  No.  y,  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Entomology. 

Ambrosian  Chant,  the  choral 
music  introduced  from  the  East- 
ern to  the  Western  Church  by  St. 
Ambrose  (q.  v.),  bishop  of  Milan, 
in  the  fourth  century.  It  was 
used  till  Gregory  changed  it,  in 
the  sixth  century,  for  the  less 
monotonous  Gregorian  chant. 
The  Ambrosian  Chant  continued 
to  be  sung  in  Milan  Cathedral 
long  after  Gregory's  reformation. 

Ambrosian  Library,  a  cele- 
brated collection  in  Milan,  made 
possible  by  the  munificence  of 
Cardinal  Borromeo,  archbishop 
of  that  city.  Founded  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, the  library  was  afterward 
enriched  by  the  acquisition  of  the 
manuscripts  of  the  Pinelli  Col- 
lection. It  contains  about  230,000 
printed  books  and  15,000  manu- 
scripts. Among  its  treasures  are 
numerous  palimpsests,  a  Greek 
Pentateuch  of  the  fifth  century, 
fragments  of  Ulfilas'  Bible,  and  a 
Virgil  in  which  Petrarch  wrote  an 
account  of  his  first  meeting  with 
Laura. 

Am 'balance,  a  vehicle  or  other 
means  of  transport  used  for  the 
conveyance  of  the  sick  and 
wounded.  Ambulances  are  built 
to  be  easy-running  and  durable, 
and  are  usually  provided  with 
stretchers,  medicine  chests,  sur- 
gical appliances,  and  other  con- 
veniences. Electric  motor  car 
ambulances  have  been  adopted  in 
the  larger  cities  of  the  United 
States. 

Army  ambulances  are  fully 
equipped  for  the  care  and  trans- 
portation of  sick  and  wounded 
soldiers;  and  in  the  U.  S.  Army 
are  organized  into  a  corps  for 
each  division,  under  specially 
designated  ambulance  officers. 
Railway  cars  are  sometimes  used 
as  ambulances;  and  horse  and 
hand  litters  are  employed  in 
rough  country. 

In  the  Great  War  (1914-)  the 
Motor  Ambulance  has  been  used 
with  marked  success,  under  in- 
numerable difficulties,  to  carry 
the  wounded  from  the  front  to 
the  rear,  where  they  may  receive 
the  careful  attention  their  con- 
dition demands.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war,  the  ambulance 
service  was  for  a  time  necessarily 


more  or  less  improvised,  the 
wounded  often  being  transported 
by  horse  and  wagon,  or  by  motor 
lorries  that  were  going  to  the  rear 
for  fresh  supplies. 

During  the  first  few  weeks  of 
the  war  the  military  authorities 
allowed  some  English  volunteers 
to  do  ambulance  work  with  pri- 
vate touring  cars  along  the  roads 
near  Boulogne.  Many  such  cars 
were  given  to  the  cause,  and  later, 
when  ambulance  bodies  had  been 
hastily  substituted  for  the  ton- 
neaus,  they  filled  a  great  need. 
Later  still  a  type  of  ambulance 
well  suited  to  stand  the  exact- 
ing conditions  was  evolved, 
and  it  was  not  long  before  the 
entire  service  was  on  a  most 
efficient  basis. 

The  typical  and  durable  Amer- 
ican military  ambulance  used  in 
the  war  established  a  remarkable 
record  for  itself,  being  successful 
in  the  mud  of  Flanders,  as  well  as 
in  the  mountains  of  the  Vosges, 
where  it  replaced  the  mule  in  the 
transportation  of  the  wounded. 
This  type  of  car  has  a  light  body, 
constructed  of  canvas  and  tough 
wood,  and  is  capable  of  accommo- 
dating several  stretchers,  on  the 
floor  and  suspended  from  the  roof. 

Ambulance  camps  are  main- 
tained, at  various  points,  some 
miles  behind  the  lines,  and  at 
these  places  ambulances  may 
always  be  summoned  for  emer- 
gency duty.  Generally,  how- 
ever, in  the  routine  work  on  the 
French  front,  the  ambulances 
leave  these  camps  about  dark 
and  go  up  to  the  stations  at  the 
front  (pastes  de  secours)  where 
the  wounded  are  cared  for  tem- 
porarily. If  the  ambulance  camp 
is  at  all  near  the  front,  the  am- 
bulance must  be  driven  most  of 
the  way  without  lights,  and  often 
on  a  road  crowded  with  war 
traffic  and  packed  with  shell 
holes.  The  wounded  are  brought 
in  by  hrancar diets  from  the  battle- 
field directly  to  one  of  the  pastes 
de  secours  maintained  in  villages 
behind  the  trenches,  where  a 
doctor  gives  whatever  aid  is  im- 
mediately necessary.  At  these 
pastes  the  ambulances  wait,  dur- 
ing an  action,  until  the  wounded 
have  been  brought  in  by  the 
stretcher  bearers  and  the  doctor 
has  attended  them,  whereupon 
the  cars  receive  the  patients  and 
hurry  them  to  base  hospitals  in 
the  rear,  out  of  the  range  of  shells. 
This  work  is  often  done  while  the 
shell  fire  is  intense. 

Not  infrequently,  too,  ambu- 
lance work  has  been  carried  on 
in  broad  daylight  under  the  eyes 
of  the  enemy,  and  the  ambulances 
themselves  have  been  made  tar- 
gets. Under  such  circumstances 
speed  in  the  open,  and  the  use  of 
whatever  cover  may  be  available, 
must  be  depended  upon  for  safety. 
Many  drivers  have  been  cited 
and  awarded  military  medals  for 


Ambulance 


205  A 


Ambush 


exceptional  bravery  under  fire. 

Another  phase  of  the  ambu- 
lance work  is  transportation  of 
the  seriously  wounded  from  the 
base  hospitals  to  railroad  stations 
where  they  embark  for  permanent 
hospitals,  for  further  treatment 
and  care,  or  for  their  homes.  In 
this  service,  which  is  called  evacu- 
ation, the  trips  are  much  longer, 
being  from  thirty  to  ninety  miles. 

The  American  Ambulance, 
which  has  rendered  invaluable 
aid  in  the  war,  did  not  at  first 
include  a  field  service  for  the 
Allied  armies,  but  did  most  effi- 
cient hospital  work  at  the  bases 


end  of  April,  1915,  then,  saw  the 
American  Ambulance  Field  Ser- 
vice well  under  way.  Since  that 
time  it  has  rendered  distinguished 
service,  many  of  its  drivers  being 
awarded  the  Croix  de  Guerre. 

An  arrangement  exists  with 
the  American  Fund  for  French 
Wounded  whereby  the  American 
ambulances,  on  their  trip  from 
Paris  to  the  front,  carry  medical 
and  surgical  supplies  to  the  va- 
rious hospitals  en  route,  as  well 
as  comfort  kits  for  the  wounded 
soldiers.  See  Hospitals;  Medi- 
cal Department;  Red  Cross. 

Ambur,  town,  Madras,  India, 


ity.  A  convoy  of  wagons  or  a 
long  column  of  troops  may  be 
confined  to  a  single  track  through 
country  that  it  would  be  difficult 
to  search  efi"ectively  in  a  reason- 
able time;  in  such  cases  an  am- 
buscade may  be  successfully  laid. 
This  was  a  favorite  mode  of 
attack  with  the  American  Indians, 
the  death  of  the  famous  Custer 
and  the  annihilation  of  most  of 
his  band  being  the  result  of  a 
clever  and  treacherous  ambush. 
Even  now,  owing  to  the  range  of 
modern  firearms,  a  well-planned 
attack  of  this  kind  may  result  in 
the  destruction  or  capture  of  a 


Copyright  by  Broivn  Brothers,  New  York 

Interior  of  American  War  Ambulance. 
April,      on  the  Palar  River,  100  miles 
southwest  of  Madras;  with  fort 
commanding  an  important  pass 
into  the  Carnatic.    Pop.  16,000. 

Am 'bush,  or  Ambuscade,  the 
disposition  of  troops  who  con- 
ceal themselves  in  a  suitable  local- 
ity with  the  object  of  lying  in 
wait  for  an  enemy  and  falling 
upon  him  unawares.  The  column 
of  march  of  a  force  is  generally 
protected  from  surprise  by  scouts 
or  cavalry.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, especially  in  guerilla  and 
savage  warfare,  the  difficult  na- 
ture of  a  country  or  the  paucity  of 
available  troops  makes  it  im- 
possible to  obtain  absolute  secur- 


and  in  Paris  itself.  In 
1915,  however,  the  French  gave 
American  Ambulance  sections  a 
trial  at  the  front,  A  squad  of 
ambulances  was  sent  to  the 
Vosges,  to  be  increased  a  little 
later,  at  the  request  of  the  French, 
by  ten  or  more  cars.  The  section 
thus  formed,  which  was  called 
Section  Sanitaire  Americaine,  was 
at  once  stationed  with  a  French 
section  on  an  important  part  of 
the  Alsace  front.  A  second  sec- 
tion took  up  work  with  the 
French  at  Pont-a-Mousson,  and 
a  third  section,  which  had  been 
on  duty  at  Dunkirk,  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Belgian  front.  The 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '18. 


hostile  force,  because  the  element 
of  surprise  favors  the  attacking 
force,  and  they  are  often  able  to 
cause  a  confusion  that  is  equiva- 
lent in  eff'ect  to  an  additional 
number  of  men  on  their  side. 

A  formation  that  is  eff'ective 
in  the  advance  of  an  infantry 
column  through  country  where 
an  ambuscade  is  a  possibility, 
involves  the  sending  forward  of 
a  number  of  men  (the  'point') 
from  the  head  of  the  column, 
under  command  of  a  sergeant, 
and  the  deploying  of  other  men 
as  'connecting  links'  between  the 
'point'  and  the  advance  body. 
More  'connecting  links'  are  sent 


Ameer 


205  B 


Amenhotep 


out  between  the  advance  guard 
and  the  main  body,  and  still  more 
between  the  main  column  and  the 
rear  guard.  If  the  country  per- 
mits, scouts  are  also  thrown  out 
on'  the  wings,  and  more  scouts 
guard  the  rear.  It  is  dififiicult 
for  an  enemy  to  take  entirely  by 
surprise  a  column  advancing  in 
this  order.  The  'point'  is  designed 
to  uncover  a  lurking  foe  and  to 
draw  their  fire;  the  'connecting 
links'  rush  backward  for  rein- 
forcements when  there  is  an 
attack;  the  scouts  guard  against 
attacks  on  the  flank  or  wings. 

Ameer.    See  Emir. 

Amelan'chier,  a  genus  of 
small,  hardy  trees  of  the  Rosa- 
ceae.  They  have  simple  leaves, 
racemes  of  white  flowers,  and 
small,  juicy  fruit.  A.  botryapium, 
an  American  variety,  is  some- 
times called  June  Berry,  from  its 
early  ripening.  Other  popular 
names  for  different  species  are 
Service  Berry,  Shad  Bush,  and 
Sand  Cherry. 

Amelia,  a-ma'le-a  (ancient 
Ameria),  town  and  episcopal  see, 
province  Perugia,  Italy;  12  miles 
west  of  Terni,  with  remains  of 
ancient  cyclopean  walls.  It  has 
been  a  bishop's  see  since  the  fifth 
century.  Important  trade  in 
raisins.    Pop.  (1911)  10,124. 

Ame'lia  Island,  off  the  coast  of 
Florida,  and  opposite  the  estuary 
of  St.  Mary's  River.  The  light- 
house, near  the  northerly  end  of 
the  island,  carries  a  white  flash- 
light 107  feet  above  sea  level. 
The  island  was  settled  by  General 
Oglethorpe  (1736),  and  saw  the 
first  struggle  of  the  English  war 
with  Spain  (1739-48).  After  1808 
it  became  a  favorite  rendezvous 
of  slave  traders  and  buccaneers, 
and  after  being  in  the  hands  of 
Spanish  rebels  and  filibusters  it 
was  acquired  by  the  United 
States  (1819). 

Am^lle  les-  Bains,  a-ma-le'-la- 
bah',  watering  place,  France,  de- 
partment Pyrenees  -  Orientales; 
7  miles  southwest  of  Ceret.  It 
has  hot  mineral  springs,  known 
since  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
Until  1840  it  was  known  as 
Bains  d'Arles.  Pop.  (1911), 
1,383. 

Amelot  de  la  Houssaye,  am-l5' 
de  la  oo-sa',  Abraham  Nicolas 
(1634-1706),  French  historian, 
was  born  in  Orleans,  France,  and 
was  educated  at  Paris.  While 
secretary  to  the  French  embassy 
at  Venice  he  gathered  important 
material  which  enabled  him  to 
publish  a  History  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  Venice  (1676).  Its  ex- 
posure of  the  corruption  then 
existing  in  the  Italian  republic 
roused  the  ire  of  the  ambassador 
of  that  state,  and  the  writer  was 
sentenced  to  spend  six  weeks  in 
the  Bastiie.  He  also  translated 
the  Prince  of  Machiavelli,  Sarpi's 
History  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
and  the  Annals  of  Tacitus. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '18. 


Amen,  a'men',  a  Hebrew  word 
signifying  'firmly'  or  'surely,' 
from  aman,  'to  prop  or  support.' 
It  is  used  in  Scripture — (1)  to  in- 
dorse the  assertion  of  another — 
i.e.,  'so  is  it'  (1  Kings  i.  36) ;  (2)  to 
confirm  one's  own  statement, 
either  at  the  close  (Rev.  i.  7),  or 
initially  (the  'verily'  of  Jesus, 
often  double — Mark  x.  15,  John 
i.  51);  (3)  as  a  confirmation  of 
prayer  (Rom.  xi.  36,  Neh.  v.  13) ; 
and  (4)  as  a  name  of  God  or 
Christ  (Rev.  iii.  14).  The  use  of 
the  word,  especially  in  the  sense 
of  (3)  above,  has  become  a  char- 
acteristic of  Christian  worship, 
and  has  passed  into  the  liturgical 
diction  of  Mohammedanism. 

Amen.    See  Ammon. 

Amende  Honorable,  a-mand' 
6-no-ra'bl  (French  'honorable 
compensation'),  in  France  in  the 
ninth  century  was  a  public  and 
humiliating  confession  made  by 
traitors  and  other  offenders  in 
court,  kneeling,  and  with  a  rope 
around  their  neck.  The  phrase 
is  now  used  figuratively  of  a  full 
and  open  apology. 

Amend 'ment.  In  parliamen- 
tary procedure,  the  object  of  an 
amendment  is  to  effect  such  an 
alteration  in  a  proposal  or  motion 
as  will  render  it  more  acceptable 
to  a  certain  party  or  group.  The 
power  of  amendment  may  reside 
in  a  body  which  has  not  the  in- 
itiative. Thus  the  U.  S.  Senate 
may  amend  money  bills,  though 
it  may  not  originate  them.  The 
right  of  making  amendments  is 
necessary  to  every  deliberative 
assembly,  as  otherwise  it  would 
be  obliged  to  affirm  or  reject  in 
toto  the  whole  question  as  orig- 
inally put.  There  is  nothing  to 
prevent  an  amendment  being  pro- 
posed which  may  entirely  de- 
feat the  end  of  the  original  ques- 
tion, but  it  is  a  cardinal  rule  in 
all  properly  conducted  bodies 
that  amendments  must  be  strict- 
ly relevant.  (See  Parliamen- 
tary Law.) 

Amendment  in  legislation  is 
the  alteration  or  modification,  by 
legislative  action,  of  laws  already 
on  the  statute  books.  In  the 
United  States,  Congress  has 
power  to  repeal  or  amend  the 
laws  of  the  country  without  re- 
striction, although  it  may  not 
amend  the  Constitution.  The 
amendment  of  State  laws  is  reg- 
ulated by  the  constitutions  of  the 
various  States,  subject  to  the 
single  restriction  that  'no  vState 
shall  pass  any  laws  impairing  the 
obligation  of  contract.' 

In  particular,  the  changes  and 
additions  made  to  the  Federal 
and  State  constitutions  in  Amer- 
ica are  technically  called  amend- 
ments. Federal  amendments  are 
subject  to  ratification  by  three- 
fourths  of  the  vStatos.  The  first 
ten  amendments  duly  ratified 
Dec.  15,  1791,  practically  consti- 
tute a  bill  of  rights;  the  eleventh, 


passed  in  1793,  and  declared  in 
force  in  1798,  provided  that  the 
judicial  power  of  the  United 
States  should  not  extend  to  actions 
brought  against  one  of  the  United 
States  by  citizens  of  another 
State  or  of  a  foreign  state;  the 
twelfth,  added  in  1803,  revised 
the  method  of  election  of  the 
President  and  Vice  President. 
Since  1803  only  five  amendments 
have  been  adopted.  Those  pro- 
vide for  the  abolition  of  slavery 
(1865),  deny  the  power  of  the 
State  to  abridge  the  privileges  or 
immunities  of  United  States 
citizens  or  to  deprive  any  person 
of  life,  liberty,  or  property  with- 
out due  process  of  law  (1868); 
forbid  any  State  to  abridge  the 
right  of  citizens  to  vote  because 
of  race,  color,  or  previous  condi- 
tion of  servitude  (1870);  provide 
for  the  levying  of  an  income  tax 
(1913),  and  for  the  direct  election 
of  senators  (1913).  (See  Con- 
stitution.) 

Amendments  to  the  State  con- 
stitutions are  passed  upon  by  the 
State  legislatures,  and  referred  to 
the  electorate  for  adoption  (see 
Referendum). 

Amendment  of  a  party's  own 
pleadings  in  a  judicial  process, 
for  the  correction  of  errors  or  de- 
fects, is  generally  permitted.  In 
the  United  States,  amendments 
were  authorized  to  be  made  by 
courts  of  general  jurisdiction  at 
common  law.  By  acts  of  Con- 
gress the  equitable  power  of 
amendment  of  judicial  pleadings 
and  proceedings  in  every  step  of 
a  law  suit  has  been  conferred  on 
all  Federal  courts. 

A'menem'hat,  the  surname  of 
four  kings  of  Egypt  who  ruled 
during  the  twelfth  dynasty.  (1.) 
Amenemhat  i.,  king  from  about 
2130  B.C.  to  about  2100  B.C., 
brought  order  out  of  chaos.  He 
subjected  the  powerful  nobles  and 
administered  affairs  wisely  and 
beneficently,  giving  most  of  his 
time  to  internal  affairs,  although 
he  conducted  wars  in  Nubia  and 
on  the  Egyptian  frontier.  He 
built  many  monuments  and 
erected  a  large  dam,  reclaiming 
land  from  Lake  Merjo.  (2.) 
Amenemhat  ii.  ruled  from  about 
2066  B.C.,  for  35  years.  About 
2038  B.C.,  he  sent  forces  to  the 
Somali  coast.  For  a  few  years 
before  his  death,  he  and  his  son, 
Usertesen  i.,  reigned  together. 
(3.)  Amenemhat  iii.  held  power 
from  about  1986  to  1942  B.C., 
He  did  important  reclamation 
work,  extending  the  enterprizes 
of  Amenemhat  i..  and  making  of 
Lake  Mceris  a  great  reservoir 
which  served  until  the  fifth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  when  it  became  dry. 
(4.)  Son  of  Amenemhat  nr.. 
reigned  from  about  1940  to  1932 
B.C.  He  accomplished  nothing 
of  special  note. 

A'menho'tep  (Amenophis), 
the  name  of  four  Pharaohs  of 


Amenorrhcea 


206 


America 


Egypt  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty. 
(1.)  Son  of  Amasis  i.,  reigned  for 
about  ten  years  (c.  1570  B.C.). 
His  mummy  is  in  the  Ghizeh 
museum.  (2.)  Son  of  Thothmes 
III.,  reigned  twenty-five  years, 
from  about  1450  B.C.  (3.)  Son  of 
Thothmes  iv.,  reigned  thirty-six 
years,  from  about  1410  B.C.;  he  is 
famous  for  his  buildings.  He 
erected  the  great  temples  at 
Thebes,  of  which  only  the  ruins  of 
the  Temple  of  Luxor,  and  the  two 
colossi,  one  of  which  was  known 
in  classical  times  as  'the  Vocal 
Memnon,'  now  remain.  (4.) 
Son  of  the  last  named,  reigned 
eighteen  years,  from  about  1375 
B.C.  He  was  the  son  of  a  foreign 
mother,  and  married  a  foreign 
princess,  probably  of  Indian 
(Aryan)  race.  He  endeavored  to 
introduce  the  worship  of  the  sun, 
calling  him  Aten,  not  by  the 
Egyptian  word  Ra.   See  Egypt. 

Amenorrhcea.  See  Menstru- 
ation. 

A'ment,  William  Scott 
(1851-1909),  American  mission- 
ary, was  born  in  Owosso,  Mich. 
He  studied  at  Oberlin  and  at 
Union  and  Andover  Theological 
Seminaries,  and  in  1900  was  sent 
by  the  American  Board  to  China. 
He  was  in  Peking  at  the  time  of 
the  Boxer  revolt  and  following 
the  raising  of  the  siege  of  that 
city  took  an  important  part  in  the 
reorganization  of  the  native  Chris- 
tian population. 

Amentacese,  am-en-ta'se-e,  or 
Amentalos,  a  collection  of  orders 
of  dictoyledonous  plants  whose 
flowers,  devoid  of  corolla,  and 
often  of  calyx,  are  grouped  into 
unisexual  inflorescences,  called 
aments  (amentums)  or  catkins. 
Sometimes  both  kinds  of  inflores- 
cfence  are  on  one  plant,  as  in  birch ; 
sometimes  on  different  plants,  as 
in  willow.  Other  examples  are 
bog  myrtle,  poplar,  alder,  beech, 
oak,  hazel,  and  hornbeam. 

Amenthes,  a-men'thez,  the 
name  for  the  unseen  world  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  the  Hades  of 
the  Greeks,  who  borrowed  their 
ideas  about  the  lower  world  from 
Egypt.  The  passage  across  the 
river,  the  islands  of  the  blessed, 
Cerberus,  and  the  judgment  of 
the  dead,  all  have  their  original  in 
Amenthes,  the  localities  of  which, 
and  the  account  of  whose  divini- 
ties, are  described  in  the  famous 
Book  of  the  Dead,  as  well  as  in 
pictorial  representations.  The 
principal  scene  is  the  judgment 
seat  of  Osiris,  the  judge  of  the 
dead,  before  whom  the  dead  are 
carried  by  the  goddess  Ma 
('righteousness'),  while  Horusand 
Anubis  weigh  out  their  deeds. 
See  Egypt. 

Amentum.    See  Catkin. 

Amerce'ment,  in  early  English 
law  a  pecuniary  penalty  imposed 
for  any  offence  which  involved 
forfeiture  of  lands  or  goods.  The 
judgment  placed  the  convicted 
Vol.  I.—Oct.  '18. 


offender  'at  the  mercy'  of  the 
king  or  sheriff,  and  the  amerce- 
ment was  the  sum  fixed  by  the 
court  as  the  commutation  of  a 
sentence  of  forfeiture.  It  differed 
from  a  fine  in  the  fact  that  the 
latter  was  the  commutation  of  a 
sentence  of  imprisonment.  When 
the  penalty  of  forfeiture  ceased 
to  be  imposed,  amercement  natu- 
rally disappeared. 

America,  or  the  New  World, 
is  the  second  largest  continent  on 
the  globe.  The  New  World  and 
the  Old  World  are  separated  by 
Bering  Strait,  about  50  miles 
wide.  The  mainland  lies  between 
71°N.  and  54°  s.  lat.,  and  between 
35°  and  168°  w.  long.  The  merid- 
ian of  80°  w.  divides  it  approx- 
imately into  a  west  and  north  and 
an  east  and  south  mass,  which 
are  connected  by  the  narrow 
Isthmus  of  Panama. 

These  two  masses  of  North  and 
South  America  have  several  com- 
mon characteristics.  They  are 
broad  at  the  north  and  taper 
toward  the  south;  the  western 
part  consists  of  a  belt  of  lofty 
mountain  chains  enclosing  exten- 
sive plateaus;  the  centre  is  a  great 
lowland,  continuous  from  north 
to  south,  and  drained  by  great 
rivers,  the  Mackenzie  and  Mis- 
sissippi in  the  north,  and  the 
Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  Rio  de  la 
Plata  in  the  south.  The  east 
is  a  highland  broken  by  the  St. 
Lawrence  in  the  north  and  the 
Amazon  in  the  south.  The  coast 
lines  of  the  two  continents,  how- 
ever, present  a  striking  contrast. 
North  America,  with  its  irregular 
coast  line  and  great  peninsulas, 
may  be  compared  with  Europe 
and  Asia;  while  South  America, 
with  its  regular,  unbroken  coast, 
is  the  counterpart  of  Africa. 

The  chain  of  West  India 
Islands,  which  extend  between 
the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  10°  N., 
are  usually  reckoned  with  North 
America,  notwithstanding  that 
both  their  physical  and  biological 
conditions  resemble  rather  those 
of  South  America.  Other  impor- 
tant American  islands  in  the 
Atlantic  are  Newfoundland,  Cape 
Breton,  Anticosti,  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island,  Long  Island,  the 
Bermudas,  Marajo  or  Joannes, 
the  Falkland  Islands,  Staten 
Island,  and  South  Georgia.  At 
the  southern  extremity  of  Amer- 
ica lies  the  archipelago  of  Fuegia 
(Tierra  del  Fuego).  In  the  Pa^^'^c 
are  the  Aleutian  Islands,  Kadiak, 
the  Alexander  and  Queen  Char- 
lotte groups,  Vancouver  and  other 
British-Columbian  Islands;  the 
Santa  Barbara  group,  Revilla- 
gigedo  Islands,  Pearl  Island,  and 
others  in  the  Gulf  of  Panama;  the 
Galapagos,  Juan  Fernandez  and 
the  associated  islets,  the  Chiloe 
Islands,  and  the  Chonos  Archi- 
pelago. In  the  Arctic  Ocean  there 
are  many  large  but  unimportant 
islands. 


The  total  area  of  America  is 
estimated  to  be  about  14,500,000 
square  miles,  with  adjacent  is- 
lands, about  16,125,000  square 
miles.  The  population  of  the 
New  World  in  1916  was  esti- 
mated at  195,000,000. 

The  native  peoples  of  North  and 
South  America  alike  would  ap- 
pear to  have  been  all  of  one  race, 
although  the  Eskimos  (q.v.)  of  the 
far  north  resemble  the  'Indian,'  or 
copper-colored  native  races,  not 
so  much  in  appearance  and  in 
physical  features,  as  in  the  poly- 
synthetic  or  incorporative  char- 
acter of  their  system  of  word- 
building.  Further  notice  of  the 
red  men  and  of  their  ancient 
centres  of  semi-civilization  is  con- 
tained in  the  article  American 
Indians. 

The  present  population  of 
North  America  contains  a  copious 
element  of  the  Indian  stock, 
chiefly  found  in  the  remoter  parts 
of  Canada  and  in  Mexico  and 
Central  America.  In  Spanish 
America  and  in  Manitoba  (Can- 
ada) there  are  many  persons  of 
mixed  white  and  Indian  origin. 
The  Spanish  language  is  spoken 
in  Central  America,  Mexico, 
Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico;  French 
prevails  in  parts  of  Canada  and 
Louisiana,  and  in  some  of  the 
West  Indies;  and  a  German  dia- 
lect prevails  locally  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. But  by  far  the  largest 
share  of  the  North  American 
people  are  English  in  language, 
if  not  in  descent. 

The  aboriginal  population  of 
South  America  is  noticed  in  the 
article  American  Indians.  The 
white  population  is  largely  Spanish 
in  language  and  descent,  except 
in  Brazil,  where  Portuguese  is 
spoken.  The  common  people  of 
Chile  are  largely  of  Gallician 
(Spanish)  descent;  while  Basque 
blood  is  said  to  prevail  in  Peru. 
The  Brazilian  whites  are  to  a 
considerable  extent  of  Azorean 
and  Madeira  stock.  There  are 
numbers  of  German  colonists  in 
Brazil,  the  La  Plata  countries, 
and  Chile;  and  also  many  Italians, 
Basques,  and  other  Europeans  in 
the  Argentine  Republic  and  Uru- 
guay. The  English  language  is 
spoken  in  the  Falklands  and  in 
Guiana;  French  and  Dutch  pre- 
vail in  parts  of  Guiana.  The 
negro  clement  is  strong  in  Brazil, 
in  parts  of  Peru,  and  in  Guiana; 
and  there  are  many  persons  of 
mixed  descent. 

For  detailed  information,  see 
the  separate  articles  on  North 
America  and  South  America; 
Central  America;  West  Indies. 

America,  a  national  hymn  for 
patriotic  ceremonies,  composed 
by  the  Rev.  Samuel  F.  Smith  in 
1832,  and  set  to  an  eighteenth 
century  tune  ascribed  to  Henry 
Carey  (1742),  which  is  also  adopt- 
ed in  'God  save  the  King,'  the 
national  anthem  of  Great  Britain. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  V. 


AMERICA  CUP  RACE 

Shamrock  IV.  and  Resolute  just  after  the  Start  of  the  Fifth  Race  for  the  America  Cup.  July  26,  1920, 
Shamrock  IV.  Leadmg.   The  Cup  is  shown  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '20  Vol.  I.— at  Page  206 


♦  « 


America  Cup  ' 

Amer'ica  Cup,  or  merica's 
Cup,  an  international  yachting 
trophy.  The  competition  for 
this  cup  is  of  British  origin,  hav- 
ing arisen  out  of  a  Royal  Yacht 
Squadron  contest,  for  which  a 
prize,  called  the  Queen's  Cup, 
was  offered,  the  course  being 
around  the  Isle  of  Wight.  The 
cup  having  been  carried  off  by 
the  U.  S.  schooner  America 
(1851),  the  winners  conveyed  it 
by  deed'  of  gift  in  1857  to  the 
New  York  Yacht  Club,  to  be  held 
by  that  club  against  all  chal- 
lengers as  an  international 
trophy.  According  to  the  terms 
of  the  conveyance,  any  organized 
yacht  club  of  any  foreign  country 
can  claim  the  right  to  sail,  a 
match  for  the  cup  with  a  yacht 
or  vessel  propelled  by  sails  only 
and  constructed  i«  the  country 
to  which  the  challenging  club 
belongs,  against  any  one  yacht  or 
vessel  constructed  in  the  country 
of  the  club  holding  the  cup,  but 
it  must  give  ten  months'  notice, 
in  writing,  of  the  day  on  which 
it  wishes  to  start  the  race,  and 
no  race  shall  vbe  sailed  between 
November  1  and  May  1. 

The  conditions  governing  the 
cup  races  are  decided  upon  by  a 
committee  from  'the  New  York 
Yacht  Club  and  the  challenging 
club,  who  agree  as  to  the  date, 
number  of  races  to  be  sailed,  the 
length  of  course,  start,  signals, 
and  time  limit.  The  system  of 
measut-ements,  time  allowance, 
and  racing  rules  of  the  New  York 
Yacht  Club  are  observed. 

In  1870  and  1871,  Great 
Britain  challenged  with  the 
Cambria  and  Livonia,  both  of 
which  were  defeated.  A  similar 
fate  befell  Canadian  challengers 
in  1875  and  '1881,  and  further 
British  challengers  in  1885,  1887, 
1893,  and  1895.  In  the  two  last 
cases  Lord  Dunraven  challenged 
with  Valkyrie  II.  and  Valkyrie 
III.  respectively. 

Among  all  the  British  chal- 
lengers the  most  notable  and  the 
most  persevering  has  been  Sir 
Thomas  Lipton  (q.  v.).  In  1899 
his  Clyde-built  Shamrock  was 
pitted  against  the  Columbia,  de- 
signed by  N.  G.  Herreshoflf,  and 
the  property  of  J.  Pierpont  Mor- 
gan and  C.  Oliver  Iselin.  Three 
races  only  were  run,  although 
five  had  been  arranged  for;  the 
Columbia  winning  the  first  and 
third,  and  the  Shamrock  being 
disabled  in  the  second  by  the 
snapping  of  her  topmast.  In 
1901  Sir  Thomas  was  again  de- 
feated, when  his  yacht,  Shamrock 
II.,  built  on  the  Clyde  from  the 
designs  of  G.  L.  Watson,  proved 
no  match  for  the  Columbia, 
which  won  in  three  consecutive 
races — the  first  by  only  about 
200  yards,  and  the  second  by 
only  about  one  minute.  In  1903 
Sir  Thomas  made  a  third  un- 
successful attempt  with  the 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '20 


207 

/ 

Shamrock  III.,  which  failed  to 
win  a  sifigle  race  against  the 
American  Reliance.  In  1913  he 
again  challenged.  The  races 
were"  scheduled  for  September, 
1914,  but  were  postponed  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  Great*  War. 
They  were  eventually  held  in 
July,  1920,  between  Shamrock 
IV.,  designed  by  Charles  E. 
Nicholson  and  built  in  Gosport, 
England,  aijd  tho  Resolute,  de- 
signed by  N.  G.  Herreshoflf  and 
built  in  Bristol,  R.  I.  Five 
races  were  run;  Shamrock  IV. 
won  the  first  two,  but  the  last 
tiiree  went  to  the-  American 
Resolute.  In  the  first  race  the 
Resolute  suffered  a  broken  hal- 
yard and  was  obliged  to  with- 
draw. See  Yacht.  Consult 
Stone's  The  America's  Cup 
Races  (1914). 

American.  For  articles  on 
organizations  whose  title  begins 
with  the  word  American,  see  un- 
der   other    headings — as  Ad- 

VANCEMlfNT  OF  SCIENCE,  AMERI- 
CAN   Association    for,  the. 
American  Aloe.    See  Agave. 
American  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Union.    See  Missions: 

American  Bliglit.  See  Blight, 
American, 

American  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions.    See  Missions. 

American  Colonization  Soci- 
ety. See  Colonization  Soci- 
ety. National: 

American  Expeditionary 
Forces,  the  official  name  of  that 
portion  of  the  U.  S.  Army  which 
was  shipped  overseas  Sov  ser- 
vice during  the  Great  War 
.(q.  v.).  - 

On  April  6,  1917.  when  the 
United  States  issued  its  decla- 
ration of  war  on  Germany,  the 
U.  S.  Army  numbered  about 
200,000  men,  two-thirds  of  that 
number  belonging  to  the  Regular 
Army  and  one-third  to  the 
Federalized  National  Guard  (see 
Army  of  the  United  States). 
During  the  course  of  the  War 
this  number  was  increased  to 
4,000,000  men,  fifty  per  cent,  of 
whom  were  in  overseas  service. 
Of  the  total,  more  than  500,000, 
or  13  per  cent.,  came  in  through 
the  Regular  Army;  almost 
400,000,  or  10  per  cent.,  through 
the  National  Guard;  and  the 
rest,  constituting  77  per  cent., 
through  conscription  or  enlist- 
ment in  the  National  Army  (see 
Conscription). 

The  average  member  of  the 
American  Expeditionary  Forces, 
or  the  A.  E.  F.,  as  it  is  generally 
known,  received  six  months  of 
training  in  camps  and  canton- 
ments in  United  States  and  two 
months  overseas  training  (see 
Military  Training  Camps; 
Camps;  Cantonments)  before 
entering  the  battle  line,  with  an 
additional  month  in  a  quiet 
sector  before  going  into  heavy 
fighting.    Training  was  for  the 


'American  Expeditionary  Forces 

most  part  in  the  division  (q.  v.), 
.  which  was  the  typical  com  oat 
unit,  consisting  of  about  1,000' 
officers  and  27,000  men.  The 
First  and  Second  Divisions, 
composed  almost  wholly  of. 
Regular  Army  men,  were  organ- 
ized in  France;  the  Twenty- 
sixth.  Forty-second,  and  Forty- 
first  reached  France  within' 
•  three  months, ,  or  less,  of  the 
date  oi  organization;  while  the 
remaining  divisions  underwent 
comparatively  extended  periods 
of  training  in  the  United  States. 
A  list  of  the  divisions  constitut- 
ing the  A.  E.  F.,  together  with 
the  place  of  organization,  and 
the  composition,  is  given  in  the 
table  on  page  207  B. 

Transportation— T  he  fi  r  s  t 
.troops  were  shipped  within  a 
few  weeks  of  the  entrance  of  the 
United  States  into  the  War, 
At  first  the  movement  was 
not  rapid,  •  the  only  available 
means  for  transportation  being 
a  few  American  and  British 
troop  ships  which  had  been 
chartered  directly  from  their 
.owners.  D'lring  the  early 
winter,  as  the  interned  German 
liners  came  into  service,  em- 
,barkations  increased  to  a  rate 
of  nearly  50,000  per  month,  and 
by  the  end  of  1917  had  reached 
a  total  of  191,000. 

Early  in  1-918  negotiations 
were  entered  into  with  the 
British  Government  by  which 
three  of  its  big  liners  and  four 
of  its  smaller  troop  '  ships  were 
definitely  assigned  to  the  service 
of  the  U.  S.  Army.  The  results 
of  this  are  shown  in  increased 
troop  movements  for  March. 
It  was  in  that  month  that  the 
great  German  spring  drive  took 
place  in  Picardy,  with  a  success 
that  threatened  to  result  in 
German  victory.  Every  ship 
that  could  be  secured  was 
pressed  into  service,  while  the 
aid  furnished  by  the  British  was 
greatly  increased.  The  number 
of  men  carried  in  May  was 
more  than  twice  as  great  as  the 
number  for  April.  The  June 
record  was  greater  than  that  of 
May,  and  before  the  first  of 
July  1,000,000  men  had  been 
embarked. 

The  record  for  July  exceeded 
all  previous  monthly  totals,  the 
number  of  troops  carried  being 
more  than  306,000.  Before  the 
end  of  October  the  second  million 
men  had  sailed  from  our  shores. 
During  many  weeks  in  the 
summer  the  number  carried 
was  more  than  10,000  men  a 
day,  and  in  July  the  total 
landed  averaged  more  than 
10,000  for  every  day  of  the 
month. 

No  such  troop  movement  as 
that  of  the  summer  of  1918  had 
ever  been  contemplated,  and 
no  movement  of  any  such 
number  of  persons  by  water  for 


American  Expeditionary  Forces 


207  A 


American  Expeditionary  Forces 


such  a  distance  and  such  a 
time  had  ever  previously  oc- 
curred. The  record  has  been 
excelled  only  by  the  achieve- 
ment in  bringing  the  same  men 
back  to  the  shores  of  the  United 
States. 

Beginning  with  December, 
1917,  the  monthly  shipments  to 
France  were  as  follows: 


after  the  signing  of  the  Armistice 
(Nov.  11,  1918).  The  British 
ships  being  needed  for  the  return 
of  British  colonial  troops  to 
Canada,  Australia,  and  South 
Africa,  the  work  of  transporta- 
tion devolved  upon  the  Army 
Transport  Service,  which  im- 
mediately began  the  conversion 
of  large  cargo  ships  into  troop 


Large  quantities  of  food  and 
equipment  had  also  to  be  trans- 
ported to  support  the  forces 
abroad.  The  first  shipment  of 
cargo  was  made  in  June,  1917, 
and  amounted  to  16,000  tons. 
After  the  first  two  months  the 
shipments  grew  rapidly  and 
steadily  until  they  were  in  excess 
of  800,000  tons  in  the  last  month 


m 


U49 


iLLLiil 


in 

umTD}5TATE5 

AND 

possessions 


200  290  390  SOO  »91   691    948  1100  1169  XZZS  I4SS  \6Zi  iTIS  1353  iUi  8380  2656  3001  3433  3(34  36^  3000  2624  2733  20S4  1764 

APR  mv  jun.  JUL  AU6  sen:  OCT  m  dec  jw.  fib  mar  apr  may  jun  Jut  aug  5£pt  oct  nov  ozc  jam  feb  mar  apr  may 


1917 


1918 


1919 


Thousands  of  Soldiers  in  the  A  merican  A  rmy  on  the  First  of  Each  Month. 


December.  1917   49,515 

January,  1918   47,853 

February   49,110 

March   84,889 

April   118,642 

May   245,945 

June   278,664 

July    306,350 

August   285,974 

September   257,457 

October   180,326 

November   30,201 

The  number  of  men  sailing 
from  the  various  embarkation 
ports  and  their  distribution  at 
the  ports  of  landing  are  shown 
in  the  accompanying  map. 

The  return  of  troops  to  the 
United  States  was  begun  shortly 
Vol..  I— Oct.  '19 


ships.  By  means  of  these  and 
by  the  assignment  of  German 
liners,  and  the  great  aid  rendered 
by  the  Navy,  which  put  at  their 
disposal  cruisers  and  battle- 
ships, the  Army  was  brought 
back  home  even  more  rapidly 
than  it  was  taken  to  France. 
Following  the  signing  of  the 
armistice,  the  homeward  ship- 
ment was  as  follows: 

NovPiflber   26,245 

December   99,111 

January,  1919   115,382 

February   181,751 

March   212,899 

April   290,377 

May   333,333 

June  ,   358,315 


of  the  war.  Altogether,  from 
America's  entrance  into  the  War 
through  April,  1919,  the  Army 
shipped  from  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic  nearly  seven  and  a  half 
million  tons  of  cargo.  This  con- 
sisted of  thousands  of  dififerent 
articles  of  the  most  varied  sort. 
Nearly  one-half  of  all  consisted 
of  quartermaster  material,  large- 
ly composed  of  food  and  clothing. 
The  next  largest  elements  were 
engineering  and  ordnance  sup- 
plies. 

During  the  whole  period  of 
active  hostilities  the  Army  lost 
at  sea  only  200,000  deadweight 
tons  of  transports.    Of  this  total 


American  Expeditionary  Forces 


207  B 


American  Expeditionary  Forces 


142,000  tons  were  sunk  by  tor- 
pedoes. No  American  troop 
transport  was  lost  on  its  east- 
ward voyage. 


service,  while  the  others  were 
used  for  replacements  or  were  just 
arriving  during  the  last  month 
of  hostilities.    The  battle  record 

A  merican  Expeditionary  Forces. 


them  were  Regular  Army  divi- 
sions, (1st,  2d,  3d,  4th,  5th, 
6th,  7th);  11  were  organized 
from  the  National  Guard  (26th, 


Division. 


Camp. 


States  from  Which  Drawn. 


Regulars: 

1st  

2nd  

3rd  

4th  

5th  

6th  

7th  

8th  

National  Guard 

26th  

27th  

28th  

29th  

30th  

31st  

32nd  

33rd  

34th  

35th  

36th  

37th  

38th  

39th  

40th  

41st  

42nd  

National  Army: 

76th  

77th  

78th  

79th  

80th  

81st  

82nd  

83rd  

84th  

85th  

86th  

87th  

SSth  

89th  

90th  

91st  

92nd  

93rd  


France  

France  

Greene,  N,  C  

Greene.  N.  C  

Logan,  Tex  

McClellan,  Ala  

MacArthur,  Tex  

Fremont,  Cal  

Devens,  Mass  

Wadsworth,  S.  C. . . 

Hancock,  Ga  

McClellan,  Ala  

Sevier,  S.  C  

Wheeler,  Ga  

MacArthur,  Tex  

Logan,  Tex  

Cody,  N.  Mex  

Doniphan,  Okla . . . . 

Bowie,  Tex  

Sheridan,  Ohio  

Shelby,  Miss  

Beauregard,  La.  .  .  . 

Kearny,  Cal  

Fremont,  Cal  

Mills,  N.  Y  

Devens,  Mass  

Upton.  N.  Y  

Dix,  N.J  

Meade,  Md  

Lee,  Va  

Jackson,  S.  C  

Gordon,  Ga  

Sherman,  Ohio  

Zachary  Taylor,  Ky 

Custer,  Mich  

Grant,  111  

Pike,  Ark  

Dodge,  Iowa  

Funston,  Kans  

Travis,  Tex  

Lewis,  Wash  

Funston,  Kans  

Stuart,  Va  


Regulars. 

Regulars  and  two  regiments  of  Marines, 

Regulars. 

Regulars. 

Regulars. 

Regulars. 

Regulars. 

Regulars. 


New  England. 
New  York. 
Pennsylvania. 

New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Virginia,  District  of  Columbia. 

Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Maryland,  District  of  Columbia. 

Georgia,  Alabama.  Florida. 

Michigan,  Wisconsin. 

Illinois. 

Nebraska,  Iowa,  South  Dakota,  Minnesota. 
Missouri,  Kansas. 
Texas,  Oklahoma. 
Ohio. 

Indiana,  Kentucky,  West  Virginia. 

Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana. 

California,  Colorado,  Utah,  Arizona,  New  Mexico. 

Washington,  Oregon,  Montana,  Idaho,  Wyoming. 

Various  States. 


New  England,  New  York. 
New  York  City. 

Western  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Delaware. 

Northeastern  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  District  of  Columbia. 

Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Western  Pennsylvania. 

North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Porto  Rico. 

Georgia,  Alabama,  Tennessee. 

Ohio,  Western  Pennsylvania. 

Kentucky,  Indiana,  Southern  Illinois. 

Michigan,  Eastern  Wisconsin. 

Chicago,  Northern  Illinois. 

Arkansas.  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Southern  Alabama. 
North  Dakota,  Minnesota.  Iowa,  Western  Illinois. 
Kansas.  Missouri,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska. 
Texas,  Oklahoma. 

Alaska,  Washington,  Oregon,  California,  Idaho,  Nebraska,  Montana,  Wyo- 
ming, Utah. 
Colored,  various  States. 
Colored,  various  States. 


Active  Service. — Of  the  42 
divisions  that  reached  France, 
29  took  part  in  active  combat 


of  the  U.  S.  Army  in  the  War  is 
largely  the  history  of  these  29 
combat    divisions.      Seven  of 


27th,  28th,  29th,  30th,  32d,  33d, 
35th,  36th,  37th,  42d),  and  11 
were  made  up  of  National  Army 


GLASGOW  45000 

IANCHESTCR  4O00 

VERPOOU  SMOOO 
RISTOL  PORTS  11000 

ALMOUTM  lOOO 

Ly  MOUTH  1000 

SOimiAMPTON  57000 

/^ONOON  68,000 


aUEBEC 

noNTReAL 
sr.  JOHNS 

PORrLANO 
BOSTCN 
NEW  YORK 
PHlLA. 

SALTiMOrte: 


Vol. 


Troops  Sailing  from  American  Ports  and  Landing  in  Prance  and  England. 
I. — Oct.  '19 


American  Flag 


207  C 


American  Indians 


troops  (77th,  78th,  79th,  80th, 
81st,  82d.  88th,  89th,  90th, 
91st,  92d).  The  93d  division, 
while  not  listed  as  a  combat 
division,  because  it  was  at  no 
time  complete  as  a  division,  was 
brigaded  with  the  French,  with 
whom  it  also  saw  active  service. 

American  combat  divisions 
were  in  battle  for  200  days,  from 
the  25th  of  April,  1918,  when 
the  first  Regular  division,  after 
long  training  in  quiet  sectors, 
entered  an  active  sector  on  the 
Picardy  front,  until  the  signing 
of  the  armist  ce.  During  these 
200  days  they  were  engaged  in 
13  major  operations,  of  which  11 
were  joint  enterprises  with  the 
French,  British,  and  Italians,  and 
2  were  distinctively  American. 

The  t  8t  major  operation 
was  the  Cambrai  battle  at  the 
end  of  the  campaign  of  1917, 
Scattering  medical  and  engineer- 
ing detachments,  serving  with 
the  Bri'^'^h,  were  present  dviring 
the  action,  but  sustained  no 
serious  casualties.  The  other 
major  operations  were  the  five 
great  German  offensives  (Somme, 
Lys,  Oise,  Noyon-Montdidier, 
and  Champagne- Marne)  from 
March  21  to  July  18,  1918; 
the  Allied  offensives  (Aisne- 
Marne,  Somme,  Oise-Aisne,  Yp- 
res-Lys,  St.  Mihiel,  and  Meuse- 
Argonne  from  July  18  to  Nov. 
11;  and  the  Battle  of  Vittoria- 
Veneto  (Oct.  24-Nov.  4,  1918) 
on  the  Italian  front.  The  two  dis- 
tinctively American  actions  were 
the  Battle  of  St.  Mihiel  (q.v.) 
and  the  Battle  of  the  Meuse-Ar- 
gonne  (see  Argonne)  .  The  divi- 
sions engaged  in  the  actions  on 
the  western  front  are  indicated 
on  the  accompanying  maps.  For 
further  details,  see  the  article 
Europe,  Great  War  of,  and 
on  the  individual  actions. 

Cas  ualtie  s. — Battle  Casu- 
alties in  the  A.  E.  F.  were  as 
follows:  Killed  in  action,  34,180; 
died  of  wounds,  14,729;  severely 
wounded,  80,130;  slightly 
wounded,  110,544;  wounded, 
degree  undetermined,  39,400; 
missing  in  action,  2,913;  taken 
prisoner,  4,434;  making  a  total 
of  286,330  battle  casualties,  of 
which  48,909  were  deaths  either 
in  action  or  from  wounds.  In 
addition  to  this  number,  there 
were  27.790  deaths  from  disease 
and  other  causes. 

For  an  excellent  statistical 
account  of  the  American  Expedi- 
tionary Forces,  consult  The 
War  with  Germany;  A  Statis- 
tical Summary,  by  Leonard  P. 
Ayres.  issued  by  the  War  De- 
partment, from  which  much  of 
the  material  for  this  article  is 
taken.  Consult  also  the  History 
of  the  A.  E.  F.  now  (1919)  in 
preparation  by  the  War  Depart- 
ment. 

American  Flag, — See  Flag, 
United  States. 

Vol.  I.— Oct. '19 


American  Forlc,  city, 
Utah  county,  Utah,  on  the 
Denver  and  Rio  Grande  and  the 
San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles,  and 
Salt  Lake  Railroads;  32  miles 
south  of  Salt  Lake  City.  Pop. 
(1900)  2,732;    (1910)  2,797. 

American  Indians,  the  abo- 
rigines of  the  New  World,  so 
called  from  the  original  delusion 
of  Columbus,  who  supposed  that 
the  land  discovered  by  him  was 
India,  and  its  inhabitants  the 
Indians,  of  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere. Hence  these  came  later 
to  be  distinguished  as  East  In- 
dians, and  those  of  America  as 
West  or  American  Indians,  for 
which  the  contracted  form  Amer- 
inds (q.  V.)  has  been  proposed  by 
some  writers.  While  great  un- 
certainty exists  as  to  the  time  of 
man's  appearance  in  America,  it 
is  considered  safe  to  assume  that 
it  was  some  tens  of  thousands  of 
years  ago.  Granting  this  inter- 
val, it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
Americas  were  peopled  from  Asia, 
Europe,  and  perhaps  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  people 
living  in  a  stone  age_;  after  which 
no  other  large  bodies  of  people 
reached  those  shores  until  the 
time  of  Columbus. 

Physical  and  Mental  Charac- 
teristics  . — These  are  much 
the  same,  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean  to  Fuegia.  The  Eskimo 
of  the  far  North  alone  differs 
widely  in  appearance  and  habits 
from  the  so-called  '  Red  Indian' ; 
but  they  both  agree  in  having  a 
polysynthetic  language.  Indeed, 
the  real  Indian  tribes  and  the 
Eskimos  alike  possess  languages 
which,  while  they  may  differ 
greatly  in  sound  and  in  vocabu- 
lary, are  almost  identical  in 
structure.  This  unity  of  the 
American  language  type  is 
matched  by  the  essential  unity 
and  sameness  of  the  mental, 
moral,  and  physical  types  of  the 
red  man.  True,  some  tribes  are 
warlike,  and  others  cowardly; 
some  live  by  the  chase,  others  by 
agriculture  or  horticulture;  some 
are  fish  eaters,  others  huntsmen; 
but  they  are  essentially  one  and 
the  same  people  throughout,  the 
Eskimos  alone  excepted. 

Their  physical  characters  are 
a  certain  tallness  and  robustness, 
with  an  erect  posture  of  the 
body;  a  skull  narrowing  from 
the  eyebrows  upward;  promi- 
nence of  the  cheek  bones;  the 
eyes  black  and  deep  set;  the 
hair  coarse,  very  black,  and 
perfectly  straight;  the  nose 
prominent  or  even  aquiline; 
the  complexion  usually  of  a  red- 
dish, coppery,  or  cinnamon  color, 
but  with  considerable  variations 
in  this  respect.  They  have 
seldom  much  beard.  There  is 
also  a  certain  feebleness  of  consti- 
tution, combined,  it  may  be,  with 
vigor,  suppleness,  and  strength 
of  body.  At  least,  the  aboriginal 


races  do  not  resist  well  the 
epidemics  introduced  by  the 
whites;  and  many  tribes  have 
been  exterminated  by  the  effects 
of  the  '  firewater '  and  the  vicious 
habits  brought  in  by  more 
civilized  men. 

The  red  man  is  usually  proud 
and  reserved;  serious,  if  not 
gloomy,  in  his  views  of  life ;  com- 
paratively indifferent  to  wit  or 
pleasantry;  vain  of  personal  en- 
dowments; brave  and  fond  of 
war,  yet  extremely  cautious  and 
taking  no  needless  risks;  fond  of 
gambling  and  drinking;  seem- 
ingly indifferent  to  pain;  kind 
and  hospitable  to  strangers,  yet 
revengeful  and  cruel  to  those  who 
have  given  offence.  The  men  are 
usually  expert  in  war  and  the 
chase,  but  inactive  in  other  pur- 
suits. In  many  tribes,  both  sexes 
take  part  in  athletic  games. 
They  often  excel  in  horseman- 
ship, and,  as  a  rule,  sight  and 
hearing  are  wonderfully  acute. 
The  old-time  Indian  had  courage, 
dignity,  self-respect,  and  hospi- 
tality, and  not  one  of  these  quali- 
ties has  entirely  disappeared 
from  the  Indian  of  the  present 
day.  Eloquence  and  fondness  for 
oratory,  formerly  so  conspicuous 
among  some  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can tribes,  were  equally  charac- 
teristic of  the  Araucanian  in  the 
far  South, 

Native  Civilization. — In 
Peru,  Colombia,  Central 
America,  Yucatan,  and  Mexico, 
there  were  tribes  five  hundred 
years  ago  who  had  attained  a 
relatively  high  degree  of  native 
civilization.  In  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona,  the  rather  numer- 
ous pueblos  or  native  Indian 
towns  are  the  reHcs  of  what  may 
have  been  a  northern  extension 
of  the  Mexican  civilization.  The 
relics  of  the  prehistoric  Mound 
Builders  found  throughout  a 
large  part  of  Central  North 
America,  and  the  great  numbers 
of  the  nameless  ruined  towns  of 
the  CUff  Dwellers  and  other 
extinct  peoples  of  the  South- 
western United  States  would 
seem  to  show,  however,  that  in 
remote  ages  the  native  civili- 
zation had  a  far  wider  extent 
than  in  recent  times.  The  Mexi- 
cans and  Peruvians  excelled  in 
architecture.  Neither  of  them 
had  iron;  both  had  native  or 
other  copper  and  gold,  and  the 
Peruvians  seem  to  have  had 
cutting  tools  of  bronze.  The 
Mexicans  had  no  domestic  ani- 
mals but  the  dog;  the  Peruvians 
had  also  the  llama  and  alpaca. 
Both  grew  cotton  as  well  as 
maize;  both  could  spin  and 
weave.  Yet  nowhere  have  the 
Indians,  except  on  compulsion, 
adopted  very  readily  the  civili- 
zation of  Europe. 

In  the  United  States,  the  In- 
dians waged  many  bitter  wars 
against  the  whites,  who  have  lit- 


American  Indiand 


207  E 


American  Indians 


tie  by  little  dispossessed  them  of 
their  lands.  Very  little  trouble  of 
this  kind  has  ever  been  experi- 
enced in  Canada;  and  still  less,  in 
recent  years,  in  Spanish  America, 
where  the  Indian  population 
would  appear  to  be  gaining  on 
the  white.  The  greater  spirit  and 
vindictiveness  of  the  Northern 
Indians  have  involved  them  in 
ruin;  but  the  Mexican  Indians, 
contented  to  belong  to  a  subject 
race,  have  multiplied  more 
rapidly  than  the  conquering 
people. 

In  Mexico,  the  Indians  con- 
sider themselves  a  gente  sin 
razon,  'people  without  reason,' 
while  the  Spanish  Americans 
constitute  a  superior  gente  de 
razon,  or  'people  of  reason.'  Yet 
in  that  country  the  mingling  of 
the  two  races  is  very  common; 
and  among  the  best  soldiers  and 
statesmen  of  the  republic  some 
have  been  Indians  of  pure  blood. 
In  Peru,  many  of  the  priests  and 
monks  are  of  Indian  race.  In 
Brazil,  where  the  Portuguese 
language  prevails  in  towns,  the 
speech  of  the  Tupi-Guarani 
tribes  has  been  adopted  as  a 
kind  of  lingua  franca  through- 
out the  interior.  In  Paragtiay, 
the  same  language  has  nearly  dis- 
placed the  Spanish,  even  among 
the  whites.  Each  one  of  the 
countless  tribes  of  America  has 
its  own  language.  These  tribes 
are  grouped  together  by  ethnolo- 
gists, chiefly  with  reference  to  the 
common  elements  of  their  lan- 
guages. In  many  cases,  the  vari- 
ous tribes  of  a  group  recognize  a 
certain  kind  of  kinship  among 
themselves,  but  in  not  a  few  in- 
stances it  is  very  hard  to  prove 
any  near  relationship  either  by 
language  or  by  blood;  while,  in  a 
few  cases,  tribes  speaking  the 
same  language  differ  widely  in 
character,  habits,  and  appear- 
ance. 

Classification. — Rejecting  the 
Aleuts  and  Eskimos  from  the 
category  of  '  Indian '  peoples, 
the  principal  stocks  or  recog- 
nized families  of  North  America 
are  as  follows:  (1)  The  Atha- 
bascans (Tinne).  including  many 
tribes  of  Alaska  and  North 
Canada,  as  well  as  the  Apaches, 
Navahoes,  and  others  in  the 
United  States.  (2)  The  Algon- 
quins,  a  great  and  clearly  marked 
race  which  once  covered  a 
large  part  of  the  Atlantic  slope 
from  Labrador  to  Virginia,  and 
reached  westward  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Here  belong  the 
Abnaki,  the  Delawares,  the 
Crees,  the  Chippeways,  and 
many  nov/  historic  tribes.  Some 
authors  assign  the  Cheyennes, 
the  Arapahoes,  and  even  the 
Blackfeet  to  this  stock.  (.3)  The 
Iroquois,  a  once  powerful  and 
warlike  race,  formerly  dwelHng 
for  the  most  part  in  the  St.  Law- 
rence Valley  and  what  is  now 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


New  York  State.  This  v/as  one 
of  the  most  clearly  defined  fam- 
ilies of  North  America.  It  in- 
cludes the  Cherokees,  Mohawks, 
Senecas,  and  numerous  others. 
(4)  The  important  Siouan  family, 
including  the  great  Dakota 
group,  and  the  Omahas,  Osages, 
Winnebagoes,  Crows,  Catawbas, 
and  others.  (5)  The  Muskho- 
geans,  including  the  now  extinct 
Alibamas,  Apalachis,  Choctaws, 
Creeks,  Chickasaws,  and  Semi- 
noles.  In  point  of  intelligence 
and  adaptiveness  to  civilization, 
these  tribes  take  a  high  rank.  (6) 
The  Caddoan  family,  including 
the  Pawnees,  Arickarees,  Wichi- 
tas,  Caddos,  and  others.  All 
were  plainsmen,  and  many  of 
them  have  excelled  as  horsemen 
and  warriors.  (7)  The  tribes  of 
the  Northern  Pacific  Coast, 
among  which  are  the  Tlingit  of 
Alaska,  and  many  tribes  of  West- 
ern Canada  and  the  United 
States.  (8)  The  Yuman  family, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Colorado 
River  and  California,  including 
the  Maricopa  and  other  tribes. 
(9)  The  Shoshones,  with  whom 
are  classed  the  Utes.  the  warlike 
Comanches  and  the  half-civilized 
Moquis,  and  many  of  the  de- 
graded Diggers.  They  live 
mostly  among  or  near  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  (10)  The  Pueblo 
Indians  of  New  Mexico  and  Ari- 
zona, a  composite  division,  in- 
cluding the  Zuni  and  the  Keresan 
family.  (11)  The  Mexican  tribes, 
of  which  the  number  is  very  great 
and  the  family  unity  question- 
able. Here  are  placed  the  cele- 
brated Aztecs,  the  half-mythical 
Toltecs,  the  interesting  and  semi- 
civihzed  Nicaraguans,  and  many 
others.  (12)  The  Maya  stock  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  and 
(1.3)  a  number  of  independent 
Central  American  and  Isthmian 
stocks. 

A  comprehensive  classification 
of  the  South  American  tribes  is 
much  more  difficult.  In  the 
mountainous  district  of  the 
northwest  belong  the  Chocos, 
Chibchas,  Paniquitas,  and  Pae- 
zes,  the  tribes  of  Cauca  and 
Antioquia,  and  the  Coconuca, 
Barbacoa,  and  Mocoa  stocks. 
The  linguistic  stocks  of  the 
Peruvian  region  include  the 
Quichuas,  Aymaras,  Puquinas, 
Yuncas,  Atacamenos,  and  Chan- 
gos.  The  Amazonian  Indians 
are  grouped  in  a  great  number 
of  bands  or  tribes,  and  have,  as 
a  rule,  a  very  low  intellectual 
position.  Most  of  these  tribes 
would  appear  to  have  few 
linguistic  or  other  characters  in 
common.  They  include  the 
Tupi-Guarani  stock,  the  Tapu- 
yas,  the  Arawaks,  the  Caribs  and 
Orinoco  Indians  of  many  tribes, 
and  the  Indians  of  the  Upper 
Amazonian  basin  and  the  Boliv- 
ian highlands.  In  the  Pampean 
region  are  the  linguistic  stocks 


of  the  Gran  Chaco,  the  Charruas, 
the  nomadic  Pampean  tribes, 
the  Araucanians,  the  Pata- 
gonians,  and  the  degraded  tribes 
of  the  Fuegian  family. 

In  North  America,  at  least,  the 
forcible  expatriation  and  deport- 
ation of  tribes  is  a  thing  of  the 
past.  Since  the  Indians  are  now 
increasing  in  number,  it  is  ap- 
parent that  the  race  is  not  des- 
tined to  die  out,  and  it  may  be  as- 
sumed that  a  gradual  assimila- 
tion of  the  red  and  white  races 
will  take  place  in  the  United 
States,  where,  indeed,  the  amal- 
gamation is  already  going  on. 
The  ordinary  operations  of  mis- 
sionary work  have  not  always 
borne  the  best  fruit  among  the 
Indians.  The  best  results  have 
followed  where  industrial  train- 
ing has  been  joined  to  missionary 
instruction.  Even  the  degraded 
Fuegians  have  begun  to  respond 
hopefully  to  this  kind  of  training. 
The  plan  adopted  years  ago,  in 
the  United  States,  of  paying  an- 
nuities to  the  deported  tribes,  no 
doubt  took  its  rise  in  the  desire  to 
deal  equitably  with  them;  but 
the  result,  in  many  cases,  has 
been  the  pauperization  and 
consequent  moral  degradation  of 
the  beneficiary  tribes. 

In  Canada  the  case  is  different. 
The  French  character  and  meth- 
ods of  dealing  suited  the  ideas  of 
the  aborigines,  and  the  two  races 
amalgamated  to  a  surprising  ex- 
tent under  French  rule.  In  later 
years,  the  French-speaking  sec- 
tion of  the  Canadians  seems  to 
have  exercised  a  tacit  protecto- 
rate over  the  Indians.  The  Brit- 
ish and  colonial  authorities  of 
Canada,  however,  have  always 
endeavored  to  deal  fairly  and 
generously  with  the  Indians,  and 
have  made  the  local  French  tra- 
dition fully  their  own.  Canada 
never  had  a  real  Indian  war. 
Under  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany's rule  in  the  Northwest 
no  Indian  ever  had  cause  to  com- 
plain of  injustice,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence the  Indians  committed 
few  crimes. 

But  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  Indian  population  of 
Canada  was  never  nearly  so 
dense  as  farther  south,  nor  so 
hard  pressed  by  the  influx  of 
white  settlers  as  it  has  been  in 
the  United  States  from  the  first. 
Nothing  but  the  absolute  prohi- 
bition of  immigration  could  have 
prevented  Indian  wars  in  the 
United  States.  The  influx  of 
settlers  has  been  incessant;  and 
as  a  consequence,  Indian  wars 
were  formerly  almost  continually 
waged.  From  the  outset,  many 
public  men  in  the  United  States 
have  interested  themselves  in 
the  red  man  and  his  fortunes; 
but  until  recent  years  legislation 
has  been  of  little  avail. 

According  to  the  Federal  Cen- 
sus for  1910,  there  were  291,014 


American  Ipecac 


207  F 


Americanisms 


Indians  in  the  United  States  and 
Alaska,  representing  301  tribes. 
The  reports  of  the  Indian  Super- 
intendent for  1918  placed  the  In- 
dian population  at  336.243.  The 
number  of  Indians  in  Canada  is 
estimated  at  115.000,  making  a 
total  north  of  Mexico  of  nearly 
450,000. 

Languages.  —  The  Arnerican 
Indian  languages  are  differen- 
tiated into  at  least  a  hundred 
different  stocks,  of  which  fifty- 
five,  each  with  its  own  variety 
of  dialects,  are  distinguished 
north  of  Mexico.  When  it 
is  understood  that  nearly  all 
the  languages  of  Europe  taken 
together  constitute  but  a  part  of 
a  single  linguistic  stock,  this 
great  diversity  can  be  better 
appreciated. 

While  it  is  difficult  to  general- 
ize with  regard  to  so  large  and 
varied  a  group,  there  are  certain 
tendencies  which  are  characteris- 
tic of  at  least  a  large  number  of 
the  Indian  languages — notably 
the  high  development  of  pro- 
nominal forms;  polysynthesis.  or 
the  running  of  several  words 
into  one,  dropping  parts  of  them 
and  retaining  only  the  signifi- 
cant syllables;  incorporation,  or 
the  inclusion  in  the  verb  or 
verbal  expression  of  both  the 
object  and  manner  of  the  action; 
the  tendency  to  divide  the  verb 
sharply  into  an  active  and  a 
neutral  class  one  of  which  is 
closely  related  to  the  possessive 
form  of  the  noun,  while  the 
other  is  treated  as  a  true  verb; 
and,  phonetically,  the  slurring  of 
the  ends  of  the  words. 

Noted  Indians. — Among  noted 
American  Indians  may  be  men- 
tioned Tecumseh  and  Pon- 
tiac  (qq.  v.),  famous  warriors: 
Logan  (q.  v.),  celebrated  for  his 
valor  and  eloquence;  Brant  and 
Red  Jacket  (qq.  v.),  noted 
leaders  of  the  Iroquois;  Osceola 
(q.  v.),  the  heroic  half-breed 
chief  of  the  Seminoles;  Sequoya 
(q.  v.),  the  half-breed  son  of  a 
German  father,  the  inventor  of 
the  Cherokee  syllabary  (his 
name  is  perpetuated  in  that  of 
Sequoia,  a  genus  of  gigantic 
California  trees);  Black  Hawk, 
the  great  warrior  of  the  Sacs 
and  Foxes  (see  Black  Hawk 
War);  and  Joseph,  a  noble- 
minded  and  heroic  leader  of 
the  Nez  Perces  (q.  v.).  Among 
the  Mexican  Indians  of  distinc- 
tion have  been  Benito  Juarez 
(1806-72),  once  president  and 
twice  'anti-president'  of  the  re- 
public; and  Thomas  Mejia  (d. 
1867),  a  valorous  general.  Rafael 
Carrera  (1814-65),  president  of 
Guatemala,  was  of  mixed  Indian 
and  negro  descent;  Jesse  Bushy- 
head  (d.l844)  was  an  able  Chero- 
kee jurist;  Samson  Occum  (1723- 
92),  an  Indian  preacher  of  New 
England,  was  the  author  of 
hymns  in  English.  Cornplanter 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


(d.  1836),  an  Iroquois  chief,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  earliest 
temperance  lecturer  in  America. 
George  Copway  (born  1820)  was 
well  known  as  a  journalist  and 
author.  In  South  America,  Co- 
paiio  (1511-48)  was  a  brave  and 
able  warrior  of  Chile,  as  also  was 
the  giant  Colli  pule  (d.  1576). 
The  Araucanian  soldier  Calaf- 
quin  (d.  1602)  is  also  a  great 
name. 

For  a  detailed  account  of  the 
History,  Population,  and  Cus- 
toms of  the  Indians  in  the 
United  States,  see  the  article 
United  States,  section  on  Amer- 
ican Indians.  See  also  the  sep- 
arate articles  on  the  principal 
Indian  tribes,  as  Algonquins; 
Dakotas;  Fuegians;  Iroquois; 
Pueblos,  etc. 

Bibliography. —  Consult  Bulle- 
tins of  U.  S.  Office  of  Indian 
Affairs;  Annual  Reports  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology; 
Journal  of  American  Folklore;  G. 
Catlin's  Letters  and  Notes  on  the 
Manners,  Customs,  and  Condition 
of  the  North  American  Indians; 
H.R.  Schoolcraft's  Historical  and 
Statistical  Information  Respecting 
the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United 
States  (3  vols.),  and  Ethnological 
Researches  Respecting  the  Red 
Men  of  America  (5  vols.);  J.  L. 
McKenney  and  J.  Hall's  History 
of  the  Indian  Tribes  of  North 
America;  S.  G.  Drake's  Aborigi- 
nal Races  of  North  America;  H.H. 
Bancroft's  The  Native  Races  of 
the  Pacific  States  (5  vols.) ;  D.  G. 
Brinton's  The  American  Race, 
and  On  Various  Supposed  Rela- 
tions between  the  Americans  and 
Asian  Races,  and  Myths  of  the 
New  World;  A.  Gallatin's  A  Syn- 
opsis of  the  Indian  Tribes  within 
the  United  States  (2  vols.);  F. 
Boas'  Anthropology  of  the  North 
American  Indians;  L.  Farrand's 
Basis  of  American  History;  G.  B. 
Grinnell's  Story  of  the  American 
Indian;  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh's 
North  Americans  of  Yesterday; 
F.  W.  Hodge's  Handbook  of 
American  Indians  (2  vols.,  1907- 
10);  F.  E.  Leupp's  The  Indian 
and  His  Problem  (1910);  G.  E. 
Church's  Aborigines  of  South 
America  (1912);  E.  S.  Curtis' 
History  of  the  North  American  In- 
dian (9  vols.,  1913);  G.  A.  Dor- 
sev's  Indians  of  the  Southwest 
(1913);  J.  K.  Dixon's  The  Van- 
ishing Race  (1913);  W.  K.  Moor- 
head's  The  American  Indian  in 
the  United  States  (1914);  C.  A. 
Eastman's  The  Indian  To-day 
(1915).  For  Indian  linguistics, 
consult  J.  W.  Powell's  Indian 
Linguistic  Families  of  America', 
F.  Boas'  Handbook  of  American 
Indian  Languages  (1911). 

American  Ipecac.    See  Gil- 

LENIA. 

Americanisms,  a  term  ap- 
plied by  the  members  of  other 
English-speaking  communities  to 
certain  words  or  locutions  pecu- 


liar to  the  English  speech  of  the 
United  States.  These  are  mainly 
of  three  sorts.  The  first  consists 
of  absolutely  new  words  intro- 
duced into  the  English  language 
in  the  United  States.  Instances 
are  caucus,  ranch,  boss,  and  drum- 
mer. The  second  consists  of 
words  or  phrases  current  also  in 
the  British  Isles,  but  to  which  a 
new  meaning  has  been  attached 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Such 
are  clever,  in  the  sense  of  amiable; 
smart  for  clever;  store  for  shop; 
ugly  for  ill  natured;  saloon  for  bar 
room ;  and  creek  for  small  stream 
or  river.  The  third  consists  of 
obsolete  words,  or  words  used  in 
senses  once  more  or  less  familiar 
in  the  British  Isles,  but  now  dis- 
continued there.  Some  Ameri- 
canisms have  been  borrowed 
from  the  languages  of  other 
European  nations  settled  in  parts 
of  the  United  States — as  from  the 
Dutch  in  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania (boss,  loafer),  the  Span- 
iards in  California  (ranch,  can- 
yon), and  to  a  less  extent  the 
French  in  Louisiana  (bayou, 
levee). 

The  vast  mass  of  so-called 
Americanisms  consists  of  slang 
usages  applied  to  combinations  of 
existing  English  words.  Some  of 
them  are  Americanisms  only  by 
virtue  of  the  relatively  greater 
frequency  with  which  they  are 
employed.  Such  as  /  guess,  I 
reckon,  I  presume,  I  calculate, 
originally  Puritan  attempts  to 
avoid  the  possibility  of  too  defi- 
nite a  misstatement.  To  this 
class  also  belong  to  fix  as  the  verb 
universal  (fix  a  meeting — arrange, 
fix  myself  up  for  dinner — dress); 
to  run,  in  the  sense  of  to  manage 
('run  a  hotel,'  'run  a  railroad,' 
etc.) ;  right  in  the  sense  of  quite 
or  just  ('right  comfortable,' 
'right  here');  and  pretty  used  for 
'rather,'  as  pretty  bad,  pretty  nice, 
and  even  sometimes  pretty  ugly. 
'Is  that  so!'  in  the  sense  of  'In- 
deed!' also  originated  in  the 
United  States. 

'  Not  a  red  cent,'  'you  bet  your 
bottom  dollar,'  'prospecting 
around, '  '  toting  a  derringer,'  and 
so  forth,  are  also  described  as 
Americanisms.  'You  bet,'  as  a 
strong  affirmation,  recalls  the 
common  gambling  habits  of  the 
West.  'To  pass  in  one's  checks,' 
'to  go  one's  pile,'  'to  hold  the 
right  bower.'  belong  also  to  the 
Western  gaming  phraseology.  To 
say  that  a  business  speculation 
'  pans  out  well '  or  '  strikes  it  rich  ' 
is  obviously  derived  from  the 
mining  slang  of  California. 

A  large  number  of  what  are 
called  Americanisms  are  as  little 
used  in  the  Middle  and  Eastern 
States  as  in  Europe.  Others, 
however,  are  more  widespread. 
Candy  for  every  kind  of  sweet- 
meat is  common  to  the  entire 
Union.  Rooster  for  cock,  lumber 
for  timber,  back  of  for  behind,  lot 


Americanists 


208 


Americanization 


for  field  or  paddock,  form  similar 
elements  of  the  general  language. 
Cracker  is  applied  to  a  biscuit, 
while  biscuit  is  the  name  of  a 
light  roll.  Many  phrases  are 
evidently  due  to  the  direct 
influence  of  French  ideas.  Bag- 
gage for  luggage,  valise  for  small 
trunk,  depot  for  railway  station, 
bureau  for  office  (and  domesti- 
cally for  chest  of  drawers),  ex- 
position for  exhibition,  are  cases 
in  point. 

In  many  instances  American- 
isms proceed  from  the  desire  for 
brevity,  as  pants  for  trousers 
(pantaloons),  cars  for  railway 
carriages,  and  to  wire  or  to  phone 
for  to  telegraph  or  to  telephone. 
Many  words  of  Latin  origin  form 
part  of  the  current  vocabulary  of 
American  everyday  life  to  a 
greater  degree  than  among  Brit- 
ish people.  Such  are  to  operate 
for  to  work,  to  locate  for  to 
place;  institution,  lyceum,  or 
academy  for  school  or  college; 
recitation  for  lesson,  proclivities 
for  tastes,  section  for  district. 
eminence  for  hill,  residence  for 
house,  elegant  for  pretty,  vaca- 
tion for  holidays,  and  promi- 
nent citizens  for  well-known  men. 
On  the  other  hand,  our  British 
cousins  call  a  baby  carriage  a 
perambulator,  and  a  morning- 
glory  a  convolvulus. 

Many  of  the  terms  cited  as 
Americanisms  are  merely  ephem- 
eral slang,  never  used,  even  when 
known,  by  Americans  of  good 
breeding.    See  Slang. 

Consult  Farmer's  American- 
isms Old  and  New;  De  Vere's 
Americanisms;  Clapin's  New  Dic- 
tionary of  Americanisms. 

Americanists,  a  name  ap- 
plied to  persons  making  a 
special  study  of  American  eth- 
nology, archaeology,  etc.  The 
International  Congress  of  Ameri- 
canists was  organized  in  Europe 
in  1875,  and  was  reorganized  to 
include  American  countries  in 
1900.  Biennial  meetings  are 
held  alternately  in  Europe  and 
America,  and  are  attended  by 
officials  appointed  by  the  various 
governments,  as  well  as  by  the 
members.  The  session  of  1914 
was  held  in  Philadelphia. 

Americaniza'tion  is  the  join- 
ing of  the  native  and  foreign 
born  in  America  'to  form  a 
more  perfect  union,  establish 
justice,  insure  domestic  tran- 
quillity, provide  for  the  common 
defence,  promote  the  general  wel- 
fare, and  secure  the  blessings  of 
liberty';  in  short,  to  take  part 
democratically  in  promoting  the 
common-weal  of  Americans. 

The  democratic  or  co-operative 
character  of  this  fusion  process 
is  its  most  distinctively  American 
feature  and  may  be  more  fully 
described  as  follows:  American- 
ization is  the  uniting  of  new  with 
native  horn  Americans  in  fuller 
common  understanding  and  ap- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  '19 


preciation  to  secure  by  means  of 
self-government  and  self-direc- 
tion the  highest  welfare  of  all. 
Such  Americanization  shoixld 
perpetuate  no  unchangeable  poli- 
tical, domestic,  and  economic 
regime  delivered  once  for  all  to 
the  fathers,  but  a  growing  and 
broadening  national  life,  inclu- 
sive of  the  best  wherever  found. 
"With  all  America  s  rich  heritage, 
Americanism  will  develop  best 
through  a  mutual  giving  and 
taking  of  contributions  from 
both  newer  and  older  Americans 
in  the  interest  of  the  common 
weal.  Americanization  of  the 
immigrant  involves,  therefore, 
merely  the  application  to  him  of 
the  principles  of  American  de- 
mocracy. He  should  have  those 
things  which  Americans  also 
want,  and  to  this  end  he  should 
be  invited  to  participate  in  his 
own  Americanization. 

In  the  last  analysis  we  mean 
by  democracy  taking  part, 
practically  and  imaginatively,  in 
the  common  life  of  the  commu- 
nity. Actually  the  critical  prob- 
lem of  modern  American  democ- 
racy is  the  lack  of  participation 
of  its  individual  members.  It 
is  in  response  to  this  situation 
that  a  new  interest  is  manifest- 
ing itself  in  the  revival  of  the 
local  community.  This  move- 
ment is  an  effort  to  reverse  the 
process  which  has  been  working 
to  reduce  society  to  individual 
atoms.  It  seeks  to  make  the 
neighborhood  again  an  effective 
political  and  social  agency,  and 
to  find  in  spontaneovis  organi- 
zations of  various  types  forms  of 
association  adapted  to  preserve 
the  integrity  of  the  common 
man  and  society  as  a  whole;  for 
it  is  only  in  an  organized  group — 
in  the  home,  the  neighborhood, 
the  trade  union,  the  co-operative 
society — where  he  is  a  power 
and  an  influence,  in  some  region 
where  he  has  status  and  repre- 
sents something,  that  man  can 
both  maintain  a  personality  and 
take  an  efi^ective  part  in  affairs 
common  to  himself  and  his 
fellows. 

If  we  wish  to  understand  how 
the  foreigner  is  attempting  to 
Americanize  himself  and  also  get 
a  better  understanding  of  the 
revival  of  our  own  interest  in  the 
local  community,  we  have  only 
to  study  the  institutions  which 
the  foreign-language  groups  have 
created  in  this  country.  In 
every  case  these  institutions 
have  sprung  up  to  meet  some 
practical  or  sentimental  need, 
temporary  or  permanent,  for 
which  there  was  no  adequate 
provision  in  our  own  institutions. 
These  institutions  are: 

1.  The  foreign  language  colo- 
nies— the  'ghettos'  of  our  great 
cities;  2.  Foreign  language 
churches,  schools,  and  other 
cultural  institutions;  3.  Mutual 


aid,  fraternal,  -and  benefit  and 
insurance  organizations;  4.  The 
foreign  language  press  and 
theatre;  5.  Labor  organizations 
and  socialist  societies;  6.  Na 
tionalist  organizations. 

These  organizations  reveal  the 
needs  and  wishes  of  the  foreign- 
language  groups  as  they  under- 
stand them.  The  way  to  Ameri- 
canize the  immigrant  is  first  to 
study  these  institutions  and  then 
see  how  they  can  be  brought 
into  co-operation  with  native 
institutions  and  organizations, 
and  used  in  peace,  as  they  have 
already  been  used  in  war,  to 
create  national  sentiment  and 
support. 

Americanization  involves, 
briefly: 

1.  Understanding  what  group- 
ings of  persons  do  and  may  con- 
trol the  various  fields  of  activity 
in  America — e.g.,  the  group 
consisting  of  the  nation  as  a 
whole  directs  such  matters  as 
naturalization,  interstate  trans- 
portation, and  war:  the  State  con- 
trols health  and  education;  the 
city  regulates  conditions  of 
streets  and  local  trade;  the 
industrial  group  determines  most 
working  conditions;  the  neighbor- 
hood prescribes  manners  and 
dress. 

2.  Acquiring  the  means  of 
group  action,  as  a  common 
language  and  identification  with, 
and  incorporation  in  various 
groups:  e.g.,  forming  neighbor- 
hood ties,  joining  a  political 
party,  allegiance  to  the  nation. 

3.  A  mutual  understanding  by 
the  native  and  foreign-born  of 
each  other's  habits  of  life  and 
thought,  the  necessary  basis  for 
co-operation  of  any  diverse  ele- 
ments. 

4.  Modification  of  the  scope, 
purpose,  and  nature  of  the  activi- 
ties of  the  various  groups  and 
the  make-up  of  the  groups 
themselves  as  the  new  and  old 
elements  together  may  deter- 
mine: e.g.,  certain  activities 
may  pass  from  voluntary  to 
governmental  action,  as  insur- 
ance; from  State  to  national 
control,  as  suff"rage;  from  the 
purpose  of  private  to  that  of 
public  profit,  as  dance  halls: 
from  the  unsanitary  to  the 
healthful,  as  tenement  house 
conditions;  from  the  ugly  to  the 
beautiful,  as  American  musical 
development. 

5.  The  development  of  a 
governmental  and  social  system 
which  allows  and  requires  the 
maximum  of  voluntary  co-opera- 
tion. Historically  and  tempera- 
mentally Americans,  whether  old 
or  new,  have  exercised  self- 
determination  in  such  a  way  as 
to  leave  the  largest  possible 
place  for  private  initiative,  in- 
genuity, and  enterprise.  The 
newest  American  settlers  are 
exactly  like  the  original  settlers 


American  Knights,  Order  of 


209 


American  Merchant  Marine 


in  this  spirit  of  the  pioneer  and 
the  explorer — the  spirit  of  will- 
ingness and  desire  to  try  the 
unknown,  to  sail  the  uncharted 
sea.  In  this  common  spirit  lie  the 
essence  and  secret  of  America's 
remarkable  power  of  assimilation. 
Americans  will  continue  their 
unique  contribution  to  the  world 
only  as  they  preserve  this  oppor- 
tunity for  variation  of  individual 
activity  while  under  the  necessity 
of  caring  for  more  and  more  exi- 
gencies of  life  through  centralized 
government.  The  struggle  to 
maintain  such  freedom  along 
with  the  widening  scope  of  gov- 
ernment, is  a  fight  not  yet  won 
between  liberty  and  autocracy. 

The  practical  aspects  of  Ameri- 
canization include  the  teaching  of 
English,  without  which  the  alien 
cannot  truly  absorb  the  atmos- 
phere of  America  but  will  remain 
a  stranger  in  a  strange  land; 
naturalization  (q.  v.);  lectures 
and  entertainments,  designed  to 
set  forth  the  institutions,  govern- 
ment, and  aims  of  the  Republic, 
and  to  demonstrate  the  necessity 
of  readjustment  to  the  new  con- 
dition encountered  in  a  new 
country;  recreational  activities, 
under  wise  direction;  advisory 
councils,  made  up  of  a  few  up- 
right citizens  who  are  willing  to 
give  free  advice  to  the  alien  in 
trouble,  thus  saving  him  often- 
times from  unscrupulous  men  who 
would  profit  by  his  ignorance. 

The  new  emphasis  upon  Ameri- 
canization had  its  origin  with  the 
inception  of  the  Great  War,  1914, 
and  the  accompanying  renais- 
sance of  nationalism.  In  1915 
the  National  Americanization 
Committee  was  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  furthering  a  national- 
ization movement  that  would 
unify  the  various  peoples  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  1918  the 
Federal  Government  undertook 
specific  Americanization  work. 
This  was  organized  under  the 
Bureau  of  Education  in  the  De- 
partment of  the  Interior  and 
resulted  in  the  appointment  of 
county  councils  and  regional 
directors  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Division  of  Americaniza- 
tion of  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. 

More  recently  with  the  restora- 
tion of  peace-time  conditions  and 
the  restriction  of  immigration, 
the  Americanization  movement 
has  undergone  certain  definite 
changes,  losing  in  part  its  identity 
as  a  separate  movement  and 
becoming  merged  in  the  greater 
program  for  adult  education. 
Special  emphasis  is  placed  on 
preparation  for  citizenship  and  on 
the  adaptation  of  courses  of  study 
to  the  type  of  immigrant  now 
coming  into  the  country.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  new  tendency, 
the  position  of  Director  of  Ameri- 
canization in  the  Bureau  of 
Education  has  been  discontinued, 
and  the  position  of  Specialist  in 


Adult  Education  has  taken  its 
place.  (See  also  Adult  Educa- 
tion). 

The  need  of  trained  workers  in 
the  field  has  now  become  so  great 
that  many  leading  universities 
have  established  courses  of  study 
designed  to  train  men  and  women 
for  the  work  of  immigrant  educa- 
tion, and  courses  in  summer 
schools  are  offered  to  public 
school  teachers,  social  workers 
and  welfare  workers.  In  some 
States,  particularly  those  having 
large  foreign  populations,  a  defi- 
nite program  of  immigrant  edu- 
cation is  carried  out,  with  State 
aid  to  local  communities  for  the 
support  of  classes  in  English  and 
the  principles  of  citizenship. 
Various  religious  and  philan- 
thropic agencies  are  also  under- 
taking the  work. 

Consult  Dixon's  Americaniza- 
tion (1916);  Bogardus'  Essentials 
of  Americanization  (1919);  Tal- 
bot's Americanization  (1920); 
Berkson's  Theories  of  Americani- 
zation (1920);  Roberts'  The  Prob- 
lem of  Americanization  (1920); 
Jackson's  What  America  Means 
to  Me  (1920);  Grace's  Immigra- 
tion and  Community  Americaniza- 
tion (1921);  Bierstadt's  Aspects 
of  Americanization  (1922);  Spe- 
ranza's  Race  or  Nation  (1925). 

American  Knights,  Order 
of.  See  Knights  of  the  Golden 
Circle. 

American  Legion,  The,  a 
national  organization  of  Ameri- 
can veterans  of  the  Great  War, 
originated  in  a  caucus,  in  Paris, 
of  one  thousand  officers  and  men 
of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Forces,  March  15  and  16,  1919, 
at  an  organization  meeting  which 
adopted  tentative  aims  and  pur- 
poses, a  temporary  constitution, 
and  the  name.  The  action  of  the 
Paris  meeting  was  confirmed  and 
endorsed  by  a  similar  meeting 
held  in  St.  Louis,  May  8  and  10, 
1919,  when  machinery  was  cre- 
ated to  effect  a  permanent  or- 
ganization. The  American  Le- 
gion was  incorporated  by  Act  of 
Congress,  Sept.  16,  1919,  and  the 
charter  convention  was  held  in 
Minneapolis  Nov.  10,  11,  and  12, 
1919. 

The  Minneapolis  convention 
approved  the  acts  of  the  tem- 
porary organization  and  adopted 
a  permanent  constitution,  in  the 
preamble  of  which  the  purposes 
of  the  Legion  and  the  principles 
for  which  it  stands  are  outlined 
as  follows: 

'For  God  and  Country:  To 
uphold  and  defend  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States;  to 
maintain  law  and  order;  to  foster 
and  perpetuate  a  100  per  cent. 
Americanism;  to  preserve  the 
memories  and  incidents  of  our 
association  in  the  Great  War;  to 
inculcate  a  sense  of  individual 
obligation  to  the  community, 
State,  and  nation;  to  combat  the 
autocracy  of  both  the  classes  and 


the  masses;  to  make  Right  the 
master  of  Might;  to  promote 
peace  and  good  will  on  earth;  to 
safeguard  and  transmit  to  pos- 
terity the  principles  of  justice, 
freedom,  and  democracy;  to 
consecrate  and  sanctify  our  com- 
radeship by  our  devotion  to 
mutual  helpfulness.' 

The  American  Legion  is  non- 
partisan and  non-political,  a 
civilian  organization,  neither  mili- 
tary nor  militaristic,  composed 
principally  of  men  and  women 
who  were  civilians  before  the 
Great  War  and  returned  to 
civilian  life  at  its  close.  The 
organization  makes  no  distinction 
of  rank  and  no  distinction  be- 
tween overseas  service  and  ser- 
vice in  the  United  States.  Any 
soldier,  sailor,  or  marine  who 
served  honorably  between  April 
6,  1917,  and  November  11,  1918, 
is  eligible  for  membership,  as  are 
women  who  were  regularly  en- 
listed, enrolled,  or  commissioned 
for  active  duty  in  any  of  the 
branches  of  the  American  forces. 
The  veterans  who  elected  to  stay 
in  the  service  are  also  eligible. 

The  American  Legion  is  or- 
ganized into  departments  and 
posts,  with  one  department  in 
each  State,  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, Alaska,  Hawaii,  the 
Philippines,  Canada,  France, 
Mexico,  Panama,  and  Italy. 
Posts  are  organized  in  various 
foreign  countries  where  there  are 
no  departments.  Headquarters 
are  in  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

At  the  eighth  annual  national 
convention  held  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Oct.  11  to  15,  1926,  inclusive, 
the  membership  of  the  Legion 
was  673,229,  enrolled  in  10,258 
posts.  The  American  Legion 
Auxiliary,  membership  in  which 
is  limited  to  mothers,  wives, 
sisters,  and  daughters  of  members 
of  the  Legion  or  those  eligible  to 
membership,  was  in  excess  of 
246,000  at  the  time  of  the  Phila- 
delphia convention,  there  being 
more  than  5,900  units  attached 
to  Legion  posts. 

American  Line,  a  line  of 
Atlantic  steamers  growing  out  of 
the  International  Navigation 
Company,  a  Pennsylvania  under- 
taking, formed  in  1871,  which 
gradually  enlarged  its  operations 
until  it  embraced  the  Red  Star 
Line,  running  from  1873  between 
Antwerp  and  Philadelphia,  and 
the  Inman  Line  (acquired  in 
1886),  running  between  Liverpool 
and  New  York.  In  1893  all  the 
undertakings  were  merged  in  the 
American  Line,  running  weekly 
between  Southampton  via  Cher- 
bourg and  New  York,  and  be- 
tween Liverpool  and  Philadel- 
phia. It  now  forms  part  of  the 
International  Mercantile  Marine 
Company. 

American  Literature.  See 
United  States,  Literature  of. 

American  Merchant  Ma- 
rine. See  Shipping,  Merchant. 

Vol.  I.— March  '27 


American  Mnseum  of  Natural  History 


210 


Ames 


American  Museum  of 
Natural  History.  See  Museums. 

American  Party,  the  name 
given  at  different  times  to  three 
pohtical  parties  which  flourished 
for  a  brief  term  and  disappeared. 
The  first  came  into  being  about 
1856  and  represented  a  move- 
ment in  opposition  to  ahens  and 
Roman  Catholics  (see  Know- 
NoTHiNG  Party).  Its  strength 
lay  chiefly  in  the  Middle  and 
Southern  States  and  after  a  few 
years  it  ceased  to  exist.  The 
second  American  Party  was 
founded  in  1872  in  opposition  to 
secret  societies,  with  a  platform 
demanding  prohibition  of  the 
sale  of  liquor,  Sabbath  observ- 
ance, the  introduction  of  the 
Bible  into  schools,  and  other 
reforms.  It  gradually  became 
absorbed  in  the  Prohibition 
Party.  The  third  party  of  the 
name  was  organized  in  1887.  It 
sought  reform  of  the  immigration 
laws,  complete  separation  of 
Church  and  State,  adequate 
preparedness  to  maintain  Ameri- 
can rights  and  ensure  safety,  and 
the  enforcement  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine.  It  was  also  short- 
lived. 

American  Revolution  See 

Revolution,  American. 

American  River,  California, 
is  a  tributary  of  the  Sacramento 
River,  into  which  it  falls  near  the 
city  of  Sacramento.  It  is  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  North,  South, 
and  Middle  Forks,  which  rise  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  flow 
through  picturesque  canyons 
(some  of  them  2,000  feet  deep). 
It  is  about  30  miles  long. 

American  University,  a  co- 
educational institution  for  higher 
learning  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
chartered  in  1893  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church.  It  includes  a 
graduate  school,  a  school  of  arts 
and  sciences  (est.  1925),  and  a 
school  of  political  sciences.  A 
bachelor's  degree  or  its  equiva- 
lent is  required  for  admission  to 
the  graduate  school.  For  recent 
statistics  see  Table  under  the 
heading  College. 

American  University  of 
Trade  and  Applied  Com- 
merce, an  educational  institu- 
tion in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  was 
opened  in  1916.  It  embraces  the 
existing  educational  activities  of 
the  John  Wanamaker  Store,  and 
is  adding  to  these  gradually  until 
it  will  offer  to  all  the  employees  of 
that  business  wide  opportunities 
for  completing  their  interrupted 
educations.  For  many  years  the 
John  Wanamaker  Commercial 
Institute  has  given  to  the  em- 
ployees a  common-school  educa- 
tion, with  special  preparation  for 
business  life;  the  classes  being 
conducted  during  business  hours, 
with  no  loss  of  pay.  To  this  lower 
school  is  now  added  a  higher,  the 
former  being  related  to  the  latter 
as  is  the  academy  to  the  college. 
Vol.  I. — March  '27 


Both  schools  are  open  to  all 
employees,  and  embrace  practical 
and  cultural  branches. 

Approximately  two  9^cres  of 
floor  space  in  the  Philadelphia 
Wanamaker  store  are  devoted  to 
educational  activities.  The  Com- 
mercial Institute  has  its  class 
rooms,  gymnasium,  and  armory 
on  the  ninth  floor.  The  Univer- 
sity quarters,  on  the  eighth  floor, 
include  University  Hall,  seating 
1,200,  Princeton  Hall,  and  class 
rooms  and  offices. 

Amerlcus,  city,  Georgia,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Sumter  county,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Central  of  Geor- 
gia and  the  Seaboard  Air  Line 
Railroads;  71  miles  southwest 
of  Macon.  Cotton  oil  and  fer- 
tilizers are  manufactured,  and 
there  are  important  metal  and 
monument  works.  The  city  is 
located  in  a  productive  agricul- 
tural region,  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  State  Agricultural  College. 
Pop.  (1910)  8,063;  (1920) 
9,010. 

Amerighl,  Michelangelo. 
See  Caravaggio. 

Amerigo  Vespucci.  See  VeS' 

PUCCI. 

Am'erind,  and  Amerindian 
or  Amerindic,  terms  invented  by 
members  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  Washington,  D.  C,  to 
denote,  in  scientific  treatises,  the 
aboriginal  tribes  of  the  American 
continent  and  adjacent  islands, 
including  the  Eskimos. 

Amerling,  a'mer-ling,  Fried- 
rich  (1803-87),  Austrian  painter, 
was  born  in  Vienna.  He  studied 
in  London  and  in  Italy  and  on  his 
return  to  Vienna  devoted  himself 
to  portraiture.  A  portrait  of  the 
Emperor  Francis  I.  (1836)  won 
him  such  praise  that  he  became 
the  favorite  portrait  painter  of 
the  court  and  the  aristocracy.  He 
executed  about  a  thousand  por- 
traits, and  a  number  of  historical 
pictures,  including  Moses  in  the 
Desert  and  Dido  on  the  Funeral 
Pyre.    Consult  Frankl's  Life. 

Amersfoort,  a,'mers-f6rt,town, 
Netherlands,  in  the  province  of 
Utrecht;  14  miles  by  rail  north- 
east of  Utrecht.  The  tower  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Mary  (four- 
teenth century)  has  a  fine  set  of 
chimes.  There  is  a  large  trade  in 
grain;  tobacco  is  grown  in  the 
district;  and  brandy,  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  leather,  soap,  and 
beer  are  manufactured.  Amers- 
foort was  one  of  the  chief  seats 
of  the  Jansenists  and  has  a  Jan- 
senist  college.  Pop.  (1920) 
31,435. 

Am'ersham,  market  town, 
England,  in  Buckinghamshire; 
24  miles  northwest  of  London. 
Features  of  interest  are  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary,  a  fine  ex- 
ample of  Perpendicular  architec- 
ture, and  a  town  hall  built  by 
vSir  William  Drake  (1642).  In- 
dustries of  the  town  are  straw 
plaiting,  chair  and  lace  making. 
Pop.  (1921)  3,392. 


Amery,  Leopold  Charles 
Maurice  Stennett  (1873-  ), 
British  statesman  and  author, 
was  born  in  Gorakhpur,  India, 
and  was  educated  at  Harrow  and 
at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He 
was  on  the  Times  editorial  stafif 
(1899-1909)  and  organized  the 
Times  war  correspondence  in 
South  Africa  (1899-1900).  Dur- 
ing the  Great  War  he  served  in 
Flanders  and  the  Near  East  and 
in  1917  became  Assistant  Secre- 
tary of  the  War  Cabinet  and 
Imperial  War  Cabinet.  He  was 
Under-Secretary  of  State  and 
Colonies  (1919-1921),  Parliamen- 
tary and  Financial  Secretary  to 
the  Admiralty  (1921-2),  and 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
(1922-4),  and  in  1924  became 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colo- 
nies, and  in  1925  Secretary  of 
State  for  Dominion  Affairs.  His 
publications  include  The  Times 
History  of  the  South  African  War 
(1909);  The  Problem  of  the  Army 
(1903);  Fundamental  Fallacies  of 
Free  Trade  (1906);  The  Great 
Question  (1909);  Union  and 
Strength  (1912). 

Ames,  city,  Iowa,  Story  coun- 
ty, on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western Railroad;  37  miles  north 
of  Des  Moines.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  Iowa  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Mechanic  Arts  (q.  v.) . 
Banners  and  pennants  are  manu- 
factured. Pop.  (1910)  4,223; 
(1920)  6,270. 

Ames,  Adelbert  (1835-  ). 
American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Rockland,  Me.,  and  was  grad- 
uated from  West  Point  (1861). 
He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Civil  War;  was  bre vetted 
major-general  of  volunteers;  and 
became  a  lieutenant-colonel  in 
the  regular  army.  He  was  U.  S. 
Senator  from  Mississippi  (1870- 
73),  and  was  elected  governor  of 
that  State  in  1873.  His  admin- 
istration caused  him  to  be  ac- 
cused of  favoritism  toward  the 
negro  element,  and  led  to  the 
riot  at  Vicksburg  in  December, 
1873.  In  1876  he  was  impeached 
by  the  legislature,  and  resigned 
when  the  charges  against  him 
were  withdrawn.  He  was  brig- 
adier-general of  volunteers  in 
the  Spanish-American  War. 

Ames,  Fisher  (1758-1808), 
American  public  official  and  or- 
ator, was  born  in  Dedham,  Mass. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard 
(1774),  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1781.  His  advocacy  of  a 
strong  government  won  him  rec- 
ognition, and  by  his  practical 
wisdom  and  commanding  elo- 
quence he  rose  to  a  position  of 
eminence  in  the  Federalist  Party. 
In  1789  he  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, where  he  served  four  terms, 
supporting  Washington's  admin- 
istration, and  winning  a  high 
reputation  for  his  eloquence  and 
patriotism.  He  recognized  the 
supreme  importance  of  the  British 
navy  during  the  American  war, 


Ames 


211 


Amethyst 


denounced  American  indifference 
to  French  aggression,  and  after 
Washington's  death  steadily  op- 
posed the  foreign  poHcy  of  Jef- 
ferson. Consult  Works,  edited 
by  his  son,  Seth  Ames. 

Ames,  Herman  Vandenburg 
(1865-  ),  American  educator, 
was  born  in  Lancaster,  Mass. 
He  was  graduated  from  Amherst 
College  (1888),  and  studied  at 
Columbia,  Harvard  (ph. d., 1891), 
and  the  Universities  of  Leipzig 
and  Heidelberg.  He  was  in- 
structor in  American  constitu- 
tional history  (1897-1903),  as- 
sistant professor  of  American 
history  (1903-8),  and  in  1907 
became  dean  of  the  Graduate 
School  of  Princeton  University. 
In  1908  he  accepted  the  chair  of 
American  constitutional  history 
at  the  same  university.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  Public  Archives 
Commission  of  the  American 
Historical  Association  (1902-12), 
member  of  the  Council  (1911— 
14),  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  international  educational  re- 
lations (1919-24),  and  has  held 
other  important  positions.  He 
is  the  author  of  The  Proposed 
Amendments  to  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  which  was 
awarded  the  prize  of  the  Ameri- 
can Historical  Association  in 
1897;  Outline  of  Lectures  on 
American  Political  and  Institu- 
tional History  during  the  Colonial 
and  Revolutionary  Periods  (3d  ed., 
1908) ;  Syllabus  of  American  Colo- 
nial History  (with  W.  T.  Root, 
1912) ;  and  a  number  of  historical 
monographs  and  papers. 

Ames,  James  Barr  (1846- 
1910),  American  educator,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  Univer- 
sity (1868;  A.M.,  1871)  and  from 
the  Harvard  Law  School  (1872), 
and  was  instructor  in  history 
(1872-3),  associate  professor  of 
law  (1873-7),  professor  of  law 
(1877-1910),  and  dean  of  the 
Law  School  (189.5-1910)  at  Har- 
vard. Besides  his  articles  in  legal 
periodicals,  he  published  a  num- 
ber of  compilations  of  cases  con- 
nected with  various  branches  of 
the  law. 

Ames,  Joseph  Alexander 
(1816-72),  American  portrait 
painter,  was  born  in  Roxbury, 
N.  H.  After  some  success  as  an 
artist  in  his  native  State,  he  re- 
moved to  Boston,  where  he  stud- 
ied with  Washington  Allston, 
and  in  1848  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  not  only  studied,  but  achieved 
sufficient  prominence  to  paint  the 
portrait  of  Pope  Pius  ix.  Re- 
turning to  the  United  States,  he 
lived  in  Boston,  Baltimore,  and 
New  York,  and  was  elected  to  the 
National  Academy  of  Design  in 
1870.  Among  his  well  known 
portraits  are  those  of  Rachel, 
Rufus  Choate,  Seward,  Webster, 
and  Emerson.    Other  works  are 


the  Death  of  Webster,  Night, 
Morning,  and  Miranda. 

Ames,  Joseph  Sweetman 
(1864-  ),  American  physicist, 
and  university  administrator, 
was  born  in  Manchester,  Vt.  He 
was  graduated  from  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  (1886;  PH.D., 
1890),  where  he  was  assistant 
(1888-91),  associate  (1891-3), 
associate  professor  (1893-9),  and 
professor  (1899-1926)  of  physics, 
and  director  of  the  physical  labo- 
ratory (1901-26)  and  since  1926 
Provost  of  the  University.  He 
is  chairman  of  the  National 
Advisory  Committee  on  Aero- 
nautics, a  member  of  many  scien- 
tific societies  and  treasurer  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  is  a  past  president  of  the 
American  Physical  Society,  and 
the  author  of  numerous  articles 
and  books  dealing  with  Physics. 

Ames,  Mary  Clemmer  (1839- 
84),  American  author,  was  born 
in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  and  married  the 
Rev.  Daniel  Ames,  from  whom 
she  was  divorced  in  1874.  She 
was  associated  with  the  Spring- 
field Republican,  New  York  Press 
(1865),  and  Brooklyn  Daily  Un- 
ion (1869-71),  and  for  many 
years  was  Washington  corre- 
spondent of  the  New  York  Inde- 
pendent. At  her  home  in  Wash- 
ington she  established  a  salon 
much  frequented  by  literary  peo- 
ple, and  in  1883  she  married  Ed- 
mund Hudson.  She  prepared 
biographies  of  her  friends,  Alice 
and  Phoebe  Gary,  and  published 
several  novels,  Ten  Years  in 
Washington  (1871),  and  a  volume 
of  Poems  (1882).  Consult  Life 
by  Edmund  Hudson. 

A  mes,  Oakes  (1804-73) ,  Amer- 
ican legislator  and  manufacturer, 
was  born  in  Easton,  Mass.  He 
was  connected  with  the  house  of 
Oliver  Ames  &  Sons,  which  made 
a  fortune  in  the  manufacture  of 
picks  and  shovels  during  the  era 
of  gold  discovery  in  California. 
He  was  one  of  the  capitalists  who 
built  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad, 
investing  over  SI, 000, 000  in  the 
enterprise.  From  1862  to  1873 
he  represented  Massachusetts  in 
Congress,  having  previously  been 
a  member  of  the  State  executive 
council.  A  monument  to  his 
memory  was  erected  by  the 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  at  Sher- 
man, Wyo. 

Ames,  William  (1576-1633), 
known  also  as  Amesius,  English 
Puritan  divine,  was  born  in  Ips- 
wich. Persecuted  for  noncon- 
formity, he  sought  refuge  in 
Holland,  where  he  engaged  in 
controversy  with  Grevinchovius 
and  Bcllarmine.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  at 
Franeker  in  1622,  and  at  Rotter- 
dam in  1632.  His  works  include 
Medulla  Theologice,  a  student's 
handbook;  the  famous  Coronis 
ad  Collationem   Hagiensem;  De 


Conscientia,  Ejus  Jure  et  Casibus; 
and  Bellarminus  Enervatus.  Con- 
sult Life  by  Nethenus. 

Ames,  WiNTHROP  (1871-  ), 
American  theatrical  manager, 
was  born  in  North  Easton,  Mass. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard 
University  (1895),  and  engaged 
in  editorial  work  until  1904,  when 
he  became  manager  of  the  Castle 
Square  Theatre,  Boston.  From 
1908  to  1911  he  was  director  of  the 
New  Theatre,  New  York  City. 
He  has  also  built  and  managed 
the  Little  Theatre  (1912)  and  the 
Booth  Theatre  (1913),  both  in 
New  York  City. 

Amesbury,  town,  Massachu- 
setts, in  Essex  County,  on  the 
Merrimac  River  and  the  Boston 
and  Maine  Railroad;  42  miles 
northeast  of  Boston.  Automo- 
biles, hats,  boots  and  shoes,  and 
brass  castings  are  manufactured. 
According  to  the  U.  S.  Census  for 
1925,  the  city  had  40  industrial 
establishments,  with  products 
valued  at  $25,982,792.  It  is  an 
old  historic  town,  the  birthplace 
of  Josiah  Bartlett,  and  for  many 
years  the  residence  of  John 
Whittier.  Pop.  (1910)  9,894; 
(1920)  10,036. 

Amesbury,  village,  England, 
in  Wiltshire,  on  the  Avon;  8  miles 
north  of  Salisbury.  About  a  mile 
to  the  west  is  a  large  entrench- 
ment, covering  an  area  of  39 
acres,  called  Vespasian's  Camp, 
but  supposed  to  be  of  British  or- 
igin; and  a  little  farther  west  is 
Stonehenge.  Elfrida,  widow  of 
Edgar,  founded  here,  in  980,  a 
Benedictine  nunnery.  At  Mil- 
ston,  near  Amesbury,  Joseph  Ad- 
dison was  born  in  1672.  Pop. 
rural  district  (1921),  15,138. 

Ame'sha  Spen'ta  (modern 
Amshaspends) ,  the  'immortal 
holy  ones'  of  the  later  Avesta,  are 
the  principal  spirits  who  assist 
Ormuzd  in  his  work  of  creation. 
They  are  seven,  including  Or- 
muzd. The  affinities  between  the 
Zoroastrian  and  Jewish  theogo- 
nies,  manifest  in  Ormuzd  (the 
Creator)  and  Ahriman  (Satan), 
are  further  illustrated  by  Amesha 
Spenta,  who  have  been  compared 
to  'the  seven  Spirits  that  are 
before  his  throne'  (Rev.  i.  4). 
See  Zend-Avesta. 

Am'ethyst,  a  variety  of  quartz 
distinguished  by  its  beautiful 
violet-blue  or  deep  purple  color. 
The  presence  of  a  small  amount 
of  manganese  has  been  regarded 
as  the  origin  of  the  characteristic 
color,  which  may  vary  consider- 
ably in  the  same  specimen,  and  is 
readily  destroyed  by  heating. 
Amethyst  is  most  often  found 
lining  the  interior  of  balls  or 
geodes  of  agate,  and  in  veins 
and  cavities  in  basalt,  diabase, 
and  other  igneous  rocks.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  esteemed  varie- 
ties of  quartz,  and  is  much  em- 
ployed for  pins,  rings,  and  neck- 

VOL.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Amfortas 


212 


Amherst  College 


laces;  although,  being  compara- 
tively abundant,  it  is  inferior  in 
value  to  the  true  gems.  The  fin- 
est specimens  are  found  in  India, 
Ceylon,  and  Brazil.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  common  mineral  in  Eu- 
rope, and  occurs  in  the  United 
States  in  Maine,  Pennsylvania, 
Delaware,  North  Carolina,  and  at 
Thunder  Bay,  Lake  Superior. 

Not  to  be  confounded  with  this 
mineral  is  that  sometimes  called 
the  Oriental  amethyst,  which  is  a 
variety  of  spinel.  It  has  an  ame- 
thystine color,  and  is  a  valuable 
gem. 

Amfortas,  am-for'tas,  or  An- 
FORTAS,  king  of  the  Holy  Grail, 
in  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach's 
Parzival  and  Wagner's  opera  of 
Parsifal. 

Amga,  am-ga',  a  river  in  Si- 
beria, in  the  Yakutsk  district. 
It  is  a  tributary  of  the  Aldan 
(q. v.),  which  falls  into  the  Lena. 
It  is  about  500  miles  long  and  has 
its  source  in  the  Yablonoi  Moun- 
tains. 

Amhara,  am-ha'ra  ('high- 
lands'), the  central  division  of 
Abyssinia  (q.v.).  The  name  is 
also  given  to  the  'happy  valley' 
in  Dr.  Johnson's  Rasselas. 

Amharic  Language,  am-ha'- 
rik,  the  official  language  of  Abys- 
sinia spoken  in  its  central  prov- 
ince of  Amhara.  It  has  taken 
the  place  of  Ethiopic  or  Geez 
(still  the  literary  language),  and 
differs  in  several  features  from 
the  dialects  of  the  provinces  of 
Tigre  and  Shoa.  Like  Ethiopic, 
it  is  a  Semitic  tongue,  and  is 
written  from  right  to  left. 

Am'herst,  town,  Massachu- 
setts, in  Hampshire  County,  on 
the  Boston  and  Maine  and  the 
Central  Vermont  Railroads;  16 
miles  north  of  Springfield.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Amherst  College  and 
of  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
College  (qq.v.).  The  manufac- 
ture of  straw  hats  is  the  principal 
industry.  The  town  was  settled 
early  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  is  rich  in  historic  associa- 
tions. Pop.  (1910)  5,112;  (1920) 
5,550. 

Amherst,  town,  Nova  Scotia, 
capital  of  Cumberland  County, 
on  Cumberland  Basin,  and  on  the 
Canadian  National  Railroad;  138 
miles  northwest  of  Halifax.  It 
has  a  large  lumber  and  coal  trade, 
car  shops,  iron  foundries,  engine 
and  boiler  works,  woollen  mills, 
tanneries,  boot  and  shoe  fac- 
tories, piano  works,  trunk  and 
bag  factory,  and  creameries. 
Pop.  (1911)  8,973;  (1921)  9,998. 

Amherst,  village.  Ohio,  in 
Lorain  County;  30  miles  south- 
west of  C'leveland.  Sandstone  is 
ciuarried,  and  grindstones  are 
manufactured.  Pop.  (1910) 
2, 10();  ( 1920)  2.485. 

Amherst,  Jkki-rky  (1717-97), 
created  Hakon  AMUicKsr  (177r)), 
British  soldier,  was  born  in  River- 
head,  Kent.  He  entered  the  Brit- 

VoL.  L— Oct.  '29 


ish  army  in  1731,  and  served  in 
the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succes- 
sion and  the  Seven  Years'  War. 
In  1758  he  was  made  a  major 
general,  and  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  expedition  which  re- 
sulted in  the  capture  of  Louis- 
burg  (July  27,  1758).  He  direct- 
ed the  final  operations  of  the 
French  and  Indian  War,  and  in 
September,  1760,  forced  Gov- 
ernor Vaudreuil  to  surrender 
Canada  and  its  dependencies 
to  the  British  crown.  He  was 
soon  afterward  made  governor- 
general  of  the  British  provinces  in 
North  America,  but  he  proved 
unable  to  deal  eflfectively  with  the 
conspiracy  of  Pontiac  (q.v.),  and 
in  1763  returned  to  Great  Britain. 


breweries  and  distilleries.  One 
of  the  oldest  settlements  in  Upper 
Canada,  Amherstburg  was  for- 
merly a  garrison  town.  It  was 
destroyed  in  1813  by  the  U.  S. 
army  under  General  Harrison. 
Pop.  (1911)  2,560;  (1921)  2.222. 

Amherst  College,  one  of  the 
leading  men's  colleges  in  the 
United  States,  was  founded  in 
1821  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  and  was 
incorporated  by  the  State  in 
1825.  It  has  confined  its  work 
to  purely  collegiate  instruction, 
and  has  no  technical  or  profes- 
sional schools.  Its  courses  for- 
merly led  to  the  degrees  of  b.a., 
M.A.,  and  B.S.,  but  since  1917 
only  the  degrees  of  b.a.  and  m.a. 
have  been  conferred.    A  modi- 


Walker  Hall,  Amherst  College 


He  was  nominally  governor-in- 
chief  of  Virginia  (1763-8),  but 
never  went  to  that  colony.  In 
1772-82  and  1783-93  he  was  act- 
ing commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  army;  in  1793-5,  com- 
mander-in-chief; and  in  1796  was 
made  a  field  marshal.  Consult 
Mayo's  Jeffrey  Amherst  (1916). 

Amherst,  William  Pitt 
(1773-1857),  created  Earl  Am- 
herst OF  Arakan  (1826),  British 
diplomat,  nephew  of  Jeffrey 
Amherst,  was  sent  in  1816  as 
envoy  to  the  emperor  of  China. 
He  failed  in  his  mission,  however, 
because  he  refused  to  perform  the 
traditional  'kotow'  to  the  em- 
peror. After  a  brilliant  diplo- 
matic career  he  became  governor- 
general  of  India,  and  carried  the 
first  Burmese  war  to  a  successful 
conclusion. 

Amherstburg,  town,  Ontario, 
in  Essex  County,  on  the  Detroit 
River,  6  miles  above  its  junction 
with  Lake  Erie,  on  the  Micliigan 
('entral  Railroad,  and  connet  ted 
by  steamer  with  Detroit.  In- 
dustries include  saw  and  flour 
mills,  cement  and  iron  works, 


fied  elective  system  is  in  force. 
Admission  is  by  examination  or 
certificate. 

Beautifully  situated  in  the 
Connecticut  valley,  the  college 
controls  289  acres  of  land.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  Con- 
verse Memorial  Library  of  160,- 
000  volumes,  the  college  church 
and  chapel.  College  Hall,  Apple- 
ton  Hall,  Williston  Hall.  Walker 
Hall,  Morris  Pratt  Memorial 
Dormitory,  Morrow  Dormitory, 
North  and  South  Colleges,  the 
Geological  and  Biological  Labo- 
ratories, Fayerweather  Labora- 
tories, the  William  H.  Moore 
Chemical  Laboratory,  the  ob- 
servatory, the  music  building, 
and  an  infirmary.  Athletic  activ- 
ities are  provided  for  by  the 
Pratt  Gvmnasium  (and  swim- 
ming pool),  Pratt  Field  (13 
acres),  and  Hitchcock  Field  (40 
acres).  The  college  has  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  scientific  collec- 
tions, notably  the  Adams  collec- 
tion of  shells,  a  part  of  Audubon's 
celebrated  bird  collection,  the 
Shepard  meteorite  collection,  the 
Hitchcock  ichnological  collection, 


Amice 


213 


Amiens 


and  a  mineralogical  collection  of 
about  25,000  specimens. 

Nine  fellowships  are  main- 
tained. For  recent  statistics  see 
Table  under  the  heading  Col- 
lege. 

Amice,  am 'is,  a  flowing  cloak 
formerly  worn  by  priests  and  pil- 
grims. Also  a  strip  of  fine  linen, 
with  a  piece  of  embroidered  cloth 
sewn  upon  it,  worn  upon  the 
shoulders  by  priests  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Mass. 

Amicis,  a-me'ches,  Edmondo 
DE  (1846-1908),  Italian  writer, 
was  born  in  Oneglia.  He  attend- 
ed the  military  school  at  Modena, 
and  in  1866  took  part  in  the 
struggle  for  Italian  unity.  In 
1867  he  became  editor  of  the 
Florentine  paper  U  Italia  Mili- 
tare,  for  which  he  wrote  a  series 
of  bright  and  natural  tales,  Boz- 
zetli  della  Vita  Militare.  He 
wrote  a  series  of  books  of  travel, 
remarkable  for  great  charm  of 
style  and  power  of  description — 
La  Spagna  (1873),  Ricordi  di 
Londra  (1874),  L'Olanda  (1874), 
Marocco  (1876),  Constantinopoli 
(1877),  Ricordi  di  Parigi  (1879), 
SuW  Oceano  (1889).  In  fiction 
De  Amicis'  greatest  success  was 
the  sentimental  II  Cuore  ('The 
Heart  of  a  Boy'),  primarily  in- 
tended for  young  people,  which 
has  passed  through  300  editions, 
and  has  been  translated  into 
many  languages.  In  his  later 
efforts — II  Romanzo  d'un  McBstro 
(1895),  and  //  Primo  Maggio — he 
essayed  social  themes,  bordering 
even  on  social  democracy.  Opin- 
ion is  divided  as  to  the  value  of 
the  Poesie  (1880).  His  later 
works  include  La  Carozza  di 
Tutti  (1899);  Memorie  (1899); 
Speranza  e  Glorie  (1900);  Lotte 
Civili  (1901) ;  Capo  d' Anno  (1901) ; 
Nel  Giardano  della  Follia  (1902); 
Una    Tempesta   in  Faiglia 

(1904)  ;  Nel  Regno  del  Cervino 

(1905)  ;  Ultime  Pagine  (3  vols., 
1908). 

Amicus  Curiae,  a-mi'kus  ku'- 
ri-e  (Latin,  'friend  of  the  court'), 
refers  to  one  present  in  court, 
usually,  though  not  necessarily,  a 
lawyer,  who  intervenes  and  vol- 
unteers information  during  the 
conduct  of  a  case  concerning 
some  doubtful  issue  or  matter  of 
fact.  This  right,  though  ancient, 
is  now  only  used  when  a  judge 
asks  some  counsel  present,  but 
not  engaged  in  the  case,  to  give 
advice. 

Am'idavad',  or  Strawberry 

Finch  (Kstrilda  or  Sporceginthus 
amandava),  a  small  weaver  bird 
of  India,  having  brilliant  red, 
yellow,  and  black  plumage.  It 
has  a  pleasing  song,  and  is  pop- 
ular as  a  cage  bird. 

Am'ides,  compounds  derived 
from  ammonia  (NHs)  by  the 
substitution  for  one  or  more 
atoms  of  hydrogen  of  a  corre- 
sponding number  of  atoms  of  a 


metal  or  a  compound  radical. 
More  recently,  the  term  Amide, 
as  distinct  from  Amine  (q.v.), 
has  been  restricted  to  those  com- 
pounds derived  from  ammonia  in 
which  one  or  more  atoms  of  hy- 
drogen are  replaced  by  an  acid 
radical.  The  amides  are  classed 
as  Primary,  Secondary,  or  Ter- 
tiary, according  as  one,  two,  or 
all  three  of  the  atoms  of  hydrogen 
are  replaced  by  an  acid  radical. 

The  primary  amides  may  be 
obtained  in  various  ways,  of 
which  two  may  be  mentioned: 
(1)  If  an  ammoniacal  salt  is 
heated,  two  atoms  of  water  are 
given  off,  and  the  amide  corre- 
sponding to  the  acid  is  left; 
thus,  acetate  of  ammonia 
(NH4O.C2H3O)— water  (H2O)  = 
acetamide  (C2H3ONH2).  (2)  If 
an  anhydride  is  submitted  to 
the  action  of  ammonia,  there  are 
simultaneously  formed  an  amide 
and  an  ammoniacal  salt. 

Amidogen,  a-mid'6-jen,  or 
DiAMiDE,  NH2 — NH2,  was  till 
lately  looked  upon  as  a  hypo- 
thetical body,  to  which  the  for- 
mula NH2  was  assigned.  Curtius 
has,  however,  recently  produced 
the  sulphate  of  amidogen,  from 
which  amidogen  itself  is  obtained 
by  the  action  of  an  alkali.  It  is  a 
gas,  posvsessing  (when  concen- 
trated) a  peculiar  odor  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  ammonia,  and 
when  inhaled  it  strongly  affects 
the  nose  and  fauces. 

Amiel,  a-me-el',  Henri  Fre- 
deric (1821-81),  Swiss  author, 
was  born  in  Geneva.  After  trav- 
elling in  Italy,  he  studied  at  Ber- 
lin (1844-8).  In  1849  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  aesthetics  and 
French  literature  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Geneva,  where  in  1853  he 
became  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy. He  published  many  po- 
etical and  literary  works,  but  is 
best  known  by  his  diary.  Frag- 
ments d'un  journal  iniime  (Eng. 
trans,  by  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward). 

Amiens,  a-mi-an';  F.ng.  am'i- 
enz,  city,  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Scmme,  on  the 
River  Somme;  81  miles  by  rail 
north  of  Paris.  The  old  town  is 
separated  from  the  new  by  eight 
boulevards  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  fortifications,  and  a  sec- 
ond line  of  boulevards  divides 
the  city  from  the  suburbs.  To 
the  west  is  the  Promenade  de  la 
Hotoie,  an  extensive  park  de- 
voted to  public  concerts  and  fes- 
tivals. The  Cathedral  (1220-88) 
is  one  of  the  finest  examples  of 
pure  Gothic  architecture  in  Eu- 
rope. Two  square  towers  with- 
out spires  flank  the  fagade,  and 
there  are  three  portals,  richly 
sculptured.  A  slender  spire,  360 
feet  in  height,  rises  above  the 
transept.  The  total  length  is  469 
feet,  and  the  breadth  216  feet; 
the  nave  is  147  feet  high  and  144 
feet  wide;  and  the  transept  is  237 
feet  long.    Other  notable  build- 


ings are  the  Church  of  St.  Ger- 
main, dating  from  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  Town  Hall,  where 
the  Treaty  of  Amiens  was  signed 
in  1802.  the  citadel,  and  the  Mu- 
vseum  of  Picardy,  with  its  exten- 
sive collection  of  antiquities, 
paintings,  and  sculptures. 

Amiens  is  one  of  the  principal 
manufacturing  centres  of  France, 
and  has  long  been  famous  for  its 
textile  products,  which  include 
linens,  woollens,  silks,  and  vel- 
vets. Other  industries  are  the 
making  of  chemicals,  shoes,  and 
machinery,  dyeing,  and  iron 
founding. 

The  population  of  the  city  in 
1911  was  93,207;  in  1926,  91,576. 

Previous  to  the  Roman  occu- 
pation Amiens  was  known  as 
Samarohriva.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Franks  in  the  fifth  century, 
and  was  ceded  to  the  French 
crown  in  1185.  It  was  held  by 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy  from  1435 
to  1477  ;  captured  by  the  Span- 
iards in  1597;  and  recaptured  by 
Henry  iv.  Until  1790  the  city  was 
the  capital  of  Picardy.  During 
the  Franco-German  War  it  was 
taken  by  the  Prussians  (1870), 

During  the  Great  War  of  Eu- 
rope (q.v.),  Amiens  was  of  spe- 
cial importance  because  of  its 
strategical  position.  In  the  Ger- 
man advance  of  August,  1914, 
as  Von  Kluck's  army  swung 
southwards  from  Brussels,  the 
force  on  his  extreme  right,  made 
up  of  four  highly  mobile  divisions 
of  cavalry,  with  their  batteries 
of  horse  artillery  equipped  with 
machine  guns,  and  light  quick- 
firers  mounted  on  motor  cars  and 
supported  by  infantry  of  the 
German  Second  Corps  trans- 
ported on  motor  trucks,  de- 
scended on  Northern  France. 
Their  line  of  advance  was  on 
Amiens  by  way  of  Arras,  their 
object  being  to  cut  the  British 
lines  of  communication  with 
the  base  ports.  The  Allied  ar- 
mies being  in  full  retreat,  the 
enemy  met  with  little  serious 
resistance,  and,  after  a  number 
of  detached  skirmishes,  occupied 
the  town  Aug.  30,  1914.  It  was 
evacuated  a  few  days  later  as 
Von  Kluck  drew  in  his  right  to 
the  junction  of  the  Ourcq  and 
Marne  to  form  a  battle  line. 
(See  Arras,  Battles  of.) 

Amiens  was  again  the  German 
objective  in  March,  1918,  in  the 
course  of  the  Second  Battle  of  the 
Somme  (see  Somme,  Battles 
of),  the  purpose  on  that  occa- 
sion being  to  drive  a  wedge  be- 
tween the  Allied  armies — the 
British  in  the  north  and  the 
French  in  the  south.  The  main 
attack  was  delivered  along  the 
high  ground  to  the  southwest, 
split  into  shallow  valleys  by  the 
streams  of  the  Doms,  Avre,  and 
Luce,  which,  with  the  Somme  and 
the  Ancre,  make  up  the  five 
rivers  of  Picardy.  Defensive 


Vol,  I.— Oct.  '29 


Amiens 


213  A 


Ammanati 


warfare  in  such  a  country  is 
extremely  difficult.  The  narrows 
between  the  Luce  and  the  Avre 
formed  a  trap  which  might  prove 
fatal  to  a  weak  army.  Ten  miles 
west  of  the  Avre  ran  the  great 
Calais- Paris  railway,  the  main 
route  for  the  lateral  communica- 
tion of  the  Allies.  Beyond  it 
there  was  nothing  but  a  single 
line  until  Beauvais  was  reached. 
If  the  Germans  won  the  heights 
beyond  the  Avre,  they  could  at 
once  put  the  trunk  railway  out  of 
use.  This  advance  would  put  them 
within  twelve  miles  of  the  centre 
of  Amiens;  and  if  the  railway 
could  be  taken  before  the  French 
reinforcements  detrained  they 
would  have  a  free  road  into  the 
city. 

The  drive  for  the  possession 
of  the  city  began  on  the  morning 
of  March  28,  1918.  It  closed  on 
April  8,  marking  the  end  of  the 
Second  Battle  of  the  Somme. 
The  Allies  had  established  a  new 
front,  while  the  enemy  had  failed 
to  attain  their  objective,  had  ex- 
hausted their  strength,  and  had 
lengthened  their  front  by  thirty- 
five  miles.  The  German  High 
Command  now  planned  to 
achieve  its  main  purpose  by  ablow 
in  another  quarter.  But  the 
next  blows,  instead  of  being 
diversions,  became  major  opera- 
tions which  in  no  way  aided  the 
central  thrust  at  Amiens.  They 
were  Ludendorff 's  fatal  blunders 
which  gave  the  gauge  of  victory 
to  the  Allies. 

For  a  more  detailed  account  of 
the  operations  against  Amiens, 
and  for  later  action  (August, 
1919),  see  Somme,  Battles  of. 
See  also  Aisne,  Battles  of; 
Europe,  Great  War  of. 

The  Mise  of  Amiens,  or  'Award 
of  St.  Louis'  at  the  Council  of 
Amiens,  Jan.  23,  1264,  marks  an 
epoch  in  the  Barons'  War  under 
De  Montfort  against  Henry  iii. 
of  England.  The  questions  in 
dispute  between  king  and  barons 
were  referred  to  Louis  ix.  of 
France  as  arbiter.  The  decision 
was  in  Henry's  favor,  but  he  was 
to  observe  established  liberties. 
De  Montfort  rejected  the  Mise, 
and  fighting  began.  The  quarrel 
was  at  last  adjusted  at  the  'Mise 
of  Lewes'  in  the  same  year. 

The  Treaty  of  Amiens  (March 
27,  1802),  between  Great  Britain 
and  France  (with  Spain  and  the 
Batavian  Republic),  brought  a 
truce  in  the  Napoleonic  struggle. 
Its  chief  terms  were  as  follows: 
Great  Britain  to  restore  con- 
quests except  Trinidad  and 
Ceylon;  Malta  to  be  restored  to 
the  Knights  of  St.  John,  under 
guarantee  of  a  European  power; 
France  to  evacuate  the  Two  Sici- 
lies and  Papal  States;  Egypt  to 
revert  to  the  Porte;  integrity  of 
Portugal  recognized  by  France; 
republic  of  Ionian  Islands  recog- 
nized.      Malta  was  not  sur- 


rendered by  Britain,  and  war 
was  renewed  in  May,  1803. 

Am'ines,  or  Ammonia  Bases, 
are  organic  compounds  derived 
from  ammonia  (NHs)  by  the 
substitution  of  hydrocarbon  rad- 
icals— for  example,  ethyl  (C2H5) 
— for  hydrogen  in  the  ammonia, 
as  d%/cm?Mg  (NH2.C2H5).  They 
are  called  Primary,  Secondary,  or 
Tertiary,  according  as  one,  two, 
or  three  of  the  hydrogen  atoms 
of  the  ammonia  have  been  re- 
placed by  hydrocarbons  or  alkyl 
groups.  Hence  the  general  for- 
mula for  the  primary  amines  is 
NH2R  (radical),  of  the  secondary 
amines,  NHR.R',  and  of  the  ter- 
tiary amines,  N.R.R'.R",  where 
R.R'  and  R"  may  be  identical  or 
represent  different  alkyl  groups. 

The  reactions  of  the  amines  dif- 
fer to  some  extent  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  substituting 
alkyl  groups,  so  that  they  may  be 
further  classed  as  follows:  (1) 
pure  aliphatic  amines;  (2)  mixed 
aliphatic  and  aromatic  amines — 
(a)  with  the  nitrogen  attached 
to  the  aliphatic  residue,  as  in  ben- 
zjdamine,  and  (b)  with  the  nitro- 
gen attached  to  a  carbon  atom  of 
the  benzene  ring,  as  in  methyl 
aniline;  and  (3)  pure  aromatic  am- 
ines, as  aniline  and  its  homo- 
logues. 

With  the  exception  of  the  vege- 
table alkaloids,  amines  seldom 
occur  in  nature,  but  are  found  as 
decomposition  products  of  animal 
and  vegetable  organisms,  and  of 
mineral  substances.  They  may 
be  prepared  in  various  ways — for 
instance,  by  the  action  of  am- 
monia or  its  alkyl  derivatives  on 
substitution  products  (generally 
haloid  or  hydroxyl  derivatives)  of 
hydrocarbons. 

As  to  the  properties  of  the 
amines,  those  of  the  aliphatic 
series  are  volatile,  inflammable 
substances,  the  lower  members 
being  either  gaseous  or  liquid 
with  low  boiling  points  and  very 
soluble  in  water.  They  have  an 
ammoniacal  and  fishy  odor,  and 
a  basicity  considerably  greater 
than  that  of  ammonia.  The 
higher  members  are  solids.  The 
aromatic  amines  have  similar 
properties,  but  are  less  basic  in 
character,  while  the  aromatic 
amino-compounds  are  even  less 
basic  than  ammonia. 

Diamines  are  derived  from  two 
molecules  of  ammonia  by  replace- 
ment of  two  hydrogen  atoms,  one 
from  each  molecule,  by  a  hydro- 
carbon residue,  or  from  hydro- 
carbons by  replacement  of  two 
hydrogen  atoms  by  two  amino 
groups.  Some  of  these  occur  as 
decomposition  products  of  the 
animal  organism,  as  pulrescine, 
which  is  a  tetramethylene  dia- 
mine, and  cadaverine,  which  is  a 
pentamethylene  diamine.  Simi- 
larly, there  are  triamines,  tetra- 
mines,  and  pentamines,  which  are, 
however,  but  little  known.  Di- 


ethylene  diamine  is  used  as  a 
diuretic  under  the  name  of  Piper- 
azine.    See  Alkaloids;  Diazo- 

COMPOUNDS. 

Amir.    See  Emir. 

Amirante  Islands,  am-i-rant', 
or  Admiral  Islands,  a  group  of 
small  coral  islands  in  the  Indian 
Ocean.  They  belong  to  Great 
Britain,  and  are  dependencies  of 
the  Seychelles.  See  Seychelles. 

Amish  Churcli.    See  Men- 

NONITES. 

Amistad  Case.  See  Supreme 
Court,  Famous  Decisions  of. 

Am'ityville,  village  and  popu- 
lar summer  resort,  New  York,  in 
Suffolk  County,  Long  Island,  on 
Great  South  Bay,  and  on  the 
Long  Island  Railroad;  30  miles 
east  of  New  York  City.  Pop. 
(1910)  2,517;  (1920)  3,265. 

Am'leth,  or  Amlet,  king  of 
Jutland  about  the  second  century 
B.C.  The  Danish  historian,  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  says  he  was  the 
son  of  Haardenengel  and  Ge- 
ruthe  and  that  his  father  killed 
King  Kotler  of  Norway  and  was 
himself  killed  by  his  brother 
Fenge,  who  married  his  widow. 
Amleth,  from  fear  of  his  uncle, 
feigned  madness  and,  according 
to  Saxo,  so  subtly  concealed  his 
wisdom  under  a  cloak  of  foolish- 
ness that  he  avenged  his  father's 
death  and  saved  his  own  life. 
He  made  his  uncle's  couriers 
drunk,  set  fire  to  the  king's  hall, 
and  killed  Fenge  with  his  own 
sword.  He  married  a  daughter 
of  the  king  of  England  and  was 
made  king  of  Jutland.  Saxo 
does  not  tell  his  manner  of  death, 
but  his  grave  is  shown  in  the 
vicinity  of  Elsinore  and  many 
pilgrimages  are  made  thereto. 
Shakespeare's  tragedy  of  Ham- 
let is  founded  on  this  story,  thus 
lending  it  increasing  interest,  al- 
though its  authenticity  is  not 
credited  by  later  Danish  his- 
torians. 

A  ml  well,  am'look,  small  sea- 
port of  Anglesey,  North  Wales, 
on  the  northern  coast  of  the  is- 
land; 21  miles  northwest  of  the 
Menai  Bridge.  It  derives  its 
importance  almost  entirely  from 
the  rich  copper  mines  in  the 
vicinity.    Pop.  (1921),  2,694. 

Am'man,  Jost  (1539-91), 
Swiss  wood  engraver  and  artist, 
was  born  in  Zurich.  He  took  up 
his  residence  at  Nuremberg, 
where  he  painted  a  series  of  por- 
traits of  the  French  kings  and 
designed  many  wood  cuts  for 
illustrations.  His  published 
works  include  Stdnde  und  Hand- 
werker,  Wappenbuck  und  Stamm- 
buch,  and  Frauenentrachbuch,  all 
of  them  edited  by  G.  Hirth.  He 
also  wrote  Panoplia  (1564),  and 
Charta  Lusoria  (1588). 

Ammanati,  iim-ma-na'te, 
Bartolomeo  (1511-92),  Italian 
architect  and  sculptor,  was  born 
in  Settignano,  near  P'lorence.  He 
was  the  architect  of  Cosimo  de 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


AMIENS  CATHEDRAL,  THE  FINEST  EXAMPLE  OF  GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


Ammen 


214 


Ammon 


Medici  in  Florence,  and  did 
much  to  embellish  that  city. 
His  most  noted  works  are  the 
Ponte  della  Trinila  (Bridge  of 
the  Trinity)  and  the  Leda  at 
Florence;  a  gigantic  Hercules 
at  Padua;  and  the  courts  of  the 
Pitti  Palace  and  of  the  Col- 
legio  Romano  at  Rome. 

Am'men,  Daniel  (1820-98), 
American  naval  officer,  was  born 
in  Brown  County,  Ohio,  and  en- 
tered the  naval  service  as  mid- 
shipman in  1836.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  saw  service  in  Ad- 
miral Dupont's  blockading 
squadron;  and  as  commander 
successively  of  the  gunboats 
Seneca,  Patapsco,  and  Mohican 
he  took  part  in  operations  before 
Port  Royal,  and  Forts  McAllis- 
ter, Sumter,  and  Fisher.  He  was 
chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and 
Docks  (1869-71)  and  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Navigation  (1871-8),  and 
in  1877  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral.  He  was  the  de- 
signer of  the  ram  Katahdin,  and 
the  Ammen  life  raft.  He  pub- 
lished: The  American  Inter- 
Oceanic  Ship  Canal  Question 
(1880);  The  Atlantic  Coast  (1883); 
The  Old  Navy  and  the  New 
(1891). 

Ammergau.  See  Ober-Am- 
MERGAu;  Miracle  Play. 

Am'meter,  or  Ampere  Meter, 
a  commercial  instntment  for 
measuring,  electric  current  in 
terms  of  amperes  (see  Ampere)  . 
The  simplest  ammeters  have  a 
piece  of  soft  iron  moved  by  the 
magnetic  effect  of  current  in  a 
coil.  In  an  early  form  a  soft  iron 
rod  was  suspended  by  a  spring  or 
balanced  lever  inside  the  coil. 
The  plunger  movement  was  pro- 
portional to  the  current,  and  was 
shown  by  a  pointer  moving  over 
a  calibrated  scale.  In  the  Thom- 
son ammeter  a  light  iron  vane  was 
mounted  on  a  vertical  shaft  hav- 
ing jewel  bearings  and  passing 
obliquely  through  a  short  wide 
coil.  The  vane  rotated  accord- 
ing to  the  current,  and  the  move- 
ment was  shown  by  a  pointer 
attached  to  the  shaft.  The  Wes- 
ton, the  best-known  American 
type,  has  a  light  pivoted  coil, 
moving  between  the  arms  of  a 
C-shaped  permanent  magnet. 
Movement  of  the  coil  is  opposed 
by  two  light  spiral  springs,  which 
also  lead  in  the  current.  This 
type  can  be  used  for  direct  cur- 
rent only.  Another  form  has  a 
coil  in  place  of  the  permanent 
magnets.  Fixed  and  moving 
coils  are  electrically  in  series,  so 
that  when  current  flows  the  mov- 
ing coil  tends  to  become  parallel 
with  the  fixed.  The  induction 
ammeter  has  a  light  metal  disc, 
pivoted  between  the  ends  of  a  C- 
shaped  electromagnet  which  is 
excited  by  the  alternating  cur- 
rent to  be  measured.  By  having 
a  small  copper  'damper'  on  one 
pole  of  this  magnet,  unsym- 
VoL.  I.— Oct.  '19 


metrical  eddy  currents  are  in- 
duced in  the  disc,  and  their  reac- 
tion with  the  main  magnetic 
field  tends  to  rotate  the  disc 
and  its  attached  needle.  Hot 
wire  ammeters  are  occasionally 
seen,  in  which  the  thermal  ex- 
tension of  a  wire  carrying  cur- 
rent is  made  to  move  a  pointer 
indirectly. 

In  the  moving  coil  and  hot  wire 
types,  for  measuring  more  than 
small  currents  a  thick  strip  of 
special  alloy  metal  is  used  as  a 
shunt  across  the  terminals,  so 
that  only  a  definite  small  fraction 
of  the  current  traverses  the  coil 
or  hot  wire. 

With  heavy  alternating  cur- 
rent it  is  common,  especially  at 
switchboards,  to  send  the  whole 
current  through  a  small  series 
transformer  the  secondary  of 
which  is  connected  to  an  amme- 
ter. The  small  current  in  the 
latter  is  proportional  to  the  main 
current,  and  the  scale  may  be 
calibrated  to  show  this. 

By  using  standard  resistances 
and  a  galvanometer  or  voltmeter 
that  has  been  carefully  cali- 
brated it  is  possible  to  calibrate 
an  ammeter.  They  may  also 
be  calibrated  by  causing  the 
current  to  deposit  copper  or 
silver  from  a  solution  (see 
Electrolysis).  It  is  more 
convenient,  however,  to  use  the 
Kelvin  balance,  in  which  the 
force  of  attraction  or  repulsion 
between  two  coils  carrying  an 
electric  current  is  balanced 
against  a  weight  on  a  sliding 
arm. 

Ammia'nus  Marcelli'nus  {c. 

330-400  A.D.),  Roman  historian, 
was  born  of  Greek  parents  at 
Antioch  in  Syria.  After  serv- 
ing several  campaigns  in  Gaul, 
Germany,  and  the  East,  he  set- 
tled at  Rome,  devoted  himself 
to  literature,  and  was  alive  as 
late  as  390.  He  wrote  in  Latin 
a  history  of  the  Roman  Empire 
from  96  to  378  A.D.,  in  31  books, 
of  which  only  18  are  extant, 
comprising  the  years  353  to 
378.  This  part  o/  the  work,  how- 
ever, is  the  most  valuable,  as  it 
treats  of  affairs  with  which  the 
author  was  an  actual  contempo- 
rary. 

Ammirato,  am-me-ra'to,  Scip- 
lONE  (1531-1601),  Italian  pub- 
licist, also  styled  II  Vecchio  the 
Elder,  was  born  in  Lecce,  stud- 
ied law  at  Naples,  and  became 
canon  of  the  cathedral  at  Flor- 
ence, where  he  was  patronized  by 
the  Medici.  He  wrote  many  ex- 
cellent and  accurate  historical 
works,  the  chief,  Istorie  Fioren- 
tine  (1660  and  1641),  commis- 
sioned by  Cosimo  I.,  bringing 
the  history  of  Florence  to  the 
year  1574,  and  two  works  on 
the  families  of  Naples  and  Flor- 
ence. 

Am'mon,  Amun,  or  Amen 
('the  Unrevealed'),  a  deity  of  the 


ancient  Egyptians,  worshipped 
especially  in  Thebes  (No- Am- 
mon), and  represented  as  a  ram 
with  downward-branching  horns, 
the  symbols  of  power;  as  a  man 
with  a  ram's  head;  and  as  a  com- 
plete man  with  two  high  feathers 
on  his  head,  bearded,  sitting  on  a 
throne,  and  holding  in  his  right 
hand  the  scepter  of  the  gods,  in 
his  left  the  handled  cross,  the 
symbol  of  divine  life. 

After  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
we  find  in  hieroglyphics  the  name 
Amun-Ra  frequently  inscribed, 
indicating  a  blending  of  Ammon 
with  the  sun-god  Ra.  Similarly, 


III 

1  \ 

Statue  of  Ammon. 


the  representation  of  Ammon 
with  a  ram's  head  shows  the 
blending  of  him  with  Kneph. 
From  about  the  twenty-first 
dynasty,  he  came  to  be  consid- 
ered the  god  of  oracles,  and  as 
such  was  worshipped  in  Ethiopia 
and  in  the  Libyan  Desert. 
Twelve  days'  journey  west  of 
Memphis,  in  the  desert  was  a 
green  oasis  fringed  with  a  belt 
of  palm  trees,  on  which  rose  the 
temple  of  Ammon,  and  whither 
pilgrimages  were  made.  The 
worship  of  Ammon  spread  at 
an  early  period  to  Greece,  and 
afterwards  to  Rome,  where  he 
was  identified  with  Zeus  and 
Jupiter.  The  colossal  ruins  of 
his  temple  still  stand  at  Karnak 
(q.v.). 

Am'mon,  Otto  (1842),  Ger- 
man anthropologist,  was  born 
in  Karlsruhe,  and  was  successive- 
ly civil  engineer,  publisher,  and 
editor  (1863-68),  He  is  the  au- 
thor of  Ammon' s  law,  that  the 
immigrants  from  country  to 
town  tend  to  group  themselves 
in  two  divisions — a  'round- 
headed'  division  following  com- 
mercial and  industrial  pursuits, 


Ammonia 


215 


Ammonia 


and  a  'long-headed'  division  re- 
cruiting the  ranks  of  the  learned 
and  official  classes.  The  law  rests 
upon  anthropometric  measure- 
ments, and  is  expounded  in  Die 
Natiiraliche  Auslese  beim  Men- 
schen  (1893),  Die  Gesellschaft- 
sordnung  und  ihre  Naturalichen 
Grundlagen  (1896),  and  Zur  An- 
thropologie  der  Badener  (1899). 

Ammo'nia,  NHs,  an  impor- 
tant gaseous  compound  of  nitro- 
gen and  hydrogen,  takes  its  name 
from  a  related  compound,  sal 
ammoniacum,  which  was  pre- 
pared in  ancient  times  in  Egypt, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  tem- 
ple of  the  sun  god  Ra  Ammon. 
The  term  Ammonia,  or  Ammonia 
Water,  is  also  applied  to  a  water 
solution  of  this  gas.  In  modern 
times  ammonia  was  obtained  by 
Priestley  in  1774,  while  its  exact 
composition  was  demonstrated 
by  Berthollet  in  1785. 

Ammonia,  under  normal  at- 
mospheric pressure,  is  a  colorless 
gas  above  —32.5°  c,  a  liquid 
between  the  temperatures  — 32.5° 
and  —  77°  c,  and  a  white  crystal- 
line solid  below  the  latter  tem- 
perature. The  critical  tempera- 
ture— that  above  which  no  pres- 
sure, however  great,  can  produce 
hquefaction — is  131°  C;  at  20°  c. 
a  pressure  of  8.4  atmospheres  is 
required  for  liquefaction.  In 
minute  quantities,  diluted  with 
air,  it  has  an  agreeable  odor;  in 
moderate  quantities,  pungent;  in 
larger  quantities,  irritating  to 
nose  and  eyes,  and  suffocating 
when  inhaled. 

Ammonia  is  noticeable  in  the 
air  about  stables,  being  formed 
by  the  action  of  putrefying  bac- 
teria in  the  decay  of  animal  and 
vegetable  matter.  Small  amounts 
of  ammonia  are  dissolved  in  rain 
water;  natural  waters  contain 
minute  variable  amounts — e.  g., 
six  parts  per  hundred  million. 

There  are  several  methods  of 
preparing  ammonia.  (1)  It  may 
be  prepared  by  heating  organic 
substances  containing  nitrogen, 
as  bones,  hoofs,  horns,  etc.,  an 
old  custom  which  gave  the  water 
solution  the  name  Spirits  of 
Hartshorn.  It  is  conveniently 
prepared  in  small  quantities  (2) 
by  heating  ammonium  hydrox- 
ide, which  yields  the  gas  readily, 
or  (3)  by  heating  a  mixture  of 
ammonium  chloride  (sal  am- 
moniac) and  calcium  hydroxide 
(slaked  lime),  in  about  the  ratio 
53:37  by  weight,  which  should 
yield  about  17  parts  of  ammonia 
gas.  A  copper  flask  is  preferable, 
as  a  glass  one  is  likely  to  be 
cracked  by  the  water  which  is 
also  formed  in  the  reaction.  The 
gas  may  be  dried  by  passing  it 
through  a  column  of  quicklime, 
and  collected  by  air  displacement 
simply,  or  over  mercury.  (4) 
Nearly  all  the  ammonia  of  com- 
merce comes  from  the  ammonia-  , 
cal  liquors  obtained  from  the 


destructive  distillation  of  coal  in 
the  manufacture  of  illuminating 
gas  or  coke.  Coal  often  contains 
as  much  as  2  per  cent,  of  com- 
bined nitrogen  thus  available. 
Other  sources  are  the  residues 
from  the  beet  sugar  industries, 
slaughter  houses,  and  tanneries. 

(5)  Ammonia  is  synthesized  on 
a  commercial  scale  by  the  direct 
combination  of  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen  at  high  pressures  and 
temperatures,  in  the  presence  of 
a  catalyst.  The  so-called  Haber 
process,  developed  by  Dr.  Fritz 
Haber  and  owned  by  the  Bad- 
ische  Anilin  und  Soda  Fabrik  of 
Germany,  uses  a  mixture  of  one 
part  of  very  pure  nitrogen  and 


monia  by  simple  cooling.  The 
original  gas  mixture  always  con- 
sists of  one  volume  of  nitrogen 
to  three  of  hydrogen,  and  since 
this  is  the  theoretical  composition 
of  ammonia,  the  gases  combined 
are  replaced  in  the  same  propor- 
tion. 

Still  other  reactions  for  obtain- 
ing ammonia  are  (6)  the  action 
of  steam  and  cyanamide,  which 
gives  a  very  large  yield,  and  has 
commercial  possibilities,  and  (7) 
the  reaction  of  water  and  a  me- 
tallic nitride,  as  magnesium 
nitride. 

Ammonia  is  extremely  soluble 
in  water,  which  takes  up  about 
800  times  its  volume  at  ordinary 

Water 


wmwmm//wmm//immimmm/A  I 


3-B-Qrme 


m/mimwmmmimwmmmmmmh 


Ice  Making  with  Liquid  Ammonia 


three  parts  of  hydrogen  by  vol- 
ume, a  temperature  of  550°  c, 
a  pressure  of  150  atmospheres, 
and  a  catalyst  of  iron,  uranium, 
manganese  or  other  metal  or 
mixture.  The  Claude  process, 
developed  in  France,  utilizes  a 
temperature  of  500-600°  c,  as 
in  the  Haber  process,  but  is 
carried  out  at  pressures  of  1,000 
atmospheres  (14,700  pounds  per 
square  inch).  Other  modifica- 
tions involving  changes  in  pres- 
sure, temperature,  and  the  com- 
position of  the  catalyst  are  em- 
ployed in  the  application  of  this 
synthetic  reaction.  It  is  possible 
to  obtain  as  much  as  14  per  cent, 
of  ammonia  in  the  gas  mixture 
after  passing  over  the  catalyst. 
The  nitrogen  used  in  this  syn- 
thesis may  be  prepared  by  burn- 
ing the  oxygen  out  of  air  with  a 
metal,  such  as  iron  or  copper,  by 
the  fractionation  of  liquid  air,  or 
by  the  absorption  of  carbon  di- 
oxide from  the  flue  gas  from 
burning  coke,  by  water,  under 
pressure,  or  by  alkali.  The  hy- 
drogen used  may  be  obtained  by 
the  electrolysis  of  water  or  from 
other  electrolytic  processes  yield- 
ing it  as  a  by-product,  or  by  the 
purification  of  water  gas.  At  the 
pressures  employed,  the  am- 
monia may  be  separated  from 
the  gas  mixture  as  liquid  am- 


temperatures,  and  more  at  lower 
temperatures,  following  Henry's 
Law,  approximately.  The  solu- 
bility varies  considerably  with 
the  temperature,  so  that  when 
the  temperature  rises,  some  of 
the  ammonia  leaves  the  solution 
and  accumulates  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  container  if  closed — a 
fact  to  be  borne  in  mind  when 
opening  it.  It  is  completely  ex- 
pelled from  solution  by  boiling 
or  by  bubbling  another  gas,  as 
air,  through  the  solution. 

It  has  been  shown,  largely 
through  the  work  of  E.  C. 
Franklin  (q.v.),  that  liquid  am- 
monia is  strikingly  analogous  to 
water  in  physico-chemical  prop- 
erties. Salts  dissolved  in  it,  as 
salt  in  water  solution,  are  disso- 
ciated into  ions,  according  to  the 
theory  of  electrolytic  dissocia- 
tion; and  anhydrous  copper  sul- 
phate, for  example,  will  crystal- 
lize with  'ammonia  of  crystalliza- 
tion' analogous  to  water  of  crys- 
tallization. 

Ammonia  may  be  decomposed 
into  its  constituents,  two  volumes 
yielding  one  volume  of  nitrogen 
and  three  of  hydrogen.  The  ve- 
locity of  combustion  is  too  small 
for  a  current  of  the  gas  to  burn 
in  air;  but  it  burns  ia  an  atmos- 
phere of  oxygen  with  a  yellow 
flame.  When  ammonia  dissolves 

Vol.  I. —March  '27 


Ammonia 


216 


Ammonius 


in  water,  some  ammonium  hy- 
droxide (NH4OH)  forms,  which 
is  a  base,  and  turns  pink  litmus 
blue.  Moist  litmus  paper  may 
therefore  be  used  as  a  test  for 
ammonia.  Extremely  minute 
quantities,  as  1:1,000,000,000, 
may  be  detected  by  Nessler's 
reagent  (q.v.). 

Ammonia  combines  with  acids 
to  form  salts:  thus,  with  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  form  Ammonium 
Chloride  or  Sal  Ammoniac,  NH4- 
Cl  (see  Sal  Ammoniac);  with 
sulphuric  acid  to  form  Ammo- 
nium Sulphate;  etc.  Ammonia 
reacts  with  magnesium  to  form 
magnesium  nitride  and  hydrogen, 
and  with  sodium  to  form  soda- 
mide  and  hydrogen. 

Uses:  Refrigeration,  etc. — 
When  one  gram  of  gaseous  am- 
monia is  condensed  to  liquid 
ammonia,  316  calories  of  heat 
are  liberated.  Conversely,  when 
one  gram  of  liquid  ammonia 
passes  into  the  gaseous  state,  an 
equal  quantity  of  heat  is  taken 
in.  In  the  ammonia  process  for 
manufacturing  artificial  ice,  gase- 
ous ammonia  is  compressed  by  a 
pump  in  a  system  of  iron  pipes 
until  it  liquefies,  and  the  liber- 
ated heat  is  removed  by  streams 
of  water  pouring  over  the  pipes. 
In  a  tank  of  brine  (a  water  solu- 
tion of  calcium  chloride)  are 
immersed  cans  of  the  shape  of 
the  blocks  of  ice  desired,  filled 
with  distilled  water  (about  200 
lbs.),  and  surrounded  by  a  second 
system  of  pipes,  called  an  ex- 
pansion coil.  The  liquid  ammo- 
nia is  allowed  to  escape  into  the 
expansion  coil;  and  the  pressure 
being  reduced,  the  ammonia 
passes  into  the  gaseous  state, 
taking  in  heat,  which  is  given 
up  by  the  nearest  body  at  a 
higher  temperature — namely,  the 
brine  on  the  outside  of  the  ex- 
pansion coil.  The  brine  being 
cooled  below  the  freezing  point 
of  water,  heat  passes  to  it  from 
the  water  in  the  cans,  which  then 
freezes.  Thus,  in  effect,  the  heat 
of  the  water  to  be  frozen  is"  trans- 
ferred to  the  water  which  cools 
the  compressed  ammonia,  and  is 
thus  dissipated.  But  to  transfer 
heat  from  a  lower  to  a  higher 
temperaturerequires  work,  which, 
together  with  enough  extra  to 
compensate  losses,  is  supplied 
by  the  energy  used  to  run  the 
pump. 

If  a  chamber  is  to  be  cooled  as 
in  cold  storage,  the  cold  brine  is 
circulated  through  a  third  system 
of  pipes  with  refrigerating  coils 
(corresponding  to  radiators  in  a 
heating  system),  located  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  space,  so  as  to 
be  in  contact  with  the  warmer 
air,  which,  being  lighter  than  the 
cooled  air,  rises.  (See  Refrig- 
eration.) 

Ammonia  is  used  also  for  re- 
frigeration in  breweries,  packing 
houses,  sugar  refineries,  etc.;  in 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


the  manufacture  of  soda  (Solvay 
process);  in  the  preparation  of 
ammonium  hydroxide,  and  am- 
monia water,  much  used  as  a 
cleansing  agent;  and  to  make 
ammonium  salts,  some  of  which, 
as  the  sulphate  and  chloride,  are 
valuable  fertilizers. 

Aromatic  Spirits  of  Ammonia 
(see  Sal  Volatile),  is  used  medi- 
cally as  a  stimulant  in  cases  of 
fainting,  for  the  relief  of  dyspep- 
sia, and  as  an  expectorant. 

Household  Ammonia,  a  dilute 
solution  of  the  gas,  is  supposed  to 
contain  8  per  cent.,  but  some- 
times as  little  as  2  per  cent,  is 
present.  Liquid  ammonia  is 
brought  into  the  market  in  steel 
cyUnders. 

Statistics. — Census  figures  for 
1923  show  that  the  United  States 
produced  67,425,904  pounds  of 
aquaammonia,  23,966,005  pounds 
of  anhydrous  ammonia,  31,936,- 
691  pounds  of  ammonium  chlo- 
ride, and  1,424,448  pounds  of 
ammonium  sulphate  that  year; 

Bibliograph  y. — C  o  n  s  u  1 1 
Lunge's  Coal  Tar  and  Ammonia 
(1909);  Calvert's  The  Manufac- 
ture of  Sulphate  of  Ammonia  and 
Crude  Ammonia  (1911);  Gross- 
man's Ammonia  and  Its  Com- 
pounds (1913);  Lange's  By-Prod- 
ucts  of  Coal  Gas  Manufacture 
(1915);  Maxted's  Ammonia  and 
the  Nitrides  (1921). 

Ammoniacum,  am-o-ni'a- 
kum,  or  Gum-Ammoniac,  a  gum 
resin  obtained  from  Dorema  am- 
moniacum (Umbelliferae),  a  per- 
ennial about  seven  feet  high,  with 
large,  doubly  pinnate  leaves 
about  two  feet  long,  found  in 
Persia  and  Turkestan.  Originally 
white,  it  becomes  yellow  on  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere;  is 
softened  by  the  heat  of  the  hand ; 
and  has  a  heavy,  unpleasant 
odor.  It  is  used  medicinally  as  an 
expectorant  and  disinfectant  in 
cases  of  chronic  bronchitis  and 
asthma,  and  externally  as  a 
counter-irritant  in  pleurisy  and 
rheumatism. 

A  m'  monite,  an  explosive  com- 
posed of  pure  ammonium  nitrate 
and  nitro-naphthalene.  See  Ex- 
plosives. 

Ammonites,  am'mon-Its,  a 
Semitic  race  occupying  the  region 
to  the  east  of  the  lower  Jordan 
north  of  Moab.  With  the  Moab- 
ites  they  hired  Balaam  to  curse 
Israel,  and  otherwise  obstructed 
the  migration  into  Canaan. 
Though  there  was  kinship  be- 
tween Ammon  and  Israel  (see 
Gen.  xix.  38),  the  two  peoples 
were  almost  constantly  at  war — 
e.  g.,  under  Jephthah;  Saul,  by 
whom,  as  also  by  David,  they 
were  defeated  (1  Sam.  xi.  11;  2 
Sam.  x.  6-14);  under  Jehosha- 
phat,  Jotham,  Nehemiah,  and 
Judas  Maccaba?us.  After  the 
fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
(721  B.C.)  they  spread  themselves 
in  the  districts  east  of  the  Jordan, 


They  sometimes  secured  the  alli- 
ance of  Syria,  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, and  of  Arabian  tribes  in 
their  wars  with  the  Jews.  They 
were  finally  conquered  by  Judas 
Maccabaeus.  Their  language  was 
apparently  akin  to  Hebrew. 
Their  chief  city  was  Rabbath- 
Ammon;  their  national  deity  was 
Milcom  (Moloch). 

Ammonites,  am-6-m'tez,  a 
group  of  animals  belonging  to  the 
Cephalopoda,  now  extinct.  The 
name  Cornua  ammonis  is  derived 
from  their  resemblance  to  the 
coiled  rams'  horns  which  deco- 
rated the  statues  of  Jupiter  Am- 
mon. The  shells  vary  from  a 
fraction  of  an  inch  to  nine  or  ten 
feet  in  diameter.  The  earliest 
ammonites  are  found  in  the 
Permian  of  Sicily;  they  became 
extinct  at  the  close  of  Cretaceous 
times.  In  Jurassic  and  Creta- 
ceous seas  they  abounded;  and 
their  shells  are  among  the  most 
characteristic  ingredients  of  the 
calcareous  rocks  of  those  periods. 
They  were  not  only  individually 
numerous,  but  developed  a  great 
variety  of  genera  and  species. 

Their  spirally  coiled  shells,  like 
the  shell  of  the  living  nautilus 
(q.v.),  were  divided  into  a  series 
of  separate  chambers  by  trans- 
verse partitions.  The  outermost 
chamber  was  open  in  front,  and 
was  inhabited  by  the  animal;  the 
posterior  chambers  contained 
only  gases.  The  mouth  of  the 
'living  chamber'  was  often  orna- 
mented with  projecting  processes 
or  horns.  By  an  aperture  in  its 
posterior  wall  this  chamber  com- 
municated with  a  tube,  the 
siphuncle,  which  ran  backward 
through  all  the  empty  chambers, 
and  ended  in  the  centre  of  the 
coil.  Lying  in  the  living  cham- 
ber a  calcareous  plate  is  some- 
times found,  the  aptychus,  which 
is  believed  to  have  served  as  an 
operculum,  with  which  the  mouth 
of  the  shell  could  be  closed.  The 
external  surface  was  sometimes 
smooth,  but  more  usually  orna- 
mented with  projections,  ribs, 
and  furrows.  See  Cephalopoda. 

Ammo'nium  is  the  name 
given  to  the  group  NH4  present 
in  the  salts  formed  by  the  union 
of  ammonia  (q.v.)  with  acids. 
This  group  has  not  been  isolated, 
but  behaves  very  like  the  element 
potassium  in  its  compounds,  and 
is  often  classed  with  it. 

Ammonium,  the  site  of  the 
famous  temple  of  Ammon  in  the 
Libyan  Desert,  the  modern  oasis 
of  Siwah  (q.v.) 

Ammo'nius,  surnamed  Sac- 
CAS  ('sack-carrier')  (d.  243  A.D.), 
Greek  philosopher,  founder  of 
the  Neo-Platonic  School.  In  his 
earlier  days  he  was  a  porter  in 
Alexandria;  hence  his  surname. 
His  most  distinguished  pui)ils 
were  Origen,  Plotinus,  Longinus, 
and  Herennius.  He  left  no 
writings. 


Ammonius 


217 


Ammunition 


Ammonius  son  of  Hermias 
(fifth  century),  studied  at  Athens 
under  Proclus,  and  was  afterward 
the  master  of  Simplicius,  Ascle- 
pius  Trallianus,  John  Philoponus, 
and  Damascius.  His  extant 
commentaries  are :  On  the  Isagoge 
of  Porphyry,  On  the  Categories  of 
Aristotle,  De  Inter pretatione. 

Ammonius  of  Alexandria 
(b.  458),  presbyter  and  oecono- 
mus  of  the  church  in  that  city, 
was  an  Egyptian.  His  extant 
works  are:  Exposition  on  the  Book 
of  Acts;  Commentary  on  the 
Psalms;  On  St.  John's  Gospel. 

Ammonoi'dea,  a  totally  ex- 
tinct group  of  mollusca,  of  which 
no  less  than  5,000  fossil  species 
have  been  discovered.  The  so- 
called  sutural  line,  which  marks 
the  union  of  the  partitions  with 
the  inner  walls,  is  used  in  classi- 
fying the  species  into  500  gen- 
era and  98  families.  This  sub- 
division of  the  cephalopods  is 
generally  distributed  in  the  ma- 
rine rocic  formations  of  the  three 
geologic  periods,  Devonian,  Car- 
boniferous, and  Mesozoic.  A 
record  of  the  development  of  the 
ammonoid  is  preserved  in  its 
shell,  which,  like  that  of  the 
nautilus  (q.v.),  is  constructed  by 
natural  vSecretions  into  chambers, 
the  living  animal  moving  forward 
as  each  portion  is  outgrown.  The 
shells  of  the  ammonoid  vary  in 
shape  from  the  flat  and  closely 
coiled  to  a  conical  form  in  the 
uncoiling. 

The  order  of  ammonoidea  is  of 
peculiar  interest  in  the  study  of 
bioplastology,  and  to  the  palaeon- 
tologist it  illustrates  the  evolu- 
tion of  races  of  animals  through 
the  various  stages  followed  by 
their  ancestors.  A  monograph 
of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
The  Carboniferous  Ammonoids  of 
America  (1903),  by  James  P. 
Smith,  lists,  describes,  and  illus- 
trates, where  possible,  the  Car- 
boniferous ammonoid  genera  and 
species;  it  contains  an  extensive 
bibliography. 

Ammonoo'suc,  Lower,  a  river 
of  New  Hampshire,  rising  in  the 
western  slopes  of  the  Presidential 
Range,  Coos  county,  and  flowing 
west,  then  southwest,  until  it  en- 
ters the  Connecticut  River  below 
Groveton,  Vermont.  Length,  95 
miles. 

Ammonoosuc,  Upper,  a  river 
of  New  Hampshire,  rising  in  the 
Randolph  Range,  Coos  county, 
and  flowing  north  and  then  west 
for  some  40  miles  until  it  joins 
the  Connecticut  River  above 
Northumberland. 

Ammopli'ila,  a  genus  of  peren- 
nial grasses  common  to  sandy 
beaches,  with  interlacing  root 
stocks,  whitish  leaves,  and  spike- 
like panicles.  The  most  impor- 
tant species,  A.  arenaria — pop- 
ularly known  as  'Sea  Reed,' 
'Sand  Reed,'  'Beach  Grass,'  or 
'Mat  Grass' — has  a  rigid  stem 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


two  to  four  feet  long,  involute 
leaves  ribbed  on  the  interior  sur- 
face, cylindrical  panicles,  and 
flowers  with  white  anthers.  It 
is  extensively  employed  in  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain, 
and  on  the  Continent  as  a  binder 
of  sand  banks  built  to  resist  the 
encroachments  of  the  sea.  The 
smaller  leaves  furnish  food  for 
cattle;  and  in  the  Hebrides  the 
fibres  are  used  for  ropes  and  mats. 

Ammuni'tion,  a  term  formerly 
including  all  the  military  stores 
of  an  army  in  the  field,  but  now 
confined  to  projectiles  (q.v.),  and 
the  various  agents  necessary  for 
their  effective  employment.  The 
term  includes  the  missile  (bullet 
or  projectile);  the  propelling 
charge  and  its  container,  for  pro- 
jecting the  missile  from  the  can- 
non; the  primer,  for  igniting  the 
propelling  charge;  the  bursting 
charge,  for  breaking  the  missile 
into  fragments;  the  fuse,  for  ig- 
niting or  detonating  the  bursting 
charge;  and  grenades  and  bombs 
thrown  by  hand  or  other  means. 

Ammunition  for  cannon  is 
classified  as  fixed  or  separate  load- 
ing, depending  upon  whether  or 
not  the  projectile  is  attached  to 
the  cartridge  case. 

Projectiles  are  classified  as 
Shot,  Shell,  and  Case  Shot.  A 
shot  is  either  a  solid  projectile, 
or  one  having  a  relatively  small 
cavity  for  a  bursting  charge.  A 
shell  has  a  large  cavity  for  a 
bursting  charge  and  thin  exterior 
walls.  A  case  shot  consists  of  a 
number  of  round  balls  held  to- 
gether by  an  enclosing  envelope, 
which  may  be  ruptured  either  by 
shock  of  discharge  of  the  cannon 
or  by  a  bursting  charge  during 
flight.  The  only  form  of  case 
shot  used  by  modern  artillery  is 
the  shrapnel,  which  is  designed 
to  be  ruptured  by  a  bursting 
charge  during  flight. 

The  earliest  projectiles  were 
round  stones,  which  were  dis- 
charged from  the  smooth-bore 
guns  of  the  period  by  loose  pow- 
der put  into  the  gun  by  ladles. 
When  the  use  of  cast  iron  became 
general,  the  stone  shot  was 
superseded  by  round  cast-iron 
solid  shot  and  hollow  shell  of 
diameter  slightly  less  than  the 
calibre  of  the  gun.  The  intro- 
duction of  rifled  guns  brought 
elongated  projectiles,  giving  in- 
creased weight,  range,  and  accu- 
racy, higher  velocity,  and  greater 
striking  energy.  Various  devices 
were  used  to  cause  the  projectiles 
to  take  the  rifling  of  muzzle- 
loading  rifled  guns,  and  give  to 
the  elongated  projectiles  rotation 
necessary  to  insure  steadiness 
and  accuracy  in  flight.  The  in- 
troduction of  breech-loading  guns 
simplified  the  problem  of  giving 
rotation. 

All  modern  projectiles  are  of 
the  same  general  shape — viz.,  a 
cylindrical    body    with  ogival 


head.  They  vary  in  length  be- 
tween two  and  one-half  and  five 
times  the  calibre.  The  rear  part 
of  the  ogive  is  turned  down  to  a 
diameter  .01  inch  less  than  the 
gun  to  make  a  true  bearing  sur- 
face (called  the  bourrelet)  for  the 
projectile  against  the  interior 
walls  of  the  gun.  The  remainder 
of  the  cylindrical  part  of  the 
projectile  is  made  of  smaller 
diameter  for  a  loose  fit  in  the  gun. 
Rotation  is  given  by  means  of  a 
copper  rotating  band,  one-third 
to  one-eighth  calibre  wide,  hav- 
ing an  exterior  diameter  .1  to  .3 
inch  greater  than  the  calibre  of 
the  projectile.  To  attach  it  to 
the  projectile,  the  rotating  band 
is  forced  by  hydraulic  pressure 
into  an  undercut  groove  ma- 
chined around  the  projectile 
about  two  inches  in  front  of  the 
base.  When  the  gun  is  fired,  the 
rotating  band  is  forced  through 
the  rifling,  the  lands  cutting  into 
the  band  and  forcing  the  excess 
metal  into  the  grooves.  The 
rotating  band  serves  three  pur- 
poses: to  give  the  projectile  rota- 
tion, to  prevent  the  escape  of 
powder  gas  around  the  projec- 
tile, and  to  give  a  bearing  to  the 
rear  end  of  the  projectile  in  the 
same  manner  that  the  bourrelet 
furnishes  a  support  to  the  front 
end. 

Modern  projectiles  for  cannon, 
according  to  their  use,  are  classi- 
fied into:  (1)  armor-piercing  shot; 
(2)  armor-piercing  and  deck- 
piercing  shell;  (3)  common  shell; 
and  (4)  shrapnel. 

The  armor-piercing  projectiles 
are  used  mainly  in  coast  fortifica- 
tions and  in  navies  where  penetra- 
tion of  hardened  steel  armor  is 
required.  In  the  U.  S.  Coast 
Artillery  the  shot  is  used  against 
the  heaviest  armor  at  short 
ranges,  and  the  shell  against 
light  armor,  decks,  or  unarmored 
parts  of  ships;  but  the  general 
practice  of  other  services  is  a 
single  armor-piercing  projectile 
intermediate  between  the  shot 
and  shell,  and  called  a  shell. 

In  material  and  methods  of 
manufacture,  the  armor-piercing 
shot  and  shell  are  identical.  The 
shell  is  about  one  calibre  longer 
than  the  shot,  and  has  thinner 
side  walls,  giving  an  interior 
cavity  for  bursting  charge  about 
twice  the  size  of  the  cavity  of  the 
shot. 

An  armor-piercing  projectile  is 
made  of  very  high  grade  steel, 
forged  and  machined  to  the 
proper  exterior  dimensions,  and 
the  interior  cavity  bored  out. 
It  is  then  subjected  to  a  secret 
process  of  treatment  to  produce 
the  necessary  hardness  of  head. 
The  base  is  closed  by  a  base  plug 
screwed  into  place.  After  the 
projectile  is  treated,  a  soft  steel 
cap  is  fastened  over  the  point. 
The  cap  has  a  double  function: 
it  facilitates  flight  by  presenting 


Ammunition 


217  A 


Ammunition 


a  long,  thin  point  to  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air;  and  it  facilitates 
penetration  by  protecting  and 
supporting  the  blunt,  hard  point 
of  the  projectile,  and  preventing 
it  from  being  shattered  until  it 
bites  into  the  armor  plate.  In  the 
U.  S.  service  both  shot  and  shell 
carry  a  bursting  charge  of  high 
explosive. 

The  common  shell  is  made 
usually  of  cast  iron  or  cast  steel, 
but  often  of  forged  steel.  For 
U.  S.  coast  guns  the  common 
shell  is  of  the  same  shape  as  the 
armor-piercing  projectile,  and, 
except  in  guns  of  small  calibre, 
is  used  only  for  target  practice. 
For  field  artillery  the  shell  has  a 
short  point,  and  when  prepared 
for  service  carries  a  bursting 
charge  of  high  explosive.  It  is 
thus  designed  for  the  destruction 
of  material  objects,  artillery, 
buildings,  walls,  and  trenches, 
rather  than  of  personnel,  for 
which  shrapnel  is  specially  de- 
signed. For  target  practice,  sand 
is  substituted  for  the  high-explo- 
sive bursting  charge. 

Shrapnel  is  similar  in  external 
form  to  other  modern  projec- 
tiles, but  is  shorter  than  the 
common  shell.  The  shrapnel  for 
a  three-inch  field  gun  consists  of 
a  steel  tube  drawn  in  one  piece, 
with  a  solid  base.  The  head  con- 
taining the  fuse  is  screwed  into 
the  tube.  The  bursting  charge 
is  contained  in  a  chamber  in  the 
base,  which  is  connected  to  the 
fuse  in  the  head  by  a  small  tube 
in  the  centre  of  the  shrapnel  case. 
About  250  lead  balls,  each  about 
one-half  inch  in  diameter,  are 
packed  inside  the  case  in  a  smoke- 
producing  matrix.  The  weakest 
part  of  the  outer  case  is  at  the 
point  where  the  head  is  screwed 
in;  and  the  tendency,  when  the 
bursting  charge  acts,  is  to  rup- 
ture the  outer  case  at  that  point. 
The  balls  are  projected  forward 
from  the  front  end  of  the  case 
with  an  added  velocity  due  to 
the  bursting  charge,  like  a  charge 
of  shot  from  a  shotgun.  The 
fragments  of  a  shell  fly  in  every 
direction.  A  smoke-producing 
matrix  is  employed  to  enable  the 
fire  to  be  observed  from  a  dis- 
tance. A  combination  fuse  is 
Uvsed,  so  arranged  that  the 
shrapnel  may  be  burst  either  a 
given  number  of  seconds  after  it 
leaves  the  muzzle  of  the  gun,  or 
upon  impact  with  any  solid  ob- 
ject. The  shrapnel,  ordinarily,  is 
the  principal  projectile  for  the 
light  field  gun.  A  universal 
shrapnel  has  been  adopted  in 
the  U.  S.  Field  Artillery  which  is 
designed  to  serve  either  as  shell 
or  shrapnel.  The  balls  are  em- 
bedded in  a  high-explosive  matrix 
which  detonates  when  the  per- 
cussion part  of  the  fuse  acts,  but 
simply  burns  when  the  time  fuse 
acts.  vShrapnel  for  field,  siege, 
and  seacoast  cannon  of  all  na- 
VoL.  I.— Oct.  '15 


tions  is  similar  to  that  for  the 
field  gun. 

Propelling  Charges  for  cannon 
of  most  of  the  Great  Powers  con- 
sist of  some  form  of  nitro-cellu- 
lose  smokeless  powder;  but  some 
use  nitro-glycerine  powder.  The 
powder  is  made  up  into  grains  or 
sticks,  which  increase  in  size  with 
the  calibre  of  the  gun,  on  the 
theory  that  all  the  powder  should 
not  be  consumed  until  just  before 
the  projectile  leaves  the  muzzle. 
(See  Explosives.) 

For  convenience  and  safety  in 
handling  and  rapidity  in  loading, 
powder  charges  are  put  up  in 
containers.  For  rifles  and  small 
cannon  these  are  brass  cases 
drawn  out  of  single  brass  discs. 
The  containers  of  charges  for 
cannon  of  3  inches  and  upward 
in  the  U.  S.  land  services  are 
bags  of  raw  silk  of  such  diameter 
that  when  filled  the  charge  will 
fit  the  powder  chamber.  The  pow- 
der charges  for  rapid-fire  guns 
of  3-inch  calibre  and  upward, 
after  being  made  up  in  the  bags, 
are  then  put  into  brass  cartridge 
cases. 

In  loading  cartridges,  the 
small-grain  powders  are  put  in 
loose;  but  cordite  and  stick  pow- 
ders are  laid  lengthwise  of  the 
charge,  like  a  bundle  of  sticks. 

Brass  cartridge  cases  must  be 
of  the  same  length  as  the  powder 
chamber  of  the  gun;  while  the 
powder  charge,  as  a  rule,  is  never 
more  than  nine-tenths  of  that 
length.  In  order  to  keep  the 
powder  firmly  in  place,  and  in 
contact  with  the  primer,  pieces 
of  cardboard  are  placed  in  the 
case  between  the  base  of  the 
projectile  and  the  cartridge  bag, 
where  the  powder  is  encased  in  a 
bag,  and  between  the  base  of 
the  projectile  and  a  wad  over 
the  powder,  where  it  is  loose  in 
the  case.  An  igniting  charge  of 
black  powder  is  quilted  into  the 
bag  of  all  smokeless-powder 
charges  for  large  guns,  to  assist 
the  primer  in  the  ignition  of  the 
smokeless  powder.  In  addition 
thereto,  the  charges  for  the 
largest  seacoast  cannon  have 
central  cores  of  black  powder 
lengthwise  of  the  charge. 

The  percussion  primer  is  used 
in  modern  field  artillery  cannon, 
and  in  seacoast  cannon  using  me- 
tallic cartridge  cases;  the  electric 
primer,  in  seacoast  cannon  of  cali- 
bre of  5  inches  and  upward  using 
separate  ammunition.  The  fric- 
tion primer  is  still  used  in  the 
older  models  of  field  and  siege 
cannon,  such  as  the  3.2-inch  and 
5-inch  guns  and  7-inch  howitzer; 
and  in  seacoast  cannon  for  drill 
and  for  emergency  when  the  elec- 
tric firing  circuit  fails.  (See 
Fuses  and  Primers.) 

Bursting  Charges  for  most 
modern  projectiles  are  some  form 
of  high  explosive.  In  the  United 
States,  Explosive  D  is  used  for 


shot  and  shell  for  seacoast  can- 
non. Black  powder  is  still  em- 
ployed in  the  shrapnel,  but  tri- 
nitrotoluol, or  'trotyl,'  is  coming 
into  use  for  field  artillery  shells 
and  the  new  universal  shrapnel. 
In  foreign  services,  various  high 
explosives  are  used — lyddite,  mel- 
inite, shimose,  and  trotyl. 

Fuses  may  be  classified:  as  to 
their  positions  in  the  projectile, 
as  Base  or  Point;  as  to  their 
methods  of  action,  as  Percussion, 
Time,  or  Combination  Time  and 
Percussion;  and  as  to  their  times 
of  action,  as  Delay  or  Non-Delay. 
The  fuses  used  by  the  various 
nations  differ  in  mechanical  de- 
tails, but  the  general  features  of 
all  are  similar.  (See  Fuses  and 
Primers.) 

The  ammunition  for  small 
arms  rifles  is  fixed.  The  bullet 
in  use  by  all  the  Great  Powers 
has  a  lead  core,  an  outer  jacket 
of  nickel  or  cupro-nickel,  and  a 
sharp  point  to  reduce  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air.  The  powder  is 
fine-grained  smokeless. 

During  the  sixteenth  and  sev- 
enteenth centuries,  when  the 
range  of  muskets  was  short,  the 
use  of  hand  grenades,  particularly 
in  siege  warfare,  was  general. 
The  explosive  was  gunpowder, 
and  was  set  off  by  a  burning  fuse 
which  was  lighted  before  the 
grenade  was  thrown.  When  the 
range  of  small  arms  was  increased 
beyond  the  distance  to  which 
hand  grenades  could  be  thrown, 
their  use  was  discontinued.  Dur- 
ing the  Russo-Japanese  War  they 
came  into  use  again  in  the  trench 
warfare,  but  charged  with  high 
explosive  and  set  off  by  a  per- 
cussion fuse.  Since  that  time  the 
hand  grenade  has  been  developed 
into  a  very  powerful  short-range 
instrument  of  destruction.  It  is 
made  of  forged  steel,  as  a  rule, 
and  filled  with  high  explosive.  It 
is  set  off  upon  impact  by  a  per- 
cussion fuse,  and  usually  carries 
some  form  of  vane  or  tail  to  in- 
sure that  the  fuse  shall  be  struck. 
Most  of  the  European  Powers 
engaged  in  the  present  European 
War  are  training  men  regularly 
as  grenade  throwers,  and  attach 
a  small  number  of  throwers  to 
each  battalion  in  the  trenches. 
A  safety  device  is  provided,  to 
make  the  grenade  safe  to  handle 
and  transport;  this  device  is  re- 
moved just  before  the  grenade  is 
thrown. 

The  aeroplane  bombs  developed 
during  the  present  European  War 
are  similar  in  principle  of  action 
and  construction  to  the  hand 
grenades;  but  they  are  much 
larger  and  more  powerful.  Sev- 
eral kinds  appear  to  be  in  use: 
the  explosive  bomb,  depending 
upon  the  explosive  effect  of  a 
heavy  charge;  the  incendiary 
bomb,  which  upon  bursting  scat- 
ters inflammable  material  about; 
and  the  gas  bomb,  containing 


Ammunition 


217  B 


Amceba 


some  substance  which  develops 
poisonous  fumes  upon  explosion. 

Naval  Ammunition. — The  am- 
munition for  naval  guns  is  either 
fixed  or  separate.  Fixed  ammu- 
nition is  used  in  all  guns  of  a 
calibre  of  4  inches  or  less,  and  in 
some  of  5  inches.  It  consists  of 
a  heavy  drawn-brass  cartridge 
case  in  which  the  shell  is  firmly- 
crimped,  so  that  the  whole  re- 
sembles a  small-arms  cartridge  in 
which  the  case  has  only  a  slight 
bottle  neck  or  no  bottle  neck  at 
all.  In  the  larger  calibres  (4  and 
5  inches)  the  cartridge  cases  have 
primers  arranged  for  electric  or 
percussion  firing.  Some  3-inch 
ammunition  has  been  fitted  with 
combination  primers;  but  nearly 
all  of  this  calibre,  and  all  smaller 
ammunition,  have  percussion 
primers  only. 

The  powder  is  smokeless,  ex- 
cept a  small  priming  or  ignition 
charge  of  blafck  powder,  and  is 
contained  in  a  silk  bag  which  is 
inserted  in  the  cartridge  case  with 
the  tied  end  next  to  the  projec- 
tile. The  ignition  charge  is 
sewed  in  a  pocket  at  the  other  end 
of  the  bag,  and  is  therefore  in 
close  contact  with  the  primer 
seated  in  the  case.  In  the  U.  S. 
Navy  a  pure  nitro-cellulose  pow- 
der is  used  (see  Gunpowder). 
Similar  powders  are  in  use  in  the 
French  and  Russian  navies. 
The  British,  Austrian,  and  Ital- 
ian navies  use  a  powder  contain- 
ing 15  to  35  per  cent,  of  nitro- 
glycerin. 

The  U.  S.  Navy  uses  the  same 
rifle  as  the  U.  S.  Army,  so  that 
the  ammunition  is  the  same;  as 
is  also  that  for  the  navy  machine 
guns. 

Guns  of  more  than  5-inch  cali- 
bre have  the  projectile  and  charge 
separate.  The  projectiles  used 
(see  Projectiles)  are  common 
shell  and  shrapnel  for  the  5  and  6 
inch,  and  common  shell  and 
armor-piercing  shell  for  the  larger 
pieces.  All  large  shell,  and  some 
for  5  and  6  inch  guns,  have  burst- 
ing charges  of  high  explosive. 
The  others  contain  black  powder 
which  is  sufficiently  powerful  to 
burst  common  shell  up  to  a  size 
of  8  inches.  High  explosives  (in 
the  United  States,  chiefly  'Ex- 
plosive D';  in  foreign  services, 
picric  acid  or  trinitrotoluol)  are 
used  in  armor-piercing  projec- 
tiles above  6  inches  calibre,  and 
in  all  shell  where  great  fragmen- 
tation is  desired. 

The  powder  charge  used  in 
separate  loading  is  put  up  in  silk 
bags.  The  bags  are  of  cylindrical 
form,  and  are  strapped  and  tied 
to  preserve  that  shape.  In  guns 
of  8-inch  calibre  and  larger,  the 
charge  is  put  up  in  more  than  one 
bag:  the  8-inch  having  2,  the  10- 
inch  3,  the  12-inch  4,  the  14-inch 
5.  Each  bag  or  section  of  the 
charge  has  a  small  ignition  charge 
of  black  powder,  and  the  end  of 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


the  section  containing  it  is  al- 
ways turned  to  the  rear. 

The  primers  used  in  guns  hav- 
ing the  charge  in  bags  loaded 
separately  are  combination  elec- 
tric and  percussion. 

The  foregoing  description  of 
naval  ammunition  applies  in  all 
details,  except  as  noted,  to  the 
U.  S.  Navy  only.  But  with  some 
slight  changes  as  to  calibres,  dif- 
ferences due  to  powders,  projec- 
tiles, etc.,  it  is  equally  true  of  the 
ammunition  in  all  naval  services. 

See  Projectiles;  Cartridges; 
Explosives;  Gunpowder;  Gun- 
nery; Guns;  Arsenal;  Ord- 
nance Department,  U.  S. 

Consult  Weaver,  Guttman, 
Marshall,  and  Abbott  on  Explo- 
sives; Lissak's  Ordnance  and  Gun- 
nery; Spaulding's  Notes  on  Field 
Artillery;  publications  of  the 
U.  S.  Navy  Department;  pam- 
phlets of  the  U.  S.  Ordnance  De- 
partment. 

Amnesia,  am-ne'zi-a  or  -si-a, 
(Greek  'forgetfulness'),  loss  or 
defect  of  memory;  now  restricted 
to  the  loss  of  memory  of  spoken 
words.  Show  an  amnesic  patient 
common  objects — a  match  box, 
pencil,  penknife,  etc. — and  ask 
him  to  name  them;  if  he  cannot 
do  this,  he  has  word  forgetful- 
ness (amnesia  verbalis).  Some- 
times the  patient  has  a  vague 
idea  of  the  word  he  wants,  but 
cannot  pronounce  it  properly,  al- 
though he  may  be  able  to  write 
it.  This  has  been  called  Articu- 
lative  Amnesia  or  Amnesic  Apha- 
sia. Amnesia  is  due  to  cerebral 
conditions  which  may  be  tempo- 
rary or  permanent.  Most  people 
experience  a  certain  degree  of 
amnesia  when  exhausted  by  fa- 
tigue or  disease.  See  Aphasia; 
Memory. 

Am'nesty  is  a  general  pardon 
or  act  of  oblivion,  the  effect  of 
which  is  that  the  offences  of  the 
guilty  parties  who  are  included 
within  it  are  so  wiped  out  that 
they  can  never  again  form  the 
basis  of  a  criminal  charge.  The 
essence  of  an  amnesty  is  that  it 
is  general,  applying  to  a  whole 
class  of  offenders,  whereas  an 
ordinary  pardon  (q.v.)  is  special. 
In  England  amnesties  used  to  be 
granted  on  great  state  occasions 
such  as  coronations,  either  by 
the  Crown  alone  or  by  act  of 
Parliament. 

An  amnesty  is  generally  of- 
fered at  the  conclusion  of  a  war — 
for  example,  in  the  United  States 
in  1872  to  all  who  had  taken  part 
in  the  Civil  War.  It  may  be  ab- 
solute or  qualified  in  some  way. 
Thus  in  England  at  the  Restora- 
tion the  persons  actually  con- 
cerned in  the  execution  of  Charles 
I.  were  excluded  from  the  am- 
nesty granted.  The  amnesty  at 
the  end  of  the  American  Civil 
War  was  qualified  to  the  effect 
that  one  whose  property  had 
been  sold  under  the  Confiscation 


Act  of  1862  should  not  be  entitled 
to  reclaim  the  proceeds  after  they 
had  been  paid  into  the  treasury 
of  the  United  States.  Amnesty 
clauses  in  a  treaty  of  peace  are 
those  which  confirm  what  one 
belligerent  has  done  with  the 
property  of  the  other  during  the 
progress  of  the  war. 

In  the  United  States  the  power 
to  grant  amnesty  for  past  of- 
fences against  the  Government 
and  its  laws  is  vested  by  the 
Constitution  in  the  President, 
though  it  has  been  held  by  the 
Supreme  Court  that  the  power 
resides  also  in  Congress. 

Am'nion,  a  foetal  membrane 
which  surrounds  the  embryo  in 
mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles, 
but  not  in  amphibia,  fishes,  or 
lower  vertebrates.  Double  folds 
grow  round  the  embryo  early  in 
the  development,  arching  over  it 
on  all  sides,  and  uniting  in  a 
central  point.  The  inner  layer 
of  this  double  fold  becomes  sep- 
arate from  the  outer,  and  forms 
the  amnion.  As  gestation  pro- 
ceeds, this  membrane  secretes 
from  its  inner  surface  a  fluid 
which  distends  the  amnion,  with- 
in which  the  foetus  floats  sus- 
pended by  the  umbilical  cord. 
This  fluid,  the  liquor  amnii,  con- 
sists of  water,  containing  epithe-  » 
lium,  hairs,  and  %  to  2  per  cent, 
of  fixed  solids.  Its  specific  grav- 
ity varies  from  1.007  to  1.011, 
The  fluid  preserves  the  foetus 
from  injury  and  pressure,  per- 
mits of  the  free  movement  of  its 
limbs,  and  prevents  them  from 
growing  together.  When  gesta- 
tion is  completed,  and  labor 
commences,  the  amniotic  fluid  is 
the  chief  mechanical  agent  in 
dilating  the  os  uteri,  and  so  open- 
ing the  way  for  the  foetus.  At 
birth,  or  hatching,  the  amnion  is 
ruptured  and  cast  off.  Those 
vertebrates  in  which  the  amnion 
is  present  are  classed  as  Am- 
niota.  See  Allantois;  Caul; 
Embryology. 

Amoeba,  a-me'ba  (Greek 
'changing'),  a  genus  of  Protozoa 
(q.v.),  or  simple  unicellular  ani- 
mals; but  the  term  is  also  used 
in  a  more  general  sense  to  desig- 
nate any  protozoon  which  struc- 
turally resembles  a  true  amoeba. 
Thus,  many  Protozoa  are  said  to 
pass  through  an  amoeba  stage; 
and  the  term  amosboid  is  also  ap- 
plied to  cells,  such  as  the  white 
blood  corpuscles  of  man,  which 
have  the  power  of  protruding 
and  retracting  blunt  processes  or 
pseudopodia. 

Amoeba?  are  found  in  fresh 
water  or  in  mud,  and  occasionally 
in  damp  earth  {A.  terricola). 
One  of  the  commonest  was  first 
described  in  1755  by  an  early 
microscopist,  Rosel  von  Rosen- 
hof,  and  the  name  he  gave  it — ; 
Proteus  animalcule — still  survives 
in  popular  language.  A  typical 
amoeba  consists  of  a  naked  mass 


Amoeba 


218 


Amory 


of  protoplasm,  is  without  definite 
shape,  and  movies  by  pushing  out 
pseudopodia  in  the  anterior  re- 
gion and  contracting  the  cell 
mass  in  the  posterior  region.  As 
to  size,  a  diameter  of  a  hundredth 
of  an  inch  is  not  uncommon,  but 
some  amoebae  are  much  larger 
than  this.  The  outer  layer  of  the 
protoplasm  is  usually  firmer 
than  the  interior,  and  in  reference 
to  this  physical  difference  the 
terms  ectosarc  and  endosarc  are 
often  used.  There  is  no  perma- 
nent distinction  between  outer 
and  inner  layers  in  the  proto- 


Typical  Forms  of  Amoeba,  show- 
ing Pseudopodia.  {Greatly  mag- 
nified.) . 


plasm,  but  the  marginal  layer 
contains  fewer  granules  than  the 
central.  Within  the  central  pro- 
toplasm a  denser  patch  forms  the 
usually  single  nucleus.  The  cen- 
tral protoplasm  contains  also  one 
or  more  pulsating  bubbles  of 
fluid — the  so-called  contractile 
vacuoles,  whose  function  is  appar- 
ently excretory.  Also  included 
in  the  protoplasm  are  the  food 
vacuoles,  consisting  of  a  food  par- 
ticle— e.g.,  a  diatom,  which  has 
been  taken  in  by  simply  flowing 
about  it — surrounded  by  a  film 
of  water  ingested  with  it.  Ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  a 
ferment  is  poured  by  the  sur- 
rounding protoplasm  into  the 
food  vacuole,  and  the  food  sub- 
stance is  digested  and  absorbed, 
while  the  indigestible  residue  is 
got  rid  of  at  the  surface.  Al- 
though, for  various  reasons,  the 
amoeba  has  become  the  most  fa- 
miliar member  of  the  Protozoa 
to  the  general  public,  it  has  not 
been  the  object  of  so  many  exper- 
iments as  some  other  members 
of  the  group,  and  many  points  in 
regard  to  its  physiology  are  con- 
jectural only. 

The  life  history  of  amoeba  is 
very  simple.  It  grows  until  the 
limit  of  advantageous  size  is 
reached,  and  then  divides  through 
the  nucleus  to  form  two  amoebae. 
Under  unfavorable  conditions  it 
is  capable  of  rounding  itself  off 
and  forming  a  protective  invest- 
ment or  cyst,  within  which  it 
may  lie  passive  until  the  environ- 
ment again  becomes  favorable 
to  the  resumption  of  active  exist- 
ence. The  formation  of  spores  is 
also  stated  to  occur.  Two  amoe- 
bae sometimes  flow  together 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


and  fuse  in  a  manner  which  may 
be  fairly  regarded  as  an  incipient 
form  of  sexual  union  (see  Con- 
jugation). This  simple  organ- 
ism thus  exhibits  within  small 
compass  all  the  usual  animal 
functions.  It  is  contractile,  irri- 
table, and  automatic;  it  feeds, 
assimilates,  secretes,  grows,  and 
.reproduces;  and  the  intimate 
changes  within  the  unit  mass  of 
protoplasm,  in  which  there  is  no 
division  of  labor,  must  therefore 
be  exceedingly  complex  (see 
Protoplasm).  The  general  in- 
terest of  amoeba,  as  indicated 
above,  is  that  it  retains  through- 
out life  a  type  of  cell  structure 
which  tends  to  recur,  permanent- 
ly or  temporarily,  among  the 
cells  of  many  higher  animals, 
and  in  the  life  cycle  of  many  other 
Protozoa.  See  Cell.  Consult 
Lankester's  Treatise  on  Zoology 
(1903);  and  for  amoeboid  cells  in 
higher  animals,  Metchnikoff's 
Lectures  on  the  Comparative  Path- 
ology of  Inflammation  (Eng. 
trans.). 

Amok.    See  Amuck. 

Amol,  a-mol',  town,  province 
Mazanderan,  Persia,  on  the 
Heraz  River;  75  miles  northeast 
of  Teheran.  It  has  good  ba- 
zaars, and  is  a  place  of  consid- 
erable prosperity  and  wealth. 
Pop.  10,000  to  20,000  (varying 
with  the  season). 

Amo'mum,  a  genus  of  Zingi-' 
beraceae,  to  which  belong  the 
plants  yielding  cardamoms  and 
grains  of  paradise  (qq.v.). 

Amontillado,  a-mon-til-ya'do, 
a  favorite  variety  of  Spanish 
sherry,  light  in  body  and  in  color. 
See  Sherry. 

Amor,  a'mor,  among  the  Ro- 
mans the  god  of  love  and  har- 
mony, equivalent  to  the  Greek 
Eros.  He  had  no  place  in  their 
national  religion.  The  cult  was 
derived  from  the  Greeks. 

Am'orites,  a  name  applied 
generally  to  the  primitive  inhab- 
itants of  Canaan,  sometimes  also 
to  the  Canaanites  (q.v.),  al- 
though the  two  peoples  were 
probably  not  identical.  The 
Amorites  seem  originally  to  have 
been  a  dominant  tribe  or  group 
of  tribes  occupying  the  district 
of  Anti-Lebanon,  who,  over- 
running most  of  Canaan,  were  in 
turn  conquered  by  the  Hittites. 
They  were  still  strong  enough, 
however,  to  make  some  resistance 
to  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of 
the  Exodus,  at  which  period  they 
had  settlements  in  the  south  and 
east  of  Palestine;  but  their  chief 
kings,  Sihon  of  Heshbon  and  Og 
of  Bashan,  were  overthrown  by 
Moses,  while  Joshua  utterly  dis- 
comfited five  Amorite  kings  at 
Gibeon.  Amos  speaks  of  the 
Amorites  as  being  'like  the  height 
of  the  cedars'  (Amos  ii.  0),  prob- 
ably a  figurative  suggestion  of 
their  powerfulness.  Notwith- 
standing their  strength  as  a  sep- 


arate people,  the  Amorites  be- 
came a  part  of  Israel  and  Judah. 

By  the  Babylonians,  Syria  was 
known  as  'the  land  of  the  Am- 
orites.' The  famous  Babylonian 
king  Khammurabi  (q.v.)  was 
of  the  Amorites,  and  it  is  claimed 
that  the  latter  contributed  to  the 
civilization  and  culture  of  Baby- 
lon. Until  recently,  the  Amorites 
were  known  only  by  references 
to  them  in  the  Old  Testament; 
but  archaeological  researches  have 
now  revealed  the  important  part 
played  by  them.  The  chief  deity 
of  the  Amorites  was  Amur  or 
Amar,  meaning  the  sun.  Con- 
sult A.  H.  Sayce's  Races  of  the  Old 
Testament;  A.  T.  Clay's  Amur^u, 
the  Home  of  the  Northern  Semites 
(1909). 

Amoro'so,  in  musical  score, 
indicates  a  tender,  delicate  stvle. 

Amor'phous,  a  term  applied  to 
substances  devoid  of  character- 
istic shape,  or  of  different  prop- 
erties in  different  directions,  in 
contradistinction  to  crystalline 
bodies.  Glass,  glue,  opal,  obsid- 
ian may  be  cited  as  examples. 
The  faculty  of  solidifying  in  the 
amorphous  form  is  well  marked 
in  the  borates,  phosphates,  and 
silicates,  which  readily  cool  from 
fusion  in  the  glassy  form.  Very 
often,  however,  the  amorphous 
state  is  unstable,  and  tends  to 
pass  into  the  cryptocrystalline,  or 
minutely  crystalline;  this  change 
is  known  as  Devitrification. 

Amortiza'tion,  the  reduction 
or  extinction  of  a  debt;  also  the 
payments  made  for  that  purpose. 
In  the  case  of  private  corpora- 
tions, particularly  those  engaged 
in  mining,  lumbering,  and  similar 
activities  of  limited  duration, 
amortization  is  usually  accom- 
plished by  means  of  a  sinking 
fund  (q.v.).  Public  corporations, 
as  municipalities,  frequently  use 
the  serial  bond  method  of  amor- 
tization, whereby  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  the  loan  is  paid  off 
periodically.  With  national 
governments,  the  sinking  fund 
method  of  payment  is  now  used 
principally  by  those  of  limited 
credit,  other  nations  preferring 
to  refund  their  debt  by  new 
issues  of  bonds.  (See  National 
Debt.) 

Amortization,  in  law,  is  the 
act  of  conveying  lands  or  tene- 
ments to  a  corporation  in  mort- 
main (q.v.). 

A'mory,  city,  Monroe  county, 
Mississippi,  on  the  St.  Louis  and 
vSan  Francisco  Railroad;  80  miles 
southwest  of  Holly  Springs.  It 
has  hardware  manufactures. 
Pop.  (1900)  1,211;  (1910)  2,122. 

Amory,  Robert  (1842),  Amer- 
ican physician,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, and  studied  medicine  at  Har- 
vard University  and  in  Paris. 
After  practising  in  Brookline, 
Mass.,  in  1 869  he  was  made  lectur- 
er on  physiology  and  the  action 
of  drugs  at  Harvard.    Later  he 


Amory 


219 


Amphiaraus 


became  lecturer  at  the  Bowdoin 
Medical  School.  He  wrote  the 
volume  on  poisons  in  Wharton 
and  Stille's  Medical  Jurispru- 
dence, and  many  treatises  on 
physiology  and  therapeutics. 

Amory,  Thomas  (?1691-1788), 
an  eccentric  writer  of  disordered 
intellect,  Irish  by  descent;  lived  a 
secluded  life  in  Dublin,  Westmin- 
ster, and  Hounslow.  His  books, 
of  which  the  chief  were  Memoirs 
Containing  the  Lives  of  Several 
Ladies  of  Great  Britain  (1755)  and 
its  sequel,  The  Life  of  John  Buncle, 
Esq.  (1756-66),  are  a  medley  of 
rhapsodies,  descriptions  of  scen- 
ery, theological  disquisitions,  and 
autobiography. 

Amory,  Thomas  Coffin  (1812- 
89),  American  lawyer  and  writer, 
was  born  in  Boston,  and  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  (1830). 
His  works  include:  Life  of  James 
Sullivan  (1859);  Life  of  Sir  Isaac 
Coffin  (1866);  Military  Services 
and  Public  Life  of  Major-General 
John  Sullivan  (1868). 

Amos,  one  of  the  twelve  Minor 
Prophets,  and  the  earliest  of  the 
prophets  whose  writings  are  ex- 
tant, was  a  herdsman  of  Tekoa, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethle- 
hem. He  prophesied  in  the  reign 
of  Uzziah  of  Judah,  the  contem- 
porary of  Jeroboam  ii.  of  Israel 
(Amosi.  1;  vii.  10#.),  c.  765-745 
B.C.  He  impeaches  the  nations 
of  Syria  and  Palestine  (i.  2) ;  de- 
nounces the  luxury  and  cruelty  of 
Israel,  but  specially  the  insincere 
though  elaborate  and  punctilious 
worship  maintained  at  Beth-el 
and  elsewhere;  and  predicts  dis- 
aster (iii.-vi.).  Chapters  vii.-ix. 
contain  a  series  of  five  visions 
intended  to  reinforce  the  fore- 
going indictments,  but  close  with 
a  promise  of  ultimate  restora- 
tion. 

Though  a  rustic,  Amos  wields 
a  style  of  remarkable  refinement; 
his  writings  are  singularly  vivid 
and  orderly,  illuminated  by  many 
apt  images  borrowed  from  rural 
life.  His  book  is  of  importance  as 
affording  contemporary  evidence 
of  religious  belief  and  practice  in 
Israel  during  the  eighth  century 
B.C.  He  traverses  the  popular 
notion  of  the  'day  of  Jahweh,' 
showing  that  it  will  be  a  day  not 
of  national  triumph,  but  of  cata.s- 
trophe;  inveighs  against  the  false 
trust  in  sacrifice  and  ritual  as  sub- 
stitutes for  righteousness;  pro- 
claims that  Jahweh  is  no  mere 
national  Deity,  but  the  God  of 
the  whole  earth ;  and  declares  that 
His  special  covenant  with  Israel, 
far  from  justifying  national  pride 
and  forsvardness,  will  count  as  a 
reason  for  the  more  exemplary 
punishment  of  an  unfaithful  peo- 
ple. Consult  Commentaries  by 
Driver,  G.  A.  Smith,  and  W.  R. 
Harper. 

Amoskcag.  See  Manchester, 
N.  H. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '16 


Amoy,  city  and  treaty  port, 
province  of  Fu-kien,  China,  is  sit- 
uated on  the  island  of  Amoy  or 
Haimun,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Lung-kiang  (Dragon  River).  It 
is  in  almost  daily  steamship  com- 
munication with  Hong-kong,  and 
is  connected  by  rail  with  Chang- 
chow,  whose  port  it  is.  It  is  di- 
vided into  an  inner  and  an  outer 
town,  each  having  its  own  harbor. 
The  outer  harbor  affords  good 
anchorage,  but  is  exposed  to  the 
southwest.  The  inner  harbor, 
which  is  from  a  third  to  a  half  a 
mile  in  width,  is  more  sheltered, 
lying  between  the  city  proper  and 
the  island  of  Kulangsu,  the  foreign 
residential  district.  It  is  provided 
with  a  graving  dock  300  feet  long 
and  60  feet  wide.  There  are  coal 
and  iron  deposits  within  40  miles 
of  Amoy;  coolie  oranges  and 
grape  fruit  are  raised  in  the  vicin- 
ity; and  the  city  has  long  been 
noted  for  its  excellent  fish  and 
oysters. 

Amoy  was  formerly  one  of  the 
great  tea  centres  of  China,  ex- 
porting annually  large  quantities 
of  Amoy  oolong,  which  was  grown 
on  neighboring  plantations.  As 
the  demand  for  Chinese  tea  de- 
creased, Formosa  oolong  took  its 
place,  being  shipped  to  Amoy  and 
there  blended,  packed,  matted, 
and  reshipped.  But  with  the  im- 
provement of  shipping  facilities 
on  the  island  of  Formosa,  this 
trade  is  also  diminishing.  Other 
exports  are  bricks  and  tiles,  pa- 
per, tobacco,  hemp  bags  and 
sacking,  chinaware,  paper  um- 
brellas, vermicelli,  and  macaroni. 
The  principal  imports  are  cotton 
goods,  rice,  flour,  matches,  and 
bean  cake.  In  1914  exports  were 
valued  at  $1,940,000  as  compared 
with  $2,560,000  in  1913;  and  net 
foreign  imports  at  $6,455,000  as 
compared  with  $8,000,000  in  1913, 
The  total  number  of  vessels  en- 
tered and  cleared  at  the  port  was 
1,595,  with  a  tonnage  of  2,073,- 
847.  Emigration  by  way  of  Amoy 
is  exceedingly  heavy,  about  100,- 
000  laborers  annually  leaving  that 
port  for  Singapore. 

The  Portuguese  began  trading 
in  Amoy  in  1544,  but  were  forc- 
ibly expelled  by  the  authorities 
for  their  ill  treatment  of  the  na- 
tive traders  and  country  people. 
The  English  had  commercial  set- 
tlements there,  and  sent  their 
ships  thither  until  1730,  when  the 
Chinese  government  centred  all 
foreign  trade  in  Canton.  In  1841 
Amoy  was  captured  by  the  Brit- 
ish, and  was  thrown  open  to 
British  trade  by  the  treaty  of 
Nanking  (1842).  The  port  is  now 
open  to  all  nations.  It  is  the 
centre  of  missionary  activity  in 
Fu-kien.    Pop.  (1915)  120,000. 

Ampelopsis,a  genus  of  the  vine 
family  {Vitaceoe)  that  includes 
the  Virginia  Creeper  (q.  v.)  and 
the  Japanese  Creeper. 


Ampere,  the  practical  unit  of 
electric  current,  is  theoretically 
defined  as  equal  to  10-^  c.G.s. 
electro-magnetic  units  of  current. 
It  is  practically  defined  as  the 
amount  of  a  constant  current 
which  deposits  1.118  milligrams 
of  silver  per  second  out  of  a  spe- 
cific solution  of  silver  nitrate.  The 
milliampere  is  one-thousandth  of 
an  ampere.  For  measuring  cur- 
rents, various  types  of  ammeters 
(ampere  meters),  galvanometers, 
and  current  meters  are  used.  See 
Ammeter. 

Ampere,  Andre  Marie  (1775- 
1836) ,  French  physicist  and  math- 
ematician, was  born  in  Lyons. 
In  1801  he  became  professor  of 
physics  at  Bourg,  and  a  few  years 
later  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Lyons.  In  1805  he  removed  to  the 
Polytechnic  School  at  Paris, 
where  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  analysis  in  1809,  and  be- 
came professor  of  physics  at  the 
College  de  France  in  1824.  His 
fame  rests  on  his  physical  re- 
searches, especially  on  his  devel- 
opment of  electro-dynamics  and 
his  original  demonstration  of  the 
relations  between  magnetism  and 
electricity.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  the  astatic  needle,  and  he  first 
propounded  the  theory  that  cur- 
rents of  electricity  in  the  earth 
attracted  the  magnetic  needle. 
The  measure  of  electricity  called 
the  ampere  (q.  v.)  was  named  for 
him.  His  chief  works  are:  Re- 
cueil  d' Observations  Electro-Dyna- 
miques  (1822);  Theorie  des  Pheno- 
menes  Electro-Dynamiques  (1830) ; 
Essai  sur  la  Philosophic  des  Sci- 
ences {2  vols.,  1834, 1843).  Most  of 
his  scientific  papers  appeared  in 
the  Annales  de  Physique  et  de  Che- 
mie.  Consult  his  Joi^nal  et  Cor- 
respondance;  Saint-Hilaire's  Phil- 
osophie  des  Deux  A  mperes. 

Ampere,  Jean  JacqueS'  An- 
TOINE  (1800-64),  French  philolo- 
ger,  archaeologist,  and  historian, 
son  of  A.  M.  Ampere  (q.  v.),  was 
born  in  Lyons.  Assistant  of  Fau- 
riel  and  Villemain  at  the  Sorbon- 
ne  (1831-2),  he  became  in  1833 
professor  of  French  literature  and 
history  at  the  College  de  France, 
and  in  1847  was  elected  to  the 
Academy.  His  chief  work,  L'His- 
toire  Romaine  a  Rome  (1858),  first 
appeared  in  the  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes.  His  other  works  include: 
Litter ature  et  Voyages  (1834) ;  His- 
toire  Litteraire  de  la  France  avant 
le  XI Siecle  (1840);  Histoire  de 
la  Litterature  Francaise  au  Moyen 
Age  comparee  aux  Litter atures  Et- 
r anger es  (1841) ;  La  Grece,  Rome,  et 
Dante  {\84t8) ;  Promenade  en  Ame- 
rique  (1855). 

Amphiaraus,  son  of  Oicles  and 
Hypermnestra,  a  legendary  hero 
and  prophet  of  Argos  in  ancient 
Greece.  He  was  married  to  Eri- 
phyle,  and  their  children  were  Alc- 
maeon,  Amphilochus,  Eurydice, 
and  Demonassa.    Polynices,  by 


Amphibia 


220 


Amphibia 


the  gift  of  the  necklace  of  Harmo- 
nia,  won  Eriphyle  to  persuade  her 
husband  to  join  him  in  the  first 
expedition  of  Seven  against  The- 
bes. This  he  did,  though  he  fore- 
saw its  failure,  and  on  leaving 
Argos  charged  his  sons  to  punish 
their  mother  for  his  death.  At 
Thebes,  after  a  brave  resistance. 


he  fled,  and  was  swallowed  up 
by  the  earth.  He  became  immor- 
tal, was  worshipped  as  a  hero,  and 
had  an  oracle  between  Potniae 
and  Thebes.  ^Eschylus'  Seven 
Against  Thebes  tells  much  of  the 
story. 

Amphibia  (Greek  'double-lifed,' 
as  living  on  both  land  and  water), 
or  Batrachia,  a  class  of  verte- 
brates between  fishes  and  reptiles. 
The  term  was  used  by  Linnaeus  to 
include  reptiles,  amphibians,  and 
Vol.  I. —Oct.  '16 


some  fishes,  but  the  content  of 
the  term  was  later  narrowed,  and 
the  amphibia  were  separated  on 
the  one  hand  from  the  reptiles, 
which  never  breathe  by  gills,  and 
on  the  other  from  the  fishes, 
which,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Dipnoi,  never  breathe  by  lungs. 
Classification. — T  h  e  amphibia 


include  four  orders,  three  of  which 
are  represented  by  the  newt,  the 
frog,  and  the  vermiform  Caecilia; 
while  the  fourth  embraces  the 
Labyrinthodonts  or  Stegocephali, 
now  wholly  extinct. 

These  four  orders  are: 

(1)  Forms  like  the  newt  and 
salamander,  with  long  smooth 
bodies  and  persisting  tails,  termed 
Urodela  (Greek  'tail  distinct')  or 
Caudala.  They  have  one  or  two 
pairs  of  limbs,  and  the  bones  of  the 


forearm  and  of  the  lower  leg  are 
not  fused  as  in  the  frog.  The  lower 
jaw  is  toothed,  and  with  one  ex- 
ception the  larva?  never  have  a 
horny  beak.  The  young  form  has 
external  gills,  and  these  disappear 
more  or  less  completely.  In  one 
section  (Perennibranchiate),  the 
gills  persist  throughout  life — e.g., 
in  Proteus  and  Menohranchus;  in 
a  higher  division  (Caducibranchi- 
ate)  the  gills  disappear,  but  the 
clefts  remain — e.g.,  in  Amphiuma 
and  Menopoma;  while  in  the  high- 
est set  the  gills  are  lost  and  the 
clefts  closed — e.g.,  in  Salamandra 
and  Triton. 

(2)  Forms  like  the  frog  and 
toad,  with  short,  broad,  naked 
bodies,  and  without  tails  in  adult 
life,  are  included  in  the  order 
Anura  (Greek  '  without  tail  '). 
There  are  never  more  than  nine 
distinct  vertebrae,  the  lower  jaw 
is  almost  alwaj^s  toothless,  and 
there  are  always  two  pairs  of 
limbs-  in  which  the  bones  of  the 
forearm  and  of  lower  leg  fuse  at 
an  early  stage.  Two  bones  of  the 
ankle  are  unusually  elongated, 
and  the  hand,  which  in  the  newt 
order  had  never  more  than  four 
fingers,  has  here  a  rudiment  of  a 
fifth.  The  tadpole  larvae  have 
first  external,  and  then  internal 
gills,  which  in  the  adult  forms  are 
wholly  replaced  by  lungs.  The 
common  frog  (Rana),  the  Suri- 
nam toad  (Pipa),  the  common 
toad  (Bufo),  and  the  tree  frog' 
(Hyla)  are  familiar  representa- 
tives of  Anura. 

(3)  The  third  order  of  amphib- 
ia includes  the  few  snake-like, 
limbless  forms  technically  known 
as  Gymnophiona  or  Apoda.  The 
skin  is  usually  provided  with  cross 
rows  of  embedded  scales,  the  ver- 
tebrae are  very  numerous,  the 
lower  jaw  is  toothed.  The  small 
but  well  developed  eyes  are  cov- 
ered with  skin,  in  adaptation  to 
the  subterranean  life  of  these 
animals.  They  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  the  blind  or  slow 
worms,  which  are  lizards.  The 
four  known  genera  are  Ccecilia, 
Epicrium,  Siphonops,  and  Rhin- 
atrema.  The  latter  two,  and  most 
of  the  Ccecilia,  are  confined  to 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  American 
continent  south  of  Mexico;  the 
other  Ccecilia  are  East  Indian; 
and  Epicrium  occurs  in  Java  and 
Ceylon.  Some  fossil  amphibians 
have  a  striking  resemblance  to 
these  Gymnophiona. 

(4)  The  numerous  extinct  Lafty- 
rinthodonts  (q.  v.)  or  Stegocephali 
of  the  Trias,  Permian,  and  Car- 
boniferous periods  mOvStly  resem- 
bled the  Urodela  in  form,  but 
some  were  snake  like.  They  were 
well  provided  with  skin  armor  on 
the  breast  and  ventral  surface, 
and  sometimes  attained  a  large 
crocodile -like  size.  Compared 
with  thcvse,  the  modern  amphibia 
are  a  diminutive  race. 


Aml^hihia. 

Anura:  1.  Surinam  toad;  2.  Green  frog.    Urodela:  3.  Proteus;  4.  European  spotted 
salamander.    Gymnophiona:  5.  Siphonops;  6.  Caecilia. 


Amphibia 


221 


Ampliibole 


General  Characters. — The  am- 
phibia, such  as  the  common  newts 
and  frogs,  are  readily  distin- 
guished from  higher  vertebrates 
by  the  gills  borne  by  the  embryo, 
and  sometimespersisting  through- 
out life;  by  the  absence  of  an  am- 
nion, and  of  an  allantois  save  in 
so  far  as  this  is  represented  by  the 
urinary  bladder;  by  the  two  con- 
dyles of  the  skull;  and  by  other 
peculiarities  in  the  skeleton.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  closely  ap- 
proach the  double  breathing  fishes 
(see  Dipnoi),  and  are  strictly  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  fish  class 
only  in  the  absence  of  fin  rays,  and 
in  the  general  possession  of  fin- 
gered limbs  as  in  higher  animals. 

The  skin  is  smooth  and  viscid, 
except  in  the  scaled  Caeciliae. 
Some  of  the  blood  is  distributed 
in  the  skin,  which  thus  discharges 
an  important  respiratory  func- 
tion. An  axolotl  can  live  after 
both  lungs  and  gills  have  been  re- 
moved, and  many  amphibians  can 
survive  in  very  unfavorable  con- 
ditions. There  are  numerous 
glands  in  the  skin,  and  the  se- 
creted fluid  is  irritating  and  poi- 
sonous. The  inner  skin  contains 
color  cells,  by  the  contraction  or 
expansion  of  which  the  animal 
may  in  some  cases  (e.g.,  frog)  very 
considerably  change  its  color.  The 
influence  of  surrounding  color  af- 
fects the  eye,  then  the  sympa- 
thetic nervous  system,  then  the 
peripheral  nerves,  and  through 
them  the  color  cells.  The  outer 
skin  is  continually  being  renewed, 
and  is  sometimes  shed  in  large 
patches.  The  skeleton  consists  of 
backbone,  skull,  limb  girdles, 
limbs,  breast  bone,  etc.,  and  is 
generally  comparable  to  that  of 
higher  animals,  while  its  peculiari- 
ties involve  a  number  of  details. 

The  nervous  system  is  repre- 
sented by  brain  nerves,  by  spinal 
cord  and  spinal  nerves,  by  a  chain 
of  sympathetic  ganglia  lying  be- 
side the  backbone  on  each  side, 
by  the  usual  three  sense  organs, 
and  by  sensory  cells.  The  small 
brain  is  remarkable  for  the  re- 
duction of  the  hind  portion,  or 
cerebellum,  to  a  mere  band.  In 
the  higher  Anura,  the  ear  is  pro- 
vided with  a  tympanum,  with 
Eustachian  tubes,  and  a  colu- 
mella or  rod  between  the  external 
drum  behind  the  eye  and  the  in- 
ternal ear.  In  the  alimentary  sys- 
tem, teeth  and  tongue  vary  great- 
ly in  form  and  occurrence,  and 
are  sometimes  altogether  absent; 
in  most  Anura,  the  insect-catch- 
ing tongue  is  fixed  in  front  and 
free  behind;  in  the  males  of  the 
same  order,  the  lining  of  the 
mouth  is  often  pushed  outward 
into  a  pair  of  resonating  sacs. 
The  nature  of  the  gut  is  quite  nor- 
mal. The  adult  heart  consists  of 
a  muscufar  ventricle  and  two  auri- 
cles; but  during  the  gill-breathing 
stage,  the  circulation  resembles 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '10 


that  of  fishes,  and  there  is  only 
one  auricle.  The  temperature  of 
the  blood  is  low,  little  above 
that  of  the  water  with  which  the 
majority  are  surrounded.  The 
lungs  are  two  comparatively  small 
sacs,  on  the  walls  of  which  the 
capillaries  are  spread  out.  In  the 
Anura,  the  larynx  forms  a  power- 
ful croaking  organ.  In  the  Uro- 
dela,  with  both  gills  and  lungs, 
the  latter  may  predominate,  if 
the  conditions  dem^and  aerial  res- 
piration. The  males  and  females 
often  differ  in  size  and  color. 
The  males  may  be  distinguished 
in  some  cases  by  their  vocal  sacs, 
swollen  thumbs,  and  skin  frills. 
The  axolotl  and  Triton  alpestre 
become  sexually  mature  in  the 
prolonged  larval  stage. 

Habii  of  Life. — The  majority  of 
amphibia  are  much  more  at  home 
in  water  than  on  land,  though  in 
some  cases  the  adaptation  to  ter- 
restrial life  is  complete,  and  has 
even  modified  the  ordinary  course 
of  development.  For  while  the 
larval  form  which  escapes  from 
the  egg  is  usually  aquatic  and  gill 
breathing,  in  Salamandra  atra  of 
the  Alps  two  fertilized  eggs  de- 
velop within  the  body  of  the 
mother,  nourish  themselves  on  the 
remaining  unfertilized  ova,  and  in 
the  absence  of  damp  surroundings 
are  born  as  air-breathing  forms. 
If  they  are  prematurely  remoVed 
from  the  body  of  the  mother  and 
put  into  water,  they  develop  a 
fresh  set  of  gills,  and  are  normal 
tadpoles.  Even  among  exclusively 
lung-breathing  forms,  the  major- 
ity prefer  to  remain  in  the  vicinity 
of  water.  Both  in  their  love  and 
hunger  they  are  especially  active 
in  the  twilight. 

The  food  of  the  adults  consists 
mostly  of  insects,  slugs,  and 
worms,  but  the  larval  forms  are 
mainly  vegetarian,  though  not 
despising  animal  food,  even  in  the 
shape  of  the  weaker  members  of 
its  own  family.  Their  life  is  gen- 
erally at  a  comparatively  low  po- 
tential, and  they  save  themselves 
from  cold  of  winter  or  heat  of  the 
dry  season  by  falling  into  a  leth- 
argic state.  Amphibia  have  con- 
siderable power  of  regenerating 
lost  parts. 

Development — The  life  history 
of  a  form  like  the  frog  is  of  con- 
siderable interest  as  an  abbrevi- 
ated recapitulation  of  the  history 
of  the  race,  and  may  be  briefly 
noted.  In  the  Anura,  the  eggs 
are  fertilized  by  the  male  as  they 
leave  the  oviduct;  while  in  others, 
such  as  salamanders,  the  fertili- 
zation is  internal.  They  are  laid 
in  gelatinous  masses  in  water. 
The  total  but  unequal  division  of 
the  ovum,  and  the  subsequent 
changes  by  which  backbone, 
spinal  cord,  gut,  etc.,  appear,  are 
discussed  elsewhere  (see  Embry- 
olo(;y).  When  the  tadpole  is 
hatched,  it  is  at  first  enclosed  in 


the  gelatinous  debris  of  the  egg 
case.  It  grows  for  a  short  while 
longer  at  the  expense  of  the  yolk, 
which  in  a  few  forms  is  seen 
as  a  distinct  external  sac.  Soon, 
however,  the  tadpole  acquires 
a  mouth  and  arms,  and  begins 
to  feed.  There  are  a  pair  of 
sucking  discs  behind  the  mouth. 
Shortly  after  hatching,  the  ex- 
ternal gills  are  covered  over  by 
a  fold  of  skin,  leavin'g  a  pos- 
terior aperture  for  the  exit  of  the 
water  which  enters  by  the  mouth. 
The  mouth  is  armed  with  horny 
beak  and  teeth,  and  is  not  unlike 
that  of  the  lamprey.  As  the  tad- 
pole grows,  the  suckers  behind 
the  mouth  disappear,  the  gut  be- 
comes much  longer,  and  the  lungs 
appear  as  outgrowths  from  the 
oesophagus.  The  limbs  appear  as 
minute  buds,  but  the  front  pair 
become  free  first.  A  skin  casting 
occurs,  during  which  the  gills,  the 
beak,  and  the  suctorial  form  of 
the  mouth  wholly  disappear, 
while  the  eyes  are  uncovered,  and 
the  circulation  becomes  modified 
in  association  with  the  increasing 
importance  of  the  lungs.  The  tail 
is  absorbed,  and  the  mainly  veg- 
etarian tadpole  gradually  assumes 
all  the  characters  of  the  carnivo- 
rous frog. 

Consult  H.  Gadow's  Amphibia 
and  Reptiles,  and  his  treatise  on 
'Amphibia'  in  the  Cambridge 
Natural  History  (vol.  viii.). 

Ampliibole,  a  name  applied  to  a 
large  group  of  minerals  which  are 
essentially  silicates  of  lime  and 
magnesia,  though  these  bases  are 
often  partly  replaced  by  alumina 
and  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese. 
They  occur,  like  the  pyroxenes 
(see  Pyroxene),  to  which  they 
are  closely  allied,  in  igneous  and 
sedimentary  rocks,  as  the  fillings 
of  veins,  and  as  components  of 
schists  and  other  metamorphic 
rocks.  While  crystallizing  in  three 
different  systems — orthorhombic, 
triclinic,  and  monoclinic — they 
agree  in  general  form,  having  a 
prismatic  cleavage  of  about  56°, 
which  serves  to  differentiate  them 
from  members  of  the  pyroxene 
group;  in  optical  properties,  and 
in  chemical  composition.  They 
occur  generally  in  black,  dark 
green,  or  gray  to  white  crystals, 
usually  long,  narrow,  and  blade- 
like, with  smooth,  bright  surfaces. 

Orthorhombic  amphilDole  in- 
cludes but  two  varieties — Antho- 
P^yllite  and  Gedrite.  The  only 
triclinic  species  is  iEnigmatite. 
Monoclinic  forms  are  numerous. 
The  commoner  varieties  are  Horn- 
blende (q.  v.),  an  aluminous  am- 
phibole  which  occurs  in  acicular 
or  platy  crystals  and  in  irregular, 
granular  masses,  black  or  dark 
green  in  color;  Tremolite,  a  calci- 
um-magnesium ampliibole,  white 
or  light  green  in  color,  occurring 
in  metamorphic  limestone,  in  dis- 
tinct crystals  or  thin  flattened 


Ampblbollte 


221 A 


Amphloxus 


blades;  Actinolite  (q.  v.).  a  cal- 
cium-magnesium-iron variety, 
light  or  dark  green  in  color,  which 
is  especially  abundant  in  schists, 
where  it  is  found  in  needle-like 
crystals,  or  in  fibrous  or  granular 
aggregates;  and  Glaucophane,  us- 
ually occurring  in  the  form  of 
grains  or  plates,  blue,  purple,  or 
bluish  black.  Certain  varieties 
of  amphibole,  notably  tremolite 
and  actinolite,  may  pass  into  fi- 
brous varieties,  known  as  Asbes- 
tos (q.  v.),  or  may  occur  in  the 
form  of  Nephrite  (q.  v.)  or  jade. 
Consult  J.  D.  Dana's  System  of 
Mineralogy  (6th  ed.,  1914). 

Amphibolite,  a  name  applied 
to  a  group  of  metamorphic  rocks 
having  some  member  of  the  am- 
phibole group  as  the  sole  essen- 
tial constituent,  and  containing 
such  accessory  minerals  as  feld- 
spar, mica,  garnet,  augite,  quartz, 
pyrite,  etc.  They  are  hard,  tough 
rocks,  varying  in  texture  from 
coarse  to  fine,  the  amphibole  oc- 
curring, as  a  rule,  in  the  form  of 
elongated  blades  or  prisms  in 
parallel  arrangement.  Amphibo- 
lites  are  developed  from  certain 
igneous  rocks,  such  as  dolerites, 
gabbros,  diabases,  pyroxenites, 
and  peridotites;  by  the  pressure 
and  interstitial  movements  in- 
cident to  earth  folding;  and  from 
sedimentary  strata  subject  to  re- 
gional metamorphic  influences. 
They  are  widely  distributed  in  all 
regions  of  crystalline  schists  and 
gneisses,  where  they  may  cover 
large  circular  or  elliptical  areas, 
or  may  take  the  form  of  long  nar- 
row strips  associated  with  other 
metamorphic  rocks. 

In  the  United  States  amphibo- 
litcs  occur  in  the  Lake  Superior 
region,  in  the  Adirondacks,  and 
the  Appalachians.  A  number  of 
varieties  are  distinguished  ac- 
cording to  the  predominant  form 
of  amphibole — e.g.,  tremolite 
schist,  actinolite  schist,  and  horn- 
blende schist,  the  last  name  some- 
times being  applied  to  the  entire 
group.  Other  species  derive  their 
names  from  the  chief  accessory 
mineral  present — e.g.,  garnet  am- 
phibolite,  e  pi  dote  amphibolite, 
etc. 

Amphibrach,  a  metrical  foot  of 
three  syllables,  the  first  and  the 
last  short  or  unaccented  ("),  and 
the  middle  one  long  or  accent- 
ed (").  The  Greek  ameinon  is  a 
quantitative  amphibrach.  Com- 
pare the  following  accentual  am- 
phibrachic  measure: 

There  came  to  |  the  shore  a  I  poor 

exile  I  of  Erin; 
The  dew  on  |  his  thin  robe  1  was 

heavy  land  chill. 

Amphictyonlc  Council,  a  cele- 
brated council  of  the  states  of 
ancient  Greece.  An  amphictyony 
was  an  assemblage  of  deputies  of 
tribes  (not  cities)  dwelling  around 
any  important  temple,  gathered 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '16 


together  to  manage  the  affairs  of 
that  sanctuary.  Of  numerous  ex- 
amples throughout  Greece,  the 
most  celebrated  was  that  which 
took  its  name  first  from  the  Tem- 
ple of  Demeter  at  Anthela,  near 
Pylae,  and  afterward  from  the 
Temple  of  the  Pythian  Apollo  at 
Delphi.  Twelve  tribes,  with  their 
colonies,  composed  the  Amphic- 
tyony of  Delphi — Malians,  Phthi- 
ans,  CEtaeans  (^nianes),  Dolopes, 
Magnetians,  Perrhaebians,  Thes- 
salians,  Locrians,  Dorians,  Pho- 
cians,  Boeotians,  lonians.  To  the 
two  annual  meetings,  in  spring 
and  autumn,  each  tribe  sent  two 
'wardens'  with  voting  powers, 
and  several  'deputies'  who  might 
speak  but  could  not  vote.  They 
bound  themselves  to  observe  cer- 
tain intertribal  principles  of  right, 
and  thus  the  amphictyony  be- 
came a  political  force.  They 
agreed  not  to  destroy  any  city  of 
the  League,  nor  wholly  cut  off  its 
supply  of  running  water,  during 
war;  but  they  would  unite  to  pun- 
ish those  who  had  broken  the 
compact,  or  had  injured  the  Tem- 
ple of  Delphi.  The  League  fought 
three  sacred  wars.  The  first  was 
declared  against  the  Phocian  city 
of  Crissa  (594-585  B.C.) ;  in  the 
second  (355-346  B.C.),  the  Pho- 
cians  were  temporarily  expelled 
from  the  League;  and  from  the 
third  (339  B.C.),  against  Amphis- 
sa,  followed  the  destruction  of 
Greek  liberty  by  Philip  of  Mace- 
don.  The  amphictyonlc  council 
continued,  with  limited  powers, 
under  Roman  sway,  the  last  men- 
tion of  it  occurring  in  the  second 
century  a.d.  See  Delphi. 

Amphicyon,  a  genus  of  large 
fossil  Carnivores,  found  in  the 
Lower  and  Middle  Miocene  rocks 
of  Europe  and  India.  It  combines 
the  characteristics  of  dogs  and 
bears,  and  to  it  are  traceable  the 
modern  bears.    The  largest  spe- 


cies  {A.  gigas)  was  equal  in  size 
to  a  small  grizzly. 

Aitiphilestes,  one  of  the  prim- 
itive mammals  of  the  Jurassic 
epoch.  Little  is  known  oi  its  anat- 
omy, the  remains  which  have 
been  found  being  only  lower  jaws 
with  teeth;  it  was  probably  re- 
lated to  the  existing  monotremes. 

Amphimacer,  a  metrical  foot 
consisting  of  three  sj^llables,  the 
first  and  last  long  ("),  and  the 
middle  one  short  C) — e.g.,  Oidi- 
pous. 

Amphtneura,  an  order  of  ma- 
rine molluscs  including  a  number 
of  primitive  forms,  of  which 
Chiton  (q.  v.)  is  the  most  famil- 
iar.  Its  members  are  character- 


ized by  the  possession  of  a  pair 
each  of  lateral  and  ventral  nerve 
trunks  passing  into  the  cerebral 
ganglion,  bound  together  by  nu- 
merous commissures,  and  provid- 
ed throughout  their  length  with 
ganglion  cells.  They  are  bilater- 
ally symmetrical.  Some  forms 
have  eight  dorsal  shell  plates;  in 
others,  the  shell  is  entirely  lack- 
ing.   See  MoLLUSCA. 

Amphion,  son  of  Zeus  and  An- 
tiope,  and  twin  brother  of  Zethus. 
Their  family  was  connected  with 
Thebes.  Lycus,  Antiope's  hus- 
band, maltreated  her  on  finding 
her  with  child  by  Zeus;  and  the 
children,  Amphion  and  Zethus, 
were  exposed,  but  were  brought 
up  by  shepherds.  When  they 
grew  up  their  mother  escaped  to 
them,  and  told  them  her  wrongs; 
whereupon  they  killed  Lycus  and 
Dirce,  his  second  wife,  torturing 
her  by  fastening  her  to  a  bull 
(represented  by  the  famous  Far- 
nese  bull  in  the  Naples  Museum), 
and  took  possession  of  Thebes. 
They  then  fortified  it — the  stones 
uniting  of  their  own  accord  to 
form  the  wall,  moved  by  the 
strains  of  a  lyre  given  to  Amphion 
by  Hermes.  Amphion  married 
Niobe,  and  after  the  death  of  his 
children,  slew  himself.  His  story 
is  told  in  Ovid's  Metamorphoses, 
and  by  Apollodorus. 

Amphioxus,  or  Lancelet 
(Amphioxus  lavceolatus),  is  a 
small,  pointed  creature  (length, 
1%  to  2  inches),  interesting  as 
being  one  of  the  most  primitive  of 
vertebrates.  It  is  a  marine  ani- 
mal, widely  distributed  in  shallow 
water  off  sandy  shores,  and  differ- 
ing in  many  striking  ways  from 
fishes.  The  body  is  scaleless,  and 
tolerably  transparent,  and  the 
transverse  muscle  segments  are 
beautifully  seen.  There  is  no 
bony  vskeleton,  but  the  backbone 
is  represented  by  a  simple  cellular 


rod — the  notoehord — running  from 
tip  to  tip,  and  bearing  dorsal  car- 
tilaginous rods  which  suggest  ver- 
tebral spines.  There  is  no  hint  of 
skull  or  limbs.  The  spinal  cord, 
which  lies  as  usual  above  the  rudi- 
mentary backbone,  has  a  slight 
anterior  swelling,  faintly  suggest- 
ing a  brain.  The  sensitiveness  of 
the  animal  to  light  and  sound  is 
due  to  the  abundant  presence  of 
sense-cells  throughout  the  skin. 
The  mouth  cavity  is  separated  by 
a  movable  flap  from  the  wide  an- 
terior half  of  the  alimentary  cartal, 
which  forms  a  respiratory  phar- 
ynx comparable  to  that  of  Ascid- 
ians.  The  heart  is  a  simple  tube — 
in  fact,  only  the  largest  of  many 


Amphioxus  (diagrammatic  section). 


Amphipoda 


221 B 


Amphitheatre 


contractile  regions  on  the  prin- 
cipal vessels.  The  blood  is  color- 
less. The  sexes  are  separate,  and 
the  reproductive  organs  form  a 
row  of  cell  clumps  on  the  wall  of 
the  body  cavity.  These  open 
separately  into  the  outer  chamber 
above  mentioned,  and  thence  the 
elements  find  their  way  out  by 
the  abdominal  pore. 

Though  exceedingly  simple  in 
structure  as  compared  with  high- 
er vertebrates,  amphioxus  is  in 
some  respects  specialized,  pos- 
sessing characters  not  represented 
in  higher  forms.  It  appears  to  be 
most  nearly  related  to  the  degen- 
erate tunicates;  but  this  fact  is 
not  of  great  assistance  in  bridging 
the  gulf  between  vertebrates  and 
invertebrates,  for  the  relation  of 
the  tunicates  to  the  invertebrates 
is  still  obscure.  Consult  Willey's 
Amphioxus  and  the  Ancestry  of  the 
Vertebrates. 

Amphipoda,  an  order  of  dimin- 
utive Crustacea  characterized  by 
greatly  compressed  bodies,  and 
the  fact  that,  of  the  seven  pairs  of 
legs,  the  anterior  four  point  for- 


Amphipod  (Gammarus). 


ward  and  are  used  in  swimming, 
and  the  posterior  three  are  di- 
rected backward  and  are  used  in 
jumping,  assisted  by  the  'tail.' 
Many  species  are  known,  usually 
plainly  colored,  including  the  fa- 
miliar Sandhopper  (q.  v.);  the 
Orchestia,  sometimes  much  more 
terrestrial  than  the  former;  the 
Gammarus  of  running  water;  the 
wood-boring  Limnoria  and  Chel- 
ura;  and  the  quaint  Spectra  or 
Skeleton  Shrimp  (Caprella).  See 
Crustacea. 

Amphipolis,  ancient  city,  Mac- 
edonia, on  the  River  Strymon, 
near  to  its  port  Eion.  It  was  an 
important  commercial  city,  and 
the  centre  of  a  region  rich  in  gold, 
silver,  and  timber.  Originally  in 
the  possession  of  the  Edonians,  a 
Thracian  people,  it  was  colonized 
in  437  B.C.  by  the  Athenians  un- 
der Hagnon,  who  expelled  the 
Thracians  and  erected  a  new  city. 
In  422  B.C.  it  was  the  scene  of  a 
battle  in  which  both  the  Spartan 
genera!  Brasidas  and  the  Athe- 
nian General  Cleon  were  killed; 
and  it  was  restored  to  Athens  by 
the  peace  of  Nicias  in  421  B.C. 
Philip  of  Macedon  occupied  it  in 
3.57  B.C.,  and  it  became  the  seat 
of  the  chief  mint  of  ^he  Macedo- 
nian kings.  Under  the  Romans 
Amjihipolis  was  the  capital  of  one 
of  the  four  districts  into  which 
the  province  was  divided  in  B.C. 
167.  It  is  mentioned  (Acts  xvii. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '16 


1)  as  a  stage  in  St.  Paul's  second 
missionary  journey.  A  Turkish 
town  now  occupies  the  site. 

Amphisbsena,  one  of  a  family 
of  serpentiform  lizards,  found  for 
the  most  part  in  subtropical 
America.  They  are  from  18  inches 
to  2  feet  long,  with  a  body  of 


equal  thickness  throughout,  head 
and  eyes  small,  tail  very  short, 
and  no  legs.  These  animals  live 
underground,  feed  on  insects 
and  worms,  and  move  forward  or 
backward  with  equal  ease,  whence 
some  quaint  superstitions  have 
arivscn  regarding  them. 

Amphissa  (formerly  Salona), 
town,  Greece,  to  the  west  of 
Mount  Lyakura  (Parnassus);  31 
miles  northeast  of  Lepanto.  It  is 
connected  with  Itea,  which  serves 
as  its  port.  In  antiquity  it  was 
the  capital  of  the  Locri  Ozola?.  In 
330  B.C.  the  town  was  captured 
and  destroyed  by  Philip  of  Mace- 
don.   Pop.  5,000. 

Amphitheatre,  the  structure, 
usually  oval  in  its  ground  plan, 


surrounding  the  arena  which,  in 
ancient  Rome,  was  the  scene  of 
gladiatorial  and  other  combats. 
The  term  is  often  held  to  include 
the  arena  also,  but  the  amphi- 
theatre proper  was  occupied  sole- 
ly by  the  spectators.  At  first  these 
erections  were  of  wood,  and  mere- 


ly temporary,  like  a  modern  race 
stand.  Some  of  them  seem,  how- 
ever, to  have  been  of  enormous 
size,  as  Tacitus  mentions  one  at 
Fidenae,  during  the  reign  of  Ti- 
berius, whose  collapse  is  said  to 
have  caused  the  death  or  injury 
of  50,000  spectators.  The  finest 
specimen  of  all,  the  Flavian  Am- 
phitheatre at  Rome,  known  as 
the  Colosseum  from  its  colossal 
size,  was  begun  by  Vespasian  and 
finished  by  Titus  80  a.d.  On  the 
occasion  of  its  dedication  by  Ti- 
tus, 5,000  wild  beasts  were  slain 
in  the  arena,  the  games  lasting 
nearly  a  hundred  days.  Besides 
the  podium,  there  were  three  tiers 
or  stories  of  seats,  corresponding 
to  the  external  stories.  The  po- 


Amphitrite 


222 


Amputation 


dium  was  a  gallery  surrounding 
the  arena,  in  which  the  emperor, 
the  senators,  and  vestal  virgins 
had  their  seats.  The  building  was 
covered  by  a  temporary  awning 
or  wooden  roof,  the  velarium.  The 
open  space  in  the  centre  of  the 
amphitheatre  was  called  arena, 
the  Latin  word  for  sand,  because 
it  was  covered  with  sand  or  saw- 
dust during  the,  performances. 
(See  Colosseum.) 

Many  large  amphitheatres  were 
erected  not  only  in  the  provincial 
towns  of  Italy,  as  at  Capua, Vero- 
na, Pompeii,  Pozzuoli,  etc.,  but  in 
niany  parts  of  the  Empire — e.g., 
at  Aries,  Nimes,  and  Frejus,  in 
France;  at  Italica  near  Seville,  in 
Spain;  and  in  Britain,  at  Ciren- 
cester, Silchester,  and  Dorchester, 
Next  in  size  to  the  Colosseum  is 
the  Amphitheatre  at  Capua,  558 
by  460  feet;  while  that  at  Nimes 


is  next  in  age.  Verona  possesses 
a  beautiful  example  of  the  amphi- 
theatre, which  is  in  admirable 
preservation  owing  to  the  care  be- 
stowed on  it  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  Amphitheatre  at  Pola, 
in  Istria,  had  an  arena  of  wood, 
which  has  disappeared,  while  the 
walls  stand. 

The  first  of  the  buildings  erect- 
ed in  stone  dates  from  about  31 
B.C.,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus; 
and  they  ceased  to  be  built  only 
with  the  decadence  of  the  Em- 
pire. But  visitors  to  the  modern 
Spanish  bull-ring  never  fail  to  be 
struck  with  the  fact  that  this  is, 
in  all  essentials,  the  lineal  de- 
scendant of  the  Roman  amphi- 
theatre; and  the  preliminary  sa- 
lute given  by  the  performers  to 
the  'president'  recalls  at  once  the 
emperor  and  the  'Ave,  Ccesar!' 
of  the  gladiators.  Consult  Lan- 
ciani's  Pagan  and  Christian  Rome; 
J.  H.  Parker's  Historical  Photo- 
graphs of  the  Colosseum. 

Amphitrite,  a  sea  goddess  in 
Greek  mythology,   daughter  of 
Nereus,  or  of  Oceanus,  and  wife 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '16 


of  Poseidon  (Neptune).  In  sculp- 
ture, she  is  often  represented  sit- 
ting next  to  Poseidon,  or  drawn 
by  Triton^. 

Ampliitryon,  in  Greek  myth- 
ology, a  king  of  Tiryns,  son  of 
Alcaeus,  and  husband  of  Alcmene. 
During  his  absence  from  home  in 
order  to  punish  the  murderers  of 
his  wife's  brothers,  Alcmene  was 
visited  by  Zeus  in  the  disguise  of 
Amphitryon,  who  himself  re- 
turned home  next  day.  She  be- 
came the  mother  of  Hercules  by 
Zeus,  and  of  Iphicles  by  Amphi- 
tryon. The  story  has  been  treated 
by  Plautus  in  his  Amphitruo,  and 
after  him  by  Moliere  in  his  Am- 
phitryon. 

Ampliiuma,  a  genus  of  Amer- 
ican tailed  amphibians,  including 
long,  eel-like  forms,  with  minute, 
two  or  three  toed,  widely  sepa- 
rated limbs.  Though  gills  are  ab- 


sent in  the  adult,  the  branchial 
aperture  persists  throughout  life. 
One  species,  A .  means,  is  found  in 
the  vSouthern  and  Southwestern 
States  burrowing  in  the  mud — 
e.g.,  in  the  ditches  of  the  rice 
fields.  It  feeds  on  small  fish,  mol- 
luscs, and  insects.  The  negroes 
call  it  the  Congo  Snake,  and  er- 
roneously regard  it  as  venomous. 

Amptiora,  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  a  large  vessel,  usu- 
ally made  of  clay,  with  a  narrow 
neck  and  two  handles,  chiefly  used 
for  preserving  various  liquids,  es- 
pecially wine,  and  frequently  dec- 
orated with  paintings.  The  Greek 
amphora  contained  about  nine 
gallons;  the  Roman,  about  six. 
vSimilar  vessels  were  used  to  con- 
tain the  ashes  of  the  dead. 

Amplification,  in  rhetoric,  the 
elaboration  of  a  statement  or  dis- 
course, usually  by  particularizing, 
repetition,  illustration,  or  quota- 
tion. Its  object  is  to  heighten  the 
impression  on  the  reader  or  hear- 
er, and  it  finds  special  application 
in  appeals  to  juries  and  addresses 
to  popular  assemblies. 


Amplitude,  in  astronomy,  is  the 
distance  of  a  heavenly  body,  at 
the  time  of  its  rising  or  setting, 
from  the  east  or  the  west  point  of 
the  horizon.  When  the  sun  is  in 
the  Equator  (i.e.,  at  the  time  of 
either  equinox),  he  rises  exactly 
east,  and  sets  exactly  west,  and 
therefore  has  no  amplitude.  His 
amplitude  is  at  its  maximum  at 
midsummer,  and  again  at  mid- 
winter; and  that  maximum  de- 
pends upon  the  latitude  of  the 
place,  being  23K°  at  the  Equator, 
and  increasing  to  the  Arctic  Cir- 
cle, where  it  becomes  90°.  The 
amplitude  of  a  fixed  star  remains 
constant  all  the  year  round. 

Ampthill,  Odo  William 
Leopold  Russell,  first  Baron 
(1829-84),  British  diplomat,  was 
born  in  Florence.  In  1850-2  he 
was  employed  at  the  Foreign  Of- 
fice, whence  he  passed  succes- 
sively to  the  embassies  at  Paris, 
Vienna,  Constantinople,  and 
Washington.  In  1858-70  he  was 
secretary  of  legation  at  Florence, 
and  the  official  representative  of 
Great  Britain  at  the  Vatican.  In 
1871  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Berlin,  where  he  remained  un- 
til his  death. 

Ampulia,  a  kind  of  bottle  used 
by  the  Romans  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  liquids.  It  was  made 
either  of  earthenware  or  glass, 
and  rarely  of  costlier  materials. 
Ampullae  have  generally  a  globu- 
lar body,  narrowing  toward  the 
mouth,  and  provided  with  two 
handles.  The  ampulla  Remensis 
(French  la  sainte  ampoule)  was 
the  famous  vessel  containing  the 
unguent  with  which  the  French 
kings  were  anointed  at  their  cor- 
onation at  Rheims. 

Amputation  is  the  operation 
of  cutting  away  a  portion  of  the 
body,  generally  a  limb,  for  the 
safety  of  the  patient  or  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  disease.  The  aim  is 
to  remove  all  diseased,  dead,  or 
useless  tissue,  at  the  same  time 
saving  as  much  as  possible,  and, 
in  the  case  of  a  limb,  leaving  a 
useful  stump,  which  will  be  serv- 
iceable alone,  or  which  can  have 
an  artificial  limb  fitted  to  it. 
(See  Artificial  Limb.) 

Amputations  of  limbs  are 
broadly  divided  into  the  'flap* 
and  the  'circular'  operation,  mod- 
ified to  meet  the  necessities  of 
the  case.  The  flap  operation  is 
the  most  favored,  but  choice 
depends  upon  the  site  of  opera- 
tion. Both  have  for  their  object 
the  provision  of  a  serviceable 
pad  for  the  end  of  the  stump, 
and  it  is  obvious  that  more  is 
needed  in  the  case  of  a  leg  than 
in  that  of  a  finger  or  an  arm. 
The  circular  amputation  is  ac- 
complished with  the  help  of  an  as- 
sistant, who  grasps  and  retracts 
the  soft  parts  as  far  as  possible 
before  the  surgeon  makes  his 
circular  sweeping  incision.  Thus 


Roman  Amphitheatre,  Verona. 


Amraoti 


223 


Amsterdam 


the  soft  parts  are  left  longer  than 
the  bone.  In  the  flap  operation 
the  knife  transfixes  the  soft  parts 
close  to  the  bone,  and  is  then 
brought  downward  and  outward, 
thus  separating  flesh  from  bone 
in  a  flap  of  the  necessary  length. 
The  knife  then  transfixes  the  limb 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bone, 
and  a  second  flap  is  formed.  The 
bone  is  sawed  through  on  a  level 
with  the  base  of  the  flaps,  which 
can  be  easily  joined  over  the  end. 
Care  is  taken  to  make  the  flaps 
of  a  size  which  fully  allows  for 
shrinkage  and  for  muscular  con- 
traction, and  that  no  splinter  of 
bone  is  left  to  irritate  the  cover- 
ing tissues.  All  ends  of  vessels 
are  then  tied  with  ligatures,  the 
flaps  stitched  together,  and  the 
dressing  applied  over  the  stump. 

The  question  when  amputation 
of  a  limb  is  necessary  is  often  one 
of  the  most  difficult  in  surgery. 
The  chief  indications  for  it  in 
these  cases  are  very  extensive 
destruction  or  laceration  of  the 
skin;  injury  to  the  large  vessels 
or  nerves;  severe  splintering  of 
the  bones.  The  diseases  most 
commonly  requiring  it  are  dis- 
ease of  bones  or  joints;  tumors, 
especially  cancer  and  sarcoma, 
which  cannot  otherwise  be  re- 
moved; gangrene.   See  Surgery. 

Amraoti,  um-ra-wut'i  {Oom- 
rawuttee),  town,  India,  capital  of 
Amraoti  district;  100  miles  south- 
west of  Nagpur.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant centre  of  the  cotton  trade, 
and  is  celebrated  for  its  temples 
— one  of  them,  the  Temple  of 
Bhawani,  built  a  thousand  years 
ago.    Pop.  36,000. 

Amravati,  or  Amaravati 
{Amara  Ishwara),  town,  Madras, 
India,  in  Kistna  district;  20  miles 
northwest  of  Guntur.  It  was  one 
of  the  centres  of  the  Buddhist 
kingdom  of  Vengi,  and  has  ruins 
of  a  great  Buddhist  tope. 

Amrlli,  am-re'li,  or  Umrili, 
town,  Gujarat,  India,  on  the 
Kathiawar  peninsula;  140  miles 
southwest  of  Ahmedabad.  Pop. 
14,000. 

Amritsar,  um-rit'sur,  or  Um- 
RiTSAR,  town,  India,  capital  of 
Amritsar  district,  in  the  Punjab, 
32  miles  east  of  Lahore.  The 
island  on  which  it  stands  is 
reached  by  a  marble  causeway, 
leading  from  the  marble  terraces 
and  balustrades  surrounding  the 
lake.  The  town  is  noted  for  the 
manufacture  of  cashmere  shawls, 
silks,  and  carpets.  It  is  the  re- 
ligious capital  of  the  Sikhs  and 
was  founded  in  1574  by  Guru 
Ram  Das,  who  excavated  a  sa- 
cred tank  which  gives  the  city  its 
name  ('pool  of  immortality'),  and 
in  the  midst  of  which  is  the  chief 
temple  of  the  Sikhs,  known  as 
the  Golden  Temple,  from  its 
brilliant  dome  of  copper  covered 
with  gold  foil.  Serious  riots  oc- 
curred here  in  1919.  Pop.  (1921) 
160,218;  of  the  district,  929,374. 


Amru,  am'rob,  Ibn  el-Aas 
(?600-663  A.D.),  Arab  general, 
who  at  first  opposed  Mohammed, 
but  later  became  a  convert,  join- 
ing the  prophet  in  his  refuge  at 
Medina.  Under  Abu-Bekr  he 
conquered  Syria  (634),  and  in 
the  caliphate  of  Omar  served  in 
Palestine,  capturing  Caesarea  in 
638.  In  639  he  invaded  Egypt, 
took  Misrah  (the  ancient  Mem- 
phis), and  Alexandria  (641). 

Amrua,  or  Umrohah,  town. 
United  Provinces,  India;  80  miles 
northeast  of  Delhi.  Pop.  (1921) 
40,448. 

Amrulcais,  or  Imru  al-Kais, 
Arabian  poet,  son  of  Hodshr, 
chief  of  the  Benu-Asad  tribe,  was 
a  contemporary  of  Mohammed, 
against  whom  he  wrote  satiric 
verses.  His  Moallaka  is  rich  in 
imagination,  and  seems  to  have 
served  as  a  model  for  the  Arabian 
poets  of  the  following  centuries. 

Amsterdam  (earlier  Amstelle- 
dame,  'dike  of  the  Amstel'),  chief 
seaport  and  largest  citj^  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  the  province  of 
North  Holland,  is  situated  at  the 
influx  of  the  Amstel  River  into 
the  Ij  or  Y,  an  arm  of  the  Zuider 
Zee;  38  miles  northeast  of  Rotter- 
dam. It  is  intersected  by  the 
Amstel  and  numerous  canals, 
which  divide  it  into  90  small  is- 
lands connected  by  more  than 
300  bridges.  The  four  chief 
canals — the  Heerengracht,  Sing- 
elgracht,  Keizersgracht,  and 
Prinsengracht — run  in  semicircles 
within  each  other,  and  are  from 
2  to  7  miles  long.  The  city  is  laid 
out  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  and 
is  built  on  piles  driven  into  the 
firm  clay  below  a  deep  layer  of 
peat. 

Amsterdam  presents  a  fine  ap- 
pearance when  seen  from  the  har- 
bor, or  from  the  high  bridge  over 
the  Amstel.  Church  towers  and 
spires,  and  a  forest  of  masts,  re- 
lieve the  flatness  of  the  prospect. 
The  old  ramparts  have  been  lev- 
elled, planted  with  trees,  and 
formed  into  promenades.  In  the 
older  central  parts  the  more  con- 
spicuous buildings  are  constructed 
of  brick,  in  the  Dutch  style  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies. On  the  southern  bank  of 
the  Ij  are  the  docks  and  quays, 
and  in  the  midst  of  these  the 
Central  Railway  Station  (1889). 
Southward  from  the  central  har- 
bor are  the  Church  of  St.  Nicho- 
las (1885-6);  the  Nieuwe  Kerk 
(1408),  where  the  sovereigns  of 
Holland  are  crowned;  the  Oude 
Kerk  (c.  1300),  containing  fine 
stained  glass  and  carvings,  and 
the  tombs  of  naval  heroes;  the 
New  Exchange  (1900);  the  Royal 
Palace  (1648-55),  originally  built 
as  the  Town  Hall,  and  in  1808 
converted  into  a  royal  residence; 
the  University  (1754),  attended 
by  about  1,000  students;  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences;  the 
Arsenal;  and  the  Jewish  Quarter, 


containing  several  handsome 
synagogues. 

Farther  south  are  three  large 
museums.  One  of  these,  the  Rijks 
Museum,  erected  1877-85,  is  the 
most  important  art  depositary  in 
the  Netherlands.  It  includes  a 
valuable  picture  gallery,  contain- 
ing works  by  the  most  famous 
Dutch  artists  of  all  periods;  also 
antiquarian  collections,  a  library, 
engravings,  porcelain,  glass,  in- 
dustrial art,  ecclesiastical  shrines, 
a  marine  museum,  armory,  and  a 
colonial  collection.  The  others 
are  the  Museum  Fodor  (1860) 
and  the  Municipal  Museum 
(1892-5),  both  containing  paint- 
ings by  modern  Dutch  artists. 
The  House  of  Baron  vSix  contains 
a  small  but  valuable  private  col- 
lection of  Dutch  paintings.  In 
the  same  quarter  is  the  Vondel 
Park  and  the  Palace  for  National 
Industry  (1855-64).  The  city 
also  has  zoological  and  botanical 
gardens  of  high  reputation. 

The  defences  of  Amsterdam 
are  comprised  in  a  row  of  de- 
tached forts,  and  in  the  sluices, 
several  miles  distant  from  the 
city,  which,  in  a  few  hours,  can 
flood  the  surrounding  land. 

Amsterdam  is  connected  with 
the  North  Sea,  15  miles  to  the 
west,  by  the  North  Sea  Canal, 
which  gives  access  to  the  largest 
vessels.  Although  its  shipping 
trade  is  less  than  that  of  Rotter- 
dam, it  is  the  commercial  capital 
of  the  Netherlands,  owing  in 
great  part  to  the  foundation  of 
the  Dutch  East  India  Company 
(1602)  and  the  Bank  of  Amster- 
dam (1609-1796).  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  Dutch  finance  and  of 
the  ship-owning  interest,  and  the 
principal  market  for  the  produce 
of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  espe- 
cially rice,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco, 
and  spices. 

Prominent  industries  are  dia- 
mond cutting  and  polishing,  sugar 
refining,  the  manufacture  of  to- 
bacco and  cigars,  rice  husking, 
sawmills,  shipbuilding,  brewing, 
engineering,  the  preparation  of 
cobalt,  borax,  and  camphor,  and 
the  manufacture  of  chocolate, 
glass,  porcelain,  jewelry,  cottons, 
woollens,  leather,  liqueurs,  and 
stearine  candles.  In  addition  to 
the  East  Indian  goods  already 
mentioned,  Amsterdam  imports 
tea,  indigo,  cocoa,  hides  and  skins, 
cereals,  timber,  petroleum,  rape- 
vseed,  linseed  and  other  oil  seeds, 
and  coal;  and  exports  butter, 
cheese,  margarine,  and  pork.  Pop. 
(1912)  587,872;  (1920)  647,427. 

History. — The  origin  of  the 
city  is  ascribed  to  Giesebrecht  ii. 
of  Amstel,  who  built  a  castle 
there  in  1204.  In  1300  the  castle 
and  the  village  which  had  grown 
up  about  it  passed  to  Guy  of  Hai- 
nault,  who  granted  it  a  charter. 
It  became  a  walled  town  in  1482; 
and  during  the  religious  wars  of 
the  sixteenth  century  prospered 

Vol.  I. — Oct.  '29 


Amsterdam 

because  of  the  influx  of  cmigrantvS 
from  Antwerp  and  Belgium.  Its 
greatest  development  was  due  to 
the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  (M)4.S), 
which  closed  the  Scheldt  to  the 
rival  port  of  Antwerp.  In  1S()8 
the  city  was  chosen  as  the  capital 
of  the  Netherlands  by  Louis 
Bonaparte.  The  present  epoch 
of  prosperity  dates  from  the  open- 
ing of  the  North  Sea  Canal  in 
1876.  Distinguished  natives  are 
Spinoza  (1632),  Swammerdam 
(1637),  and  the  poet  Bilderdijk 
(1750). 

Amsterdam,  cit3^  New  York, 
in  Montgomery  County,  on  the 
Mohawk  River,  the  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal,  and  the  New 
York  Central  and  West  Shore 
Railroads;  33  miles  northwest 
of  Albany.  Interurban  electric 
lines  connect  with  neighboring 
towns  and  the  Adirondack  re- 
gion. According  to  the  Federal 
Census  of  Manufactures  for  1925, 
the  city  has  68  industrial  es- 
tablishments, with  10,536  wage 
earners,  and  products  valued  at 
$56,418,375.  Manufactures  in- 
clud2  woollen  and  knit  goods,  car- 
pets and  rugs,  brooms,  pearl  but- 
tons, paper  and  paper  boxes,  silk 
gloves,  hosiery  and  sweaters,  ma- 
chinery, boilers,  ice  cream  and 
candies.  The  place  was  settled 
in  1775,  and  was  first  called  Vee- 
dersburg.  Pop.  (1900)  20.929; 
(1910)  31,267;  (1920)  33,524. 

Amsterdam,  or  New^  Amster- 
dam, a  volcanic,  wooded  islet,  25 
square  miles  in  area,  in  the  Indi- 
an Ocean,  midway  between  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Tas- 
mania. It  is  under  French  control. 

Amuck,  a-muk',  or  Amok 
(also  called  mataglap),  a  Malay 
term  denoting  a  sudden  frenzy 
which  seizes  an  individual,  caus- 
ing him  to  rush  about  armed.  It 
is  usually  due  to  drugs  or  in- 
toxicants. 

Amu  Daria,  a-moo'dar'ya. 
Ox  us,  or  JiHUN,  one  of  the  larg- 
est rivers  in  Russian  Central  Asia, 
formed  by  two  streams  which 
rise  on  the  Little  Pamir  near  the 
Indian  frontier — (1)  the  Ak-su 
('white  water'),  from  which,  per- 
haps, the  ancient  name  Oxus  is 
derived,  which  issues  from  the 
Gaz  Kul,  and  is  called  lower  down 
the  Ak-tash  and  then  the  Murg- 
hab;  and  (2)  the  Panj,  the  sources 
of  which  flow  from  the  glaciers  of 
the  Hindu-Kush,  northwest  of 
the  Kitik  Pass.  After  the  con- 
fluence of  these,  the  river  emerges 
into  the  Aralo-Caspian  plain.  It 
then  flows  northwest.  At  Charjui 
it  is  lyi  miles  broad  and  7  to  10 
feet  deep,  with  a  current  of  3 
miles  an  hour;  in  some  places  it 
expands  to  4  miles,  and  forms 
islands.  Having  skirted  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  Khiva 
khanate,  after  a  course  of  some 
1,400  miles,  it  enters  the  Sea  of 
Aral  by  a  large  delta  327  feet 
above  sea  level.    It  is  useful  for 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


224 

irrigation  purposes;  Khiva  (q.v.) 
owes  its  prosperity  to  its  waters. 
Steam  navigation  extends  from 
Charjui  up  to  Faizabad-kala  (370 
miles),  and  down  to  Kungrad  in 
the  delta  (3.50  miles). 

Amulet.  (1.)  In  architecture, 
a  ringlike  moulding  on  a  column. 
(2.)  In  decorative  art,  a  band 
painted  in  relief  around  a  vase  or 
similar  object.  (3.)  In  heraldry, 
a  ring  borne  as  a  charge,  being  a 
mark  of  cadency. 

Amulet,  any  object  worn  as  a 
charm.  It  is  often  a  stone,  or  a 
piece  of  metal,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion or  figures  engraved  on  it, 
and  is  generally  suspended  from 
the  neck,  and  worn  as  a  protec- 
tion against  sickness  or  witch- 
craft. The  ancient  Chaldaean 
and  Egyptian  amulets  were  in- 
scribed with  magic  letters  or 
signs,  and  sometimes  formed 
necklaces.  Among  the  Greeks, 
such  a  protective  charm  was 
styled  phylacierion.  The  phj^lac- 
teries  of  the  Jews  (Matt,  xxiii.  5), 
slips  of  parchment  on  which  pass- 
ages of  the  Law  were  written, 
were  evidently  worn  as  badges  of 
piety  by  the  Pharisees;  but  they 
were  also  regarded  as  a  wholesome 
protection  from  evil  spirits,  and 
from  all  manner  of  harm.  The 
use  of  amulets  passed  into  the 
Christian  Church,  the  usual  in- 
scription on  them  being  ichlhus 
(the  Greek  word  for  a  fish),  be- 
cause it  contained  the  initials  of 
the  Greek  words  for  Jesus  Christ, 
Son  of  God,  Saviour.  Among  the 
Gnostic  sects.  Abraxas  stones 
were  much  used.  Amulets  be- 
came so  common  among  Chris- 
tians that  in  the  fourth  century 
the  clergy  were  interdicted  from 
making  and  selling  them  on  pain 
of  deprivation  of  holy  orders;  and 
in  721  the  wearing  of  amulets  was 
solemnly  condemned  by  the 
Church.  With  the  spread  of 
Arabian  astronomy,  the  astrolog- 
ical amulet  or  talisman  of  the 
Arabs  found  its  way  to  Europe. 

Curative  amulets,  often  con- 
sisting of  texts  from  the  Koran 
written  on  strips  of  paper,  are 
worn  by  Mussulmans.  The  old 
Norsemen  were  fond  of  wearing 
an  image  of  Thor  as  an  amulet. 
In  ancient  Etruria  special  heed 
was  given  to  waxen  phalli.  Ital- 
ian peasants  carry  amulets  in  the 
form  of  pigs,  mice,  bulls,  and 
crosses  of  oak  twigs.  Lamaists 
carry  an  image  of  Buddha  {burk- 
han),  generally  of  terra  cotta, 
worn  in  a  case  (gavo)  around  the 
neck.  The  serpent  amulet  is  all 
but  universal;  nails  symbolically 
inscribed  have  been  widely  used; 
while  pebbles,  certain  seeds,  and 
crystal  balls  were  once  common 
in  Britain.  Consult  J.  C.  Law- 
son's    Modern    Creek  Folklore. 

Amun,  an  ancient  Egyptian 
deity.    See  Ammon. 

Amundsen,  ii'mun-s^n.RoALD 
(1872-1928),  Norwegian  explorer, 


the  discoverer  of  the  South  Pole, 
was  born  in  Borges.  He  received 
a  private  school  education,  stud- 
ied medicine  for  two  years,  and 
became  a  sailor  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Belgica  Antarctic  Expedi- 
tion in  1897-9,  and  upon  his  re- 
turn he  planned  an  expedition  for 
the  discovery  of  the  Northwest 
Passage  and  the  location  of  the 
magnetic  pole.  For  this  expedi- 
tion he  purchased  and  fitted  out 
the  schooner  Gjda,  in  which  he 
sailed  from  Christiania  on  June 
16,  1903.  He  located  the  mag- 
netic pole  near  Boothia  Felix,  the 
extreme  north  end  of  the  North 
American  continent;  was  the 
first  to  make  the  passage  from 
Europe  to  Alaska,  and  reached 
Fort  Egbert,  Alaska,  early  in 
December,  1905.  (See  North- 
west Passage.) 

In  1910  Amundsen  sailed  for 
the  Antarctic,  and  on  Oct.  19, 
1911  with  four  others,  he  started 
on  a  dash  for  the  South  Pole, 
which  was  reached  on  Dec.  14, 
1911  (see  Antarctic  Explora- 
tion). In  1918-20  he  made  the 
Northeast  Passage  (q.v.)  in  the 
Maud.  In  1922  he  organized  a 
Polar  expedition,  intending  to 
drift  across  the  top  of  the  world 
from  a  point  near  Wrangell  Is- 
land, across  the  North  Pole,  to 
the  Greenland  Sea,  and,  also,  to 
make  an  aeroplane  flight  over 
the  Pole.  He  spent  the  winter  of 
1922-3  in  Nome  and  went  from 
there  to  Wainwright,  but  after  a 
trial  airplane  test  the  flight  was 
abandoned. 

In  1925,  with  Lincoln  Ells- 
worth, an  American,  he  made  an 
aeroplane  flight  over  the  North 
Pole,  and  the  following  year  they 
two,  accompanied  by  Umberto 
Nobile,  an  Italian,  made  a  second 
flight  in  a  semi-rigid  airship  over 
the  Pole  (see  Arctic  Explora- 
tion). In  June,  1928,  on  the 
report  that  Nobile's  expedition  to 
the  Arctic  had  met  with  disaster. 
Amundsen  set  forth  from  Tromso 
to  rescue  him  and  was  never 
heard  from  again. 

Captain  Amundsen  is  the 
author  of  The  Northwest  Passage 
(1908);  The  South  Pole  (1913); 
The  Northeast  Passage  (1921); 
My  Life  as  an  Explorer  (1927). 

Amur,  ii-moor',  a  province  of 
Eastern  Siberia,  lying  between 
the  Amur  River  and  the  Stanovoi 
range  on  the  north.  The  coun- 
try slopes  southeast  to  the  Mari- 
time Province  from  a  height  of 
nearly  1,500  feet,  and  is  crossed 
by  spurs  of  the  Stanovoi  range 
and  by  the  Great  and  Little 
Khingan.  The  greater  part  of 
the  country  is  mountainous  and 
covered  with  forest,  especially  in 
the  west,  and  the  broader  valleys 
are  marshy.  The  wet  summer 
and  the  cold  winter,  with  no 
snowfall,  are  unfavorable  to 
farming.   The  mean  winter  tern- 


Amurath 


225 


Amygdaloid 


perature  is  -9°  F.,  and  the  summer 
66°  F.  Gold  is  extracted,  chiefly 
by  convicts,  on  the  JaUnda  and 
other  rivers  in  the  basin  of  the 
Upper  Amur,  in  the  basins  of  the 
Zeya,  Silinja,  and  Bureya,  and  in 
the  Little  Khingan.  Coal  exists 
on  the  Oldoi,  Zeya,  and  Bureya. 
Immense  tracts  are  uninhabited. 
Of  the  inhabitants,  88  per  cent, 
are  Russians;  the  remainder  is 
made  up  of  Manchus  and  of  Tun- 
gus  nomads  who  live  by  the  chase. 

The  conquest  of  the  Amur  was 
commenced  in  1650  by  the  Cos- 
sack Khabarov;  but  the  country 
was  ceded  by  China  to  Russia 
only  in  1858,  by  the  treaty  of 
Aigun.  It  is  a  province  admin- 
istered by  a  military  governor  at 
Blagoveshchensk,  subordinate  to 
the  governor-general  of  the  Amur 
region.  Area,  154,795  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1911)  230,200. 

The  governor-generalship  of 
Amur  includes  this  province  and 
the  Maritime  Province  (q.v.). 

Amurath,  or  Murad,  the  name 
of  five  sultans  of  Turkey: 

Amurath  i.  (1319-89),  son  of 
Orkhan,  succeeded  his  father  in 
1359,  after  ruling  a  distant  prov- 
ince of  Asia.  He  was  the  first 
Turkish  sultan  to  make  great 
headway  in  Europe,  and  the  chief 
events  of  his  reign  centre  round 
his  invasions  of  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula. The  capture  of  Adrianople 
stirred  up  the  king  of  Hungary 
against  him;  but,  along  with  his 
allies,  he  was  defeated  at  Maritza 
(1363).  In  1383  Amurath  took 
Sophia,  and  defeated  another  al- 
liance against  him  at  Kossovo 
(1389).  He  was  assassinated  the 
same  year  by  a  Servian.  The 
Turkish  capital  was  removed, 
during  his  reign,  from  Brussa  to 
Adrianople. 

Amurath  ii.  (1403-51),  who 
succeeded  his  father  Mohammed 
I.  in  1421,  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  against  Constantinople 
in  1422.  He  is  chiefly  noted,  how- 
ever, for  his  wars  with  Janos 
Hunyadi,  the  Hungarian  hero, 
whom  he  finally  defeated  at  Kos- 
sovo (1448). 

Amurath  in.  (1546-95),  eldest 
son  of  Selim  ii.,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  1574.  A  weak  ruler, 
fonder  of  the  fine  arts  and  the 
harem  than  of  governing,  his 
reign  marks  the  first  deterioration 
of  the  powers  of  the  sultans.  Yet 
the  Ottoman  arms  still  triumphed 
in  Georgia,  the  Crimea  Yemen, 
and  Persia.  The  Janizaries, 
roused  by  the  debasing  of  the 
coinage,  invaded  in  1589,  for  the 
first  time,  the  sultan's  palace,  de- 
manding the  heads  of  the  bey  of 
Rumelia  and  the  minister  of 
finance. 

Amurath  iv.  (1611-40),  son  of 
Sultan  Ahmed  i.,  succeeded  his 


uncle  Mustapha  i.  in  1623.  He 
was  noted  for  his  severity,  which 
was  developed  by  the  anarchy 
which  existed  during  the  first 
years  of  his  reign,  when  he  was 
too  young  to  rule.  But  at  the 
age  of  twenty,  after  putting  to 
death  his  rebellious  vizier,  Khos- 
sev  (1632),  and  gaining  over  the 
allegiance  of  his  Janizaries,  he 
was  able  to  rule  with  absolute 
power,  and  began  to  inflict  on  his 
people  those  cruelties  that  made 
his  reign  detested.  More  than 
100,000  victims  are  said  to  have 
perished  through  his  orders.  He 
was  a  man  of  gigantic  strength, 
and  insisted  on  leading  his  own 
armies,  in  spite  of  an  ancient  cus- 
tom which  forbade  the  sultan  to 
do  so.  He  had  a  war  with  Persia, 
in  which  he  took  Bagdad  (1638- 
39). 

Amurath  v.  (1840-1904),  the 
eldest  son  of  Sultan  Abdul  Med- 
jid,  and  brother  of  Abdul  Hamid 
II.,  was  proclaimed  sultan  in  1876 
upon  the  deposition  of  his  uncle, 
Abdul-Aziz.  But  long  imprison- 
ments had  ruined  his  health,  and 
after  ruling  for  three  months  he 
had  to  make  way  for  his  younger 
brother,  Abdul  Hamid.  He  was 
kept  in  prison  in  the  Cheragan 
Palace  until  his  death. 

Amurnath,  or  Hamarnath,  a 
cave  in  the  mountains  of  North- 
eastern Kashmir,  is  the  reputed 
abode  of  the  god  Siva,  and  a  re- 
sort of  Hindu  pilgrims. 

Amur  Petroglyphs,  ancient 
conventionalized  etchings  of  ani- 
mals and  human  beings  on  a 
series  of  boulders  at  the  mouth  of 
the  River  Orda,  a  tributary  of  the 
Amur.  Most  of  the  drawings  rep- 
resent the  human  face  and  the 
form  of  animals  by  means  of 
wavy  and  spiral  lines.  The  petro- 
glyphs were  discovered  by  the 
Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition. 

Amur  River,  one  of  the  most 
important  rivers  of  Asia;  also 
named  the  He-lung-Kiang,  or 
'black  dragon,'  by  the  Chinese, 
and  the  Sakhalinula,  or  'black 
water,'  by  the  Manchus.  It  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  Shilka 
and  the  Argun  (about  53°  n.  lat. 
and  121°  E.  long.),  the  former  ris- 
ing on  the  north  flank,  and  the 
latter  on  the  south  side,  of  the 
Khan-ula  range.  The  total  length 
is  about  2,760  miles.  On  its  course 
the  Amur  breaks  through  the 
Great  Khingan  and  Little  Khin- 
gan ranges,  and  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Ussuri  is  forced  northward 
by  the  Sikhota-alin  Mountains, 
entering  the  Sea  of  Ohkotsk  at 
Nikolaievsk,  not  far  from  the 
northern  end  of  Sakhalin  Island. 
The  fall  is  slight  and  the  current 
moderate,  but  the  river  is  wide 
and  full  of  islands,  except  where 
it  crosses  the  Little  Khingan.  At 


its  mouth  there  is  a  bar  with  shal- 
low water  outside,  and  the  lower 
section  is  much  encumbered  with 
sand  banks,  so  that  the  traffic 
from  the  interior  is  diverted  along 
the  Ussuri,  and  so  to  the  coast  at 
Vladivostok.  Steamers  ply  regu- 
larly during  the  season  of  naviga- 
tion, May  to  October,  up  to 
Strietensk  on  the  Shilka,  the 
depth  of  water  in  this  river  being 
on  an  average  4  to  5  feet.  Occa- 
sionally barges  are  towed  100 
miles  farther  up. 

The  great  tributary,  the  Sun- 
gari,  rising  in  the  Chang-pai-shan, 
or  Ever-white  Mountain,  drains 
with  its  affluents  the  greater  part 
of  Manchuria,  and  affords  navi- 
gable waterways  1,300  miles  in 
length.  The  Ussuri  gives  access 
also  by  the  Sungacha  to  Lake 
Khanka,  3,070  square  miles  in 
area;  and  other  tributaries  of  the 
Amur,  the  Zeya,  Bureya,  and 
Amgun,  are  navigable  for  short 
distances.  The  total  length  of 
navigable  waterways  is  nearly 
8,400  miles.  Consult  Holmes' 
Down  the  Amur. 

Amyclae,  ancient  Greek  town, 
on  the  River  Eurotas,  2}/2  miles 
southeast  of  Sparta;  the  chief 
town  of  the  Achaeans.  It  re- 
mained unsubdued  long  after  the 
Dorian  conquest.  It  was  said  to 
be  the  birthplace  of  Castor  and 
Pollux.  Its  early  prosperity  is  in- 
dicated by  the  discovery  of  a 
splendid  tomb  belonging  to  its 
princes,  which  contained,  among 
other  treasures,  two  magnificent 
gold  cups,  the  finest  specimens  of 
Mycenaean  art. 

Amyclae,  an  ancient  town  of 
Latium,  which  claimed  to  have 
been  built  by  a  colony  from  the 
Greek  Amyclae. 

Amygdalin,  C20H27NO113H2O, 
is  a  crystalline  principle  existing 
in  the  kernel  of  bitter  almonds, 
the  leaves  of  the  Prunus  lauro- 
cerasus,  and  various  other  plants, 
which,  by  distillation,  yield  hy- 
drocyanic acid.  When  obtained 
pure,  it  has  a  sweetish,  somewhat 
bitter  taste,  and  is  not  poisonous; 
and  when  treated  with  alkaline 
solvents,  ammonia  is  expelled, 
and  amygdalic  acid,  C20H26O12,  is 
then  produced.  Its  most  remark- 
able change,  however,  is  that  oc- 
curring in  the  volatile  oil  of  al- 
monds. When  the  bruised  almond 
kernel,  or  almond  paste,  is  brought 
in  contact  with  water,  the  peculiar 
odor  of  bitter  almonds  is  almost 
immediately  evolved;  and  in 
twenty-four  hours  all  the  amyg- 
dalin will  have  disappeared,  its 
place  being  taken  by  essential  oil 
of  almonds,  hydrocyanic  acid, 
sugar,  and  formic  acid.  See  Al- 
monds, Oil  of. 

Amygdaloid,  a  name  given  to 
igneous  rocks,  usually  old  lava 


Amyl 


225  A 


Anabaptists 


flows,  full  of  almond-shaped  cav- 
ities which  have  been  filled  up 
with  secondary  minerals,  such  as 
calcite,  agate,  or  the  zeolites. 
These  cavities  vary  in  size  up  to 
several  inches  across,  and  were 
formed  by  the  expanding  of  steam 
bubbles  while  the  rock  was  still 
fluid  and  in  motion.  Amygdaloi- 
dal  rocks  are  chiefly  noted  in 
America  for  their  occurrence  at 
Keweenaw  Point,  Lake  Superior, 
where  the  cavities  are  filled  with 
native  copper,  and  are  important 
as  a  source  of  that  metal. 

Amyl,  C5H11,  is  the  fifth  in  the 
series  of  alcohol  radicals  whose 
general  formula  is  CnH2n+i,  and 
of  which  methyl  and  ethyl  are  the 
first  two  members.  It  is  obtained 
by  heating  amyl  iodide  with  an 
amalgam  of  zinc  in  a  closed  tube 
at  a  temperature  of  about  177° 
c,  and  is  one  of  the  natural  prod- 
ucts of  the  distillation  of  coal. 
As  thus  obtained,  it  represents 
two  molecules  of  the  radical 
united  together,  and  usually  goes 
by  the  name  diamyl  (C5Hii)2. 
The  single  molecule,  C5H11,  has 
not  been  produced.  Diamyl  is  a 
colorless  liquid,  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  .770  (11°  c),  and  a 
boiling  point  of  about  158°  c.  It 
has  an  agreeable  smell  and  burn- 
ing taste.  It  enters  into  a  large 
number  of  chemical  compounds, 
most  of  which — e.g.  bromide, 
chloride,  etc. — are  derived  from 
amylic  alcohol,  which  bears  the 
same  relation  to  amyl  that  ordi- 
nary alcohol  bears  to  ethyl,  C2H5. 
See  Fusel  Oil. 

Amyl  Nitrite,  C5H11NO2,  a 
valuable  drug  which  may  be  pre- 
pared by  the  action  of  nitric  acid 
on  fusel  oil  (amyl  alcohol).  It  is  a 
pale  yellowish  liquid,  with  an 
ethereal,  fruity  odor,  the  vapor 
of  which,  when  inhaled,  even  in 
V3ry  small  quantity,  causes  vio- 
lent flushing  of  the  face  and  a 
feUing  as  if  the  head  would  burst. 
It  is  a  powerful  remedy  in  all 
convulsive  diseases,  and  is  of 
sp<;cial  value  in  angina  pectoris, 
as  well  as  in  asthma.  Toxic  doses 
cause  irregular  breathing,  pallor, 
muscular  relaxation,  and  death. 
It  should  be  kept  in  small,  dark- 
colored,  glass-stoppered  vials,  in 
a  cool,  dark  place,  in  order  to 
prevent  deterioration,  and  re- 
mote from  fire,  as  it  is  inflam- 
mable. 

Amyloid  Disease.  See  Waxy 
OR  Amyloid  Disease. 

Amyloids.  See  Carbohy- 
drates. 

Amylopsin,  the  diastatic  fer- 
ment in  the  pancreatic  secretion. 
See  Pancreas;  Digestion. 

Amyntor,  Gerhard  von.  See 
Gerhardt. 

Amyot,  Jacques  (1513-9.3), 
French  scholar,  was  the  friend  of 


Marguerite  of  Valois,  who  made 
him  professor  of  ancient  lan- 
guages at  Bourges  University. 
He  became  afterward  bishop  of 
Auxerre  (1570),  and  is  celebrated 
as  the  French  translator  of  Plu- 
tarch's Lives.  His  translation 
(1559,  1572)  is  not  only  great  as  a 
translation,  but  marks  an  epoch 
in  the  history  of  French  style. 
North  translated  it  into  English, 
and  so  came  to  give  materials  for 
the  Roman  plays  of  Shakespeare. 
Consult  Sainte-Beuve's  Causeries 
du  Lundi  (vol.  iv.). 

Amyraut,  or  Amyraldus, 
Moses  (1596-1664),  French  Prot- 
estant theologian,  and  a  pupil  of 
Calvin,  was  born  in  Bourgueil, 
and  was  educated  at  Orleans  and 
Poitiers.  He  gave  up  law  for 
theology,  and  settled  at  Saumur, 
becoming  professor  of  theology 
there  in  1633.  He  made  its  uni- 
versity the  chief  school  of  Prot- 
estantism in  France.  His  works 
include  Traite  de  la  Predestination 
(1634)  ,•  Traite  des  Religions  (1631). 

Ana,  a  termination  added  to 
proper  names  to  designate  collec- 
tions of  sayings,  'table  talk,' 
anecdotes,  items  of  gossip,  as 
Johnsoniana,  Boswelliana;  as  well 
as  notes  or  publications  about 
some  person,  as  Shakespeariana, 
Burnsiana. 

Anabaptists  (from  Greek  ana- 
baptizein,  'to  baptize  again'),  a 
term  often  applied  to  those  Chris- 
tians who  reject  infant  baptism 
and  administer  the  rite  only  to 
adults;  so  that  when  a  new  mem- 
ber joins  them,  he  or  she,  if  bap- 
tized in  infancy,  is  baptized  a 
second  time.  It  is  properly  ap- 
plied to  the  adherents  of  a  move- 
ment which  appeared  in  many 
parts  of  Europe,  particularly  in 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  the 
Netherlands,  during  the  Refor- 
mation. They  not  only  denied 
the  validity  of  infant  baptism, 
but  pretended  to  new  revelations, 
dreamed  of  the  establishment  of 
the  kingdom  of  heaven  on  earth, 
and  summoned  princes  to  join 
them,  on  pain  of  losing  their  tem- 
poral power.  They  proclaimed 
the  community  of  goods  and  the 
equality  of  all  Christians. 

The  history  of  the  Anabaptists 
was  brief  but  eventful.  They  first 
came  prominently  forward  in 
1521  at  Zwickau,  in  Saxony,  un- 
der Thomas  Munzer  and  others, 
who  styled  themselves  the  Proph- 
ets of  Zwickau.  Luther  spoke 
strongly  against  them,  urging  the 
princes  in  whose  states  they  ap- 
peared to  suppress  them.  Munzer 
travelled  through  Bohemia,  Thu- 
ringia,  Switzerland,  etc.,  preach- 
ing his  theories  with  great  suc- 
cess. In  1525headroitlyfomented 
the  deep  dissatisfaction  of  the 
peasants  of  the  south  and  middle 


of  Germany,  who  were  in  revolt 
against  their  lords  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Peasants'  War.  The 
peasants  were  completely  de- 
feated at  Frankenhausen  (May 
15,  1525),  and  Munzer  and  other 
leaders  were  executed.  (See  Peas- 
ants' War.) 

Nevertheless,  scattered  adher- 
ents of  the  doctrines  continued. 
Melchior  Hoffmann,  a  furrier  of 
Swabia,  who  appeared  as  a  vision- 
ary preacher  in  Emden  in  1528, 
installed  a  baker,  John  Matthie- 
sen,  of  Haarlem,  as  bishop.  Mat- 
thiesen  began  to  send  out  apostles 
of  the  new  doctrine.  Two  of  these 
went  to  Miinster,  where  they 
were  joined  by  Rothmann,  Knip- 
perdolling,  Bockhold,  and  others, 
and  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  city;  Matthiesen,  who  set  up 
as  a  prophet,  lost  his  life  in  a  mad 
sally,  with  only  thirty  followers, 
against  Count  Waldeck,  the 
prince  bishop  of  Munster,  who 
was  besieging  the  town.  The 
churches  were  now  destroyed, 
and  twelve  judges  were  appointed 
over  the  tribes,  as  among  the 
Israelites;  and  Bockhold  (1534) 
was  crowned  king  of  the  'New 
Zion,'  under  the  name  of  John 
of  Leyden.  Munster  became  the 
scene  of  the  wildest  licentious- 
ness, until  several  Protestant 
princes,  uniting  with  the  bishop, 
took  the  city,  and  by  executing 
the  leaders  after  the  cruellest 
tortures,  put  an  end  to  the  new 
kingdom  (1535). 

In  Amsterdam  the  doctrine  also 
took  root  and  spread.  The  dis- 
ciples of  Bockhold  abandoned  the 
community  of  goods  and  women, 
and  preached  a  new  kingdom  of 
pure  Christians.  David  Joris,  a 
glass  painter  of  Delft  (1501-56), 
devoted  himself  to  mystic  theolo- 
gy, and  sought  to  effect  a  union 
of  parties.  He  acquired  many  ad- 
herents, who  studied  his  Book  of 
Miracles  (Wunderbuch) ,  which 
appeared  at  Deventer  in  1542. 
and  looked  upon  him  as  a  Mes- 
siah. Being  persecuted  he  with- 
drew from  leadership,  and  lived 
at  Basel,  under  the  name  of  John 
of  Bruges,  where  he  died  in  the 
Communion  of  the  Reformed 
Church. 

The  rude  and  fanatical  period 
of  the  history  of  Anabaptism 
closes  with  the  scandal  of  Miin- 
ster. A  new  era  begins  with 
Menno  Simons  (see  Mennon- 
ITES),  who  founded  congregations 
in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Ger- 
many. His  followers,  however, 
expressly  repudiated  the  distinc- 
tive doctrines  of  the  Munster 
fanatics;  and  so  little  had  their 
sober  and  moderate  life  in  com- 
mon with  the  excesses  of  the  lat- 
ter, that  the  application  of  the 
term  Anabaptists  to  them  is  mis- 


Anabasis 


225  B 


Anacreon 


leading.  Consult  Heath's  Ana- 
baptism  from  Its  Rise  at  Zwickau 
to  Its  Fall  at  Miinster;  Belfort 
Bax's  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Ana- 
baptists (1903). 

Anabasis,  a-nab'a-sis,  the 
name  of  two  historical  works:  (1) 
The  Anabasis  of  Cyrus,  written 
by  Xenophon,  which  gives  a  nar- 
rative of  the  unfortunate  expedi- 
tion of  the  younger  Cyrus  against 
his  brother,  the  Persian  king 
Artaxerxes,  and  of  the  retreat  of 
his  10,000  Greek  allies  under  the 
command  of  Xenophon,  after  the 
Battle  of  Cunaxa  (401  B.C.).  (2) 
The  Anabasis  of  Alexander,  writ- 
ten by  Arrian,  and  giving  an  ac- 
count of  the  campaigns  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great. 

An'ableps  (Greek  anablepsis, 
'looking  up'),  a  genus  in  Agas- 
siz'  cyprinodont  family  of  bony 
fishes  with  open-air  bladders. 
They  are  specially  noteworthy 
for  their  projecting  eyes,  which 
are  divided  into  an  upper  and  a 
lower  portion.  The  outer  cover- 
ing or  cornea  is  crossed  by  a  dark 
band,  and  the  inner  iris  is  simi- 
larly divided,  so  that  there  are 
really  two  pupils  instead  of  one. 
This  unique  structure  is  supposed 
to  be  associated  with  a  habit 
which  these  fishes  are  said  to 
have  of  swimming  with  the  eyes 
partly  out  of  the  water.  A. 
tctropthalmus  inhabits  the  rivers 
of  Guiana  and  Surinam. 

Anab'olism,  the  constructive 
processes  within  the  protoplasm, 
by  which  food  or  other  material, 
at  a  relatively  low  level,  passes 
through  an  ascending  series  of 
ever  more  complex  and  unstable 
combinations,  till  it  is  finally 
worked  up  into  living  matter. 
See  Metabolism. 

Anacardiacese.  See  Cashew 
Nut;  Pistacia;  Mango;  Sumach. 

Anacardium.  See  Cashew 
Nut. 

Anacharis,  a-nak'a-ris,  an  old 
genus  of  plants  now  known  as 
Elodea.  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Hydrocharideae.  The  best- 
known  species  is  A.  alsinastrum 
or  E.  canadensis,  a  slender  wholly 
submerged  plant  bearing  small 
oblong  leaves  and  small  white 
flowers.  See  Canadian  Pond- 
weed. 

Anacharsis,  a  Scythian  prince 
who  is  said  to  have  travelled 
widely  in  quest  of  knowledge, 
and  visited  Athens  in  the  time  of 
Solon.  He  was  received  with 
great  respect  for  his  remarkable 
wisdom,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
Athenian  franchise.  The  letters 
which  bear  his  name  were  written 
long  after  his  time.  J.  J.  Bar- 
tht'lemy  made  him  the  prototype 
for  the  hero  of  his  Voyaf^e  du 
jeune  Anacharsis  en  Grece  (1788). 

Anachronism,  an-ak'ro-niz'm 
(Greek  ana,  'backward,'  chronos, 
'time'),  the  erroneous  reference  of 
a  circumstance  or  custom  to  a 
wrong  date.    Anachronisms  may 


be  made  in  regard  to  mode  of 
thought  and  style  of  writing,  as 
well  as  in  regard  to  mere  events. 
It  is  difficult  for  a  writer  to  pro- 
ject himself  so  completely  into  a 
past  age  as  to  avoid  anachro- 
nisms. There  is  hardly  a  novel  of 
its  class  that  contains  more  study 
than  Thackeray's  Esmond,  yet 
here  a  book  is  spoken  of  in  1712 
which  was  not  published  until 
1750.  The  anachronism  is  more 
offensive  when,  in  a  work  which 
pedantically  adheres  to  the  cos- 
tumes and  other  external  features 
of  old  times,  we  find  a  modern 
style  of  thought  and  language,  as 
in  the  old  French  dramas  of  Cor- 
neille  and  Racine.  In  popular 
epic  poetry  it  is  a  common  fea- 
ture. Achilles  is  always  young, 
Helena  always  beautiful.  In 
their  versions  of  old  classic  tradi- 
tions, the  writers  of  the  Middle 
Ages  converted  Alexander,  ^ne- 
as,  and  other  ancient  heroes  into 
good  Christian  knights  of  the 
twelfth  century.  In  the  Niebe- 
lungenlied,  Attila  and  Theodoric 
are  good  friends  and  allies, 
though  the  latter  began  to  reign 
some  forty  years  after  the  former. 

The  English  and  Spanish  dram- 
atists are  full  of  anachronisms; 
but  as  they  make  no  pretence  of 
preserving  local  color  or  historic 
truth,  these  errors  can  scarcely  be 
counted  as  artistic  faults.  Calde- 
ron,  in  his  Virgin  del  Sagrario, 
introduces  a  bishop  who  is  sup- 
posed to  live  three  hundred  years 
before  the  discovery  of  the  New 
World,  yet  who  quotes  Herodo- 
tus as  an  authority  on  America; 
while  it  is  laot  uncommon  in  Span- 
ish religious  plays  to  find  Adam, 
the  prophets,  and  Christ  all  on 
the  stage  at  once.  Shakespeare's 
own  liberties  in  the  same  direc- 
tion are  well  known.  He  trans- 
ports all  our  modern  customs  and 
usages,  the  observance  of  May 
Day,  and  the  institution  of  nun- 
neries, to  the  court  of  Duke 
Theseus  (Midsummer-Night's 
Dream) .  So,  too,  in  Julius  Caesar 
we  have  a  reference  to  clocks 
striking  the  hour.  These  slips 
are  of  little  consequence,  how- 
ever, for  the  avoidance  of  them  is 
no  part  of  the  author's  artistic 
theory.  But  when  Agamemnon, 
in  Troilus  and  Cressida,  quotes 
Aristotle,  the  anachronism  be- 
comes a  positive  fault,  because 
the  poet  is  evidently  trying  to 
produce  an  effect  by  an  appeal  to 
the  liistoric  sense. 

In  the  case  of  historical  novel- 
ists it  is  almost  impossible  to 
avoid  an  occasional  transposition 
of  events — as  where  Scott  quotes 
in  Kenilworth  from  the  Midsum- 
mer-Night's Dream,  in  a  scene 
dated  several  years  before  the 
writing  of  that  drama.  Such  an 
error  as  this,  however,  is  im- 
material so  long  as  the  general 
effect  is  true  to  the  spirit  of  the 
age,  and  is  much  less  serious  than 


the  procedure  of  the  modern 
French  romantic  dramatists,  with 
Victor  Hugo  at  their  head,  who 
have  elevated  historic  truth  of 
fact  into  an  absolute  law  of  the 
drama,  but  who  do  not  scruple 
to  commit  the  graver  anachro- 
nism of  attributing  to  their  char- 
acters sentiments  and  ideas  ut- 
terly foreign  to  the  age  they  lived 
in.  Anachronisms  have  in  almost 
all  ages  been  perpetrated  by 
painters  of  sacred  Christian  sub- 
jects— Dutch,  German,  and  Ital- 
ian peasants  being  depicted  as 
disciples  of  Jesus. 

Anacolutbon,  an-a-ko-lu'- 
thon,  a  term  employed  both  in 
grammar  and  rhetoric,  to  denote 
the  absence  of  strict  logical  se- 
quence in  the  grammatical  con- 
struction— e.g.,  'Whoso  desireth 
to  live  happily — let  him  make 
virtue  his  friend.'  Good  writers 
are  sometimes  willing  to  sacrifice 
the  logical  sequence  for  the  sake 
of  emphasis,  or  clearness. 

Anacon'da  (Eunectes  muri- 
nus),  a  large  South  American 
water  snake  of  the  Python  family, 
closely  related  to  the  boa  con- 
strictor. The  upper  part  of  the 
front  of  the  head  is  armed  with 
shield-like  plates,  replaced  by 
scales  farther  back.  The  minute 
vertical  nostrils  at  the  end  of  the 
snout  can  be  entirely  closed,  a 
fact  in  association  with  the  aquat- 
ic habit  of  the  animal.  Some 
specimens  have  measured  from 
25  to  30  feet  in  length.  The  gen- 
eral color  of  the  adult  is  blackish 
green,  with  rows  of  spots  along 
the  back  and  sides.  The  anaconda 
is  ovo- viviparous.  It  is  found  in 
the  rivers  of  Guiana  and  Brazil, 
swimming  like  an  eel,  or  floating 
with  the  stream,  or  lying  in  wait 
by  the  bank  for  the  agoutis, 
capybaras,  iguanas,  etc.,  on 
which  it  feeds.  The  skin  is  used 
for  making  boots  and  bags,  and 
the  flesh  is  sometimes  eaten. 
See  Boa;  Python. 

Anaconda,  city,  Montana, 
county  seat  of  Deer  Lodge  Coun- 
ty, on  the  Butte,  Anaconda,  and 
Pacific  Railroad;  26  miles  north- 
west of  Butte.  It  has  great 
copper-smelting  and  refining 
works,  railroad  and  machine 
shops,  and  makes  bricks  and 
cigars.  At  Butte  is  the  Ana- 
conda copper  and  silver  mines. 
Pop.  (1910)  10,134;  (1920)  12,- 
537. 

Anacor'tes,  city,  Washington, 
in  Skagit  County,  on  the  Great 
Northern  Railroad;  80  miles 
north  of  Seattle.  It  has  fishing, 
wood  working,  canning,  and  saw- 
mill industries.  Pop.  (1910)  4,168; 
(1920)  5,284. 

Anacreon,  a-nak're-on,  one  of 
the  most  esteemed  lyric  poets  of 
Greece,  was  born  about  560  B.C. 
at  Teos,  an  Ionian  city  in  Asia 
Minor.  With  his  fellow  towns- 
men he  emigrated  to  Abdera,  in 
Thrace,  on  the  approach  of  the 


Vol.  I. — March  '29 


Anadarko 


225  C 


Anaesthesia 


Persians.  Thence  he  was  invited 
to  the  court  of  Polycrates,  the 
ruler  of  Samos;  and  here  he  sang, 
in  light  and  flowing  strains,  the 
praise  of  wine  and  beauty.  After 
the  death  of  Polycrates  he  went 
to  Athens,  and  was  received  with 
distinguished  honor  by  Hippar- 
chus.  Great  honors  were  paid  to 
him  after  his  death;  Teos  put  his 
likeness  upon  its  coins,  and  a 
statue  was  raised  to  him  on  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens,  which  repre- 
sented him  in  a  state  of  vinous 
hilarity.  Of  his  poems,  only  a 
few  genuine  fragments  have  been 
preserved.  The  Odes  attributed 
to  him  are  now  admitted  to  be 
spurious. 

Anadarko,  city,  Oklahoma, 
in  Caddo  County,  on  the  Washita 
River,  and  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island,  and  Pacific  Railroad;  35 
miles  southwest  of  Oklahoma 
City.  It  has  cotton  mills,  grain 
elevators  and  flour  mills.  Pop. 
(1910)  3,439;   (1920)  3,116. 

An'adiplo'sis  (Greek),  the 
rhetorical  figure  of  simple  repeti- 
tion— e.g.,  'O  earth,  earth,  earth!' 

Anadyomene,  an-a-di-om'g- 
ne,  ('emerging'),  the  goddess  ris- 
ing out  of  the  sea,  a  name  given 
to  Aphrodite  from  her  being  born 
of  the  foam  of  the  sea.  The 
name  gained  fame  from  Apelles' 
masterpiece,  a  painting  of  the 
goddess  in  the  moment  of  rising 
from  the  sea.    See  Aphrodite. 

Anadyr,  a-na-der',  or  Ana- 
dir, a  gulf  of  Northeast  Siberia, 
and  a  resort  of  whalers.  The 
Anadyr  River  flows  into  the  Gulf 
of  Anadyr,  after  a  course  of  about 
460  miles  from  the  Stanovoi 
Mountains. 

Anse'mia  (Greek,  'bloodless- 
ness')  is  a  comprehensive  term 
commonly  employed  to  denote  a 
deficient  quantity  or  quality  of 
the  blood.  Deficiency  in  quan- 
tity is  evidenced  by  an  absolute 
reduction  in  the  amount  of  blood 
in  the  body;  in  qualitative  de- 
ficiency there  is  a  reduction  in  the 
number  of  the  red  corpuscles,  or 
their  contained  haemoglobin.  In 
the  more  restricted  sense  anaemia 
may  be  defined  as  a  reduction  in 
the  amount  of  circulating  oxygen- 
carrying  constituent — hemoglo- 
bin. 

Symptoms.  —  The  symptoms 
present  in  anaemia  are  weakness 
and  languor;  tendency  to  head- 
aches, especially  at  the  top  of  the 
head,  and  to  neuralgias  in  various 
situations;  singing  in  the  ears, 
and  visual  disturbances;  palpita- 
tion; breathlessness;  sleeplessness 
and  irritability;  poor  appetite  and 
weak  digestion,  with  constipa- 
tion, and,  in  women,  disorders  of 
the  catamenial  functions.  The 
patient  presents  a  blanched  ap- 
pearance, the  skin  being  pale,  and 
the  lips,  gums,  and  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  eyelids  bloodless.  In 
many  of  the  cases  there  may  be 
no  emaciation — rather,  a  tend- 


ency to  plumpness;  but  the 
muscles  are  flabby,  and  there  is 
frequently  also  dropsy  about  the 
ankles.  Cardiac  dilatation  is 
generally  present.  In  some  cases 
even  of  ordinary  anaemia  there  is 
enlargement  of  the  spleen,  and, 
more  rarely,  of  the  liver.  Occa- 
sionally there  is  albumin  in  the 
urine.  The  blood  in  health 
should  contain  5,000,000  red 
corpuscles  per  cubic  millimeter, 
but  on  estimating  it  in  "anaemia 
there  may  be  a  great  reduction 
in  the  number.  The  white  cor- 
puscles are  estimated  to  be 
present  in  health  in  the  ratio  of 
1  to  300  or  500,  but  this  ratio  may 
be  altered  by  a  relative  or  an 
absolute  increase  of  the  white 
cells. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  anae- 
mia, following  Osier,  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups,  accord- 
ing as  they  act  upon  the  blood 
directly,  or  upon  the  blood-form- 
ing structures.  Under  the  first 
division  must  be  placed  me- 
chanical blood  losses  (haemor- 
rhage) in  which  the  quantity  of 
the  blood  is  diminished  with  a 
corresponding  reduction  of  its 
constituents;  losses  produced  by 
a  drain  on  the  albuminous  ele- 
ments of  the  blood  by  pus  forma- 
tion, albuminuria,  or  lactation; 
diminished  blood  formation  by 
want  of  food,  or  conditions  pre- 
venting assimilation  by  the  or- 
ganism, as  in  diseases  of  the 
gullet  and  stomach;  and,  lastly, 
the  effects  of  certain  poisons 
which  interfere  with  blood  for- 
mation, such  as  metals  like  mer- 
cury, and  organic  agents  like 
malaria  and  intestinal  parasites. 
In  the  second  group  are  to  be 
considered  causes  which  act  by 
disturbing  the  functions  of  the 
blood-making  organs — to  wit, 
the  spleen,  the  bone  marrow,  and 
the  general  lymphatic  tissues  of 
the  body.  Thus,  changes  in  the 
bone  marrow  and  spleen  are  often 
associated  with  the  form  of 
anaemia  known  as  idiopathic,  or 
progressive  pernicious  anaemia; 
and  affections  of  the  general 
lymph  glands  throughout  the 
body  are  associated  with  anaemia 
in  leukosarcomatosis  and  Hodg- 
kin's  Disease.  In  all  these  affec- 
tions there  is  no  increase  in  the 
number  of  the  white  cells;  but 
there  is  another  analogous  dis- 
ease characterized  by  changes  in 
the  spleen,  marrow,  and  glands, 
associated  with  an  increase  in  the 
white  cells  and  a  reduction  of  the 
red  corpuscles.  This  is  the  affec- 
tion known  as  Leukemia  or  Leu- 
cocythcemia  (q.v.). 

Treatment.  —  Since  secondary 
anaemia  is  only  a  symptom,  its 
treatment  depends  upon  the 
underlying  cause.  In  all  ca.ses. 
treatment  includes  physical  and 
mental  rest,  healthy  and  cheerful 
surroundings,  attention  to  the 
state  of  the  mouth  and  teeth, 


regulation  of  the  bowels,  and 
careful  attention  to  diet.  In  the 
latter  measure  great  advances 
have  recently  been  made,  the 
diet  employed  consisting  largely 
of  mammalian  liver,  which  stim- 
ulates the  formation  of  red  blood 
cells  to  a  striking  degree,  with 
beef  kidney  next  in  order  of 
efficiency.  Among  other  food- 
stuffs stimulating  red  cell  forma- 
tion are  other  animal  organs  such 
as  heart,  pancreas,  stomach,  etc., 
the  fruits,  apricots,  prunes,  and 
peaches  especially,  and  raisins 
and  fresh  grapes.  It  has  also 
been  found  that  while  whole  milk 
is  excellent  for  most  dietary  re- 
quirements it  is  conspicuously 
lacking  in  hemoglobin-producing 
substances.  Blood  transfusion 
is  resorted  to  in  dangerous  cases. 
Arsenic,  iron,  and  manganese  are 
the  most  reliable  drugs.  See  also 
Chlorosis. 

Anaesthesia  (Greek  'absence 
of  sensation'),  loss  of  sensation, 
local  or  general,  due  to  disease  or 
induced  by  artificial  means  chief- 
ly as  an  adjunct  to  surgical  pro- 
cedures. The  term  is  commonly 
used  as  synonymous  with  anal- 
gesia, which  refers  to  absence  of 
sensibility  to  pain  only,  with  re- 
tention of  consciousness. 

References  to  attempts  at 
anaesthesia  and  analgesia  coexist 
with  human  history.  Ancient 
Egyptian  carvings  illustrate  the 
production  of  analgesia  by  pres- 
sure, and  the  analgesic  properties 
of  the  coca  plant  have  been 
known  from  time  immemorial. 
The  more  familiar  production  of 
anaesthesia  by  the  inhalation  of 
gases  belongs  only  to  the  last 
century.  Henry  Hill  Hickman, 
an  English  practitioner,  carried 
out  successful  experiments  on 
animals  between  1820  and  1828, 
but  the  honor  of  being  the  first 
successfully  to  use  ether  in  con- 
nection with  an  operative  pro- 
cedure belongs  to  an  American, 
Crawford  W.  Long,  a  country 
practitioner  of  Georgia,  who  re- 
sected a  tumor  under  ether 
anaesthesia  in  1842.  Independent 
investigations  were  being  carried 
on  at  about  the  same  time  by 
Horace  Wells,  a  dentist  of  Hart- 
ford. Conn.,  and  by  Wm.  T.  G. 
Morton,  who,  in  1846,  success- 
fully demonstrated  the  value  of 
ether  in  abolishing  pain  before 
the  staff  and  students  of  Harvard 
Medical  College,  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts General  Hospital.  The 
name  anaesthesia  was  proposed  in 
the  same  year  by  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes. 

In  1847,  Flourens,  a  French- 
man, pointed  out  the  anaesthetic 
properties  of  chloroform  and 
ethyl  chloride,  and  in  the  v^ame 
year  Sir  James  Simpson  of  Edin- 
burgh presented  a  paper  on  the 
anaesthetic  properties  of  chloro- 
form. In  1853  Alexander  Wood, 
also  of  Edinburgh,  introduced  the 


Vol.  I. — March  '29 


Anaesthesia 


225  D 


Anahuac 


hypodermic  s^Tinge,  making  pos- 
sible local,  regional,  spinal,  and 
paravertebral  analgesia.  Albert 
Niemann  discovered  the  alkaloid 
of  coca  leaves  in  1858,  and  its 
analgesic  and  anaesthetic  proper- 
ties were  subsequently  demon- 
strated. Bier  of  Kiel  first  placed 
spinal  analgesia  (suggested  by  the 
American  neurologist,  J.  Leonard 
Corning)  on  a  practical  basis 
(1899);  novocaine  was  dis- 
covered by  Alfred  Einhorn  in 
1904  and  first  tested  clinically  by 
H.  Braun  of  Gerniany  in  1905. 
Colonic  anaesthesia  with  oil  ether 
was  perfected  in  1913  by  an 
American,  James  T.  Gwathmey. 

General  Anaesthesia  is  in- 
duced by  the  inhalation  or  intra- 
venous administration  of  certain 
drugs,  chief  among  which  are 
ether,  chloroform,  ethyl  chloride, 
and  nitrous  oxide  (qq.v.).  Ether 
is  given,  also,  in  an  oil  medium 
by  rectal  injection.  Other  less 
common  anaesthetics  are  ethyl- 
ene, acetylene,  and  carbon  di- 
oxide. All  these  drugs  act  by 
producing  a  progressive  paralysis 
of  the  central  nervous  system 
with  suspension  of  the  vital  func- 
tions except  respiration  and  cir- 
culation. The  anaesthetic  prop- 
erties of  the  various  agents  are  im- 
proved by  combination  with 
oxygen.  Preliminary  medication 
with  morphine,  magnesium  sul- 
phate, and  chloretone  is  also  a 
useful  adjunct.  Each  drug  has 
its  special  indications  and  con- 
traindications and  methods  of 
administration,  which  cannot  be 
presented  in  detail  here.  General 
anaesthesia  has  been  used  thera- 
peutically to  control  epileptic 
attacks. 

Regional  (Local)  Anaesthesia 
is  the  production  of  insensi- 
bility in  any  given  region  of  the 
body.  There  are  two  distinct 
procedures  by  which  this  is  ac- 
complished: (1)  Field  block  con- 
sists in  making  fanwise  injections 
of  the  anaesthetic  drug  in  certain 
definite  planes  of  the  body,  so  as 
to  soak  all  the  nerves  supplying 
the  operative  field,  thus  creating 
a  wall  of  anaesthesia  which  blocks 
pain  transmission.  (2)  Nerve 
block  consists  in  injecting  the 
nerves  individually  or  reaching 
them  en  bloc  by  a  single  injection. 
Spinal  ancBsthesia  is  in  reality  an 
extensive  nerve  block  resulting 
from  the  injection  of  the  roots  of 
the  spinal  nerves  in  the  subarach- 
noid space.  Local  analgesia  is 
produced  by  the  use  of  various 
freezing  mixtures,  such  as  ethyl 
chloride,  in  the  form  of  a  spray. 

The  drug  of  choice  for  inducing 
regional  anaesthesia  is  novocaine 
(para  -amino  -benzoyldiethyl^imi- 
no-ethanol  hydrochlorid).  Co- 
caine, formerly  much  used,  has 
been  practically  discarded  except 
for  contact  anaesthesia  of  the 
mucous  membranes.  Stovaine 
and   tropacocaine   are   used  to 


some  extent.  Preliminary  medi- 
cation with  morphine  and  scopol- 
amine is  useful  to  relieve  the 
psychic  strain  incidental  to  con- 
sciousness during  the  operative 
procedure. 

Regional  anaesthesia  has  been 
used  in  a  wide  variety  of  condi- 
tions. It  is  especially  applicable 
in  operations  on  the  head,  on  the 
lateral  and  anterior  aspects  of  the 
neck,  and  on  the  upper  and  lower 
extremities,  for  certain  proce- 
dures* on  the  thorax  and  in  the 
upper  abdomen,  and  for  surgery 
of  the  lower  abdomen  and  pelvis, 
especially  urological  procedures. 
It  is  particularly  useful  in  poor 
surgical  risks  in  whom,  because  of 
lowered  physical  resistance,  gen- 
eral anaesthesia  is  contraindicat- 
ed.  As  its  successful  employ- 
ment is  dependent  in  large  part 
upon  the  cooperation  of  the 
patient,  it  is  contraindicated  in 
such  subjects  as  cannot  intelli- 
gently cooperate  with  the  sur- 
geon and  anaesthetist.  It  is 
difficult  of  accomplishment  in 
obese  patients,  in  whom  the 
superficial  anatomical  landmarks 
are  ill-defined.  Spinal  anaesthe- 
sia is  contraindicated  in  the  pres- 
ence of  gastro-intestinal  perfora- 
tion, localized  peritonitis,  and,  in 
general,  in  syphilitic  and  epileptic 
patients. 

Symptomatic  Anaesthesia.  — 
Loss  of  sensibility  occurs  natu- 
rally as  the  result  of  disease  or 
injury  of  the  nervous  system  in- 
volving the  sensory  end  organs, 
by  which  sensation  is  received, 
the  conduction  paths,  by  which 
they  are  transferred  to  the  brain, 
or  the  sensory  areas  of  the  brain. 
It  is  seen  in  such  conditions  as 
spinal  cord  tumors,  tabes  dorsalis 
(locomotor  ataxia),  some  forms 
of  neuritis,  and  leprosy.  It  oc- 
curs also  in  hysterical  conditions 
in  which  no  organic  lesions  can 
be  demonstrated. 

See  the  articles  on  the  various 
anaesthetic  drugs.  For  obstetrical 
analgesia  (twilight  sleep)  see 
Obstetrics.  Consult  J.  T. 
Gwathmey's  Anesthesia  (1925); 
also  chapters  on  General  and 
Regional  Anaesthesia  in  Volume  I 
of  Nelson  Loose-Leaf  Surgery 
(1927). 

Anagallis.    See  Pimpernel. 

Anagni,  a-na'nye,  town,  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Rome,  situated 
on  a  hill;  46  miles  by  rail  south- 
east of  Rome.  The  seat  of  a 
bishop  since  487,  it  has  an  old  but 
much  modernized  cathedral;  and 
was  the  birthplace  of  four  popes 
— Innocent  iii.,  Gregory  ix., 
Alexander  iv.,  and  Boniface  viii. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Anagoge,  an-a-go'je,  or  Ana- 
GOGV  (Greek,  'a  leaping  up'),  a 
raising  of  the  mind  to  celestial 
things;  a  mystical  interpretation 
of  the  plain  narrative  of  Scrip- 
ture, as  when  Gregory  the  Great, 
in  his  Commentary  on  Job,  ex- 


plains the  Apostle  Peter's  warm- 
ing himself  at  a  fire  of  coals  dur- 
ing Christ's  trial  as  being  typical 
of  the  coldness  of  heart  which 
would  lead  him  presently  to  deny 
Christ.    See  Allegory. 

An'agram  (Greek,  ana,  'back- 
ward,' and  gramma,  'a  letter  of 
the  alphabet'),  the  transposition 
of  the  letters  of  a  word,  phrase, 
or  short  sentence,  so  as  to  form  a 
new  word  or  sentence.  The  Cab- 
alists  attached  great  importance 
to  anagrams,  believing  in  some  re- 
lation of  them  to  the  character  or 
destiny  of  the  persons  from  whose 
names  they  were  formed.  Plato 
entertained  a  similar  notion,  and 
the  later  Platonists  rivalled  the 
Cabalists  in  ascribing  to  them 
mysterious  virtues.  Although 
now  classed  among  ingenious 
trifles,  anagrams  formerly  em- 
ployed the  most  serious  minds, 
and  some  of  the  Puritan  writers 
commended  the  use  of  them. 

The  best  anagrams  are  such  as 
have,  in  the  new  order  of  letters, 
some  signification  appropriate  to 
that  from  which  they  are  formed. 
It  vvas  a  great  triumph  of  the 
mediaeval  anagrammatist  to  find 
in  Pilate's  question,  'Quid  est 
Veritas?'  (What  is  truth?)  its  own 
answer:  'Est  vir  qui  adest'  (It  is 
the  man  who  is  here).  With 
equal  appropriateness,  Horatio 
Nelson  may  read  'Honor  est  a 
Nilo'  (Honor  is  from  the  Nile), 
and  Florence  Nightingale,  'Flit 
on,  cheering  angel.'  Marie  Tou- 
chet,  the  name  of  a  favorite  mis- 
tress of  Charles  ix.  of  France, 
was  read  'le  charme  tout'  (I  charm 
every  one);  the  flatterers  of 
James  i.  of  Great  Britain  found 
in  his  name,  James  Stuart,  'a  just 
master,'  and  proved  his  right  to 
the  British  monarchy,  as  the  de- 
scendant of  the  mythical  King 
Arthur,  from  his  name  Charles 
James  Stuart,  which  becomes 
'Claims  Arthur's  Seat.'  Addison 
classes  the  anagram  and  the 
acrostic  together  as  species  of 
'false  wit,'  adding  trenchantly, 
'It  is  impossible  to  decide  whether 
the  inventor  of  the  one  or  the 
other  were  the  greater  blockhead. 

Anaheim,  ii'na-him,  town, 
California,  in  Orange  County,  on 
the  Santa  Ana  River,  and  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe 
and  the  Union  Pacific  Railroads; 
27  miles  southeast  of  Los  Angeles. 
It  is  in  a  rich  fruit-growing  valley, 
which  produces  grapes,  oranges, 
and  other  fruits,  in  abundance. 
Its  chief  industry  is  fruit  canning. 
Pop.  (1910)  2,028;  (1920)  5,526. 

Anahuac,  a-na'wiik  (a  term 
signifying,  in  the  old  Mexican 
language,  'near  the  water'),  the 
original  name  of  the  ancient  king- 
dom of  Mexico.  It  is  now  used 
to  designate  either  the  whole  of 
the  tableland  of  Mexico,  or  cer- 
tain portions  thereof,  more  or  less 
extensive,  with  the  capital  as  a 
common  centre.    This  plateau 

Vol.  I.— March  '29 


Anakim 


226 


Analysis 


has  a  height  of  from  6,000  to 
8,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is 
generally  level,  though  the  great 
volcanoes  of  Jorullo  and  Popo- 
catepetl rise  out  of  it.  TItie 
plateau,  which  comprises  three- 
fifths  of  the  republic  of  Mexico, 
is  bounded  east  and  west  by  the 
two  great  chains  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras. 

Anakim,  an'a-kim,  or  Sons  of 
Anak,  a  race  of  giants  mentioned 
in  Scripture  (Josh.  xi.  21/.;  Num. 
xiii.  33)  who  occupied  the  moun- 
tains about  Hebron,  and  were 
also  found  to  the  north,  near  the 
Mediterranean.  They  were  con- 
quered by  Joshua  and  Caleb. 

Analcite,  a  mineral  of  the  zeo- 
lite group;  hardness,  5  to  51/2; 
specific  gravity,  2.25.  It  is  found, 
as  a  rule,  lining  amygdaloidal 
cavities  in  basic  volcanic  rocks, 
occurring  chiefly  as  colorless  and 
transparent  or  opaque,  white  or 
pinkish  white  crystals.  It  may 
also  occur  as  a  primary  constitu- 
ent in  certain  igneous  rocks.  It 
is  a  hydrous  silicate  of  aluminum 
and  sodium,  with  the  formula 
NaAlSisOs  +  H2O. 

Analec'ta,  or  Analect  (Greek, 
'things  gathered'),  a  literary  col- 
lection or  anthology. 

Analgesics.    See  Anodynes. 

Analgesin.    See  Antipyrin. 

Anal  Glands,  pouches  from 
the  end  of  the  intestine  beside  the 
anus.  They  occur  especially  in 
mammals,  but  also  in  snakes, 
lizards,  and  other  reptiles,  and 
consist  of  cells  which  exhibit  a 
special  development  of  the  gener- 
al glandular  properties  so  abun- 
dantly associated  with  the  skin. 
The  secretion  of  the  glandular 
cells  has  usually  a  strong  smell, 
and  a  fatty  or  oily  composition. 
They  are  sometimes  of  protective 
advantage,  and  in  other  cases 
doubtless  auxiliary  to  sexual  at- 
traction. See  Glands;  Musk 
Glands;  Beaver;  Civet;Skunk. 

Anal'ogy,  a  term  which  signi- 
fies an  agreement  or  correspon- 
dence in  certain  respects  between 
things  in  other  respects  different. 
It  makes  a  resemblance  of  rela- 
tions, as  in  the  phrase,  'Knowl- 
edge is  to  the  mind  what  light  is 
to  the  eye.'  Euclid  employed  it 
to  signify  proportion,  or  the 
equality  of  ratios,  and  it  has  re- 
tained this  sense  in  mathematics; 
but  it  is  a  term  little  used  in  the 
exact  sciences,  and  of  very  fre- 
quent use  in  every  other  depart- 
ment of  knowledge  and  of  human 
affairs.  In  grammar  we  speak  of 
the  analogy  of  language — i.e.,  the 
correspondence  of  a  word  or 
phrase  with  the  genius  of  the 
language,  as  learned  from  the 
manner  in  which  its  words  and 
phrases  are  ordinarily  formed. 
Analogy,  in  fact,  supposes  a  rule 
inferred  from  observation  of  in- 
stances, and  upon  the  application 
of  which,  in  other  instances  not 
precisely  but  in  some  respects 

Vol.  I. — March  '29 


similar,  we  venture,  with  more  or 
less  confidence,  according  to  the 
degree  of  ascertained  similarity, 
and  according  to  the  extent  of 
observation  from  which  our 
knowledge  of  the  rule  has  been 
derived.  The  opposite  to  anal- 
ogy is  anomaly  (Greek,  'irregu- 
larity') ;  and  this  term  is  used  not 
only  in  grammar,  but  with  ref- 
erence to  objects  of  natural  his- 
tory which  in  any  respect  are 
exceptions  to  the  ordinary  rule 
of  their  class  or  kind.  Here  it 
strictly  means  the  resemblance  of 
function  between  organs  which 
are  essentially  different. 

Reasoning  from  analogy  has 
often  served  to  guide  inquiry  and 
lead  to  discovery.  Many  of  the 
most  brilliant  discoveries  re- 
cently made  in  natural  science 
were  the  result  of  investigations 
thus  directed.  Where  the  proper 
evidence  of  truth  is  of  another 
kind,  arguments  from  analogy 
are  often  of  great  use  for  the 
removal  of  objections.  It  is  thus 
that  they  are  employed  by  Bishop 
Butler  in  his  Analogy  of  Religion, 
Natural  and  Revealed,  to  the  Con- 
stitution and  Course  of  Nature. 

In  law,  reasoning  from  analogy 
must  often,  to  a  certain  extent, 
be  admitted  in  the  application  of 
statutes  to  particular  cases.  Upon 
similar  reasoning  the  practice  of 
medicine  very  much  depends.  To 
discover  the  meaning  of  any  liter- 
ary work  it  is  also  often  neces- 
sary; the  sense  of  the  author  in  a 
passage  somewhat  obscure  being 
in  some  measure  determined  ac- 
cording to  pasvsages  in  which  he 
has  expressed  himself  more  clear- 
ly. The  application  of  this  rule 
to  the  interpretation  of  Scripture 
is  a  point  of  difference  between 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catho- 
lics— the  latter  insisting  upon  the 
interpretation  of  difficult  pas- 
sages solely  by  ecclesiastical  tra- 
dition and  authority,  while  the 
former  claim  the  right  to  apply 
analogy  of  interpretation. 

Analogy,  in  biology,  is  used  to 
denote  physiological,  independ- 
ent of  morphological  resemblance. 
Organs  are  analogous  to  one  an- 
other, or  are  analogs,  when  they 
perform  the  same  function, 
though  they  may  be  altogether 
different  in  structure;  as  the 
wings  of  a  bird,  and  the  wings  of 
an  insect.  Organs,  again,  are 
homologous,  or  homologs,  when 
they  are  constructed  on  the  same 
plan,  undergo  a  similar  develop- 
ment, and  bear  the  same  relative 
position,  and  this  independent  of 
either  form  or  function.  See 
Homology;  Morphology. 

Anal'ysls  (Greek.  'taking 
apart')  and  its  converse  Synthesis 
('putting  together')  are  now  gen- 
erally used  to  designate  two  com- 

f)lementary  processes,  the  corre- 
atives  of  each  other,  employed 
in  chemistry,  logic,  mathematics, 
and  philosophy.   Analysis  is  the 


resolution  of  a  whole  into  its 
component  parts,  the  tracing  of 
things  to  their  source,  and  so  dis- 
covering the  general  principles 
underlying  individual  phenom- 
ena; synthesis  is  the  explana- 
tion of  certain  phenomena  by 
means  of  principles  which  are  for 
this  purpose  assumed  as  estab- 
lished. Analysis,  as  the  resolu- 
tion of  our  experience  into  its 
original  elements,  is  an  artificial 
separation;  while  synthesis  is  an 
artificial  reconstruction.  We 
speak  of  an  analytic  method  in 
science,  and  of  a  synthetic  method. 
The  analytic  method  proceeds 
from  the  examination  of  facts  to 
the  determination  of  principles, 
from  the  individual  to  the  univer- 
sal; while  the  synthetic  method 
proceeds  to  the  determination  of 
consequences  from  principles 
known  or  assumed,  to  the  indi- 
vidual from  the  universal.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  they  are 
really  two  parts  of  the  same 
method;  and  that  whereas  the 
value  of  the  synthesis  depends 
on  the  accuracy  of  the  analysis 
which  has  established  the  prin- 
ciple from  which  the  synthesis 
sets  out,  so  an  analysis  which 
does  not  aspire  to  a  synthesis 
halts  on  the  way. 

In  Logic,  analysis  is  the  divi- 
sion of  a  concept  into  the  qual- 
ities or  attributes  of  which  it  is 
constituted  (see  Abstract)  ;  while 
synthesis  is  the  reverse  process  of 
adding  together  the  qualities  or 
attributes  which  determine  a  par- 
ticular concrete.  (See  Induc- 
tion; Logic.) 

In  Grammar,  analysis  is  a  term 
used  for  the  school  exercise  of 
distinguishing  the  different  ele- 
ments composing  a  sentence,  or 
any  part  of  it.  It  is  allied  to  logi- 
cal analysis,  being  a  systematic 
resolution  of  the  sentence  into 
elements,  performing  different 
functions  in  the  expression  of 
thought,  with  definite  relations 
to  the  whole  sentence  and  to  each 
other,  as  subject  and  predicate, 
with  their  respective  enlarge- 
ments. 

Mathematical  analysis,  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  term,  is  the 
method  of  treating  all  quantities 
as  unknown  numbers,  and  repre- 
senting them  for  this  purpose  by 
symbols,  such  as  letters,  the 
relations  subsisting  among  them 
being  thus  stated  and  subjected 
to  further  investigation.  It  is 
therefore  the  same  thing  with 
algebra  in  the  widest  vsense  of 
that  term,  although  the  term  al- 
gebra is  more  strictly  limited  to 
what  relates  to  equations,  and 
thus  denotes  only  the  first  part  of 
analysis.  The  second  part  may 
be  divided  into  the  Analysis  of 
Finite  Quantities  and  the  An- 
alysis of  Infinite  Quantities.  To 
the  former,  also  called  the  Theory 
of  Functions,  belong  the  subjects 
of  Series,  Logarithms,  Curves, 


Analysis,  Chemical 


227 


Analysis,  Chemical 


etc.  The  Analysis  of  Infinites 
comprehends  the  Differential  Cal- 
culus, the  Integral  Calculus,  and 
the  Calculus  of  Variations  (see 
the  several  articles).  To  the  dili- 
gent prosecution  of  mathemati- 
cal analysis  by  minds  of  the 
greatest  acuteness  is  to  be  as- 
cribed the  great  progress  both  of 
pure  and  applied  mathematics 
in  the  last  two  centuries. 

The  analysis  of  the  ancient 
mathematicians  was  entirely  dif- 
ferent, and  consisted  simply  in 
the  application  of  the  analytic 
method,  as  opposed  to  the  syn- 
thetic, to  the  solution  of  geo- 
metrical questions.  That  which 
was  to  be  proved  being  in  the 
first  place  assumed,  an  inquiry 
was  instituted  into  those  things 
upon  which  it  depended,  and 
thus  the  investigation  proceeded 
until  something  was  reached 
which  was  already  ascertained, 
and  from  which  the  new  proposi- 
tion might  be  seen  by  necessary 
consequence  to  flow.  A  reversal 
of  the  steps  of  the  inquiry  now 
gave  the  synthetical  proof  of  the 
proposition.  The  ancient  analysis 
afforded  opportunity  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  much  acuteness,  and 
was  the  chief  instrument  of  the 
advancement  of  mathematical 
science  until  comparatively  re- 
cent times.  The  invention  of  it 
is  ascribed  to  Plato;  but  of  the 
works  of  the  ancients  on  geo- 
metrical analysis  none  are  ex- 
tant, except  some  portions  of 
those  of  Euclid,  Apollonius  of 
Perga,  and  Archimedes. 

Analysis,  Chemical,  is  the 
term  applied  to  that  department 
of  experimental  science  which 
has  for  its  object  the  chemical 
disunion  or  separation  of  the 
constituents  of  a  compound  sub- 
stance, such  as  the  resolution  of 
water  into  its  components  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen;  of  common 
salt  into  chlorine  and  sodium;  of 
marble  into  lime  and  carbon  di- 
oxide, etc.  This  department  of 
chemistry,  therefore,  takes  cog- 
nizance of  the  breaking  down  of 
the  more  complex  or  compound 
substances  into  their  more  simple 
and  elementary  constituents,  and 
is  the  reverse  of  Chemical  Syn- 
thesis, which  treats  of  the  union 
of  the  more  simple  or  elementary 
bodies  to  produce  the  more  com- 
plex or  compound. 

Chemical  analysis  is  of  two 
kinds — qualitative  analysis,  which 
determines  the  quality  or  nature 
of  the  ingredients  of  a  compound, 
without  regard  to  the  quantity  of 
each  which  may  be  present;  and 
quantitative  analysis,  which  calls 
in  the  aid  of  the  balance  or  bu- 
rette, and  estimates  the  exact  pro- 
portion, by  weight  or  volume,  in 
which  the  several  constituents 
are  united.  Thus,  qualitative 
analysis  iriforms  us  of  what  wa- 


ter, marble,  and  common  salt  are 
composed;  but  it  remains  for 
quantitative  analysis  to  tell  us  that 
water  consists  of  1  part  of  hydro- 
gen by  weight  united  with  8  parts 
of  oxygen,  marble  of  56  parts  of 
lime  and  44  of  carbon  dioxide ;  and 
common  salt  of  35.46  parts  of 
chlorine  and  23  of  sodium.  Quan- 
titative methods  are  based  on 
the  laws  of  definite  proportions 
(see  Atomic  Theory),  and  on 
the  fact  that  all  chemical  com- 
pounds, however  produced,  have 
a  fixed  and  definite  composition. 
In  qualitative  analysis  there  are 
dry  reactions,  performed  on  the 
solid  at  a  high  temperature,  and 
wet  reactions,  where  the  sub- 
stance is  in  solution.  Compounds 
which  have  reactions  in  common 
are  grouped  together,  and  by 
systematic  methods  all  the  in- 
gredients of  a  complex  mixture 
can  be  detected. 

Quantitative  analysis  is  divided 
into  many  branches.  Gravimetric 
methods  are  those  in  which  the 
reaction  forms  an  insoluble  com- 
pound of  definite,  known  compo- 
sition. By  filtration,  washing, 
and  ignition  these  compounds  are 
obtained  pure,  and  are  weighed. 
In  volumetric  methods,  solutions 
of  known  strength  are  used,  the 
end  of  the  reaction  being  made 
known  by  the  use  of  an  indicator, 
such  as  litmus,  etc.  The  micro- 
scope, spectroscope,  and  polari- 
scope  are  used  in  special  cases; 
and  some  substances  are  decom- 
posed ,  and  one  or  more  of  the  in- 
gredients deposited  on  a  weighed 
plate  or  evolved.  Subsequent 
weighing  or  measurement  of  vol- 
ume gives  basis  for  calculation 
of  percentage  with  the  aid  of  the 
electric  current.  (See  Electro- 
chemistry.) 

The  divisions  of  Inorganic  and 
Organic  Chemistry  have  led  to  a 
corresponding  classification  of 
chemical  analysis  into  inorganic 
analysis,  comprehending  the  proc- 
esses followed  and  the  results  ob- 
tained in  the  investigation  of  the 
atmosphere,  water,  soils,  and 
rocks;  and  organic  analysis,  treat- 
ing of  the  modes  of  isolation,  and 
the  nature  of  the  ingredients 
found  in  or  derived  from  organ- 
ized structures — viz.,  plants  and 
animals.  Both  these  departments 
afford  examples  of  what  are 
called  proximate  and  ultimate  an- 
alysis. Proximate  analysis  is  the 
resolution  of  a  compound  sub- 
stance into  components  which 
are  themselves  compound;  while 
ultimate  analysis  comprehends 
the  disunion  of  a  compound  into 
its  elements  or  the  simplest  forms 
of  matter.  Organic  chemistry 
affords  still  better  examples  of 
each  class:  thus,  ordinary  wheat 
flour,  when  subjected  to  proxi- 
mate analysis,  yields,  as  its  prox- 
imate components,  gluten,  albu- 


men, starch,  sugar,  gum,  oil,  and 
saline  matter;  but  each  of  these 
proximate  ingredients  is  in  itself 
compound,  and  when  they  un- 
dergo ultimate  analysis,  the  glu- 
ten and  albumen  yield,  as  their 
ultimate  elements  or  constituents, 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitro- 
gen, sulphur,  and  phosphorus; 
and  the  starch,  sugar,  gum,  and 
oil  are  found  built  up  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 

Several  other  terms  are  in  use 
in  chemical  treatises:  thus.  Gas 
analysis  is  applied  to  the  proc- 
esses employed  in  the  separation 
by  absorption  of  the  various  gases 
(see  Gases)  ;  Metallurgic  analysis 
includes  the  reduction  of  metallic 
ores  (see  Assaying)  ;  Agricultural 
analysis  is  restricted  to  the  exam- 
ination of  manures,  feeding  stuffs, 
and  soils ;  Medical  or  Physiological 
analysis,  to  the  investigation  of 
blood,  urine,  and  other  animal 
fluids  and  juices,  and  the  exam- 
ination of  medicinal  compounds; 
Commercial  analysis  is  the  term 
used  where  great  accuracy  or 
nicety  of  detail  is  not  required  in 
an  analysis,  but  where  the  com- 
mercially important  constituents 
alone  are  determined  (see  Anal- 
ysis, Commercial). 

Crystallo  Analysis,  really 
a  method  of  identification,  not 
analysis  in  the  strict  sense,  is 
in  process  of  formulation  by 
Prof.  E.  C.  Fedoroff  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. This  method  will  be 
applicable  to  all  crystalline  sub- 
stances excepting  the  few  which 
crystallize  in  the  cubic  system. 
Supplementary  methods  are  be- 
ing devised  for  these  latter. 

The  method  involves  the  usual 
goniometrical  measurement  of 
the  angles  of  the  crystal,  and  the 
making  of  a  stereographical  pro- 
jection. Proof  of  correct  'set- 
ting' is  obtained  by  following 
Professor  Fedoroff's  method  of 
calculating  recticular  density. 
If  the  best  setting  is  not  shown, 
it  is  easy  to  rotate  the  projec- 
tion and  obtain  one  of  a  cor- 
rect setting.  This  much  done, 
one  may  readily  see  by  inspection 
of,  and  calculation  from,  the 
projection  just  what  the  'For- 
mula of  the  Complex'  is  for  the 
given  crystal.  It  is  to  be  under- 
stood that  every  crystal  has  its 
own  formula  of  the  complex, 
differing  from  every  other  crys- 
tal, even  those  in  the  same  sys- 
tem of  crystallization.  There- 
fore if  the  formula  has  been  es- 
tablished, it  is  only  necessary  to 
consult  the  reference  book  to  de- 
termine the  identity  of  the  crys- 
tal under  consideration.    A  typi- 

cal  formula  is  j      ^go  \ ,  which 

is  shown  in  the  tables  to  be  that 
for  the  substance  carbamid. 

Professor  Fedoroff  expects  to 
issue  his  Index  in  1914,  ayid  jt 


Analysis,  Commercial 


228 


Anamalaf 


will  be  called  Das  Kristallreich.  It 
is  a  monumental  work,  however, 
and  may  be  still  further  delayed. 
Over  10,000  substances  are  classi- 
fied in  it.  It  takes  Professor 
Fedoroff  from  two  to  three  hours 
to  identify  an  average  crystal. 

See  Assaying.  Consult  Frese- 
nius'  Qualitative  Analysis  and 
Quantitative  Analysis;  Sutton's 
Volumetric  Analysis;  Hempel's 
Gas  A  nalysis;  Bly th's  Foods:  Com- 
position and  Analysis  (4th  ed.); 
Allen's  Commercial  Organic  Anal- 
ysis (2  vols.);  Liinge's  Technical 
Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis; 
Rockwood's  Introduction  to  Chem- 
ical Analysis  (1913);  Treadwell's 
Analytical  Chemistry  (1913). 

Analysis,  Commercial,  or 
Pharmaceutical  Analysis,  dif- 
fers from  inorganic  or  organic 
analysis,  pure  and  simple,  in  deal- 
ing usually  with  complex  mix- 
tures, to  which  it  is  impossible  to 
apply  tests  having  a  definite  value 
as  to  the  information  they  afford. 
To  such  a  mixture  it  is  necessary 
to  apply  many  physical  processes, 
in  the  hope  that  these  will  so 
separate  the  constituents  as  to 
render  it  possible  to  recognize 
them  either  by  appearance,  odor, 
or  specific  test.  Thus  it  comes 
about  that  a  knowledge  of  ex- 
perimental physics,  no  less  than 
of  chemistry,  is  essential  to  the 
successful  analyst.  In  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs  some  of  the  most 
important  physical  processes  are 
indicated. 

Distillation.  —  The  mixture 
being  placed  in  a  glass  flask  fur- 
nished with  a  thermometer,  heat 
is  applied,  and  the  boiling  point 
noted.  If  this  gradually  rises,  it 
indicates  that  the  mixture  con- 
tains more  than  one  volatile 
liquid;  and  by  separating  the 
various  portions  of  distillate, 
according  to  the  temperature  at 
which  they  pass  over,  it  is  often 
possible  to  obtain  the  samples 
sufficiently  pure  to  be  recognized. 
The  term  fractional  distillation  is 
also  applied  to  this  method.  (See 
Distillation.)  If  a  non-volatile 
residue  remains  in  the  flask,  it 
must  be  examined  in  other  ways. 

Solution. — This  may  be  ap- 
plied in  two  ways.  The  solvent, 
be  it  alcohol,  ether,  water,  or 
other  liquid,  is  shaken  with  the 
substance  under  examination, 
and  in  many  cases  dissolves  one 
ingredient,  to  the  exclusion  of 
others.  The  other  way  consists  in 
shaking  ether  or  chloroform  with 
the  watery  solution  of  the  sub- 
stance, when  it  will  be  found  that 
some  of  the  ingredients  (more 
soluble  in  these  liquids  than  in 
water)  have  been  dissolved,  and 
may  be  obtained  on  evaporation. 
(See  Solutions.) 

Rotation  of  the  Polarized  Ray. — 
It  is  found  that  many  substances, 
and  even  the  solutions  of  opti- 


cally active  compounds,  have  the 
power  of  rotating  the  plane  of 
polarization  of  a  ray  of  light,  and 
in  many  cases  the  extent  of  this 
rotation  is  sufficient  to  detect  not 
only  the  presence,  but  even  the 
proportions  of  the  substance  to 
which  it  is  due.  Such  bodies  as 
sugar,  turpentine,  alkaloids,  cam- 
phor, albumen,  etc.,  exert  this 
power.  (See  Polarization  of 
Light.) 

Fluorescence  is  often  of  great 
assistance  in  commercial  analysis. 
Thus,  it  is  possible  to  pronounce 
the  intense  bitterness  of  a  syrup 
to  be  due  not  to  quinine,  but  to 
some  other  bitter,  if  no  fluores- 
cence is  apparent;  while  the 
green  fluorescence  often  noted  on 
pens  is  a  clear  indication  that 
the  ink  which  has  been  em- 
ployed contains  some  coloring 
matter  other  than  indigo,  proba- 
bly an  aniline  dye.  (See  Fluor- 
escence.) 

Melting  Point. — The  knowl- 
edge of  this  is  of  much  impor- 
tance, as,  for  example,  in  a  case 
where  common  or  other  resins 
had  been  mixed  with  small  pieces 
of  amber.  In  such  a  case  the  more 
fusible  resin  would  melt  and  run 
away,  leaving  the  bodies  of  higher 
melting  point.  In  other  cases 
where  no  separation  takes  place, 
as  with  various  kinds  of  wax,  it 
enables  the  presence  of  paraffin 
or  other  foreign  bodies  to  be  de- 
tected. Adulteration  of  essential 
and  fixed  oils. may  frequently  be 
exposed  by  this  simple  test.  (See 
Melting.) 

Ignition  on  a  piece  of  platinum 
or  a  porcelain  dish  is  the  simplest 
method  of  removing  organic  mat- 
ter from  inorganic,  the  latter  usu- 
ally remaining  behind  as  a  residue. 

The  specific  gravity,  color, 
odor,  taste,  crystalline  form,  sol- 
vent powers,  and  inflammability 
are  all  important  factors  in  com- 
mercial analysis;  while  even  such 
an  apparently  simple  property  as 
the  size  of  drop  which  falls  from 
a  vessel  containing  the  liquid  is  in 
some  cases  the  crucial  test  which 
decides  as  to  the  purity  or  other- 
wise. 

Sublimation. — When  very  care- 
fully heated  under  a  watch  glass, 
many  alkaloids  and  other  active 
principles  yield  sublimates  hav- 
ing a  characteristic  crystalline 
form,  which  is  easily  recognized 
when  examined  under  the  micro- 
scope. (See  Sublimation.) 

Microscopical  Examination  is  a 
sine  qua  non  when  flour  or  any 
other  organic  powder  is  in  quCvS- 
tion.  Under  the  microscope,  the 
different  forms  of  starch  are  easily 
recognized,  and  by  counting  the 
granules  of  each  variety  in  the 
visible  field,  one  can  arrive  at  the 
approximate  proportions  of  each 
that  are  present.  (See  Micro- 
scope.) 


The  Spectroscope  is  a  valuable 
instrument,  especially  in  pharma- 
ceutical analysis.  When  a  glass 
vessel,  containing  a  tincture  of  a 
drug,  is  examined  through  the 
spectroscope,  absorption  spectra 
are  seen;  and  as  these  are  char- 
acteristic of  various  herbs,  they 
have  been  much  used  in  recog- 
nizing their  presence  in  mixtures. 
(See  Spectrum  and  Spectro- 
scope.) 

In  the  examination  of  an  un- 
known substance  many  or  all  of 
these  methods  must  be  tried,  the 
ingenuity  of  the  chemist  having 
here  unbounded  scope.  For  in- 
stance, supposing  a  mixture  con- 
tained olive  oil,  chloroform,  gly- 
cerin, alcohol,  and  flour,  the 
following  course — capable  of  in- 
finite variation — would  lead  to 
the  detection  of  its  ingredients. 
The  microscope  would  at  once 
pronounce  as  to  the  name  of  the 
starch ;  and  after  filtration  through 
paper,  the  liquid  being  placed  in 
a  flask  and  heated,  the  chloroform 
and  alcohol  would  pass  over  into 
the  receiver.  The  residue  of  gly- 
cerin and  olive  oil  being  non- 
miscible,  could  be  readily  sepa- 
rated into  its  two  constituents, 
each  of  which  could  be  recognized 
by  specific  gravity,  taste,  or  solu- 
bility, as  well  as  other  more 
chemical  tests.  The  chloroform 
and  alcohol,  on  being  poured  into 
water,  would  separate  into  two 
layers,  the  lower  of  chloroform 
with  a  trace  of  alcohol,  the  upper 
of  water  and  alcohol  with  a  trace 
of  chloroform.  Numerous  pre- 
cautions are  of  course  necessary 
to  make  sure  that  no  substance 
remains  undetected. 

Analysis,  Spectrum.  See  Spec- 
trum. 

Analytical  and  Synthetical 
Judgments,  in  logic,  a  Kantian 
distinction  which  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  controversy. 
The  analytical  or  explicative 
judgment  is  one  in  which  the 
predicate  merely  states  explicitly 
some  attribute  already  contained 
in  the  definition  or  notion  of  the 
subject — e.g.,  'All  bodies  are  ex- 
tended'; whereas  the  synthetical 
or  ampliative  judgment  adds  an 
attribute  not  so  contained — e.g., 
'All  bodies  are  heavy.' 

Analytical  Geometry.  See 
Geometry. 

Anam.    See  Annam. 

Anamalai,  or  Annamally 
('Elephant  Mountains'),  is  the 
part  of  the  Sahyadri  range,  or 
Western  Ghats,  which  lies  in  the 
Coimbatore  district,  Madras 
Presidency,  and  the  Travancore 
State,  India.  The  lower  range 
(2,000  ft.)  is  well  wooded  with 
teak,  blackwood,  and  bamboo. 
The  higher  range  (6,000  to  8,000 
ft.)  consists  of  open  grassy  hills. 
Here  is  the  peak  Anamudi  (8,850 
ft.),  the  highest  in  Southern  In- 


Anambas  Islands 


229 


Anarchism 


dia.  The  climate  is  healthy  and 
the  scenery  grand.  Tea  and  coffee 
plantations  are  scattered  over  the 
hills.  The  elephant,  bison,  and 
ibex  are  numerous.  The  hill  tribes 
are  keen  hunters,  and  are  called 
Kaders  ('lords  of  the  hills')  and 
Malassers. 

Anambas  Islands,  a  group  of 
small  islands  in  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  between  Borneo  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  with  an  area 
of  200  square  miles  and  3,000  in- 
habitants. They  belong  to  the 
residency  of  Riouw,  and  include 
the  harbor  of  Clermont-Tonnerre. 

Anamirta.    See  Cocculus. 

Anamosa,  town,  county  seat 
of  Jones  county,  Iowa,  on  the 
Wapsipinicon  and  Buffalo  Rivers, 
and  the  Chicago,  Anamosa,  and 
Northern,  the  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee, and  St.  Paul,  and  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  Railroads;  55 
miles  southwest  of  Dubuque.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  State  penitentiary. 
Its  industries  include  flour  mills, 
foundries,  and  wagon  and  car- 
riage works.  Pop.  (1900)  2,891; 
(1910)  2,983. 

Ananas.    See  Pineapple. 

Ananchytes  (Echinuscorys), 
'irregular'  or  heart-shaped  sea  ur- 
chin, a  common  and  character- 
istic fossil  of  the  Upper  Chalk.  Its 
upper  surface  is  strongly  convex; 
its  under  side  is  flattened,  with 
the  mouth  near  the  anterior  edge. 

Ananias,  the  husband  of  Sap- 
phira  (Acts  v.  1-10).  The  pair, 
while  pretending  to  surrender  to 
the  church  treasury  the  whole  pro- 
ceeds of  a  possession  which  they 
had  sold,  retained  a  part — i.e., 
were  guilty  of  falsehood  and  hy- 
pocrisy. Being  rebuked  by  Peter, 
both  fell  down  dead. 

Ananias,  a  disciple  at  Damas- 
cus, who  baptized  Saul,  and  intro- 
duced him  to  the  church  (Acts 
ix.  10-18).  He  is  said  to  have 
been  one  of  the  Seventy,  and  to 
have  died  a  martyr. 

Ananias,  the  high  priest  be- 
fore whom  Paul  was  brought  by 
Claudius  Lysias,  and  to  whom 
the  apostle  applied  the  term, 
'thou  whited  wall.'  He  was  the 
son  of  Nebedaios,  and  was  mur- 
dered at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem. 

Ananyev,  or  Ananiev,  town, 
Kherson  government,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  Russia;  95  miles  north- 
west of  Odessa.  Grain  is  culti- 
vated. Pop.  18,000. 

Anapa,  Russian  port  in  the 
North  Caucasus,  on  the  Black 
Sea.  Originally  a  Turkish  fort- 
ress, it  was  three  times  (1791, 
1807,  1828)  captured  by  the  Rus- 
sians, who  destroyed  its  works  in 
1855.  Pop.  7,500. 

Anapaest,  a  reversed  dactyl;  a 
metrical  foot  consisting  of  two 
short  or  unaccented  (^)  syllables, 
followed  by  one  long  or  accented 
(-)  syllable.  Tyrtaeus  used  the 
anapaestic  measure  in  his  war 


songs;  in  later  Greek  the  term 
became  almost  synonymous  with 
satire.  Swinburne  employed  the 
anapaest  extensively  and  with  ex- 
cellent effect  in  English — e.g., 
'Ye  are  gods,  and,  behold,  ye 
shall  die,  and  the  waves  be  upon 
you  at  last'  {Hymn  to  Proserpine) . 

Anarchism  (Greek,  an,  'not,' 
and  arche,  'rule')  properly  means 
the  negation  of  government,  and 
has  a  distinct  meaning  from 
Anarchy  in  the  usual  acceptation 
of  the  word.  In  its  ordinary 
sense,  anarchy  is  a  state  of  soci- 
ety without  any  regular  govern- 
ment, when  social  and  political 
confusion  prevails  in  its  midst. 
Anarchism,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
the  name  adopted  by  a  phase 
of  revolutionary  socialism.  The 
acknowledged  father  of  anarch- 
ism, as  a  form  of  recent  and  con- 
temporary socialism,  is  Proudhon 
(q.  v.).  Government  of  man  by 
man  he  considered  to  be  oppres- 
sion, an  interference  with  free- 
dom. He  therefore  regarded  a 
form  of  society  without  govern- 
ment, in  which  every  man  should 
be  a  law  to  himself,  as  the  goal  of 
human  evolution.  After  Proud- 
hon, the  most  prominent  ex- 
pounders of  the  anarchist  theory 
are  the  Russians  Bakunin  and 
Kropotkin. 

It  is  not  easy  to  define  the 
anarchist  views,  but  the  following 
are  the  leading  points:  They  de- 
sire complete  liberty  for  all  men. 
They  object  to  all  authority — 
whether  monarchic  or  republican, 
whether  based  on  divine  right  or 
universal  suffrage — for  history 
teaches  that  all  government  tends 
to  privilege  and  oppression.  In 
all  human  relations  their  ideal  is 
one  of  free  contract,  perpetually 
subject  to  revision  and  cancel- 
ment.  But  such  an  ideal  of  free- 
dom cannot  be  realized  in  a  soci- 
ety where  land  and  capital  are 
the  monopoly  of  a  class.  Land 
and  capital  must  therefore  be  the 
common  property  of  society,  at 
the  disposal  of  every  one.  They 
wish  equality,  equality  of  fact,  as 
a  corollary,  or  rather  fundamen- 
tal condition,  of  liberty;  that  all 
men  may  have  daily  bread, 
knowledge  and  work,  independ- 
ence and  justice.  As  the  essential 
means  for  bringing  about  this 
new  evolution  of  society,  they 
insist  on  the  universal  diffusion 
of  knowledge.  When  natural 
laws  shall  have  been  understood, 
and  the  knowledge  of  them  uni- 
versally diffused  among  men, 
there  will  be  no  need  for  external 
authority.  Natural  laws  being 
recognized  by  every  man  for  him- 
self, he  cannot  but  obey  them, 
for  they  are  the  laws  also  of  his 
own  nature;  and  the  need  for 
political  organization  and  admin- 
istration will  at  once  disappear. 

In  the  United  States  the  doc- 


trines of  anarchy  are  of  compar- 
atively recent  appearance,  not 
only  because  the  more  severe 
economic  conditions  in  Europe 
have  been  unknown  here,  but 
also  on  account  of  the  lack  of 
familiarity  with  such  social  units 
as  the  Russian  mir,  whose  eco- 
nomic quasi-communism  and  par- 
tial want  of  government  prepared 
thinkers  like  Kropotkin  and  Ba- 
kunin for  the  application  of  an- 
archistic principles  to  larger  and 
more  complex  societies.  The  doc- 
trines of  theoretical  anarchy  have 
been  expounded  in  the  United 
States  by  Benjamin  R.  Tucker,  of 
Boston,  who  defended  many  of 
Proudhon's  views  and  emphasized 
their  individualistic  aspect,  which 
has  appealed  to  American  sym- 
pathies more  strongly  than  the 
communistic  anarchy  of  Kropot- 
kin. Johann  Most,  a  former  mem- 
ber of  the  German  Reichstag,  for 
some  time  published  in  New  York 
city  a  newspaper.  Die  Freiheit, 
devoted  to  a  radical  programme. 

Anarchism  has  also  come  to 
have  another  aspect — that  with 
which  it  is  now  usually  identified 
— war  on  human  society  as  at 
present  constituted,  hatred  of  the 
bourgeois  and  propertied  classes 
as  such,  and  a  systematic  effort 
to  establish,  especially  by  means 
of  explosives,  a  terrorism  such  as 
was  formerly  associated  with  ex- 
treme Russian  Nihilism  and  the 
Irish  dynamiters'  attempts.  In 
the  United  States  the  principal 
advocate  to-day  is  Emma  Gold- 
man, and  chief  activity  has  cen- 
tred round  the  extension  of  the 
propaganda  of  the  late  Francisco 
Ferrer. 

The  methods  of  terrorism,  'the 
propaganda  of  the  deed,'  have 
been  the  chief  marks  of  anarch- 
ism in  popular  estimation.  In 
most  European  countries  severe 
repressive  measures  have  been 
taken  since  1883.  In  the  United 
States,  after  the  assassination  of 
President  McKinley  (1901),  the 
'Anarchist  Exclusion  Act'  was 
passed,  providing  that  no  person 
who  disbelieves  in  or  who  is  op- 
posed to  all  organized  govern- 
ment, or  who  is  affiliated  with 
any  organization  opposed  to  or- 
ganized government,  or  who  ad- 
vocates the  killing  of  government 
officers,  shall  be  permitted  to  en- 
ter the  United  States  or  any  ter- 
ritory under  its  jurisdiction. 

Notable  outbreaks  have  been 
those  at  Chicago  in  1886;  in 
Spain  and  in  France  in  1892 
(especially  those  for  which  Rava- 
chol  was  responsible);  the  out- 
rage in  the  Barcelona  theatre  in 
1893;  the  explosion  in  the  French 
Chamber  of  Deputies  (Vaillant, 
1893) ;  the  explosion  in  a  Parisian 
cafe  (Henri,  1894);  Bourdin  de- 
stroyed by  his  own  petard  at 
Greenwich  (1894).    The  follow- 


Anasarca 


229  A 


Anatomical  Preparations 


ing  rulers  have  been  assassinated : 
(1)  President  Carnot  of  France, 
by  Caserio,  at  Lyons,  on  June  24, 
1894;  (2)  Canovas  del  Castillo, 
premier  of  Spain,  on  Aug.  8,  1897; 
(3)  Empress  Elizabeth  of  Austria, 
by  Luccheni,  at  Geneva,  on  Sept. 
10,  1898;  (4)  King  Humbert  of 
Italy,  by  Bresci,  at  Monza,  on 
July  29,  1900;  (5)  President 
McKinley,  by  Czolgosz,  at  Buf- 
falo, on  Sept.  6,  1901.  An  attempt 
was  made  on  the  lives  of  the  king 
and  queen  of  Spain,  May  31, 1906. 
The  murder  of  the  king  and  crown 
prince  of  Portugal,  on  Feb.  1, 
1908,  has  not  been  traced  to 
anarchism;  but  that  of  Stolypin, 
the  Russian  premier,  in  Septem- 
ber, 1911,  was  probably  the  result 
of  an  anarchistic  plot.  See  Nihil- 
ism; Socialism. 

Consult  Proudhon's  What  Is 
Property?;  Reclus'  Evolution  et 
Revolution;  Eltzbacher's  Anarch- 
ismus;  Nettlan's  Bibliographie  de 
V Anarchie;  Lombroso's  Anarch- 
ists: a  Study  in  Criminal  Psychol- 
ogy and  Sociology;  Zenker's  An- 
archism (Eng.  trans.);  Kropot- 
kin's  Anarchy  and  Memoirs  of  a 
Revolutionist. 

Anasarca,  a  general  diffusion 
of  serous  fluid  into  the  subcuta- 
neous connective  tissues.  See 
Dropsy. 

Anastasius,  St.,  or  Astric 
(954-1044),  the  'Apostle  of  the 
Hungarians,'  a  monk  of  Rouen 
who  was  made  bishop  of  Coloeza 
by  Duke  Stephen  of  Hungary, 
for  whom  he  obtained  from  the 
Pope  the  title  of  king. 

Anastasius  I.  (430-518  A.D.), 
Emperor  of  Constantinople.  His 
reign  was  troubled  with  Hun  and 
Slav  invasions.  He  was  an  active 
and  enlightened  prince,  but  pro- 
voked papal  censure  by  his  pat- 
ronage of  Eutychian  and  Mani- 
chaean  heresies. 

Anastasius  I.  (d.  401),  Pope, 
held  the  supreme  office  from  398. 
He  was  a  strenuous  opponent  of 
the  Manichaean  heresy  and  of  the 
doctrines  of  Origen.  There  were 
three  other  Popes  of  this  name — 
Anastasius  ii.  (496-8),  Anas- 
tasius III.  (911-13),  Anastasius 
IV. (1153-4) 

Anastasius  II.,  Emperor  of 
Constantinople,  was  raised  to 
the  throne  on  the  deposition  of 
Philippicus  (713),  but  deposed 
(715)  in  favor  of  Theodosius. 
With  the  assistance  of  Bulgaria 
he  attempted  to  regain  the  em- 
pire, but  was  taken  by  the  Em- 
peror Leo  and  put  to  death 
(719). 

Anastasius    Griin.  See 

AUERSPERG. 

Anastomosis,  the  union  of  the 
vessels  which  carry  blood  or  other 
fluids;  also  the  junction  of  nerves. 
The  veins  and  absorbents  anas- 
tomose to  form  large  single 
trunks,        they  approach  their 


ultimate  destinations.  The  ar- 
teries break  up  into  small  branches 
for  the  supply  of  the  tissues,  and 
each  small  vessel,  again,  commu- 
nicates with  others  given  off 
above  and  below.  Round  each 
large  joint  there  is  free  anas- 
tomosis, so  that  the  safety  of  the 
limb  beyond  may  not  be  entirely 
dependent  on  the  single  arterial 
trunk  passing  into  it,  exposed  as 
it  is  to  all  the  obstructive  influ- 
ences of  the  different  movements 
of  the  joint.  After  the  main  ar- 
tery has  been  permanently  ob- 
structed, the  anastomosing  ves- 
sels enlarge,  so  as  to  compensate 
for  the  loss;  but  after  a  time,  only 
those  whose  course  most  resem- 
bles the  parent  trunk  continue 
enlarged,  and  the  others  gradu- 
ally regain  their  ordinary  dimen- 
sions. 

Anata  (ancient  Anathoth),  vil- 
lage, Palestine;  3  miles  northeast 
of  Jerusalem.  In  Bible  times  one 
of  the  cities  of  refuge,  in  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin;  birthplace  of  Jehu 
(1  Chron.  xii.  3)  and  of  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  i.  1;  xi.  21-23,  etc.). 

Anatase,  also  known  as  octa- 
hedrite,  a  mineral  form  of  titan- 
ium dioxide;  hardness,  53^  to  6; 
specific  gravity,  3.9.  It  occurs  in 
small,  isolated  crystals  of  two 
types:  (1)  simple  acute  double 
pyramids,  lustrous  and  indigo 
blue  to  black  in  color,  found  in 
association  with  rock  crystal, 
feldspar,  and  axinite  in  crevices 
in  granite  and  mica  schist;  also  in 
sedimentary  rocks,  such  as  sand- 
stone and  slate;  (2)  crystals  show- 
ing numerous  rather  flat  pyra- 
midal faces,  honey  color  to  brown, 
found  in  crevices  in  the  Alpine 
gneisses. 

Anatliema  (Gr.,  'a  thing  set 
up  or  hung  up'),  a  word  originally 
signifying  some  offering  or  gift 
to  the  gods,  generally  suspended 
in  the  temple.  It  also  signifies  a 
thing  devoted  to  destruction,  and 
is  used  in  its  strongest  sense,  im- 
plying perdition,  in  the  Scrip- 
tures (Rom.  ix.  3;  Gal.  i.  8,  9). 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
from  the  ninth  century,  a  distinc- 
tion has  been  made  between  ex- 
communication and  anathema- 
tizing; the  latter  being  the  ex- 
treme form  of  denunciation 
against  obstinate  offenders.  See 
Excommunication. 

Anatliema  Maranatha  (1  Cor. 
xvi.  22)  is  not,  as  commonly  un- 
derstood, a  more  fearful  kind  of 
curse;  the  Syriac  words.  Mar  an 
atha  ('Our  Lord  cometh'),  should, 
according  to  the  best  authorities, 
be  read  as  a  separate  sentence,  as 
in  the  Revised  Versions. 

Anatidse,  the  family  of  birds 
which  includes  the  swans,  geese 
and  ducks,  the  typical  fresh- 
water ducks  forming  the  sub- 
family Anatinae.  This  family  is 
ch^re^cterized  primarily  by  having 


a  line  of  serrations  along  the  mar- 
gins of  the  beak;  it  is  coextensive 
with  the  suborder  Anseres,  and 
forms,  with  the  Palamedeidae,  or 
Screamers  (q.v.),  the  order  An- 
seriformes. 

Anatolia,  a  Greek  name  ap- 
plied to  Asia  Minor,  See  Asia 
Minor. 

Anatolian  Railway,  the  chief 
railway  in  Asia  Minor.  It  starts 
at  Haidar  Pasha,  on  the  Bosporus 
over  against  Constantinople,  and 
extends  through  Ismid  and  An- 
gora to  Kaisarieh.  The  first  sec- 
tion, Haidar  Pasha  to  Ismid  (58 
miles),  was  opened  in  1870;  the 
second  section,  from  Ismid  to  An- 
gora (301  miles),  in  1892;  the 
third  section,  from  Angora  to 
Kaisarieh  (264  miles),  was  sanc- 
tioned in  1893;  and  a  further  con- 
cession, to  Bagdad  and  Basra, 
was  granted  in  1899.  A  branch 
line  was  opened  from  Eskishehr 
(between  Ismid  and  Angora)  to 
Konieh  (276  miles)  in  1896.  See 
Bagdad  Railway. 

Anatomical  Preparations.  The 
various  methods  of  preserving 
skins  and  of  reproducing  external 
anatomical  features  are  dealt 
with  in  the  article  Taxidermy. 
As  regards  the  deeper  parts,  it  is 
often  desirable,  for  teaching  and 
other  purposes,  to  have  a  more 
permanent  preparation  than  an 
ordinary  dissection.  In  the  case 
of  the  skeleton  this  may  easily  be 
secured.  Boiling  bones  will  re- 
move nearly  all  their  organic 
material,  leaving  only  the  earthy 
constituents.  The  bones  may 
then  be  riveted  or  jointed  with 
wire  in  their  relative  positions. 
The  soft  parts  may  be  preserved 
in  glass  jars  containing  alcohol, 
weak  formalin  solution,  bichro- 
mate of  potash  solution,  or  other 
transparent  preservative  fluid;  or 
they  may  be  dried,  sterilized,  and 
varnished.  Both  methods  are 
open  to  objection.  In  the  former, 
specimens  become  decolorized, 
and  lose  their  characteristic  fresh 
appearance.  They  cannot  be 
handled,  and  they  fail  to  impress 
the  student  so  vividly  as  a  recent 
dissection.  Dried  specimens  soon 
decay,  unless  kept  in  glass  cases 
sealed  against  air  and  moisture. 

Plaster  of  Paris  casts  (see 
Plaster  Casting)  may  be  taken; 
but  it  cannot  be  said  that  plaster 
lends  itself  to  the  representation 
of  soft  tissues,  no  matter  how 
well  it  is  painted.  Much  more 
useful  and  realistic  is  the  result 
of  casting  in  glycero-gelatin.  In 
this  process  a  mixture  of  'No.  1' 
gelatin  and  clear  glycerin,  in  the 
proportion  of  1  oz.  by  weight  of 
gelatin  to  1  oz.  by  measure  of 
glycerin,  is  employed.  The  gela- 
tin is  soaked  in  water  tHl  soft.  It 
is  then  slowly  dried  until  just 
pliable,  and  melted  in  a  v^'ater 
bath  along  with  the  glycerin. 


Anatomy 


229  B 


Anatomy 


While  still  hot  it  may  be  made 
opaque  by  the  addition  of  a  thick 
paint  of  oxide  of  zinc  rubbed  up 
■with  glycerin.  Other  pigments, 
.such  as  calamine  or  vermilion, 
may  be  added  to  color  it  as  de- 
sired. All  the  ingredients  must 
be  thoroughly  mixed. 

A  plaster  mould  of  the  speci- 
men is  first  taken.  After  this 
has  been  thoroughly  dried  by 
slow  heat,  hot  glycero-gelatin  is 
p,oured  into  it,  the  mould  mean- 
while being  gently  rocked  to  get 
rid  of  air  bubbles.  The  fluid  runs 
into  the  concavities,  and  must 
be  ladled  up  over  the  higher 
parts,  to  which  it  gradually  ad- 
heres as  it  cools,  so  that  the 
whole  surface  is  almost  evenly 
coated  over.  While  still  in  the 
mould  it  should  be  covered  with 
lint  or  cotton  wool,  and  plaster 
of  Paris  is  then  spread  over  the 
lint.  The  plaster  must  fit  the 
hollows  and  elevations  of  the 
back  of  the  cast,  and  must  be 
smoothed  down  on  the  surface 
which  is  uppermost  during  the 
casting.  When  it  has  set  it  is 
temporarily  removed,  and  the 
glycero-gelatin  is  stripped  gently 
out  of  the  mould.  This  is  now  an 
elastic  cast  of  the  original,  and 
when  fitted  to  its  plaster  backing 
is  ready  for  paint.  When  it  is 
desired  to  represent  a  moist  sur- 
face, oil  colors  should  be  used; 
when  a  dry  appearance  is  wished, 
several  coats  of  water  color  must 
be  applied.  Finally,  an  edging 
of  velveteen  or  similar  material 
hides  the  ragged  edges,  and 
throws  the  ca^t  into  relief.  With 
a  little  practice  and  but  slight 
artistic  skill  this  method  produces 
accurate  results. 

Brains  may  be  prepared  by  im- 
pregnating them  with  paraffin, 
and  as  but  little  shrinking  follows, 
the  results  are  satisfactory. 

Anatomy  (Greek,  'a  cutting  up 
or  dissecting')  is  the  science  of 
the  form  and  structure  of  organ- 
ized bodies,  and  is  practically  ac- 
quired by  separation  of  the  parts 
of  a  body,  so  as  to  show  their 
distinct  formation,  and  their  re- 
lations to  each  other.  The  science 
of  structure,  both  in  the  animal 
and  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  is 
properly  called  morphology,  and 
the  word  anatomy  is  usually  re- 
stricted to  the  more  special  in- 
vestigations, particularly  of  the 
human  subject.  Comparative 
anatomy  is  the  morphological 
comparison  of  different  classes 
of  animals  or  plants,  revealing 
points  of  difference  in  structure, 
homologies  of  apparently  differ- 
ent organs,  and  the  supposed 
phylogenetic  relationships  of  the 
various  groups.  Structural  anat- 
omy relates  to  the  structure  of 
organs  as  explaining  their  several 
functions.  Descriptive  anatomy  is 
the  minute  account,  for  purposes 
Vol.  1— 18.  . 


of  surgical  and  medical  practice, 
of  the  organs  of  the  body  and 
their  physical  relations.  Patho- 
logical or  Morbid  anatomy  is  the 
study  of  the  structural  changes 
consequent  on  disease.  Micro- 
scopic anatomy  is  another  name 
for  histology,  or  the  science  of  the 
minute  structure  of  tissues.  Sup- 
erficial anatomy  is  the  location 
of  internal  parts  by  means  of 
external  landmarks. 

History  of  Anatomy. — It  is 
difficult  to  determine  the  date  at 
which  this  science  began  to  be 
cultivated,  but  it  is  probable  that 
from  the  earliest  times  some  per- 
sons took  advantage  of  favorable 
circumstances  to  acquaint  them- 
selves with  it.  Alcmaeon  of  Cro- 
tona,  a  disciple  of  Pythagoras, 
and  Democritus  are  said  to  have 
dissected  animals  with  the  view 
of  obtaining  comparative  knowl- 
edge of  human  anatomy.  Hip- 
pocrates (q.v.),  born  at  Cos 
about  460  B.C.,  though  the  father 
of  medicine,  is  less  justly  re- 
garded as  the  father  of  anatomy, 
as  his  views  of  the  structure  of 
the  human  body  are  very  super- 
ficial and  incorrect.  Aristotle, 
born  384  B.C.,  is  really  the  found- 
er of  the  science.  He  seems  to 
have  based  his  systematic  views 
of  comparative  anatomy  on  the 
dissection  of  animals,  but  does 
not  appear  to  have  dissected 
men.  He  first  gave  the  name  aorta 
to  the  great  artery.  No  real  prog- 
ress in  human  anatomy  was  made, 
owing  to  the  researches  being 
confined  to  animals,  till  the  time 
of  Erasistratus  (250  B.C.),  who 
was  the  first  to  dissect  human 
bodies — the  bodies  of  criminals. 
Herophilus  also  is  said  to  have 
dissected  living  subjects.  Celsus 
(63  B.C.),  in  his  De  Medicina, 
wrote  much  on  anatomy. 

Galen  (131  a.d.)  dissected  apes, 
as  being  most  like  human  sub- 
jects, though  he  occasionally  ob- 
tained bodies  of  persons  found 
murdered;  and  his  writings  show 
a  knowledge  of  human  anatomy. 
Soranus,  Oribasius,  Nemesius, 
Meletius,  and  Theophilus  based 
their  anatomical  works  mainly  on 
Galen.  Anatomy  made  small 
progress  among  the  Arabs,  as 
their  religion  prohibited  contact 
with  dead  bodies.  Avicenna  (980 
A.D.),  born  in  the  province  of 
Khorassan,  was  a  good  osteolo- 
gist, and  described  some  struc- 
tures not  alluded  to  by  Galen. 

The  medical  school  at  Bologna 
became  famous  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  as  did  also  those  at 
Padua  and  Salerno;  but  no  very 
material  progress  was  made  in 
anatomy.  Mondino,  born  at 
Milan,  1315,  professed  anatomy 
there,  and  is  considered  the  real 
restorer  of  anatomy  in  Italy. 
Then  came  Guy  de  Chauliac, 
Mathaeus  de  Gradibus  (1480), 


Gabriel  de  Zerbis  (1495),  Achil- 
lini  (1512),  Berenger  of  Carpi 
(1578),  Etienne,  Massa,  and 
Sylvius  (1539).  An  epoch  is  made 
by  Andrew  Vesalius  (q.v.),  who 
published  a  great  work  on  anat- 
omy before  he  was  twenty-eight 
years  of  age. 

Thomas  Vicary,  in  1548,  is  said 
to  be  the  first  who  wrote  in  Eng- 
lish on  anatomy;  he  published 
The  Englishman  s  Treasure,  or  the 
True  Anatomy  of  Man's  Body. 
Franco  (1556),  Valverda,  and 
Columbus  wrote  works  of  great 
merit  on  anatomy.  In  1561 
Gabriel  Fallopius  (q.v.)  taught 
with  great  distinction  at  Padua, 
and  made  many  original  dis- 
coveries. 

In  the  seventeenth  century, 
progress  was  rapid.  William  Har- 
vey (q.v.),  in  1619,  discovered 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and 
the  microscope  was  employed  to 
detect  the  structure  of  minute 
vessels.  Aselli,  in  1622,  discov- 
ered and  demonstrated  the  exist- 
ence of  the  lymph  vessels.  Willis 
(1622-75)  gave  the  first  system- 
atic description  of  the  brain  and 
its  ventricles.  The  glandular  or- 
gans were  investigated  by  Whar- 
ton, while  Malpighi,  Swammer- 
dam,  and  Ruysch,  by  the  use  of 
injections  and  the  aid  of  the 
microscope,  gave  a  new  impulse 
to  research  in  the  minute  struc- 
tures. 

Eminent  names  in  the  history 
of  anatomy  are  numerous  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  Italy, 
which  still  retained  its  former 
pre-eminence,  we  find  Pacchioni, 
Valsalva,  Morgagni,  Santorini, 
Mascagni,  and  Cotunni;  in 
France,  Winslow,  D'Aubenton, 
Lieutaud,  Vicq  d'Azyr,  and 
Bichat,  the  founder  of  general 
anatomy;  in  Germany,  Haller 
and  Meckel  prepared  the  way  for 
greater  achievements  in  the  nine- 
teenth century;  in  Great  Britain, 
Cowper,  Cheselden,  Hunter, 
Cruikshank,  Monro,  and  Charles 
Bell  contributed  to  the  progress 
of  the  science;  while  Holland  was 
worthily  represented  by  Boer- 
haave,  Albinus,  Camper,  Sandi- 
fort,  and  Bonn.  On  the  bound- 
aries of  the  two  centuries  we  find 
the  names  of  Sommering,  Loder, 
Blumenbach,  Hildebrand,  Reil, 
Tiedemann,  and  Seller.  In  the 
United  States,  Reid,  Horner, 
Wallace,  Bigelow,  Leidy,  Ayers, 
Harrison  Allen,  Cope,  and  Marsh 
have  been  notable  discoverers. 

Comparative  Anatomy,  the 
investigation  and  comparison  of 
the  structures  of  two  or  more  ani- 
mals, was  first  treated  systemati- 
cally as  a  distinct  science  by 
Cuvier  and  his  pupil,  Meckel  the 
younger.  Carus,  Owen,  Goodsir, 
Mailer,  Bowman,  Milne-Ed- 
wards, Von  Baer,  Gegenbaur, 
Kdlliker,  Remak,  Czermak,  Ley- 


Anatomy 


229  C 


Anaxagoras 


dig,  Frey,  Schwann,  Haeckel, 
Agassiz,  Van  Beneden,  Carpenter, 
Sharpley,  Allen  Thomson,  Hux- 
ley, Turner,  and  Flower  may  be 
named  as  eminent  contributors  to 
this  branch  of  science.  (See 
Morphology.) 

General  Anatomy,  also  styled 
Structural  and  Analytical 
Anatomy,  gives  a  description  of 
the  elementary  tissues  of  which 
the  systems  and  organs  of  the 
body  are  composed,  as  prelimi- 
nary to  an  examination  of  them 
in  their  combined  state  in  the 
various  organs.  It  also  investi- 
gates their  laws  of  formation  and 
combination,  and  the  changes 
which  they  undergo  in  various 
stages  of  life.  This  branch  of 
study  has  been  largely  developed 
in  recent  times,  especially  by 
Bichat  (1801)  and  Beclard,  who 
have  been  followed  by  J.  Miiller, 
Goodsir,  Henle,  E.  H.  Weber, 
Schwann,  Valentin,  and  many 
others.  In  our  day,  microscopic 
investigation  has  been  success- 
fully applied  to  the  study  of  ele- 
mentary textures  (see  Histol- 
ogy). 

Special  Anatomy,  or  Descrip- 
tive Anatomy,  treats  of  the  sev- 
eral parts  and  organs  of  the  body 
in  respect  to  their  form,  structure, 
and  systematic  connection  or  re- 
lation with  each  other.  The  ar- 
rangement of  the  several  parts 
and  organs,  in  an  order  deduced 
from  their  similarity  in  structure 
or  use,  constitutes  Systematic 
Anatomy.  According  to  this 
mode  of  study,  anatomy  has  been 
divided,  though  not  with  scien- 
tific precision,  into  six  branches  of 
study:  (1)  Osteology,  which  treats 
of  the  bones;  (2)  Arthrology, 
which  describes  the  ligaments,  or 
bands,  that  unite  the  bones  of 
various  joints;  (3)  Myology,  which 
explains  the  system  of  the  mus- 
cles; (4)  Angeiology,  which  de- 
scribes the  vessels  or  ducts,  with 
their  complex  network  and 
ramifications,  divided  into  two 
great  systems — the  blood  vessels 
and  the  lymphatics;  (5)  Neurol- 
ogy, or  the  doctrine  of  the  nerves; 
(6)  Splanchnology,  which  describes 
the  viscera  or  organs  formed  by 
combination  of  the  distinct  sys- 
tems of  veins,  nerves,  lymphatics, 
etc. 

Special  anatomy  may  also  be 
treated  by  an  arrangement  made 
in  accordance  with  natural  divi- 
sions, or  by  imaginary  lines  divid- 
ing the  body  into  several  regions 
— as  the  head,  the  trunk,  and  the 
extremities.  Again,  the  trunk 
may  be  subdivided  into  neck, 
thorax,  and  abdomen;  and  in  each 
of  the  main  regions  several  sub- 
divisions may  be  made.  This 
system  of  arrangement  may  be 
styled  Topographical  Anatomy, 
and  is  also  known  as  Surgical 
Anatomy,  on  account  of  its  im- 


portance as  the  basis  of  operative 
surgery. 

The  necessity  of  a  union  of 
theory  and  practice  has  led  to  the 
study  of  Pathological  or  Mor- 
bid Anatomy  (the  dissection  and 
study  of  structures  as  modified  by 
disease).  The  origin  of  this 
branch  of  anatomy  may  be  traced 
back  to  ancient  times  in  Egypt; 
and  among  the  Greeks  some  ana- 
tomico-pathological observations 
are  found.  During  the  general 
revival  of  science  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  many  notices  of  patho- 
logical anatomy  occur.  Mor- 
gagni  (1767)  must,  however,  be 
regarded  as  its  true  founder.  He 
was  worthily  followed  by  Lieu- 
taud,  Sandifort,  Hunter,  Baillie, 
Meckel  the  younger,  and  others. 
The  modern  change  of  direction 
given  to  the  study  of  Pathological 
Anatomy,  which  is  now  properly 
regarded  as  a  means  toward  prac- 
tical improvements  in  medicine, 
must  be  ascribed  to  Bichat  and 
the  pupils  of  Broussais,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  Laen- 
nec,  Cruveilhier,  Louis,  Andral, 
Lobstein,  Lebert,  Virchow,  and 
Bennett. 

Superficial  or  Artistic  Anat- 
omy is  studied  with  reference  to 
the  effects  produced  by  internal 
structure  on  the  external  form, 
and  describes  the  organs,  espe- 
cially the  muscles  and  tendons, 
not  only  in  a  state  of  rest,  but 
also  as  modified  by  passion,  ac- 
tion, and  posture. 

Practical  Anatomy  includes 
Dissection  and  the  making  of 
Preparations.  Preparation  con- 
sists in  dividing  parts  or  organs, 
so  that  their  respective  forms  and 
positions  may  be  clearly  shown. 
Organs  or  parts  thus  treated  are 
styled  Anatomical  Preparations 
of  bones,  muscles,  vessels,  nerves, 
etc.  For  example,  a  bone  prep- 
aration is  made  by  clearing  away 
all  muscular  and  other  adhesions; 
the  whole  structure  of  the  bones, 
thus  prepared  and  bleached, 
when  connected  by  wires  in  its 
natural  order  forms  an  artificial 
skeleton.  Preparations  of  the 
soft  parts  are  either  dried  and 
varnished  or  preserved  in  spirit. 
A  series  of  such  specimens,  ar- 
ranged in  proper  order,  forms  an 
Anatomical  Museum.  (See  Ana- 
tomical Preparations.) 

The  anatomy  of  the  various 
parts  and  organs  of  the  body  will 
be  found  described  under  their 
appropriate  titles.    Some  of  the 
more  important  articles  are: 
Abdomen.  Joints. 
Arm.  Kidneys. 
Artery,  Knee. 
Bile.  Larynx. 
Blood.  Leg. 
Bone.  Liver. 
Brain.  Lungs. 
Capillaries.  Lymphatics. 
Cartilage.  Man. 


Circulation  of  (Esophagus. 

the  Blood.  Palate. 
Digestion.  Pancreas. 
Ear.  Pelvis. 
Eye.  Pericardium. 
Foetus.  Peritoneum. 
Foot.  Placenta. 
Glands.  Ribs. 
Hair.  Shoulder. 
Hand.  Skeleton. 
Heart.  Skin. 
Hip-joint.  Skull. 
Histology.  Spinal  Cord. 

Intestines.  Spleen. 
Medicine.  Stomach. 
Mouth.  Teeth. 
Muscles.  Tongue. 
Nervous  Sys-  Trachea. 

tem.  Veins. 
Nose. 

See  Biology;  Embryology; 
Physiology;  Teratology. 

For  a  resume  of  the  history  of 
anatomy,  consult  The  Reference 
Handbook  of  the  Medical  Sciences 
(vol.  i.) ;  among  the  more  recent 
general  works  on  anatomy  may 
be  mentioned  those  of  Quain, 
Gray,  and  Morris,  in  English; 
Testut  and  Poirier,  in  French; 
Bardeleben,  Gegenbaur  and  Rau- 
ber,  in  German. 

Anaxagoras  (500-428  B.C.), 
one  of  the  most  eminent  Ionic 
philosophers,  was  born  at  Clazo- 
menae,  in  Ionia.  He  went  to 
Athens  in  480,  where  he  became 
intimate  with  Pericles;  was  fined 
five  talents  and  banished  for  im- 
piety (c.  430) — he  asserted  that 
'the  sun  was  a  red-hot  mass 
larger  than  the  Peloponnesus'; 
and  retired  to  Lampsacus,  where 
he  died. 

It  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  what 
were  the  opinions  of  Anaxagoras 
in  philosophy.  Fragments  merely 
of  his  works  have  been  preserved, 
and  even  these  are  sometimes 
contradictory.  Of  one  thing  we 
are  certain,  that  he  had  a  deeper 
knowledge  of  physical  laws  than 
any  of  his  predecessors  or  con- 
temporaries. He  also  arrived  at 
some  tolerably  accurate  conclu- 
sions regarding  the  cause  of  the 
moon's  light,  of  eclipses,  earth- 
quakes, meteors,  of  the  rainbow, 
of  wind,  and  of  sound.  His  great 
contribution  to  ancient  philos- 
ophy, however,  was  his  doctrine 
as  to  the  origin  of  all  things.  He 
held  that  all  matter  existed  orig- 
inally not  in  the  form  of  the  so- 
called  elements,  but  in  the  condi- 
tion of  atoms,  or  molecules,  in 
modern  terminology;  that  these 
atoms,  infinitely  numerous  and 
infinitesimally  small,  had  existed 
from  all  eternity;  and  that  order 
was  first  produced  out  of  this  in- 
finite chaos  of  minutiae  through 
the  influence  and  operation  of  an 
eternal  intelligence  (Greek  nous). 
He  also  maintained  that  all 
bodies  were  simply  aggregations 
of  these  atoms,  and  that  a  bar  of 
gold,  or  iron,  or  copper  was  com- 


Index 


I.  ClBCULATOEY  SYSTEM 

1  T^eft  ventricle 

2  Right  ventricle 

3  Rig-ht  auricle 

4  Left  auricle 

5  Coronary  vessels  of  the  heart 

6  Ascending  portion  of  aorta 

7  Descending  portion  of  thoracic 

aorta 

8  Diaphragm 

9  Pulmonary  artery 

10  Descending  vena  cava 

11  Ascending  vena  cava 

12  Innominate  artery 

13  Common  carotid  artery 

14  Subclavian  artery 

15  Axillary  artery 

16  Brachial  artery 

17  Radial  artery 

18  Ulnar  artery 

19  Interosseous  artery 

20  Abdominal  aorta 

21  Inferior  diaphragmatic  arteries 

22  Superior  mesenteric  artery 

23  Renal  artery 

24  Interior  spermatic  artery 

25  Inferior  mesenteric  artery 

26  Common  iliac  artery 

27  Femoral  arteries 

28  Deep  femoral  artery 

29  Internal  iliac  artery 

30  Superiicial  femoral  artery 

31  Innominate  veins 

32  Jugular  vein 

33  Subclavian  veins 

34  Axillary  vein 

35  Cephalic  vein 

36  Median  basilic  veins 

37  Median  and  ulnar  veins 

38  Radial  veins 

39  Hepatic  vein 

40  Renal  vein 

41  Common  iliac  vein 

42  Internal  iliac  vein 

43  External  iliac  vein 

(For  Circulation  of  the  Head, 
see  Plate  V.) 


II.  Muscular  System 

1  Frontalis 

2  Temporalis 

3  Orbicularis  palpebrarum 

4  Levator  labii  superioris 

5  Zygomaticus  major 

6  Zygomaticus  minor 

7  Masseter 

8  Orbicularis  oris 

9  Depressor  anguli  oris 

10  Quadratus  labii  inferiorls 

11  Stemo-mastoid 

12  Sterno-hyoid 

13  Scalenus 

14  Trapezius 

15  Pectoralis  major 

16  Pectoralis  minor 

17  Subclavius 

IS  Serratus  magnus 

19  Obliquus  extemus 

20  Linea  alba 

21  Obliquus  intemus 

22  Rectus  abdominis 

23  Intercostales  interni 

24  Deltoid 

25  Coracobrachialis 

26  Biceps 

27  Subscapularis 

28  Triceps  extensor 

29  Pronator  radii  teres 

30  Supinator  longus 


to  Model  ot  the  Human 


31  Radialis  intemus 

32  Palmaris  longus 

33  Flexor  digitorum 

34  Thenar 

35  Extensor  carpi  radialis  longus 

36  Extensor  carpi  radialis  brevis 

37  Abductor  pollicis  longus 

38  Extensor  proprius  indicis 

39  Gluteus  medius 

40  Tensor  vaginae  femoris 

41  Pectineus 

42  Abductor  longus 

43  Rectus  femoris 

44  Rectus  femoris  (internal  head) 

45  Rectus  femoris  (external  head) 

46  Sartorius 

47  Gracilis 

48  Abductor  magnus 


III.  Skeleton 

1  Frontal  bone 

2  Parietal  bone 

3  Temporal  bone 

4  Orbits 

5  Zygoma 

6  Nasal  bone 

7  Superior  maxilla 

8  Nasal  cavity 

9  Teeth 

10  Inferior  maxilla 
11-14  Vertebrae 

15  Clavicle 

16  Manubrium  of  sternum 

17  Gladiolus  of  sternum 

18  Xyphoid  appendix  of  sternum 

19  Scapula  (shoulder-blade) 

20  Coracoid  process  of  scapula 

21  He9d  of  humerus 

22  Humerus 

23  Trochlea  of  humerus 

24  Radius 

25  Ulna 

26  Carpal  bones 

27  Metacarpal  bones 

28  Phalanges 
29-40  Ribs 
41-46  Vertebrae 

47  Sacrum 

48  Coccyx 

49  lUum 

50  Crest  of  ilium 

51  Obturator  foramen 
.52  Os  pubis 

53  Ischium 

54  Head  of  femur 

55  Neck  of  femur 

66  Greater  trochanter 

57  Lesser  trochanter 

58  Femur 


IV.  Nervous  System 

1  Frontal  nerve 

2  Temporal  nerve 

3  Temporo-malar  nerve 

4  Facial  nerve,  with  branches 

5  Inferior  maxillary  nerves 

6  Nasal  nerves 

7  Labial  nerves 

8  Cervical  plexus 

9  Median  nerve 

10  Brachial  plexus 

11  Ulnar  nerve 

12  Radial  nerve 

13  Internal  cutaneous  nerve  of  arm 

14  Middle  cutaneous  nerve  of  arm 

15  External  cutaneous  nerve  of  arm 

16  Intercostal  nerves 

17  Spinal  cord 

18  Sympathetic  nerves 


Body 


19  Abdominal  plexxis 

20  Pelvic  plexus 

21  Lumbar  nerve 

22  Femoral  nerve 

23  Sacral  nerves 

24  Deep  femoral  nerves 

25  Cutaneous  femoral  nerves 

V.  Intestines  and  Circulation 
OF  Head 

1  External  maxillary  artery 

2  Superficial  temporal  artery 

3  Facial  veins 

4  Frontal  veins 

5  Temporal  veins 

6  Larynx 

7  Trachea 

8  Thyroid  gland 

9  Right  lung 

10  Left  lung 

11  Blood  vessels  in  lung 

12  Bronchial  tubes  and  branches 

13  Section  of  larynx 

14  Section  of  trachea 

15  Right  bronchus 

16  Left  bronchus 

17  Dorsal  surface  of  right  lung 

18  Dorsal  surface  of  left  lung 

19  Right  ventricle 

20  Left  ventricle 

21  Right  auricle 

22  Section  of  right  ventricle 

23  vSection  of  left  ventricle 

24  Section  of  right  auricle 

25  Left  auricle 

26  Superior  vena  cava 

27  Right  innominate  vein 

28  Left  innominate  vein 

29  Aorta 

30  Pulmonary  artery 

31  Posterior  surface  of  heart 

32  Anterior  surface  of  liver 

33  Cross  section  of  liver 

34  Dorsal  surface  of  liver 

35  Gall  bladder 

36  Oesophagus 

37  Anterior  surface  of  stomach 

38  Cross  section  of   stomach  (in- 

terior) 

39  Posterior  surface  of  stomach 

40  Pancreas,  anterior  surface 

41  Spleen 

42  Posterior  surface  of  pancreas, 

with  excretory  duct 

43  Duodenum 

44  Small  intestine 

45  Caecum,  with  vermiform  appen- 

dix 

46  Ascending  colon 

47  Transverse  colon 

48  Descending  colon 

49  Rectum 

50  Bladder 

51  Interior  of  bladder 

52  Posterior  of  bladder 

53  Right  kidney 

54  Section   of  right  kidney,  with 

efferent  vessels 

55  Left  kidney 

56  Section  of  left  kidney,  f^howing 

renal  pyramids  and  renal  pelvis 

57  Ureter 

58  Right  renal  vein 

59  Left  renal  vein 

60  Abdominal  aorta 

61  Right  suprarenal  capsule 

62  Left  suprarenal  capsule 

63  Psoas  muscle 
C4  Diaphragm 

65  Obturator  internus 

66  Oblique  abdominal  muscle 


♦ 


Anaxlmander 


229  D 


Ancestor  Worship 


posed  of  inconceivably  minute 
particles  of  the  same  material; 
but  he  did  not  allow  that  objects 
had  taken  their  shape  through 
accident  or  blind  fate,  but 
through  the  agency  of  this  'shap- 
ing spirit'  or  Nous,  which  he  de- 
scribed as  infinite,  self-potent, 
and  unmixed  with  anything  else. 
'Nous,'  he  again  says,  'is  the  most 
pure  and  subtle  of  all  things,  and 
has  all  knowledge  about  all  things, 
and  infinite  power.'  His  theory 
of  the  Nous  was  vague,  but  makes 
a  great  advance  in  the  direction 
of  theism,  though  personality  is 
not  attributed  to  the  Nous. 

Anaxagoras  marks  a  great  turn- 
ing point  in  the  history  of  specu- 
lation. His  doctrine  of  the  Nous 
passed  to  Aristotle,  while  his  doc- 
trine of  atoms  prepared  the  way 
for  Democritus  and  the  Atomic 
school.  His  most  notable  work. 
On  Nature,  has  survived  only  in 
fragments. 

Anaximander  (611-547  B.C.), 
a  Greek  mathematician  and  phi- 
losopher, successor  of  Thales  as 
head  of  the  physical  school  of 
philosophy,  was  born  in  Miletus. 
He  is  said  to  have  discovered  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  he 
certainly  taught  it.  He  appears 
to  have  applied  the  gnomon,  or 
style  set  on  a  horizontal  plane, 
to  determine  the  solstices  and 
equinoxes.  The  invention  of  geo- 
graphical maps  is  also  ascribed 
to  him.  As  a  philosopher,  he 
speculated  on  the  origin  (arche) 
of  the  phenomenal  world. 

Anaximenes  (c.  570-480  B.C.), 
third  of  the  Ionic  school  of  Greek 
philosophy,  pupil  of  Anaximan- 
der and  master  of  Anaxagoras; 
found  the  arche,  or  eternal  and 
original  element  of  the  world,  in 
air,  of  which  all  substances  were 
formed  by  compression  or  expan- 
sion— even  the  soul,  he  said,  was 
composed  of  air. 

Anaximenes  of  Lampsacus, 
Greek  historian  and  rhetorician, 
tutor  of  Alexander  the  Great; 
wrote  a  history  of  Philip  and  of 
Alexander,  and  a  history  of 
Greece. 

Ancachs,  Peruvian  department 
on  the  Pacific  slope,  to  the  north 
of  Lima  department.  It  has  val- 
uable mineral  deposits.  Capital, 
Huaraz.  Area,  16,560  square 
miles.    Pop.  450,000. 

Ancelot,  Jacques -Arsene- 
Polycarpe-Francois  (1794- 
1854),  French  dramatic  poet, 
was  born  in  Havre.  His  first 
success  was  the  tragedy  of  Louis 
XI.  (1819),  which  procured  him 
the  post  of  librarian  at  the  Ar- 
senal, and  a  pension  from  the 
king.  His  tragedy  Maria  Padilla 
opened  to  him,  in  1841,  the  doors 
of  the  French  Academy.  His 
non-dramatic  works  include  Les 
Familieres:  EpUres  (1842)  and 
Poesies  (1853). 


Ancenis,  town,  department 
Loire-Inferieure,  France,  on  the 
River  Loire;  24  miles  northeast  of 
Nantes.  It  has  trade  in  cattle, 
spirits,  and  timber.  Pop.  (1911) 
5,013. 

Ancestor  Worship  is  of  very 
ancient  origin,  and  so  widespread 
that  it  may  be  traced  throughout 
the  world.  It  arises  naturally 
from  the  primitive  conception  of 
a  soul  during  life  animating  the 
body  and  exercising  influence 
over  it,  and  after  death  retaining 
its  power,  continuing  into  the  un- 
seen world  the  life  and  social  re- 
lations of  the  living  world.  The 
dead  chief  goes  on  protecting  his 
clan  and  receiving  service  from 


Imperial  Tablet,  which  reads,  Huang  H 
wan  sui,  wan  sui,  wan,  wan  sui — Em- 
peror 10,000  years  10,000  years  10,000 
10,000  years. 


them,  and  continues  to  keep  the 
same  temper  as  in  mortal  life. 
So  that  it  is  not  mere  family 
affection,  but  actual  fear,  that 
impels  this  reverence  among  the 
North  American  Indians,  the 
ancient  Aztecs,  the  negroes  in 
Guinea,  the  natives  of  Polynesia, 
the  Zulus,  and  other  races.  The 
primitive  mind,  it  would  seem, 
makes  no  essential  distinction 
between  the  divine  nature,  the 
human  nature,  and  the  animal 
nature,  and  freely  worships  visi- 
ble natural  objects  for  the  sake 
of  the  spirits  resident  in  them. 
The  conception  is  due  to  Anim- 
ism, and  develops  into  a  more 
spiritual  point  of  view,  in  which 
the  indwelling  spirit  is  considered 
as  having  an  independent  exist- 
ence detached  from  the  object 
with  which  it  was  confounded. 

Where  direct  worship  of  the 
objects  of  nature  unfolds  itself 
into  a  rich  dramatized  mythology 
— that  is  to  say,  among  the  races 
most  endowed  with  the  specula- 


tive and  a?sthetic  faculties,  such 
as  the  ancient  Greeks — animism 
and  the  worship  of  ancestors  de- 
velop but  feebly.  But  where,  as 
in  China,  mythology  remains  in- 
fertile; or  where,  as  among  many 
savage  races,  it  never  gets  beyond 
its  embryonic  stage,  animism  be- 
comes preponderant,  and  often, 
by  it  and  along  with  it,  the  wor- 
ship of  ancestors.  In  China  it  is 
the  dominant  religion.  Ances- 
tors still  have  their  temples  and 
their  offerings,  and  remain  so 
present  that  the  virtues  or  the 
crimes  of  their  descendants  are 
always  considered  in  relation  to 
them,  as  covering  them  with 
honor  or  infamy.  The  Hindu 
pays  his  offerings  to  the  pitris 
(patres)  or  divine  manes,  and 
looks  to  them  for  success  and 
happiness.  In  Europe,  the  most 
conspicuous  example  was  the 
usage  of  the  ancient  Romans. 
Their  manes  or  ancestral  deities 
were  embodied  as  images,  set  up 
as  household  patrons,  and  ap- 
peased with  offerings.  They  were 
counted  among  the  gods  of  the 
lower  world,  and  tombs  were  in- 
scribed D.M.,  'Diis  Manibus.' 

The  universality  of  ancestor 
worship  led  Llerbert  Spencer 
to  the  opinion  that  it  was  the 
origin  of  religion  everywhere. 
He  argued  that  all  religious  be- 
liefs arose  originally  out  of  the 
conclusions  drawn  by  primitive 
man  from  the  ill-understood  facts 
of  his  own  nature,  especially  in 
the  phenomena  of  sleep  and 
dreams.  This  primitive  concep- 
tion finds  further  support  in  the 
facts  of  syncope,  apoplexy,  cata- 
lepsy, and  other  forms  of  tem- 
porary insensibility.  During  these 
his  'double,'  the  soul,  has,  he  be- 
lieved, been  actually  absent  from 
the  body.  These  ideas  applied 
to  death — which  is  only  a  length- 
ened sleep  or  prolonged  absence 
— have  engendered  the  idea  of  an 
awakening  following  regularly 
after  death.  Hence  primitive 
funeral  rites  assume  that  the  dead 
can  eat,  drink,  and  fight  anew, 
and  act  in  everything  like  a  living 
man.  Upon  this  conception  of 
the  state  of  the  dead,  in  Spencer's 
view,  the  savage  man's  idea  of 
another  life  is  grafted,  confirmed 
as  its  reality  is  by  the  apparition 
of  the  dead  in  dreams.  A  future 
life  assumes  another  world — a 
region  of  souls,  located  at  first 
near  the  place  of  burial,  after- 
ward above,  below,  and  around 
the  living  world.  These  disem- 
bodied souls,  constantly  increas- 
ing in  number,  are  ordinarily  in- 
visible, but  are  able  to  manifest 
themselves  from  time  to  time, 
and  to  particular  individuals. 
Hence  arises  naturally  the  idea 
that  things  astonishing,  extraor- 
dinary, or  exceptional  have  for 
their  causes  the  action  of  the  dead 


Anchlses 


230 


Anchovy  Pear 


spirits — invisible  and  in  one  sense 
supernatural  agents.  Since  these 
disembodied  spirits  still  continue 
influential  for  good  or  evil,  it  is 
wise  to  conduct  ourselves  in  such 
a  way  as  to  conciliate  their  good- 
will and  to  deprecate  their  wrath. 
This  argument  fails  to  account  for 
many  of  the  facts,  and  at  the 
outset  its  fundamental  negative 
may  be  questioned,  that  primi- 
tive man  is  incapable  of  an  il- 
lusion which  consists  in  taking 
the  inanimate  and  impersonal 
for  the  animate  and  the  personal. 
Personification  remains  long  after 


the  primitive  stage  is  past.  In 
the  Graeco-Roman  society  it  was 
the  last  impress  of  the  old  poly- 
theism, and  the  stars  were  still 
animate  beings  to  the  eyes  of  the 
Stoics  and  Alexandrians,  to  a 
Jew  like  Philo,  and  a  Christian 
like  Origen. 

See  Animism;  Religion.  Con- 
sult Tylor's  Primitive  Culture; 
Spencer's  Principles  of  Sociology; 
Brinton's  Religions  of  Primitive 
Peoples. 

Anchises,  king  of  Dardanus  on 
Mount  Ida,  to  whom  Aphrodite 
bore  the  illustrious  ^neas.  He 
was  blinded  by  Zeus  for  revealing 
the  child's  maternity.  After  the 
fall  of  Troy  his  son  took  him  on 
his  wanderings,  until  the  old  man 
died  in  Sicily.  A  shrine  was 
built  to  him  at  Egesta.  Homer's 
Iliad,  the  Homeric  Hymn  to 
Aphrodite,  and  Virgil's  yEneid 
give  his  story. 

Anchitherium,  a  small  extinct 
ungulate,  which  inhabited  Europe 
and  North  America  during  Up- 
per Eocene  and  Miocene  times. 
It  is  regarded  as  the  ancestor  of 
the  horse,  and  in  size  was  as 
large  as  a  small  pony.  On  each 
foot  it  had  three  toes  reaching 
to  the  ground.  Its  jaws  were 
provided  with  a  full  set  of  forty- 
four  teeth. 


Anchor,  the  iron  or  steel  instru- 
ment by  which  ships  hold  fast  to 
the  bottom  of  the  sea.  A  common 
anchor  has  a  'shank,'  'stock,' 
'ring,'  and  two  'arms,'  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  which  are  'flukes'  or 
'palms.'  A  ship  'rides'  at  anchor 
when  it  is  secured  at  its  moorings. 
To  'weigh'  anchor  is  to  heave  it 
up,  in  order  to  get  the  ship  under 
way.  To  'cat'  the  anchor  is  to 
hoist  it  up  to  the  cathead.  To 
'fish'  an  anchor  means  to  draw 
up  its  flukes  to  the  top  of  the 
bows  by  a  'fish  tackle,'  in  order 
to  stow  it  after  it  has  been 


'catted.'  All  large  ships  carry 
several  anchors.  When  an  an- 
chor of  ordinary  type  is  holding 
properly,  one  of  the  flukes  is  im- 
bedded in  the  mud  and  the  other 
sticks  up.  As  the  ship  swings 
around,  the  chain  may  catch  on 
the  upper  fluke,  pulling  the  an- 
chor out  of  the  mud  and  letting 
the  ship  drag — perhaps  into  dan- 
ger or  disaster.  To  avoid  this 
difficulty  many  patent  anchors 
have  been  invented  in  the  past 
fifty  years.  These  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  lie  close  to  the 
bottom  and  allow  the  chain  to 
sweep  over  them.  They  have 
movable  arms  and  flukes,  and 
nearly  all  are  stockless.  The 
stockless  anchors  are  quite  gener- 
ally stowed  on  board  ship  by 
being  hauled  directly  into  the 
hawse-pipe  as  far  as  the  arms 
will  permit,  thus  doing  away  with 
the  necessity  for  'catting'  and 
'fishing.'  Anchors  of  various 
forms  are  also  used  for  keeping 
buoys  and  moorings  in  position. 
Of  these  the  Mushroom  and  the 
Screw  anchor  are  well-known 
types. 

Many  forms  of  anchor  were 
made  by  the  ancients;  some  were 
merely  large  stones;  others, 
crooked  pieces  of  wood,  weighted 
to  make  them  sink  in  water,  the 


earlier  ones  acting  mainly  as 
weights,  and  holding  the  vessel 
by  their  own  inertia  instead  of 
hooking  into  the  ground.  The 
first  iron  anchors  are  supposed  to 
have  been  used  by  the  Greeks. 
As  originally  made,  the  anchor 
had  only  one  fluke  or  arm  for  pen- 
etrating the  ground,  and  no 
stock. 

Anchorage.  (1.)  A  sheltered 
position  in  which  vessels  may  an- 
chor. In  its  legal  sense  the  word 
denotes  the  charge  laid  upon  ships 
for  coming  to  or  lying  in  certain 
roads  or  anchoring  grounds.  (2.) 
Also  applied  to  the  terminal 
structure  (natural  rock  or  heavy 
masonry)  to  which  the  cables  or 
supports  of  a  suspension  bridge 
or  similar  structure  are  made 
fast.   See  Moorings. 

Anchor  Ice,  or  Ground  Ice, 
ice  formed  (rarely)  at  the  bottom 
of  rivers.  The  current  is  too 
great  for  the  formation  of  ice  at 
the  surface,  but  the  water,  re- 
tarded in  the  bed  of  the  river,  is 
congealed.  When  much  ice  has 
been  formed  round  a  stone,  it 
lifts  it  to  the  surface;  in  some  in- 
stances even  iron  chains  and  an- 
chors have  floated  in  this  way. 
See  Ice. 

Anchorite,  a  recluse  or  her- 
mit; one  who  seeks  to  live  in 
solitude,  and  with  as  little  inter- 
course as  possible  with  his  fellow 
men.  The  term  is  specifically 
applied  to  the  Christian  ascetics 
of  the  third  century,  who  estab- 
lished themselves  in  caves  and 
lonely  places  in  Egypt  and  in  the 
adjacent  deserts.  St.  Antony 
was  the  most  illustrious.  See 
Hermit. 

Anchovy  (Engraulis  enchrasi- 
cholus),  a  small  bony  fish  of  the 
herring  family  (Clupeidae),  of 
some  importance  as  a  food 
luxury.  It  may  attain  a  length 
of  8  inches,  but  usually  measures 
only  about  a  finger's  length. 
The  snout  of  the  pointed  head 
projects  considerably  beyond  the 
lower  jaw,  the  abdomen  and  sides 
are  covered  with  large  silvery 
scales,  the  back  has  a  greenish- 
blue  color,  the  tail  is  deeply 
forked.  The  species  occurs 
abundantly  round  the  American 
and  European  coasts,  especially 
in  the  south  and  Mediterranean 
region,  while  the  genus  is  repre- 
sented in  all  the  warmer  waters. 
In  spring,  shoals  of  anchovies 
leave  the  deep  seas  and  approach 
the  shore  for  spawning  purposes. 
They  are  fished  at  night;  at- 
tracted by  lights,  and  captured 
by  the  seine  net.  They  are  salted, 
and  used  for  sauces,  etc.  See 
Sardine. 

Anchovy  Pear,  the  fruit  of  a 
tree  of  the  myrtle  order,  native 
of  the  West  Indies.  The  leaves, 
from  two  to  four  feet  long  and 
about  one  foot  broad,  are  the 


Anchors. 

a,  Common  pattern:  6,  Trotman's;  c,  Smith's  stockless;  d,  Martin's; 
e,  Inglefield's;  /,  Mushroom  anchor. 


Ancient  Demesne 


231 


Andalusia 


largest  of  all  dicotyledonous 
leaves.  The  fruit  is  edible,  with 
a  flavor  like  that  of  mango;  it  is 
often  pickled. 

Ancient  Demesne.  Lands 
which  formed  a  part  of  the  royal 
estates  of  the  English  crown  un- 
der William  the  Conqueror  and 
are  enumerated  as  tcrrce  regis  in 
Domesday  Book.  The  tenure  of 
these  lands  was  free  from  many  of 
the  burdens  of  ordinary  feudal 
tenure  and  was  attended  vi^ith  cer- 
tain extraordinary  privileges. 
Most  of  the  lands  have  long  since 
passed  into  private  hands,  but 
they  retain  some  of  the  charac- 
teristics which  attached  to  them 
while  still  the  demesne  lands  of 
the  crown.  The  tenure  by  which 
they  are  held  is  still  known  as 
tenure  in  ancient  demesne.  See 
Customary  Freehold. 

Ancient  Lights.  See  Light 
and  Air. 

Ancient  Mariner,  poem  by 
S.  T.  Coleridge,  published  in 
Lyrical  Ballads  (1798).  The  idea 
appears  to  have  been  taken  from 
Captain  G.  Shelvocke's  Voyage 
Round  the  World  (1757). 

Ancillon,  Johann  Peter 
Friedrich  (1767  -1837),  Prus- 
sian statesman  and  author;  born 
at  BerHn;  filled  (1792)  the  chair 
of  history  in  the  military  academy 
at  BerHn;  was  elected  (1803)  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, and  appointed  historio- 
grapher royal;  rose  to  be  (1832) 
Minister  of  Foreign  Afifairs.  In 
1810  the  education  of  the  Crown 
Prince  (afterwards  King  Fried- 
rich_  Wilhelm  iv.)  was  entrusted 
to  him.  He  wrote  on  philosophy, 
history,  and  politics — e.  g.  Revo- 
lutions du  Systeme  Politique  de 
V Europe  depuis  le  XV^Siecle  (4 
vols.,  1803). 

Ancona.  (1.)  Province,  Italy,  in 
the  Marches,  between  the  Central 
Apennines  and  the  Adriatic,  with 
an  area  of  756  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901) 
302,460.  The  people  grow  grain 
and  fruit,  breed  silkworms,  manu- 
facture _  silk,  paper,  iron,  sugar, 
flour,  lime,  bricks,  and  leather, 
and  mine  sulphur.  Chief  towns, 
Ancona,  Jesi,  and  Senigallia.  The 
railway  from  Bologna  to  Brindisi 
skirts  the  shore.  (2.)  Town  and 
episc.  see,  cap.  of  above  province, 
situated  on  the  Adriatic,  is  the 
only  good  port  between  Venice 
and  Brindisi.  The  harbor  is  en- 
closed by  two  fine  piers,  one  of 
which  was  built  by  Trajan  in  115 
A.D.  Extensions  to  the  moles 
were  agreed  upon  in  1903.  The 
town  is  strongly  fortified,  and  has 
a  naval  arsenal.  Sulphur,  silk, 
and  eggs  are  exported.  Iron  and 
ship  building  works,  and  factories 
of  sugar,  soap,  and  tallow,  repre- 
sent the  chief  industries.  There 
is  a  U.  S.  consular  agency  here. 
Pop.  (1901)  55.408.  Founded  by 
Greeks  from  Syracuse  (380  r.c), 
Ancona    was    destroyed  succes- 


sively by  the  Goths  and  the  Longo- 
bards;  later,  it  asserted  its  posi- 
tion as  an  independent  republic, 
until  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Pope  Clement  vii.  in  1532.  In 
1849  the  Austrians  captured  it; 
and  again  in  1860  its  papal  de- 
fender. General  Lamoriciere,  was 
compelled  to  capitulate  to  the 
Piedmontese. 

Ancona,  A lessandro  d'  (1835), 
Italian  man  of  letters  and  philol- 
ogist; born  at  Pisa.  He  became 
one  of  the  chief  intermediaries 
between  the  Tuscan  Liberals  and 
Cavour.  In  1859  he  edited  the 
newly  founded  journal.  La  Na~ 
zione;  but  having  in  the  following 
year  been  elected  to  the  chair  of 
Italian  literature  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pisa,  he  devoted  himself 
until  1900  to  academic  teaching 
and  literary  work.  He  has  edited 
a  number  of  early  and  rare  Ital- 
ian texts,  written  studies  on  the 
Italian  drama  —  Sacre  Rappre- 
sentazioni  dei  Secoli  XIV.,  XV., 
et  XVL  (1872)  ;  Origini  del 
Teatro  in  Italia  (2nd  ed.,  1891); 
and  has  treated  of  several  sub- 
jects connected  with  Italian  lit- 
erature— /  Preciirsori  di  Dante 
(1874)  ;  La  Poesia  Popolare 
Italiana  (1878).  Two  collections 
of  Studii  appeared  in  1880  and 
1884. 

Ancre,  Baron  de  Lussigny, 
Marquis  d'  (d.  1617),  whose  real 
name  was  Concino  Concini,  a 
Florentine  adventurer,  accompa- 
nied Maria  de'  Medici  to  France 
in  1600,  and  rose  to  be  marshal 
and  chief  minister  of  state,  and 
acquired  vast  wealth.  He  was 
assassinated  in  April,  1617,  at 
the  instigation  of  Louis  xiii.  His 
corpse  was  treated  with  great  in- 
dignity, and  his  wife  was  after- 
wards burned  at  the  stake  as  a 
sorceress. 

Ancren  Riwle,  or  The  Rule 
OF  Nuns,  a  manual  of  religious 
instruction  and  observance  writ- 
ten about  1210  for  a  small  so- 
ciety of  three  pious  ladies  and 
their  lay  sisters,  established  at 
Tarente  (Tarrant  -  Kaines  or 
Kingston)  in  Dorsetshire.  The 
authorship  has  been  attributed 
to  Richard  Poor,  a  native  of  Ta- 
rente, who  was  successively  bishop 
of  (Chichester,  Salisbury,  and 
Durham.  See  Ancren  Riwle,  ed. 
Morton  (Camden  Society,  1853). 

Ancrum,  vil.  and  par.,  Rox- 
burgshire,  Scotland,  3^  m.  n.n.w. 
of  Jedburgh;  2  m.  from  Ancrum 
Moor,  where  (Feb.  17.  1545)  5,- 
000  English  under  Sir  Ralph 
Evers  and  Sir  Brian  Latour  were 
defeated  by  the  Scots  under  the 
Earl  of  Angus  and_  Scott  of  Buc- 
cleuch.  ^  The  exploits  of  the  Scot- 
tish maiden  Lilliard  (Lillyard)  in 
this^  battle  are  commemorated  by 
an  inscribed  monument. 

Ancus  Marciiis,  fourth  kinp; 
of  Rome,  said  to  have  reigned 
640-616  B.r    and  to  have  con- 


quered many  Latin  towns  and 
transplanted  their  inhabitants  to 
Rome.  He  is  also  the  reputed 
founder  of  Ostia. 

Ancylopoda,  a  suborder  of 
primitive  ungulate  marnmals,  of 
large  size  and  clumsy  build,  whose 
remains  are  found  widely  spread 
in  the  Miocene  and  earlier  for- 
mations. Not  much  is  known  of 
their  character  or  relationships; 
but  they  were  shaped  somewhat 
like  hyenas,  and  had  curiously 
clawed  feet,  upon  the  side  of 
which  they  walked  like  an  ant- 
eater,  and  teeth  resembling  those 
of  the  rhinoceros.  See  Osborn, 
Am.  Naturalist,  1893. 

Ancyra,  anc.  city  of  Galatia, 
Asia  Minor;  remembered  chiefly 
for  the  fact  that,  when  Augustus 
set  up  a  record  of  the  chief  events 
of  his  life  at  Rome,  its  citizens 
had  a  copy  of  the  inscription 
made,  which  still  exists.  The  in- 
scription ^  (Monumentum  Ancy- 
ranum)  is  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
and  has  been  edited  by  Mommsen 
(1883).    See  (modern)  Angora. 

Andalusia,  or  Andalucia  (cor- 
ruption of  Vandalusia,  so  called 
from  the  Vandal  invasion),  the 
largest  of  the  ancient  divisions  of 
the  s.  of  Spain,  comprises  the 
provinces  of  Almeria,  Cadiz,  Cor- 
dova, Granada,  Huelva,  Jaen, 
Malaga,  and  Seville,  and  is  phys- 
ically divided  into  Upper  and 
Lower  Andalusia.  Its  chief  towns 
are  Cordova,  Seville,  and  Cadiz. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  por- 
tions of  Spain.  _  It  is  drained  by 
the  Guadalquivir.  Some  of  the 
highest  mountains  are  above  the 
snow-line,  and  from  these  to  the 
low-lying  valleys,  which  are  ex- 
tremely hot  in  summer,  all  vari- 
eties of  climate  are  found.  There 
are  numerous  gypsies  (gitanos), 
scattered  throughout  the  prov- 
ince, and  a  few  descendants  of 
the  Moors  still  survive.  The  at- 
tire of  the  people  is  very  pic- 
turesque, and  the  women  are 
renowned  for  their  grace^  and 
beauty.  This  province  was  visited 
in  antiquity  by  the  Phoenicians, 
who  founded  the  colonies  of  His- 
palis  (Seville),  Gades  (Cadiz), 
6tc._;  afterwards  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians; and  after  the  second 
Punic  war  it  became  a  Roman 
province.  Here  were  born  the  poet 
Lucan,  the  emperor  Trajan,  the 
philosopher  Seneca.  In  the  5th 
century  it  was  invaded  by  the 
Alans,  Vandals,  and  Visigoths, 
who^  conquered  the  whole  of 
Spain.  In  711  it  was  subdued 
by  the  Moors,  after  the  battle  of 
Xeres  de  la  Frontera.  Here  they 
founded  the  caliphate  of  Cordova, 
which  reached  the  height  of  its 
power  under  the  Ommiades.  Dur- 
ing this  period  Andalusia  was  9 
flourishing  and  thickly-populated 
province.  Cordova  was  one  of 
the  chief  centres  in  Europe  for 
the  arts  and  sciences.    But  after 


Andaiusite 

the  extinction  of  the  Ommiade^ 
(1031)  it  was  divided  between 
Seville,  Cordova,  and  Jaen,  which 
were  conquered  (1238-48)  by 
Ferdinand  ill.  of  Castile.  Area, 
33,663  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1900)  3,- 
562,606.    See  Spain. 

Andalusite,  a  mineral  consist- 
ing of  silicate  of  alumina,  crystal- 
lizing in  gray  or  pink  rhombic 
prisms,  usually  coarse  and  nearly 
square  in  form.  A  variety  known 
as  chiastrolite  is  characterized  by 
carbonaceous  inclusions  arranged 
along  the  axis  of  the  crystal  in 
structural  Hues,  exhibiting  a  col- 
ored cross  or  tesselated-shaped 
figure  in  sectipn.  Some  of  the 
colored    varieties    show  strong 


232 

Only  a  small  proportloA  of  the 
aborigines  are  civilized,  and  on 
many  of  the  islands,  especially 
the  Nicobars,  the  inhabitants  are 
still  hostile  to  strangers.  The 
natives  of  these  two  groups  are 
quite  distinct.  Andamanese  are 
typical  negritoes;  Nicobarese  are 
mongoloid.  The  average  height  of 
the  Andamanese  men  is  4  ft.  1 1  in. ; 
of  the  women,  4  ft.  7\  in.  The 
Nicobarese  men  have  an  average 
height  of  5  ft.  4  in.;  the  women,  5 
ft.  See  E.  Horace  Man's  Abo- 
rigines of  the  Andaman  Is.  (1885); 
A.  de  Quatrefages'  Les  Pygmees 
(Prof.  Starr's  Eng.  trans.  1895); 
Dr.  Mouatt's  Andaman  Islanders 
(1863);  C.  Boden  Kloss's  In  the 


Andersen 

ought  to  indicate  a  slower  degree 
of  tempo;  but  the  term  is  some- 
times used  to  signify  a  degree 
of  movement  less  slow  than  an- 
dante. 

Andaqui,  an  Indian  tribe  in  S. 
Colombia,  almost  extinct. 

Anderlecht,  tn.,  Belgium, 
prov.  Brabant,  2  m.  s.w.  of  Brus- 
sels. Large  cotton  mills.  Pop. 
(1900)  47,929. 

Andermatt,  vil.  in  upper  valley 
of  the  Reuss,  canton  Uri,  Swit- 
zerland; alt.  4,738  ft.;  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  roads  over  Furka, 
Oberalp,  and  St.  Gothard  passes; 
3+  m.  from  Goeschenen.  Pop. 
(1900)  818. 

Andernach  (anc.  Antunnacum), 


pleochroism.  It  is  a  character- 
istic ingredient  of  metamorphic 
rocks,  and  is  often  found  in  ar- 
gillaceous slates  into  which  a 
granite  has  been  injected  in  a 
greatly-heated  condition,  altering 
the  surrounding  masses,  and  de- 
veloping new  minerals  in  them. 
Andalusite  is  rarely  transparent 
and  well  colored,  but  fine  speci- 
mens come  from  Brazil,  and  are 
polished  and  used  as  gems.  It  is 
also  found  at  Standish,  Maine, 
and  at  Litchfield,  Conn. 

Andamans  and  Nicobars,  two 
groups  of  British  islands  in  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  about  400  m.  E. 
of  India.  The  area  is  estimated 
at  3,100  sq.  m.  Total  pop.  (1901) 
of  Andamans,  18,000;  of  Nico- 
bars, about  6,500.  The  capital, 
Port  Blair,  on  S.  Andaman,  has 
A    fine,    well-sheltered  harbor. 


Andamans  and  Nicobars  (1903); 
and  The  Indian  Antiquary  (vols, 
xxviii.  and  xxx.).  In  1789  the 
East  India  Co.  established  a  penal 
settlement  for  '  life  '  convicts  at 
Port  Blair.  In  1901  these  num- 
bered, 11,947.  Tea,  coffee,  cocoa, 
sugar-cane,  rice,  and  oil  seeds  are 
grown,  and  a  trade  in  timber  is 
being  developed.  Lord  Mayo, 
viceroy  of  India,  was  assassinated 
at  Hopetown,  on  the  main  island, 
by  a  Punjabi  fanatic,  in  1872, 
while  on  an  official  tour  of  inspec- 
tion. 

Andante  (It.  'going  '),  in  musi- 
cal score,  the  name  of  an  in- 
dividual composition  or  of  a 
movement;  also  used  as  a  time 
indication  signifying  a  slow  de- 
gree of  tempo,  out  not  so  slow 
as  lar  ghetto.  Andantino,  be- 
ing   a    diminutive   of  andante, 


tn.,  prov.  Rhineland,  Prussia,  on 
1.  bk.  of  the  Rhine,  11  m.  N.w. 
of  Coblenz;  has  Roman  and 
mediaeval  remains.  Cigars  and 
malt  manufactured;  trade  in 
emery  and  lava.  Pop.  (1900) 
7,889. 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian 
(1805-75),  Danish  author,  son  of 
a  shoemaker  at  Odense,  was  sent 
to  school  and  university  by  gener- 
ous patrons.  He  then  undertook, 
at  the  expense  of  the  state,  sev- 
eral continental  tours,  resulting 
in  his  brilliant  travel-books — ^viz., 
Skyggebilder  (1831);  En  Digters 
Bazar  (1842),  after  a  tour  to 
Greccej  /  Sverrig  (1849),  after 
his  visit  to  Sweden;  I  Spanien 
(1863),  a  book  about  Spain.  His 
first  novels,  all  of  which  have 
been  translated  into  English,  were 
Improvisatoren    (1835),    O.  T. 


Anderson 


233 


Anderson 


(1835),  and  Kun  en  Spillemand 
(1837).  The  first  portion  of  the 
immortal  Fairy  Tales  {Eventyr) 
came  out  in  1835,  the  second 
series  appeared  in  1838-42,  the 
third  in  1845;  and  so  they  con- 
tinued to  appear,  at  irregular  in- 
tervals, until  the  last  were  pub- 
lished in  1871-2,  by  which  time 
they  had  won  a  world  wide  rep- 
utation. Among  the  best  known 
of  the  Tales  are  'The  Fir-Tree,' 
'The  Ugly  Duckling.'  'The  Tin- 
der-Box,'  'The  Red  Shoes,'  'The 
Snow  Queen,'  'Little  Claus  and 
Big  Claus,'  and  'The  Swineherd.' 
Andersen's  other  writings,  which 


Hans  Christian  Andersen 

are  generally  inferior  to  the 
Tales,  include  Billedbog  uden  Bil- 
leder  (1840);  Ahasuerus  (1847); 
De  to  Baronesser  (1849);  At  vaere 
eller  ikke  vaere  (1857);  and  his 
autobiography,  Mits  Livs  Even- 
tyr (1855-77).  There  are  many 
English  editions  of  the  Fairy 
Tales. 

Anderson,  city,  Indiana,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Madison  County,  on  the 
west  fork  of  White  River,  and 
on  the  Central  Indiana,  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago 
and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroads;  about  40  miles 
northeast  of  Indianapolis.  A 
network  of  interurban  lines  has 
its  centre  here,  and  there  are 
manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  brass, 
paper  machinery,  glass,  lumber, 
and  wire  nails.  The  historic 
mounds  of  the  'mound  builders' 
are  near  the  city.  Pop.  (1900) 
20,178;  (1910)  22,478;  (1920) 
29,767.  North  Anderson  has 
been  annexed  to  the  city  since 
1920. 

Anderson,  town.  South  Caro- 
lina, county  seat  of  Anderson 
County,  on  the  Charleston  and 
Western  Carolina,  and  the  South- 
ern Railroads;  120  miles  north- 
west of  Columbia.  The  town  is 
located  on  three  important  high- 
ways, the  Bankhead,  National, 
and  the  Cincinnati-Florida  Short 
Route  'A.'  It  has  fine  civic 
buildings,  two  high  schools,  and 
Anderson  Female  College.  Its 


many  industries  include  cotton 
and  lumber  mills,  machine  shops, 
foundries,  and  factories  for  the 
manufacture  of  spring  beds, 
mattresses,  towels,  and  hosiery. 
The  surrounding  district  is  rich 
in  cotton  and  other  agricultural 
products.  Anderson  was  first 
settled  in  1827.  Pop.  (1900) 
5,498;  (1910)  9,654;  (1920)  10,570. 

Anderson,  Alexander  (1775- 
1870),  American  wood  engraver, 
was  born  in  New  York  City. 
Following  the  wishes  of  his  father, 
he  studied  medicine  and  was 
graduated  from  the  Medical 
School  of  Columbia  University; 
but  he  .soon  gave  up  this  pro- 
fession for  engraving.  Ander- 
son is  the  father  of  wood  engrav- 
ing in  the  United  States,  and  for 
about  fifteen  years  was  the  only 
wood  engraver  in  New  York. 
He  modelled  his  work  upon  that 
of  Bewick,  and  his  best  engrav- 
ings are  almost  the  equal  of  his 
master's.  Among  his  best  known 
works  are  illustrations  to  Bell's 
Anatomy,  Shakespeare's  Flays, 
Webster's  Spelling  Book,  and 
Josephus'  History. 

Anderson,  Elizabeth  Gar- 
rett (1836-1917),  English  phy- 
sician and  pioneer  woman  suf- 
fragist, was  born  in  Suffolk,  and 
was  privately  educated.  The 
Royal  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  and  other  medical  ex- 
amining bodies  refused  to  admit 
her  to  their  examinations,  but  in 
1865  she  obtained  the  license  of 
the  Society  of  Apothecaries  and 
in  1870  the  Paris  degree  of  m.d. 
From  1866  to  1890  she  was  senior 
physician  of  the  New  Hospital 
for  Women,  an  institution  she 
had  greatly  helped  to  develop; 
was  dean  of  the  London  School  of 
Medicine  for  Women  (1883- 
1903),  and  Mayor  of  Aldeburgh 
(1908),  the  first  woman  in  Eng- 
land elected  to  such  office.  Dur- 
ing the  Great  War  Lord  Kit- 
chener invited  her  to  establish  a 
military  hospital  of  500  beds  in 
London,  and  for  her  work  the 
British  Government  gave  her  the 
rank  of  major. 

Anderson,  Galusha  (1832- 
1918),  American  theologian  and 
educator,  was  born  in  Clarendon, 
N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at 
Rochester  University  and  at  the 
Rochester  Theological  Seminary, 
was  ordained  in  the  Baptist 
ministry,  and  held  pastorates  in 
Janesville,  Wis.,  St.  Louis,  Brook- 
lyn, New  York,  Chicago,  and 
Salem,  Mass.  From  1866  to 
1873  he  was  professor  in  Newton 
Theological  Seminary;  from  1878 
to  1885  president  of  the  old  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago;  from  1887  to 
1890  president  of  Denison  Uni- 
versity, Ohio.  He  was  professor 
in  the  Baptist  Union  Theological 
Seminary  (1890-92)  and  in  the 
latter  year  occupied  the  chair  of 
practical  theology  at  the  Divinity 
School,  University  of  Chicago, 


becoming  professor  emeritus  in 
1904. 

Anderson,jAMES  (1739-1808). 
Scotch  political  economist,  was 
born  near  Edinburgh.  While 
still  a  young  man,  he  invented 
the  'Scotch  plough,'  a  small 
two-horse  implement  without 
wheels,  which  has  been  exten- 
sively used.  His  publications  in- 
clude a  pamphlet  on  Western 
Scotch  Fisheries  (1783);  a  weekly 
paper  entitled  The  Bee  (1790-4); 
An  Account  of  the  Present  State  of 
the  Hebrides  (1785);  Observations 
on  Slavery  (1789);  Recreations  in 
Agriculture  (a  paper  in  monthly 
parts  from  1797  to  1802) ;  Inquiry 
into  the  Nature  of  the  Corn  Laws 
(1777),  in  which  he  anticipated 
Ricardo's  theory  of  rent. 

Anderson,  John  (1726-96), 
Scotch  educator,  was  born  in 
Dunbartonshire,  studied  at  Glas- 
gow University,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages 
(1756)  and  of  natural  philosophv 
(1760)  there.  He  was  interested 
in  practical  philanthropy,  and  for 
years  taught  a  class  of  physics  for 
working  men.  In  his  will  he 
provided  for  the  founding  of 
Anderson's  College  (Glasgow), 
the  arts  department  of  which  was 
merged  in  1886  in  the  Glasgow 
and  West  of  Scotland  Technical 
College,  now  devoted  to  medicine, 
physics,  chemistry,  and  botany. 

Anderson,  John  Jacob  (1821- 
1906).  American  author  and  edu- 
cator, was  born  in  New  York 
City.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Normal  School  there,  and  for 
thirty  years  was  engaged  in 
teaching.  He  published  many 
historical  works,  including  man- 
uals of  ancient,  mediaeval  and 
modern  history,  histories  of 
England,  France,  and  the  United 
States,  historical  readers,  and 
historical  textbooks  for  schools, 
including  Pictorial  School  History 
of  the  United  States  (1863)  and  A 
School  History  of  England  (1870). 

Anderson,  Larz  (1866-  ), 
American  diplomat,  was  born  of 
American  parents  in  Paris, France. 
He  was  educated  at  Phillips  Ex- 
eter Academy  and  at  Harvard 
University,  and  after  spending 
two  years  in  travel  was  appointed 
successively  second  secretary  of 
the  U.  S.  Embassy,  London 
(1891-3);  first  secretary  and 
charge  d'affaires  U.  S.  Embassy 
at  Rome  (1893-7);  Envoy  Ex- 
traordinary and  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary to  Belgium  (1911-12) 
and  to  Japan  (1912),  resigning  in 
1913.  He  served  as  captain  and 
assistant  adjutant  general  of  vol- 
unteers (luring  the  Spanish- 
American  War  and  during  the 
Great  War  was  honorary  chair- 
man of  the  New  England  Belgian 
Relief  C^ommittee.  He  has  been 
honored  by  many  foreign  gov- 
ernments. 

Anderson,  Martin  Brewer 
(1815-90),   American  educator, 

Vol.  I.— March  '28 


Anderson 


234 


Andersson 


first  president  of  the  University 
of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  was  born  in 
Brunswick,  Me.,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Colby  College,  where  he 
taught  Latin,  rhetoric,  and  his- 
tory. From  1850  to  1853  he  was 
editor  of  The  New  York  (Baptist) 
Recorder,  and  in  1853-88  was 
president  of  the  University  of 
Rochester. 

Anderson,  Mary  Antoinette 
(1859-  ),  American  actress,  was 
born  in  Sacramento,  Cal.  She 
was  educated  in  Louisville  and 
began  to  study  for  the  stage  in 
1875,  making  her  debut  in  Louis- 
ville as  Juliet.  She  subsequently 
appeared  in  many  of  the  large 
cities  of  the  United  States  play- 
ing Julia  in  The  Hunchback,  Bi- 
anca  in  Fazio,  Pauline  in  Lady  of 
Lyons,  Lady  Macbeth  in  Mac- 
beth, Meg  Merriles  in  Guy  Man- 
nering,  Berthe  in  The  Daughter  of 
Roland,  Parthenia  in  Ingomar, 
Rosalind  in  As  You  Like  It, 
Perdita  in  A  Winter's  Tale,  and 
Clarice  in  Comedy  and  Tragedy. 
In  1890  she  was  married  to 
Antonio  de  Navarro,  retired  from 
the  stage,  and  thereafter  made 
her  home  in  England.  In  1916 
she  reappeared  in  Worcester, 
England,  in  Comedy  and  Tragedy, 
in  aid  of  a  war  charity,  and  in  that 
and  the  following  year  was  seen  in 
a  number  of  other  benefit  per- 
formances. She  published  A  Few 
Memories  (1896). 

Anderson,  Melville  Best 
(1851—  ),  American  educator, 
was  born  in  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 
He  was  educated  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, and  in  Gottingen  and 
Paris,  and  was  successively  pro- 
fessor of  modern  languages,  and 
English  literature  in  Butler  Uni- 
versity (1877-80),  of  English  lit- 
erature in  Knox  College  (1881-6), 
of  literature  and  history  in  Pur- 
due University  (1886-7),  and  of 
English  language  and  literature 
in  the  State  University  of  Iowa 
(1887-91).  He  was  professor  of 
English  literature  in  Leland 
Stanford  Jr.  University  from 
1891  to  1910,  when  he  became 
professor  emeritus.  He  has  trans- 
lated and  edited  numerous  clas- 
sical works  and  published  Repre- 
sentative Poets  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (1896);  The  Happy 
Teacher  (1910);  The  Great  Refusal 
(1916). 

Anderson,  Rasmus  Bjorn 
( 1846-  ) ,  American  author  and 
educator,  of  Scandinavian  de- 
scent, was  born  in  Albion,  Wis- 
consin. He  was  educated  in 
Luther  College,  la.,  and  in  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  where 
for  eight  years  (1875-83),  he  was 
professor  of  Scandinavian  lan- 
guage and  literature.  During 
President  Cleveland's  first  ad- 
ministration Professor  Anderson 
was  U.  S.  minister  to  Denmark. 
He  is  editor  and  publisher  of 
America,  a  Norwegian  weekly 
issued  at  Madison,  Wis.,  and  is 

Vol.  I.— March  '28l 


the  author  of  Norse  Mythology 
(1875);  Viking  Tales  from  the 
North  (1877);  The  Younger  Edda 
(1880);  First  Chapter  of  Nor- 
wegian Immigration,  1821-40 
(1895). 

Anderson,  Richard  Henry 
(1821-79),  American  soldier  in 
the  Confederate  service,  was 
born  near  Statesburg,  S.  C.  He 
was  educated  at  West  Point, 
served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
entered  the  Confederate  army. 
He  took  part  in  the  bombard- 
ment of  Fort  Sumter,  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  many  battles 
commanding  a  division  at  Get- 
tysburg, and  the  fourth  corps  of 
Lee's  army  at  the  close  of  the 
struggle,  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant general. 

Anderson,  Robert  (1805-71), 
American  soldier,  was  born  near 
Louisville,  Ky.,  and  was  gradu- 
ated in  1825'  from  West  Point, 
where  he  later  became  instructor 
in  artillery  (1835-37).  He  served 
in  the  Seminole  and  Mexican 
Wars,  and  at  the  close  of  1860 
he  was  in  command  of  Fort 
Moultrie,  Charleston  Harbor,  but 
soon  transferred  his  garrison  to 
Fort  Sumter.  Here  he  withstood 
a  bombardment  by  the  Confeder- 
ates on  April  12-13,  1861,  but 
was  finally  forced  to  evacuate  the 
fort,  his  garrison  (which  had  re- 
mained intact)  being  allowed  to 
retire  with  the  honors  of  war. 
For  his  defence  of  the  place  he 
received  the  nation's  thanks,  with 
appointment  to  the  rank  of  major 
general.  In  1863  ill  health  com- 
pelled him  to  retire  from  active 
service. 

Anderson, RuFUs(1796-1880), 
American  Congregational  minis- 
ter, and  for  more  than  forty 
years  secretary  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  For- 
eign Missions,  was  born  in  Maine. 
He  was  educated  at  Bowdoin 
College  and  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  and  devoted  his  life  to 
the  interests  of  foreign  missions, 
travelling,  lecturing,  and  writing 
on  their  behalf,  as  well  as  in- 
specting them  in  various  coun- 
tries. His  writings  include  Ob- 
servations upon  the  Peloponnesus 
and  Greek  Islands  (1830),  and  A 
Heathen  Nation  Civilized  (1870). 

Anderson,  Sherwood  (1876- 
),  American  author,  was 
born  in  Camden,  Ohio.  He  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools 
and  engaged  in  newspaper  work. 
In  1916  he  published  his  first 
novel.  Windy  McPherson's  Son, 
which  won  immediate  recognition 
and  stamped  him  as  one  of  the 
most  sympathetic  and  artistic  of 
the  younger  American  writers. 
His  work  is  ([uite  freely  tinged 
with  mysticism  and  is  sometimes 
a  bit  involved  hut  displays  keen 
insight  into  the  inarticulate 
yearning  quest  for  the  unattain- 
able.  His  other  published  works 


include  Marching  Men  (1917); 
Mid-American  Chants  (1918); 
Winesburg,  Ohio  (1919);  Poor 
White  (1920);  Triumph  of  the 
Egg  (1921);  Many  Marriages 
(1923);  Horses  and  Men  (1923); 
A  Story  Teller's  Story  (1924); 
Dark  Laughter  (1925);  Note  Book 
(1925);  Tar:  A  Mid-West  Child- 
hood (1926);  A  New  Testament 
(1927). 

Anderson,  William  (1842- 
1900),  British  surgeon,  professor 
of  anatomy  and  surgery  at  Tokyo 
(1873-1880),  formed  a  large  col- 
lection of  Chinese  and  Japanese 
paintings  and  engravings,  after- 
wards bequeathed  to  the  British 
Museum.  He  is  the  author  of  The 
Pictorial  Arts  of  Japan  (1886), 
Japanese  Wood  Engraving  (1895), 
and  Catalogue  of  Collection  of 
Japanese  and  Chinese  Pictures  in 
the  British  Museum  (1886). 

An'dersonville,  village,  Geor- 
gia, in  Sumter  County,  on  the 
Central  of  Georgia  Railroad;  62 
miles  southwest  of  Macon.  It  is 
notable  as  the  site  of  a  Confed- 
erate prison  maintained  during 
the  Civil  War.  The  stockade  or 
prison  pen  was  originally  built 
in  the  winter  of  1863-4  and  was 
first  occupied  by  prisoners  in 
February  1864.  It  covered  an 
area  of  about  18  acres,  later  in- 
creased to  about  24,  and  into  it 
the  prisoners  were  turned  like 
cattle,  with  no  shelter,  barracks, 
or  buildings  of  any  kind.  Within 
the  stockade,  about  twenty  feet 
from  the  outer  walls,  was  a  rail- 
ing known  as  the  'dead  line,' 
which  no  prisoner  might  cross 
under  pain  of  death.  Into  this 
'prison'  over  30,000  men  were 
herded  at  one  time,  giving  less 
than  6  square  feet  to  a  person. 
There  was  no  medical  attendance 
within  the  stockade;  food  was 
wholly  inadequate  and  insuffi- 
cient, and  no  soap  or  clothing 
was  issued.  The  number  of  pris- 
oners received  at  Andersonville 
was  49,485,  of  whom  12,462 
died,  an  average  of  958  a  month 
during  the  thirteen  months  of  its 
existence.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  the  superintendent  of  the 
prison,  Henry  Wirty,  was  tried 
by  a  military  commission  for 
'murder  in  violation  of  the  laws 
of  war,'  found  guilty,  and  hanged. 
The  prison  site  and  adjoining 
graveyard  have  been  made  a 
national  cemetery,  in  which  are 
buried  some  14,000  Union  sol- 
diers. 

Anderssen,  iin'der-sen,  Adolf 
(1818-79),  German  chess-player, 
was  born  in  Breslau,  where  he 
became  (1847)  master  at  the 
Lyceum.  He  won  the  first  prize 
at  the  international  chess  tour- 
nament held  in  London  in  1851, 
during  the  first  International 
Exhibition,  and  afterwards  won 
other  international  contests.  He 
published  many  books  on  chess. 

Andersson,  Karl  Johan 


Andes 


235 


Andes 


(1827-67),  Swedish  African  ex- 
plorer, who  investigated  the  land 
of  the  Damaras  and  Ovampos 
(1850-4),  and  the  Okavango  R. 
(1859).  He  died  while  on  an 
expedition  to  the  Kunene  R.  See 


of  two  or  more  parallel  ranges 
or  Cordilleras,  enclosing  lofty 
plateaus.  Its  total  length  is  con- 
siderably over  4,000  m.,  and  its 
greatest  development  in  Peru  and 
Bolivia,     where,     between .  the 


his  Lake  N garni,  or  Discoveries 
in  S.  Africa  (1856),  and  The 
O kavango  R.  (18G1).  Life  in  his 
Notes  of  Travel  in  S.  Africa 
(1875),  ed.  by  Lloyd. 

Andes,  a  mountain  system 
stretching  along  the  w.  side  of 
the  continent  of  S.  America,  from 
Tierra  del  Fuego  to  the  Carib- 
bean Sea.  Throughout  most  of 
its  length  the  system  is  composed 


transverse  ridges  of  Vilcanota 
(lat.  14°  30'  s.)  and  of  Lipez 
(lat.  22°  30'  s.),  it  expands  to 
a  breadth  of  500  m.,  enclosing 
between  its  E.  and  W.  Cordil- 
leras plateaus  12,000  to-  14,000 
ft.  above  sea-level.  North  of  the 
Vilcanota  range  the  E.  Cordillera 
has  been  eroded  by  affluents  of 
the  Ucayali,  and  to  the  w.  of  this 
great  basin  is  a  confused  group 


of  ranges,  among  which  runs  the 
Alto  Maranon,  or  Upper  Ama- 
zon. The  W.  Cordillera,  between 
lat.  23°  and  7°  45'  s.^  descends 
in  a  bold  escarpment  to  the  Pa- 
cific littoral,  but  it  gradually  de- 
creases in  height  northwards.  On 
entering  Ecuador  the  Andes  con- 
sist of  a  single  broad  chain, 
which  bifurcates  in  the  province 
of  Loja;  and  thence  to  the  bor- 
ders of  Colombia  the  system  is 
again  composed  of  two  Cordil- 
leras, united  by  transverse  ridges, 
and  including  lofty  basins,  8,000 
to  10,000  ft.  above  sea  -  level. 
These  Cordilleras  are  continued 
in  the  Western  and  Central  Cor- 
dilleras of  Colombia,  which  in- 
clude between  them  the  great 
longitudinal  valley  of  the  Cauca 
R.  The  last-named  range  is  the 
loftier,  containing  many  peaks 
over  16,000  ft.  in  altitude.  The 
long  valley  of  the  Atrato  sepa- 
rates the  W.  Cordillera  from  a 
coast  range,  the  Sierra  de  Baudo, 
with  an  average  elevation  of  3,- 
000  ft.,  which  is  continued  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  E. 
Cordillera  of  Colombia,  or  Cor- 
dillera of  Bogota,  a  third  divi- 
sion, branches  off  near  the  fron- 
tier of  Ecuador.  At  first  only  a 
low  watershed  between  the  basin 
of  the  Magdalena  and  those_  of 
the  Amazon  and  Orinoco,  it  rises 
to  over  15,000  ft.  in  the  peak 
Suma  Paz,  and  runs  n.w.  to 
Pamplona,  whence  it  is  continued 
by  the  Cordillera  de  Merida  in 
Venezuela. 

Near  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra, 
in  Bolivia,  the  Eastern  Cordillera 
makes  a  great  bend  to  the  s.s.w.; 
crossing  the  Upper  Pilcomayo, 
and  appearing  as  the  Sierra  de  la 
Huerta  in  the  Argentine  province 
of  San  Juan,  it  terminates  in  the 
hills  of  Pencoso  in  San  Luis.  In 
the  Famatina  peak  (Argentine 
province  of  Rioja)  it  rises  to 
a  height  of  20,680  ft.  Another 
(central)  range  of  isolated  peaks 
and  volcanic  cones  rises  in  lat. 
17°  30',  E.  of  Oruro  in  Bolivia, 
and  divides  the  great  plateau  of 
Titacaca  and  Poopo  into  two  sec- 
tions. The  Andes  preserve  their 
plateau  character  down  to  Acon- 
cagua (about  32°  30'  s.),  enclos- 
ing the  great  dreary  Puna  (high 
plain)  of  Atacama;  thence  to  41° 
30'  s.  lat.  they  consist  of  a  single 
chain.  South  of  Lake  Nahuel- 
huapi  they  no  longer  constitute 
the  watershed,  _  but  are  crossed 
by  numerous  rivers  rising  from 
an  elevation  to  the  e.,  from  which 
in  some  cases  the  water  runs  to 
both  oceans;  and  finally  they  pass 
through  the  islands  cf  the  Tierra 
del  Fuego  archipelago  to  Cape 
Horn. 

The  Andes  are  built  up  of  Ar- 
chaean, Palaeozoic,  and  Cretaceous 
rocks,  with  some  Jurassic  strata 
and  porphyritic  rocks  in  the  w. 
range.   They  appear  to  have  been 


Andes 

folded  in  Tertiary  times,  the  Cre- 
taceous rocks  being  involved  in  the 
folds.  Probably  the  West  Cor- 
dillera is  more  recent  than  the  East 
Cordillera.  Many  volcanoes  are 
still  active.  Andesite  lavas  fill  the 
basins  of  Ecuador,  where  the  grand- 
est group  of  volcanoes  in  the  whole 
chain  is  found,  among  which  are 
Cotopaxi  (19,613  ft.),  Sangay 
(17,460  ft.),  and  others.  These 
lavas  also  compose  the  large  mass 
of  Aconcagua,  which  rises  to 
23,080  ft.,  the  highest  point  of  the 
South  American  continent.  Many 
of  the  highest  peaks  are  covered 
with  perpetual  snow,  and  glaciers 
are  still  found  in  the  south. 

In  Peru  the  West  Cordillera 
forms  a  formidable  barrier  to  traf- 
fic, while  farther  south,  between 
lat.  23°  and  32°  s.,  there  is  no  pass 
lower  than  12,000  ft.  In  lat.  32° 
33'  is  the  Uspallata  Pass,  between 
Argentina  and  Chile,  or  La  Cumbre 


236 

toward  La  Paz,  Bolivia;  another 
climbs  up  (alt.  14,660  ft.)  from 
Mollendo  to  Lake  Titicaca;  yet  an- 
other in  Peru,  from  Lima  up  to 
Cerro  de  Pasco.  Consult  Whym- 
per's  Travels  Amongst  the  Great 
Andes  (1892);  Conway's  The  Boliv- 
ian Andes  (1901);  Fitzgerald's  The 
Highest  Andes ^  (1899);  Fountain's 
Great  Mountains  and  Forests  o} 
South  America  (1902);  Enoch's 
The  Andes  and  the  Amazon  (1907). 

Andesite.  A  volcanic  rock  of 
porphyritic  or  compact  texture, 
composed  of  plagioclase  feldspar 
and  a  dark  silicate,  either  horn- 
blende, mica,  or  augite.  By  addi- 
tion of  quartz,  andesite  grades  into 
dacite,  while  the  presence  of  olivine 
marks  a  transition  to  basalt.  An- 
desites  are  very  common  rocks  in 
the  Western  States,  and  are  named 
from  the  Andes  of  South  America, 
where  they  are  the  prevailing  type 
of  lavas.    See  Trachyte. 


Andes  Tunnel  and  Railway 

animal  transport,  leaving  Las 
Cuevas  in.  Argentina  and  arriving  at 
Caracoles  in  Chile,  and  vice  versd. 
From  Valparaiso  to  Los  Andes,  the 
line  belongs  to  the  Chilean  govern- 
ment, and  is  broad  gauge;  from  Los 
Andes  to  Caracoles,  the  Chilean 
Transdine,  it  is  narrow  gauge;  from 
Las  Cuevas  to  Mendoza,  the  Argen- 
tine Transandine,  again  narrow 
gauge,  and  from  Mendoza  through 
Villa  Mercedes  to  Buenos  Ayres, 
now  operated  by  the  Buenos  Ayres 
and  Pacific  Railway,  again  broad 
gauge.  This  difference  in  gauges 
was,  however,  a  slight  obstacle  to 
travel  in  comparison  to  the  great 
and  permanent  one  of  climate. 
From  some  time  in  May  to  some 
time  in  November — the  winter  of 
South  America — travel  across  the 
Andes  by  this  route,  except  for  the 
hardy  mail  carriers,  was  aban- 
doned; and  during  this  interval 
both  passengers  and  freight  had  to 


Railroad  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Valparaiso,  Including  New  Andes  Tunnel. 


(12,605  ft.),  now  crossed  by  the 
railway  tunnel  (alt.  10,468  ft.)  be- 
tween Buenos  Ayres  and  Valpa- 
raiso; and  at  36°  the  Planchon  (10,- 
000  ft.).  In  Ecuador  and  South 
Colombia  the  passes  are  of  about 
the  same  height.  The  Guayaquil 
and  Quito  Railway  crosses  the 
Andes  at  an  altitude  of  10,800  ft.  at 
2°  s.  lat.  This  railroad  connects 
the  Port  of  Guayaquil  with  Quito, 
the  capital  of  Ecuador,  and  after 
climbing  the  Andes  extends  on  the 
plateau  for  about  200  m.,  prepared 
to  tap  the  agricultural  and  mineral 
wealth  of  Ecuador  and  South 
Colombia  when  extended  still  far- 
ther north. 

Besides  the  peaks  already  men- 
tioned, Illimam  (22,200  ft.),  Hua- 
scaran  (22,182  ft.),  and  Illampu,  or 
Sorata,  east  of  Lake  Titicaca,  are 
among  the  most  prominent — the 
last,  according  to  Sir  Martin  Con- 
way's estimate,  exceeding  23,000  ft., 
and  therefore  rivalling  Aconcagua. 
Chimborazo,  in  Ecuador,  rises  to 
20,475  ft.,  and  Tupungato,  south  of 
Aconcagua,  to  21, .550  ft. 

Other  railways  across  the  Andes 
are  the  line  (highest  alt.  15,000  ft.), 
which  connects  Oruro  in  Bolivia 
with  Antofagasta  in  Chile;  and  the 
line  now  in  construction  from  Arica 


Andes,  Los.  A  territory  of 
Argentina,  consisting  of  part  of  the 
Puna  de  Atacama  assigned  to  Argen- 
tina by  arbitration  in  1899.  Area, 
21,990  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1908),  2,250. 

Andes,  Los,  town,  Chile, 
province  of  Aconcagua,  18  m. 
southeast  of  San  Felipe.  Pop.  4,500. 

Andes  Tunnel  and  Railway. 
The  distance  from  Buenos  Ayres  in 
Argentina  to  Valparaiso  in  Chile 
is  given,  for  the  sake  of  easy  remem- 
brance, as  888  miles;  the  railway 
estimate  is  1,439  kilometers.  This 
portion  of  South  America  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans, 
belonging  to  the  above-mentioned 
Republics,  with  the  dividing  line 
on  the  crest  of  the  Andes,  embraces 
some  of  the  most  productive  land  on 
that  continent,  and  increase  of 
traffic  across  it  has  been  constant. 

In  1874  a  concession  was  granted 
to  build  westward  up  the  Andes, 
and  in  1888  a  train  climbed  from 
Mendoza  toward  the  Chilean 
frontier.  Work  from  Valparaiso 
eastward  was  begun  in  1889,  but 
the  section  from  Los  Andes  to 
Juncal,  about  where  the  present 
tunnel  is,  was  not  inaugurated  until 
1906.  Travel  across  the  gap  be- 
tween these  two  rail  ends  has  been 
for  some   years   carried   on  by 


go  by  boat  through  Magellan  Strait 
— a  matter  of  about  ten  days,  com- 
pared with  the  40  to  48  hours  of 
rail  and  mule. 

The  proiect  of  tunnelling  the 
Andes  had  been  seriously  discussed 
ever  since  the  railway  was  con- 
structed, because  it  had  from  the 
first  seemed  impossible  to  carry  the 
line  in  the  open  across  the  higher 
pass  used  by  foot  passengers,  or 
animals,  on  account  of  both  en- 
gineering and  climatic  difficulties. 
This  Uspallata  Pass  has  an  eleva- 
tion of  12,605  feet  (3,841  meters), 
and  is  practically  at  the  boundary 
between  Argentina  and  Chile,  at 
which  point  is  situated  the  famous 
statue  of  'The  Christ  of  the 
Andes,'  dedicated  by  the  two  na- 
tions as  an  emblem  of  peace  in 
March,  1904. 

The  Transandine  Tunnel  was  first 

Eierced  by  the  workmen  on  Novem- 
er  27,  1909.  It  had  been  under- 
stood that  construction  would  be 
concluded  in  1911;  but  the  fact  that 
both  Argentina  and  Chile  were  to 
celebrate  the  centennial  anniversary 
of  their  declarations  of  indepencf- 
ence  in  1910  caused  the  contractors 
to  accelerate  the  work,  so  as  to  have 
the  tunnel  open  for  traffic  early  in 
the  latter  year.  The  effort  was  sue- 


Andijan 


237 


Andr§ 


("•ssful.  On  April  5,  1910,  the 
formal  opening  of  the  tunnel  took 
place. 

The  actual  tunnel  begins  at 
Caracoles  in  Chile,  passes  under 
the  frontier,  and  ends  at  Las 
Cuevas.  Its  length  is  10,385  feet; 
height  18  feet;  width  16  feet. 

Andijan,  an-di-zhan',  town, 
Russian  Central  Asia,  in  the 
province  of  Fergana,  situated  at 
an  altitude  of  1,500  feet,  on  the 
Syr  Daria;  160  miles  east  of 
Tashkend.  It  is  the  terminus  of 
a  branch  of  the  Transcaspian 
Railroad.  It  is  famous  for  its 
gardens  and  for  its  cotton  manu- 
factures.   Pop.  20,000. 

Andi'ra,  a  genus  of  about  30 
species  of  tropical  American  and 
African  trees.  The  bark  of  A. 
inermis  and  A.  retusa  contains 
purgative  and  emetic  substances; 
the  pith  of  A.  araroba  provides 
the  'Goa  powder,'  or  chrysarobin 
(q.v.),  used  as  a  remedy  for  cer- 
tain skin  diseases.  The  wood  of 
several  sp2cies  is  hard  and  dur- 
able and  takes  a  high  polish. 

Andirons,  or  Fire-Dogs,  the 
supports  on  which  are  laid  the 
logs  of  wood  burned  in  open 
hearths.  They  are  usually  made 
of  wrought  iron  and  are  often 
brass  trimmed  and  highly  orna- 
mental. 

Andkhui,  and-kob'e,  or  And- 
KHOi,  town,  Afghanistan,  on  the 
trade  route  between  Afghanistan 
and  Bokhara;  about  80  miles 
west  of  Balkh.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 

Andocides,  an-dos'i-dez  (439- 
389  B.C.),  one  of  the  ten  Attic 
orators;  an  influential  man  of 
oligarchical  sympathies.  In  415 
B.C.  he  was  accused  of  being  con- 
cerned in  the  mutilation  of  the 
Hermae;  he  turned  informer,  but 
was  forced  to  leave  Athens.  He 
was  banished  three  times  after- 
ward, and  died  in  exile.  Three 
genuine  speeches  of  historical 
importance  are  extant. 

Andor'ra  (Arabian,  Al  Darra, 
'a  wooded  place'),  a  small  inde- 
pendent republic  on  the  Spanish 
side  of  the  Pyrenees,  between  the 
French  department  of  Ariege  and 
the  Spanish  province  of  Lerida, 
with  an  area  of  191  square  miles. 
On  the  northern  side  bridle- 
paths lead  into  France,  by  which 
the  valley  of  the  Ariege  and  the 
town  of  Ax-les-Thermes  are 
reached.  There  is  a  considerable 
quantity  of  timber,  which  is  a 
large  source  of  revenue  to  the 
inhabitants.  The  somewhat  lim- 
ited but  rich  arable  land  produces 
rye  and  barley,  tobacco,  vines, 
and  vegetables.  The  country  is 
rich  in  iron  and  lead,  but  the 
mines  are  very  little  worked,  the 
cost  of  transport  being  a  hin- 
drance to  their  development. 
There  are  hot  mineral  springs  at 
Las  Escaklas  and  elsewhere. 
The  chief  wealth  consists  of  cat- 
tle, mules,  sheep,  goats,  and  pigs. 


Horse-breeding  is  an  important 
industry.  The  Andorrans,  about 
6,000  in  number,  are  of  Spanish 
race,  Catholics  in  religion,  and 
speak  a  dialect  of  Catalan. 

Government. — The  republic  of 
Andorra  is  under  the  joint  suze- 
rainty of  France  and  the  Spanish 
bishop  of  Urgel.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  governed  by  a  council 
of  24  members,  elected  by  the 
heads  of  families.  Each  of  the 
suzerains  is  represented  by  a 
viguier  (vicar).  The  bishop's 
viguier  holds  office  for  three 
years,  and  the  French  viguier  for 
life.  The  viguier s  and  the  judge 
of  appeals  constitute  the  supreme 
court.  The  capital  is  Andorra  la 
Vieille  (Old  Andorra),  a  small 
town  of  800  inhabitants,  10  miles 
from  Urgel. 

When  Louis  le  Debonnaire  be- 
sieged Urgel,  the  inhabitants  of 
Andorra  assisted  him  against  the 
Saracens  (805  a.d.)  ;  Louis,  there- 
fore, gave  them  self-government, 
reserving  certain  rights,  which 
were  subsequently  transferred  to 
the  Counts  of  Foix,  and  passed 
by  inheritance  to  the  Bourbons. 
The  tithes  and  other  dues  were 
granted  to  the  bishop  of  Urgel. 

An'dover,  town,  Massachu- 
setts, in  Essex  County,  compris- 
ing several  villages,  situated  a 
little  south  of  the  Merrimac 
River.  Andover  proper  lies  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Shawsheen 
River,  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
Railroad;  23  miles  north  of  Bos- 
ton and  10  miles  east  of  Lowell. 
The  town  is  the  seat  of  Phillips 
Academy  (for  boys)  and  Abbot 
Academy  (for  young  ladies).  Its 
industries  include  manufactures 
of  twine  and  thread,  shoes,  rub- 
ber goods,  woollen  goods,  and 
printer's  ink.  The  town  was 
settled  in  1643,  and  its  early  his- 
tory was  checkered  by  Indian 
forays  and  by  witchcraft  delu- 
sion. Pop.  (1910)  7,301;  (1920) 
8,268. 

Andover,  town,  England,  in 
Hampshire,  27  miles  northwest 
of  Southampton.  It  has  iron 
works  and  manufactures  of  agri- 
cultural implements.  Pop. 
(1921)  8,569. 

Andover  Tlieological  Sem- 
inary, a  divinity  school  under 
Congregational  auspices,  former- 
ly at  Andover,  Mass.,  now  es- 
tablished in  Cambridge,  and 
affiliated  with  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. It  was  founded  in  1807 
and  has  always  been  open  to  all 
Protestant  students.  The  insti- 
tution is  progressive  in  teachings, 
and  has  been  a  leader  in  the 
higher  criticism  which  has  in- 
fluenced the  theology  of  all  the 
Protestant  churches.  The  li- 
brary contains  about  125,000 
volumes  which  include  many 
rare  and  valuable  editions.  Ow- 
ing to  a  decree  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Supreme  Court,  declaring 
the  affiliation  of  Andover  Sem- 


inary with  Harvard  University 
untenable,  instruction  was  sus- 
pended for  a  time,  pending 
necessary  readjustments. 

Andrada  e  Sylva,  an-dra'da  e 
sel'va,  Bonifacio  Jose  de  (1765- 
1838),  one  of  the  founders  of 
Brazilian  independence,  was  born 
in  Santos,  near  Rio  Janeiro.  He 
studied  in  Europe  and  was  for  a 
time  professor  of  metallurgy  in 
the  University  of  Coimbra,  Por- 
tugal. Returning  to  Brazil  in 
1819  he  held  the  portfolios 
of  the  interior  and  of  foreign 
affairs.  His  democratic  tenden- 
cies led  to  his  exile  to  France 
(1823-9).  On  the  abdication  of 
Pedro  I.  (1831)  he  undertook  the 
education  of  the  Prince  Imperial 
(Pedro  II.). 

Andrassy,  on'dra-she,  Count 
Gyula  (1823-90),  Hungarian 
statesman,  was  born  in  Zemplin, 
which  he  represented  in  the  Pres- 
burg  Diet  (1847-8).  During  the 
'year  of  revolution'  he  espoused 
the  cause  of  Hungarian  inde- 
pendence, and  was  exiled,  passing 
the  years  1849-57  in  France  and 
England.  Under  the  amnesty  of 
1857  he  returned  to  his  native 
land,  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Diet  in  1860,  where  he 
supported  the  policy  of  Deak — 
that  of  autonomy  for  Hungary 
under  the  Empire — and  became 
(1867)  premier  and  minister  of 
national  defence.  In  1871  he  be- 
came minister  of  foreign  affairs 
for  Austria-Hungary.  He  re- 
signed in  1879  but  until  his  death 
retained  great  popular  influence. 

Andrassy,  Count  Gyula 
(1860-1929),  Hungarian  states- 
man, son  of  Count  Gyula  An- 
drassy, early  entered  political 
life.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Reichstag  in  1884,  was  made 
secretary  of  state  in  1892,  and 
appointed  minister  'near  the  per- 
son of  the  King'  in  1894.  He 
organized  and  led  the  coalition 
which  caused  the  defeat  of  the 
Liberal  Party  under  Count 
Stephen  Tisza  in  1906;  and  on 
the  organization  of  the  new  min- 
istry under  Dr.  Wekerele,  he  be- 
came minister  of  the  interior. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  he  supported  the  Tisza  min- 
istry but  was  untiring  in  his  ef- 
forts to  make  peace.  In  1920 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Hun- 
garian National  Assembly  and 
was  returned  in  1922.  His  pub- 
lished works  include  The  Develop- 
ment of  Hungarian  Constitutional 
Liberty  (1908);  Wer  hat  den  Krieg 
verbrochen?  (1915);  Diplomatic 
und  Weltkrieg  (1920);  The  Ante- 
cedents of  the  World  War  (1925). 

Andre,  an'dra,  John  (1751- 
80),  British  soldier,  was  born  in 
London  of  Swiss  parents.  In 
1771  he  joined  the  British  army, 
and  in  1774  was  ordered  to  Amer- 
ica. From  November,  1775,  un- 
til December,  1776,  he  was  a 
prisoner  of  war  in  the  hands  of 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Andrea  del  Sarto 


238 


Andrewes 


the  Americans;  in  1777  he  be- 
came a  captain,  and  in  1778  was 
made  adjutant  general  of  the 
British  army  in  the  United 
States,  and  an  aide  to  Gen.  Henry 
CUnton,  with  the  rank  of  major. 
He  was  selected  by  General  Clin- 
ton to  negotiate  with  Benedict 
Arnold,  then  in  command  of  the 
American  fortifications  at  West 
Point,  when  the  latter  made  over- 
tures to  surrender  that  post  to 
the  British.  While  returning  on 
horseback  to  New  York,  from 
West  Point,  in  civilian  attire,  he 
was  apprehended  at  Tarrytown 
as  a  spy.  After  trial  by  a  mili- 
tary court  convoked  by  Wash- 
ington, he  was  found  guiltj'  and 
hanged  at  Tappan,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  2, 
1780.  In  1821  his  remains  were 
removed  to  Westminster  Abbey, 
where  a  monument  was  raised  to 
his  memory. 

Andrea  del  Sarto,  an-dra'a 
del  sar'to  (1487-1531),  the  name 
usually  given  to  Andrea  d'Agn- 
OLO,  from  his  father's  trade 
(sarto,  a  tailor),  Florentine  paint- 
er, the  greatest  colorist  of  the 
Florentine  school,  who  was  born 
in  Gualfondo.  He  was  early  ap- 
prenticed to  a  goldsmith,  but 
evincing  artistic  talent  he  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Piero  di  Cosimo, 
the  housemate  of  Francia  Bigio. 
He  studied  the  frescoes  of  Mas- 
saccio  and  Ghirlandajo,  and  the 
cartoons  of  Michelangelo  and 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  in  1518 
went  to  France  to  paint  the  fine 
Charity  (Louvre)  and  the  Pietd 
(Vienna)  for  Francis  i.  Accord- 
ing to  Vasari,  his  wife — the  beau- 
tiful model  for  his  Madonnas — 
induced  him  to  return  to  Flor- 
ence in  1519,  and  break  his  en- 
gagement to  the  king;  but  the 
story  of  the  embezzlement  of 
money  given  him  by  Francis  to 
purchase  pictures  is  questioned 
since  the  divscovery  of  the  king's 
accounts. 

A  full  conception  of  Andrea's 
power  can  be  best  obtained  by  a 
study  of  the  fine  series  of  frescoes 
in  Florence,  in  the  Church  of 
I'Annunziata,  including  the  Ma- 
donna del  Sacco  in  the  convent  of 
St.  Salvi,  particularly  his  Last 
Supper,  which  rivals  Leonardo's, 
and  especially  the  monochrome 
series  in  the  Cloister  of  the  Scalzi, 
painted  in  1512-26.  Most  of  his 
best  known  panel  paintings  are 
in  the  galleries  of  Florence:  the 
Pitti,  which  has  a  Pietd,  Holy 
Family,  an  Annunciation  and 
vseveral  portraits,  the  Ufifizi, 
whose  gem  is  the  Madonna  with 
the  Harpies,  and  the  Academy; 
but  there  are  also  examples  in 
Pisa,  and  in  the  galleries  of  Dres- 
den, Berlin,  London,  Paris,  and 
Madrid.  Consult  Vasari's  Life 
(translated  by  Blashfield  and 
Hopkins). 

Andrea;,  an-dre'e,  Lauren- 
Tius  (1480-1552),  Swedish  re- 
former, was  born  in  Strengnas, 


but  lived  for  some  time  in  Rome 
and  in  Leipzig.  As  archdeacon 
of  Strengnas,  he  won  Gustavus  i. 
to  the  principles  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. He  subsequently  became 
chancellor,  and  superintended 
the  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
into  Swedish,  published  in  1526. 
Having  enraged  the  king  by  re- 
sisting the  secularization  of  the 
Church,  he  was  charged  with 
treachery  and  was  condemned  to 
death  (1540),  but  was  reprieved 
and  spent  his  last  years  in  retire- 
ment, 

Andree,  an'dra,  Salomon  Au- 
gust (1854-97),  Swedish  aero- 
naut and  explorer,  was  born  in 
Grenna.  He  was  for  some  time 
head  engineer  at  the  Swedish 
patent  office.  After  making 
several  balloon  journeys,  he  at- 
tempted to  reach  the  North  Pole 
by  such  means  and  on  July  11, 
1897,  started  from  Dane's  Island, 
Spitzbergen,  with  two  compan- 
ions, Strindberg  and  Fraenkel,  in 
a  balloon  of  5,000  cubic  metres. 
A  message  sent  by  carrier-pigeon, 
and  dated  July  13,  was  the  last 
authentic  news  of  the  explorers. 

Andreossy,  an-dra-o-se',  An- 
TOiNE  Francois,  Comte  d' 
(1761-1828),  French  general  and 
diplomatist,  was  born  in  Castel- 
naudary  in  Languedoc.  He  en- 
tered the  army  in  1781,  served 
with  Bonaparte  in  Egypt  as  chief 
of  brigade,  returned  with  him  to 
France,  and  supported  him  at  the 
revolution  of  18th  Brumaire. 
He  was  ambassador  to  London 
and  Constantinople,  and  gover- 
nor of  Vienna.  In  1826  he  was 
elected  to  the  Academy  and  the 
following  year  became  deputy 
for  Aude.  He  published  military 
memoirs  and  scientific  works. 

Andrew,  S.a.int,  the  first  called 
of  Christ's  disciples,  was  the 
brother  of  Peter.  He  belonged 
to  Bethsaida,  and  had  been  a 
follower  of  John  the  Baptist. 
Tradition  has  it  that  he  preached 
in  Scythia,  Macedonia,  and 
Epirus,  and  that  he  was  cruci- 
fied at  Patrae,  in  Achaia,  on  an 
X-shaped  cross.  The  festival  of 
St.  Andrew  falls  on  Nov.  30. 
He  is  the  patron  saint  of  Scot- 
land, and  is  held  in  high  regard 
in  Russia  as  having  evangelized 
that  country. 

Andrew,  Saint,  Brother- 
hood OF,  an  organization  of  men 
and  boys  in  the  Episcopal 
Church,  founded  in  1883  in  Chi- 
cago. Its  object  is  the  spread 
of  Christianity  among  men  and 
boys,  and  it  has  chapters  through- 
out the  United  States  and  in 
many  foreign  countries,  including 
Canada,  England,  Scotland, 
West  Indies,  Canal  Zone,  Ha- 
waii, China  and  Japan.  A  junior 
department  for  work  among  boys 
is  a  feature.  There  is  an  active 
membership  of  about  10,000  and 
the  ofificial  organ  is  St.  Andrew's 
Cross. 


Andrew,  Saint,  Cross  of. 
See  Flag. 

Andrew,  Saint,  Order  of. 
See  Orders  of  Knighthood. 

Andrew,  the  name  of  several 
kings  of  Hungary.  Andrew  i. 
(1046-61)  succeeded  Peter  the 
German,  and  engaged  in  war 
with  Germany  till  1052.  He 
attempted  to  introduce  Chris- 
tianity into  his  kingdom,  but  was 
dethroned  and  killed  by  his 
brother  Bela  in  1061. 

Andrew  ii.  (1175-1234)  as- 
cended the  throne  in  1205.  He 
conducted  a  crusade  to  the  Holy 
Land  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Pope  in  1217,  and  on  his  return, 
in  1221,  he  found  his  kingdom  in 
great  disorder.  The  following 
year  he  issued  his  Golden  Bull, 
which  became  the  basis  of  the 
rights  of  the  Hungarian  nobles. 

Andrew  hi.  (P-1301)  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  after  the 
murder  of  Ladislaus  iii.  in  1290, 
but  was  opposed  by  the  Duke  of 
Austria  and  by  the  Pope,  who 
claimed  Hungary  as  a  fief  of  the 
church,  and  put  forward  Charles 
Martel,  son  of  Charles  ii.,  king  of 
Naples,  as  his  nominee.  Andrew 
defeated  them  both  in  1291. 

Andrew,  James  Osgood 
(1794-1871).  bishop  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  South, 
was  born  in  Wilkes  County, 
Georgia.  In  1812  he  became  an 
itinerant  missionary  attached  to 
the  South  Carolina  Conference 
and  in  1832  was  consecrated 
bishop  at  Philadelphia.  On  his 
marriage  to  a  second  wife,  who 
was  a  slaveholder,  there  arose  a 
momentous  controversy  which 
helped  to  bring  about  a  cleavage 
in  the  church,  which  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South,  to 
which  Bishop  Andrew  adhered. 

Andrew,  John  Albion  (1818- 
67),  American  political  leader, 
was  born  in  Windham,  Me.  He 
was  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College  in  1837,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1840,  and  settled  in 
Boston.  In  politics  he  was  suc- 
cessively an  anti-slavery  Whig,  a 
Free  Soiler,  and  a  Republican. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts House  of  Representa- 
tives (1858),  was  governor  of  the 
State  (1861-6),  and  is  remem- 
bered chiefly  as  one  of  the  fore- 
most of  the  notable  'war  gover- 
nors' of  the  North. 

Andrewes,  Lancelot  (1555- 
1626),  English  scholar  and  di- 
vine, was  born  in  Barking.  He 
was  appointed  dean  of  Westmin- 
ster (1601);  took  part  in  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference,  and 
in  the  preparation  of  the  Author- 
ized Version  of  the  Bible,  and  was 
successively  bishop  of  Chichester 
(1605),  Ely  (1609),  and  Win- 
chester (1618).  He  was  one  of 
the  most  learned  theologians  of 
his  time  and  a  great  preacher. 
Consult  Whyte's  Lancolet  An- 


VoL.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Andrews 


239 


Andrews 


drewes  and  his  Private  Devotions 
(1896). 

Andrews,  Charles  McLean 
(1863-  ),  American  educator, 
was  born  in  Wethersfield,  Conn. 
He  was  graduated  from  Trinity 
College  (1884).  and  from  Johns 
Hopkins  University  (Ph.D., 
1889),  and  was  professor  of  his- 
tory at  Bryn  Mawr  College 
(1889-1907)  and  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins (1907-1910).  In  1910  he 
became  Farnham  professor  of 
American  history  in  Yale  Uni- 
versity. His  published  works 
include:  The  River  Towns  of 
Connecticut  (1889);  The  Old  Eng- 
lish Manor  (1892);  The  Historical 
Development  of  Modern  Europe  (2 
vols.,  1896,  1898);  Contemporary 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  1871- 
1901  (1902);  A  History  of  Eng- 
land (1903);  Colonial  Self-Gov- 
ernment,  1632-1689  {IQQA)  \  Brit- 
ish Commissions,  Councils  and 
Committees,  1622-1673  (1908);  A 
Short  History  of  England  (1912); 
The  Colonial  Period  of  American 
History  (1912);  Fathers  of  New 
England  and  Colonial  Folkways 
(1919);  The  Colonial  Background 
of  the  American  Revolution  (1924). 

Andrews,  Christopher  Co- 
lumbus (1829-1918),  American 
soldier  and  diplomat,  was  born 
in  Hillsborough,  N.  H.,  and 
served  throughout  the  Civil  War, 
rising  from  the  rank  of  private 
to  that  of  brigadier-general  and 
brevet  major-general  of  volun- 
teers (1865).  He  was  U.  S.  min- 
ister to  Sweden  in  1869-77,  and 
consul-general  at  Rio  de  Janeiro 
in  1882-5. 

Andrews,  Edward  Gayer 
(1825-1907),  American  clergy- 
man, was  born  in  New  Hartford, 
N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at  Wes- 
leyan  University  (Conn.)  and 
entered  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
ministry  in  1848,  being  in  charge 
of  churches  in  New  York  State 
for  six  years.  He  was  principal 
of  Cazenovia  Seminary  in  1854- 
64,  pastor  in  Stamford,  Conn., 
and  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1864-72, 
and  was  appointed  bishop  in 
1872.  Later  he  spent  several 
years  visiting  the  foreign  mission- 
ary field. 

Andrews,  Elisha  Benjamin 
(1844-1917),  American  educator, 
was  born  in  Hinsdale,  N.  H.  He 
served  in  the  Civil  War,  was 
graduated,  after  its  close,  from 
Brown  University,  studied  at 
Newton  Theological  Institution, 
and  became  pastor  of  the  First 
Baptist  Church,  Beverly,  Mass. 
(1874-5).  He  was  president  of 
Dennison  University,  Granville, 
Ohio  (1875-9),  professor  of  homi- 
letics,  pastoral  theology,  and 
church  polity  at  the  Newton 
Theological  Seminary  (1879-82), 
professor  of  history  and  political 
economy  at  Brown  University 
(1882-8),  professor  of  political 
economy  and  finance  at  Cornell 
University  (1888-9),  and  presi- 


dent of  Brown  University  (1889- 
98),  resigning  primarily  on  ac- 
count of  friction  growing  out  of 
his  public  advocacy  of  the  free 
coinage  of  silver.  In  1898-1900 
he  was  superintendent  of  public 
schools  in  Chicago,  and  in  1900- 
08  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Nebraska.  He  was  U.  S.  com- 
missioner to  the  International 
Monetary  Conference  at  Brussels 
in  1892.  His  publications  include 
Brief  Institutes  of  Constitutional 
History,  English  and  American 
(1884);  Brief  Institutes  of  General 
History  (1885);  Institutes  of  Eco- 
nomics (1889);  An  Honest  Dollar 
(1894);  History  of  the  United 
States  (2  vols.  1894);  History  of 
the  Last  Quarter  Century  of  the 
United  States  (2  vols.  1896);  The 
United  States  in  Our  Own  Times 
(1904). 

Andrews,  Ethan  Allen 
(1787-1858),  American  educator, 
was  born  in  Connecticut  and  was 
educated  at  Yale.  He  was  for  a 
time  a  professor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  North  Carolina,  then 
taught  in  New  Haven  and  Boston 
until  1829.  He  published  a  Latin 
grammar  and  several  Latin  text- 
books, and  edited  a  Latin-English 
Lexicon  (1850),  based  on  Freund. 

Andrews,  Loren  (1819-61), 
American  educator,  was  born  in 
Ashland  county,  Ohio,  and  was 
educated  at  Kenyon  College, 
Ohio.  He  taught  in  various 
capacities,  and  was  instrumental 
in  bringing  the  common  schools 
of  Ohio  to  their  high  standard  of 
excellence.  He  became  president 
of  Kenyon  College  in  1854,  and, 
while  holding  office  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War,  raised  a 
company  in  Knox  county,  and 
was  elected  colonel  of  the  4th 
Ohio  Volunteers.  He  succumbed 
to  an  attack  of  camp  fever  con- 
tracted during  his  brief  service. 

Andrews,  Lorrin  (1795- 
1868),  American  missionary,  was 
born  in  East  Windsor,  Conn.,  and 
received  his  education  at  Jeffer- 
son College,  Pa.,  and  at  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary.  He  began 
missionary  work  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  (1827),  establishing  him- 
self at  Lahaina,  and  founding  a 
seminary  which  developed  into 
Hawaii  University,  of  which  he 
was  for  a  decade  a  professor.  He 
was  subsequently  chaplain  to  the 
seamen  at  Lahaina,  and  even- 
tually entered  the  service  of  the 
Hawaiian  government.  He  com- 
piled a  dictionary  of  the  native 
language,  made  studies  in  Ha- 
waiian literature  and  antiquities, 
and  translated  part  of  the  Bible 
into  Hawaiian. 

Andrews,  Mary  Raymond 
Shipman  (1884-  ),  an  Ameri- 
can short-story  writer.  Her 
works  include:  Vive  L'Empereur; 
A  Kidnapped  Colony;  Bob  and 
the  Guides  (1900);  The  Perfect 
Tribute  (1906);  The  Militants 
(1907);  Better  Treasure  (1908); 


Counsel  Assigned  (1912);  Mar- 
shall (1912);  Eternal  Masculine 
(1916);  Crosses  of  War  (1918); 
Joy  in  the  Morning  (1919);  His 
Soul  Goes  Marching  (1922);  Yel- 
low Butterflies  (1922);  Pontifex 
Maximus  (1924). 

Andrews,  Roy  Chapman 
(1884-  ),  American  naturalist 
and  explorer,  was  born  in  Beloit, 
Wis.  He  was  graduated  from 
Beloit  College  in  1906  and  in 
1908  made  an  exploring  trip  to 
Vancouver  Islands  and  Alaska. 
In  1909-10  he  was  naturalist  on 
the  U.  S.  S.  Albatross  on  its  trip 
to  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  in 
1913  was  with  the  Borden  Alaska 
Expedition.  He  became  con- 
nected with  the  American  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History  in  1914 
and  conducted  expeditions  to 
Tibet,  Southwest  China,  and 
Burma  (1916-17);  to  North 
China  and  Mongolia  (1919);  and 
to  Central  Asia  (1925).  These 
expeditions  proved  of  great  his- 
torical and  archaeological  inter- 
est, having  brought  to  light  geo- 
logical strata  previously  un- 
known and  extensive  evidences 
of  primitive  life  in  the  Central 
Asian  Plateau,  including  the  first 
dinosaur  eggs  ever  discovered. 
Andrews'  writings  include  Whale 
Hunting  with  Gun  and  Camera 
(1916);  Camps  and  Trails  in 
China  (1918);  Across  Mongolian 
Plains  (1921);  On  the  Trail  of 
Ancient  Man  (1926). 

Andrews,  Samuel  James 
(1817-1906),  American  clergy- 
man, was  born  in  Danbury, 
Conn.,  and  was  educated  at 
Williams  College.  He  practised 
law  for  a  time,  but  later  became 
a  clergyman  and  for  several  years 
(1848-1855)  was  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  Church  in  East 
Windsor,  Conn.,  and  an  instruc- 
tor in  mental  and  moral  phi- 
losophy in  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford. Embracing  Irvingite  doc- 
trines, he  became  pastor  of  the 
Catholic  Apostolic  Church  at 
Hartford,  Conn.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of  Life  of  Our  Lord  upon  the 
Earth  (1862);  God's  Revelation  of 
Himself  to  Man  (1885);  The 
Church  and  Its  Organic  Minis- 
tries (1899);  Man  and  the  In- 
carnation (1905). 

Andrews,  Stephen  Pearl 
(1812-86),  American  author  and 
propagandist,  was  born  in  Tem- 
pleton,  Mass.  He  was  educated 
at  Amherst  College,  studied  law 
and  practised  first  at  New  Or- 
leans, and  then  in  Texas,  with 
considerable  success,  in  spite  of 
his  abolitionist  sympathies.  He 
removed  to  Boston  and  then  to 
New  York,  where  he  developed 
his  Basic  Outline  of  Universology 
(1872),  with  which  was  associ- 
ated his  universal  language, 
'Alwato/  a  system  designed  to 
reconcile  the  leading  members  of 
all  schools.  While  in  England 
(1843),    Mr.    Andrews  learned 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


Andrews 


240 


Andros 


phonography  and  introduced  I't 
into  America. 

Andrews,  Thomas  (1813-85), 
Irish  chemist,  was  born  in  Bel- 
fast. In  1835-45  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  newly 
established  Medical  College  in 
the  Academical  Institution,  Bel- 
fast, and  in  1845-79  was  professor 
of  chemistry  in  Queen's  College. 
He  pubHshed  important  re- 
searches into  the  heat  evolved 
and  absorbed  in  chemical  com- 
binations, and  on  the  liquefaction 
of  gases. 

Andrews,  William  Draper 
(1818-96),  American  inventor, 
was  born  in  Grafton,  Mass.  He 
devised  (1844)  the  centrifugal 
pump  by  means  of  which  goods 
not  injured  by  water  may  be 
saved  from  sunken  vessels,  and 
made  several  improvements  in 
pumps  of  the  same  kind,  notably 
the  'Cataract'  pump. 

Andrews,  William  Watson 
(1810-97),  American  clergyman 
of  the  'Irvingite,'  or  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church,  was  born  in 
Windham,  Conn.,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Yale.  After  1849  he  was 
in  charge  of  the  Irvingite  congre- 
gation at  Potsdam,  N.  Y.,  and  in 
1868  organized  a  church  of  that 
sect  at  Hartford.  His  publica- 
tions include  many  sermons,  re- 
views, and  addresses. 

Andria,  an'dre-a,  town  and 
episcopal  see,  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Bari,  8  miles  from  the 
Adriatic,  and  34  miles  west  of 
Bari.  It  has  a  trade  in  almonds, 
olive  oil,  and  majolica  ware. 
Nearby  is  the  massive  Castel  del 
Monte,  built  by  Frederick  ii.,  for 
years  the  prison  of  Manfred's  sons. 

Andrieux,  ah-dre-u'.  Fran- 
cois Guillaume  Jean  Stanis- 
las (1759-1833),  French  poet  of 
the  First  Empire,  and  secretary 
of  the  Academy  (1829),  was  born 
in  vStrassburg.  He  published 
several  graceful  and  witty  come- 
dies— e.g.,  Les  etourdis  (1788),  La 
soiree  d'auteuil  (1804),  and  La 
comedienne  (1816).  His  place 
among  the  minor  poets  of  his  day 
is  secured  by  his  Cant  s — Le  meu- 
nier  de  Sans  Souci  (1797),  La 
promenade  de  Fenelon,  etc. 

An'dro,  or  Andros,  most 
northerly  of  the  Cyclades  Is- 
lands (q.v.);  area,  157  square 
miles.  The  capital,  Andros,  is 
situated  on  a  sheltered  bay  on 
the  eastern  coast.  Lemons  are 
exported.      Pop.  (1920)  16,895. 

Androclus,  an'dro-klus,  or 
Androcles,  a  Roman  slave,  who, 
according  to  Aulus  Gellius,  was 
thrown  into  the  arena,  where  a 
lion  appeared  to  recognize  him 
and  licked  his  hands.  Inquiry 
showed  that  Ancroclus  had 
previously  taken  pity  on  the 
animal  in  the  forest,  extracting  a 
cruel  thorn  from  its  paw. 

Andromache,  an-drom'a-ke, 
in  Greek  legend,  the  daughter  of 
Eetion,  king  of  Cilician  Thebes, 

Vol.  I.— March  '27 


and  wife  of  Hector,  to  whom  she 
bore  Astyanax.  Homer  beauti- 
fully depicts  the  tender  relations 
existing  between  her  and  her 
husband,  particularly  in  the 
passages  in  the  Iliad  which  de- 
scribe her  parting  with  him,  her 
grief  at  his  fate,  and  her  lament 
over  his  funeral.  After  the  fall  of 
Troy  her  son  was  cast  from  the 
walls  and  killed,  and  she  became 
the  captive  of  Neoptolemus,  son 
of  Achilles,  and  accompanied 
him  to  Greece.  She  afterwards 
married  Helenus,  brother  of 
Hector,  who  ruled  over  Chaonia. 

Androm'eda,  in  Greek  legend, 
the  daughter  of  Cepheus,  king  of 
Ethiopia,  and  Cassiopeia.  As 
her  mother  boasted  that  in 
beauty  Andromeda  excelled  the 
Nereids,  Poseidon  sent  a  sea 
monster  to  ravage  the  country, 
whereupon  the  oracle  of  Ammon 
prescribed  that  the  maiden 
should  be  sacrificed  to  the  mon- 
ster; but  Perseus  rescued  and 
married  her.  After  death  she 
was  placed  among  the  stars. 

Andromeda,  one  of  the  Ptole- 
maic constellations,  forming,  with 
Cepheus,  Cassiopeia,  and  Per- 
seus, a  group  of  prehistoric  an- 
tiquity. Three  stars  of  about  the 
second  magnitude  —  Alpheratz, 
Mirach,  and  Almaach  —  mark 
severally  the  head,  the  girdle,  and 
the  foot  of  the  mythical  heroine. 
Alpheratz,  or  a  Andromedae,  /3 
Cassiopeiae,  and  y  Pegasi  (Alge- 
nib),  being  aligned  on  the  equi- 
noctial colure,  are  called  the 
'Three  Guides.'  Almaach,  or  y 
Andromedae,  is  a  triple  star,  com- 
posed of  a  third  magnitude  star, 
attended  by  a  pair  of  the  fifth  and 
sixth  magnitudes.  In  its  vicin- 
ity is  situated  the  radiunt  point 
of  the  Andromeda  mf  teors,  the 
last  conspicuous  shower  of  which 
occurred  Nov.  23,  1892.  The 
great  nebula  near  y  Andromedae 
was  familiar  to  Al  Sufi  in  the  10th 
century,  but  the  first  telescopic 
view  of  it  was  obtained  Dec.  15, 
1612,  by  Simon  Marius.  A 
photograph  taken  by  Dr.  Roberts 
in  1888  disclosed  it  as  a  vast 
spiral  structure.  Close  to  its 
nucleus  a  temporary  star  rose  to 
6.5  magnitude  in  AugUvSt,  1885, 
then  in  six  months  faded  to 
extinction.  More  than  twenty 
novae  have  been  observed  in  the 
nebula,  which  emits  white  light, 
giving  a  continuous  spectrum, 
overlaid  by  absorption  lines. 
The  nebula  is  approaching  the 
solar  system  at  the  enormous 
velocity  of  300  kilometers  per 
second,  and  clear  evidence  of 
rotational  motion  has  been  se- 
cured with  the  spectroscope. 
The  spectrum,  on  the  other  hand, 
of  the  planetary  nel)ula  (N.  G. 
C.  7662)  is  almost  purely  gaseous. 

This  beautiful  nebula  consists 
of  an  oval  ring  lying  on  a  more 
or  less  circular  disc  of  nebulosity. 

Andromeda,     a  monotypic 


genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
order  Ericacece.  The  only  species 
is  A .  polifolia  (wild  rosemary,  or 
moorwort),  a  small  poisonous 
evergreen  shrub  found  in  peat 
bogs  throughout  the  North 
Temperate  and  Sub- Arctic  zones. 
It  bears  large,  pendulous,  pink 
flowers. 

Andronicus,  an-dro-ni'kus  oi 
an-dron'i-kus,  Livius,  the  earliest 
Roman  poet,  was  of  Greek  birth, 
the  slave  of  Livius  Salinator, 
who  later  restored  him  to  free- 
dom. He  wrote  tragedies,  com- 
edies, and  hymns,  of  which  only 
fragments  are  extant,  and  made 
a  translation  or  imitation  of  the 
Odyssey  in  Latin  Saturnian  verse. 

Andronicus,  of  Rhodes,  a 
Greek  peripatetic  philosopher, 
who  lived  in  Rome  about  58  B.C. 
He  made  known  to  the  Romans 
the  works  of  Aristotle;  none  of 
his  own  writings  are  extant. 

Andronicus  I.,  Comnenus 
(P1112-85),  emperor  of  Constan- 
tinople; son  of  Isaac,  and  grand- 
son of  Alexius  I.  He  was  regent 
during  the  minority  of  Alexius  ii., 
and  caused  the  latter's  assassina- 
tion, seizing  the  throne  for  him- 
self. He  was  later  killed  in  a 
popular  insurrection. 

Andronicus  III.,Pal.eologus 
the  younger  (1296-1341),  em- 
peror of  Constantinople,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  in  1328. 
During  his  reign  the  Turks  con- 
quered all  his  territories  in  Asia 
to  the  Bosporus;  and  in  Europe, 
Stephen  iii.  (Urosh,  king  of 
Servia),  and  Stephen  iv.  (Du- 
shan),  his  successor,  conquered 
Bulgaria  and  the  greater  part  of 
Macedonia. 

Andronicus  Cyrrliestes* 
Greek  architect,  the  builder  of 
the  famous  octagonal  tower  at 
Athens  generally  known  as  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds. 

An'dros,  Sir  Edmund  (1637- 
1714),  English  colonial  adminis- 
trator in  America,  was  born  in 
London.  He  was  governor  of 
New  York  and  nominally  of  the 
Jerseys  from  1674  until  1681, 
when,  though  he  had  done  much 
for  the  betterment  of  the  colony, 
he  was  recalled  by  the  Duke  of 
York  (the  future  James  ii.).  In 
1686  the  various  colonies  of  New 
England  were  consolidated  into 
the  'Dominion  of  New  England,' 
and  Andros  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor-general. Two  years  later 
New  York  and  New  Jersey  were 
also  placed  under  his  jurisdic- 
tion. He  displayed  considerable 
ability,  but  the  colonies,  pre- 
viously self-governing,  were 
refractory,  Connecticut,  for  in- 
stance, refusing  (1687)  to  sur- 
render her  old  charter,  which, 
according  to  an  oft-challenged 
tradition,  was  concealed  in  an 
oak-tree  at  Hartford.  Andros, 
himself,  in  his  well-intentioned 
effort  to  carry  out  instructions, 
resorted    to    arbritrary  meas- 


Androscoggin 


241 


Aneroid 


ures,  and  consequently  incurred 
the  hostility  of  the  colonists,  res- 
tive under  restraint;  and  in  April, 
1689,  after  the  news  of  the  entry 
into  England  of  William  of  Or- 
ange had  reached  Massachusetts, 
he  was  seized,  deposed,  and  in 
1690  sent  to  England  for  trial. 
The  '  Dominion  of  New  England ' 
instantly  dissolved,  and  no  fur- 
ther attempt  at  consolidation 
was  made.  Andros  was  never 
brought  to  trial,  and  subsequently 
was  governor  of  Virginia  (1692- 
8),  of  Maryland  (1693-4),  and  of 
the  Island  of  Guernsey  (1704-6). 
See  The  Andros^  Tracts  (3  vols. 
1869-72),  containing  a  memoir 
by  Whitmore. 

Androscoggin,  a  riv.  in  Maine 
and  New  Hampshire,  rising  in 
Umbagog  Lake  in  the  White 
Mts.,  and  flowing  s.e.  for  155  m. 
to  its  junction  with  the  Kennebec, 
near  Bath,  about  15  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the  latter.  It  fur- 
nishes power  for  many  industries, 
especially  at  Auburn,  Me. 

Androsphinx,  a  sphinx  with 
a  male  instead  of  a  female  head 
— e.g.,  the  great  sphinx  of  Gizeh. 

Andujar,  tn.,prov.  Jaen,  Spain, 
on  the  r.  bk.  of  the  Guadalquivir; 
stn.  on  ry.  between  Cordova  and 
Madrid.  Flour,  oil,  wax  candles, 
and  porous  jars  for  cooling  water 
are  manufactured.  Six  miles  dis- 
tant are  the  mineral  baths  of 
Marmolejo.    Pop.  (1900)  16,302. 

Anemochord,  a  stringed  in- 
strument, invented  by  Schnell  in 
1789,  in  which  the  strings  were 
made  to  vibrate  by  currents  of 
air  directed  upon  them.  It  was 
found  suitable  only  for  the  slowest 
music.  The  same  principle  was 
developed  by  Herz  in  his  piano 
colien  (1851). 

Anemometer,  an  instrument 
for  measuring  the  pressure  or 
velocity  of  the  wind.  The  best- 
known  form  is  the  hemispherical 
cup  anemometer  invented  (1846) 
by  Robinson,  consisting  of  four 
hemispherical  cups  which  rotate 
horizontally  with  the  wind,  and 
a  combination  of  wheels  which 
record  the  number  of  revolutions 
in  a  given  time.  Robinson  sup- 
posed that  the  cups  revolved  with 
about  a  third  of  the  wind's  veloc- 
ity, and  the  instruments  were 
scaled  on  that  assumption;  but  it 
has  been  found  that  the  ratio 
between  the  speed  of  the  cups 
and  that  of  the  wind  varies  not 
only  with  the  velocities,  but  also 
with  the  dimensions  of  the  cups 
and  arms,  so  that  recorded  veloc- 
ities must  be  materially  reduced. 
The  Royal  Meteorological  So- 
ciety of  Great  Britain  appointed 
a  committee  to  consider  the  sub- 
ject of  wind-force;  and  an  ane- 
mometer was  invented  by  W.  H. 
Dines,  which  has  been  found  es- 
pecially useful  in  measuring 
gusts  of  wind.  It  consists  of  a 
head,  which  is  exposed  to  the 
Vol.  I.— 19. 


winds,  and  the  recording  appa- 
ratus, which  may  be  placed  in 
any  convenient  situation.  The 
head  consists  of  a  vane,  formed 


Robinson's  Cup  Anemometer. 


of  a  piece  of  tube  with  an  open 
end,  which  is  kept  facing  the 
wind;  underneath  the  vane  is  an- 
other and  larger  tube,  perforated 
by  several  holes  arranged  in 
rings;  and  the  action  of  the  wind 
in  blowing  across  these  is  to  suck 
out  the  air  from  the  inside.  The 
two  tubes  are  separately  con- 
nected with  pipes  which  commu- 
nicate with  the  recording  appa- 
ratus, which  consists  of  a  float, 
placed  in  a  closed  vessel  contain- 
ing water.  The  wind-pressure 
causes  the  float  to  rise  or  fall  in 
the  water,  and  it  is  connected 
with  a  recording  mechanism.  Os- 
ier's pressure  anemometer  con- 
sists of  a  p]ate,_  usually  of  1  sq. 
ft.  area,  which  is  kept  facing  the 
wind,  and  is  by  it  driven  back 
upon  a  spring  whose  resistance 
is  the  measure  of  the  wind's 
force.  The  Robinson  anemom- 
eter, however,  is  the  one  most 
generally  employed  and  is  the 
standard  form  of  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau,  where 
Professor  C.  F.  Marvin  has  made 
important  investigations  dealing 
with  its  construction  and  use. 
See  Maxwin' sAnemometry  (1900) ; 
and  id.  Anemometer  Tests 
(1900). 

Anemone,   the  'wind-flower' 

genus  of  Ranunculaceae,  includes 
nearly  one  hundred  species  widely 
spread  throughout  the  temperate 
regions.  The  white  wood  anem- 
one {A.  nemorosa),  like  the 
similar  American  A.  quinque- 
/o/lia,  is  abundant  in  marshy  woods 
in  _  spring.  The  many-colored 
spring  anemones  of  horticulture 
are  varieties  of  the  poppy  anem- 
one (P.  coronaria),  introduced 
from  the  Mediterranean  at  the 
end  of  the  16th  century.  This 
anemone  is  considered  to  be  one 
of  the  plants  meant  by  '  lily  '  in 
Biblical  references;  the  autumn- 
flowering  species  is  the  A.  japon- 
ica. 

Anemone,  Sea.  See  Sea  Ane- 
mone. 


Anemophilous  Flowers.  See 

Fertilization  of  Plants. 

Aneroid  (Or.  'non-liquid'),  the 
barometer  invented  by  Vidi  of 
Paris  (1843),  consists  of  a  metal 
box  from  which  the  air  is  ex- 
hausted, or  '  vacuum  chamber,' 
and  a  steel  spring  in  the  form 
of  a  double  leaf.  Alterations  in 
atmospheric  pressure  bring  about 
changes  in  the  shape  of  this  metal 
box,  which  are  magnified  by  a 
system  of  levers  turning  a  hand 
on  a  dial  to  indicate  a  higher  or 
lower  barometric  pressure.  The 
dial  is  graduated  by  comparison 
with  a  mercurial  barometer,  both 
instruments  being  placed  under 
an  air-pump  for  the  purpose. 
The  vacuum  chamber  A  is  made 
of  two  discs  of  corrugated  Ger- 
man silver  soldered  together,  and 
attached  to  the  base  plate,  b;  a 
strong  spring,  s,  supported  by 
the  frame,  f,  and  attached  to  the 
vacuum  chamber,  acts  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  motion  of  the  box, 
preventing  its  sides  giving  way 
under  reduced  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. The  lever,  c,  of  iron  and 
brass,  is  attached  to  the  spring, 
and  compensates  for  alterations 
in  temperature.  The  bent  lever 
at  D  connects  it  to  a  chain,  e, 
which  is  wound  round  the  arbor, 
o.  The  spiral  spring,  p,  keeps 
the  chain,  which  is  coiled  round 
the  barrel,  free  from  slackness 
while  the  pressure  is  diminishing, 
and  the  hand  turns  to  the  left 
over  the  graduated  dial.  When 
the  pressure  is  increasing,  the 
lever  pulls  upon  the  chain,  and 


Anemone  nemorosa. 
1,  Section  of  flower ;  2,  Carpel. 


the  hand  moves  to  the  right  over 
the  dial.  The  index  is  fixed  to 
the  arbor. 

As  these  instruments  are  grad^ 
uated  experimentally,  they  have 
frequently  to  be  compared  with 
a  mercurial  barometer.  Although 


Aneurin 


242 


Angel 


very  sensitive,  they  are  liable  to 
get  out  of  order  owing  to  rusting, 
or  to  alterations  in  the  force  of 
the  springs,  so  that  if  an  instru- 
ment has  been  long  in  use  its 
scale  alters.  It  is  thus  rarely 
used  for  accurate  meteorological 
observations,  but,  owing  to  its 
lightness,  is  a  handy  instrument 
for  the  traveller.  After  subjec- 
tion to  a  low  pressure,  as  in  a 


one.  He  took  refuge  at  the  court 
of  King  Arthur,  and  wrote  the 
Gododin,  an  epic  poem,  descrip- 
tive of  the  wars  which  terminated 
in  the  battle  of  Cattraeth.  Of  the 
poem  only  900  lines  are  extant. 
It  has  been  translated  by  E. 
Davies  in  his  Mythology  and 
Rites  of  the  Brit.  Druids  (1809), 
and  has  been  edited  and  trans- 
lated   by    Williams    ap  Ithel 


Construction  of  the  Aneroid  Barometer. 


mountain  ascent,  an  aneroid  does 
not  at  once  recover  its  readings 
for  normal  pressures.  Vv  hymper 
made  a  series  of  experiments  on 
aneroids  in  the  field  and  work- 
shop under  varying  conditions, 
which  are  recorded  in  Hozv  to 
Use  the  Aneroid  Barometer 
(1891).  He  finds  that  all  ane- 
roids lose  upon  the_  mercurial 
barometer  when  submitted  to  di- 
minished pressure,  and  that  when 
pressure  is  restored  a  portion  of 
this  loss  is  recovered.  Even  at 
a  fixed  station  an  aneroid,  after 
having  experienced  diminished 
pressure,  will  not  follow  natural 
diurnal  or  hourly  variations  with 
reasonable  accuracy.  As  regards 
the  use  of  the  instrument  for  the 
measurement  of  altitudes,  he  has 
found  that  large  reductions  will 
have  to  be  made  in  the  height  of 
many  positions  which  have  been 
determined  by  the  aneroid.  As 
the  indications  do  not  depend  on 
the  force  of  gravity,  but  on  the 
elasticity  of  a  metallic  spring,  the 
readings  do  not  need  a  correc- 
tion for  latitude.  See  Marvin's 
Barometers  and  the  Measurement 
of  Atmospheric  Pressure  (1901); 
Monthly  Weather  Reviezv,  Sep- 
tember, 1898.    See  Bakometer. 

Aneurin,  a  Welsh  poet,  who 
flourished  during  the  6th  century, 
generally  supposed  to  be  the  son 
of  Caw  ap  Geraint,  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Gododin  (Otadini),  who 
inhabited  the  land  between  the 
walls  of  Septimius  Severus  and 
Antoninus  Pius.  The  Gododins 
were  routed  by  the  Saxons  at 
Cattraeth,  on  the  Northumbrian 
coast  (540).  and  of  360  chiefs 
present  at  the  battle  only  three 
escaped,  of  whom  Aneurin  was 


(1855),  by  Thomas  Stephens 
(1885),  and  by  F.  Skene  (1866). 

Aneurism  (Gr.  'a  widening'), 
the  local  dilatation  of  an  artery, 
varying  greatly  in  size,  and  af- 
fecting the  whole  or  part  of  the 
vessel's  circumference.  If  the 
artery  is  dilated  in  a  considerable 
part  or  the  whole  of  its  circum- 
ference, a  spindle-shaped  or  fusi- 
form aneurism  is  formed.  Some- 
times the  dilatation  forms  a 
pouch,  and  is  said  to  be  saccu- 
lated; at  other  times  the  blood 
does  not  lie  in  a  distinct  sac,  but 
between  the  coats  of  the  artery, 
in  what  is  called  a  dissecting 
aneurism.^  _  It  sometimes  arises 
from  an  injury  (travmiatic  aneu- 
rism), but  more  frequently  oc- 
curs spontaneously,  and  is  often 
multiple.  When  an  artery  is 
wounded,  the  blood  may  make  a 
receptacle  outside  the  artery 
(spurious  or  diffuse  aneurism). 
Minute  aneurisms  (miliary:  mi- 
lium, '  millet  seed  ')  are,  by  their 
rupture,  frequently  the  cause  of 
cerebral  htxmorrhage.  A  cure  of 
aneurism  is  rarely  effected.  By 
acupuncture  the  internal  surface 
of  the  artery  may  be  so  rough- 
ened as  to  promote  the  formation 
of  thrombosis  or  clot.  Occlusion 
of  the  artery,  which  may  be 
brought  about  by  ligaturing  the 
vessel,  encourages  this.  But  the 
majority  of  aneurisms  are  beyond 
the  reach  of  surgical  interference, 
and  usually  they  enlarge  and  end 
fatally.  This  termination  may 
result  from  pressure  on  neigh- 
boring parts,  such  as  the  heart, 
so  that  death  may  result  from 
hyperaemia  and  oedema  of  the 
lungs  or  from  venous  engorge- 
ment.   The  aneurism  sometimes 


ruptures.  It  sometimes  presses 
on  nerves,  causing,  first,  irrita- 
tion, and  then  loss  of  function. 
When  an  aneurism  meets  with 
a  firm  structure,  such  as  bone, 
it  erodes  it.  Drugs  have  little  ef- 
fect, but  iodide  of  potassium,  and 
also  digitalis,  has  sometimes 
proved  beneficial.  Some  surgeons 
have  advocated  electrolysis,  fine 
silver  wire  being  inserted  and 
coiled  within  the  aneurism  and 
an  electric  current  being  passed 
through  it.  The  subcutaneous 
injection  of  a  one  per  cent,  solu- 
tion of  gelatin  is  now  advocated, 
to  encourage  clot  formation;  but 
this  treatment  is  still  sub  judice. 
Meanwhile  the  general  aim  is  to 
lessen  strain  by  lowering  blood- 
pressure,  moderate  diet,  and  rest. 

Angamos,  Battle  of.  A  naval 
fight  off  Angamos  Point,  N.  of 
Antofagasta  ((3hile),  on  Oct.  8, 
1879,  between  the  Peruvian  iron- 
clad Huascar  and  the  Chilean 
ironclads  Blanco  Encalada  and 
Almirante  Cochrane,  assisted  by 
the  corvette  Covadonga.  The 
battle  lasted  one  and  a  half  hours, 
when  the  Peruvians  were  forced 
to  surrender.  See  Clowes's  Four 
Modern  Naval  Campaigns  (1902); 
Mackenna's  Guerra  del  Pacihco 
(1880);  Mason's  War  on  the  Pa- 
cific Coast  (1883);  Markham's 
War  betzveen  Chili  and  Peru 
(1882);  Jour,  of  R.  U.  S.  Inst., 
xxv.;  B.  Arana's  Hist,  de  la 
Guerre  du  Pacifique  (1881). 

Angara,  riv.,  Siberia  rises  in 
Transbaikalia,  enters  Lake  Bai- 
kal on  the  N.  side,  issues  from  it 
on  its  w.  side  (from  this  point 
it  is  also  called  the  Upper  Tun- 
guska),  flows  N.  through  the  town 
of  Irkutsk,  and  then  w.,  and  after 
a  course  of  1,300  m.  joins  the 
Yenisei  above  the  town  of  Yeni- 
seisk. Dangerous  for  steam  navi- 
gation because  of  rapids. 

Angel.  The  word  angel  is 
formed  from  the  GrceXa  aggelos 
(pronounced  o«g<?/os), which  rep- 
resents the  Hebrew  mal'ak,  and 
though  now.  restricted  to  super- 
human beings,  had  originally  the 
general  meaning  of  '  messenger.' 
We  find  in  Scripture  quite  a 
number  of  terms  implying  the 
existence  of  other  supernatural 
beings  besides  God — e.g.,  '  sons 
of  the  gods'  or  'sons  of  God ' 
(Gen.  6:2),  *  sons  of  the  mighty  ' 
(Ps.  29:1),  'seraphim'  (Isa.  6), 
'watchers'  (Dan.  4  : 13 /?".), 'host 
of  Yahweh'  (Josh.  5:14).  But 
in  the  oldest  parts  of  the  early 
books  of  the  Bible  the  name 
angel  is  applied  neither  to  a  mere 
messenger  of  the  Deity  nor  to 
these  superhuman  beings,  but 
rather  to  manifestations  of  God 
himself  ('  angel  of  God,'  or  '  of 
the  Lord,'  i.e.,  Yahweh,  Gen.  31: 
11;  Ex.  3:2) — i.e.,  actual  theo- 
phanies;  though,  again,  a  distinc- 
tion is  sometimes  made  between 
the  Supreme  and  His  messenger 


Angel 

(Gen.  16:11).  As  the  concep- 
tion of  the  Divine  supremacy 
(over  other  gods)  and  transcend- 
ence (above  the  world)  grew 
more  definite,  the  angels  came  to 
be  looked  upon  as  beings  inter- 
mediate between  God  and  man — 
His  servants  who  carry  His  mes- 
sages and  otherwise  do  His  pleas- 
ure (Gen,  32:1;  2  Sam.  24:16; 
Ps.  34:7;  Dan.  9:21).  Next 
emerges  the  idea  of  rank  among 
the  angels :  there  are  archangels, 
chief  princes  (Dan.  10: -13;  12:1; 
Tobit  12:15),  the  seven  spirits 
of  God  (Rev.  4:5);  while  the 
*  thrones,  dominions,  principali- 
ties, powers  '  of  Col.  1 : 16  prob- 
ably refer  to  this  hierarchy.  Fur- 
ther, a  moral  distinction  among 
the  angels  becomes  increasingly 
prominent.  At  first  the  ethical 
character  of  the  divine  mes- 
sengers does  not  come  into  con- 
sideration, and  the  term  '  evil ' 
as  applied  to  them  in  Ps.  78:  49 
and  Judg.  9 :  23  does  not  refer 
to  their  character,  but  to  the 
penal  functions  committed  to 
them.  Even  Satan  is  reckoned 
among  the  sons  of  God  (Job  1: 
6).  But  as  the  idea  of  Satan 
develops  he  becomes  positively 
wicked  in  himself,  the  adversary 
not  only  of  men  but  of  God,  the 
existence  of  moral  and  physical 
evil  being  frequently  traced  to 
him  (1  Chr.  21 :  1 :  cf.  2.  Sam. 
24:1;  Luke  13:16),  and  to  the 
hierarchy  of  demons  of  which  he 
is  the  head.  In  the  apocalyptic 
literature  we  find  the  doctrine  of 
a  fall  of  angels,  which  seems  to 
have  left  traces  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament (Jude,  ver.  6;  2  Pet.  2: 
4).  By  the  early  years  of  the 
Christian  era  belief  in  a  good  and 
an  evil  hierarchy  of  superhuman 
beings  had  become  quite  distinct. 
True,  the  Sadducees  rejected  the 
popular  notions  regarding  them; 
but  the  common  belief  in  their 
existence  is  countenanced  by 
Jesus,  though  He  does  not  ap- 
pear to  favor  the  view  that  they 
interfere  with  human  life  (see 
Matt.  18:10:  cf.  16:27).  Paul 
not  only  accepts  the  Old  Testa- 
ment statements  regarding  angels, 
but  speaks  of  them  as  having  to 
do  with  the  present  life  of  man 
(1  Cor.  4:9;  6:3;  11:  10).  In 
the  Book  of  Revelation  they  are 
associated  with  elemental  or  cos- 
mical  forces  (ch.  14:18;  16:3). 
The  notion  of  a  *  guardian  angel ' 
is  found,  not  only  in  the  'princes' 
of  the  nations  spoken  of  in 
Daniel,  but  may  also  be  justified 
by  such  statements  of  Jesus  as 
Matt.  18  :  30;  Luke  15  :  7,  10  :  cf. 
Acts  12  : 15.  The  *  angels  of  the 
churches '  in  Rev.  1 :  20  ff.  are 
probably  bishops.  Worship  of 
angels  is  forbidden  by  Paul  in 
Col.  2:18;  the  second  Nicene 
Council  decreed  that  though 
latreia  (worship)  was  wrong,  yet 
douleia  (service)  was  permissible. 


243 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  warn 
the  reader  against  a  tendency  to 
identify  the  '  angelophanies '  in 
the  Old  Testament  with  the 
second  Person  of  the  Trinity; 
we  must  guard  against  foisting 
upon  the  early  Hebrew  conscious- 
ness ideas  which  emerged  only  in 
sub-apostolic  times.  See  Arch- 
angel, Cherubim,  Seraphim; 
'  Excursus  on  Angelology,'  etc., 
by  Fuller,  in  Speaker's  Apoc- 
rypha, i.  p.  171  /.;  H.  Schultz's 
O.  T.  Theology,  ii.  p.  214  ff. 
(1892). 

Angel,  or  Angel-Noble,  a  gold 
coin  struck  in  England  in  1465. 
A  new  issue  of  the  angel  took 


Angel-noble  (obverse). 


the  added  name  of  noble  from 
the  figure  of  Michael  and  the 
dragon  borne  on  its  obverse.  The 
value  varied  from  6s.  8d.  to  10s. 
The  issue  ceased  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  i. 

Angel,  Benjamin  Franklin 
(1815-94),  American  lawyer  and 
diplomat,  was  born  in  Burlington, 
N.  Y.;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
and  became  surrogate,  master  in 
chancery  and  supreme  court  com- 
missioner. In  1853  he  was  ap- 
pointed U.  S.  consul  at  Honolulu, 
and  two  years  later  was_  sent  by 
President  Pierce  on  a  mission  to 
China.  From  1856  to  1862  he 
was  minister  to  Norway  and 
Sweden. 


«  ABOUr  5  FT.  

Angel-Shark y  or  Monk-Fish. 


Angel-Flsh,  a  name  jsjiven 
fancifully  to  many  unrelated 
fishes  which  seem  to  be  '  winged.' 
In  Bermuda  and  the  English 
West  Indies  it  belongs  to  certain 


AngcUco 

of  the  disc-like,  handsomely  or- 
namented, coral-fish  of  the  chseto- 
dont  genus  Holocanthus,  some  of 
which  are  large  and  excellent 
eating.  A  large  -  finned  porgee 
(Chcetodipterus  faber)  is  so 
called  in  the  United  States.  Bri- 
tish fishermen  give  this  name  to 
a  small,  flattened,  ray  -  like  and 
ugly-looldng  but  harmless  shark 
(Squatina  angelus),  called  on  the 
American  coast  '  monk-fish.' 

Angeli,  Heinrich  von  (1840-), 
Austrian  painter,  _  born  in  Oe- 
denburg;  studied  in  Vienna  and 
Dusseldorf.  In  1862  he  settled  .  •  . 
in  Vienna,  where  he  soon  gained  cOTa-*< 
a  great  reputation  as  a  portrait  ^ 
painter.  In  1870  he  painted  the  (T^^f^f^dS , 
portraits  of  the  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph  and  the  German  Crown 
Prince.  He  went  also  to  England 
and  painted  the  portrait  of  Queen 
Victoria,  members  of  the  royal 
family,  and  many  members  of 
tlie_  aristocracy.  Among  his  his- 
torical pictures  are,  Mary  Stuart 
on  her  Way  to  the  Scaffold 
(1857)  and  Louis  XI.  of  France 
before  St.  Francis  of  Paola 
(1859);  and  among  his  genre 
pictures.  Youthful  Love  (1870) 
and  The  Avenger  of  his  Honor 
(1869).  Since  1877  he  has  been 
professor  at  the  Vienna  Academy. 

Angelica.  A  genus  of  the  car- 
rot family,  so  called  from  its  car- 
minative   and  reputed  healing 

gowers.  A.  Archangelica  is  a 
European  species,  cultivated  for 
its  aromatic  leaf-stalks,  which 
were  formerly  blanched  as  a 
salad,  but  are  now  candied,  for 
decorating  cakes,  etc.,  as  they  are 
light  green  in  tint.  The  Indians 
on  the  northwest  coast  of  America 
also  eat  the  raw  sweetish-aromatic 
stalks  of  the  indigenous  species, 
after  stripping  off  their  bark,  and 
certain  tribes  regard  the  plant  as  a 
charm;  the  dried  stalks  furnish  a 
fiercely  burning  fuel. 

Angelica  Tree.  See  Aralia. 
Angelico,  Giovanni  (1387- 
1455),  *I1  beato  Fra  Giovanni 
Angelico  da  Fiesole,'  a  celebrated 
Florentine  painter,  entered  the 
Dominican  order  in  1408;  after 
death  he  was  beatified  for  his 
saintly  life.  He  painted  many 
frescoes  and  altar-pieces  in  Fie- 
sole, Cortona,  Orvieto,  Rome, 
and  Florence.  One  series  of 
Vatican  frescoes  was  destroyed, 
but  in  that  in  the  chapel  of  Nicho- 
las v.,  representing  the  lives  of 
St.  Sebastian  and  St.  Lawrence, 
Angelico's  powers  attained  their 
maturity  of  freedom  and  strength. 
His  most  notable  work  is  the  re- 
markable series  of  frescoes  he 
executed  in  the  cells,  cloisters,  and 
chapel  of  San  Marco,  Florence 
(now  a  national  museum),  during 
his  sojourn  there  (1436-45).  These 
paintings  have  an  extraordinary 
purity  of  feeling  and  devotional 
repose;  rapt  ecstasy  is  expressed 
in  the  slight  figures,  graceful  in 


Angelic  Salutation 


245 


Anger 


form  and  gesture,  draped  in  sim- 
ple folds,  and  painted  with  deli- 
cate transparent  colors,  highly 
ornamented  with  burnished  gold, 
and  shadowless.  He  believed  in 
the  inspiration  of  his  work, 
prayed  when  he  painted,  and 
rarely  retouched — a  method  that 
resulted  in  many  technical  weak- 
nesses, but  conserved  the  fresh- 
ness of  spontaneity.  Among  his 
chief  works  are  The  Adoration  of 
the  Magi;  The  Crucifixion,  in  San 
Marco;  The  Coronation  of  the  Vir- 
gin, in  the  Louvre;  and  The 
Resurrection,  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London.  Consult  biog- 
raphies by  Goodwin  (1861),  Phil- 
limore  (1881),  Ley  (1886),  and 
Douglas  (1902),  and  the  illus- 
trated duodecimo  published  by 
Supino  (Florence,  1898). 

Angelic  Salutation.  See  Ave 
Maria. 

Angell,  an'jel,  James  Burrill 
(1829-1916),  American  educator 
and  diplomat,  was  born  in  Scitu- 
ate,  R.  L  He  was  graduated  in 
1849  from  Brown  University, 
where  he  subsequently  became 
professor  of  modern  languages 
(1853-60).  From  1860  to  1866 
he  edited  the  Providence  Journal, 
and  from  1866  to  1871  he  was 
president  of  the  University  of 
Vermont.  In  1871  he  accepted 
the  presidency  of  the  University 
of  Michigan,  from  which  he  re- 
tired, as  president  emeritus,  in 
1909.  He  was  U.  S.  minister  to 
China  in  1880-81,  and  as  com- 
missioner negotiated  several  im- 
portant treaties  with  that  coun- 
try. In  1897-8  he  was  U.  S. 
minister  to  Turkey.  Consult  his 
Reminiscences. 


on  the  Common  Law  in  Relation 
to  Water  Courses.  He  also  pub- 
lished an  authoritative  work  on 
the  Law  of  Assignments  (1835). 

Angell,  Norman.  See  Lane, 
Ralph  N.  A. 

Angein,  an'geln,  district  of 
Schleswig-Holstein,  PrUvSsia,  be- 
tween the  Schlei,  Flensburg 
Fjord,  and  the  Baltic,  the  orig- 
inal seat  of  the  Angles. 

Angelo,  Michael.  See  Mi- 
chelangelo. 

Angelus  Bell,  an'je-lus,  a  bell 
rung  thrice  daily  in  Catholic 
countries,  at  the  sound  of  which, 
by  an  ordinance  of  Pope  John 
XXII.  (1326),  the  faithful  repeat 
three  aves.  It  takes  its  name 
from  the  words,  Angelus  Domini, 
which  preface  the  'angelic  salu- 
tation' to  the  Virgin  Mary  (Luke 
i.  28). 

Angelus  Silesius,  si-le'shi-us, 
Johannes  (1624-77),  German 
mystic,  whose  real  name  was 
JOHANN  Scheffler,  was  born  in 
Breslau,  and  studied  medicine 
and  philosophy  at  Strassburg, 
Leyden,  and  Padua.  Under  the 
influence  of  the  writings  of  Jacob 
Boehme  and  other  mystics,  he 
became  a  Roman  Catholic  (1653) 
and  entered  the  priesthood  (1661). 
His  Cherubinischer  Wandersmann 
and  his  Heilige  Seelenlust  oder 
geistliche  Hirienlieder  der  in  ihren 
Jesus  verliebten  Psyche  appeared 
in  1657.  His  mysticism  has 
much  in  common  with  the  phi- 
losophy of  Schopenhauer. 

An'ger,  a  fundamental,  aggres- 
sive, sthenic  emotion,  involving 
the  bodily  changes  common  to 
all  sthenic  emotions  and  a  spe- 
cific mental  and  bodily  attitude. 


Angell,  J  AMES  Rowland  (1869-^t;;jjjln  common  with  fear,  bodily 
),    American    educationist, -^-^pain,  and  amorous  passion,  anger 
was  born  in  Burlington,  Vt.,  son^  'is  characterized  physiologically 
of  James  B,  Angell  (q.v.).    He/'  - 
was  educated  at  the  universities 
of   Michigan   (a.b.    1890;  a.m. 


1891)  and  Harvard  (a.m.  1892), 
and  spent  a  year  in  Europe, 
chiefly  at  Berlin  and  Halle.  In 
1893  he  was  appointed  instructor 
in  philosophy  at  the  University 
of  Minnesota,  and  in  1894  was 
called  to  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago, where  he  was  assistant 
professor  of  psychology,  pro- 
fessor of  psychology,  and  head 
of  the  department  (after  1905), 
dean  of  the  University  faculties 
(after  1911),  and  acting  presi- 
dent (1918-19).  In  1921  he  be- 
came president  of  Yale  Uni- 
versity. He  published  Psychol- 
ogy (1904;  4th  ed.,  revised,  1908) ; 
Chapters  from  Modern  Psychology 
(1912);  An  Introduction  to  Psy- 
chology (1918). 

Angell,  Joseph  Kinnicut 
(1794-1857),  American  lawyer, 
was  born  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
and  was  educated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity. He  was  for  two  years 
(1829-31)  editor  of  the  U.  S. 
Law  Intelligencer  and  Review, 
and  in  1850  published  a  Treatise 


by  the  innervation  of  the  sym- 
pathetic division  of  the  auto- 
nomic nervous  system,  and  bio- 
logically by  resultant  bodily 
changes  that  contribute  to  the 
efficiency  of  the  organism  in  the 
vigorous  action  appropriate  to 
emotion.  Experimental  work  on 
animals  has  shown  that  stimula- 
tion of  the  sympathetic  nervous 
system  leads  to  acceleration  of 
the  heart  and  to  increased  sup- 
ply of  blood  to  the  voluntary 
muscles,  changes  that  aid  mus- 
cular action,  and  also  to  a  re- 
lease (from  the  liver)  of  blood 
sugar  which  is  useful  for  the  oxi- 
dation of  the  waste  products  that 
muscular  action  creates.  Elim- 
ination is  favored  by  the  in- 
creased secretion  of  sweat.  The 
secretion  of  tears  (perhaps  for 
better  vision)  and  of  adrenin  by 
the  adrenal  glands  is  also  in- 
creased in  this  state.  The  re- 
sultant adrenin  in  the  blood  is 
capable  of  giving  rise  directly  to 
most  of  these  changes  even  with- 
out innervation  of  the  sympa- 
thetic system  and  is  probably 
the  sole  cause  of  the  liberation  of 


blood  sugar.  Sympathetic  in- 
nervation also  causes  the  erection 
of  the  bodily  hair,  a  function  sup- 
posed in  animals  to  have  the  use 
of  making  the  appearance  more 
fearful.  On  the  other  hand, 
sympathetic  stimulation  inhibits 
the  contractions  and  secretions 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines; 
even  the  mouth  is  dry.  It  also 
diminishes  the  blood  supply  to 
the  digestive  tract  and  to  the 
surface  of  the  body.  These 
changes  are  interpreted  biolog- 
ically as  meaning  that  the  re- 
sources of  the  organism  are 
placed  at  the  command  of  volun- 
tary action  at  the  expense  of 
digestion  and  other  functions 
that  are  not  essential  to  a  bio- 
logical emergency.  That  this 
picture  of  sympathetic  and  ad- 
renal action  is  also  the  picture  of 
emotion  has  been  shown  experi- 
mentally by  the  observation  that 
dogs  and  cats  in  anger  and  fear 
exhibit  all  these  bodily  changes. 
Experiments  also  show  that,  in 
angry  human  beings,  there  is  an 
increase  of  sugar  in  the  blood. 
(See  Emotions.) 

The  distinction  of  anger  from 
fear  and  other  strong  emotions 
is  not  entirely  clear.  Anger  is 
differentiated  to  some  extent  by 
the  fact  that  it  is  aggressive,  and 
the  bodily  posture,  when  not 
inhibited  by  human  social  con- 
ventions is  one  of  attack.  Darwin 
noted  that  the  sneer  is  an  ex- 
pression in  which  the  lips  tend 
to  bare  the  canine  teeth.  Intro- 
spectively  the  course  of  ideas  is 
also  aggressively  determined.  (See 
Fear.) 

In  animals  anger  is  elicited  by 
the  instinctive  mechanisms  that 
lead  to  attack.  In  infants  anger, 
fear,  and  amorous  passion  seem 
to  be  the  three  emotions  recog- 
nizable by  bodily  attitudes  at 
birth.  The  stimulus  to  anger  in 
an  infant  is  a  constraint  of  the 
limbs  that  robs  of  free  motion. 
In  human  adults  anger  is  most 
often  elicited  by  situations  which 
the  angry  subject  considers  to  be 
derogatory  to  himself.  Anger 
has,  however,  an  important  social 
function  in  civilization  as  the 
most  compelling  motive  for  ac- 
tion. Not  only  does  war  depend 
upon  anger,  but  aggressive  action 
that  furthers  human  weal  in  the 
intellectual,  social,  and  religious 
spheres,  is  due  to  its  compelling 
force. 

For  the  bodily  expression  of 
anger  as  bearing  upon  the  bio- 
logical argument,  consult  Dar- 
win's Expression  of  the  Emotions 
in  Men  and  Animals;  for  the 
modern  physiology  of  anger, 
W.  B.  Cannon's  Bodily  Changes 
in  Pain,  Hunger,  Fear  and  Rage 
(1915);  on  rage  as  an  instinctive 
primitive  response,  J.  B.  Wat- 
son's Psychology  (1924);  for  an 
introspective  account  of  the 
anger  of  adults,  R.  F.  Richard- 

VOL.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Angermanland 


246 


Angkor 


son's  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of 
Anger  (1918);  for  the  social  sig- 
nificance of  anger,  G.  M.  Strat- 
ton's  Anger:  Its  Religious  and 
Moral  Significance  (1923). 

Angermanland,  ang'er-man- 
land,  a  district  of  Sweden,  form- 
ing part  of  the  province  (Ian)  of 
Vesternorrland.  It  lies  about 
the  lower  course  of  the  Angerman 
River,  which  enters  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  at  Hernosand. 

Angermiinde,  6ng'er-mobn-de, 
town,  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Brandenburg;  44  miles  northeast 
of  Berlin.  It  is  an  important 
railway  junction,  with  distilleries, 
iron  works,  and  manufactures  of 
woollen  and  linen  goods.  Pop. 
8,200. 

Angers,  an-zha'  (anc.  Ande- 
gavum),  town  and  episcopal  see, 
France,  capital  of  the  department 


abbot  of  Centula  (now  St.  Riq- 
uier)  in  Picardy  (790),  and  as- 
sisted at  the  coronation  of  Char- 
lemagne at  Rome  (800).  Char- 
lemagne called  him  the  'Homer 
of  the  age.' 

Angi'na,  a  general  term  for  any 
disease  characterized  by  spas- 
modic attacks  with  symptoms  of 
suffocation;  applied  especially  to 
such  conditions  occurring  in  the 
pharynx  and  fauces.  See  An- 
gina Pectoris;  Vincent's  An- 
gina, 

Angina  Pec'toris,  or  Angina 
Cordis,  sometimes  known  as 
Heart  Stroke,  a  disease  or 
symptom  of  disease,  character- 
ized by  spasmodic  pain  originat- 
ing over  the  heart,  and  often 
radiating  to  the  left  shoulder,  the 
arm,  and  even  the  finger  tips. 
It  occurs  most  frequently  in  men, 


Angkor  Wat:  Concrete  Model  in  the  Palace  Grounds,  at  Bangkok,  Slam 


of  Maine-et-Loire,  is  situated  on 
the  river  Maine;  200  miles  south- 
west of  Paris.  Features  of  spe- 
cial interest  are  the  Cathedral  of 
St.  Maurice,  a  Gothic  structure 
of  the  12th  century,  with  the 
bishop's  palace  adjoining;  the 
Museum;  the  Castle;  a  bronze 
statue  of  Rene  of  Anjou  by 
David,  who  was  a  native  of  An- 
gers; and  the  Hotel  de  Pince, 
dating  from  the  16th  century. 
The  chief  industries  are  manu- 
factures of  textiles,  boots  and 
shoes,  and  iron  goods,  and  mar- 
ket gardening.  There  is  trade 
in  wine,  slate,  and  agricultural 
products. 

Angers  was  the  capital  of  the 
Andegavi  in  pre-Roman  times 
and  was  known  as  Juliomagus. 
It  was  united  to  the  French 
crown  in  1480.  Pop.  (1921) 
86,158. 

An'gevln  Line,  the  dynasty  of 
English  kings  which  began  with 
Henry  ii.  (1154)  and  ended  with 
Richard  III.  (1485).  Itthuscoin- 
cided  with  the  Plantagenet,  Lan- 
caster, and  Yorkist  kings.  The 
name  comes  from  Anjou  in 
France,  Henry  ii.  having  been 
the  son  of  the  Count  of  Anjou. 

Angilbert,  St.,  iin-zhel-bar'  (c. 
740-814),  poet,  historian  and 
diplomatist;  secretary  and  friend 
of  Charlemagne,  whose  daughter. 
Bertha,  he  married.  He  filled 
high  offices  of  state,  was  made 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


over  forty,  frequently  giving  a 
history  of  long  continued  busi- 
ness strain,  or  of  excessive  eating, 
drinking,  or  smoking.  High  blood 
pressure  and  arterial  disease 
(sclerosis)  are  often  associated. 
Of  immediate  causes  physical 
exertion  is  the  most  important. 
Other  exciting  factors  are  men- 
tal strain,  emotional  stress,  and 
cold. 

Mild  forms  of  angina  pectoris, 
often  known  as  false  or  pseudo 
angina,  are  characterized  by 
moderate  pain,  sometimes  with 
numbness  of  the  extremities  and 
a  feeling  of  faintness.  In  the 
severer  type  the  pain  is  intense, 
accompanied  by  a  sense  of  con- 
striction 'as  if  the  heart  had  been 
seized  in  a  vise'  (Osier).  Abso- 
lute stillness,  pallor,  and  an  ap- 
pearance of  strong  apprehension 
of  danger  are  characteristic  signs. 
The  attack  may  last  only  a  few 
moments,  after  which  the  face 
flushes,  the  muscles  relax,  and 
the  expression  shows  great  re- 
lief. On  the  other  hand,  the 
first  attack  may  prove  fatal  by 
cessation  of  the  heart's  action. 
In  true  angina  the  tendency  is 
for  attacks  to  recur,  with  in- 
creasing severity. 

Treatment. — A  quiet,  regular 
life,  with  avoidance  of  mental 
excitement  and  physical  strain 
is  of  the  utmost  importance. 
During  an  attack  morphine  may 


be  used,  but  as  patients  are  fre- 
quently resistant  to  its  effects, 
other  measures  may  be  neces- 
sary. Nitrite  of  amyl  is  the  most 
powerful  remedy,  acting  by  dila- 
tation of  the  arteries  and  arterioles 
of  the  general  circulation  and  pre- 
sumably of  the  coronary  arteries 
as  well. 

Angiolieri,  an-jo-lya're,  Cecco 
(c.  12.50-c.  1312),  Italian  humor- 
ous poet,  was  born  in  Siena.  In 
numerous  and  original  sonnets  he 
sang  of  his  adventures  and  mis- 
adventures, his  loves,  his  trials, 
and  his  joys.  While  dealing 
with  the  grosser  incidents  of  life, 
his  work  is  nevertheless  marked 
by  a  quality  of  genius  and  a 
poetical  style  which  distinguishes 
it  from  that  of  his  contempo- 
raries. Consult  Grillo's  Early 
Italian  Literature  (1920). 

Angio'ma,  a  tumor  consisting 
chiefly  of  blood-vessels  or  lymph- 
vessels.  Though  due  usually  to 
a  congenital  malformation  of  the 
tissues  with  overproduction  of 
vessels  and  capillaries,  it  may 
not  make  its  appearance  until 
some  cdnsiderable  time  after 
birth.  Tumors  of  this  type  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  accord- 
ing as  they  contain  an  excess  of 
blood  vessels — hemangioma — or 
of  lymph  vessels — lymphangi- 
oma. 

Hemangiomata  are  seen  most 
frequently  as  congenital,  flat, 
reddish  areas  on  the  skin,  known 
as  naevi  or  as  'port- wine  marks.' 
They  consist  simply  of  groups  of 
dilated  capillaries  covered  by  a 
very  thin  layer  of  epithelium  and 
surrounded  by  connective  tissue. 
When  the  vessels  are  greatly 
dilated,  with  only  a  moderate 
amount  of  connective  tissue  be- 
tween the  blood-filled  sinuses, 
thick,  tumor-like  masses  of  con- 
siderable size  are  formed,  known 
as  cavernous  angiomata.  These 
occur  on  the  lips,  the  skin  of  the 
face,  the  tongue,  and  extremities, 
or  in  the  internal  organs — spleen, 
liver,  kidney,  uterus — and  some- 
times in  the  bones  and  muscles. 
Treatment  of  the  superficial 
forms  is  by  radiation.  Deeper 
growths  may  be  left  alone  unless 
they  are  spreading,  in  which  case 
excision  may  be  necessary. 

Lymphangiomata  are  of  much 
rarer  occurrence  than  hemangi- 
omata. They  may  be  flat,  like 
the  simple  hemangiomata,  may 
consist  of  large  cystic  cavities,  or 
may  form  firm  tumors.  Excis- 
ion is  the  best  form  of  treatment. 

Angiosperins,  an'ji-o-spermz,  a 
sub-group  of  flowering  plants, 
distinguished  from  gymnosperms 
by  having  the  seeds  developed 
within  closed  carpels  which  form 
ovaries,  as  in  the  pea-pod  or 
poppy  capsule.  The  majority 
of  flowering  plants  are  angio- 
sperms. 

Angkor,  an'ker,  ancient  ruined 
city  of  Cambodia,  more  correctly 


Angle 


247 


Angling 


known  as  Angkor  Thom,  the 
capital  of  the  Khmer  kings.  The 
city  and  the  temple,  Angkor  Wat, 
a  short  distance  to  the  south,  are 
among  the  most  magnificent 
ruins  in  the  world.  The  city  is 
enclosed  by  a  high  wall  pierced 
by  five  splendidly  barbaric  gates. 
In  its  centre  is  the  Bayon,  a  huge 
temple  with  fifty  ruined  towers, 
porticoes,  galleries  and  verandas, 
profusely  ornamented  with  bas- 
reliefs.  The  towers  are  all  four- 
faced,  each  adorned  with  a  smil- 
ing Brahma.  Angkor  Wat  dates 
back  to  the  twelfth  century.  It 
is  a  rectangular  pyramid  rising 
in  three  stages,  enclosed  by  wall 
and  moat.  Elaborate  bas-reliefs 
dealing  with  religious,  historical, 
and  mythological  subjects  cover 
the  walls,  which  are  merely  recti- 
linear galleries  set  on  open  ter- 
races. A  precipitous  stairway 
leads  to  the  holy  sanctuary  dedi- 
cated to  Vishnu  under  the  central 
tower  at  the  top  of  the  temple. 
Stone  blocks,  polished  to  form 
perfect  joinings  without  the  use 
of  cement,  are  used  for  the  entire 
structure.  A  model  of  Angkor 
Wat  stands  in  the  palace  grounds 
at  Bangkok,  Siam.  Consult 
Candee's  Angkor  the  Magnificent 
(1924). 

An'gle  (Lat.  angulus,  'a  cor- 
ner'), in  plane  geometry,  the  fig- 
ure made  by  two  lines  drawn 
from  a  point  called  the  vertex. 
It  is  measured  by  the  difference 
in  direction  of  the  two  lines. 
When  the  lines  are  perpendicular 
to  each  other  the  angle  is  a  right 
angle.  An  angle  less  than  a  right 
angle  is  an  acute  angle;  one  great- 
er than  a  right  angle  is  an  obtuse 
angle.  Acute  and  obtuse  angles 
are  often  called  oblique  angles. 
A  straight  angle  is  an  angle  whose 
measure  is  two  right  angles. 
Two  angles  are  complementary 
when  their  sum  is  one  right 
angle;  supplementary  when  their 
sum  is  two  right  angles.  The 
right  angle  is  sometimes  used  as 
a  unit  of  measure,  but  the  most 
common  units  are  the  degree,  or 

^th  part  of  a  right  angle,  and 

the  radian.  The  radian,  much 
used  in  scientific  work,  is  the 
angle  subtended  at  its  centre  by 
the  arc  of  a  circle  equal  to  its 
radius;  180  degrees  equal  tt  (or 
3.14159)  radians.  A  curvilinear 
angle  is  one  in  which  the  lines 
drawn  from  the  vertex  are 
curved.  In  this  case  the  angle 
is  measured  by  the  difference  in 
direction  of  the  two  tangents  to 
the  curves  at  the  vertex. 

In  solid  geometry  a  dihedral 
angle  is  made  by  two  planes  in- 
tersecting in  a  line.  A  solid  or 
polyhedral  angle  is  that  made  by 
three  or  more  planes  intersecting 
in  a  point. 

Angle  Iron,  a  rolled  iron  beam 
with  an  L-shaped  cross  section. 

Angler.    See  Goose  Fish. 


An'gles,  a  Germanic  tribe 
which  in  early  times  occupied  the 
district  of  Anglen,  in  Schleswig, 
and  also,  according  to  some  au- 
thorities, part  of  the  Danish 
peninsula  and  of  Scandinavia. 
In  the  fifth  century  they  mi- 
grated to  Britain  in  large  num- 
bers, settling  in  Mercia,  East 
Anglia,  and  Northumbria.  From 
them  the  name  England  is 
derived. 

Anglesey,  an'gl'se,  an  island,  23 
miles  long  by  21  miles  wide, 
lying  northwest  of  the  Welsh 
coast,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Menai  Strait;  constitut- 
ing with  the  island  of  Holyhead, 
to  the  west,  the  county  of  An- 
glesey. The  greater  part  of  the 
surface  is  a  low  plateau,  with 
slight  undulations,  monotonous 
and  bare  of  trees.  Minerals  in- 
clude copper  and  zinc,  coal  (not 
now  worked),  stone  and  marble 
(including  the  beautiful  green 
serpentine  of  Holyhead,  known 
as  Mona  marble),  ochre,  fuller's 
earth,  and  potter's  clay.  The 
soil  is  generally  fertile.  The 
London  and  Northwestern  Rail- 
way traverses  the  county,  run- 
ning through  to  Holyhead,  whence 
steamers  ply  to  Dublin.  The 
island  was  a  stronghold  of  the 
Druids  previous  to  its  subjuga- 
tion by  the  Romans.  It  was 
harassed  in  turn  by  English, 
Irish,  and  Danes,  and  eventually 
conquered  by  Edward  i.  (1272). 
Pop.  (1921)  51,695. 

Anglesey,  Henry  William 
Paget,  First  Marquis  of  (1768- 
1854),  English  soldier  and  admin- 
istrator, was  born  in  London. 
He  distinguished  himself  in 
Flanders  (1794)  and  in  Holland 
(1799),  and  at  Corunna,  after 
Sir  John  Moore  had  been  mor- 
tally wounded,  he  completely 
routed  the  enemy.  For  his  bril- 
liant leadership  of  the  cavalry  at 
Waterloo  (1815),  where  he  lost 
a  leg,  he  was  made  Marquis  of 
Anglesey.  Under  the  adminis- 
tration of  Wellington,  Anglesey 
was  appointed  (1828)  lord-lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland,  but  was  re- 
called because  of  his  advocacy  of 
Catholic  emancipation. .  After 
the  formation  of  Earl  Grey's  ad- 
ministration, he  entered  on  a 
second  tenure  of  the  same  office 
(1830-3);  but  the  O'Connell  dis- 
turbances drove  him  to  adopt 
coercive  measures,  which  forced 
the  government  to  resign.  He 
was  made  a  field-marshal  in  1846. 
The  Irish  Board  of  Education 
was  founded  through  his  efforts. 

Henry  Cyril,  Fifth  Mar- 
quis (1875-1905),  succeeded  to 
the  title  in  1898.  He  attained 
notoriety  by  his  indulgence  in 
amateur  theatricals  and  by  his 
bankruptcy. 

Angleslte,  an'gle-sit  (PbSo*), 
an  ore  of  lead  (q.v.)  occurring  in 
the  upper  oxidized  zones  of  veins 
of  lead  ore.  the  result  of  the  al- 


teration of  galena.  It  takes  its 
name  from  its  discovery  in  the 
Isle  of  Anglesey  (1783)  by  With- 
ering. It  is  found  abundantly 
in  ^ew  South  Wales. 

Angle  Worm.  See  Earth- 
worm. 

An'glla,  East,  a  kingdom  in 
the  east  central  part  of  England 
founded  in  the  sixth  century  by 
the  Angles  (q.v.)  and  perhaps 
occupied  also  by  other  early  col- 
onists. It  comprised  the  North 
Folk  and  the  South  Folk  (mod- 
ern Norfolk  and  Suffolk),  and 
its  first  king  was  Redwald  (593- 
617).  In  654  it  became  sub- 
servient to  Mercia,  and  after  the 
conquest  of  that  kingdom  by 
Wessex,  it  was  taken  by  the 
Danes.  Under  Edward,  son  of 
Alfred  the  Great,  it  became  a 
part  of  the  West  Saxon  kingdom. 
The  modern  see  of  Norwich  is 
approximately  the  successor  of 
East  Anglia. 

Anglican  Church,  Anglican  Or- 
ders.   See  Church,  Anglican. 

An'glin,  Margaret  (1876- 
),  American  actress,  was 
born  in  Ottawa,  Canada,  and  in 
1894  was  graduated  from  the 
Empire  School  of  Dramatic  Act- 
ing in  New  York.  She  played  as 
leading  lady  with  James  O'Neil 
(1896-7).  E.  H.  Sothern  (1897- 

8)  ,  and  Richard  Mansfield  (1898- 

9)  ;  appeared  in  Shenandoah,  in 
New  York,  in  1904;  starred  in 
Zira  in  1905-6;  and  the  following 
season  acted  as  co-star  with 
Henry  Miller  in  The  Great  Divide. 
Subsequently  she  was  seen  in 
The  Awakening  of  Helena  Ritchie, 
Lady  Windermere's  Fan,  The 
Woman  in  Bronze,  Shakespearean 
repertoire,  and  a  number  of 
Greek  plays  produced  at  the 
Greek  theatre  in  Berkeley,  Cali- 
fornia. Miss  Anglin  was  mar- 
ried to  Howard  Hull,  a  writer,  in 
1911. 

An'gling,  a  term  commonly  re- 
stricted to  fishing  with  hook  and 
line  as  a  sport  or  pastime  and 
not  for  commercial  purposes. 
It  includes  bait  fishing,  in  which 
natural  bait  is  used,  fly  fishing, 
or  angling  with  artificial  flies, 
and  trolling.  Angling  is  of  great 
antiquity,  although  in  earliest 
times  it  was  doubtless  pursued 
as  a  means  of  procuring  food 
rather  than  as  a  recreation. 
Mention  of  fishing  is  often  made 
in  the  Bible,  and  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  are  said  to  have  prac- 
tised fly  fishing. 

The  modern  angler's  equip- 
ment comprises  rod,  reel,  hooks, 
lines,  and  bait.  The  rod  may  be 
of  light  wood — lancewood,  green- 
heart,  or  bamboo — or  of  steel, 
and  is  usually  made  in  three  sec- 
tions— the  butt,  second  joint,  and 
tip — fitted  with  ferrules  so  that 
they  can  be  taken  apart.  Bait 
rods  are  shorter  and  heavier 
than  fly  rods,  and  have  the  reel 
farther  from  the  handle. 


'^ol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Angling 


248 


Angola 


Reels  for  shortening  and 
lengthening  the  line  have  been  in 
use  since  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  sim- 
plest form  consists  of  two  tide 
plates  held  together  by  five  pil- 
lars, the  bottom  two  of  which 
can  be  screwed  to  the  rod.  In 
the  centre  is  the  spool  on  which 
the  line  is  wound,  and  attached 
to  it  is  a  crank  and  handle  by 
which  the  length  of  line  is  regu- 
lated. Reels  are  not  required 
when  angling  for  bottom-feeding 
fish,  as  carp,  bullheads,  perch, 
and  suckers. 

Fish  hooks  have  been  in  use 
from  prehistoric  times,  but  the 
carefully  shaped  and  tempered 
article  of  to-day  originated  in 
England  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Hooks  in  great  variety 
are  now  found  on  the  market, 
differing  in  some  slight  degree, 
as  in  length  of  shank  or  shape  of 
point.  In  general  there  are  two 
distinct  styles:  the  spear  point 
and  the  hollow  point.  Several 
styles  of  hooks  have  no  barb,  but 
are  made  with  a  peculiar  bend 
which  prevents  the  fish  from 
shaking  it  out.  Many  anglers 
prefer  the  barbless  hooks  as  being 
less  harmful  to  the  fish  and  al- 
lowing the  small  ones  to  be  re- 
turned to  the  water  uninjured. 
Double  hooks  are  made  by  form- 
ing hooks  on  both  ends  of  a  piece 
of  wire  and  bending  it  in  the 
centre. 

For  lines  horsehair  was  used 
exclusively  up  to  the  time  of  Sir 
Izaak  Walton,  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  is  employed  even 
now  in  some  rural  districts. 
Generally  lines  are  of  cotton, 
twisted  and  braided,  linen,  and 
silk,  and  of  combinations  of 
these.  For  fly  casting,  enam- 
elled silk  lines  are  best,  for  bait 
casting  plain  silk  lines  are  used, 
and  for  trolling  a  silk  and  linen 
line  is  strong  and  durable.  Lead- 
ers (casting  lines)  for  fly  fishing 
are  made  either  of  metal  or  silk- 
worm gut. 

Bait  used  in  angling  comprises 
artificial  flies,  artificial  bait  other 
than  flies,  and  natural  bait. 
Three  species  of  game  fishes, 
trout,  black  bass,  and  salmon, 
feed  chiefly  on  flies,  and  for  their 
capture  artificial  flies  are  largely 
used.  These  flies  are,  with  few 
exceptions,  careful  imitations  of 
different  insects  found  at  some 
time  of  the  year  in  the  stream 
where  these  fish  abound.  The 
art  of  fly  casting  is  one  which 
requires  long  practice  and  cannot 
be  described  in  detail  here.  The 
American  method  is  to  keep  the 
fly  partly  submerged,  the  En- 
glish method  is  to  use  floating  or 
dry  flies,  known  respectively  as 
'wet  fly  fishing'  and  'dry  fly 
fishing.'  Artificial  bait  other 
than  flies  are  imitations,  in  wood, 
metal  or  rubber,  of  minnows, 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


frogs,  grasshoppers,  worms,  cric- 
kets, and  other  insects.  A  troll- 
ing spoon  is  one  of  the  oldest 
and  most  successful  forms  of 
artificial  bait  and  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  capture  of  fresh- 
water fish.  Natural  bait  includes 
earthworms  or  angleworms, 
minnows,  frogs,  salt  pork,  and 
crickets. 

In  most  countries  stringent 
laws  regulate  methods  of  fishing, 
prescribe  close  seasons,  and 
specify  the  size  of  fish  which  may 
be  taken.  Fishing  grounds  are 
kept  stocked  with  fish  and  in 
some  countries,  notably  England 
and  Scotland,  rights  to  fish  in 
certain  places  and  at  certain 
times  are  sold  or  rented.  In 
America  the  favorite  fishing 
grounds  are  the  waters  of  Flor- 
ida, Maine,  California,  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  Ontario,  British 
Columbia,  and  Washington. 

The  pastime  of  angling  has 
called  forth  a  large  and  interest- 
ing collection  of  literature,  and 
many  bibliographies  of  the  sub- 
ject have  been  compiled.  Among 
the  earliest  of  English  printed 
books  was  Dame  Juliana  Bern- 
ers'  or  Barnes'  Treaty ses  per- 
tenynge  to  Hawkynge,  Huntynge, 
and  Fysshynge  with  an  Angle, 
which  issued  from  the  press  of 
Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1486.  A 
century  later  (1590),  A  Booke  of 
Fishing  with  Hook  and  Line,  and 
of  all  Instruments  thereto  belonging 
was  brought  out  by  Leonard 
Mascall,  foUo  ved  in  1613  by 
John  Denny's  Secrets  of  Angling, 
in  verse.  Barker's  Art  of  Ang- 
ling (1651)  preceded  by  two  years 
the  most  famous  work  on  fishing 
ever  published,  The  Compleat 
Angler  of  Izaak  Walton,  which 
established  its  author  for  all 
time  as  vates  sacer  of  the  craft. 
A  contemporary  of  Walton,  and 
his  severest  critic,  was  Richard 
Francks,  a  Cromwellian  trooper, 
who,  under  the  pseudonym  Phil- 
anthropus,  wrote  Northern  Mem- 
oirs calculated  for  the  Meridian  of 
Scotland,  to  which  is  added  the 
Contemplative  and  Practical  An- 
gler (1694).  Though  he  is  in- 
ferior to  Walton  in  literary 
charm,  he  was  an  angler  and  a 
naturalist  of  parts,  and  the  sec- 
ond edition  of  his  book,  pub- 
lished in  1821,  with  a  prefatory 
note  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  is  both 
entertaining  and  full  of  interest 
for  anglers.  Thirty  years  after 
Walton  published  The  Compleat 
Angler,  Robert  Nobbes  issued  an 
excellent  treatise  on  pike  fishing, 
The  Compleat  Troller  (1682). 

In  1883,  Westwood  and  Sat- 
chell  in  their  Bibliolheca  Pisca- 
ioria,  enumerated  3,158  editions 
and  reprints  of  2,148  works  on 
fish  and  fishing.  Since  that  time 
the  output  has  shown  no  symp- 
tom of  slackening.  Among  the 
more  notable  contributions  to 


literature  by  anglers  may  be 
mentioned  Colonel  T.  Thornton's 
Sporting  Tour  through  the  North- 
ern Parts  of  England  and  Great 
Part  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland 
(1804;  new  ed.  1896);  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy's  Salmonia,  or  Days 
of  Fly-Fishing  (1828);  William 
Scrope's  Days  and  Nights  of  Sal- 
mon Fishing;  Captain  Lloyd's 
Field  Sports  of  the  North  and 
Scandinavian  A  dventures,  Thomas 
Todd  Stoddart's  Angler's  Com- 
panion to  the  Rivers  and  Lochs  of 
Scotland  and  Angling  Songs;  W. 
C.  Stewart's  Practical  Angler; 
Francis'  A  Book  on  Angling. 
Consult,  also.  Brooks'  Science  of 
Fishing  (1912);  Holden's  Stream- 
craft  (1919);  Cook's  Coin'  Fishin' 
(1920);  Connell's  Wing  Shooting 
and  Angling  (1922);  Cox's  A 
Sportsman  at  Large  (1922). 

Anglo-Israelitish  Theory.  See 
Lost  Tribes. 

Anglo-Japanese  Treaty.  See 
Japan. 

An'gloma'nia,  a  tendency 
towards  imitating  English  social 
customs,  dress,  etc.  There  was  a 
craze  for  English  literature  in 
Germany  in  the  second  half  of 
the  18th  century;  a  mild  Anglo- 
mania arose  in  France  just  before 
the  revolution;  and  a  similar  af- 
fectation has  occasionally  been 
seen  among  certain  classes  in  the 
United  States.  Conversely,  An- 
glophobia is  hatred  of  Great 
Britain. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.  See 

Chronicle. 

Anglo-Saxon  Language,  Lit- 
erature, and  Race.  See  England 
and  Wales;  English  Language; 
English  Literature;  Great 
Britain. 

Ango'la,  or  Portuguese  West 
Africa,  the  general  name  for 
the  Portuguese  territory  between 
the  Belgian  Congo  on  the  north 
and  northeast,  Rhodesia  on  the 
east,  and  Southwest  Africa  on 
the  south.  Including  Cabinda, 
which  is  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  colony  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  Belgian  territory  (see  map  of 
Africa),  the  area  is  484,000 
square  miles,  and  the  coast  line 
fully  1,000  miles.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Coanza  (500  miles 
long  and  navigable  for  some  200 
miles)  and  the  Cunene  (720 
miles),  also  navigable.  The  sur- 
face is  mountainous  in  the  west, 
where  some  of  the  peaks  reach 
an  altitude  of  8,000  feet;  further 
inland  is  a  sandy  plain  merging 
into  the  Kalahari  desert  in  the 
east.  The  climate  is  variable: 
near  the  coast  the  damp  soil  and 
mangrove  swamps  render  it  un- 
healthful;  the  interior  plateaus 
are  cooler  and  drier.  The  rain- 
fall varies,  but  is  generally  heav- 
ier in  the  north  than  in  the  south. 
Big  game  is  abundant  and  if 
properly  conserved  would  prove 
a    valuable    asset.    Iron  was 


Angola 


249 


Angra  Pequena 


once  worked,  malachite  abounds, 
and  there  are  deposits  of  copper, 
salt,  gold,  and  petroleum.  The 
flora  is  that  common  to  the  trop- 
ical zone  of  Africa,  and  the  fauna 
includes  the  elephant,  hippo- 
potamus, wart-hog,  eland,  bush 
buck,  reed  buck,  hartebeest,  ku- 
du, buffalo,  sable  antelope,  zebra, 
and  giraffe.  Rubber,  coffee,  sugar, 
tobacco,  cotton,  vegetable  oils, 
and  cocoanuts  are  produced. 
Trade  is  chiefly  with  Portugal. 
Coffee,  rubber,  dried  fish,  and 
ivory  are  exported  and  textiles 
are  imported.  The  Portuguese 
National  Navigation  Company 
controls  most  of  the  carrying 
trade.  There  are  about  820 
miles  of  railroad  in  the  colony, 
consisting  of  the  Loanda-Lucalla. 
the  Lucalla-Malanje,  the  Can- 
hoca-Golungo  Alto,  the  Lobito- 
Chinguar  and  the  Mossamedes- 
Chela  Mountains  lines. 

The  population  is  estimated  at 
between  3,500,000  and  4,000,000, 
of  which  10,000  are  white.  The 
colony  is  ruled  by  a  High  Com- 
missioner, resident  in  Loanda, 
and  for  administrative  purposes 
is  divided  into  eleven  districts. 
Following  the  establishment  of 
the  Portuguese  republic,  a  large 
measure  of  self-government  was 
allowed  the  dependencies  and 
their  status  was  made  similar  to 
that  of  the  British  Crown  col- 
onies. Beside  Loanda,  the  cap- 
ital, the  chief  ports  are  Benguela 
and  Mossamedes. 

The  entire  coast  line  of  Angola 
was  discovered  during  the  period 
1482  to  1486,  by  Dioga  Cam,  the 
Portuguese  explorer.  Paula  Diaz, 
the  first  governor  sent  to  the 
newly  discovered  territory,  gained 
control  of  the  region  as  far  south 
as  Benguella.  The  city  of  Lo- 
anda was  founded  late  in  the 
sixteenth  century  (about  1576). 
Benguella  was  not  settled  until 
1617,  from  which  time  Portugal 
has  held  indisputed  sovereignty 
over  the  Angola  coast  country, 
except  for  a  brief  period  during 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  when  the  Dutch  at- 
tempted to  gain  possession  of  the 
coast  settlements.  During  this 
time  economic  interests  were  not 
given  much  attention,  the  trade 
in  slaves  being  the  principal 
source  of  prosperity.  The  Por- 
tuguese had  but  slight  control 
over  the  inland  tribes  and  terri- 
tory until  after  the  parcelling  out 
of  Africa  to  European  powers, 
when  she  recognized  and  began 
to  exploit  the  natural  resources 
and  wealth  of  the  inland  country. 

Consult  Chatelaine's  Angola; 
M.  H.  Kingsley's  West  African 
Studies;  Statham's  Through  An- 
gola (1922). 

Angola,  city,  Indiana,  county 
vseat  of  Steuben  county,  on  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  South- 
ern and  the  St.  Joseph  Valley 
Railroads;  41  miles  northeast  of 


Fort  Wayne.  Tri-State  College 
for  teachers  is  located  here. 
Pop.  (1910)  2.610;  (1920)  2,650. 

Ango'niland,  a  plateau,  of  an 
average  elevation  of  4,000  feet, 
between  Lake  Nyasa,  the  Zam- 
bezi River,  and  the  Loangwa 
River,  in  Northern  Rhodesia. 
The  Angoni  are  said  to  be  of  Zulu 
origin,  and  to  be  descendants  of 
a  tribe  which  crossed  the  Zam- 
bezi about  1825.  Late  in  the 
year  1904  the  chiefs  accepted 
British  protection. 

Ango'ra,  or  Enguri,  town  and 
archiepiscopal  see,  Anatolia,  Asia 
Minor,  215  miles  southeast  of 
Constantinople.  It  is  an  unat- 
tractive town,  with  narrow  streets, 
situated  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  which 
is  surmounted  by  an  ancient 
Turkish  fort  constructed  of  old 
Roman  blocks  of  marble  and 
granite.  It  is  celebrated  chiefly 
for  its  breed  of  goats  whose  long, 
fine,  silky  hair  is  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  textiles  and 
shawls. 

Angora  is  the  ancient  Ancyra. 
It  was  a  place  of  importance 
during  the  Byzantine  period; 
was  captured  by  the  Persians, 
and  in  1360  passed  to  the  Otto- 
man Turks.  Near  here  the  Ot- 
toman sultan  Bajazet  was  de- 
feated and  captured  by  Tamer- 
lane in  1402,  but  the  town  was 
retaken  by  the  Turks  in  1415. 
In  April  1920,  Angora  became 
the  seat  of  the  Turkish  Nation- 
alist government,  and  many  civic 
improvements  were  undertaken. 
Pop.  over  30,000. 

Angora  Cat,  Angora  Goat, 
etc.    See  Cat,  Goat,  etc. 

Angora  Wool,  the  silky  wool 
of  the  Angora  goat,  woven  into 
shawls  and  serges  at  Angora,  in 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  known  in 
commerce  as  mohair.    See  Goat, 

Angornu.    See  Ngornu. 

Angostura,  an-gos-too'ra.  See 
CiUDAD  Bolivar. 

Angostura  Bark,  or  Cusparia 
Bark,  the  aromatic  bitter  bark 
of  Galipea  cusparia,  a  native  of 
Venezuela  and  other  tropical 
countries.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  town  of  Angostura, 
where  it  is  a  considerable  article 
of  commerce.  Galipea  cusparia 
is  a  small  tree,  12  to  15  feet  high, 
belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Rutaceae,  flourishing  in  high  al- 
titudes. The  bark  is  a  valuable 
tonic  and  stimulant  and  was 
formerly  much  used  in  cases  of 
dysentery,  chronic  diarrhea,  and 
dyspepsia.  It  has,  however,  been 
largely  supplanted  by  quinine. 

Angouleme,  iih-goo-lem',  town, 
France,  former  capital  of  An- 
goumois  and  present  capital  of 
the  department  of  Charente,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Charente 
River,  and  on  the  Paris-Bordeaux 
Railway;  60  miles  south  of  Poi- 
tiers. Noteworthy  buildings  are 
the  Hotel  de  Ville,  containing  a 
picture  and  sculpture  gallery  and 


an  archaeological  museum,  and 
the  Cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  one 
of  the  most  interesting  Roman- 
esque Byzantine  churches  in 
France,  erected  in  the  twelfth 
century  and  restored  in  the  sev- 
enteenth. Angouleme  manufac- 
tures paper,  woollens,  brandy, 
machinery,  and  earthenware.  It 
is  the  birthplace  of  Marguerite  of 
Navarre  and  of  Ravaillac.  Pop, 
(1921)  34.895. 

Angouleme,  Charles  de 
Valois,  Due  d'  (1573-1650),  ille- 
gitimate son  of  Charles  ix.  of 
France  and  Marie  Touchet,  be- 
came grand  prior  of  France  in 
1590,  and  from  that  date  until 
1619  was  known  as  Comte  d'Au- 
vergne.  For  intrigues  with  the 
Marquise  de  Verneuil  he  was 
condemned  to  death  (1604),  but 
after  a  long  imprisonment  was 
hberated  (1616).  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  Arques  and 
Ivry,  was  present  at  the  sieges  of 
Soissons  (1617)  and  La  Rochelle 
(1628),  and  fought  in  Languedoc, 
Germany,  and  Flanders.  In  1619 
he  was  created  Due  d'Angouleme, 

Angouleme,  Louis  Antoine 
DE  Bourbon,  Due  d'  (1775- 
1844),  eldest  son  of  Charles  x.  of 
France,  retired  with  his  father  to 
Turin  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  (1789).  After  con- 
ducting unsuccessful  military 
operations  in  Germany,  he  re- 
joined the  other  exiles  at  Holy- 
rood,  Scotland.  In  1799,  at 
Mitau,  he  married  his  cousin 
Marie  Therese,  only  daughter  of 
Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette. 
He  then  withdrew  with  Louis 
XVIII.  to  England;  but  on  the  re- 
instatement of  Louis  returned  to 
France,  and  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  army.  In  1823 
he  led  the  French  expedition  into 
Spain  and  stormed  Cadiz.  With 
his  father  he  signed  (1830)  an  ab- 
dication of  the  throne  in  favor  of 
the  Due  de  Bordeaux. 

Angoxa,  or  Angoche,  town, 
Portuguese  East  Africa,  on  the 
estuary  of  the  Angoxa  River, 
which  is  navigable  for  150  miles 
from  this  point.  It  exports 
ground  nuts,  beans,  and  cassava. 

Angra  do  Heroismo,  an'gra  do 
a-r5-es'mo,  capital  and  chief 
town  of  Terceira,  in  the  Azores, 
is  situated  on  the  southern  coast 
of  the  island.  It  is  a  picturesque 
town  with  a  harbor  exposed  to 
southeastern  gales.  The  old  cas- 
tle of  St.  Joao  Batista,  built  by 
the  Spaniards  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  the  Cavsa  da  Camara 
are  noteworthy  buildings.  The 
town  is  surrounded  by  fortifica- 
tions now  of  little  value.  But- 
ter, wheat,  and  beans  are  ex- 
ported.   Pop.  10,000. 

Angra  Pequena,  an'gra  pa-ka'- 
nya,  a  bay  with  good  anchorage 
and  a  small  settlement  known  as 
Luderitz,  on  the  coast  of  South- 
west Africa,  about  midway  be- 
tween the  mouth  of  the  Orange 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Angri 


250 


Aniline 


River  and  Walfish  Bay.  It  is 
the  chief  centre  of  the  diamond 
diggings  and  is  the  seaboard  ter- 
minus of  a  hne  running  to  Keet- 
manshoop.  It  was  the  first 
African  colony  acquired  by  Ger- 
many (June  1884) ;  since  the 
Great  War  it  has  been  occupied 
by  the  British.  Pop.  about  5,000. 

Angri,  an'gre,  city,  Salerno, 
Italy,  19  miles  southeast  of 
Naples.  It  has  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  silk.  Pop.  (1911) 
11,574. 

Angstrom,  ong'str^m,  Anders 
Jonas  (1814-74),  Swedish  physi- 
cist, was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsala,  where  he  later 
became  professor  of  physics.  He 
made  valuable  researches  on 
heat,  magnetism,  and  spectros- 
copy. His  principal  work,  Re- 
cherches  sur  le  Spectre  Solaire 
(1869),  formed  an  important 
supplement  to  the  theory  of 
Kirchhoff  (q.  v.). 

Anguilla,  ang-gwil'a,  or  Snake 
Island,  the  most  northerly  of  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  British  West  In- 
dies, with  an  area  of  35  square 
miles;  about  150  miles  east  of 
Porto  Rico.  The  inhabitants, 
chiefly  negroes,  are  engaged  in 
cotton  growing,  cattle  raising, 
and  the  production  of  salt.  Pop. 
(1911)  4,075. 

Anguisciola,  ang  -  gwe 'sho  -  la, 
SOPHONISBE  (c.  1535-c.  1625), 
Italian  portrait  painter,  was  born 
in  Cremona.  Her  works  include 
a  portrait  of  the  royal  family 
painted  at  Madrid  (15.59),  por- 
traits of  herself,  now  in  the  Uffizi 
gallery,  Florence,  and  in  the 
Museum  at  Vienna;  Three  Sisters 
Playing  Chess,  in  the  National 
Gallery,  Berlin;  and  numerous 
portraits  in  private  collections. 
Van  Dyck  professed  to  have 
learned  more  from  her  conversa- 
tions on  art  than  from  any  other 
painter. 

Angul,  un-gool',  a  hilly  dis- 
trict in  Orissa,  Bengal,  India, 
covering  881  square  miles.  It 
has  coal  fields  and  iron  mines. 
Its  population  is  about  192,000. 

Angular  Motion  is  the  motion 
of  a  line,  fixed  at  one  end,  in  one 
plane,  relatively  to  a  stationary 
line  passing  through  the  centre  of 
rotation — e.g.  the  movement  of 
the  hand  of  a  clock  relatively  to 
any  fixed  line  on  the  face  of  the 
clock.  Thus  we  are  able  also  to 
speak  of  angular  velocity  and  an- 
gular acceleration.  See  Dynamics. 

Angus,  Earls  of.  See  Doug- 
las. 

Angwantibo.    See  Potto. 

Antialt,  an'halt,  formerly  a 
sovereign  duchy  of  the  German 
Empire,  declared  a  republic  in 
1918.  It  consists  of  two  por- 
tions, separated  and  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  Saxony,  and  has  a 
total  area  of  888  square  miles. 
The  larger  eastern  portion  is 
crossed  by  the  Elbe  and  Saale, 
and  belongs  to  the  North  Ger- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '23 


man  Plain;  the  smaller  western 
portion  runs  up  among  the  north- 
ern foothills  (2,020  feet)  of  the 
Hartz  Mountains.  Agriculture 
is  the  principal  occupation,  more 
than  60  per  cent  of  the  surface 
being  cultivated.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  and  brewing  and  distilling. 
The  capital  is  Dessau;  other  cities 
of  importance  are  Bernburg, 
Cothen,  and  Zerbst.  According 
to  the  Constitution  of  July  18, 
1919,  the  government  rests  with 
a  Diet  elected  by  popular  vote 
and  a  State  Council  of  five  mem- 
bers, the  chairman  of  which  is 
the  President.  The  population, 
chiefly  Protestant,  numbers  (1919) 
331,258. 

An'harmon'ic  Ratio,  or  Cross 
Ratio.  If  a  line  ab  is  divided 
at  two  points  c  and  d,  the  ratio 
of  the  two  ratios  ac:cb  and 
ad:db  is  called  an  anharmonic 
ratio.  When  the  ratio  is  unity, 
AC:CB  =  ad:db,  and  the  hne  is 
divided  harmonically.  The  an- 
harmonic ratio  is  of  fundamental 
importance  in  projective  geom- 
etry. 

Anhinga.    See  Darter. 

Anholt,  an'holt,  a  small  island 
in  the  Kattegat,  about  22  miles 
from  the  Swedish  mainland.  It 
is  included  in  the  district  of 
Randers,  Denmark.  The  popu- 
lation numbers  less  than  500. 

An-hui,  province  of  China.  See 
Ngan-hui. 

Anhy'dride,  an  oxide  of  an  ele- 
ment or  organic  radical,  capable 
of  combining  with  water  to  form 
an  acid.  Nearly  all  the  non- 
metallic  elements,  as  well  as  sev- 
eral of  the  metallic  elements, 
form  anhydrides.  Thus,  sulphuric 
anhydride,  SO3,  with  water, 
forms  sulphuric  acid,  H2SO4. 

Anhy'drite,  a  mineral  consist- 
ing of  anhydrous  sulphate  of 
lime,  usually  found  in  massive 
forms,  but  occurring  also  in  gran- 
ular masses.  It  is  often  char- 
acterized by  rectangular  cleavage 
in  three  directions,  and  is  com- 
monly white,  gray,  bluish,  or 
reddish  in  color.  It  is  converted 
into  gypsum  by  the  absorption 
of  moisture,  and  large  beds  are 
sometimes  thus  altered  in  part 
or  in  whole.  Anhydrite  is  com- 
mon in  Austria,  Switzerland, 
Bavaria,  and  Nova  Scotia,  and 
in  parts  of  New  York,  Kansas, 
and  Tennessee. 

Anhy'drous,  the  term  applied 
to  a  chemical  substance  free 
from  water.  Thus,  ordinary  lime 
shell  as  it  comes  from  the  kiln, 
CaO,  without  any  water,  is  called 
anhydrous  lime;  when  water  is 
thrown  upon  it,  the  liquid  dis- 
appears by  combination  with  the 
lime,  which  increases  in  volume 
and  becomes  hydralcd  lime, 
CaOH20.  Examples  of  anhy- 
drous substances  are  also  found 
among  liquids  as,  anhydrous 
alcohol — i.e.  alcohol  free  from 


water — anhydrous  acetic  acid, 
anhydrous  nitric  acid,  etc. 

Ani,  a'ne,  a  ruined  city,  the 
ancient  Armenian  capital,  in 
Erivan,  Transcaucasia.  Ashat 
III.  transferred  his  capital  from 
Bagrad  in  961,  and  under  his  son 
Zampad  and  his  grandson  Kash- 
ka  I.  Ani  became  a  great  city 
of  100,000  inhabitants  and  about 
a  thousand  churches  and  monas- 
teries. In  later  times  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Seljuk  Turks 
and  of  the  Georgians  (1125- 
1209);  in  1240  it  was  deserted; 
and  an  earthquake  in  1319  com- 
pleted its  destruction. 

Ani,  or  Savanna  Cuckoo,  a 
bird  of  the  cuckoo  family  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Crotophago, 
found  throughout  the  Southern 
United  States,  and  in  the  West 
Indies  and  Northern  South 
America.  The  Black  Ani  (C. 
ani)  is  about  a  foot  long,  with 
black  lustrous  plumage;  the  bill 
is  deep  and  compressed,  and  the 
tail  contains  but  eight  feathers. 
These  birds  have  habits  some- 
what similar  to  the  grackles  and, 
like  them,  are  found  in  associa- 
tion with  cattle,  from  whose 
hides  they  pick  the  parasitic 
ticks.  The  nest,  usually  placed 
in  low  trees  or  bushes,  is  a  large, 
loosely  constructed  mass  of 
twigs  lined  with  dried  leaves,  and 
is  used  in  common  by  several 
female  birds,  the  eggs  being 
placed  in  layers  with  leaves  be- 
tween. It  is  probable  that  at 
least  two  eggs  are  deposited  by 
each  bird.  The  Groove-billed 
Ani  (C.  sulcirostris),  found  in 
Texas,  Lower  California,  and  as 
far  south  as  Peru,  is  similar  in 
habit  to  the  black  ani, 

Anie,  Pic  d',  sacred  mountain 
of  the  Basques,  in  the  Western 
Pyrenees,  8,215  feet  high. 

Anil,  another  name  for  In- 
digo (q.  v.). 

Aniline  or  Anilin  (amido- 
benzene,  CoHsNHi),  an  aromatic 
ba.se  occurring  in  coal  tar  and 
similar  products  of  the  distilla- 
tion of  nitrogenous  bodies.  It 
was  first  obtained  in  this  way 
from  indigo  (1820),  but  is  now 
prepared  exclusively  from  the 
benzene  of  coal  tar.  The  ben- 
zene is  treated  with  sulphuric 
and  nitric  acids,  and  the  resulting 
nitro-benzene  reduced  to  aniline 
by  distillation,  with  iron  borings 
and  steam  in  the  presence  of  fer- 
rous chloride.  The  oil  obtained 
is  separated  and  rectified,  and 
consists  of  aniline  itself,  along 
with  higher  homologues,  chiefly 
toluidines.  Aniline  is  an  oily 
liquid  that  is  colorless  when 
pure,  but  turns  brown  on  keep- 
ing. It  has  a  peculiar  smell,  is 
slightly  soluble  in  water,  though 
more  so  in  alcohol  and  benzene, 
and  boils  at  183°  c.  It  burns 
with  a  smoky  flame;  and  though 
neutral  to  litmus,  acts  as  a  pow- 
erful base,  uniting  with  acids  to 


Anlmalcuicb 

form  well-crystallized  salts — e.g. 
the  'aniline  salt'  of  commerce  is 
aniline  hydrochloride,  CeHsNHj 
HCl.  Bleaching  powder  gives 
a  purple  color  when  added  to 
aniline  solution,  and  potassium 
bichromate  and  sulphuric  acid  a 
red  followed  by  blue.  Aniline 
is  poisonous,  causing  collapse  if 
absorbed  through  the  skin,  as  on 
saturation  of  the  clothes  with  it, 
and  workmen  engaged  in  its 
manufacture  suffer  from  head- 
ache and  nausea  if  they  inhale  its 
vapor.  'Aniline  dyes'  are  not 
simple  derivatives  of  aniline,  and 
in  many  cases  are  not  prepared 
from  it  at  all;  the  name  arising 
from  the  fact  that  one  of  the  earlier 
and  commonest  of  these  com- 
pounds, magenta,  or  rosanihne  hy- 
drochloride, (C6H4NH2)2C.C6H3 

(CHj)NH.HCl,  is  obtained  by  the 
oxidation  of  a  mixture  of  aniline 
and  toluidine,  and  that  other  col- 
ors result  by  the  introduction 
of  different  alkyls  in  the  amido 
groups.  (See  Dyeing.)  The  rapid 
increase  in  the  manufacture  of 
these  dyes,  especially  in  Germany, 
where  chemists  of  the  highest 
standing  and  scientific^  skiU  are 
engaged  in  the  factories,  is_  as 
significant  as  are  their  beautiful 
shades  in  almost  endless  variety, 
their  low  price,  and  the  ease  with 
which  they  may  be  used.  In 
many  cases  they  cannot,  however, 
be  recommended,  because  under 
the  influence  of  sunUght  thev 
rapidly  fade.  They  are  much 
used  as  staining  reagents  in 
microscopy.  See  Benedikt's 
Chemistry  0/  Coal-tar  Colors,  and 
Bloxam  and  Blount's  Chemistry 
for  Manufacturers. 

Animalculae,  a  term  popularly 
appUed  to  all  minute  forms  of 
animal  life — e.g.  Protozoa,  Rotif- 
era,  and  Tardigrada. 

Animal  Heat,  the  heat  con- 
stantly being  generated  in  the 
body,  the  ultimate  source  of 
which  is  the  oxygen  consumed  in 
the  food  and  inhaled  in  breathing. 
The  normal  temperature  varies 
throughout  the  animal  kingdom, 
and  bears  a  fairly  close  relation- 
ship to  the  activity  or  sluggishness 
of  the  animal,  and  also  to  sur- 
rounding conditions  and  circum- 
stances of  the  individual.  In  man 
the  normal  temperature  is  98.6°  F., 
in  birds,  100°-112°  F.,  while  in  fish 
and  reptiles  it  differs  little  from 
the  air  or  water  they  inhat)it.  In 
some  diseases  {e.g.  smallpox  or 
heat-stroke)  the  temperature  of 
the  human  body  may  rise  to  110° 
or  112°  F.,  while  in  others  {e.g. 
cholera)  it  may  fall  to  90°  F.;  but 
such  extremes  are  extremely  dan- 
gerous. A  temperature  of  over 
107°  is  usually  fa'.al. 

Animal  Kingdom,  one  of  the 
three  great  divisions — the  other 
two  being  plants  and  minerals — - 
into,  which  natural  objects  were  at 
one  time  classified.     Modern  re- 


251 

search  has  shown  the  close  connec- 
tion between  simple  plants  and 
simple  animals,  and  thus  de- 
stroyed the  basis  of  this  primitive 
classification. 

The  prime  difference  between 
animal  and  plant  is  the  difference 
of  diet.  A  green  plant  can  in  sun- 
shine form  its  own  carbohydrates 
(starch,  sugar,  etc.),  and,  if  sup- 

gUed  with  water  and  salts,  can 
uild  up  protoplasm  under  these 
conditions.  An  animal  must 
have  its  carbohydrates  ready 
made,  and  is  incapable  of  existing 
unless  also  supplied  with  proteids 
in  some  form — i.e.  while  a  plant 
requires  only  simple  food  which  it 
absorbs  in  solution,  an  animal  re- 
C[uires  complex  food,  usually  taken 
in  solid  form.  But  some  simple 
forms  contain  the  green  coloring 
matter  chlorophyll,  and  are  capa- 
ble of  feeding  like  plants. 

Again:  most  animals  get  rid  of 
nitrogenous  waste  products,  which 
plants  do  not.  They  are  usually 
more  definite  in  form  than  plants; 
and  their  component  cells  are  not 
surrounded  by  cellulose,  as  those 
of  plants  are.  Cellulose  does,  how- 
over,  occur  in  tunicates.  As  a  rule, 
animals^  exhibit  rnuch  greater 
histological  differentiation  than  do 
plants.  The  older  statement,  that 
animals  move  about  and  plants  do 
not,  can  no  longer  be  accepted  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  some  animals 
are  sedentary,  and  that  certain  mi- 
croscopic plants  and  the  swarm- 
spores  of  some  higher  plants  move 
about  as  freelv  as  animals  do. 

Animals,  like  plants,  are  com- 
posed of  protoplasm,  or  living 
matter,  and,  like  them,  exhibit 
the  five  prime  organic  functions. 
They  are  contractile,  or  capable 
of  movement;  they  are  sensitive; 
they  nourish  themselves ;  they 
breathe;  they  excrete.  In  addi- 
tion, they  are  periodically  capa- 
ble of  growth  and  reproduction. 
From  inorganic  substances — the 
minerals  of  the  old  classification — 
both  animals  and  plants  differ  in 
their  power  of  growing  at  the  ex- 
pense of  substances  different  from 
themselves,  and  in  the  fact  that 
although  they  are  undergoing  con- 
stant change,  they  remain  appar- 
ently the  same  for  long  periods. 

The  following  are  the  chief 
groups  of  the  animal  kingdom 
given  in  an  upward  scale: — 

A.  Invertebrata:  animals  with 
ventral  nervous  system,  with  no 
backbone  or  notochord,  and  no  gill 
slits.  (1)  Protozoa;  (2)  Sponges: 
(3)_  Coelenterata,  or  hoUow-bodiea 
animals;  (4)  Unsegmented  worms; 
^5^  Annelids  or  segmented  worms; 
(6)  Echinoderms  (star-fish,  sea  ur- 
chins, etc.);  (7)  Arthropods  (crus- 
tacea,  insects,  arachnids,  etc.); 
(8)  Molluscs,  or  shell-fish. 

B.  Vertebrata:  animals  with  (a) 
a  dorsal  tubular  nervous  system; 
{b)  a  dorsal  axis,  known  as  the 
notochord,  which  in  the  higher 


Anlmai- W  orslilp 

forms  is  replaced  at  an  early  stage 
by  the  backbone;  (c)  gill  slits,  or 
tneir  equivalents,  the  visceral 
clefts,  wnich  are  openings  from 
the  mouth  cavity  to  tne  exterior: — 
(9)  Adelochorda;  (10)  Tunicates, 
or  Ascidians;  (11)  Amphioxus;  (12) 
Cyclostomes;  (13)  Fishes;  (14) 
Amphibians;  (15)  Reptiles;  (16) 
Birds;  (17)  Mammals. 

Animal  3Iagnetism.  See  Hyp- 
notism. 

Animal-Power,  the  amount  of 
work  done  in  traction,  or  in  work- 
ing a  machine,  by  animals  or  men. 
The  standard  horse-power  (h.p.), 
fixed  by  Watt  at  33,000  ft.-lbs. 

ger  minute,  is  above  what  a  good 
orse  will  do  for  a  day  of  10  hours. 
Walking  at  2^  m.  per  hour  on  the 
level,  he  exerts  a  tractive  force 
of  100  lbs.,  equivalent  to  22,000 
ft.-lbs.  per  minute;  but  as  the 
speed  increases  the  tractive  force 
diminishes,  being,  indeed,  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  speed, 
between  f  and  4  m.  per  hour.  The 
draught  of  an  averagely  good 
horse  is  reckoned,  as  above,  at  100 
lbs.  for  10  hours,  at  2^  m.  per 
hour;  for  9  hours.  111  lbs.;  for  8 
hours,  125;  for  7  hours,  143;  6 
hours,  167;  5  hours,  200  lbs.  A 
man  hauling  along  a  level  road  at 
1^  to  3  m.  per  hour  is  reckoned  at 
one-sixth  of  a  horse;  he  does  3,670 
ft.-lbs.  per  minute  for  a  10  hours' 
day.  In  rowing,  he  does  4,000 
ft.-lbs.  for  10  hours;  on  treadmill, 
3,100;  turning  a  handle,  2,600. 
While  the  horse  gives,  as  above, 
22,000  ft.-lbs,  per  minute,  the  ox 
gives  12,000,  the  mule  10,000,  and 
the  ass  3,500.  See  Trautwine's 
Engineer' s  Pocket-book. 

Animals,  Cruelty  to.  See 
Cruelty, 

Animal-Worship.  The  deifi- 
cation and  worship  of  certain  of 
the  lower  animals,  a  usage  trace- 
able in  most  ancient  religions,  and 
still  practised  by  many  living 
races,  appears  to  owe  its  origin 
to  various  complex  causes.  Among 
savages  in  the  lowest  stage  of  cul- 
ture, a  dread  of  the  ferocity  and 
the  superior  strength  of  the  tiger, 
bear,  and  alligator  seems  undoubt- 
edly to  have  been  the  motive 
which  led  to  the  worship  of  these 
animals,  v/ith  the  view  of  pro- 
pitiating them;  and  although  in 
modern^  times  we  find  that  some 
races  kill  and  eat  the  object  of 
their  reverence  (as  in  the  case 
of  Northern  Asiatics  and  Ameri- 
can Indians),  this  apparent  incon- 
sistency may  be  explained  by  as- 
suming that  their  ideas  on  the 
subject  are  passing  through  a  state 
of  transition.  ^  Then,  again,  there 
are  instances  in  which  animals  are 
held  sacred,  not  out  of  fear  for 
them,  but  because  their  bodies  are 
believed  to  be  the  homes  of  the 
tribal  deity  or  deities — an  idea 
almost  inseparable  from  that  of 
demoniacal  possession,  and  akin  to 
the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis. 


Animism 


252 


Animism 


Animal-worship  in  this  aspect  sur- 
vives among  Polynesians,  and  in 
a  still  more  distinct  form  among 
Hindus.  'The  sacred  cow  is  not 
merely  to  be  spared;  she  is,  as  a 
deity,  worshipped  in  annual  cere- 
mony, dailv  perambulated  _  and 
bowed  to  by  the  pious  Hindu. 
Hanuman,  the  monkey-god  (whose 
living  representative  is  the  en- 
tellus  monkey),  has  his  temples 
and  his  idols,  and  in  him  Siva 
is  incarnate,  as  Durga  is  in  the 
jackal;  the  wise  Ganesa  wears 
the  elephant's  head;  the  divine 
king  of  birds,  Garuda,  is  Vishnu's 
vehicle;  the  forms  of  fish,  and 
boar,  and  tortoise  were  assumed 
in  those  avatar-legends  of  Vishnu 
which  are  at  the  intellectual  level 
of  the  American  Indian  myths 
they  so  curiously  resemble'  (Tylor's 
Primitive  Culture).  The  religion 
of  ancient  Egypt  was  perrneated 
with  these  ideas  •  and  a  similar 
origin  is  assignable  to  the  wor- 
ship by  the  Jews  of  the  golden 
calf  and  the  brazen  serpent. 
Serpent-worship  forms,  indeed,  a 
separate  phase  of  this  question; 
with  which  totemism,  animism, 
and  ancestor-worship  are  also  in- 
volved. For  in  some  cases  a  par- 
ticular animal  is  held  in  rever- 
ence, not  because  the  spirit  of 
a  deity  dwells  within  it,  but  be- 
cause it  represents  the  tribal 
ancestor.  Yet  another  variety  of 
animal  -  worship  was  the  rever- 
ence paid  to  dwarfs.  Thus,  the 
Malagasy  of  Madagascar  deified 
the  Vazimba,  an  extinct  abo- 
riginal race,  3  ft.  6  in.  in  stature. 
See  Professor  Windle's  Pygmies 
(1894),  p.  xxxvi.  The  same  idea 
is  suggested  by  the  dwarf  god 
Ptah  of  ancient  Egypt,  from 
whom  have  been  derived  the 
Phoenician  Patseki  and  Kobeiri. 
See  R.  G.  Haliburton's  Dwarf 
Survivals  (1895). 

Animism  (Lat.  anima,  'soul'), 
a  term  originally  used  to  denote 
the  theory  of  the  German  chemist 
Stahl,  who  early  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury developed  and  modified  the 
classical  theory  which  identified 
the  vital  principle  with  the  soul, 
attributing  to  it  the  functions  of 
ordinary  animal  life  in  man,  while 
the  life  of  other  creatures  was 
assigned  to  mechanical  laws.  It 
was  applied  by  Dr.  Tylor,  in  his 
work  on  Primitive  Culture,  to  ex- 
press the  doctrine  which  attrib- 
utes a  living  soul,  not  merely  to 
human  beings,  but  also  to  the 
lower  animals,  and  to  inanimate 
ol)jects  and  natural  phenomena 
generally.  Since  the  publication 
of  Dr.  Tylor's  work  it  has  been 
almost  exclusively  used  in  that 
sense,  though  some  anthropolog- 
ical writers  have  employed  it  more 
loosely  _  to  include  the  simpler 
conception  which,  in  the  evolution 
of  savage  thought,  probably  pre- 
ceded it — viz.  that  of  all  beings, 
animate  and  inanimate,  as  en- 


dowed with  personality  and  con- 
scious life.  Savage  man  interprets 
all  external  phenomena  in  the 
terms  of  his  own  consciousness. 
When  he  begins  to  reason  con- 
cerning himself,  the  phenomena 
of  sleep,  of  dreams,  of  trance,  and 
of  death  lead  to  the  view  that  he 
is  composed  of  two  parts— the 
more  obvious  part,  the  l)ody,  and 
an  inner  or  less  substantial  part, 
the  soul  or  Sfjirit.  The  latter  is 
capable  of  being  separated  from 
the  body  temporarily  during  sleep 
or  trance,  when  it  goes  forth  on 
various  adventures,  which  the 
owner  remembers  as  dreams  and 
visions;  or  in  sickness,  when  its 
place  is  often  occupied  by  other 
and  less  desirable  spirits.  In  the 
latter  case  the  great  object  of  the 
savage  medicine-man  is  to  recover 
the  soul;  to  drive  out,  if  neces- 
sary, the  invaders  who  have  taken 
its  place;  and  to  induce  it  to  re- 
enter the  body,  its  proper  abode. 
Death  is  the  permanent  separa- 
tion of  soul  and  body.  This  in- 
volves the  decay  and  destruction 
of  the  body,  but  not  of  the  soul, 
which  is  capable  of  existing  apart. 
Separation,  however,  may  con- 
tinue for  an  indefinite  time  with- 
out causing  death.  A  large  class 
of  folk-tales  is  based  upon  the  be- 
Uef  that  it  is  even  for  the  advan- 
tage of  the  owner  that  his  soul 
should  be  extracted  and  hidden 
away  out  of  danger.  _  This  beUef 
is  carried  into  practice  by  some 
savages,  as^  by  the  Alfures  of 
Minahassa,  in  Celebes,  on  removal 
into  a  new  house.  Such  removal 
is  fraught  with  supernatural  dan- 
ger to  the  inmates.  Consequently, 
the  priest  collects  beforehand  all 
their  souls  into  a  bag,  of  which  he 
takes  charge,  and  afterward,  with 
the  proper  ceremonies,  restores 
them  to  their  owners. 

The  human  soul  is  usually  con- 
ceived as  a  miniature  man  or 
woman.  But  it  is  not  necessarily 
human  in  form;  it  often  appears 
as  one  of  the  lower  animals — e.g. 
a  beast,  a  snake,  or  even  an  insect. 
Again,  it  is  often  held  to  be  the 
breath,  the  shadow  (whence  the 
word  shade  for  a  aisembodied 
soul),  or  the  image  reflected  in  a 
pool  of  water  or  a  mirror.  _  It  is 
originally  not  conceived  as  imma- 
terial. This  is  a  refinement  of  a 
later  stage.  The  lower  animals, 
trees,  plants,  and  even  inanimate 
objects,  being  all  endowed  with 
souls  precisely  analogous  to  those 
of  men,  they  are  not  merely 
credited  with  human  feelings  and 
passions,  but  are  often  held  to  be 
transformed  men.  Personal  iden- 
tity in  spite  of  entire  change  of 
form  is  thus  an  article  of  savage 
belief.  This  develops,  in  a  higher 
plane  of  culture,  into  the  philo- 
sophical doctrine  of  the  transmi- 
gration of  souls,  which  has  played 
so  large  a  part  in  more  than  one 
religion.    Other  savage  specula- 


tions as  to  the  future  condition  of 
the  human  soul  have  had  an  im- 

Eortant  influence  on  religion.  The 
elief  that  the  soul  can  exist  apart 
from  the  body  has  led  to  one  or 
other  of  three  conclusions:  (1.)  It 
continues  to  mingle  more  or  less 
continuously  with  the  living,  and 
to  interfere  in  their  affairs;  hence 
the  superstitions  concerning  ghosts 
and  vampires,  and  the  cult  of  the 
dead.  (2.)  It  carries  on  an  exist- 
ence of  the  same  sort  as  in  the 
body,  but  of  a  thinner  and  less 
substantial  form,  in  some  region 
apart  from  mankind.  (3.)  It  passes 
to  a  place  where  the  good  are  re- 
warded, and  the  wicked  punished, 
for  deeds  done  in  the  body.  The 
last  of  these  three  opinions,  though 
its  germs  may  be  found  in  the 
lower  culture,  is,  generally  speak- 
ing, later  in  civilization  than  the 
first  and  the  second.  It  has 
survived  in  all  the  higher  re- 
ligions. 

The  immortality  of  the  soul  is 
not,  as  a  rule,  a  savage  doctrine. 
The  soul  of  a  departed  human 
being  is  conceived  as  alive  so  long 
as  any_  memory  of  the  man  re- 
mains in  those  who  have  known 
him  in  this  life,  or  have  heard 
him  spoken  of.  The  Polynesians 
of  the  Harvey  group  believe,  as 
reported  by  Gill,  that,  while  the 
souls  of  those  who  die  a  violent 
death  are  immortal,  the  souls  of 
those  who  die  a  natural  death 
are  cooked  and  eaten  by  certain 
demons,  and  by  this  means  anni- 
hilated. Some  savage  peoples  are 
of  opinion  that  there  is  a  series 
of  spirit-worlds,  which  are  succes- 
sively inhabited  by  the  soul,  death 
in  each  of  them  resulting  in  trans- 
fer to  another,  until  in  the  last  of 
them  death  means  definitive  an- 
nihilation. For  the  Dyaks  death 
in  the  spirit-world  means  either 
rebirth  into  this  world  or  annihi- 
lation, according  to  accident,  since 
the  soul,  on  death  in  the  spirit- 
world,  enters  into  a  fruit  or  a  leaf, 
or  some  other  edible  substance.  If 
then  an  animal  or  a  human  being 
eats  the  substance,  the  soul  be- 
comes reincarnated  in  the  off- 
spring of  the  eater;  otherwise  it 
perishes. 

The  difiiculties  of  savage  meta- 
physics have  resulted,  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  in  the  supposi- 
tion that  a  human  being  has  more 
than  one  soul.  This  hypothesis  is 
found  among  peoples  as  widely 
different  as  the  N.  American  In- 
dians, the  Melanesians,  the  Ma- 
lagasy, the  Negroes,  and  the 
Khonds.  In  the  philosophy  of 
more  civilized  races  it  appears 
among  the  Chinese,  the  Hindus, 
and  the  ancient  Egyptians.  There 
are  even  traces  of  it  in  Homer: 
while  later  Greek,  Roman,  and 
scholastic  philosophers  and  the 
rabbinical  writers  made  sirnilar 
or  even  more  subtle  distinctions. 
The  fates  of  these  separate  souls 


Animism 

are  not  the  same.  When  three 
or  four  souls  are  supposed  to  be 
'inited  in  one  person,  one  of  them 
frequently  remains  in  or  about  the 
grave,  another  is  born  again  into 
a  fresh  body,  a  third  enters  the 
spirit-world,  and  a  fourth  some- 
times dies  with  the  body.  One 
of  these  souls  is  often  identified 
with  the  shadow,  another  _  with 
the  reflected  image,  a  third  is  the 
dream-soul,  and  so  on. 

Another  doctrine  of  the  utmost 
importance  appears  to  owe  its 
origin  to  the  belief  that  the  soul 
can  exist  apart  from  the  body — - 
viz.  that  of  the  existence  of  spirits 
analogous  to  the  human  soul, 
which  have  never  been  perma- 
nently united  to  a  body  of  any 
kind,  but  which  exist  indepenci- 
ently  of  all  corporeal  tics.  These 
spirits  haunt  the  air,  the  earth, 
the  heavens.  Their  power  was 
regarded  as  of  various  degrees. 
They  required  to  be  appeased, 
conciliated,  and  bound  by  mutual 
ties  of  service  and  protection  to 
mankind.  As  the  ethical  sense 
grew  with  advancing  civilization, 
they  began  to  be  differentiatecl 
into  favorable  and  hostile,  good 
and  evil.  Many  of  the  former 
thus  developed  into  gods,  the 
latter  into  devils.  They  were  re- 
garded as  able  to  hold  commerce 
with  the  human  race,  and  even  to 
enter  into  individuals,  to  inspire 
them  and  take  entire  possession  of 
them._  They  were  equally  able  to 
inhabit  the  lower  animals,  trees, 
and  other  natural  objects.  In 
polytheistic  religions  they  are  con- 
jured by  appropriate  ceremonies 
into  the  idols  intended  to  repre- 
sent them.  The  highest  develop- 
ment of  animism  is  in  dualism 
or  monotheism;  for,  to  sum  up, 
animism  is,  as  Dr.  Tylor  says, 
'the  groundwork  of  the  philoso- 
phy of  religion,  from  that  of  sav- 
ages up  to  that  of  civilized  men.' 
See  E.  B.  Tylor' s  Primitive  Cul- 
ture: Researches  into  the  Develop- 
ment of  Mythology,  Philosophy, 
Religion,  Art,  and  Custom  (1871; 
3rd  ed.  1891),  of  which  chaps,  xi.- 
xvii.  still  remain  the  principal 
authority.  On  the  animism  of 
particular  peoples,  see  Canon  H. 
Callaway's  Religious  System  0}  the 
Amazulu  (1870);  Rev.  W.  Gill's 
Myths  and  Songs  from  the  South 
Pacific  (1876),  especially  ch.  2,  8- 
10;  R.  M.  Dorman's  Origin  of 
Primitive  Superstitions,  and  their 
Development  into  the  Worship  of 
Spirits  and  the  Doctrine  of  Spirit- 
ual Agency  among  the  Aborigines 
of  America  (1881);  R.  H.  Codrin^- 
ton's  The  Melanesians:  Studies  tn 
their  Anthropology  and  Folk-lore 
(1891),  especially  ch.  7,  10,  13; 
Mary  H.  Kingsley's  Travels  in 
West  Africa  (1897),  ch.  19-22,  and 
West  African  Studies  (1899),  ch. 
5-7;  Erwin  Rohde's  Psyche:  See- 
lencult  und  Unsterblichkeitsglaube 
der  Griechen  (2nd  ed-  1898);  J.  J. 


253 

M.  de  Groot's  The  Religious 
System  of  China:  its  Ancient 
Forms,  Evolution,  History,  and 
Present  Aspect,  Manners,  Cus- 
toms, and  Social  Institutions  con- 
nected therewith  (4  vols.,  pub. 
Leyden,  1892-1901),  especially 
vol.  iv.,  on  'The  Soul  in  Philoso- 
phy-' 

Animuccia,  Giovanni  {c.  1500- 
71),  composer,  born  at  Florence; 
music  master  at  St.  Peter's, 
Rome  (1555-71).  His  friend  and 
confessor,  San  Filippo  Neri,  re- 
quested him  to  compose  Laudi 
Spirituali  (2  vols.  1565  and  1570), 
to  be  interspersed  throughout  his 
sermons-  these  hymns  were  the 
origin  of  the  oratorio.  His  chief 
works  are  Madrigali  e  Motctti  a 
Quattro  e  Cinque  Voci  (1548),  and 
//  Primo  Libro  di  Messe  (1567). 
His  brother  Paolo  (d.  1563)  was 
also  a  musician  and  composer. 

Anio,  mod.  Aniene,  river  of 
Italy,  rises  in  the  Hernician  Hills 
(Monte  Cantaro),  flows  s.w.  past 
Subiaco  and  Tivoli,  where  it  forms 
the  famous  five  falls,  and  enters 
the  Tiber  2  m.  above  Rome  after 
a  course  of  70  m.  Also  known  as 
the  Teverone. 

Anion,  the  portion  of  a  com- 
pound that  is  liberated  at  the 
anode  or  positive  pole  when  elec- 
trolysis takes  place.  See  Ion; 
Electrolysis. 

Anise.  The  fruit  of  an  umbellif- 
erous plant  of  S.  Europe,  culti- 
vated in  Egypt,  Spain,  Germany, 
and  elsewhere.  'Anise  seed' — - 
usually  aniseed— is  used  in  the 
preparation  of  liqueurs  and  by 
confectioners,  is  a  mild  stomachic, 
and  relieves  flatulence.  The  whole 
plant  is  aromatic.  A  cooling  drink 
is  made  from  the  fruit  in  Italy. 
Star  Anise  is  the  fruit  of  an  ever- 
green shrub  of  the  magnolia  order, 
a  native  of  China,  and  star-shaped, 
having  the  properties  of  aniseed, 
and  used  in  incense. 

Anjer,  scapt.  on  w.  coast  of 
Java,  on  Strait  of  Sunda,  60  m. 
w.  of  Batavia,  a  port  of  call  for 
Batavio,;  destroyed  by  Krakatoa 
eruption,  1883.   Pop.  3,000. 

Anjou,  anc.  N.w.  prov.  of 
France,  now  the  dep.  Maine-et- 
Loire  and  part  of  the  deps.  May- 
enne,  Sarthe,  and  Indre-et-Loire. 
The  title  of  Comte  d' Anjou  was 
revived  in  1246,  and  bestowed  by 
Louis  upon  his  youngest  brother 
Charles,  who  became  the  head  of 
a  new  house  of  Anjou.  After  the 
death  of  'le  Roi  Rene*  in  1480, 
the  nominal  title  of  Due  d' Anjou 
was  borne  by  the  younger  sons  of 
the  kings  of  France. 

Anlceny,  Levi  (1844),  Ameri- 
can legislator;  born  in  St.  Joseph, 
Mo.;  received  a  public  school  edu- 
cation; removed  to  Portland,  Or.; 
engaged  in  transportation  busi- 
ness with  his  father;  later  was  in 
mercantile  business  in  Lewiston, 
Ida.;  subse(|uently  settled  in 
Walja  W4U9..  Wash.,  and  became  a 


Ankle 

banker.  He  was  defeated  for 
U.  S.  Senator  in  1895  and  1899, 
and  elected  for  the  term  1903-09. 

Anklam,  tn.,  dist.  Stettin,  prov. 
Pomeraniaj  Prussia,  53  m.  N.W. 
of  Stettin;  is  the  seat  of  a  military 
school.    Pop.  (1900)  14,617. 

Ankle,  The,  is  a  hinge-joint, 
the  bony  surfaces  of  which  are 
covered  with  cartilage,  and  are 
bound  together  by  ligaments.  The 


The  Ankle  Joints  and  Ligaments. 


movements  of  the  joint  are 
mainly  those  of  flexion  and  exten- 
sion, but  a  certain  amount  of  lat- 
eral motion  is  possible  when  the 
foot  is  extended.  From  its  posi- 
tion the  ankle  is  a  frequent  seat 
of  sprains,  fractures,  and  disloca- 
tions. Treatment. — Quick  and 
firm  bandaging  is  of  great  impor- 
tance, to  prevent  swelling.  Wrap 
the  ankle  in  plenty  of  cotton,  and 
bandage,  leaving  the  toes  ex- 
posed, in  order  that  their  color 
may  indicate  if  the  bandage  be- 
comes too  tight.  Numbness  or 
discoloration  of  the  toes  shows 
that  less  pressure  must  be  used; 
otherwise  the  ankle  may  be  left 
untouched,  and  completely  at 
rest,  for  three  days,  after  which 
passive  movement  {i.e.  the  gentle 
movement  of  the  joint  by  hand, 
not  by  its  own  muscles)  may  begin 
in  many  cases.  If  much  swelling 
has  taken  place  before  the  injury 
can  be  attended  to,  a  hot  alternat- 
ing with  cold  irrigation,  or  a  hot 
fomentation  will  relieve  the  pain 
very  much,  and  afterward  the 
bandage  can  be  used,  not  to  pre- 
vent swelling,  but  to  keep  the 
joint  at  rest.  Passive  movement 
and  massage  should  both  be  used 
as  early  as  possible  after  the 
swelling  begins  to  subside,  to  aid 
absorption  and  prevent  adhesions. 
Stiff'ness  and  weakness  following 
a  sprained  ankle  are  best  treated 
with  cold  douches  and  special 
movements,  such  as  rising  on  the 
toes  or  dancing.  Fractures  occur 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
ankle  joint.  The  commonest  of 
these  is  'Pott's  fracture,'  pro- 
duced by  forcible  twisting  of  the 
foot,  in  which  the  fibula  breaks 
about  three  inches  above  the  ex- 
ternal malleolus.  Treatment  con- 
sists in  the  reduction  of  the  de- 
formity,  and  putting  the  limb 


Ankober 


254 


Annam 


into  a  suitable  splint.  In  disloca- 
tions the  entire  foot  may  be  dis- 
placed in  any  direction.  Com- 
pound dislocation  of  the  ankle  is 
always  serious,  and  may  necessi- 
tate amputation.    See  Joints. 

Ankober,  or  Ankobar,  caravan 
centre,  former  cap.  of  Shoa,  Abys- 
sinia, 350  m.  E.  of  Zeila,  on  the 
E.  slope  of  the  hills  forming  the 
Shoa  plateau,  at  an  altitude  of 
8,700  ft.  Pop.  estimated  at  be- 
tween 7,000  and  10,000. 

Ankole,  or  Ankort,  a^  dist., 
Uganda  Protectorate,  British  E. 
Africa,  between  Albert  Edward 
Nyanza  on  the  W.  and  the  Vic- 
toria Nyanza  on  the  E.  A  land 
of  thorny  scrub  in  the  E.,  tra- 
versed by  ranges  of  about  5,000 
ft.;  fertile  and  well  cultivated  in 
the  w.;  has  iron  ores.  The  in- 
habitants comprise  the  Wanzan- 
kori,  the  true  aborigines,  and  the 
Wahumas,  intruders  from  Galla- 
land.  All  speak  a  Bantu  dialect 
closely  related  to  that  of  Unyoro. 

Ankylosis,  the  partial  or  com- 
plete rigidity  of  a  joint,  is  due  to 
deposit  of  osseous  material  or  a 
growth  of  fibrous  adhesions, 
often  following  a  neglected  dis- 
location or  a  fracture.  Ankylosis 
may  also  follow  severe  articular 
rheumatism,  gout,  tuberculosis  or 
syphilis.  Treatment. — Passive  mo- 
tion, vigorous  massage  and  douch- 
ing. 

Ann,  Cape,  on  the  coast  of 
Mass.,  the  eastern  section  of  Essex 
CO.,  about  30  m.  n.e.  of  Boston. 
In  the  vicinity  are  many  well- 
known  summer  resorts. 

Anna,  an  Indian  coin,  the  six- 
teenth of  a  rupee. 

Anna,  tn..  Union  co.,  111.,  on 
the  St.  Louis  div.  of  the  111.  Cent. 
R.  R.,  36  m.  N.  of  Cairo.  It  con- 
tains a  state  lunatic  asylum  and 
manufactures  potterv,  ice  and 
dried  fruit.     Pop.  (1910)  2,809. 

Annaberg,  tn.,  prov.  Zwickau, 
Saxony^  on  the  N.  slope  of  the 
Erzgebirge,  35  m.  by  rail  S.  of 
Chemnitz.  It  manufactures  silk, 
ribbons,  lace,  buttons,  and  card- 
board. There  are  silver,  cobalt, 
and  iron  mines.  Pop.  (1900) 
15,959. 

Annabon.  or  Annobom,  isl.  in 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  W.  Africa, 
belonging  to  Spain:  is  mountain- 
ous (2,800  ft.),  well  wooded,  fer- 
tile, and  healthy.  Area,  6^  sq.  m. 
Pop.  about  3,000. 

Anna  Comnena  (1083-1148). 
Byzantine  princess,  historian,  ana 
patron  of  learning,  daughter  of 
Alexius  I.;  endeavored  unsuc- 
cessfully to  induce  her  dying 
father  to  name  her  husband, 
Nicephorus  Bryennius,  as  his, 
successor.  She  afterward  formed 
a  plot  against  the  life  of  her 
brother;  it  was  discovered,  and 
Anna,  with  her  husband,  fled  to 
Greece.  The  rest  of  her  life  was 
?iven  to  writing:  she  is  remem- 
bered for  her  Anrt^  Comv.ena 


Alexides  (1069-1118),  a  biography 
of  her  father.  The  best  edition  is 
that  of  Schopen  and  Reiiferscheid 
(1839-78);  a  German  translation 
was  published  by  Schiller  in  his 
Historische  Memoiren  (1790).  See 


and  oppression.  At  her  death 
Anna  kft  the  throne  to  Ivan,  son 
of  her  niece,  Anna  Carlovna. 

Annals.  See  Records,  Public. 

Annam  (properly  Annan, 
from  Chin-Ngan-nan,  'Southern 


ANNAM 


Oster's  Anna  Comnena  (1868-71), 
and  Chalandon's  Regne  cf  Alexis 

I.  (1900). 

Anna  Tvanovna,  Empress  of 
Russia  (1693-1740),  daughter  of 
Ivan,  half-brother  of  Peter  the 
Great.     On  the  death  of  Peter 

II.  (1730)  she  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  declared  herself  autocrat- 
ic, and  gave  supreme  power  to 
her  favorite,  Biron,  who  ruled  the 
empire  with  intolerable  tyranny 


Peace;'  Annamese,  Dang  Trang, 
'Inner  Route'),  a  kingdorn  of 
Indo-China,  formerly  comprising 
the  whole  of  Tongking  and 
Cochin  -  China.  Annarn  is  now 
conterminous  on  the  n.  with  Tong- 
king;  on  the  W.  it  is  separated 
from  Siam  by  the  'neutral  zone' 
(18  m.  broad),  which  follows  the 
r.  bk.  of  the  Mekong  R.  south- 
wards to  Lower  (French)  Cochin- 
China,  and  its  trib.  Sebang;  on 


Annam 


255 


Ann  Arbor 


the  east  and  southeast  the  China 
Sea,  with  a  coastline  of  800  miles, 
forms  the  boundary.  The  area  is 
39,758  square  miles.  A  series  of 
plateaus  and  ranges  traverses  the 
surface  between  the  Mekong 
Valley  and  the  sea,  reaching  alti- 
tudes of  5,000  to  8,000  or  9,000 
feet.  The  coastline  is  much 
broken  and  there  are  several  shel- 
tered harbors,  the  best  being  the 
spacious  Hon- Kobe  inlet,  Tourane 
Bay,  and  Hue  Bay. 

The  climate  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  coastal  range,  which 
affords  shelter  from  the  moist 
southwest  monsoon,  and  inter- 
cepts the  northeast  winds  which 
prevail  from  September  to  Janu- 
ary. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  occu- 
pation. Rice,  cotton,  sugar  cane, 
tobacco,  maize,  tea,  fruits,  cinna- 
mon, and  vegetables  are  pro- 
duced, and  cattle-raising  is  car- 
ried on.  Silk  is  manufactured, 
and  there  are  valuable  forests  of 
teakwood,  ironwood,  dyewoods, 
and  bamboo.  Small  quantities  of 
iron,  copper,  zinc,  and  gold  are 
found  and  there  are  salt  works. 
The  principal  exports  are  sugar, 
ivory,  rice,  silk,  and  tea;  the  im- 
ports, cotton,  paper,  drugs,  pe- 
troleum, and  tea.  Hue  is  the 
capital  and  the  chief  ports  are 
Tourane  and  Qui-nhon.  The 
largest  town  is  Binh-Dinh  (74,- 
400). 

The  population  of  Annam 
(1920)  is  5,731,189.  The  in- 
habitants belong  almost  exclu- 
sively to  the  Southern  division 
(Indo-Chinese)  of  the  Mongol 
family.  Socially  they  form  two 
well  marked  groups,  the  settled 
and  somewhat  civilized  Anna- 
mese  of  the  cultivated  planes, 
and  the  rude,  wild  tribes  of  the 
interior,  called  Mois.  The  speech 
of  the  Annamese  is  monosyllabic, 
like  Chinese,  from  which  they 
have  borrowed  many  words.  The 
masses  are  Buddhists;  the  let- 
tered classes  call  themselves 
Confucianists. 

Annam  is  a  French  protecto- 
rate, governed,  theoretically  at 
least,  by  a  king,  assisted  by  a 
council  of  six  members.  The 
French  government  is  repre- 
sented by  a  resident  superieur. 

Annam  became  subject  to 
China  in  the  third  century  B.C., 
but  gained  its  independence  in 
1428.  In  1789  it  first  came  in 
contact  with  the  French,  when 
its  ruler,  King  Gialong,  by  the 
aid  of  France,  freed  himself  from 
Chinese  interference  and  in- 
creased his  empire  by  annexing 
Tongking  and  Cochin  China. 
The  successors  of  King  Gialong 
broke  off  all  connection  with 
Europe  in  order  to  gain  the  sup- 
port of  China,  and  in  1857  several 
attacks  on  the  Christians  were 
made,  and  many,  including  a 
number  of  European  missiona- 
ries, were  massacred.  These  acts 


led  to  interventir  n  on  the  part  of 
France,  and  in  i  S62  the  reigning 
king  was  forced  to  give  up  Lower 
Cochin  China;  this  was  followed 
in  1867  by  the  surrender  of  the 
rest  of  that  territory.  In  1863 
a  protectorate  was  established 
over  Cambodia,  and  after  con- 
siderable effort  Tonking  was 
conquered  (1885)  and  a  treaty 
with  China  (1886)  recognised  the 
sovereignty  of  France  over  An- 
nam. In  1907  King  Than-Thai, 
whom  the  French  had  chosen  to 
succeed  Dong-Khan,  was  de- 
posed, and  one  of  his  sons  chosen 
to  rule  under  a  regency.  This 
son  was  succeeded  in  1916  by 
Khai-Dinh. 

Consult  Barral's  La  coloniza- 
tion francaise  au  Tonkin  et  en 
Annam;  Norman's  Peoples  and 
Politics  of  the  Far  East;  Hannah's 
Brief  History  of  Eastern  Asia; 
Vassal's  On  and  Off  Duty  in 
Annam. 

An'nan,  town  and  seaport, 
Scotland,  in  :he  'bounty  of  Dum- 
fries, on  the  nver  Annan,  near 
its  entrance  to  Solway  Firth;  17 
miles  south  of  Dumfries.  There 
are  sandstone  quarries  in  the 
vicinity;  cotton-spinning,  ship- 
building, and  rope  making  are 
the  chief  industries.  Pop.  (]  921) 
6,379. 

An'nandaie,  Charle's 
(1843-  ),  English  -d'tor,  was 
born  in  Kincardineshire  and  was 
educated  at  Aberdeen  Univer- 
sity. He  was  editor  of  The  Im- 
perial Dictionary  (1882);  Black- 
ie's  Modern  Cyclopcedia  (1890); 
The  Popular  Cyclopcedia;  The 
Student's  Dictionary  (1895);  Con- 
cise Dictionary;  Burns'  Works; 
New  and  Universal  Self-Pro- 
nouncing Encyclopcedia. 

Annandale,  Thomas  (1838- 
1907),  English  surgeon,  was  born 
in  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  He  be- 
came senior  surgeon  to  the  Royal 
Infirmary  in  1871  and  regius 
professor  of  clinical  surgery  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in 
1877,  posts  which  he  continued 
to  occupy  until  his  death.  He 
published  important  books  and 
papers  on  surgical  subjects. 

Annap'olis,  city,  capital  of 
Maryland,  and  county  seat  of 
Anne  Arundel  county,  on  the 
Severn  River,  2  miles  from 
Chesapeake  Bay,  on  the  Wash- 
ington, Annapolis  and  Baltimore 
Railroad;  26  miles  southeast  of 
Baltimore  and  27  miles  north- 
east of  Washington,  D.  C. 
Among  its  public  buildings  are 
the  Governor's  House,  the  State 
House,  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy 
(established  in  1845),  and  St. 
John's  College,  which  developed 
from  a  free  school  founded  early 
in  the  18th  century.  The  harbor 
is  excellent,  and  there  is  a  pros- 
perous oyster-canning  industry. 
A  company  of  Puritans  from  Vir- 
ginia made  the  first  settlement 
here  in  1649  under  the  name  of 


Providence,  which  was  succes- 
sively changed  to  Proctor's,  The 
Town,  Anne-Arundel  Town,  and 
finally  to  Town  of  Annapolis  in 
honor  of  Queen  Anne.  Pop. 
(1900)  8,525;  (1910)  8,609;  (1920) 
11,214. 

Annapolis  Convention,  a  con- 
vention which  met  at  Annapolis, 
Md.,  Sept.  11,  1786.  In  1785 
delegates  from  Virginia  and 
Maryland  had  met  at  Alexandria, 
Va.,  to  arrive  at  an  understand- 
ing with  regard  to  the  respective 
rights  of  those  two  States  in  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Poto- 
mac River.  Madison,  a  Virginia 
delegate,  suggested  a  new  con- 
ference, in  which  all  the  States 
should  participate,  with  a  view  to 
the  adoption  of  a  uniform  com- 
mercial system  for  the  whole  coun- 
try. Such  a  conference  was  called 
by  the  legislature  of  Virginia  in 
January,  1786;  and  delegates 
from  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey,  Virginia,  and  Dela- 
ware, including  Alexander  Ham- 
ilton from  New  York,  James 
Madison  from  Virginia,  and  John 
Dickinson  (the  chairman)  from 
Pennsylvania,  met  at  Annapolis 
in  September.  So  few  States  were 
represented  that  nothing  was  done 
toward  carrying  out  the  purpose 
for  which  the  convention  was 
called,  but  a  report,  drafted  by 
Hamilton,  was  adopted  suggest- 
ing a  new  convention  of  delegates 
from  all  the  States  to  consider 
what  measures  were  advisable  'to 
make  the  Constitution  of  the  Fed- 
eral Government  adequate  to  the 
exigencies  of  the  Union.'  This 
suggested  convention — the  fa- 
mous Constitutional  Convention 
— met  at  Philadelphia  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Consult  Volume  i 
of  the  Documentary  History  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  issued  by  the  U.  S. 
Government. 

Annapolis  Royal,  formerly 
Port  Royal,  town,  Nova  Scotia, 
Annapolis  county,  on  Annapolis 
River,  an  arm  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  and  on  the  Dominion 
Atlantic  Railroad;  130  miles 
west  of  Halifax.  It  is  at  the  out- 
let of  the  Annapolis  Valley  which 
produces  more  than  a  million  and 
a  half  barrels  of  apples  annually. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1604 
and  was  the  first  European  settle- 
ment made  in  North  America 
north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It 
was  fortified  by  both  the  French 
and  English,  passing  into  the 
hands  of  the  latter  in  1713.  The 
old  fort  is  in  an  excellent  state  of 
preservation.    Pop.  (1921)  826. 

Ann  Arbor,  city,  Michigan, 
county  seat  of  Washtenaw  coun- 
ty, on  the  Huron  River,  and  on 
the  Michigan  Central  and  the 
Ann  Arbor  Railroads;  38  miles 
west  of  Detroit.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  University  of  Michigan 
(q.  v.),  and  has  a  fine  court- 
house, post-office,  two  libraries, 
Vol.  I. — March  '24 


Annates 


256 


Anne 


and  five  hospitals.  The  city  is 
in  the  centre  of  a  fertile  agricul- 
tural district,  and  manufactures 
furniture,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, engines  and  boilers,  boots 
and  shoes,  paper,  woollen  goods, 
pianos,  flour,  automobile  acces- 
sories, and  machinery.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Federal  Census  of 
1919,  industrial  establishments 
number  78,  with  $7,381,026  capi- 


daughter  of  James  ii.,  then  Duke 
of  York,  and  his  first  wife, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Claren- 
don. Like  her  elder  sister,  Mary, 
she  was  brought  up  a  member  of 
the  Church  of  England,  to  which 
she  always  maintained  a  loyal 
devotion.  She  was  married,  at 
eighteen  (July  28,  1683),  to 
Prince  George  of  Denmark, 
brother  of   King   Christian  v. 


Annapolis:  The  Stale  House 


tal,  and  products  valued  at 
$9,793,696.  Pop.  (1900)  14,509; 
(1910)  14,817;  (1920)  19,516. 

Annates.  See  First-fruits. 

Annatto,  a-nat'to,  or  Arnot- 
TO,  a  coloring  matter  obtained 
from  the  seeds  of  an  evergreen 
plant,  Bixa  orellana,  from  Brazil 
and  Cayenne  (French  Guiana). 
It  is  a  red,  soft  solid,  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  but  readily  in 
alcohol  -or  in  alkaline  .solutions. 
It  dyes  silk,  cotton,  and  wool 
fibres;  but  the  color  is  fugitive, 
and  its  principal  use  is  to  color 
butter,  cheese,  varnishes,  and 
lacquers. 

Anne  (1454-85),  queen  of 
Richard  iii.  of  England,  younger 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
the  'king-maker,'  was  born  in 
Warwick  Castle.  She  was  mar- 
ried to  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales 
in  1470,  and  after  his  death  at 
Tewkesbury  (1471),  to  Richard 
of  Gloucester  (1473).  On  Rich- 
ard's usurpation  of  the  crown 
(1483),  she  became  queen. 

Anne  (1665-1714),  Queen  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  was 
born  in  St.  James  Palace,  second 

Vol.  I. — March  '24 


The  death  of  Mary,  on  Dec.  28. 
1694,  without  an  heir,  and  there- 
after the  death  of  William 
(March  8,  1702)  left  the  succes- 
sion to  the  throne,  by  virtue  of 
the  Declaration  of  Right,  vested 
in  Anne,  and  she  was  crowned  on 
April  23,  1702.  Although  she 
bore  many  children  none  of 
them  survived.  The  chief  events 
of  her  reign  were  the  union  of  the 
Parliaments  of  England  and 
Scotland  in  1707,  the  Jacobite 
rebellion  of  1715,  and  the  War 
of  the  Spanish  Succession,  with 
the  campaigns  of  Marlborough 
and  Peterborough,  the  victories 
of  Blenheim  (1704),  Ramillies 
(1706),  Oudenarde  (1708),  and 
Malplaquet  (1709),  and  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713).  Her 
reign  was  notable,  also,  for  liter- 
ary and  Scientific  achievement 
and  has  been  styled  the  Augustan 
age  of  English  literature.  A 
virtuous  and  affectionate  woman 
possessed  of  many  amiable  cjual- 
ities,  Anne  nevertheless  offended 
the  Whig  party  by  her  marked 
Toryism  (see  Godoi.phin,  Har- 
LEY,  and  Mrs.  Mash  am),  and 


her  Scottish  subjects  by  her  nar- 
row Anglicanism.  Consult  his- 
tories of  the  reign  by  Burton  and 
Oldmixon,  also  Ashton's  Social 
Life  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne. 

Anne  of  Austria  (1601-66), 
daughter  of  Philip  iii.  of  Spain, 
married  Louis  xiii.  of  France 
(1615).  The  marriage  was  not  a 
happy  one,  and  Anne  was 
accused  of  conspiring  frequently 
against  the  king.  After  his 
death  (1643)  she  was  regent  for 
her  son,  Louis  xiv.,  until  he  was 
proclaimed  king  at  thirteen 
(1651),  but  the  actual  manage- 
ment of  the  affairs  of  the  king- 
dom she  entrusted  to  the  strong 
hand  of  Mazarin  (q.  v.).  Her 
latter  years  were  spent  in  retire- 
ment. Consult  Freer's  Regency 
of  Anne  of  Austria;  Matteville's 
Memoirs. 

Anne  of  Bohemia  (1366-94), 
daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
IV.  of  Germany,  sister  of  King 
Wenceslas  of  Bohemia,  was  born 
in  Prague.  In  1382  she  married 
Richard  ii.  of  England.  She  was 
greatly  beloved  by  her  people, 
by  whom  she  was  known  as 
'good  Queen  Anne.' 

Anne  of  Cleves  (1515-57), 
daughter  of  John,  Duke  of  Cleves, 
and  fourth  queen  of  Henry  viii. 
of  England.  The  marriage, 
which  took  place  in  January, 
1540,  was  arranged  by  Thomas 
Cromwell.  Henry's  disappoint- 
ment with  Anne,  after  the  glow- 
ing description  which  he  had  re- 
ceived, aided  by  Holbein's  flatter- 
ing portrait,  was  so  great  that 
in  June  of  the  same  year  he  had 
the  marriage  annulled.  Anne 
was  granted  Richmond  Palace 
and  £3,000  a  year  till  her  death. 

Anne  of  Denmark  (1574- 
1619),  daughter  of  Frederick  ii., 
was  born  in  Skanderborg.  Jut- 
land. In  1589  she  was  married  to 
James  vi.  of  Scotland,  first  by 
proxy  (August)  and  later  (No- 
vember) in  person.  She  was 
crowned  with  him  in  Westminster 
in  1603,  when  he  ascended  the 
English  throne,  and  took  up  her 
residence  in  London,  where  her 
court  became  renowned  for  its 
frivolity  and  extravagance.  In 
spite  of  her  faults,  she  was  an 
amiable  and  virtuous  wife  and  a 
generous  and  kindly  queen. 

Anne,  vSt.  (Anna),  according 
to  tradition,  mother  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  was  born  in  Bethlehem 
and  became  the  wife  of  Joachim. 
Tradition  represents  Mary  as  the 
only  child  of  this  marriage,  but 
some  maintain  that  Anne  was 
thrice  married,  and  was  the 
mother  of  a  daughter  Mary  in 
each  case,  in  order  to  reconcile 
tradition  with  the  reference  to 
the  sister  of  Mary  (John  xix.  25). 
A  church  was  built  in  her  honor 
in  Constantinople  by  Justinian  in 
550,  but  it  was  not  till  1584  that 
the  observance  of  her  festival 
(July  26)  was  enjoined  on  the  Ro- 


Annealing 


257 


Annuity 


man  Catholic  Church.  She  is  the 
patroness  of  women  in  child-birth 
and  of  minors,  and  is  generally 
represented  in  art  accompanied 
by  Mary  and  the  Christ-child. 
See  Banng-Gould's  and  Butler's 
Lives  of  the  Saints. 

Annealing,  the  process  of  ren- 
dering glass  or  metal  less  brittle. 
When  glass  is  rapidly  cooled,  it 
easily  cracks  and  flies  to  pieces  if 
exposed  to  variations  of  tempera- 
ture or  when  scratched.  After 
rapid  cooling,  the  outer  surface, 
which  solidifies  first,  is  in  a  state 
of  strain  differing  from  that  of 
the  inner  layers;  but  slow  cool- 
ing makes  the  mass  homogeneous. 
Glass  vessels  are  placed  in  an  an- 
nealing oven,  where,  from  a  tem- 
perature approaching  the  fusion 
point,  they  cool  very  slowly. 
Many  metals  become  brittle  when 
hammered  or  drawn  into  wire,  but 
after  being  heated  to  redness  and 
slowly  cooled  they  recover  their 
former  toughness.  ^  Tool  steel  is 
hardened  by  plunging  it  when  hot 
into  water  or  oil,  the_  toughness 
being  restored  according  to  the 
degree  to  which  it  is  reheated. 

Anne  Boleyn.    See  Boleyn. 

Annecy,  tn.  and  episc.  see,  cap. 
of  dep.  Haute-Savoie,  at  the  N.w. 
extremity  of  the  lake  of  the  same 
name,  France,  22  m.  s.  of  Geneva. 
Heakh  resort  (alt._  1,511  ft.  above 
sea-level);  industries,  cotton,  silk, 
leather,  etc.  Pop.  (1901)  13,611. 

Annelids,  Annelida.  See  An- 
NULATA,  and  Marine  Annelids. 

Annexation.  The  process  by 
which  a  state  extends  its  jurisdic- 
tion over  territory  not  previously 
belonging  to  it.  Though  usually 
an  act  of  aggression  and  fre- 
quently the  result  of  successful 
war,  annexation  may  be  peaceful 
and  not  unfriendly,  as  in  the 
taking  over  of  territory  volun- 
tarily ceded  with  the  consent  of 
the  inhabitants  or  in  bringing 
newly-discovered  lands  under  the 
flag.  The  Louisiana  purchase  and 
the  acquisition  of  Alaska  are  illus- 
trations of  peaceful  and  friendly 
annexation  by  the  United  States, 
while  the  annexation  of  California, 
of  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippines 
illustrate  the  more  usual  methods 
of  territorial^  expansion  by  force. 
Annexation  is  thus  the  legal  act 
of  incorporating  new  territories, 
however  acquired,  whether  by 
conquest,  cession  or  discovery,  in 
the  domain  of  the  state.  ^  To 
secure  international  recognition  it 
must  rest  on  an  actual  occupation 
oi  pedis  posscssio,  and  must  be 
confirmed  by  legislation,  procla- 
mation or  treaty.  The  annexa- 
tion of  territory  occupied  by  an 
organized  population  leaves  the 
laws  and  customs  of  the  latter  in 
full  force  unless  suspended  or 
modified  by  the  treaty  of  annexa- 
tion or  by  the  Ic^^islation  or 
proclamation  by  which  the  an- 
nexation is  completed. 

Vol.  I.— 20. 


Anniston,  city  and  county  seat 
of  Calhoun  co.,  Ala.,  63  m.  E.  by 
N.  of  Birmingham,  on  the  Louis- 
ville and  Nashville  and  the  South- 
ern R.  Rs.  It  contains  fine 
churches  and  public  buildings, 
and  its  chief  ed^icational  institu- 
tions are  the  Anniston  College  for 
young  ladies,  the  Noble  Institute 
(co-educational)  and  the  Barber 
Memorial  Seminary  for  colored 
girls.  It  is  situated  in  a  productive 
coal  and  iron  district,  and  has 
manufactures  of  iron  products, 
cotton  goods,  car  wheels,  freight 
cars,  locomotives  and  boilers. 
Pop.  (1910)  12,794. 

Anno  Domini,  Anno  Hejir^, 
Anno  Mundi,  Anno  Urbis  Con- 
DiT^.    See  A.D.,  A.H.,  a.m.,  a.u.c. 

Annonay,  tn.,  dep.  Ardeche,  50 
m.  s.  of  Lyons,  France.  It  manu- 
factures leather,  paper,  and  cotton 
and  silk  goods.  Pop.  (1901)  17,490. 

Annuals,  plants  which  com- 
plete their  life-history  in  one 
growing  period.  The  seed  germi- 
nates in  spring;  the  plant  flowers, 
fruits,  and  dies  before  the  end 
of  the  year.  By  preventing  an 
annual  from  flowenng,  it  may  in 
some  cases  be  induced  to  con- 
tinue its  growth  for  a  second 
season. 

Annuals,  popular  _  illustrated 
books  intended  as  Christmas  gift- 
books,  published  during  the  early 
19th  century.  Among  the  first 
were  Forget-me-not  (1823-48); 
Friendship's  Offering  (1 824-44); 
and  Literary  Souvenir  (1824-34), 
to  which  Scott,  Wordsworth, 
Turner,  Landseer,  and  others, 
contributed.  After  1840  their 
popularity  waned.  The  most  im- 
portant of  modern  annuals  are  the 
reference  year-books,  containing 
a  varied  assortment  of  current 
information  on  matters  of  imme- 
diate interest. 

Annuity.  A  right  to  receive 
a  fixed  annual  income  perpetu- 
ally or  for  life  or  for  a  definite 
term  of  years.  Such  a  right  is  in 
our  common  law  system  deemed 
in  the  nature  of  real  property 
and,  when  unlimited  in  time, 
is  classified  as  an  incorporeal 
hereditament.  It  is  something 
more,  therefore,  than  a  chose  in 
action,  and,  like  other  property, 
is  alienable  and  transmissible  by 
will,  distribution  or  descent.  An 
annuitv  may  be  a  general  obliga- 
tion of  the  person  or  corporation 
creating  it  or  it  may  be  specially 
charged  on  certain  funds  or  lands. 
It  is  properly  created  by  deed  or 
will. 

The  period  during  which  the 
annuity  is  to  be  payable  may  be 
dependent  upon  tne  combination 
of  any  number  of  lives  and  terms 
of  years,  besides  involving  the 
chances  of  marriage,  birth  of  issue 
or  any  other  contingency,  and 
is  technically  called  the  status 
of  the  annuity.  In  the  United 
States  annuities  are  frequently 


purchased  upon  the  lives  of  two 
persons,  such  as  husband  and 
wife,  but  rarely  upon  the  lives  of 
more  than  two  persons.  The  pay- 
ments may  be  made  either  yearly 
or  at  shorter  intervals — e.g.  half- 
yearly,  quarterly,  monthly  or 
weekly — but  whatever  the  in- 
tervals are  the  total  sum  payable 
in  a  complete  year  is  spoken  of  as 
'the  annuity.' 

An  annuity  certain  is  one  where 
the  status  is  a  fixed  number  of  years, 
and  if  the  payment  is  to  be  con- 
tinued forever,  it  is  called  a  per- 
petuity. When  the  annuity  is  not 
to  commence  until  after  a  certain 
term,  it  is  said  to  be  deferred  for 
that  term.  The  first  payment  of  a 
yearly  annuity  is  usually  made  at 
the  end  of  the  first  year;  of  a  half- 
yearly  annuity,  at  the  end  of  the 
first  six  months*  and  if  the  annuity 
be  payable  at  snorter  intervals,  at 
the  end  of  the  first  interval.  When 
the  first  payment  is  to  be  made 
immediately,  the  annuity  is  called 
an  annuity  due.  A  life  annuity 
may  either  cease  with  the  last 
annual  and  half-yearly  or  other 

Eeriodical  payment  falling  due 
efore  death,  or  it  may  include  a 
proportional  payment  for  the  time 
between  the  last  periodical  pay- 
ment and  the  day  of  death.  In 
the  former  case  the  annuity  is  said 
to  be  curtate  and  in  the  latter  com- 
plete or  apportionable.  In  Great 
Britain,  by  act  of  Parliament,  all 
life  annuities  (except  premiums 
on  policies  of  insurance)  are  ap- 
portionable unless  an  express 
stipulation  to  the  contrary  be 
made  in  the  instrument  creating 
the  annuity.  In  the  United 
States  both  methods  are  in  fre- 
quent use,  but  usually  life  annui- 
ties are  made  apportionable.  The 
most  ^  ^  important  examples  of 
annuities  certain  are  to  be  found 
in  the  terminable  annuities  of  the 
British  national  debt,  ground  rents 
and  municipal  loans;  and  the 
bonds  of  various  governments, 
perpetual  debenture  bonds  of 
railway  and  other  companies  are 
examples  of  perpetuities. 

The  magnitude  of  an  annuity 
is  generally  the  same  frorn  year  to 
year;  but  varying  annuities  are 
sometimes  met  with,  perhaps  the 
best-known  example  being  British 
consols,  where  the  rate  was  re- 
duced from  2f  to  2^  per  cent,  in 
the  year  1903.  ^  The  values  of  all 
annuities  certain  can  be  found  by 
the  application  of  algebra  to  the 
theory  of  compound  interest,  but 
life  annuities  require  in  adaition 
a  knowledge  of  the  probabilities 
of  human  life.  The  earliest  at- 
tempt of  which  record  has  been 
kept  to  ascertain  the  value  of  a 
life  annuity  arose  out  of  the  Fal- 
cidian  Law  of  ancient  Rome  (40 
B.C.),  which  provided  that  no  per- 
son should  bequeath  more  than  | 
of  his  property  to  persons  other 
than  his  heirs.    Hence  whenever 


Annuity 


258 


Annuity 


a  testator  ga\e  an  annuity  under 
his  will,  it  be::ame  necessiry  to 
value  the  annuity  in  order  to  as- 
certain whether  the  above  law  had 
been  complied  with.  Up  1:ill  about 
230  A.D.  the  rule  for  finding  the 
value  was  to  take  thirty  years'  pur- 
chase for  all  ages  below  3Ci  and  one 
year's  purchase  less  for  each  year 
above  30.    This  rule  was  im- 

6 roved  upon  by  the  Prefect 
Ipinus,  w-ho  constructed  what  is 
known  as  a  Roman  table  of  annui- 
ties. 

This  table  was  probably  con- 
structed from  actual  observations 
of  some  kind,  but  apparently  the 
element  of  interest  was  left  out  of 
account  altogether.  After  the 
lapse  of  about  sixteen  centuries 
this  table  was  adopted  by  the 
Tuscan  government,  notwith- 
standing that  many  more  accurate 
tables  had  been  formed  in  the 
meantime.  The  following  is  the 
Roman  table: 

Years' 

Age  Purchase 

Birth  to  20  30 

20  "  25  28 

25  "  30  25 

30  "  35  23 

35  "40  20 

40  "  41.,  19 

41  "43   18 

43     43  17 

43  "  44   16 

44  "  45   15 

45  "  46   14 

46  "  47  13 

47  48  13 

48  "  49   11 

49  "  50  10 

50  "  55   9 

55  "  60   7 

60  and  upwards   5 

The  next  recorded  estimats  was 
made  by  Jan  de  Witt,  in  a  report 
to  the  States-General  of  Holland 
(1671)  on  the  subject  of  life  annui- 
ties. It  had  been  the  custom  for 
towns  to  raise  money  bv  the  sale 
of  annuities,  the  price  then  being 
fourteen  years'  purchase,  having 
risen  from  six  years'  purchase  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century.  De  Witt 
showed  that  an  annuity  on  a  young 
and  healthy  life  was  certainly 
worth  more  than  sixteen  years* 
purchase.  In  a  correspondence 
with  Hudde  there  is  indicated  a 
hypothesis,  suggested  by  the  latter, 
that  out  of  every  eighty-six  per- 
sons born  one  will  die  every  year, 
so  that  the  last  dies  between  the 
ages  of  eighty-five  and  eightj/'-six. 
This  celebrated  hypothesis  was 
independently  suggested  by  De 
Moivre  in  1725,  and  is  known  by 
his  name.  For  the  greater  part 
of  life  it  represents  the  la-.v  of 
mortalitv  with  moderate  accuracv. 
but  at  very  young  and  very  olcl 
ages  it  is  considerably  in  error. 
In  1693  Dr.  Hallcy  published  a 
table  of  annuity  values  for  every 
fifth  age,  computed  at  six  per  cent, 
interest,  having  deduced  the 
probabilities  •at  life  from  the 
births  and  deaths  recorded  in 


Breslau,  and  this  was  probabJy 
the  first  table  of  annuities  cal- 
culated  by   a  correct  scientific 

grocess.  About  the  same  time  the 
ritish  government  first  began  to 
raise  money  by  the  sale  of  annui- 
ties, which  it  granted  at  the  rate 
of  $14  for  every  $100  paid  to 
them  (about  seven  years'  pur- 
chase), irrespective  of  the  age  of 
the  nominee.  The  actual  ex- 
perience of  these  annuitants  was 
afterward  investigated,  and  it 
was  found  that  the  prices  ought 
to  have  ranged  from  seventeen 
years'  purchase  at  the  age  ten  to 
lOur  and  a  half  years'  purchase 
at  age  seventy  -  five.  Annuities 
payable  during  the  life  of  the  sur- 
vivor of  two  persons  were  granted 
at  eight  and  a  half  years'  purchase, 
and  to  the  survivor  of  three  per- 
sons at  ten  years'  purchase.  In 
1703  these  prices  were  raised  to 
nine,  eleven  and  twelve  jears' 
purchase  respectively;  but  it  was 
not  till  1808,  when  the  Northamp- 
ton table  was  adopted,  that  the 
prices  were  fixed  with  any  regard 
to  scientific  principles,  by  making 
them  depend  on  the  age  of  the 
nominee.  Although  the  fore- 
going terms  were  extremely  favor- 
able to  purchasers,  only  a  small 
volume  of  business  was  transact- 
ed, chiefly  with  Dutchmen,  who, 
owing  to  the  publications  of  Kerse- 
boom,  knew  sufficient  of  the  sub- 
ject to  nominate  young  female 
lives,  while  the  English  purchasers 
selected  their  nominees  without 
regard  to  age  or  sex,  and  there- 
fore found  the  transactions  much 
less  profitable. 

The  Northampton  table  just 
mentioned  was  published  by  Dr. 
Price  in  1780,  naving  been  de- 
duced from  statistics  regarding 
4,689  deaths  which  occurred  in 
Northampton  between  the  years 
1735  and  1780.  The  method  of 
calculation  left  out  of  account 
the  number  of  the  population, 
and  would  have  been  correct  only 
if  the  population  had  remained 
stationary  during  the  period, 
which  was  not  the  case.  The 
table  largely  over-estimated  the 
rate  of  mortality  throughout  the 

greater  part  of  life,  and  therefore 
rou^ht  out  too  low  prices  for 
annuities,  so  that  its  adoption  by 
the  government  led  to  a  heavy 
annual  loss.  In  1819  Mr.  Fin- 
laison  proved  that  the  loss  was 
then  at  the  rate  of  no  less  than 
$39,000  per  month;  but  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  took  no 
steps  to  remedy  matters,  nor  did 
his  successor.  In  1827  Mr.  Fin- 
laison  again  drew  the  attention 
of  government  to  the  matter, 
pointing  out  that  the  loss  was  by 
that  time  at  the  rate  of  $39,000 
per  week,  and  in  the  following 
year  the  government  discontin- 
ued the  use  of  the  Northampton 
table.  Fresh  tables  were  care- 
fully prepared,  giving  rates  for  all 


ages  from  fifteen  to  ninety,  the 
annuity  allowed  at  the  latter  age 
being  $62  for  each  $100  of  pur- 
chase money,  the  first  payment  to 
be  made  three  months  after  pur- 
chase. This  rate  is  obviously 
very  large,  but  nevertheless  the 
government  believed  that  the  new 
tables  were  correct,  and  adopted 
them  in  1829.  They  were  soon 
undeceived.  Clever  speculators 
at  once  realized  the  opportunity 
for  making  large  profits,  scoured 
the  country  in  search  of  hale  old 
yeomen,  and  purchased  large  an- 
nuities on  their  lives.  Although 
some  of  the  annuitants  died  shortly 
after  purchase,  large  profits  could 
be  obtained  by  spreading  the  an- 
nuities^ over  several  lives,  and  thus 
averaging  the  risks,  and  numerous 
fortunes  were  made  in  this  manner. 
The  mistake  was  then  remedied  by 
the  removal  of  the  advanced  ages 
from  the  table,  and  the  govern- 
ment finally  put  a  stop  to  such 
speculation  by  providing  that  no 
annuity  should  be  granted  on  a 
nominee  over  sixty-five  years 
unless  the  nominee  should  have  a 
bona  -fide  beneficial  interest  in  the 
annuity. 

Up  till  1854  the  Usury  Acts 
prevented  a  lender  from  charging 
more  than  a  fixed  rate  of  interest, 
and,  with  a  view  to  evading  those 
acts,  money-lenders  were  in  the 
habit  of  arranging  their  dealings 
in  the  shape  of  annuity  transac- 
tions. Instead  of  granting  loans, 
they  purchased  annuities  from 
their  victims;  and  as  they  thus 
risked  losing  their  capital  in  the 
event  of  the  annuitant's  early 
death,  the  borrowers  were  made 
to  insure  their  lives  and  pay  the 
premiums  as  well  as  interest,  thus 
making  the  annual  payment  very 
heavy.  Tlie  unfortunate  borrowers 
were,  in  fact,  compelled  to  pay 
much  more  dearly  than  if  there 
had  been  no  restrictions  on  the 
rate  of  interest,  thus  sutifering  a 
loss  o\ying  to  the  very  laws  which 
were  intended  to  protect  them. 
The  extent  to  which  this  evasion 
of  the  law  was  carried  was  shown 
by  a  great  diminution  in  annuity 
transactions  shortly  after  the 
Usury  Acts  were  repealed. 

Since  1829  the  British  govern- 
ment has  continued  to  grant 
annuities  in  exchange  for  bonds 
with  a  view  to  the  gradual  reduc- 
tion of  the  national  debt  as  the 
annuities  expire.  The  security 
for  these  annuities  is,  of  course, 
better  than  can  be  obtained  from 
any  other  source,  and  the  terms 
offered  are.  in  consequence,  some- 
what less  favorable  to  purchasers 
than  are  granted  by  insurance 
companies.  _  Over  $6,000,000  is 
annually  paid  away  by  the  govern- 
ment in  life  annuities  and  over 
$7,250,000  by  ^  insurance  com- 
panies. Annuities  are  also  valued 
by  the  British  government  through 
the  post-office  to  the  extent  of  not 


Annuity 


259 


Anoka 


less  than  nor  more  than  £lOO 
on  any  one  life  of  either  sex  not 
less  than  five  years  of  age. 

In  the  United  States  the  busi- 
ness of  selling  annuities  has  been 
carried  on  principally  by  the  life 
insurance  companies,  and  has  as- 
sumed important  dimensions  only 
within  the  last  twenty  years.  Its 
magnitude,  however,  has  been 
due  principally  to  the  large  busi- 
ness of  the  greater  American  com- 
panies in  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Germany.  The  purchasers 
there  are  chiefly  members  of  an 
aristocratic  class  or  country  gen- 
try, who  take  this  method  of  se- 
curing an  assured  income.  This 
foreign  business  has  been  prac- 
tically stationary  in  volume  since 
1885.  The  recent  rise  of  a  simi- 
lar class  in  this  country  has  re- 
sulted in  a  rapid  expansion  of  the 
annuity  business  in  this  country, 
which,  howtver,  is  done  mostly  by 
the  smaller  companies.  The  pur- 
chasers consist  mostly  of  women 
of  65  years  of  age  or  more. 

Until  recently  the  American 
companies  have  used  the  British 
Government  Annuitants'  Experi- 
ence of  1883,  which  contains  a 
mortality  table  for  male  and  fe- 
male lives  separately.  Some  use 
the  British  Offices  Life  Annuity 
Table  of  1893.  Most  American 
companies  use  the  same  set  of 
rates  which  were  obtained  in  a 
rather  unscientific  way.  The  ac- 
tuaries of  a  few  large  companies 
conferred  for  the  purpose  of 
agreeing  upon  a  mortality  table 
which  should  be  used  by  all  their 
companies,  but  in  this  they  were 
not  successful.  However,  they 
did  succeed  in  agreeing  upon  the 
rates  which  should  be  charged, 
and,  from  these  tables  of  rates, 
constructed  the  mortality  table. 
These  rates  are  rather  favorable 
to  the  annuitants,  and  the  annuity 
business  of  the  American  com- 
panies, while  large  and  growing, 
is  not  very  profitable.  In  the 
year  1904,  some  companies  actu- 
ally lost  on  this  business. 

It  has  long  been  a  well-recog- 
nized fact  that  annuitants  as  a 
class  are  longer  lived  than  the 
average.  This  arises  partly  from 
the  fact  that  annuitants  usually 
lead  quiet  and  retired  lives,  and 
partly  from  the  fact  that  no  per- 
son in  bad  health  is  likely  to  invest 
money  in  the  purchase  of  an 
annuity.  A  process  of  selection, 
or  choosing  out  the  best  lives,  is 
thus  gone  through,  with  the  result 
that  the  'expectation  of  life'  of 
annuitants  is  considerably  greater 
than  that  of  the  average  popula- 
tion. This  is  shown  by  the  ap- 
pended table,  which  also  illustrates 
the  greater  longevity  of  females 
than  males. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the 
'expectaticn  of  life'  cannot  be 
used  to  find  the  value  of  an  an- 
nuity,   A  common  error  is  to 


suppose  that  a  life  annuity  is 
equivalent  to  an  annuity  certain 
for  a  term  equal  to  the  expecta- 
tion of  life;  the  actual  fact  being 
that  the  latter  is  always  greater 
than  the  former,  and  the  true 
value  of  a  life  annuity  can  only 
be  obtained  by  a  lengthy  calcula- 
tion involving  the  theory  of 
probabilities. 

In  law,  if  a  testator  directs  his 
trustees  to  purchase  a  govern- 
ment annuity  of  fixed  amount  for 
A,  or  to  lay  oat  a  fixed  surn  in 
buying  an  annuity,  A  is  entitled 
to  have  the  capital  sum  paid  to 
him.  As  a  rule,  an  annuity  is 
charged  on  income  only,  and  the 
annuitant  is  not  entitled  to  have 
any  arrears  made  up  out  of 
capital;  but  he  is  entitled,  in  the 
administration  of  the  testator's 
estate,  to  have  a  capital  sum  set 
aside,  the  income  from  which  is 
sufficient  to  satisfy  the  annuity. 


occurred  the  Great  Fire  of  Lon- 
don. 

Annville,  vil.,  Lebanon  co., 
Pa.,  on  the  Phila.  and  Reading 
R.  R.,  5  m.  w.  of  Lebanon. 
Lebanon  Valley  College  (United 
Brethren)  is  situated  here.  Among 
its  industries  are  the  manufac- 
turing of  shoes  and  hosiery,  and 
there  are  limestone  quarries  in  the 
neighborhood.   Pop.(1910)  2,482. 

Anoa,  or  Sapi-utan,  the  small 
native  buffalo  of  Celebes  Island, 
the  most  diminutive  of  wild  cat- 
tle (genus  Anoa).  It  is  hardly 
larger  than  a  goat,  and  has  short, 
triangular,  somewhat  _  rough  and 
flattened  horns,  which  extend 
backward,  slightly  diverging,  from 
the  crown  of  the  head.  In  fact  and 
in  appearance  it  is  a  small  bufl'alo, 
but  has  a  dense,  soft  coat  of  hair. 
It  inhabits  the  wooded  and  moun- 
tainous parts  of  the  island,  going 
about  in  family  groups,  and  is 


Expectation  of  Life. 


Of  the  General  Population. 


Age. 


Males. 


39.5  yrs. 

33.8  " 

26.1  " 

19.5  " 

13.5  " 

8.5  " 

4.9  " 


Females. 


40.3  yrs. 
33.8 

27.3  " 

20.8  " 

14.3  " 

9.0  " 

.5.3  " 
3.0 


Of  Annuitants. 


Males. 


40.3  yrs. 

33.6  " 

28.8  " 
21.0  " 

14.9  " 

9.2  " 

5.3  " 
2.9  " 


Females. 


45.3  yrs. 

38.0  " 

31.3  " 

24.3  " 

17.0  " 

10.5  " 

5.6  " 

3.0  " 


Annular  Eclipse.  See  Eclipse. 

Annulata,  a  phylum  of  inverte- 
brate animals  comprising  four 
classes  of  worms  —  (1)  Chasto- 
poda,  or  earthworms  and  marine 
annelids;  (2)  Archiannelida,  and 
O  Gephyrea,  obscure  unseg- 
mented  pelagic  worms;  and  (4) 
the  Hirudea,  or  leeches. 

Annulet,  in^  architecture,  a 
small  band  encircling  a  column; 
in  heraldry,  the  mark  of  cadency 
of  a  fifth  son. 

Annunciation,  the  appearance 
of  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin 
Mary  to  announce  to  her  the  in- 
carnation (Luke  1:27-38);  is  now 
a  church  festival  on  March  25,  or 
Lady  Day.  The  subject  has  been 
a  favorite  one  in  religious  art; 
Tintoretto,  Donatello,  BotticelU, 
Delia  Robbia,  and  in  our  day 
Burne-Jones  and  D.  G.  Rossetti, 
have  treated  it.  Various  religious 
orders  have  received  this  name; 
and  the  highest  order  of  knight- 
hood of  the  house  of  Savoy  (the 
ruling  house  of  Italy)  is  called 
the  Supreme  Order  of  the  Annun- 
ciation. It  was  founded  in  1360, 
and  reconstituted  in  1518. 

Annunzio.     See  D'Annunp^io. 

Annus  Mirabilis,  a  poem  (1667) 
by  Dryden.  The  year  referred 
to  is  1666,  when  the  EngUsh  fleet 
destroyed  the  maritime  power  of 
the  Dutch.     In  the  same  year 


hunted  by  the  natives  for  both  its 
flesh  ancf  its  skin.  It  is  readily 
domesticated,  and  has  been  found 
hardy  in  the  zoological  gardens 
of  Europe  and  America.  It  is 
beheved  that  the  small  buffalo  of 
Mindanao,  in  the  Philippines,  the 
tamarao,  is  a  hybrid  between  this 
and  some  larger  species  unknown. 

Anode,  the  positive  pole  of  a 
battery  or  source  of  current,  as 
distinguished  from  the  cathode, 
or  negative  pole,  in  a  system  for 
the  electro-deposition  of  metals. 
The  metal  is  deposited  at  the 
cathode.  See  Electrolysis. 

Anodon,  Anodonta.  See  Mus- 
sel. 

Anodynes,  or  Analgesics, 
drugs  which  relieve  pain.  Opium 
and  morphine  are  the  post  pow- 
erful;  antipyrin,  exalgin,  phena- 
cetin,  ana  antifebrin  are  very 
useful,  do  not  exert  a  harmful 
influence  on  the  brain,  and  are 
specially  used  in  cases  of  neu- 
ralgia. All  are  dangerous  when 
used  by  persons  ignorant  of  their 
qualities  and  composition.  Aco- 
nite, belladonna,  opium,  and  co* 
caine,  applied  locally,  are  anc^ 
dynes. 

Anointing.  See  Extreme  Unc- 
tion. 

Anoka,  tn.,  Anoka  co.,  Minn, 
on  the  Rum  R.,  at  its  junction 
with  the  Mississippi,  16  m.  n.  o? 


Anoltt 


260 


Anselm 


Minneapolis.   It  has  several  lum- 
ber and  flour  mills  and  manufac- 
tories of  machinery.    Pop.  (lUlw 
3,972. 

Anolis.    See  Chameleon. 

Anomalistic  Year.  The  earth 
is  in  perihelion  when  it  is  at  the 
point  in  its  orbit  nearest  to  the 
sun.  This  point  is  not  fixed,  but 
has  a  slow  eastward  motion; 
hence  the  next  return  to  peri- 
helion occupies  a  longer  period 
than  a  complete  revolution.  This 
period  is  the  anomalistic  year, 
which  is  nearly  five  minutes  longer 
than  the  sidereal  year. 

Anomaly,  irregularity  or  de- 
parture from  the  common  rule.  In 
astronomy,  the  angle  subtended 
at  the  sun  by  the  portion  of  its 
orbit  through  which  a  planet,  at 
a  given  instant,  has  moved  from 
its  perihelion.  Planetary  orbits 
being  elliptical,  the  'true  anom- 
aly' increases  at  an  unequal  rate 
in  different  parts  of  them;  while 
the  'mean  anomaly'  is  calculated 
on  the  supposition  of  uniform  an- 
gular velocity  in  an  orbit  traversed 
in  the  actual  period.  The  differ- 
ence between  these  is  termed  the 
'equation  of  the  centre.' 

Anomodontia,  an  order  of  foSv 
sil  reptiles,  often  of  consider- 
able size.  In  many  the  jaws 
had  instead  gf  tetth  a  thick 
horny  covering  as  in  tortoises. 
In  others  the  teeth  were  limited 
to  a  pair  of  strong  tusk-like  ca- 
nines. The  order  has  many  struct- 
ural resemblances  to  mammals. 
They  flourished  in  Europe,  India, 
and  Africa  during  Triassic  and 
early  Jurassic  eras,  and  in  Am.er- 
ica  their  remains  have  been 
found  in  the  Permian. 

Anonymous  (Gr.  'not 
named'),  a  term  applied  to  a  work 
published  without  its  author's 
name.  Where  an  assumed  name  is 
used,  the  work  is  said  to  be  pseud- 
onymous. Anonymity  may  be  the 
result  of  accident,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  doubtful  Elizabethan  plays,  or 
may  be  intentionally  adopted  to 
shield  the  author  from  the  conse- 
quences of  his  satire,  or  because  of 
indifference  to  public  notoriety. 
Anonymity  is  the  general  rule  in 
American  and  British  journalism, 
though  of  recent  years  signetl 
articles,  such  as  special  political 
or  social  contributions  and  ex- 
tended literary  notices,  have  be- 
come common.  Leading  articles, 
however,  still  remain  uniformly 
anonymous,  the  theory  being  that 
the  policy  of  an  individual  paper 
as  tnus  embodied  is  something 
more  than  the  mere  expression 
of  individual  opinion.  Sec  Ilalkett 
and  Laing's  Vict,  oj  Anonymous 
and  Pseudonymous  Lit.  (1881-8); 
Gushing' s  Anonyms  (1889);  in- 
dexes to  Notes  and  Queries  and 
to  Book  Prices  Current;  Bar- 
bier's  Dictionnaire  des  Ouvragcs 
Anonymes  (1872-9  and  1889); 
Qucrard's  Les  Supcrcheries  Lit- 


teraircs  Devoilees  (1869-71);  DttH- 
sclies    Anonymcnlexikon  (1901, 
e*c.);  Melzi's  Diaionario  di  Opcre 
Anonime  (1848-59  and  1887). 
Anoplieles.      See  Mosquito; 

MaLAP-IA. 

An-jplotheriiim  (Gr.  'unarmed 
wild  beast'),  an  extinct  genus  of 
Ungulates,  containing  several  spe- 
cialized species  of  the  Artiodactyla. 
The  feet  were  provided  with  either 
two  or  three  toes.  The  forty-four 
teeth  v/ere  of  uniform  height,  a  con- 
dition found  in  man  alone  among 
existing  mammals.  Remains  have 
been  found  in  the  late  Eocene  and 
OHgocene  rocks  of  France  and 
Great  Britain. 

Anosmia.    See  Smell. 

/:  nque^il,  Louis  Pierre  (1723- 
1806),  French  historian  and  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute;  remembered 
for  his  Histoire  de  Rheims  (1756- 
7);  Histoire  de  France  (1805),  con- 
tinued by  Bouillet  and  Baude 
(ed.  1876-9);  Precis  de  V Histoire 
Universelle  (1797);  and  Louis 
XIV.,  sa  Cour  et  le  Regent  (1789). 

Anquetil-Duperron,  Abraham 
Hyacinthe  (1731-1805),  Orien- 
taKst,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris.  In  1754  he 
proceeded  to  India  to  study  the 
works  of  Zoroaster,  and  returning 
to  Europe  in  1761  was  appointed 
interpreter  of  Oriental  languages 
at  the  Bibliotheque  Royale,  Paris. 
He  brought  with  him  nearly  200 
Persian  mss.,  which  are  now  in 
the  Bibliotheque  Nationale.  He 
published  the  first  European 
translation  of  the  Zend-Avesta 
(1771),  now,  however,  superseded; 
and  Oupnek'hat  (1801-2),  a  Latin 
translation  of  a  Persian  version 
of  the  Upanishads. 

Ansarians.     See  Nossarians. 

Ansars  (Ar.  'Helpers').  _  A 
name  given  to  those  inhabitants 
of  Medina  who  first  professed 
faith  in  Mohammed  and  invited 
him  to  come  to  their  city.  Later 
all  the  people  of  Medina  were 
called  Ansars  in  distinction  from 
the  Muhajirun  ('Fugitives'),  i.e., 
the  Meccans  who  followecl  Mo- 
hammed after  the  Heiira  ('flight'; 
see  Mohammed;  Hejira). 

Ansbach,  also  Anspacii,  tn.. 
Middle  Franconia,  Bavaria,  27  m. 
W.s.w.  of  Nuremberg;  from  1480 
to  1792  the  residence  of  the  mar- 
graves of  Brandenburg-Ansbach, 
whose  palace  (1713-23)  remains. 
Birthplace  of  the  poets  Von  Pla- 
ten and  Uz.    Pop.  (1900)  17,503. 

Ansdoll,  Richard  (181.5-S5), 
English  animal  painter,  born  at 
Liverpool.  He  afterward  travelled 
much,  especially  in  Spain.  He 
thrice  won  the  Hcywood  Medal 
(Manchester),  and  in  1855  a  gold 
medal  at  the  great  Exhibition  in 
Paris,  for  The  Wolf  Slayer  and 
Taming  the  Drove,  and  was  made 
R.A.  in  1870.  Though  painted  in 
the  manner  of  Lanc^seer,  his  works 
arc  inferior  to  his  master's  in 
technique  and  expression. 


Anseelp,  Eduard  (1856),  BeK 
ian  socialist,  born  in  Ghent; 
as  latterly  devoted  himself  to 
literature.  He  founded  the  so- 
cialist periodical  Volkswil  (now 
Vooruit). 

Anselm  (1033-1109),  prelate 
and  scholastic  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Aosta,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Alpine  St.  Bernard  pass. 
*As  a  thinlcer,  a  Christian  leader, 
and  a  man,  he  was  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  and  most  attractive 
characters  of  the  middle  ages.' 
In  1060  he  entered  the  monastery 
of  Bee,  which  Lanfranc's  labors 
had  rendered  famous.  Both  men 
ivere  Italians,  and  this  fact,  along 
mih.  their  zeal  for  the  highest  aims 
of  education  and  moral  reforma- 
tion, bound  them  fast  together.  In 
1063  Anselm  was  installed  as  prior 
of  Bee,  in  succession  to  Lanfranc; 
and  fifteen  years  later,  the  founder 
Herlwin  having  died,  the  prior  was 
elected  abbot,  and  reluctantly  ac- 
cepted the  office.  Shortly  after 
the  death  of  William  the  Con- 
queror (1087)  the  great  change  in 
Anselm's  career  took  place.  Lan- 
franc having  died  in  1089,  the 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury  fell 
vacant.  Not  till  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1093  was  the  see  filled. 
During  the  interval  the  king, 
William  Rufus,  appropriated  the 
revenues.  Anselm,  on  whom  the 
thoughts  of  the  people  fastened 
as  the  most  worthy  successor  to 
Lanfranc,  came  to  England  in 
1092,  and  early  in  1093  the  king 
forced  him,  much  against  his  will, 
to  become  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. Anselm's  later  life  was  a 
long  struggle  in  behalf  of  the 
spiritual  against  the  temporal 
power.  Twice  he  pleadecl  his 
cause  at  Rome,  against  William 
in  1097  and  against  Henry  ll.  in 
1103.  In  1107  the  dispute  be- 
tween him  and  Henry  was  com- 
promised. In  1494  he  was  canon- 
ized. His  fame  as  a  theologian 
excels  even  his  fame  as  a  church- 
man._  He  sought  to  show  that  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity  were 
capable  of  being  expressed  in  a 
rational  system.  He  started  with 
the  articles  of  faith,  and  en- 
deavored to  find  in  them  princi- 
ples that  were  intelligible  {'credo 
ut  intelligam').  This  process  is 
exemplified  in  his  great  book. 
Cur  Vcus  Homo  (Eng.  trans,  by 
Prout,  1887),  an  attempt  to  ex- 
plain the  necessity  of  tne  incar- 
nation and  the  meaning  of  atone- 
ment. Besides  this  book  he  wrote 
two  philosophical  works,  Monolo- 
gion  and  Proslogion  (Eng.  trans., 
with  the  Cur  Deus  Homo,  by 
Dcane,  1903).  His  Letters  and 
other  works  are  collected  in  an 
edition  by  Gerberon  (Paris,  1675). 
His  Life,  by  Eadmer,  is  included 
also.  The  best-known  books  on 
Anselm  in  English  are  by  Mohler 
(Eng.  trans.  1842),  Hasse  (1842- 
53;  Eng.  trans.  1850),  Dean  Hook 


Atiseres 

{Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Can- 
terbury, 1860-76),  and  Dean 
Church  (1870).  In  French  the 
chief  monograph  is  by  Charles 
de  Remusat  (1854).  Cf.  Dante's 
Paradiso,  xii.  128.  See  A.  C. 
Welch's  Anselm  and  his  Work 
(1901). 

Anseres,  Anseriformes.  bee 

Anatid^. 

Ansgar,  sometimes  also  Anskar, 
St.  (801-865),  'the  Apostle  cf  the 
North,'  born  in  Picardy,  was 
monk  at  the  monastery  of  Corvey, 
on  the  Weser,  till  826,  when 
the  emperor,  Ludwig  the  Pious, 
sent  him  to  accompany  the  newly 
baptized  Danish  king,  Harold,  to 
Denmark,  there  to  spread  the 
gospel.  Driven  from  thence,  in 
828  he  went  as  a  missionary  to 
Sweden,  and  in  831  was  made 
missionary  bishop  of  Hamburg. 
In  847  the  see  was  transferred  to 
Bremen.  He  founded  the  Schles- 
wig  Church,  and  in  852  the  Swed- 
ish Church  also,  and  preached 
among  the  Wends.  He  wrote 
Pigmenta  and  Vita  Willehadi. 
The  latter  and  his  own  Life  by 
his  successor.  Archbishop  Rim- 
bert,  are  in  Monumenta  Germanice 
Historica,  vol.  ii.,  ed.  Pertz.  See 
Tappehorn,  Leben  des  Heil:  A. 
(1863). 

Anshelm,  Valerius  (d.  1540), 
whose  real  family  name  was  Riid, 
was  of  German  origin,  but  prac- 
tised as  a  physician  in  Bern  from 
1509.  A  fervent  supporter  of  the 
reformation,  he  was  entrusted 
(1529)  with  the  task  of  writing 
the  history  of  the  city  of  Bern. 
His  Berner  Chronik  is  in  the 
form  of  annals,  and  is  largely 
based  on  original  documents.  He 
takes  the  anti-French  point  of 
view,  and  is  specially  full  on  the 
reformation.  See  Stierlin's  ed. 
(6  vols.  1825-33),  and  E.  Bloesch^s 
Anshelm  und  Seine  Chronik 
(1881). 

Anson,  George,  Lord  Anson 
(1697-1762),  British  admiral,  was 
born  at  Shugborough,  in  Stafford- 
shire. Between  1724  and  1735 
he  made  three  expeditions  to  S. 
Carolina  against  the  Spaniards. 
In  1740  he  was  charged  to  make 
war  against  the  Spanish  colonies; 
was  victorious,  and  returned  to 
England  in  1743  laden  with  booty. 
He  utterly  defeated  the  French 
fleet  under  La  Jonquiere  in  1747, 
capturing  six  men-of-war  and  four 
East  Indiamen,  with  ^^300, 000  in 
specie.  In  recognition  of  this 
service  he  was  raised  to  the  peer- 
age, and  in  1761  was  made 
admiral  of  the  fleet.  Sec  Walter's 
narrative  of  Anson's  Voyage 
Round  the  World  (1748);  and  Life 
by  Sir  John  Barrow  (1839). 

Ansonia,  tn..  New  Haven  co., 
Conn.,  on  the  Naugatuck  R.,  12 
m.  from  New  Haven,  and  on  the 
Berkshire  and  Naugatuck  divi- 
sions of  the  New  York,  New 
Haven    &  Hartford  R.  R.  Its 


261 

manufactures  include  clocks,  brass 
and  copper  goods,  heavy  ma- 
chinery, rollers  for  paper-making 
and    wheat-milHng,   electric  ap- 

Eliances,  etc.  Among  the  chief 
uildings  are  the  public  library, 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and  the  Opera 
House.  The  town  was  named  in 
honor  of  Anson  G.  Phelps.  Pop. 
(1910)  15,152. 

Ansted,  David  Thomas  (1814- 
80),  geologist,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, where  his  earlier  work  _  was 
done  as  professor  (1840)  in  King's 
College;  he  was  later  (1845)  ap- 
pointed to  the  Addiscombe  mili- 
tary school.  He  was  the  author 
of  Geology  (1844),  and  of  popular 
writings — e.g.  Great  Stone  Book  of 
Nature  (1863);  Applications  of 
Geology  to  the  Arts  and  Manu- 
factures (1865);  The  World  we 
Live  in  (1870).  See  Geol.  Mag., 
1880,  p.  336. 

Anster,  John  (1793-1867),  first 
translator  into  English  of  Goethe's 
Faust,  was  an  English  barrister 
and  a  law  professor  in  Dublin. 
Published  Faust  (1835);  Faustus, 
Second  Part  (1864). 

Anstey,  F.,  pseudonym  of 
Thomas  Anstey  Guthrie  (1856), 
born  at  Kensington.  In  his  un- 
dergraduate days  he  published 
several  short  stories,  and  in  1882 
his  first  book.  Vice  Versd:  a  Les- 
son for  Fathers,  attained  a  great 
success,  and  was  afterward  dram- 
atized. Among  his  subsequent 
works  are  The  Gianes  Robe  {1883), 
The  Black  Poodle  (1884),  The 
Tinted  Venus  (1885),  The  Brass 
Bottle  (1900),  The  Fallen  Idol, 
A  Bayard  from  Bengal  (1902),  and 
Only  Toys  (1903),  which  have 
been  very  popular.  Mr.  Anstey 
has  contributed  to  Punch,  and 
many  of  his  papers  have  been 
reprinted.  He  has  also  written 
the  popular  play,  The  Man  from 
Blankley^s. 

Anstruther,  fishing  and  seapt. 
tn.,  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  on  the 
Firth  of  Forth.  A  fine  harbor 
was  completed  in  1877.  It  is  the 
chief  fishing-station  on  the  Fife 
coast.    Thomas  Chalmers  (1780- 

1847)  and  WilHam  Tennant  (1784- 

1848)  ,  author  of  Anster  Fair,  were 
born  here.   Pop.  (1901)  1,666. 

Ant.  Ants  are  social  insects 
of  the  order  Hymenoptera,  to 
which  bees  and  wasps  also  be- 
long. The  name  is  sometimes 
also  given  to  the  termites  (q.v.). 
The  peculiarity  which  specially 
distinguishes  the  true  ants  (For- 
micidas)  is  the  shape  of  the  body, 
the  abdomen  being  connecte.ii  with 
the  thorax,  or  anterior  -region,  by 
a  verv  mobile  joint.  This  gives 
great  power  of  movement,  :and 
frequently  is  associated  with  the 
presence  of  a  sting.  Wheiher  the 
sting  is  present  or  absent,  there  is 
always  a  poison  bag,  containing 
formic  acid,  which  is  either  in- 
jected into  the  wound  made  by 
the  sting,  or  is  merely  squirted  at 


Ant 

an  attacking  foe  in  the  stingless 
forms. 

Other  characteristics  of  the  ants 
are,  first,  the  arrangement  of  the 
mouth  parts.  The  mandibles  (see 
Insects)  are  so  arranged  that  they 
can  be  used  for  various  industrial 
purposes  without  their  movements 
affecting  the  maxillse  and  lower 
lip,  the  true  feeding  organs.  Fur- 
ther, ants  are  also  characterized 
by  the  existence  in  each  species 
of  at  least  three  types  of  indi- 
viduals —  males,  females,  and 
workers,  the  last  type  being  often 
divided  into  castes.  The  young 
are  helpless  maggots,  requiring  to 
be  fed  and  tended  by  the  workers. 
When  full  grown,  these  maggots 
pass  into  a  quiescent  pupa  stage, 
from  which  the  perfect  insect 
emerges  after  an  interval. 

In  conformity  with  their  social 
habits  and  instincts,  ants  always 
live  in  communities,  and  con- 
struct nests  specially  devoted  to 
the  purpose  of  rearing  their  young. 
The  frequent  confusion  of  ants 
with  termites  has  arisen  from  the 
fact  that  the  nests  of  the  two 
resemble  each  other  much  more 
closely  than  those  of  the  ants  re- 
semble the  chambered  structures 
of  their  nearest  allies,  the  social 
bees  and  wasps.  While  among 
the  latter  the  larvae  are  always 
placed  in  separate  cells,  the  ants 
keep  their  young  in  loose  masses, 
the  individuals  being  moved  from 
one  region  of  the  nest  to  another 
as  the  necessities  of  the  case  re- 
quire. Ants  are  specially  sensi- 
tive to  dryness,  and  usually  con- 
struct subterranean  galleries  and 
chambers,  with  the  apparent  ob- 
ject of  obtaining  moisture;  but 
the  shape  and  situation  of  the  nest 
are  subject  to  great  variation. 

The  economy  of  the  ant-nest  in 
its  simplest  form  may  be  given  as 
follows: — A  nest  contains  numer- 
ous eggs,  laid  by  one  or  more  fer- 
tile females  (queens),  which  are 
tended  by  barren  females  or 
workers.  The  young  hatched 
from  these  eggs  are  fed  from  the 
mouths  of  the  workers,  who  are, 
it  is  believed,  capable  of  deter- 
mining the  sex  of  the  future  in- 
sects by  the  nature,  or  perhaps 
the  quantity,  of  the  food.  The 
young  then  become  pupce,  out  of 
which  hatch  either  winged  or 
wingless  adults.  The  former  are 
males  and  females,  are  produced 
chiefly  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  rise  from  the  nest  in 
a  smokelike  cloud  into  the  air. 
This  is  the  nuptial  flight,  during 
which  pairing  takes  place,  and  is 
followed  by  the  death  of  the  males. 
The  females  lose  their  wings,  and 
either  return  to  the  original  nest, 
or  are  apparently  capable  of  found- 
ing new  nests.  In  either  case  they 
continue  to  lay  fertile  eggs  for  a 
prolonged  period.  The  wingless 
forms  do  not  quit  the  nest  save 
during   their   ordinary  pursuits, 


Ant 

and,  though  they  are  all  barren 
females,  occur  in  various  forms, 
as  soldiers,  large  workers,  ana 
small  workers.  To  them  all  the 
activities  of  ant  life,  save  that  of 
reproduction,  are  committed.  This 
is  the  simplest  statement  of  ant 
economy;  but  it  is  now  known 
that  there  are  various  types  of 
fertile  individuals,  both  males  and 
females,  some  being,  apparently, 
always  without  wings.  Transi- 
tional forms  also  occur  between 
workers  and  fertile  females. 

A  remarkable  peculiarity  of 
ants,  and  one  that  has  always 
attracted  attention,  is  the  slave- 


262 

cenSf  known  as  the  Amazon  ant, 
found  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
is  stated  to  be  entirely  dependent 
on  its  slaves.  These  ants  have 
mandibles,  which  serve  as  efficient 
weapons  in  war — for  which  they 
display  much  natural  aptitude — 
but  which  are  not  fitted  for  ordi- 
nary industrial  purposes. 

This  association  of  different 
species  of  ants  as  masters  and 
slaves  is  paralleled  by  the  habit 
which  many  display  of  living  in 
association  with  totally  unrelated 
insects.  The  fact  that  ants  do- 
mesticate aphids  —  *  ant-cows ' — 
has  long  been  known;  but  modern 


Ant 

rid  of  them — and  others  are  defi- 
nitely parasites,  some  seem  to  be 
of  the  nature  of  pets. 

Ants  are  so  numerous  that  one 
or  two  typical  forms  only  can  be 
mentioned  here.  The  large  Ameri- 
can black  anf,  Formica  pennsyl- 
vanica,  constructs  loosely-built, 
moundlike  nests,  sometimes  reach- 
ing three  feet  in  height,  in  which 
forty  to  fifty  species  of  guests  have 
been  described.  The  tropical 
American  leaf-cutting  ants  {Atta) 
are  among  the  most  destructive 
of  insects.  They  gather  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  material  in  the 
shape  of  pieces  of  leaves,  and  util- 


A  Jits. 

1.  Polyergus ruf escens ;  2.  Formica fusca ;  ?.  T*'  saii^inea;  7.  F.  rufa;  4.  Solenopsis  fugax;  5.  Pheidole  mepracephala  (major); 
6.  Myrmica  niginodis ;  8.  CEcodoma  cephalo«-e3  >inajor) ;  13.  CB.  cophalus  (male) ;  19.  CE.  cephalotes  (minor) ;  9  arid  14.  Atta  barbara 
(minor  and  major) ;  10.  Stenamma  Westwoodii ;  11  and  17.  Termesbollieosus  (soldier  and  male) ;  18  and  15.  Lasius  flavus  ;  16.  Campa- 
notus  inflatus ;  18.  Myrmeleo  f orniicalis ;  20.  Strongylognathus  f estaceus ;  21.  Lasius  niger;  22.  Tetramorium  cajspitum. 


making  practised  by  many  species. 
The  large  red  ant,  Formica  san- 
guineay  an  inhabitant  of  both 
Europe  and  North  America,  a 
courageous  and  warrior-like  spe- 
cies, at  times  makes  raids  on 
other  ants,  carrying  off  their  pupai 
to  its  own  nest.  It  is  stated  that 
these  forays  take  place  only  at 
ihose  seasons  of  the  year  when 
the  pupae  are  likely  to  be  all 
workers,  and  not  males  or  females. 
It  is,  at  least,  certain  that  the 
workers  hatched  from  the  stolen 
pupae  remain  in  the  nests  of  their 
conquerors,  and  there  perform 
much  of  the  needful  work.  The 
slave-making  in  the  case  of  this 
species  is  not  universal,  and  ants 
are  capable  of  existing  without 
their  slaves;  but  Folyergus  rujes- 


research  is  greatly  multiplying  the 
number  of  kinds  of  insects  which 
may  be  found  in  ant-nests.  The 
association  with  aphids  is  not 
very  remarkable;  for  ants  are 
exceedingly  fond  of  the  sugary 
secretion  which  they  are  induced 
to  exude  under  the  stroking  of 
an  ant's  antennae,  and  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  plant-lice 
lead  to  the  belief  that  they  are 
quite  passiv(  in  the  transaction. 
Much  more  remarkable  is  the 
large  number  of  beetles  found 
in  ant-nests,  some  of  which  are 
fed  by  the  ants,  and  carried  away 
by  them  if  any  circumstance 
should  render  a  migration  neces- 
sary.   While  in  some  cases  these 

guests  are  simply  tolerated — per- 
aps  because  tne  ants  cannot  get 


ize  this  with  much  skill  to  form 
'fungus-beds,*  on  which  they 
grow  singularly  pure  cultures  of 
a  fungus  which  constitutes  their 
main  food  supply.  The  natural- 
ists Bates  {Naturalist  on  the  Ama- 
c:ons)  and  Belt  (Naturalist  in  Nic- 
aragua) have  given  interesting 
accounts  of  these  formidable  creat- 
ures. The  wandering  ants  {Eci- 
ton)  are  interesting  South  and 
Central  American  forms,  which 
are  usually  blind,  and  do  not  make 
permanent  nests,  but  wander  from 
place  to  place  The  driver  ants 
(Anomma)  of  West  Africa  are  re- 
lated forms,  which  travel  in  vast 
hordes^  overwhelming  everything 
on  their  path.  For  a  general  ac- 
count of  ants,  see  the  Text-hooks 
ol  Entomology  by  Packard,  Com- 


ANTS'  NESTS. 


1.  Wood  ants'  nest  (part),  about  two-thirds  natural  size,  after  White  and  Kirby. — 2.  Interior  of  same  (section):  o,  galleries;  x,  pupaj.^ 
3.  Tree  ants'  nest,  about  one-seventh  natural  size:  e,  exterior;  s,  section. — 4.  Nest  of  agricultural  ant,  about  one-fiftieth  natural  size;  after 
McCook:  M,  mound;  e,  entrance;  i),  disc,  cleared  of  grass,  etc.;  r,  roads. — 5.  Horizontal  section  of  same:  s  l,  surface  level;  e,  entrance; 
0,  granaries;  s,  seeds  stored;  o,  openings  from  below. — 6.  Nest  of  honey  ant,  about  one-third  natural  size;  after  McCook:  e  v,  exterior  view; 
s  V,  sectional  view;  e,  entrance;  g,  galleries;  H  r,  honey-room. — 7.  Honey  ants  in  their  chamber  full  of  honey,  about  two-thirds  natural  size. 


Vol.  I. — Page  263 


Vol.  I. — March  '30 


Antacids 


264 


Antarctic  Exploration 


stock,  or  Sharp;  Lubbock's  Ants, 
Bees,  and  Wasps;  White's  Ants 
and  Their  Ways;  McCook'sAgn- 
cultural  Ant  of  Texas;  articles 
by  Wheeler  in  The  American 
Naturalist. 

Antacids,  ant-as'idz,  medi- 
cines which  counteract  acidity 
by  combining  with  the  acid.  The 
acids  formed  in  the  stomach  dur- 
ing digestion,  such  as  lactic  acid 
and  butyric  acid,  are  neutralized 
by  antacids  given  after  meals. 
Certain  alkalis  are  given  with  the 
object  of  rendering  the  blood 
plasma  more  alkaline:  these  are 
the  salts  of  potassium,  sodium, 
ammonium,  lithium,  magnesium, 
and  calcium.  Antacids  are  ad- 
ministered chiefly  in  dyspepsia, 
gout,  rheumatism,  and  uric-acid 
diathesis. 

Antaeus,  an-te'us,  according 
to  Greek  tradition,  a  Libyan 
giant  of  invincible  strength  as  a 
wrestler,  until  overcome  by  Her- 
cules. It  was  believed  that  he 
was  the  son  of  Gaea,  the  earth, 
from  whom  he  received  his  power. 

Antag'onism,  in  anatomy,  the 
opposition  of  one  set  of  muscles 
to  another — e.g.,  of  the  flexors 
and  extensors  of  the  arm;  in 
medicine,  the  counteraction  of 
some  drug  against  others — e.g., 
atropine  shows  antagonism  to 
morphine. 

Antalcidas,  an-tal'si-das, 
Greek  statesman  born  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.,  was  ambas- 
sador from  Sparta  to  the  Persians 
in  393-392  and  in  388-387,  in 
each  instance  with  the  view  of 
strengthening  Sparta  against 
Athens  by  means  of  Persian  sup- 
port. On  his  return  from  the 
second  of  these  missions  as  ad- 
miral of  the  Spartan  fleet,  he 
conducted  the  war  against  Athens 
so  successfully  as  to  conclude  the 
Peace  of  Antalcidas,  by  which  all 
the  cities  and  islands  of  Greece 
except  Imbros,  Lemnos,  and 
Skythos  were  declared  indepen- 
dent, and  all  the  Greek  cities  of 
Asia  Minor  were  annexed  to  the 
Persian  empire.  He  was  again 
sent  to  Persia  in  371  B.C. 

Antananarivo,  capital  of 
Madagascar.   See  Tananarivo. 

Antar,  an'tar,  or  Antara,  ibn 
Sheddad  al-Absi,  celebrated 
Arabian  warrior  and  pre-Islamic 
poet  of  the  sixth  century,  author 
of  one  of  the  seven  select  Arabian 
poems,  called  the  Moallakat  (Eng. 
trans.,  Seven  Arabic  Poems,  by 
Johnson).  He  is  the  hero  of  the 
group  of  Arabian  romances, 
Antar,  a  portion  of  which  was 
translated  into  English  by  Hamil- 
ton as  Antar:  a  Bedouin  Romance. 

Antarctica.  vSee  Antarctic 
Exploration. 

Antarctic  Exploration.  The 
story  of  Antarctic  exploration  in 
the  restricted  sense  of  the  area 
beyond  the  Antarctic  Circle  be- 
gins January  17,  1773.  On  that 
day    Lieutenant    James  Cook 

Vol.  L — March  '30 


crossed,  for  the  first  time  in  hu- 
man history,  the  line  that  divides 
the  South  Temperate  from  the 
South  Frigid  Zone.  He  had  two 
small  sailing  ships,  the  Resolution 
and  the  Adventure.  Crossing  the 
Circle  in  the  neighborhood  of  40° 
East  Longitude,  he  pushed  on  to 
67°  15'  South  Latitude.  Here  he 
was  turned  back  by  the  ice.  The 
following  year  he  again  guided  his 
ships  southward,  this  time  cross- 
ing and  recrossing  the  line  be- 
tween the  150th  and  130th  merid- 
ians West,  then  describing  a 
great  swing  to  the  north  and 
coming  back  to  the  Antarctic 
Circle  near  the  110th  meridian 
West  Longitude.  Finally  he 
drove  deeply  into  the  mysterious 
area,  and  on  January  30,  1774, 
reached  in  Longitude  106°  54' 
West  and  Latitude  71°  10'  South, 
the  farthest  south  attained  in 
the  eighteenth  century. 

The  honor  of  having  sighted 
the  first  land  within  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle  belongs  to  Captain 
Fabian  von  Bellingshausen.  He 
led  a  Russian  expedition  which 
sailed  from  Kronstadt  in  1819. 
January  28,  1820,  he  reached 
Latitude  69°  21'  South,  Longi- 
tude 2°  15'  West.  Stopped  there 
by  the  ice  he  headed  east  and 
went  back  to  Sidney.  At  the 
opening  of  the  next  Antarctic 
summer  he  sailed  again,  and  on 
January  11,  1821,  sighted  land  in 
Latitude  69°  30'  South,  near  the 
90th  meridian  of  West  Longitude. 
This  land  was  an  island,  and  he 
named  it  Peter  i.  Island,  in  honor 
of  the  founder  of  the  Russian 
Navy.  Six  days  later  he  dis- 
covered, further  east,  another 
island,  which  he  called  Alexander 
I.  Island,  in  honor  of  the  patron 
of  his  expedition. 

While  sailing  eastward  from 
his  latter  discovery  Bellings- 
hausen encountered  Captain 
Nathaniel  B.  Palmer,  a  Con- 
necticut sailing  master  who  had 
skirted  the  coast  of  a  land  lying 
south  of  Bransfield  Strait  from 
the  neighborhood  of  Antarctic 
Sound  to  the  north  end  of  De 
Gerlache  Strait.  Until  the  1928 
flight  of  Captain  Sir  Hubert 
Wilkins  it  was  supposed  that  this 
land  was  a  peninsula  of  the  Ant- 
arctic Continent,  but  his  aerial 
surveys  show  it  to  be  a  long  chain 
of  large  islands  separated  from 
one  another  and  from  the  main- 
land by  a  series  of  channels.  A 
map  published  in  London  by 
George  Powell,  in  1822,  gives 
Palmer's  chart  of  the  coast,  which 
agrees  with  the  findings  of  Cap- 
tain Wilkins,  and  shows  that  it 
should  be  called  Palmer  Land 
instead  of  Graham  Land,  as  it  is 
given  in  the  later  maps  of  the 
English  cartographers. 

The  next  expedition  of  major 
note  was  that  of  James  Weddell. 
In  command  of  the  brig  Jane  and 
the  cutter  Beaufoy,  he  sailed  into 


the  sea  that  now  bears  his  name, 
and  there,  on  February  20,  1823, 
reached  the  farthest  south  up  to 
his  day  in  Latitude  74°  15'  South, 
Longitude  34°  16'  45"  West. 
After  Weddell  came  John  Biscoe 
in  the  Enderby  brig  Tula  and 
cutter  Lively.  He  crossed  the 
Antarctic  Circle  in  Longitude  1° 
East,  January  22,  1831,  and 
sailed  to  50°  East  Longitude 
within  or  on  the  Antarctic  Circle, 
reaching  his  69°  South  in  10°  43' 
East,  January  28,  and  discover- 
ing Enderby  Land  February  28. 
The  promontory  he  saw  there  he 
named  Cape  Anne.  Then  the 
winter  closed  in  and  Biscoe  sailed 
back  to  Hobart.  The  following 
October  he  sailed  into  the  Ant- 
arctic again.  On  February  17 
and  18  he  discovered  the  row  of 
islands  and  later  landed  on  the 
larger  area  which  Mill  says  must 
have  been  the  land  discovered  by 
Captain  Palmer  and  named  for 
him  by  Powell — an  honor  denied 
Palmer  by  later  British  chart 
makers. 

In  1833  a  British  skipper 
named  Kemp  sighted  land  near 
the  60th  meridian  East  and 
named  it  Kemp  Land.  It  never 
has  been  sighted  since  but  still 
remains  on  British  charts.  In 
1839  John  Balleny,  in  the  schoon- 
er Eliza  Scott  and  the  dandy- 
rigged  cutter  Sabrina,  reached 
the  Antarctic  Circle  in  Longitude 
178°  East,  January  29,  and  dis- 
covered the  Balleny  Islands 
February  9.  He  reported  the 
sighting  of  land  in  Longitude 
121°  East. 

The  honor  of  first  recognizing 
Antarctica  as  a  continent  and  of 
the  longest  tracing  of  its  shore 
line  belongs  to  Lieutenant  (after- 
ward Admiral)  Charles  Wilkes, 
of  the  United  States  Navy.  He 
was  appointed  to  command  a 
fleet  which  was  to  make  'a  second 
attempt  to  penetrate  within  the 
Antarctic  region,  south  of  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  and  as  far  west 
as  Longitude  45°  East,  or  to 
Enderby  Land.'  His  squadron 
consisted  of  the  Vincennes,  the 
Peacock,  the  Porpoise,  and  the 
Flying  Fish.  On  January  16, 
1840,  the  expedition  sighted  what 
it  believed  to  be  land  in  Longi- 
tude 157°  46'  East.  Heading 
west  it  penetrated  a  deep  bay. 
The  headland  at  its  entrance 
Lieutenant  Wilkes  named  Cape 
Hudson  in  honor  of  his  second  in 
command.  Lieutenant  William  L, 
Hudson.  Sailing  along  the  coast 
the  Wilkes  expedition  sighted 
land  several  times  between  Janu- 
ary 19  and  30.  On  the  latter 
date  it  approached  within  half  a 
mile  of  dark  volcanic  rocks,  with 
land  rising  to  3,000  feet  and  ex- 
tending over  60  miles.  It  was 
here  that  Wilkes  christened  the 
great  Antarctic  area  Antarctica. 
February  2  the  expedition  was  in 
contact  with  land  60  miles  west 


le  with  "  Belgica  "  1898  — r- 
jold  with  "Antarctic"  1902  _ 

"AnUrctic"  1903 
old's  sled^ng  parties 

m-10   

f  fLuplaae,  192& 


SiiJC.giloody  • 


iv!^  ^  c 


Elephant ] 


Antarctic  Exploration 


265 


Antarctic  Exploration 


of  Piner's  Bay.  February  7  land 
was  definitely  sighted  and  named 
Cape  Carr,  February  13  Wilkes 
landed  and  gathered  geological 
specimens.  February  14  he  saw 
a  75-mile  stretch  of  land,  and 
going  ashore  gathered  boulders, 
stones,  gravel,  and  clay.  In 
Longitude  97°  37'  East,  Wilkes 
came  to  what  he  named  Termina- 
tion Land,  where  he  headed  north 
and  ended  his  cruise. 

For  many  decades  it  was  popu- 
lar, in  England  particularly,  to 
minimize  the  work  of  Wilkes. 
Many  explorers  and  map  makers 
referred  slightingly  to  his  dis- 
coveries or  entirely  omitted  refer- 
ence to  them,  and  sought  in  every 
way  to  shorten  the  shore  line  he 
traced.  But  latterly  this  attitude 
of  injustice  is  changing,  and  most 
authorities  now  admit  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  Wilkes  saw  land 
along  the  line  where  Adelie  Land, 
Kemp  Land  and  Enderby  Land 
are  known  to  exist. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the 
French  explorer  d'Urville's  loca- 
tion of  land  along  the  same  conti- 
nental periphery  agrees  with  the 
findings  of  Wilkes.  Furthermore, 
when  the  fact  is  considered  that 
he  failed  to  drop  a  day  when 
crossing  the  180th  meridian, 
events  recorded  by  the  two  ex- 
plorers fit  together  perfectly,  as 
was  shown  in  1910  by  Rear  Ad- 
miral John  E.  Pillsbury,  u.  s.  n., 
later  President  of  the  National 
Geographic  Society.  With  this 
correction  it  became  clear  that 
Wilkes  sighted  Cape  Hudson  the 
day  before  d'Urville  saw  Adelie 
Land,  and  that  Ringgold,  of  the 
Wilkes  expedition,  saw  the  Cote 
Clarie  some  hours  before  it  was 
sighted  by  d'Urville. 

One  of  the  grounds  upon  which 
explorers  long  refused  to  accept 
the  discoveries  of  Wilkes  was  that 
they  did  not  find  the  land  in 
exactly  the  same  spots  where  he 
had  charted  it,  some  of  them  de- 
claring they  had  sailed  over  lands 
he  had  charted.  On  this  point 
Commander  Richard  E.  Byrd 
offers  testimony  in  his  statement 
that  Amundsen  underestimated 
the  distances  of  mountains,  due 
to  the  deceptive  character  of  the 
clear  atmosphere. 

The  next  major  explorer  in  the 
Antarctic  was  Captain  J.  Clark 
Ross,  R.  N.  He  had  two  ships, 
the  Erebus  and  the  Terror,  and 
had  intended  to  sail  straight  from 
Hobart  to  the  South  Magnetic 
Pole  region.  But  seeing  that 
Wilkes  and  ^'Urville  were  in  that 
general  area  he  entered  the  pack 
ice  on  January  5,  1841  in  Longi- 
tude 174°  34'  East.  Pushing 
through  this  he  found  open  water 
in  what  is  now  Ross  Sea  and  fol- 
lowed the  western  shore  of  that 
sea,  landing  on  Possession  Island. 
There,  unable  to  reach  the  main- 
land, he  named  that  mainland 
Victoria  Land  and  claimed  it  for 


his  queen.  He  sailed  first  south- 
ward and  then  eastward  along  the 
Barrier  to  167°  West  Longitude, 
having  made  a  furthest  south  of 
78°  4',  and  then  returned  to 
Hobart,  after  failing  to  find  a 
winter  base.  He  returned  again 
in  November,  1841,  entering  the 
pack  ice  in  146°  West  Longitude 
and  reached  the  Barrier  in  Longi- 
tude 161°  27'  West,  a  few  degrees 
northeast  of  Commander  Byrd's 
Little  America.  Ross  then  skirt- 
ed, but  did  not  identify,  what 
since  has  been  called  King  Ed- 
ward VII.  Land,  and  then  went  to 
the  Falkland  Islands,  where  he 
wintered.  Returning  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  following  season,  he 
fought  his  way  eastward  from  the 
longitude  of  Joinville  Island, 
finally  crossing  the  Antarctic 
Circle  March  1,  1843,  but  dis- 
covering no  land.  He  recrossed 
it  and  headed  for  civilization 
March  11.  A  fruitful  but  very 
short  expedition  to  the  Antarctic 
was  that  of  February  16,  1874 
made  by  the  Challenger,  the  first 
steamship  to  cross  the  Antarctic 
Circle.  She  came  out  again  in  a 
few  days,  for  her  mission  was  a 
cruise  of  the  oceans  and  not  a 
war  with  polar  ice.  But  with 
some  of  the  ablest  scientists 
aboard  that  ever  set  foot  in  polar 
areas  she  brought  back  a  wealth 
of  material. 

Antarctic  exploration  for  a 
quarter  of  a  century  after  the 
Challenger  expedition  was  limited 
to  the  normal  activities  of  whal- 
ing ships  with  which  discoveries 
were  only  incidental,  and  there- 
fore of  a  minor  nature.  But 
deeper  interest  was  reborn  in 

1898.  January  23  of  that  year 
saw  Lieutenant  Adrien  de  Ger- 
lache,  of  the  Belgian  Navy,  with 
his  Belgica  expedition  off  the 
coast  of  Palmer  Archipelago.  He 
found  the  strait  which  Nathaniel 
B.  Palmer  had  discovered  in 
1821,  and  marked  the  archipelago 
on  their  charts  Archipel  de 
Palmer.  The  expedition  dis- 
covered more  than  a  hundred 
islands  in  De  Gerlache  Strait. 
This  expedition  was  the  first  that 
ever  wintered  in  the  Antarctic. 
It  was  caught  and  frozen  in  the 
ice  in  71°  30'  South,  on  March  3, 
and  for  thirteen  months  was  held 
tight. 

During  the  same  period  C.  E. 
Borchgrevink  led  an  expedition 
to  the  Ross  Sea  area.  He  fitted 
out  the  old  whaUng  ship  Pollux 
with  powerful  engines,  rechris- 
tened  it  the  Southern  Cross, 
gathered  around  him  a  competent 
staff,  and  ret  sail.    February  17, 

1899,  the  Southern  Cross  dropped 
anchor  at  the  foot  of  Cape  Adare, 
the  first  anchor  ever  dropped 
within  the  Antarctic  Circle. 
After  putting  10  men  and  sup- 
plies on  shore,  the  ship,  on  March 
2,  departed  for  New  Zealand. 
The  hardships  of  this  first  Ant- 


arctic night  on  shore  were  in- 
describable. Finally  the  South- 
ern Cross  returned,  finding  the 
party  January  28,  1900.  Febru- 
ary 2  all  hands  went  aboard  and 
sailed  southward.  Before  turn- 
ing back  the  party  was  rewarded 
for  its  hardships  by  reaching 
78°  50'  South  Latitude  and 
breaking  the  previous  record  of 
poleward  travel. 

In  1901  Captain  Robert  F. 
Scott,  accompanied  by  Lieu- 
tenant Ernest  H.  Shackleton, 
sailed  for  the  Antarctic  in  the 
Discovery.  They  entered  the 
pack  ice  January  1,  1902,  landed 
at  Cape  Adare  January  9,  and  at 
the  base  of  Mount  Terror  Janu- 
ary 22.  Sailing  eastward  along 
the  Barrier  they  discovered  King 
Edward  vii.  Land.  February  10 
they  found  a  harbor  in  McMurdo 
Bay,  sailing  over  slopes  of  moun- 
tains as  shown  on  Ross'  charts — 
the  same  Ross  who  had  rejected 
Wilkes'  findings  entirely  on  kin- 
dred grounds.  Here  the  Dis- 
covery was  anchored,  huts  were 
built  on  shore,  and  the  Antarctic 
night  came  apace.  With  the 
following  summer  Scott  and 
Shackleton  set  out  November  2 
and  December  30  reached  82°  17' 
South,  the  farthest  south.  The 
ice  never  broke  sufficiently  to 
release  the  Discovery.  Lieuten- 
ant Shackleton  was  invalided 
aboard  the  Morning  which  had 
come  out  on  a  relief  expedition 
and  Scott  settled  down  to  an- 
other year's  work.  He  explored 
Victoria  Land  reaching  his  re- 
motest point  from  his  ship  No- 
vember 30,  1903.  January  5, 
1904  the  Morning  and  the  Terra 
Nova  appeared  at  the  edge  of  the 
ice  with  peremptory  orders  to 
bring  the  Scott  party  back  to 
England  even  if  the  Discovery 
had  to  be  abandoned.  The  ice 
fortunately  broke  up  with  the  aid 
of  blasting  operations  and  Feb- 
ruary 18,  1904  the  three  ships 
headed  homeward. 

In  February,  1902,  a  German 
Antarctic  expedition,  under  Erich 
von  Drygalski,  in  the  Gauss, 
reached  pack  ice  in  61°  58'  South 
Latitude  and  95°  8'  East  Longi- 
tude. Proceeding  south,  the  ex- 
pedition discovered  new  land, 
which  was  named  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
II.  Land,  and  wintered  off  this 
land  in  89°  48'  East  Longitude 
and  66°  2'  South  Latitude.  Near 
the  coast  an  inactive  volcano,  the 
Gaussberg  (1,200  feet)  was  ob- 
served. 

A  Swedish  expedition  in  the 
Antarctic,  1901-1903,  under  Otto 
Nordenskjold,  proved  that  the 
west  coast  of  Danco  Land  is  a 
continuation  of  Louis  Philippe 
Land;  also  that  Mount  Hadding- 
ton is  placed  upon  an  island. 
Nordenskjold's  ship,  the  Ant- 
arctic, was  crushed  by  ice,  and 
sank;  but  all  the  party,  having 
wintered  on  Bouvet  Island,  were 

Vol.  I. — March  '30 


Antarctic  Exploration 


265  A 


Antarctic  Exploration 


rescued  by  an  Argentine  gunboat 
commanded  by  Captain  Irizar. 

A  Scottish  national  Antarctic 
expedition,  led  by  Dr.  W.  S. 
Bruce,  in  the  Scotia,  1902-04,  ex- 
plored in  its  first  season  4,000 
miles  of  ocean,  from  17°  to  45° 
West  Longitude  in  70°  25'  South 
Latitude,  wintering  in  the  South 
Orkneys.  In  its  second  season  it 
reached  the  southeastern  extremi- 
ty of  the  Weddell  Sea,  and  dis- 
covered that  a  great  barrier  of 
ice,  believed  to  be  part  of  the 
Antarctic  continent,  was  600 
miles  north  of  its  supposed  posi- 


car  with  runners,  and  Siberian 
ponies,  which,  however,  proved 
of  little  practical  service.  Shack- 
leton  located  the  South  Magnetic 
Pole  January  16,  1909,  at  72°  25' 
South  and  155°  16'  East.  He 
also  climbed  Mount  Erebus,  13,- 
500  feet  high. 

The  year  1911  brought  the  final 
triumph  over  the  forbidden  areas 
of  the  Antarctic.  In  August, 
1910,  Captain  Roald  Amundsen 
left  Christiana  (now  Oslo),  Nor- 
way, headed  for  the  Bay  of 
Whales.  There  February  10, 
1911  he  began  to  prepare  for  his 


15,000  feet,  the  highest  being 
Neilsen  Mountain.  Over  the 
'Devil's  Ball  Room'  the  trail  led, 
the  party  reaching  the  greatest 
height,  10,750  feet,  on  December 
6.  From  this  point  a  flat  plain 
extended  to  88°  25',  thus  con- 
firming Shackleton's  observations 
at  his  last  camp  (88°  23').  With 
ideal  sledging  and  beautiful 
weather  each  day  15  nautical 
miles  were  covered,  until  on  De- 
cember 14  the  South  Pole  was 
attained. 

The  Pole  was  located  upon  a 
vast  white,  snow-covered  plain. 


(g)  Evxlng  Galloway,  N.Y. 

View  in  Antarctica  showing  For  tuna  Harbor,  South  Georgia,  reached  by  Sir  Ernest  Shackleton 

on  his  Last  Trip 


tion.  The  expedition  also  dredged 
in  Ross'  Deep,  which  proved  to 
be  2,600  fathoms. 

In  1904-05  a  French  expedi- 
tion under  Dr.  Jean  Charcot,  in 
the  FranQais,  explored  the  Palmer 
Archipelago.  In  1908-10  Dr. 
Charcot  made  another  expedition 
in  the  Pourquoi  Fas,  in  which  he 
pushed  still  farther  south,  dis- 
covering new  land,  which  he 
named  for  his  father  Charcot 
Land. 

One  of  the  most  successful  of  all 
Antarctic  expeditions  was  that  of 
Lieutenant  (afterward  Sir)  E.  H. 
Shackleton  in  the  Nimrod,  which 
returned  in  1909,  after  a  journey 
of  1,700  miles.  Shackleton 
reached  88°  23'  South,  or  within 
111  miles  c)f  the  South  Pole,  on 
January  9,  1909.  Novel  features 
of  this  expedition  were  a  motor 

Vol.  I. — March  '30 


dash  to  the  South  Pole  in  the  fol- 
lowing Antarctic  summer.  He 
established  a  base  which  he  called 
Framheim,  and  there  spent  the 
longest  winter  that  Antarctic 
meteorology  records. 

Amundsen  got  under  way  on 
his  drive  to  the  Pole  October  19, 
with  Hanssen,  Wisting,  Hassel, 
and  Bjaaland  as  his  fellow  adven- 
turers. November  17  the  party 
was  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
and  began  the  ascent  to  the  Divide 
between  the  coastal  area  and  the 
Polar  Plateau.  The  first  night's 
camp  was  made  at  a  2,000-foot 
altitude.  The  second  night  found 
the  party  up  to  4,000  feet.  On 
the  fourth  night  camp  was  made 
at  an  altitude  of  10,600  feet. 

Through  a  heavily  glaciated, 
mountainous  country,  peaks  ap- 
peared at  levels  of  from  9,000  to 


slightly  descending  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  march,  and  at  an  ele- 
vation of  about  10,750  feet.  The 
mean  temperature  at  the  Pole 
was  15°  below  zero  Fahrenheit, 
and  the  lowest  on  the  journey 
thither,  34°  below.  During  the 
greater  part  of  the  4  days  near  the 
Pole  the  sun  shone  clear,  and  the 
wind  was  light.  The  last  station 
where  observations  were  taken 
was  at  89°  59'  South,  and  the 
advance  was  pushed  about  9 
miles  farther.  The  camp  was 
named  Polheim.  and  upon  de- 
parture the  tent  was  left  stand- 
ing, with  the  Norwegian  flag  fly- 
ing. To  the  plateau  was  given 
the  name  King  Haakon  vii.,  and 
to  the  mountain  extending  from 
the  Barrier  far  inland,  and  pos- 
sibly an  Antarctic  extension  of 
the  Andes,  Queen  Maud's  Range. 


From  A  mundsen's  'The  South  l^ole' ;  Copyright  by  Lee  Keedick 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  SOUTH  POLE 
1.  Amundsen  and  Hi.s  Companions  Bidding  Farewell  to  Their  Tent  at  the  South  Pole.    2.  Amundsen 
Taking  an  Observation  at  the  South  Pole. 

Vol.  I.— Page  26.5  B  Vol.  I.— March  '30 


Antarctic  Exioration 

The  journey  back  to  Fram- 
heim,  the  base  station,  was  made 
in  39  days  (ending  January  25), 
at  an  average  of  19-20  miles  per 
day.  Here  it  was  learned  that 
during  the  absence  of  the  polar 
party,  Captain  Neilsen  had  taken 
the  Fram  to  78°  41'  South,  the 
farthest  south  attained  by  any 
vessel — thus  gaining  for  the  Fram 
the  unique  distinction  of  the 
farthest  north  and  the  farthest 
south  of  any  ship.  During  the 
absence  of  the  polar  party,  Lieu- 
tenant Prestrud  also  had  made 
a  reconnoissance  to  the  eastward, 
across  the  interior  of  King  Ed- 
ward VII.  Land,  coming  out  again 
upon  the  front  of  the  Ross  Ice 
Barrier  at  77°  34',  and  defining 
the  outline  of  much  wholly  new 
territory.  Skua  gulls  were  seen. 
Amundsen  and  his  comrades  per- 
formed the  entire  journey  with- 
out illness  or  serious  accident. 

The  world  hailed  the  achieve- 
ment of  Captain  Amundsen  and 
his  indomitable  associates.  He 
received  the  congratulations  of 
King  Haakon,  of  Norway,  in 
whose  honor  he  had  named  the 
polar  area.  Visiting  Washington 
he  was  awarded  the  Hubbard 
Medal  of  the  National  Geograph- 
ic Society,  receiving  it  at  the 
hands  of  his  friend  and  fellow 
explorer  Admiral  Robert  E. 
Peary,  the  discoverer  of  the 
North  Pole.  Many  other  medals 
of  geographic  societies  also  were 
presented  him. 

While  Captain  Amundsen  was 
painfully  making  his  way  to  the 
South  Pole,  another  great  ex- 
plorer was  setting  out  a  little 
further  to  the  West  in  his  second 
quest  of  the  same  objective. 
Captain  Robert  F.  Scott  with  the 
most  perfectly  equipped  and  ex- 
pensively outfitted  expedition 
that  had  yet  reached  Antarctic 
waters,  reached  Cape  Evans,  14 
miles  north  of  the  headquarters 
of  his  previous  Discovery  expedi- 
tion. He,  like  Amundsen,  win- 
tered on  the  shores  of  Ross  Sea 
and  had  everything  set  for  an 
early  march  in  the  Antarctic 
spring  of  1911.  He  left  his  base 
on  November  2,  fourteen  days 
after  Amundsen  started. 

The  motor  party  turned  back 
at  81°  15';  and  after  most  difficult 
travelling  in  snow — sometimes 
drifting  and  sometimes  melting — 
Scott's  party  reached  83°  24'  on 
December  4.  On  December  9, 
having  reached  the  Beardmore 
Glacier,  through  snow  in  which 
only  8  miles  were  done  in  14 
hours,  the  ponies  were  destroyed, 
the  forage  having  been  exhausted. 
The  travelling  grew  worse,  and  on 
5  successive  days  only  5  miles  a 
day  were  made  in  from  10  to  11 
hours'  work.  On  December  14, 
the  day  that  Amundsen  reached 
the  South  Pole  and  found  a  shin- 
ing sun,  Scott  was  beginning  his 
ascent   of    Beardmore  (ilacier. 

Vol.  L — March  '30 


265  C 

After  December  16  owing  to 
better  conditions  the  rate  in- 
creased, and  from  13  to  23  miles  a 
day  were  attained.  The  86th 
parallel  was  crossed  on  Christmas 
Day;  and  on  New  Year's  Eve  a 
depot  of  provisions  was  laid  and 
the  sledges  repaired  at  86°  56  . 

On  January  3,  1912,  when  150 
miles  from  the  Pole,  87°  32' 
South  Latitude,  the  last  support- 
ing party,  under  command  of 
Lieutenant  Evans,  was  des- 
patched northward.  From  that 
point  he  went  forward  with  a 
party  of  five — Dr.  Wilson,  Cap- 
tain Oates,  Lieutenant  Bowers, 
and  Petty  Officer  Evans — with  a 
month's  provisions — expecting  to 
reach  the  Pole  in  less  than  a 
week.  They  traveled  the  re- 
maining 150  miles  in  26  days,  and 
on  January  29,  1912,  reached  the 
Pole.  From  Amundsen's  hut, 
Polheim,  at  the  Pole,  Scott  took 
the  records  and  a  letter  to  the 
King  of  Norway.  Returning 
from  the  Pole  everything  went 
well  until  they  passed  the  Beard- 
more Glacier.  Then  disaster 
after  disaster  overtook  them.  On 
February  17,  Petty  Officer  Evans, 
thought  to  be  the  strongest  man 
in  the  party,  died  from  concus- 
sion of  the  brain,  the  effects  of  a 
fall  on  the  ice.  Captain  Oates 
also  suffered  severely  from  frost 
bite  and  weakness;  and  on  March 
17,  made  desperate  by  his  own 
condition  and  the  delay  he  was 
causing  his  comrades,  he  walked 
from  the  tent,  remarking,  'I'm 
going  outside — I  may  be  some 
time.'    He  never  was  seen  again. 

Scott,  Wilson,  and  Bowers 
pushed  on  to  within  11  miles  of 
One  Ton  camp,  155  miles  from 
Hut  Point.  There  they  were 
forced  to  make  camp,  March  21, 
with  fuel  for  one  hot  meal  and  food 
for  two  days.  The  gale  confined 
them  to  the  tent  for  four  days, 
on  the  last  of  which  Scott  wrote 
his  thrilling  and  memorable  mes- 
sage to  the  public,  reciting  briefly 
the  arrival  at  the  Pole,  and  de- 
claring that  the  disastrous  results 
were  due  not  to  faulty  organiza- 
tion, but  to  misfortune  in  all  the 
risks  which  had  been  undertaken. 
'For  my  own  sake,  I  do  not  regret 
this  journey,  which  has  shown 
that  Englishmen  can  endure 
hardships,  help  one  another,  and 
meet  death  with  as  great  forti- 
tude as  ever  in  the  past.  But  if 
we  have  been  willing  to  give  our 
lives  to  this  enterprise,  which  is 
for  the  honor  of  our  country,  I 
appeal  to  our  countrymen  to  see 
that  those  who  depend  on  us  are 
properly  cared  for.  Had  we  lived, 
I  should  have  a  tale  to  tell  of  the 
hardihood,  endurance,  and  cour- 
age of  my  companions  which 
would  have  stirred  the  heart  of 
every  Englishman.' 

Ten  months  later,  a  party  from 
Cape  Evans,  under  Surgeon  At- 
kinson, found  Scott's  last  camp. 


Antarctic  Exploration 

recovered  the  records,  and  buried 
the  bodies  under  a  cairn,  over 
which  a  cross  was  erected.  It 
was  the  desperately  rough  condi- 
tion of  the  surface  between  the 
mountain  base  and  the  Barrier 
edge  coupled  with  the  extreme 
cold  of  the  approaching  winter, 
the  lack  of  dogs  for  transport, 
and  the  shortage  of  fuel  at  the 
several  depots  that  resulted  in 
this  tragic  end  of  one  of  the  great 
leaders  in  the  annals  of  polar 
exploration. 

Great  Britain  recognized  gen- 
erously and  spontaneously  the 
heroism  of  Scott  and  his  com- 
rades. A  memorial  service,  at- 
tended by  King  George,  was  held 
in  St.  Paul's,  London.  Pensions 
were  granted  the  families  of  the 
officers,  and  more  than  $1,000,000 
was  raised  for  a  memorial.  Upon 
Mrs.  Scott — who  received  the 
news  of  her  husband's  death  by 
wireless,  in  the  Pacific,  while  on 
her  way  to  join  him — was  con- 
ferred, in  her  own  right,  the  order 
and  cross  of  Grand  Commander 
of  the  Bath,  which  would  have 
been  awarded  to  him  had  he 
lived. 

In  welcome  contrast  to  the 
tragic  fate  of  Captain  Scott  was 
the  successful  return  to  Hut 
Point  of  Lieutenant  V.  L.  A. 
Campbell's  northern  party,  which 
had  been  marooned  a  year  be- 
fore, but  which  had  arrived  in 
safety  at  Cape  Evans  on  Novem- 
ber 7,  1912,  after  a  winter  of  the 
severest  hardship  and  200  miles 
of  the  most  difficult  travelling. 
The  party  made  an  igloo  in  a 
snowdrift,  isolating  it  with  sea- 
weed, and  subsisted  for  six  and 
one-half  months  on  seal  meat 
and  blubber,  eked  out  with  bis- 
cuit, cocoa,  and  sugar.  The  sci- 
entific work  of  the  three  parties 
of  the  Scott  expedition  was  ex- 
tensive and  satisfactory.  Dr. 
Wilson  and  Lieutenant  Bowers, 
of  the  southern  party,  collected 
specimens  of  plant  fossils  and  coal 
from  the  Beardmore  Glacier  at  an 
elevation  of  8.000  feet.  The  for- 
mer are  attributed  to  the  late 
Paleozoic  or  early  Mesozoic  peri- 
od. Early  Paleozoic  corals  and 
igneous  rocks  also  were  discov- 
ered at  lower  altitudes.  The 
complete  memoranda  are  said  to 
furnish  proof  of  the  former  exist- 
ence of  two  different  periods  of 
temperate  chmatic  conditions  in 
the  South  Polar  regions. 

Victoria  Land  was  the  region 
chosen  for  the  work  of  the  west- 
ern party,  under  Mr.  Griffith 
Taylor,  geologist.  Coal  was 
found  at  Granite  Harbor.  Near 
the  Ferrar  and  Koettlitz  glaciers 
a  remarkable  subterranean  pass- 
age, 20  miles  long  was  discovered. 
Seals  traversed  it,  and  it  yielded 
thousands  of  dead,  wingless  in- 
sects new  to  science,  and  many 
fossils.  The  northern  party, 
under  the  scientific  direction  of 


Antarctic  Exploration 


265  D 


Antarctic  Exploration 


Mr.  Priestly,  made  collections  of 
volcanic  and  glacial  rocks  from 
the  neighborhood  of  Robertson 
Bay  and  the  Bay  of  Whales;  and 
igneous  and  sedimentary  rocks 
and  wood  fossils  between  Mounts 
Nansen  and  Melbourne.  Profes- 
sor David's  specimens,  left  on 
Depot  Island  in  1909,  were  found 
and  brought  back. 

Closely  following  Amundsen, 
the  Aurora  carried  Sir  Douglas 
Mawson's  Australian  expedition 
to  the  Barrier,  landing  the  party 
in  two  detachments — on  Adelie 
Land  and  Sabrina  Land — for 
permanent  work  and  study.  His 
chosen  field  was  about  2,000  miles 
of  coast  land,  between  Cape 
Adare  and  the  Gaussberg,  located 
by  the  von  Drygalski  German 
expedition.  The  expedition 
sought  to  ascertain  what  may  be 
the  resources  of  the  Antarctic  in 
mines  and  fisheries,  particularly 
in  whaling  and  sealing.  It  dis- 
covered and  named  George  v. 
Land  and  surveyed  hundreds  of 
miles  of  coast  between  Adelie 
Land  and  Victoria  Land.  Lieu- 
tenant B.  E.  S.  Ninnis,  R.F.,  died 
as  the  result  of  an  accidental  fall 
in  a  crevasse,  and  Dr.  Xavier 
Mertz,  the  Swiss  scientist,  per- 
ished on  the  march.  While  Sir 
Douglas  Mawson  was  doing  his 
work  in  the  Adelie  Land  sector 
the  Aurora  sailed  1,500  miles 
westward  and  landed  Frank 
Wild,  who  discovered  Queen 
Mary  Land. 

During  this  period  there  was  a 
Japanese  expedition  in  the  Ant- 
arctic under  the  leadership  of 
Captain  Shirase.  It  entered  the 
Bay  of  Whales  four  days  before 
the  departure  of  Amundsen  in  the 
Fram,  and  then  skirted  the  ice 
eastward.  There  was  also  a  Ger- 
man expedition  operating  during 
the  same  period  under  command 
of  Lieutenant  Wilhelm  Filchner. 
It  was  his  plan  to  lay  depots  in- 
land from  the  Ross  Sea  Barrier, 
then  to  move  around  to  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  continent  and  to 
attempt  to  gain  the  Pole  from 
Weddell  Sea,  marching  thence  to 
Ross  Sea,  where  his  ship  would 
await  him.  After  two  years  of 
exploration  by  land  and  sea,  dur- 
ing which  he  discovered  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  Land,  he  returned  home. 

Lieutenant  Ernest  Shackleton 
decided  to  try  again  to  conquer 
the  Antarctic,  this  time  by  cross- 
ing it  via  the  South  Pole  from 
Weddell  Sea  to  Ross  Sea,  as  Lieu- 
tenant Filchner  had  planned  two 
years  before.  In  the  Endurance 
he  entered  the  ice  pack  December 
7,  1914,  near  Candlemas  Island. 
Beset  by  the  ice  he  pushed  his 
way  southward  between  the  15th 
and  20th  meridians  West  Longi- 
tude, until  he  came  to  the  shores 
of  Coats  Land  where  he  headed 
southwestward  discovering  an 
area  which  he  named  the  Caird 
Coast.   On  January  18,  1915  the 


Endurance  became  frozen  into 
the  ice,  and  began  a  helpless  drift 
along  the  west  shore  of  Weddell 
Sea  in  a  general  west  of  north 
direction.  Crushed  October  27, 
the  Endurance  remained  afloat 
until  November  21.  Meanwhile 
Shackleton  and  his  men  had  es- 
tablished themselves  on  an  ice 
floe,  drifting  northward  to  the 
latitude  of  the  South  Shetlands. 
Here  they  were  forced  to  take  to 
their  boats.  Six  days  later  after 
thrilling  battles  with  Antarctic 
seas  the  party  of  28  succeeded  in 
reaching  Elephant  Island.  Here 
a  camp  was  built  on  a  narrow 
beach,  and  Shackleton,  with  five 
men,  undertook,  in  a  whaleboat, 
to  reach  South  Georgia  750  miles 
away.  This  they  succeeded  in 
doing  to  the  accompaniment  of 
almost  unbelievable  hardships. 
But  when  they  landed  it  was  on 
the  side  of  the  island  opposite  the 
whaling  station.  High  moun- 
tains lay  between.  But  weak- 
ened though  they  were,  they 
faced  the  hardships  of  the  terri- 
ble march,  and  reached  the  whal- 
ing station  more  dead  than  alive. 

On  August  30,  1916  Sir  Ernest 
succeeded  in  reaching  the  22  men 
he  had  left  on  Elephant  Island  on 
the  previous  April  15.  On  De- 
cember 20,  1916,  at  Port  Chalm- 
ers, New  Zealand,  he  signed  up  at 
a  shilling  a  month  on  the  Aurora 
to  sail  to  the  rescue  of  the  Ross 
Sea  party  which  had  gone  there 
at  the  same  time  that  he  went  to 
the  Weddell  Sea,  they  to  lay  a 
depot,  and  he  to  bring  a  force 
across  the  continent.  The  Au- 
rora, which  had  carried  the  Ross 
Sea  party,  had  been  caught  in 
the  ice  and  carried  away  before 
the  supplies  were  all  landed.  She 
drifted  for  315  days  before  get- 
ting free  and  then  put  into  Port 
Chalmers.  On  January  10,  1917 
Shackleton  had  the  pleasure  of 
seeing  seven  of  the  ten  men  who 
had  been  left  at  Cape  Royds 
when  the  Aurora  began  her  drift. 
May  6,  1915,  come  aboard;  the 
remaining  three  had  perished. 

Home  again  in  the  Aurora,  Sir 
Ernest  began  making  plans  for 
another  expedition  to  explore  the 
Antarctic  coast  in  the  Enderby 
Quadrant,  but  at  South  Georgia 
he  died  of  angina  pectoris,  Janu- 
ary 5,  1922.  His  last  entry  in  his 
diary  was  Tn  the  darkening  twi- 
light I  saw  a  lone  star  hover  gem- 
like above  the  bay.'  His  body 
was  carried  to  Montevideo  en 
route  back  to  England.  But 
cables  from  Lady  Shackleton  in- 
tercepted the  party  with  instruc- 
tions to  carry  the  dead  hero  back 
to  South  Georgia  and  bury  him 
at  the  base  of  the  mountains  he 
had  been  the  first  to  cross.  There 
today  stands  a  great  cairn  sur- 
mounted by  a  cross.  And  so 
Shackleton  and  Scott  sleep  amid 
the  ice  and  the  snows  of  the  Ant- 
arctic they  loved. 


Once  again  the  Antarctic  was 
left  to  its  own  for  awhile.  Of  its 
great  invaders  only  Mawson  was 
left.  A  new  generation  of  knights 
of  the  realm  of  eternal  cold  must 
be  developed.  During  the  inter- 
lude indomitable  men  were  in 
training  in  the  Arctic  for  even 
greater  deeds  in  the  Antarctic. 
Commander  Richard  E.  Byrd 
had  headed  the  Navy  contingent 
of  the  National  Geographic  So- 
ciety's MacMillan  expedition  to 
Greenland  and  points  west,  and 
there  had  accumulated  the  ex- 
perience which  stood  him  in  such 
good  stead  in  his  flight  to  the 
North  Pole  and  back  from  Spitz- 
bergen.  Captain  Sir  Hubert 
Wilkins  had  fought  his  way 
awing  over  Arctic  stretches  off 
Point  Barrow  and  in  the  follow- 
ing season  had  flown  across  the 
Pole  from  Alaska  to  Spitzbergen. 

Here  then  were  two  eagles  of 
the  air  ready  to  attempt  to  soar 
in  triumph  over  the  Antarctic 
continent.  Wilkins  was  first  to 
try  his  wings.  Arriving  at  De- 
ception Island  November  6,  1928, 
with  two  Lockheed- Vega  mono- 
planes he  took  the  air  December 
20.  He  flew  across  Bransfield 
and  De  Gerlache  Straits  to  Brial- 
mont  Bay  and  then  over  Palmer 
coast.  He  then  followed  the 
shore  of  Weddell  Sea  to  a  point 
71°  20'  South  Latitude  at  64°  15' 
West  Longitude,  and  then  direct- 
ly back  to  his  base.  He  had 
proved  that  the  so-called  Graham 
Land  is  not  a  peninsula,  as  most 
maps  show,  but  rather  a  series  of 
long,  narrow  islands,  separated 
from  one  another  by  narrow 
sounds.  His  flight  took  him 
across  the  Antarctic  Circle  and 
gave  him  the  honor  of  being  the 
first  aviator  to  fly  in  the  South 
Frigid  Zone.  On  January  10, 
1929  Wilkins  made  another  flight 
over  the  same  general  area  and 
then  decided  to  warehouse  his 
planes  at  Deception  Island,  go 
back  to  America,  and  return  to 
the  task  in  December,  1929. 

Between  the  first  and  second 
flights  of  Wilkins,  Commander 
Byrd  arrived  at  the  Barrier  in 
Ross  Sea,  with  the  best  equipped 
and  most  completely  staffed  ex- 
pedition that  ever  ventured  into 
the  Antarctic  for  a  prolonged 
assault  upon  its  mysteries.  It 
was  on  the  seventeenth  anni- 
versary of  Amundsen's  discovery 
of  the  North  Pole  that  the  C.  A. 
Larsen  and  the  City  of  New  York 
entered  the  ice  pack,  the  Eleanor 
Boiling  having  transferred  her 
load  of  coal  to  the  City  of  New 
York,  and  headed  back  to  Dune- 
din,  New  Zealand,  for  other 
supplies. 

The  base  at  Little  America  was 
established  January  6,  1929.  Six 
days  after  Wilkins  made  his  last 
flight  of  the  season  Byrd's  Fair- 
child  plane,  the  Stars  and  Stripes, 
took  the  air  and  made  a  series  of 

Vol.  I. — March  '30 


Antarctic  Exploration 

seven  flights  in  which  all  the  air 
personnel  participated.  Two 
days  later,  January  18,  Com- 
mander Byrd,  with  the  Stars  and 
Stripes  and  the  Fokker  plane,  the 
Virginian,  flew  eastward,  dis- 
covering great  area  which  he 
named  Marie  Byrd  Land,  and 
charting  a  range  of  mountains 
which  he  called  the  Rockefeller 
Range.  On  January  27  he  flew 
over  King  Edward  vii.  Land,  saw 
14  mountain  peaks,  and  dis- 
covered a  new  island.  February 
14  he  returned  from  an  unsuc- 
cessful effort  to  reach  King  Ed- 
ward VII.  Land  in  the  City  of  Neib 
York. 

On  February  18  Commander 
Byrd  flew  over  King  Edward  vii. 
Land,  discovered  a  10,000-foot 
peak  and  two  mountain  ranges, 
and  claimed  40,000  square  miles 
of  territory  for  the  United  States. 
On  March  7  Lawrence  Gould, 
Bernt  Balchen.  and  Harold  June 
flew  to  the  Rockefeller  Range 
and  landed  to  make  a  geological 
survey  of  the  region.  A  storm 
came  up  while  they  were  there, 
wrecked  their  plane,  the  Virgini- 
an, and  broke  their  communica- 
tion with  Little  America.  Com- 
mander Byrd  on  the  18th  flew  to 
their  relief,  sending  them  back  in 
his  plane  and  waiting  in  the 
mountains  until  on  March  22  it 
returned  for  him. 

Thereafter  the  Byrd  expedi- 
tion settled  down  to  winter  life 
and  preparation  for  the  great 
assault  on  the  South  Pole  in  the 
following  Antarctic  spring.  By 
October  15  the  overland  support- 
ing party  was  able  to  take  off, 
and  on  November  4  Lawrence 
Gould  headed  a  geological  party 
which  set  out  to  explore  the 
Queen  Maud  Mountains.  On  No- 
vember 19, 1929  Commander  Byrd 
flew  the  Floyd  Bennett  to  the  last 
depot  toward  the  South  Pole,  at 
the  base  of  the  Queen  Maud 
Mountains,  carrying  a  stock  of 
gas  and  provisions  to  be  used  in 
emergencies  or  to  supply  the 
Gould  geological  party  as  occa- 
sion demanded. 

At  length  on  November  28, 
1929  the  meteorologists  at  Little 
America  reported  favorable 
weather,  the  Gould  party  near 
the  mountains  found  the  outlook 
for  sunshine  beyond  them  good, 
and  the  hour  for  which  all  hands 
had  waited  arrived.  Weighing, 
with  its  load,  15,000  pounds,  the 
big  trimotored  cabin  monoplane, 
Floyd  Bennett,  built  by  Edsel 
Ford,  took  off  with  Commander 
Byrd;  Bernt  Balchen,  pilot;  Cap- 
tain Ashley  McKinley,  aerial 
surveyor;  and  Harold  L  June, 
radio  operator.  Across  the  pied- 
mont ice  it  flew.  At  304  miles 
out  it  sighted  the  Gould  party  for 
which  it  dropped  messages  and 
photographs  of  the  depot  which 
had  been  laid  down  a  week  previ- 
ous. 


265  E 

Then  came  the  test  of  tests, 
the  crossing  of  the  mountains 
with  the  heavy  load.  McKinley 
and  his  aerial  camera  with  the 
necessary  emergency  equipment 
and  rations  reduced  the  ship's 
ceiling  1,000  feet.  Below  them 
stretched  the  rugged  crevassed 
ice  of  Liv's  Glacier.  To  the  right 
and  left  rose  rugged  cliffs  and  icy 
walls.  There  was  no  room  to 
turn;  they  must  rise  or  perhaps 
perish  in  that  terrible  area.  But 
hard  battles  to  gain  elevation, 
superhuman  efforts  to  defy  gusts, 
eddies,  and  swirls  in  the  air,  in- 
tense struggles  to  lighten  the  load 
and  increase  the  plane's  ceiling 
by  pouring  gas  into  the  tanks 
and  throwing  overboard  the 
empty  containers,  marked  an  al- 
most miraculous  escape  from  the 
ice  beneath  and  around  them. 
Success,  indeed,  was  not  assured 
until  two  125- pound  bags  of  con- 
centrated food  had  been  cast  over- 
board and  the  plane  thereby  given 
several  hundred  feet  more  of  ceil- 
ing. Then,  with  barely  a  few  feet 
to  spare,  a  few  minutes  brought 
the  plane  out  on  the  great  Polar 
Plateau,  ranging  from  7,000  to 
11,000  feet.  To  the  west  a  great 
mountain  range,  seen  neither  by 
Amundsen,  Scott,  nor  Shackle- 
ton,  was  discovered. 

Onward  the  Floyd  Bennett  flew, 
every  minute  adding  to  airplane 
records  in  the  Antarctic.  Finally 
the  sun  compass  designed  by 
Albert  H.  Bumstead,  cartogra- 
pher of  the  National  Geographic 
Society — the  same  compass  that 
proclaimed  Byrd's  approach  to 
the  North  Pole — told  them  that 
they  were  above  the  bottom  of 
the  world.  Dead  reckoning  and 
sun  compass  reading  were  checked 
with  sextant  observations  and 
were  corroborated.  They  were 
at  the  end  of  the  Grosvenor  Trail. 
Now  they  turned  to  the  right, 
flew  some  six  miles,  then  to  the 
left  for  a  similar  distance.  Here 
a  semicircular  flight  brought 
them  back  to  the  line  of  the 
Grosvenor  Trail  extended  through 
the  Pole.  When  they  reached 
the  point  where  the  first  turn  was 
made,  all  hands  stood  at  atten- 
tion and  four  flags  were  dropped. 
First  was  a  silken  American  flag, 
weighted  with  a  stone  taken  from 
the  grave  of  Floyd  Bennett  in 
Arlington  Cemetery,  and  lowered 
in  honor  of  the  man  who  had 
flown  over  the  North  Pole  with 
Commander  Byrd,  and  who 
would  have  flown  with  him  over 
the  South  Pole  had  he  not  sacri- 
ficed his  life  for  flyers  in  distress. 
Then  there  was  a  Norwegian  flag 
in  honor  of  Captain  Roald 
Amundsen  who  had  discovered 
the  South  Pole  and  given  his  life 
in  search  for  Nobile  and  his  men 
in  the  Arctic.  The  third  flag  was 
the  Union  Jack,  let  down  in 
memory  of  the  intrepid  Captain 
Robert  F.  Scott  who  had  reached 


Antarctic  Exploration 

the  Pole  but  perished  on  his  re- 
turn. The  fourth  flag  was  the 
tricolor  of  France — a  tribute  to 
the  people  who  had  lavished  their 
kindness  on  Commander  Byrd 
when  he  made  his  transatlantic 
flight. 

These  ceremonies  over,  the 
dash  back  to  Little  America  be- 
gan. The  return  was  made  by 
way  of  the  Axel  Heiberg  Glacier. 
At  the  foot  of  the  Queen  Maud 
Mountains  a  landing  was  made 
and  Depot  No.  8  was  given  an 
additional  supply  of  provisions 
and  gas  to  provide  for  the  needs 
of  the  overland  supporting  party 
and  the  Gould  geological  party. 
After  an  hour  caching  these  sup- 
plies the  Floyd  Bennett  took  off 
again,  and  at  10;  10  a.m.,  Novem- 
ber 29,  reached  Little  America, 
triumphant  from  one  of  the  great- 
est flights  in  the  history  of  avia- 
tion. 

One  of  the  results  of  the  Pole 
flight  was  the  mapping,  with 
Captain  McKinley's  aerial  cam- 
era, of  an  area  of  about  160,000 
square  miles  of  territory — a  terri- 
tory equivalent  to  that  of  New 
England,  New  York,  and  Penn- 
sylvania. If  there  be  added  to 
that  the  new  lands  discovered 
and  mapped  on  the  other  flights 
of  the  expedition  it  will  be  seen 
that  Commander  Byrd  saw  a 
territory  equivalent  to  all  that 
part  of  the  United  States  which 
lies  east  of  Ohio  and  north  of  the 
Potomac  River.  Commander 
Byrd  made  a  series  of  flights  after 
returning  from  the  Pole  and 
planned  to  sail  for  home  early  in 
1930. 

The  fall  of  1929  saw  Sir  Hubert 
Wilkins  returning  for  another 
series  of  flights,  one  of  which  he 
hoped  might  be  along  the  periph- 
ery of  the  Antarctic  continent 
from  Palmer  Land  to  Little 
America,  a  distance  of  2,500 
miles  eastward.  The  other  he 
planned  to  make  westward  from 
Palmer  Land  along  the  shores  of 
Weddell  Sea  and  toward  the 
shores  of  Coats  Land. 

A  third  expedition  in  the  Ant- 
arctic in  the  season  of  1929-30 
was  that  of  Sir  Douglas  Mawson. 
He  sailed  from  Cape  Town  in  the 
Discovery  which  so  often  has  done 
battle  with  Antarctic  ice,  for  a 
two-season  cruise  along  that  sec- 
tor of  the  Antarctic  shore  line 
which  lies  between  Ross  Sea  and 
Enderby  Land.  The  Discovery 
carried  a  scout  plane  with  it  to 
scout  the  Barrier  as  the  ship  sails 
along.  No  land  base  will  be 
established,  but  the  Discovery 
will  spend  the  Antarctic  winter  in 
Australia  returning  as  soon  as  the 
ice  pack  reopens. 

Between  the  Byrd,  Wilkins. 
and  Mawson  expeditions  many 
problems  in  connection  with  the 
Antarctic  continent  are  expected 
to  be  solved.  All  of  them  have 
carried  on  researches  as  to  the 

Vol.  L — March  '30 


CO 


Antarctic  Ocean 


266 


Antares 


relationship  of  Antarctic  weather 
and  meteorological  conditions  in 
the  Southern  Hemisphere.  Byrd 
and  Wilkins  undertook  studies  to 
determine  whether  there  is  a 
channel  stretching  across  the 
Polar  Plateau  from  Ross  Sea  to 
Weddell  Sea,  with  the  great 
mountains  Byrd  discovered  on 
his  flight  to  the  Pole  seeming  to 
provide  a  negative  answer. 

All  of  them,  too,  were  inter- 
ested in  tracing  out  the  answer  to 
the  question  of  whether  the  Ant- 
arctic continent  might  not  have 
been  the  land  bridge  whereby  the 
animal  life  of  bygone  geological 
times  passed  between  South 
America  and  Africa,  if,  indeed, 
not  Australia.  Much  additional 
evidence  was  found  of  the  great 
fluctuation  of  climate  in  bygone 
geological  eras.  There  are  at 
least  two  strata  which  tell  of  a 
Brazil  type  of  climate,  and  these 
are  interlarded  with  strata  that 
proclaim  other  ice  ages  as  intense 
as  the  present  one. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Borch- 
grevink's  First  on  the  Antarctic 
Continent;  Bernacchi's  To  the 
South  Polar  Regions;  Nordensk- 
jold  and  Anderson's  Antarctica; 
Mill's  Siege  of  the  South  Pole; 
Armitage's  Two  Years  in  the  Ant- 
arctic; Scott's  Voyage  of  the  Dis- 
covery; Official  Reports  by  the 
French  Ministry  of  Public  In- 
struction of  Charcot's  FrauQais 
(1904-5)  and  Pourquois  Pas 
(1908-10)  Expeditions;  The  Heart 
of  the  Antarctic,  by  Sir  E.  H. 
Shackleton  and  others  (1909); 
Mawson's  The  Home  of  the  Bliz- 
zard (1915);  Markham's  The 
Lands  of  Silence  (1921);  Hurley's 
Argonauts  of  the  South  (1925); 
Brown's  Polar  Regions  (1927); 
Nordenskjold  and  Mecking's  The 
Geography  of  the  Polar  Regions 
(1928). 

Antarctic  Ocean,  one  of  the 

great  water  divisions  of  the  globe, 
in  many  respects  the  antithesis  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  Antarctic 
consists  of  a  central  mass  of  land, 
covered  with  a  thick  and  pre- 
sumably unbroken  ice  cap.  To 
this  vast  accumulation  of  ice  are 
due  the  huge  table-topped  ice- 
bergs projecting  150  to  200  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and 
descending  1,200  to  1,500  feet 
below  it.  As  the  edge  of  the  great 
ice  barrier  is  approached,  the 
ocean  in  many  parts  very  per- 
ceptibly decreases  in  depth.  For 
instance,  east  of  Victoria  Land, 
and  off  the  adjacent  Adelie  Land, 
the  depth  ranges  from  100  to  800 
fathoms;  east  of  the  South 
Shetland  Island,  it  is  100  to  500 
fathoms  deep;  and  west  of 
Graham  Land  there  is  a  'conti- 
nental' shelf  of  200  to  300  fath- 
oms depth.  But  in  the  higher 
latitudes,  or  between  60°  and 
40°  s.  lat.,  the  depth  is  greatly 
increased.  From  Patagonia  east 
to  Kerguelen  Island  the  depth 

Vol.  I. — March  '30 


generally  exceeds  2,000  fathoms 
— in  some  places  even  3,000  fath- 
oms. Indeed,  the  depth  on  the 
60th  parallel  nearly  all  round  the 
Pole  exceeds  2,000  fathoms. 
South  America,  or  rather  Tierra 
del  Fuego,  is  apparently  linked  to 
the  Antarctic  lands  at  Graham 
Land  by  a  curving  submarine 
ridge,  which  separates  the  South- 
ern Atlantic  from  the  Southern 
Pacific,  and  is  only  about  110 
fathoms  below  the  surface. 

On  the  whole,  the  water  of  the 
Antarctic  Ocean  would  appear 
to  be  colder  than  the  water  of 
the  Arctic.  On  the  surface,  and 
down  to  about  50  fathoms,  it 
is  comparatively  warm,  though 
absolutely  cold  (29°  to  30°  f.). 
Thence  the  temperature  gradu- 
ally increases  down  to  about  165 
fathoms,  where  it  is  35°;  and 
this  temperature  is  maintained 
down  to  800  or  825  fathoms. 
From  this  level  to  the  bottom  it 
again  sinks  to  about  31°.  These 
are  the  results  of  observations 
made  by  the  German  deep-sea 
expedition  in  the  Valdivia  in 
1898-9.  According  to  the  obser- 
vations of  the  Challenger,  some 
twenty-five  years  earlier,  the 
temperature  of  the  surface  water 
was  between  29°  and  38°  (accord- 
ing to  latitude),  and  of  the  bot- 
tom 32°  to  35°;  and  wedged  in 
between  these  two  layers  was  a 
colder  stratum  of  water,  with  a 
temperature  of  only  28°  to  32.5°. 
Ross,  again,  in  1841-3,  reported  a 
surface  temperature  of  27.3°  to 
33.6°,  with  an  average  of  29.8° — 
this  being  in  the  summer.  \ 

Meteorologically,  the  area 
about  the  South  Pole  is  one  of  low 
pressure,  having  a  mean  of  less 
than  29  inches;  and  this  vast 
permanent  anticyclone  appears 
to  have  a  much  wider  extension 
in  winter  than  in  summer.  The 
climatic  conditions  depend  large- 
ly upon  the  wind.  When  it  blows 
from  the  south  it  is  clear  and 
cold;  but  winds  from  the  op- 
posite directions  bring  fogs  and 
cloud  and  a  rise  of  temperature. 
There  is  continuous  daylight 
from  November  to  January. 

In  regions  higher  than  40°  s. 
lat.,  the  Antarctic  plankton,  or 
organic  life  of  the  surface,  is 
characterized  by  an  abundance 
of  diatoms.  Pelagic  animals, 
such  as  molluscs,  amphipods, 
copepods,  and  other  marine 
organisms,  are  plentiful  down  to 
1,000  fathoms,  and  are  not  at  all 
scarce  at  2,700  fathoms.  Sir 
John  Murray  asserts  there  are 
species  common  to  both  North 
and  South  Polar  regions  which 
are  absent  in  the  depths  of  the 
intervening  oceans. 

The  southern  right  whale  {Ba- 
Icena  australis)  is  found  at  least 
as  far  south  as  50°  s.  lat.,  but  it 
is  in  no  sense  an  ice  whale. 
There  are  two  whales  peculiar 
to   southern   seas — the  pygmy 


whale  (Neobalcena  marginata) 
and  a  bottlenose  (Hyperoddon 
planifrons) ;  but  these  hardly 
penetrate  into  the  Antarctic. 
There  are  possibly  several  Ant- 
arctic rorquals.  Four  true  seals 
are  peculiar  to  the  Antarctic — 
Weddell's  seal  {Leptonychotes 
Weddelli),  the  sea-leopard  {Og- 
morhinus  leptonyx),  Ross'  seal 
{Ommatophoca  Rossi),  and  the 
crab-eating  seal  (Lobodon  car- 
cinophagus) .  All  are  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  area. 
No  fur-seal  is  truly  Antarctic; 
but  it  is  stated  that  the  elephant- 
seal  occurs  off  the  coast  of  Vic- 
toria Land. 

The  most  characteristic  birds 
are  the  penguins,  especially  the 
emperor  and  the  Adelie;  the 
petrels,  especially  the  ice,  giant, 
and  Antarctic  petrels;  and  the 
Antarctic  skua,  which  Lieutenant 
Prestrud's  party  of  Amundsen's 
Expedition  (1910-1911)  saw  in 
King  Edward  vii.  Land.  Mean- 
time, the  invertebrates  are  little 
known;  but  recent  expeditions 
have  made  rich  finds.  Land 
plants  are  naturally  very  few;  a 
grass  {Air a  ccespitosa)  and  a  few 
mosses  and  lichens  have  been 
thus  far  described. 

Much  information  has  been 
collected  by  recent  expeditions 
regarding  the  geology  of  the  Ant- 
arctic regions.  In  Victoria  Land 
sandstone  has  been  found  con- 
taining fossil  plants  (dicotyle- 
dons), apparently  of  Miocene 
age.  In  the  region  of  Louis 
Philippe  Land,  almost  at  the 
opposite  side  of  the  circle,  a 
marine  volcanic  tuff  containing 
(drifted)  land  plants  of  Tertiary 
age  occurs.  In  the  same  region 
there  are  deposits  containing 
Jurassic  land  plants,  and  fossil- 
iferous  marine  beds  belonging 
to  the  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous 
systems.  The  South  Orkneys 
consist  of  Primary  sedimentary 
deposits,  chiefly  greywackes  and 
conglomerates,  in  which  a  fossil 
graptolite  has  been  found.  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  ii.  Land  is  apparently 
composed  of  Archaean  rocks, 
especially  granite,  gneiss,  and 
quartzite.  Here,  as  elsewhere 
within  the  area,  there  also  occur 
volcanic  lavas  of  recent  date. 

See  also  the  article  on  Antarc- 
tic Exploration,  and  Bibliog- 
raphy cited  there. 

Antares,  an-ta'rez,  a  Scorpii, 
a  red  star  of  1.5  magnitude.  It 
gives  a  banded  spectrum  char- 
acteristic of  stars  whose  tempera- 
ture has  not  yet  become  high 
enough  to  dissociate  titanium 
oxide  and  certain  other  com- 
pounds. The  apparent  diameter, 
measured  with  the  interferom- 
eter, is  0".040.  As  the  star  has 
a  very  minute  parallax — the 
measured  value  is  0".009;  it  must 
have  the  enormous  diameter  of 
something  like  400  million  miles. 
With  a  volume  100  million  times 


Ant-Bear 


267 


Anthelmintics 


that  of  the  sun,  its  density,  even 
if  the  mass  is  so  improbably  great 
as  100  times  that  of  the  sun,  can 
be  only  one  one-millionth  that  of 
the  sun  or  1/900  that  of  air. 
Antares  is  in  one  of  the  very 


OPHIVCHUS  y^^-'J  "Vr<5^ 

/  r 


Antares 

earliest  stages  of  stellar  evolu- 
tion. It  radiates  the  light  of 
3,000  suns. 

Ant-Bear,  either  of  two  large, 
furry  termite-eating  animals:  the 
great  ant-eater  of  South  America; 
or  the  Cape  ant-eater  of  Africa 
(qq.v.). 

Ant-Birds,  tropical  birds  of 
various  kinds  which  feed  partly 
upon  ants  or  termites  (white 
'ants').  All  belong  to  a  large 
family  of  small  South  American 
insect-eating  birds  characteristi- 
cally named  Formicariidae.  They 
are  for  the  most  part  of  subdued 
colors  and  voice,  and  spend  their 
time  in  shyly  hunting  for  various 
small  insects  on  or  near  the 
ground  in  wooded  regions;  but 
when  a  marching  column  of  leaf- 
cutters  or  other  migratory  ants  is 
abroad  they  will  sometimes  gath- 
er and  prey  upon  it  in  great 
numbers.  Resemblances  in  form, 
colors  or  manners,  to  other  well 
known  birds,  have  led  Euro- 
peans there  to  give  the  names 
'ant-thrush,'  'ant-shrike'  and 
'ant-wren'  to  particular  species. 
Similarly  the  small,  brilliant 
ground-searching  pittas  of  the 
tropical  East  are  there  called 
'ant-birds,'  though  they  rarely 
take  this  food. 

Ant-Eater,  a  term  applied  to 
several  unrelated  mammals  of 
similar  habits  and  diet.  The 
true  ant-eaters  are  members  of 
the  order  Edentata,  and  are  con- 
fined to  South  America.  The 
largest,  the  great  ant-eater  or 
tamanoir  (Myrmecophaga  jubala) , 
reaches  a  length  of  4  feet  exclu- 
sive of  the  large,  bushy  tail,  and 
has  the  face  prolonged  into  a  long, 
tubular  snout.  Teeth  are  entirely 
absent,  and  the  long,  flexible 
tongue  is  covered  with  sticky 
saliva  by  which  the  ants  are 
caught  when  the  tongue  is  thrust 
into  their  unroofed  masses.  The 
fore  limbs  are  furnished  with 
powerful  claws,  which  are  used  in 


tearing  open  the  nests  of  term- 
ites, or  'white  ants,'  on  which  the 
animal  chiefly  feeds.  It  is  ter- 
restrial and  lives  in  dense  forests, 
but  does  not  burrow;  and  its  long 
claws  and  great  strength  make  it 
a  formidable  antagonist. 

Related  forms  are  the  arboreal 
tamandua  and  the  little  ant-eater 
(Cycloturus) ,  the  latter  subsisting 
mainly  on  the  honey-comb  and 
grubs  of  wasps.  The  scaly  ant- 
eater  or  pangolins  (q.v.)  are  mem- 
bers of  the  same  order;  as  is  also 
the  African  aard-vark,  ant-bear, 
or  Cape  ant-eater.  The  term 
spiny  ant-eater  is  applied  to 
Echidna,  and  banded  ant-eater  to 
Myrmecobius  fasciatus,  a  curious 
little  Australian  marsupial  mam- 
mal, which  is  chestnut-red,  with 
white  and  dark  stripes  on  its 
back,  and  somewhat  resembles 
the  English  squirrel  in  appear- 
ance. 


Great  South  American  Ant-eater 

Antece'dent,  in  grammar,  the 
subject  to  which  a  succeeding 
pronoun  refers;  in  logic,  the 
premise  from  which  a  'conse- 
quent' proposition  is  inferred;  in 
mathematics,  the  first  element  in 
a  ratio — e.g.  2:4  =  3:6. 

Antelope,  one  of  a  group  of 
agile,  swift-footed  ruminants 
(Bovidae),  which  cannot  be  defi- 
nitely regarded  as  either  sheep, 
goats,  or  oxen.  They  are  char- 
acterized by  having  slender,  usu- 
ally cylindrical  horns,  generally 
marked  with  ring-like  elevations, 
and  as  a  rule  confined  to  the 
males.  Some  of  these  {e.g.  the 
Alpine  chamois)  are  structurally 
near  the  goats,  and  others  {e.g. 
the  African  genus  Alcelaphus) 
are  far  removed  from  them. 
Antelopes  are  typically  plains 
animals,  and  are  therefore  spe- 
cially at  home  in  Africa,  but  their 
migration  thither  from  the  north 
is  recent  in  a  geological  sense. 

In  the  genus  Alcelaphus,  in- 
cluding the  African  hartebeest, 
blesbok,  bontebok,  and  others, 
the  back  slopes,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  height  at  the  withers  is 
much  greater  than  at  the  rump, 
the  head  is  long  and  narrow,  and 
the  horns  are  lyrate  and  bent 
back  at  the  tips.  The  African 
gnu  is  a  near  ally  of  these  forms. 
In  size  these  antelopes  may  be 
contrasted  with  the  duikerboks, 
of  which  the  smallest  is  not  larger 
than  a  rabbit,  while  the  harte- 
beest may  stand  nearly  5  feet  at 
the  withers.  The  saiga  is  one  of 
the  few  antelopes  which  occur  in 
Europe  and  Asia.   In  India  there 


are  relatively  few  antelopes;  but 
the  somewhat  cowlike  nylghau  is 
noteworthy.  Related  is  the  Afri- 
can genus  Tragelaphus,  including 
the  beautiful  harnessed  antelopes, 
with  long,  spirally-twisted  horns. 
Another  African  antelope,  the 
gemsbok,  is  remarkable  for  its 
long,  straight  horns,  present  in 
both  sexes.  The  eland  {Oreas 
canna),  the  largest  of  all  ante- 
lopes, is  said  to  be  rapidly  dis- 
appearing. In  structure  and  in 
habitat  the  European  chamois 
connects  the  antelopes  with  the 
goats.  No  true  antelope  belongs 
to  America,  its  so-called  'ante- 
lope' being  a  prong  horn  (q.v.). 
See  also  articles  on  the  several 
species  mentioned.  Consult 
Sclater  and  Thomas,  The  Book  of 
the  Antelopes. 

Ante  Meridiem.   See  a.m. 

Anten'nse,  or  feelers,  are 
sense  organs,  generally  tactile, 
borne  on  the  head  in  crustaceans, 
myriapods,  and  insects,  where 
they  are  homologous  with  the 
other  appendages,  such  as  the 
jaws.   See  Insects;  Crustacea. 

Ante'nor,  the  Trojan  counsel- 
lor who  urged  the  Trojans  to 
restore  Helen  to  Menelaus. 

Ante-Nuptial  Agreement. 
An  agreement  made  by  a  man 
or  woman,  with  each  other  or 
with  third  parties,  in  contempla- 
tion of  their  marriage  with  one 
another.  The  term  is  most  fre- 
quently applied  to  an  agreement 
for  the  settlement  of  the  property 
of  one  or  both  the  parties  for  their 
joint  benefit  after  marriage  and 
for  that  of  their  issue,  or  to  an 
agreement  between  them  respect- 
ing the  terms  on  which  the  wife  is 
to  share  in  the  husband's  estate 
in  the  event  of  his  death.  The 
importance  of  an  ante-nuptial 
as  compared  with  a  post-nuptial 
agreement  lies  in  the  fact  that  a 
contemplated  marriage  is  a  good 
consideration  for  a  promise  made 
with  reference  thereto,  whereas  a 
past  marriage  is  not,  and  in  the 
further  fact  that  at  common  law 
the  marriage,  by  merging  the 
wife's  legal  personality  in  that 
of  the  husband,  destroys  the 
woman's  ability  to  enter  into  a 
binding  contract  with  her  hus- 
band. 

Antequera,  an-ta-ka'ra  (anc. 
Antiquaria) ,  town,  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Malaga;  27  miles 
from  Malaga.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  paper,  soap,  and  sugar 
and  a  trade  in  fruit  and  wine. 
Pop.  32,000. 

Anthe'lia,  colored  circles,  usu- 
ally three  or  four  in  number, 
which  surround  the  shadow  of  the 
observer's  head  when  projected 
on  a  fog.  They  are  also  known  as 
'Ulloa's  circle,'  or  as  a  'glory.' 

Anthelmin'tics,  remedies 
which  kill  or  expel  intestinal 
worms.  Vermicides  kill  the 
worms,  vermifuges  expel  them. 
For  tape  worms,  oil  of  male-fern 

Vol.  I. — March  '30 


Anthem 


268 


Anthonjr 


is  used;  santonin  is  useful  for 
round  worms;  and  an  injection  of 
quassia,  or  salt  and  water,  is  used 
for  thread-worms. 

An'them,  a  form  of  musical 
composition  set  to  sacred  words 
and  used  in  the  service  of  the 
church.  Compositions  of  this 
class  were  first  written  to  be  sung 
in  alternate  parts;  but  great  di- 
versity of  treatment  has  been  ad- 
mitted, and  the  modern  anthem 
may  be  written  for  solo,  soli,  or 
chorus,  or  for  some  or  all  of  these 
parts  in  combination.  In  the 
English  Church  the  anthem  takes 
the  place  of  the  motet  in  the  Ro- 
man Church.    See  Antiphony. 

Anther,  the  male  organ  in 
flowering  plants.  It  contains  the 
pollen,  and  is  situated  at  the  free 
end  of  the  stamen.   See  Flower. 

Antherid'ium,  the  male  re- 
productive organ  in  the  fern  and 
moss  groups,  and  in  some  species 
of  Algae.  In  every  case  motile 
sexual  cells,  called  spermatozoids, 
are  developed  within  the  anthe- 
ridia. 

Antherozoid,  an-ther-o-zo'id, 
the  free-swimming  male  element 
or  cell  in  the  sexual  reproduction 
of  the  lower  plants.  See  Sper- 
matozoa. 

Anthol'ogy  (Gr.  'flower-gath- 
ering'), a  term  meaning  a  series  of 
select  extracts,  generally  poems, 
chosen  from  the  works  of  various 
authors,  and  complete  in  them- 
selves. Probably  the  most  im- 
portant is  the  Greek  anthology. 
The  earliest  compilation  of  any 
note  was  the  Stephanos  ('gar- 
land') of  Meleager  of  Gadara, 
put  together  early  in  the  1st  cen- 
tury B.C.  Other  similar  collec- 
tions were  edited  by  Philippus  of 
Thessalonica  during  the  reign  of 
Nero,  by  Strato  of  Sard  is  (the 
Paidike  Mousa)  under  Hadrian, 
and  by  Agathias  of  Constanti- 
nople {c.  550  A.D.).  The  earliest 
and  most  complete  of  the  extant 
versions  is  that  brought  together 
by  the  grammarian  Constantinus 
Cephalas  (probably  c.  950  a.d.); 
this  work  was  altered,  abridged, 
and  rearranged  by  Maxim  us  Pla- 
nudes,  a  rhetorician  of  the  early 
part  of  the  14th  century.  This 
inferior  Planudean  anthology  re- 
mained for  three  hundred  years 
the  only  one  known  to  Europe. 
It  was  first  printed  in  Florence  by 
Janus  Lascaris  (1494),  and  fre- 
quently reprinted.  The  anthol- 
ogy of  Cephalas  was  rediscovered 
by  Salmasius  (1606)  in  the  library 
of  the  Counts  Palatine  at  Heidel- 
berg, whence  it  is  now  generally 
known  as  the  Palatinate  An- 
thology. Salmasius  copied  the 
epigrams  hitherto  unknown, 
which  circulated  in  MS.  as  the 
Anlhologia  Inedila;  but  the  first 
complete  edition  was  published  in 
Brunck's  Awa^ec/a  Veterum  Poeta- 
rum  GrcBCorum  (Stras.  1772-6), 
an  improved  recension  being 
Jacob's  Anlhologia  Grceca  (Leip., 

Vol.  I. — March  '30 


13  vols.,  1794-1814;  and  4  vols., 
1813-17).  The  range  of  the 
Greek  anthology  is  from  the  6th 
century  B.C.  to  the  10th  century 
a.d.  It  was  translated  into  Latin 
by  Hugo  Grotius  (1630;  pub. 
1795-1822),  into  German  by 
Herder  (1785-97),  into  English 
by  Wrangham,  Sterling,  Gold  win 
Smith,  Merivale,  Macgregor,  Sir 
R.  Garnett,  and  others. 

Latin  anthologies,  in  imitation 
of  the  Greek,  were  published  by 
Scaliger  (1573),  Pitthous  (1590), 
Peter  Burmann  (1759;  ed.  Meyer. 
1835),  and  Riese  and  Bucheler 
(1894-7).  The  substance  of  the 
numerous  Oriental  anthologies  is 
accessible  to  Western  readers  in 
Von  Hammer-Purgstall's  Persian 
Literature  (1818),  in  his  West 
Turkish  Poetry  (1836).  and  in 
Garcin  de  Tassy's  Hisloire  de  la 
literature,  Hindoue  et  Hindoustani 
(1839-47).  The  Chinese  Shi- 
King  (Book  of  Songs),  attributed 
to  Confucius,  and  said  to  be  the 
oldest  anthology  in  the  world, 
has  been  translated  into  German 
by  Riickert. 

The  standard  English  anthol- 
ogy of  modern  times  is  F.  T.  Pal- 
grave's  Golden  Treasury  (1861); 
other  well  known  collections  are 
Trench's  Household  Book  of  Eng- 
lish Poetry  (1868),  R.  W.  Emer- 
son's Parnassus  (1875),  Quiller- 
Couch's  Oxford  Book  of  Verse 
(1900),  Stedman's  Victorian  An- 
thology (1895),  and  American 
Anthology  (1900);  Louis  Unter- 
meyer's  Modern  American  Verse 
(new  ed.  1929);  Marguerite  Wil- 
kinson's Contemporary  Poetry 
(1923);  Bliss  Carman's  The  Ox- 
ford Book  of  American  Verse 
(1927).  The  Psalms  also  are 
virtually  an  anthology. 

Anthol'ysis  is  the  formation 
of  double  flowers,  in  which  the 
stamens  and  carpels  become  leaf- 
like; all  the  organs  are  usually 
multiplied.  This  peculiar  condi- 
tion throws  light  on  the  homology 
of  the  members  of  the  flower  with 
the  foliage  leaves. 

An'thon,  Charles  (1797- 
1867),  American  classical  scholar 
and  writer,  was  born  in  New 
York  City.  He  was  educated  at 
Columbia  College,  from  which  he 
was  graduated  in  1815.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  but  never 
practised.  In  1820  he  was  ap- 
pointed adjunct  professor  of  an- 
cient languages  at  Columbia,  and 
fifteen  years  later  was  made  head 
of  the  classical  department. 
While  holding  these  posts  he  is- 
sued an  extensive  series  of  anno- 
tated texts  of  the  classics  which 
for  many  years  were  exceedingly 
popular.  Besides  editing  an  edi- 
tion of  Lempriere's  Classical  Dic- 
tionary (1822),  he  published  in 
1841  a  Classical  Dictionary  and 
a  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities  (1843),  both  of  which 
have  been  in  extensive  use  in  this 
country  and  in  Great  Britain. 


Anthony,  city,  Kansas,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Harper  County,  on  the 
Kansas  Southwestern,  the  St. 
Louis  and  San  Francisco,  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe, 
the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific,  and  the  Missouri  Pacific 
Railroads;  70  miles  southwest 
of  Wichita.  It  is  situated  in  a 
good  agricultural  and  stock  rais- 
ing district,  and  has  ice  plants 
and  flour  mills.  Pop.  (1910)  2,- 
669;  (1920)  2,740. 

Anthony,  Henry  Bowen 
(1815-84).  American  publicist, 
journalist,  and  legislator,  was 
born  in  Coventry,  R.  I.  He  was 
educated  at  Brown  University 
and  was  editor  of  Providence  (R. 
I.)  Journal  (1838-c.  1858).  He 
was  twice  (1849-50)  governor  of 
Rhode  Island.  From  1859  until 
his  death  he  was  a  Republican 
U.  S.  Senator,  and  in  1863.  1871, 
and  1884  was  president  pro  tern. 
of  that  body. 

Anthony,  John  Gould  (1804- 
77).  American  conchologist,  was 
born  in  Providence,  R.  I.  In 
1863,  at  the  instance  of  Louis 
Agassiz,  he  became  director  of 
the  conchological  department  of 
the  Harvard  Museum  of  Com- 
parative Zoology,  and  two  years 
later  accompanied  Prof.  Agassiz 
on  his  productive  expedition  to 
Brazil.  He  published  A  New 
Trilohite  (1831),  and  descriptions 
of  new  species  of  shells  (1839  and 
1866). 

Anthony,  St.  See  Antony,  St. 

Anthony,  Susan  Brownell 
(1820-1906),  American  reformer 
and  prominent  advocate  of  wom- 
an suffrage,  was  born  in  South 
Adams,  Mass..  the  daughter  of  a 
Quaker.  She  was  educated  chief- 
ly at  the  Friends'  School  at  West 
Philadelphia,  and  early  in  her 
career  took  a  zealous  interest 
in  temperance  and  anti-slavery 
movements.  In  1868-71  she 
published  The  Revolution,  a  jour- 
nal devoted  to  the  woman's  rights 
cause;  she  also  organized,  in  com- 
pany with  Mrs.  Stanton,  the 
National  Woman  Suffrage  Associ- 
ation, and  with  her  and  Mrs.  Gage 
published  a  volume.  History 
of  Woman  Suffrage  (1881-1902). 
She  was  a  fluent  and  eloquent 
speaker  and  took  a  prominent 
part  politically  in  movements 
tending  to  the  enfranchisement 
of  women,  lecturing  frequently  in 
the  United  States  and  in  England 
and  often  speaking  before  Con- 
gressional committees  and  tak- 
ing part  in  State  political  cam- 
paigns. In  1872  she  was  ar- 
rested, tried,  and  fined  for  voting 
illegally  under  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment.  Consult  Harper's 
Life  and  Work  of  Susan  B.  An- 
thony (2  vols.,  1898.) 

Anthony,  William  Arnold 
(1835-1908),  American  physi- 
cist, was  born  in  Coventry, 
R.  I.,  and  in  1860  was 
graduated   from   the  Sheffield 


Anthony's  Nose 


269 


Anthropoid  Apes 


Scientific  School,  Yale.  He  sub- 
sequently taught  physics  at  An- 
tioch  College,  Ohio,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, and  Cooper  Institute, 
New  York.  He  published :  Man- 
ual of  Physics  (with  C.  F.  Brack- 
ett,  1898);  Theory  of  Electrical 
Measurements  (3d  ed.  1908). 

Anthony's  Nose,  a  promon- 
tory on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Hudson  River,  between  Peeks- 
kill  and  West  Point,  47  miles 
north  of  New  York  City. 

Anthophyllite,  a  fibrous  or- 
thorhombic  mineral  of  the  am- 
phibole  group.    See  Amphibole. 

Anthozo'a,  or  Actinozoa,  an 
order  of  the  Coelenterata,  includ- 
ing such  polyp-like  forms  as  the 
corals  (except  millepores)  and 
sea  anemones.  See  Ccelenter- 
ata;  Corals;  Sea  Anemone. 

An'thracene  (C6H4C2H2C6H4), 
a  white  crystalline  solid  with  blue 
fluorescence,  is  an  aromatic  hy- 
drocarbon formed  when  certain 
carbon  compounds  are  exposed  to 
a  high  temperature.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  1832  by  Dumas  and 
Laurent.  In  1866  Limpricht 
prepared  it  by  synthesis,  and  in 
the  same  year  Berthelot  showed 
its  formation  by  means  of  tubes 
heated  to  redness  and  the  method 
of  extracting  it  from  coal  tar.  It 
is  produced  in  large  quantities  in 
the  manufacture  of  coal  gas 
(q.  v.),  and  is  principally  used  in 
the  production  of  alizarin  and 
allied  coloring  matters.  See  Ali- 
zarin. 

An'thracite,  a  grade  of  coal 
distinguished  by  its  hardness,  its 
high  proportion  of  carbon,  and 
the  intense  heat  given  out  in 
burning.  Anthracite  is  brilliant 
and  even  metallic  in  appearance, 
often  with  a  curious  iridescence 
like  that  of  a  peacock's  feather; 
has  a  hollow,  rounded,  con- 
choidal  fracture;  specific  gravity, 
1.3  to  1.8.  Anthracite  contains 
comparatively  little  volatile  mat- 
ter, the  mineralization  of  woody 
matters  having  been  carried  to  a 
further  degree  than  in  bitumin- 
ous coal;  but  it  shows  occasional 
traces  of  the  cellular  structure  of 
wood.  In  burning,  there  is  little 
flame,  and  no  caking;  combus- 
tion is  comparatively  slow;  hence 
it  is  of  value  for  fusing  refractory 
metals  and  for  steam  raising. 
The  greatest  anthracite  mines 
are  those  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
it  is  also  mined  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region.  Western  Can- 
ada, Wales,  Silesia,  Westphalia, 
France,  and  Russia;  while  in  the 
Chinese  province  of  Shan -si  are 
said  to  be  the  largest  deposits  in 
the  world.  For  further  descrip- 
tion and  methods  of  mining,  see 
Coal;  Coal  Mining. 

Anthrac'nose,  a  fungous  dis- 
ease that  attacks  many  plants, 
including  the  bean,  grape,  cotton, 
blackberry  and  raspberry,  cu- 
cumber, and  eggplant.  See  Bean; 
Cotton,  Diseases. 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '18 


Anthraqui'none,  C14H8O2,  a 
yellow  crystalline  solid  obtained 
from  anthracene,  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  alizarin  (q.  v.).  1 

Anthrax  (French  charhon),  an 
infectious  disease  occurring  pri- 
marily in  herbivorous  animals,  as 
cattle  or  sheep,  in  which  it  is 
known  also  as  Splenic  Fever; 
and  transmitted  to  man  in  a 
number  of  industrial  pursuits,  es- 
pecially those  involving  the 
handling  of  hides  and  skins.  It 
exists  in  all  countries,  but  is  more 
common  in  Europe  and  Asia  than 
in  America. 

Causation. — The  causative  or- 
ganism of  anthrax  is  the  Bacillus 
anthracis,  first  observed  in  1849 
by  Pollender,  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  easily  recog- 
nized of  the  disease-producing 
organisms;  but  it  is  not  to  be  so 
much  feared  as  a  cause  of  disease 
as  the  spore,  which  is  easily  car- 
ried about,  and  under  favorable 
conditions  rapidly  germinates 
and  sets  up  a  focus  of  infection. 
Animals  become  infected  by  in- 
gestion, when  grazing  in  infected 
pastures;  by  inoculation,  brought 
about  by  contact  of  abrasions 
and  wounds  with  infected  ma- 
terials, or  by  flies  or  other  in- 
sects; and  by  inhalation  of  the 
spores.  In  man  the  disease  is 
most  commonly  contracted  by 
inoculation  or  by  inhalation. 

Anthrax  in  Animals. — The  most 
acute  type,  apoplectic  or  ful- 
minant anthrax,  occurs  chiefly  in 
cattle  or  sheep.  The  symptoms 
are  those  of  a  cerebral  apoplexy; 
the  animal  reels  and  falls;  there 
is  a  bloody  discharge  from  the 
nose  and  rectum;  and  death 
ensues  in  a  few  hours.  Anthrax 
fever,  or  internal  anthrax,  differs 
from  the  fulminant  form  chiefly 
in  its  duration.  It  is  character- 
ized by  excitability,  restlessness, 
high  fever,  oozing  of  blood  from 
the  nose,  eyes,  ears,  rectum,  and 
thinner  parts  of  the  skin  of  the 
axilla  or  thigh;  tremors,  dulness, 
prostration,  grinding  of  the  teeth, 
colicky  pains,  difficult  breath- 
ing, and  convulsions.  In  sheep 
death  occurs  in  24  hours,  in  cattle 
from  2  to  5  days,  and  in  horses 
from  1  to  5  days.  In  local  or 
external  anthrax  swellings  appear 
suddenly  on  different  parts  of  the 
body,  and  the  animal  develops 
the  characteristic  symptoms  of 
the  other  types  as  the  bacilli  from 
the  local  lesions  enter  the  circu- 
lation. 

The  principal  form  of  anthrax 
in  man  is  the  so-called  malig- 
nant pustule,  due  to  inocula- 
tion. This  begins,  about  three 
days  after  infection  has  occurred, 
with  a  tiny  red  pimple,  which  in- 
creases in  size,  developing  into  a 
painful  vesicle  surrounded  by  a 
peculiar  resilient  swelling.  The 
centre  of  the  vesicle  rapidly  be- 
comes necrotic,  forming  a  black 
eschar,  around  which  the  skin 


rises  in  blisters,  while  the  .lym- 
phatic glands  in  the  vicinity  be- 
come swollen  and  painful.  In 
malignant  oedema,  also  due  to  in- 
oculation, no  pustule  is  present, 
but  there  is  extensive  swelling, 
usually  on  the  eyelid,  neck,  or 
forearm,  accompanied  in  severe 
cases  by  redness,  vesication,  and 
a  gangrenous  appearance  of  the 
skin.  Either  form  may  develop 
into  a  generalized  infection  {an- 
thracoemia)  by  the  entrance  of 
the  bacillus  into  the  blood 
stream. 

Pulmonary  anthrax,  known 
also  as  wool  sorters  disease  and 
ragpickers'  disease,  is  due  to  the 
inhalation  of  the  spores  of  the  an- 
thrax bacillus  in  the  dust  from 
infected  wool  and  rags.  It  is 
comparatively  rare,  but  usually 
fatal.  Swellings  and  ulcers  with 
hemorrhage  occur  in  the  trachea, 
bronchi,  and  lungs;  collapse  en- 
sues rapidly,  and  death  usually 
occurs  from  the  second  to  the 
fourth  day.  Intestinal  anthrax 
is  a  rare  form,  due  to  the  inges- 
tion of  the  bacilli  or  their  spores, 
and  characterized  by  sudden  on- 
set and  collapse. 

Treatment  and  Prevention. — The 
treatment  of  anthrax  in  ani- 
mals is  wholly  preventive,  medi- 
cation being  of  no  value  once  the 
disease  has  developed.  The 
chief  measures  are  restriction  of 
the  movement  of  infected  ani- 
mals; disinfection  of  stables  and 
other  premises,  of  body  dis- 
charges, and  of  everything  com- 
ing into  contact  with  the  diseased 
animal;  disinfection  and  proper 
disposal  of  carcasses;  and  pro- 
tective inoculation.  This  last 
measure  was  introduced  by  Pas- 
teur in  1881,  and  has  proved  of 
great  value. 

Treatment  of  malignant  pus- 
tule is  by  the  thermocautery,  by 
local  injections  of  iodine  or  of 
carbolic  acid,  or  by  complete  ex- 
cision, followed  by  the  applica- 
tion of  strong  antiseptics.  In 
cases  of  inoperable  anthrax  in 
man,  Sclavo's  serum  treatment 
has  proven  efficacious.  The 
chief  preventive  measures  among 
industrial  workers  are  proper  in- 
spection of  hides,  skins,  hair, 
etc.,  especially  when  imported 
from  countries  where  the  disease 
is  known  to  be  endemic;  washing 
and  disinfection  of  suspected 
products;  dust  prevention;  and 
exclusion  of  workers  with  open 
sores. 

Consult  Bulletin  137,  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
(1911);  Farmer's  Bulletin  439, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
(1911);  Bulletin  205,  U.  S.  Bu- 
reau of  Labor  Statistics  (1917). 

Anthropoid  Apes,  or  Simiad^, 
form,  with  the  exception  of  man 
himself,  the  most  specialized 
members  of  the  Primates.  There 
are  four  living  kinds  of  anthro- 
poid apes — the  gibbon,  orang. 


Anthropological  Societies 


270 


Anthropology 


chimpanzee,  and  gorilla  (qq.  v.). 
In  all  the  tail  is  absent,  and  there 
are  no  cheek  pouches.  The  fore 
limbs  are  much  longer  propor- 
tionately than  in  man,  and  the 
sternum  is  broad.  See  Ape, 
Consult  Hautmann's  Anthropoid 
Apes;  Huxley's  Man's  Place  in 
Nature. 

Anthropological  Societies.  See 

Anthropology. 

Anthropol'ogy,  the  Science  of 
Man,  embraces  all  those  subjects 
which  deal  with  man  as  a  social 
animal.  It  is  the  most  widely 
related  of  the  sciences,  for  it  in- 
cludes or  is  allied  to  Ethnology, 
Archaeology,  Ethnography,  Soci- 
ology, History,  Physical  Geog- 
raphy, Economics,  Philology,  the 
Useful  and  Fine  Arts,  Ethics,  Re- 
ligion, Physiology,  Psychology, 
and  many  other  subjects. 

The  study  of  the  natural  his- 
tory of  social  life,  or  the  investi- 
gation of  peoples  in  respect  of 
the  present  state  and  the  evolu- 
tion of  their  culture,  is  known  as 
Ethnology.  Although  ethnology 
is  subdivided  into  several  sep- 
arate studies,  which  deal  with 
arts  and  crafts  on  the  one  hand 
and  with  ethical  and  social  mat- 
ters on  the  other,  yet,  since  all 
that  man  accomplishes  is  the 
result  of  intelligent  action,  all 
that  is  included  under  ethnology 
has  its  psychological  aspect. 
(See  Ethnology.) 

The  earlier  history  of  man  is 
known  as  Archaeology,  which  is 
essentially  a  department  of  eth- 
nology, to  which  it  bears  a  rela- 
tion similar  to  that  which  palae- 
ontology does  to  zoology.  (See 
Archeology.) 

Ethnography  is  a  general  term, 
and  signifies  a  description  of  the 
races  of  men,  their  material  and 
mental  culture,  etc.,  in  the  geo- 
graphical groups  in  which  they 
are  found,  without  reference  to 
their  origin,  laws  of  development, 
and  other  scientific  problems. 
While  the  foregoing  definition 
would  include  many  subjects  now 
recognized  by  common  consent 
as  distinct  sciences,  the  province 
of  anthropology  is  supposed  to 
end  wherever  and  whenever  a  peo- 
ple produce  written  history. 

Sociology  traces  the  rise  of 
communities,  and  their  evolu- 
tion to  the  complex  civilizations 
of  ancient  and  modern  times. 
(vSee  vSociology.)  History,  in 
the  ordinary  meaning  of  the 
term,  deals  with  the  later  phases 
of  this  development;  but  sociol- 
ogy is  the  endeavor  to  get  be- 
hind history,  and  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  the  data  with  which  his- 
torians work.  (See  History.) 
The  Physical  Geography  of  a 
country,  including  its  climate, 
vegetation,  and  animals,  affect 
profoundly  the  life  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  we  find  that  cer- 
tain types  of  social  organization 
are  related  to  specific  habits  of 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '18 


life.  (See  Physical  Geog- 
raphy.) With  the  further  ad- 
vance of  civilization  there  arises 
the  state,  which  is  the  subject  of 
Political  Science,  and  the  complex 
conditions  of  social  wealth.  (See 
Economics.) 

An  essential  condition  of  cul- 
ture is  that  art  of  communica- 
tion which  has  developed  into 
language  and  into  writing;  and 
the  study  of  the  language  of  a 
people,  or  Philology,  illustrates 
the  stage  of  culture  which  has 
been  reached,  and  may  give  a 
clue  to  the  peoples  with  whom 
the  race  has  previously  come  into 
contact.  (See  Philology.)  The 
communication  of  ideas  by  vis- 
ual signs  begins  with  Picture 
Writing  (q.  v.)  (in  which  maps 
may  be  included),  and  ends  with 
our  alphabet  (q.  v.).  Finally, 
there  are  the  universal  languages 
of  definite  signs,  of  which  mathe- 
matics, music,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  chemistry,  afford  the  best 
examples. 

The  Useful  Arts  may  be  next 
considered.  The  progress  in  the 
improvement  of  tools  and  me- 
chanical appliances  has  been 
spasmodic.  The  similarity  of  the 
stone  or  other  implements  used 
by  different  peoples  does  not 
necessarily  imply  community  of 
origin,  nor  even  the  transmission 
of  culture,  as  the  material  of 
which  the  object  is  made  and  the 
use  to  which  it  is  put  preclude 
great  variety  inform.  The  great- 
est ingenuity  is  usually  shown  in 
weapons  of  offence;  war  has 
proved  a  great  stimulus  to  inven- 
tion, and  the  wit  of  the  hunter 
has  been  sharpened  in  the  con- 
tinual attempt  to  circumvent  his 
quarry.  Certain  crafts,  such  as 
agriculture,  pottery,  and  weav- 
ing, are  essentially  women's 
work,  as  hunting  and  fighting 
form  that  of  men.  Clothing, 
house  building,  travel,  transpor- 
tation, weights  and  measures, 
etc.,  are  also  studied.  (See  Met- 
allurgy; Weaving;  Building; 
etc.) 

The  arts  which  do  not  appeal 
to  mere  utility,  but  have  been 
most  important  factors  in  the 
mental  development  of  man,  are 
those  which  are  investigated  in 
the  study  of  Msthetics  or  the 
Fine  Arts.  The  temporary  deco- 
ration of  the  person  by  paint  or 
ornaments,  and  its  permanent 
embellishment  by  tattooing  and 
deformation,  are,  at  least  in  many 
cases,  associated  with  some  social 
or  religious  concept.  Panto- 
mimic dances,  music,  and  feast- 
ing have  played  an  important 
part  in  social  development.  Sto- 
ries about  the  origin  of  the  world 
and  its  creatures,  and  legends  of 
heroes  and  races,  are  the  begin- 
nings of  literature — at  first  tra- 
ditional and  oral,  later  recorded 
in  writing.  The  rhythmic  form, 
associated  with  a  wealth  of  simile 


and  allusion,  leads  to  poetry  as 
we  know  it.  (See  Literature; 
Poetry,  Drama;  etc.) 

Man's  social  habit  gives  rise  to 
customs,  and  then  rules,  which 
make  for  security  and  good  fel- 
lowship in  the  conjmunity.  Ac- 
tions were  early  distinguished  as 
good  or  evil,  according  as  they 
were  social  or  anti-social.  These 
distinctions  lie  within  the  field  of 
Ethics,  and  their  sanctions  within 
that  of  Comparative  Religion. 
Clan  morality  has  widened  its  area 
slowly  and  imperfectly;  but  the 
responsibility  of  the  individual 
was  recognized  at  an  early  stage, 
and  the  social  instincts  of  man 
have  resulted  in  totemism,  and, 
in  a  higher  form,  in  various  sys- 
tems of  religion.  Early  specula- 
tions as  to  the  nature  of  the  sur- 
rounding world  and  of  human  life 
are,  indeed,  erroneous;  but  their 
errors  are  such  as  could  be  reme- 
died by  no  process  of  logic,  but 
only  by  wider  experience.  An- 
imism and  Magic  are  good  exam- 
ples of  theories  arising  from  very 
limited  knowledge.  (See  Ethics; 
Religion.) 

Physical  Anthropology,  or  An- 
thropometry, is  the  comparative 
study  of  the  structure  of  the  hu- 
man body  in  the  various  races  of 
mankind.  In  the  case  of  living 
persons,  such  characteristics  as 
the  color  of  the  skin,  hair,  and 
eyes,  as  well  as  the  general  pro- 
portions of  bodily  stature  and 
facial  features,  are  available  for 
examination;  but  the  detailed 
study  of  the  skeleton  constitutes 
the  most  exact  part  of  the  sci- 
ence. In  this  connection,  meas- 
urements have  been  devised 
which  are  applied  in  the  con- 
struction of  anthropometric  ta- 
bles. The  word  race  is  used  to 
designate  distinct  physical  types 
of  mankind,  from  the  intermin- 
gling of  which  peoples  or  nations 
are  developed ;  and  it  is  necessary 
in  the  study  of  peoples  to  analyze 
the  physical  factors  which  have 
been  derived  from  separate 
sources.  Physical  characters 
may  be  acquired  under  varying 
geological  and  geographical  con- 
ditions, from  climate  and  tem- 
perature, from  food  and  exercise; 
clothing  modifies  the  color  of  the 
skin;  bones  are  influenced  by 
habits  and  posture;  and  acquired 
and  ancestral  characters  are 
transmissible  from  one  generation 
to  another. 

The  most  important  anthropo- 
logical measurements  are  those  of 
the  Skull.  Their  value  is  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  skull  con- 
tains the  brain;  but  we  must  not 
suppose  that  the  dimensions  and 
capacity  of  the  former  ncccvssarily 
affect  the  quality  of  its  contents. 
In  the  skull,  the  cranium  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  face.  The 
former  is  the  box  which  contains 
the  brain.  An  estimate  of  its 
dimensions  is  formed  by  measur- 


Anthropology 


271 


Anthropology 


ing  its  capacity,  its  circumference 
in  different  directions,  segments 
of  its  circumference,  and  the 
chords  which  subtend  them.  The 
face  consists  of  the  apparatus  for 
mastication,  and  of  the  parts  sur- 
rounding the  organs  of  sight, 
smell,  taste,  and  hearing.  Its 
dimensions,  either  as  a  whole 
or  in  reference  to  its  parts,  may 
be  obtained  by  measurement. 

The  skull  may  be  examined  in 
two  ways — inspection  by  the  eye 
(cranios'copy),  and  exact  measure- 
ments taken  by  special  instru- 
'nents  (craniometry). 

1.  Cranioscopy. — There  are  cer- 
'ain  recognized  'views'  of  the 
.skull,  each  of  which  is  termed  a 
norma.  The  view  from  above 
{norma  verticalis)  rarely  shows 
any  part  of  the  face,  or  at  most 
the  lower  part  of  the  nose  or  the 
margin  of  the  upper  jaw;  the 
cheelc  arches  (zygomae)  may  be 
invisible.  Three  lines  of  juncture, 
or  sutures,  may  be  seen;  the  sag- 
gital,  or  longitudinal,  the  highest 
point  in  which  is  termed  the 
vertex;  the  coronal,  at  the  anterior 
end  of  the  saggital — the  meeting- 
point  between  these  two  being 
termed  the  bregma;  and  the  lamb- 
doidal,  at  the  hinder  end  of  the 
saggital.  The  skull  is  said  to 
be  '  well  filled  *  when  it  bulges  on 
either  side  of  the  vertex-  but  when 
it  presents  a  rooflike  slope,  as  in 
the  case  of  many  aborigines,  it  is 
said  to  be  'ill-fifled.'  The  norma 
lateralis  gives  the  profile  view  of 
the  cranium  and  face,  and  shows 
the  amount  of  projection  of  the 
face  and  of  its  separate  parts.  This 
view  of  the  cranium  shows  the 
projection  above  the  root  of  the 
nose  {glabella)  and  the  curve  of 
the  outline  of  the  vertex.  The 
hinder  part  of  the  slope  may  be 
precipitous — a  deformity  due  to 
pressure  applied  in  infancy.  This 
norma  also  shows  the  mastoid 
processes  behind  the  ears,  and 
the  temporal  ridges  associated 
with^  the  temporal  muscles  of 
mastication.  The  norma  facialis 
^hows  the  form  of  the  jaws  and 
he  character  of  the  teeth,  the 
outlines  of  the  nose  and  orbits. 
It  is  characteristic  of  man  that  the 
highest  point  of  the  nasal  opening 
is  above  the  level  of  the  lower 
border  of  the  orbits.  The  nasal 
spine  found  in  the  middle  line  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  nasal  opening 
is  another  important  human  char- 
acteristic. The  view  from  behind 
{norma  occipitalis)  shows  the  ex- 
ternal occipital  protuberance  or 
inion,  above  which  the  skull  is 
covered  by  the  scalp,  while  below 
it  are  tHe  attachments  of  the 
muscles  of  the  neck.  The  point 
of  greatest  backward  projection  of 
the  skull  occurs  above  the  inion. 
The  area  below  the  inion  looks 
downwards — a  human  character- 
istic directly  associated  with  the 
erect  attituae.  The  norma  injerior 


is  the  basal  aspect  of  cranium  and 
face.  Its  chief  feature  is  the  fora- 
men magnum,  the  front  edge  of 
which  is  named  the  basion.  On 
either  side  of  this  foramen  are  the 
condyles,  by  which  the  skull  artic- 
ulates with  the  vertebral  column. 
It  is  important  to  note  that  in  man 
the  foramen  magnum  looks  down- 
wards, whereas  in  most  quadru- 

geds  it  looks  directly  backwards, 
ecause  of  this  backward  convex- 
ity of  man's  skull,  the  cerebellum 
('little  brain')  is  placed  below  the 
cerebrum,  while  in  quadrupeds 
the  former  is  behind  the  latter. 
This  norma  also  shows^the  form  of 
the  hard  palate,  aud  gives  a  view 
of  the  teeth,  which  is  of  value  in 
the  determination  of  age  and 
habits. 

The  age  of  the  skull  may  be 
estimated  with  considerable  accu- 
racy from  the  state  of  dentition, 
and  the  latter  also  determines  the 
proportion  of  face  to  cranium.  As 
a  rule,  with  the  exception  of  the 
'wisdom  teeth,'  or  third  molars, 
which  may  be  very  late,  dentition 
is  completed  by  the_  twenty-fifth 
year,  and  from  that  time  the  teeth 
of  m.odern  Europeans  decay  at 
variable  rates;  but  decay  is  absent 
from  the  teeth  of  ancient  crania 
and  of  savage  peoples,  though  the 
crowns  are  worn  down  and  flat- 
tened by  the  presence  of  sand  in 
the  food.  The  general  ossification 
of  the  skeleton  also  is  completed 
about  the  twenty-fifth  year.  Be- 
tween the  eighteenth  and  twenty- 
second  years  the  basi-sphenoid 
articulation  on  the  base  of  the 
skull  ossifies,  and  becomes  obliter- 
ated. About  the  fortieth  year  the 
saggital  suture  begins  to  ossify  at 
its  hinder  end.  Ten  years  later, 
the  coronal  suture  begins  to  ob- 
Hterate  at  the  bregma.  In  savages 
these  changes  occur  earlier  than 
among  civilized  peoples,  with 
whom  metopism  (persistent  fron- 
tal suture)  is  frequent.  Ridges 
and  eminences  associated  with  the 
attachment  of  muscles  are  most 
marked  in  adult  skulls.  Hollow 
spaces,  called  'air  sinuses,'  which 
are  in  direct  continuity  with  the 
interior  of  the  nose,  arc  found  in 
certain  skull  bones.  These  .spaces 
cause  modifications  of  contour — 
e.g.  above  the  eyebrows  and  the 
root  of  the  nose — which  do  not 
appear  before  the  fifteenth  year. 
There  are  striking  contrasts  be- 
tween the  aged  skull  and  that  of 
the  adult.  In  the  former,  the 
arched  shape  of  the  vault  is  lost 
as  if  by  subsidence,  while  there  is 
an  accompanying  bulging  of  the 
sides  and  flattening  of  the  base. 
The  loss  of  teeth  from  the  lower 
Jaw  results  in  a  revision  to  its 
infantile  form,  in  which  little  more 
than  the  lower  border  of  the  bone 
is  left,  while  its  angle  departs  from 
the  right-angled  adult  condition 
to  repeat  the  obtuse  angle  of  in- 
fancy.   Similar  changes  occur  in 


the  upper  jaw;  and  the  cheeks  of 
the  living  subject  become  hollow, 
the  face  shrinks,  the  nose  pro- 
trudes, and  approximates  to  the 
chin. 

2.  Craniometry. — ^The  capacity 
of  the  cranium  indicates  the  de- 
velopment of  the  brain;  but  other 
structures  besides  the  brain  are 
contained  within  the  cranium,  and 
it  has  been  suggested  that  a  deduc- 
tion of  10  per  cent,  should  be  made 
in  order  to  allow  for  these.  There 
is  no  method  of  estimating  the 
capacity  of  the  cranium  which  is 
quite  free  from  error,  or  by_  which 
constant  results  are  obtainable. 
The  operator  fills  the  cranium 
with  some  substance,  which  is 
afterwards  measured  in  a  gradu- 
ated glass  vessel.  Special  precau- 
tions must  be  taken  to  ensure 
equal  conditions  of  pressure  dur- 
ing both  stages  of  this  operation; 
the  routine  of  the  procedure  must 
be  rigidly  observed*  and  it  is  ad- 
visable to  have  a  large  series  of 
observations  recorded  by  the  same 
operator.  After  experiments  with 
numerous  substances  such  as 
sand,  seed,  and  water,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  best  results  are  ob- 
tained by  using  chilled  shot  No.  8, 
and  that,  both  in  filling  the  skull 
and  in  pouring  the  shot  from  the 
skull  into  the  glass  measure,  it 
should  run  through  a  funnel  whose 
outlet  is  twenty  millimetres  in 
diameter.  Even  when  every  pre- 
caution has  been  taken,  discrepan- 
cies will  arise;  but  if  the  variation 
be  no  more  than  10  cubic  centi- 
metres, it  is  regarded  as  'slight.' 

The  capacity  of  the  normal 
human  cranium  varies  from  1,000 
to  1,800  cubic  centimetres.  In 
striking  averages,  it  is  preferable 
to  compare  crania  of  the  same 
sex,  because  the  mean  capacity  of 
female  crania  is  10  per  cent,  less 
than  the  mean  of  male  crania.  On 
this  basis  crania  have  been  classi- 
fied as:  (a)  Microcephalic,  below 
1,350  c.c— 6'.^.  extinct  Tasmani- 
ans,  aboriginal  Australians,  Bush 
people,  Andamanese,  many  Mela- 
nesians,  Veddahs  and  Hillmen  of 
India;  {b)  Mesocephalic,  from 
1,350  c.c.  to  1,450  c.c. — e.g.  Ne- 
groes, Malays,  American  Indi- 
ans and  Polynesians;  (c)  Megace- 
phalic,  above  1,450  c.c.  —  e.g. 
Eskimos,  Europeans,  Mongolians, 
Burmese,  and* Japanese. 

The  mean  capacity  among  Eu- 
ropeans is  about  1,500  c.c.  Sir 
Wm.  Turner  has  recorded  the 
capacity  of  a  male  Scots  cranium 
of  nearly  1,800  c.c.  and  a  female 
aboriginal  Australian  at  930  c.c. 
There  is  no  doubt  of  the  human 
character  of  the  smaller  of  these 
two  crania,  in  spite  of  the  enor- 
mous difference  between  them. 
Another  great  gap  separates  man 
from  the  nearest  of  the  anthro- 
poid apes,  in  which  500  c.c.  is 
the  maximum  capacity.  Sex 
and  general  bodily  statue  un- 


Anthropology 


272 


Anthropology 


doubtedly  influence  the  capacity 
of  the  cranium,  and  thus  the 
Weight  of  the  brain.  Manouvrier 
calculates  that  the  cranial  capa- 
city multiplied  by  0.87  gives  the 
weight  of  the  brain  with  reason- 
able exactness. 

Linear  measurements  of  the 
skull  may  be  absolute  or  relative; 
and  since  the  cranium  is  not  a 
rectangular  box,  it  is  necessary  to 
measure  the  distances  along  the 
arcs  of  curves,  as  well  as  the 
chords  of  these  arcs — i.e.  the 
shortest  distances  between  points 
upon  the  surface.  For  these  pur- 
poses two  instruments  are  re- 
quired— viz.  a  graduated  steel 
tape  and  callipers.  The  latter 
consis:;s  of  a  straight  graduated 
bar  upon  which  there  are  two 
curvea  arms;  of  these  one  is 
fixed  at  zero,  while  the  other 
may  be  moved  upon  the  bar  so  as 
to  record  the  shortest  distance 
between  any  two  points  upon  a 
curved  surface.  One  end  of  each 
arm  is  bent,  so  as  to  be  available 
for  recording  the  distance  between 
two  opposing  points  upon  the  in- 
ner aspect  of  such  a  hollow  cham' 
ber  as  the  nose  or  orbit.  The  pres- 
ent writer  has  devised  a  modifica 
tion  of  this  instrument  whereby  a 
third  arm  is  added  to  the  gradu  • 
ated  bar.  This  arm  is  placed 
at  zero  in  the  centre  of  the 
bar,  and  Is  straight,  while  the 
two  curved  arms  are  both 
freely  movable;  thus  the  relative 
distances  between  three  points 
upon  the  surface  of  the  cranium 
may  be  registered — e.g.  in  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  asymmetr3\ 
By  the  tape,  measurements  are 
made  of  the  circumference  of  the 
cranium  in  the  horizontal,  trans- 
verse, and  longitudinal  directions; 
though,  in  order  to  complete  the 
two  latter,  it  is  necessary  to  resort 
to  the  callipers.  By  the  latter 
instrument  the  length,  breadth, 
and  height  of  the  cranium  are 
determined.  Length  is  technically 
the  glabello-orcipital  diameter; 
breadth,  for  ordinary  purposes,  is 
the  greatest  width;  height  is  the 
diameter  between  bregma  and 
basion.  The  chief  interest  in  the 
figures  thus  obtained  lies  in  the 
comparison  of  one  with  the  other. 
It  is  customary  to  compare  the 
length  with  the  greatest  width. 
This  is  done  by  assuming  that  the 
length  equals  100,  and  then  repre- 
senting the  width  as  a  percent- 
age. The  result  is  termed  an 
'index,'  the  formula  for  which  is 
greatest  width  x  100  , 

 \^  =  ""P^^^^^ 

index.  This  index  affords  by  far 
the  most  important  basis  for  clas- 
sification of  skulls.  "When  the  in- 
dex is  low,  length  greatly  pre- 
dominates over  width,  giving  an 
elongated  or  oval  skull;  on  the 
other  hand,  when  the  index  is 
high,  the  skull  tends  to  be  rounded. 


The  current  classification  of  skulls 
upon  this  index  is  the  following: 
hyper  dolichocephalic,  below  70; 
dolichocephalic,  from  70-75;  mesa- 
ticephalic,  75-80;  brachycephalic, 
from  80-85;  hvperhr  achy  cephalic, 
above  85.  These  divisions  are 
quite  arbitrary,  and  unnecessarily 
minute.  It  may  serve  to  indicate 
the  general  result  of  this  classi- 
fication to  state  that  Eskimos, 
Fuegians,  African  Negroes,  Ved- 
dahs,  Australian  aborigines,  Fiji- 
ans,  and  certain  races  of  N. 
Europe  are  typically  dolicho- 
cephalic; while  aboriginal  Amer- 
icans, Mal&vs,  Mongols,  Sand- 
wich Islanders,  Lapps,  Finns, 
Poles,  Tyrolese,  etc.,  provide 
illustrations  of  brachvcephalic 
skulls.  The  mesaticephalic  crania 
are  found  among  Japanese,  Chi- 
nese, Greeks,  French,  Germans, 
Danes,  British,  etc. 

Sometimes  height  is  contrasted 
with  length,  and  a  vertical  index 
is  calculated  on  the  principle 
stated  above.  In  this  way  we  get 
low  skulls  {platycephalic)  —  e.g. 
Bushmen  ancl  aboriginal  Aus- 
tralians; moderate  skulls  (me- 
trioccphalic) — e.g.  Scottish,  Eng- 
lish; high  skulls  (acrocephalic)— 
e.g.  Fijians,  Loyalty  Islanders. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is 
clear  that  there  are  always  two 
distinct  and  extreme  types  of  cra- 
nium; but  an_v  attempt  to  explain 
their  origin  must  be  largely  specu- 
lative. It  must  not  be  forgotten 
'  that  the  indices  merely  express 
relative  proportions  between  two 
diameters  of  the  cranium,  whose 
function  it  is  to  contain  and  pro- 
tect the  brain.  We  do  not  know 
whether  brain  growth  has  an  in- 
fluence on  the  period  of  oblitera- 
tion of  sutures;  but  when  a  cranial 
suture  obliterates,  no  further  ex- 
pansion is  possible  along  that  par- 
ticular line,  although  this  may 
readilv  be  compensated  bv  con- 
tinuerl  growth  along  the  line  of 
another  still  unobliterated  suture. 
It  is  possible  that  these  two  con- 
ditions react  upon  each  other  in 
producing  the  dift'erent  types  of 
cranium. 

The  Face  is  of  peculiar  interest, 
because  it  is  modified  more  rapidly 
than  the  cranium  in  the  process 
of  evolution.  To  define  its  limits 
is  not  so  simple  as  it  might  appear. 
Popularly,  the  face  includes  the 
forehead,  and  extends  to  the  tip 
of  the  chin;  anatomically,  the 
forehead,  being  part  of  the  cra- 
nium, is  not  included  in  the  face. 
Sometimes  its  upper  limit  is  taken 
above  the  root  of  the  nose,  in  order 
to  include  the  evebrows;  but,  as 
a  rule,  the  root  of  the  nose  (fronto- 
nasal suture)  is  the  limit.  The 
facial  width  is  calculated  between 
the  projecting  convexities  of  the 
zygomatic  arches.  A  percentage 
comparison  of  the  length  and 
widtn  gives  a  facial  index,  accord- 
ing to  which  high  faces  are  above 


and  low  faces  are  below  ninety. 
The  lower  jaw,  however,  is  fre- 
quently absent  from  collected 
skulls,  since  this  bone  may  be 
used  as  an  ornament — e.g.  in'New 
Guinea,  where  it  is  used  as  a 
bracelet.  Accordingly,  an  upper 
facial  or  maxillary  index  is  neces- 
sary, in  which  fifty  forms  the 
dividing  line  between  high  and 
low  faces.  Most  Europeans  have 
high — i.e.  narrow — faces  ;  but 
Mongols,  Eskimos,  etc.,  have 
low  or  broad  faces.  The  skeleton 
of  the  nose  varies  greatly;  and 
the  marked  contrast  between  the 
Grecian  rose  and  the  squat 
bridgeless  nose  of  the  aboriginal 
Austrahan  or  extinct  Tasmanian 
is  chiefly  due  to  a  difference  in 
the  size  of  the  nasal  bones.  The 
nasal  spine  of  the  anterior  nasal 
aperture  may  be  well  developed, 
as  in  Europeans,  or  feebly,  as  in 
the  aboriginal  Austrahan,  who,  in 
this  respect,  approximates  to  the 
lower  animals.  When  it  is  feeble, 
a  certain  amount  of  jaw  projec- 
tion (prognathism)  is  always 
present;  and  this  becomes  pro- 
nounced when,  as  in  the  apes,  the 
nasal  spine  is  absent.  The  nasal 
aperture  of  the  skull  looks  for- 
wards; its  downward  direction 
during  life  is  due  to  cartilages 
which  are  absent  from  the  dry 
skull.  The  height  of  the  nose  is 
measured  from  its  roof  to  the  an- 
terior nasal  spine;  the  width  is 
taken  where  greatest.  From  these 
data  a  nasal  index  is  calculated 
according  to  which  a  skull  is 
leptorhine  (narrow  nostrils)  below 
48 — e.g.  Engish,  Eskimos,  etc.; 
mesorhine  (medium  nostrils)  from 
48-53 — e.g.  Chinese,  etc.;  pla- 
tyrhine  (broad  nostrils)  above 
53 — e.g.  aboriginal  Australian. 
No  European  is  ever  platyrhine,* 
nor  any  aboriginal  Australian 
ever  leptorhine.  The  orbit  is 
the  somewhat  pyramidal  cham- 
ber which  lodges  the  eye-ball; 
the  height  and  width  of  its  outlet 
are  compared.  These  meas- 
urements are  taken  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  the  width 
being  calculated  from  the  dacryon 
— a  fixed  point  upon  the  inner 
wall — to  the  most  distant  point 
upon  the  outer  edge  of  the  orbit. 
The  width  is  always  greater  than  the 
,  .  ,  ^  ,  ,  height  X  100 
height,  and  hence   = 

orbital  index.  High  orbits 
(megaseme)  are  above  89 — e.g. 
Andamancse,  Chinese;  moderate 
orbits  {mcsoseme)  from  84-89 — 
e.g.  English;  low  orbits  [micro- 
seme)  Ixdow  84— <^.^.  Bushmen 
and  aboriginal  Australians.  By 
various  measurements  of  the  hard 
palate  we  obtain  a  palatal  ind'^ 
which  expresses  the  relation  o* 
width  to  length.  As  a  rule,  the 
width  exceeds  the  length;  but  in 
apes  the  opposite  is  the  case,  and 
aboriginal   Australians  approxi- 


Anthropology 

mate  to  the  apes  in  this  re- 
spect. 

So  far  the  cranium  and  the  face 
have  been  considered  separately, 
but  they  must  be  compared  in 
order  to  express  the  relation  of 
face  to  cranium.  The  scientific 
terms  indicate  the  relative  projec- 
tion of  the  face  in  front  of  th  cra- 
nium. Such  animals  as  the  horse, 
tiger,  ape,  etc.,  in  which  the 
amount  of  projection  is  great,  are 
called  prognathic.  Europeans,  in 
whom  the  amount  of  projection 
is  slight,  are  called  orthognathic; 
but  the  lower  races  are  prognathic. 
To  determine  the  amount  of  pro- 
jection, the  distance  from  the 
basion  to  the  base  of  the  incisor 
teeth  is  multiplied  by  100,  and 
the  product  is  divided  by  the  dis- 
tance from  the  basion  to  the  root 
of  the  nose.  The  quotient  gives 
the  gnathic  index.  Skulls  below 
98  are  orthognathous — e.g.  Euro- 
peans, Bushmen;  from  98-103, 
mesognathous — e.g.  Chinese,  Jap- 
anese, Malays,  Maoris;  above  103, 
prognathous — e.g.  Hottentots,  Ne- 
groes, Kaffirs,  aboriginal  Austra- 
lians. Prognathism  may  be  inten- 
sified by  the  lips,  incisor  teeth,  and 
lower  jaw,  by  the  curvature  of  the 
skull,  and  by  its  attitude  upon 
the  spinal  column,  which  is,  nor- 
mally with  the  axis  of  vision,  hori- 
zontal. The  facial  angle,  which 
only  affects  the  face,  and  may  be 
determined  on  the  living  head  as 
well  as  on  the  skull,  may  also 
express  the  amount  of  prognath- 
ism. _  To  obtain  this  angle,  a 
line  is  drawn  from  the  external 
auditory  opening  either  to  the 
subnasal  point  {camper)  or  to  the 
alveolar  point  between  the  two 
central  incisor  teeth  (cloquet).  This 
line  is  intersected  by  a  face  line, 
drawn  from  the  face  margin  of 
the  upper  lip  to  the  glabella.  The 
facial  angle  is  highest  among 
Europeans,  whose  skulls  are  or- 
thognathous, and  becomes  lower 
according  to  the  amount  of  prog- 
nathism. 

Deformities  of  the  cranium  may 
result  from  a  variety  of  causes,  and 
the  two  lateral  halves  are  rarely, 
if  ever,  symmetrical.  A  disease 
such  as  hydrocephalus  enlarges 
the  skull  in  all  directions.  Prem- 
ature closure  of  certain  sutures 
may  cause  abnormal  expansion  in 
special  directions,  producing  skulls 
which  are  unduly  elongated, 
rounded,  or  even  _  triangular. 
Again,  certain  aboriginal  tribes 
and  some  civilized  peoples  cause 
artificial  flattening  of  the  front, 
back,  and  sides  of  the  skull  by 

eeculiar  methods  of  treating  the 
cads  of  infants.  Lastly,  it  has 
been  observed  that  deformity  re- 
sulting from  pressure  occurs  in 
skulls  which  have  been  softened 
by  burial  in  water-laden  or  clay 
soils. 

The  Spinal  Column  of  the  in- 
fant consists  of  thitry-three  dis- 


273 

tinct  vertebrae.  Of  these,  twenty- 
four  remain  separate  in  the  adult, 
while  five  fuse  to  form  the  sacrum, 
and  four  to  form  the  coccyx,  or 
concealed  and  rudimentary  tail. 
Between  the  bodies  of  each  pair 
of  distinct  vetebrae  there  is  an 
intervertebral  disc  of  white  fibrous 
tissue  having  a  certain  amount  of 
elasticity.  In  Europeans  the  verte- 
br£E  present  certain  definite  char- 
acters; but  occasionally  structural 
variations  occur,  suggesting  condi- 
tions characteristic  of  lower  ani- 
mals. Such  variations  are  much 
more  common  among  the  lower 
human  races.  During  life  the 
adult  vertebral  column  of  man 
presents  three  well-marked  curves 
— viz.  cervical,  dorsal,  and  lumbar, 
of  which  the  cervical  and  lumbar 
have  their  convexity,  while  the 
dorsal  curve  has  its  concavity, 
forwards.  These  curves  are  di- 
rectly associated  with  man's  bi- 
pedal gait  and  his  erect  attitude, 
in  which  the  weight  of  the  head 
requires  to  be  poised  upon  the 
summit  of  the  vertebral  column. 
The  curves  are  therefore  most  dis- 
tinct in  civilized  man,  but  the 
difference  between  him  and  primi- 
tive man  is  only  one  of  degree. 
Quadrupeds  do  not  possess  these 
curves,  and  the  anthropoid  apes 
show  them  only  to  a  modified 
extent.  At  the  time  of  birth  the 
spinal  curves  of  the  human  infant 
are  quadrupedal,  but  with  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  erect  attitude  the 
curves  change  gradually  into  those 
which  are  characteristic  of  the 
adult  civilized  man. 

The  Sacrum  is  very  wide  in 
relation  to  its  length,  and  the 
percentage  proportion  between 
these  measurements  is  expressed 
by  a  sacral  index.  Width  pre- 
dominates in  white  races,  but 
among  many  black  races  the 
length  is  the  greater — the  nor- 
mal condition  in  lower  animals. 

The  Pelvis,  or  basin,  consists 
of  the  sacrum  and  the  two  haunch 
bones  articulated  together.  It 
ranks  next  to  the  skull  in  an- 
thropological importance,  and 
possesses  peculiar  interest  both 
because  of  modifications  due  to 
the  erect  attitude  and  because  of 
sex  characters  associated  with  its 
obstetrical  functions.  Compared 
with  that  of  animals,  the  human 
pelvis  presents  great  breadth  and 
shallowness,  while  the  capacity 
of  what  is  called  the  'true  pelvis' 
is  also  great.  The  pelves  of  the 
various  human  races  present  cer- 
tain differences,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  have  relation  to 
the  antero-posterior  and  trans- 
verse diameters  of  the  inlet  or 
brim  of  the  true  pelvis.  The  per- 
centace  relation  between  these 
two  diameters  provides  the  pelvic 
or  brim  index.  In  classifying  the 
indices,  it  is  necessary  to  group 
the  pelves  of  the  two  sexes  sepa- 
rately; the   male   pelvis  is  the 


Anthropology 

more  important  for  comparison. 

According  to  Turner,  pelves  whose 
index  is  below  90  are  platypellic — 
e.g.  European;  90-95,  mesatipellic 
■ — e.g.  Negroes;  above  95,  dolicho- 
pellic — e.g.  aboriginal  Australians, 
Andamanese,  orang-outang  (126), 
chimpanzee  (133),  gorilla  (144). 
In  this  respect  dolichopellic  races 
closely  approximate  to  the  lower 
animals.  Among  Europeans  both 
sexes  are  platypellic.  Increased 
width  is  a  feature  of  all  female 
pelves,  and  Turner  knows  no  race 
in  which  the  females  have  doli- 
chopellic pelves. 

The  Lower  Limb  consists  of  the 
haunch;  a  shaft,  divisible  into 
thigh  (of  which  the  femur  forms 
the  skeleton)  and  leg  (containing 
the  tibia  and  fibula);  and  the  foot. 
This  limb  is  used  for  support  and 
locomotion;  only  to  a  very  slight 
extent  can  the  foot  be  u^ed  for 
grasping.  _  The  femur  presents 
many  distinctive  human  charac- 
ters directly  associated  with  the 
erect  attitude.  Before  birth  this 
bone  closely  resembles  the  femur 
of  the  anthropoid  ape.  Its  propor- 
tions and  general  characters  in  the 
adult  have  intimate  relation  with 
the  stature,  attitude,  muscularity, 
and  habits  of  the  individual;  it 
may  also  be  used  in  determining 
sex.  The  maximum  diameter  of  its 
head,  as  well  as  that  of  its  lower 
or  condylar  end,  are  found  with 
callipers.  In  the  upper  and  middle 
thirds  _  of  its  shaft  the  _  antero- 
posterior and  transverse  diameters 
are  taken  at  fixed  points.  In  the 
upper  section  the  percentage  com- 
parison between  the  two  diameters 
yields  a  platymeric  index,  and  in 
the  middle  section  we  obtain  a 
pilastric  index.  Each  of  these 
gives  interesting  results  which 
bear  upon  attitude  and  habits. 
The  total  length  of  the  femur, 
as  of  any  long  bone,  is  obtained 
by  using  an  osteometric  board,  of 
which  there  are  several  varieties. 
Among  Europeans  its  length  is 
about  18  in.  in  males,  and  17  in. 
in  females.  The  two  femurs  of 
the  same  person  are  very  rarely 
of  equal  length.  In  relation  to 
the  total  stature  of  the  individual 
the  femur  equals  about  .275.  Of 
the  bones  of  the  leg,  the  fibula,  or 
outer  bone,  possesses  no  special 
interest;  but  the  tibia,  or  shin 
bone,  is  important.  Its  upper 
or  knee  joint  end  may  present 
its  articular  surfaces  looking  up- 
wards or  considerably  bent  back- 
wards. The  latter  condition, 
which  is  called  retroversion,  is 
usually  associated  with  consider- 
able lateral  compression  of  the 
shaft,  whereby  its  antero-poste- 
rior diameter  greatlv  exceeds  its 
width.  The  amount  of  this  flat- 
tening (platyhirmia)  is  calcu- 
lated at  the  middle  of  the  shaft 
,  tibial  length  y  100   

^  antero-posterior  diameter 


Anthropology 


274 


Anthropology 


platyknemic  index.  The  total 
length  of  the  tibia,  which  does 
not  include  the  spine  at  its  upper 
end,  is  measured  as  in  the  femur. 
It  is  believed  that  squatting— z.e. 
sitting  on  the  heels — influences 


longer  than  the  tibia,  but  the  pro- 
portions vary;  the  relationship  is 

J  V    tibial  length  x  100 

expressed  by  ; —  = 

femoral  length 
tibio-femoral  index.  In  Europeans 
this  index  is  about  81;  aboriginal 


Anthropology. — Craniometry. 
A,  Norma  verticalis.   B,  Norma  lateralis.   C,  Norma  occipitalis.   D,  Norma  inferior. 
El,  E2,  Dolichocephalic  type  (negro).   Fl,  F2,  Brachycephalic  type  (Chinese).   Gl,  G2, 
Mesaticephalic  type  (European).   II,  Prognathous  type  (Australian).  K,  Calipers. 


not  only  the  extent  of  the  articular 
surfaces  at  the  upper  and  lower 
ends  of  the  femur,  but  that  retro- 
version of  the  tibial  head,  platy- 
knemia  of  its  shaft,  and  extension 
of  its  inferior  articular  surface  to 
the  front  of  the  bone,  are  due  to 
the  same  cause.  Similar  appear- 
ances are  found  in  the  row-born 
infant,  but  these  usually  disappear 
tmle.ss  fixed  by  the  squatting  at- 
titude. From'  the  fact  that  the 
hones  of  prehistoric  man  pre- 
sented similar  conditions,  many 
investigators  believe  that  he  could 
not  walk  erect,  but  assumed  the 
posture  of  the  anthropoid  apes. 
The  human  femur   is  a^vays 


Australians,  83;  Tasmanians,  85; 
Bushmen,  86.  All  above  83  are 
dolichoknemic — i.e.  the  proportion 
of  leg  to  thigh  is  greater  than 
in  Europeans;  all  below  83  are 
hrachyknemic.  It  is  seldom  that 
the  two  lower  limbs  are  of  equal 
length,  but  taken  together,  the 
femur  and  tibia  are  used  for  deter- 
mining the  stature.  Of  several 
methods,  the  simplest  is:  length 
of  tibia  -}-  length  of  femur  x  2, 
and  1  in.  added  for  soft  parts.  Up 
to  ten  vears  of  age  the  rate  of 
growth  'is  greater  in  the  male 
than  in  the  female;  from  ten 
to  fourteen  vears  the  female 
is  the  taller;  'after  fourteen  the 


male  again  preJominates.  The 
maximum  height  is  reached 
about  the  thirty-fifth  year;  and 
as  ossification  is  completed  about 
the  twenty-sixth  year,  the  addi- 
tional height  is  believed  to  be 
gained  by  an  increase  in  the  inter- 
vertebral discs.  The  peoples  of 
the  world  present  great  differences 
in  height.  Among  Andamanese 
the  mean  height  is  below  5  ft., 
and  among  Bushmen,  Lapps,  Es- 
kimos, and  Veddahs  the  average 
is  also  below  5  ft.  (1.4  to  1.5  m.). 
The  Akka  of  equatorial  Africa, 
in  whom  the  height  of  both  males 
and  females  is  below  4  ft.,  are  the 
most  dwarfed;  but  among  the 
more  northern  tribes  the  height 
is  greater^  through  intermarriage 
with  negroes. 

The  Upper  Limb  is  primarily 
adapted  for  grasping  (prenension), 
and  in  a  minor  degree  for  support 
and  locomotion.  The  clavicle,  or 
collar  bone,  merely  presents  varia- 
tions in  length  and  thickness,  due 
to  stature  and  muscularity.  The 
scapula,  or  shoulder  blade,  is  plate- 
like and  triangular.  Its  anatomi- 
cal features  are  believed  to  be  con- 
siderably modified  by  muscularity, 
depending  upon  habits  and  occu- 
pation.   In  man  (unlike  quadru- 

Eeds)  the  length  exceeds  the  width. 
,ength  is  reckoned  from  the 
upper  to  the  lower  angles  of  the 
bone,  and  width  from  the  middle 
of  the  outer  border  of  the  glenoid 
fossa  to  the  vertebral  border  at  the 
root  of  its  spine.  From  these 
,  ^    width  X 100  ,    .  J 

data  — length — =scapular  index. 

Among  Europeans  the  mean  in- 
dex is  65.3.  but  is  higher  in  infants 
than  in  aaults.  The  index  varies 
from  62  6  in  Lapps,  and  64.9  in 
aboriginal  Australians,  to  70.2 
among  Andamanese.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  it  possesses  much 
value  as  a  race  character.  The' 
humerus,  or  upper  arm  bone,  is  a 
typical  long  bone.  The  maximum 
diameter  of  its  head  possesses  a 
certain  amount  of  value  as  a  sex 
character.  A  small  hookhke  pro- 
jection on  its  shaft — supracon- 
dyloid  process — is  occasionally 
found,  representing  a  portion  of 
bone  which  encloses  a  foramen  in 
many  animals.  Sometimes  the 
olecranon  fossa  is  perforated 
■ — a  condition  which  was  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  prehistoric 
bones.  The  radius  and  ulna — the 
outer  and  inner  bones  of  the  fore 
arm — are  not  in  themselves  of 
great  interest.  For  some  time, 
however,  it  has  been  recognized 
that  there  are  variations  in  the  rela- 
tive lengths  of  upper  arm  and  fore 
arm.  In  expressing  this  relation- 
ship, the  lenjTth  of  the  humerus  is 
compared  with  that  vi  the  radius, 
,  ,  length  of  radius  x  100  _ 
^"'^  length  of  humerus  ~ 

radio-humeral  index.  A  high  in- 
dex, therefore,  indicates  a  long 
fore  arm  in  relation  to  the  upper 


A.nthropology 


275 


arm,  and  vice  versd.  The  Lapps 
and  the  Eskimos,  who  have  the 
shortest  fore  arms,  have  an  index 
about  71;  Europeans,  74;  aborig- 
inal Australians,  77;  Negroes,  79; 
Andamanese,  81;  the  chimpanzee, 


shaft  of  the  upper  limb  is  longer 
than  that  of  the  lower  limb,  as  in 
the  orang. 

The  fullest  exposition  of  these 
details  is  known  as  BertiUonage, 
from  M.  Bertillon,  who  aims  at 


Anthropology. — Spinal  Column  and  Pelvis. 

Figs.  I.-IV.,  Spina/ Cwrres.— I.  European  (male).  II.  European  (female).  III.  Hottentot 
— bushman.   IV.  Orang:.    (C,  cervical ;  d,  dorsal ;  L,  lumbar  ;  s,  sacral  vertebrae.) 

Fig.  V„  Lumbo- Scleral  Angle.~T&,  fifth  lumbar  vertebra ;  si,  first  sacral. 

Fig.  VI.,  Inclination  of  the  Brim  of  the  Pelvis  and  its  Axis  in  the  Erect  Posture.— a  b, 
horizontal  line ;  cd,  line  of  inclination  of  the  brim  of  the  true  pelvis ;  e/,  axis  of  inferior 
outlet ;  flf,  diameter  of  inferior  outlet. 

Fig.  VII.,  Male  PeMs  (European). 

Fig.  VUl.,  Female  Prlvis  (European).— a.b,  antero-posterior  or  conjugate  diameter;  cd, 
transverse  or  widest  diameter ;  ef,  gh,  oblique  diameter. 


90;  and  the  gorilla,  100.  This  in- 
dex is  higher  in  the  infant  than 
in  the  adult. 

Indices  are  also  employed  to 
represent  the  relative  length  of  the 
humerus  and  femur,  the  latter 
being  taken  as  100.  This  is  called 
the  Jetnoro -humeral  index.  Fur- 
ther, the  combined  length  of  the 
humerus  and  radius  is  compared 
with  that  of  the  femur  and  tibia, 
by  regarding  the  latter  as  equal  to 
100.  In  this  manner  an  intcrmcm- 
hral  index  is  obtained,  which, when 
it  is  above  100,  indicates  that  the 


establishing  the  identity'  of  indi- 
viduals by  careful  tabulation  and 
classification  of  the  data  obtained 
by  measurements.  For  this  pur- 
pose actual  measurements, ancf  not 
indices,  are  employed — e.g.  stand- 
ing height;  sitting" height;  span  of 
arms;  length  and  breadth  of  ear,  of 
nose;  length  of  fore  arm  and  hand, 
of  foot,  of  fingers,  etc.  The  color 
of  the  eyes — i.e.  of  the  iris — and 
the  nature  and  direction  of  the 
opening  between  the  evelids  are 
also  observed  and  noted.  Similar 
attention  is  paid  to  the  color  of 


Anthropomorphism 

the  skin  (whether  black,  brown, 
yellow,  copper  color,  fair  white, 
or  dark  white),  and  to  marks  upon 
it,  such  as  tattooing,  or  scars  re- 
sulting from  wounds.  The  natural 
structure  of  the  skin,  as  seen  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand  and  sole  of  the 
foot,  where  it  shows  fine  alter- 
nating ridges  and  furrows,  has  led 
to  elaborate  methods  of  recording, 
classifying,  and  interpreting  the 
finger-print  patterns  which  may  be 
obtained  from  the  palmar  surface 
of  the  terminal  phalanges  of  the 
digits.  Lastly,  the  hair  is  studied 
in  regard  to  its  color,  and  the 


Specimens  of  Finger  Prints 
{enlarged). 


shape  which  it  presents  on  section. 
Among  Europeans  and  American 
Indians  it  is  circular,  in  trans- 
verse .section;  among  aboriginal 
Australians,  ovoid;  among  Hot- 
tentots, laterally  compressed; 
among  Papuans,  kidney-shaped. 
Huxley  _  classified  mankind  as 
Iciolrichi  (smooth-haired)  and 
ulotrichi  (crisp  or  woolly  haired). 
See  the  art.  Man;  and  Turner,  in 
Challenger  Reports,  and  papers  in 
J  our.  of  Anat.  and  Phvs.;  Tylor's 
Anthropology  (1881);"  Deniker's 
The  Races  of  Men  (1900);  Galton's 
Finger  Prints  (1893);  Bertillon's 
Identification  A  nthropometrique 
(2nd  ed.  189.3);  Henry's  Classifi- 
cation and  Uses  of  Finger-Prints 
(1900);  Hepburn,  papers  in  Jour, 
of  Anat.;  and  Proc.  Ed.  Roy.  Soc. 

Anthropomorphism  (Gr.  'in 
the  form  of  man'),  usually  defined 
as  the  ascription  to  the  Deity  of 
qualities  which  properly  belong  to 
human  beings,  really  denotes  a 
more  generic  tendency  to  repre- 
sent all  things  under  conceptions 
derived  from  man's  personal  ex- 
perience. Thus,  the  child  instinc- 
tively attributes  feelings  like  its 
own  to  inanimate  objects,  and 
it  is  never  possible  entirely  to 
banish  this  element  from  our 
thought.  Many  of  our  most 
important  conceptions  are,  in 
varying  degrees,  transcripts  oj 
the  nature  of  the  self,  and  there: 
fore  anthropomorphic.  The  an 
thropomorphism    which  science 


An  th  ropophagi 

and  philosophy  have  to  avoid 
arises  from  the  mind's  imposing 
its  own  nature  upon  things,  not 
in  the  way  which  is  essential  to 
cognition,  but  in  ways  that  are 
arbitrary  and  unintelligent.  But 
anthropomorphism  is  most  prom- 
inently exemplified  in  religious 
thought.  It  is  impossible  for  the 
religious  mind  to  formulate  the 
relations  between  God  and  man 
save  by  attributing  to  Him  a  na- 
ture akin  to  its  own.  Still,  there 
have  been  sects  in  the  Christian 
Church  whose  doctrine  of  God  has 
assumed  forms  so  anthropomor- 
phic as  to  threaten  the  purity  of 
the  faith.  It  is  impossible  to  for- 
get that  the  attraction  of  Chris- 
tianity for  man,  and  its  power 
over  his  heart,  is  largely  due  to 
its  setting  forth  the  Divine  so 
Uvingly  in  terms  of  the  human. 
A-nd  tJ  lose  who  put  forward  vari- 
ous reasons  fcr  denying  altogether 
the  legitimacy  of  such  forms  of 
thought  have  to  answer  the  ques- 
tion whether  science  is  not  as  an- 
thropomorphic in  construing  the 
universe  logically  and  rationally 
^s  religion  is  in  construing  it 
fliorally  and  spiritually.  In  both 
cases  it  is  a  reasonable  position 
that  anthropomorphism  is  forced 
?n  us  by  fidelity  to  the  facts. 

Anthropophagi.  See  Canni- 
balism. 

Anthurium,  a  large  genus  of 
'Topical  American  plants,  belong- 
ing to  the  arum  order.  Certain 
>pecies  are  cultivated  in  hot- 
houses for  their  red,  flaring 
spathes. 

Antibes  {a.nc.  Antipolis),  fort.tn, 
and  health  resort  of  France,  12  m. 
3.W.  of  Nice  in  the  French  Riviera. 
The  harbor  is  deep  and  easy  of 
access.  Oranges  and  olives  are 
cultivated,  and  there  are  several 
tobacco  factories.  Pop.  (1901) 
10,947. 

Anti-Burghers,  Scottish  seces- 
sionists who,  in  1747,  condemned 
the  'burgess  oath,'  and  adopted 
the  name  General  Associate  Synod. 
See  Presbyterian  Church. 

Anticlilor,  a  name  given  by 
bleachers  and  papermakers  to  any 
substance  used  to  neutralize  small 
Quantities  of  free  chlorine  which 
tne  cloth  or  paper  retains.  If 
not  removed,  the  chlorine  would 
act  injuriously  on  the  fabric,  de- 
/  stroy  the  dyes,  and  damage  the 
machinery.  In  paper  it  would 
bleach  the  inks  used  in  printing 
or  writing,  and  in  time  destroy 
the  fibres.  Hyposulphite  of  soda 
and  sulphite  of  soda  are  the  princi- 
pal antichlors.  The  presence  of 
free  chlorine  is  indicated  by  a  very 
simple  test.  A  quantity  of  any 
ordinary  starch  is  boiled  in  water, 
and  a  few  crystals  of  potassium 
iodide  added.  When  the  solu- 
tion is  cold,  a  few  drops  of  it  on 
the  fabric  or  paper  pulp  contain- 
ing chlorine  is  at  once  turned  blue. 
The  antichlor  is  then  added  to  the 


276 

bulk  of  the  pulp  until  the  test 

produces  no  blue  color. 

Antichrist.  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament the  word  occurs  only  in 
the  Epistles  of  John  (1  John 
2:18,22;  4:. 3;  2  John  ver.  7). 
It  may  mean  either  a  false  claim- 
ant to  the  Messiahship  or  an 
antagonist  to  the  true  Messiah. 
Of  the  former  aspect  of  the  per- 
sonage or  personages  denoted  by 
the  name,  we  have  illustrations 
in  the  discourses  of  Jesus — 'false 
prophets,'  'false  Christs'  (Matt. 
7:15;  24:11,24-  Mark  13:22; 
Luke  21  :S);  while  the  Johannine 
passages  noted  above  furnish  ex- 
amples of  the  latter.  In  2  Thess. 
2  :  2-12  Paul  amalgamates  the  two 
in  the  figure  of  the  'man  of  sin,' 
the  lawless  one,  who,  meanwhile 
mysteriously  held  in  check,  will 
be  at  length  fully  revealed  as  the 
blasphemer  and  adversary  of  God; 
only,  however,  to  be  finally  over- 
thrown at  Christ's  second  coming. 
Next  we  have  the  antagonistic 
powers  of  the  Book  of  Revelation: 
the  beast  that  rises  from  the  abyss 
and  wars  successfully  against  the 
two  witnesses,  ch.  11;  the  dragon 
of  ch.  12;  and  the  two  beasts  of  ch. 
13,  one  of  which  blasphemes  God, 
while  the  other  bears  the  character 
of  a  false  prophet,  and  deceives 
men  by  his  miracles.  It  is  not  easy 
to  frame  from  these  data  a  con- 
sistent figure  of  antichrist.  In  the 
view  of  the  early  eschatologists, 
the  antichrist  is  a  definite  person- 
ality, a  Jewish  pretender  to  the 
Messiahship  who  is  to  appear  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  world,  rebuild 
Jerusalem  and  establish  himself 
there,  and,  performing  great  signs 
and  wonders,  gain  the  allegiance 
of  the  world.  The  two  witnesses 
who  withstand  him  are  Enoch  and 
Elijah,  who  convert  some  from 
their  delusion;  but  at  length,  the 
true  Messiah  having  come  to  the 
rescue  of  the  faithful,  the  forces 
of  antichrist  are  shattered  and 
himself  slain.  With  this  as  our 
starting-point,  we  may  endeavor 
(1)  to  find  a  fulfilment  of  the 
prophecy  regarding  antichrist. 
The  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith,  for  instance,  and  indeed 
most  of  the  reformers,  identify 
him  with  the  Pope ;  others, 
again,  regard  Mohammed  as  anti- 
christ. But  whatever  points  of 
resemblance  may  exist  between 
the  mysterious  personality  of 
Scripture  and  these  or  other  in- 
dividuals, the  whole  method  of 
interpretation  is  prepo«,terous  and 
unwarranted.  (2)  It  is  a  more 
promising  mode  of  inquiry  to  seek 
to  trace  the  elements  of  the  figure 
of  antichrist  which  may  have  been 
suggested  by  the  adverse  expe- 
riences of  the  early  Christian 
Church.  Paul's  teaching  regard- 
ing the  'man  of  sin'  was  doubtless 
influenced  by  the  bitter  opposition 
which  his  preaching  evoked 
among  the  Jews;  while  it  was 


Anticline 

natural  enough  that  the  cruelties 
wreaked  upon  the  Christians  by 
'the  persecuting  emperors  Caligula 
and  Nero  should  seem  to  exalt 
these  men  to  the  unholy  eminence 
of  being  incarnations  of  the  un- 
seen powers  that  defy  God.  (3) 
Finally,  we  may  not  unprofitably 
seek  for  some  ancient  tradition 
which,  with  gradual  transforma- 
tions and  accretions,  at  length  de- 
veloped to  the  idea  of  the  potent 
adversary  of  all  that  was  divine — 
an  earthly  representative  of  Satan, 
as  Christ  was  of  God.  Now,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  we  find  in  Jewish 
tradition  the  sinister  figure  of 
such  an  adversary,  traceable,  as 
some  think,  even  to  the  Tiamat 
of  Babylonian  mythology,  and 
embracing  such  opponents  to 
the  divine  purposes  as  Gog  (Ezek. 
38  /.;  cf.  Rev.  20  :  8),  the  beasts  of 
Dan.  7,  Belial  or  Beliar  (2  Cor. 
6:15),  and  Satan  himself.  Here 
we  seem  to  find  the  key  to  the 
problem  of  antichrist.  See  Al- 
lord's  2  Thess.  for  a  very  ex- 
haustive list  of  identifications; 
also  Bousset's  Der  Antichrist 
(Eng.  trans.  1896). 

Anticlimax,  a  rhetorical  figure 
in  which  the  expressions,  after 
rising  in  intensity,  suddenly  fall 
to  a  lower  level — e.g.  'For  the 
cause  of  liberty  we  would  sacri- 
fice everything,  including  even 
our  wife's  relatives'  (Artemus 
Ward). 

Anticline.  Through  a  flexure 
of  the  earth's  crust  the  rocks, 
which  normally  lie  horizontal 
with  the  older  rocks  below,  may 
be  elevated  into  an  upward  fold 
or  arch  known  as  an  anticline. 


Anticline,  denuded  (diagram- 
matic section). 


The  limbs  or  wings  are  the  curved 
parts  which  slope  away  from  the 
medial  or  axial  line  and  with  it 
they  may  be  inclined  at  very 
different  angles.  By  denudation 
the  top  of  the  anticline  is  worn 
away  and  the  lower  and  older 
beds  are  brought  to  view.  From 
the  centre  of  the  denuded  por- 
tion, in  going  to  the  outer  edge 
of  each  limb,  one  passes  in  regu- 
lar order  from  the  older  to  the 
newer  strata.  Anticlines  may  be 
so  small  as  to  be  observed  in  a 
hand  specimen,  or  of  such  pro- 

fortions  as  to  form  mountains, 
t  is  not  unusual  in  many  moun- 
tain chains  to  find  anticlines  run- 
ning side  by  side  in  nearlv 
parallel  directions  as  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  Appalachian 
sections  o/  the  United  States. 


Anti-Corn  Law  League 


277 


Antigonish 


Anti-Corn    Law   League,  an 

organization  formed  in  1838-9, 
under  the  leadership  of  Cobden, 
Bright,  Villiers,  Joseph  Hume, 
and  Roebuck,  to  effect  the  repeal 
of  the  British  corn  laws.  Upon 
the  accomplishment  of  its  object 
(1849-9),  the  league  was  dis- 
solved.   See  Corn  Laws. 

Anticos'tl,  island,  in  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  Canada,  which 
it  divides  into  two  channels.  It 
is  about  140  miles  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  27>^  miles, 
the  surface  being  chiefly  rocks 
and  swamps.  Hills  in  the  interior 
rise  to  about  600  feet.  Owing  to 
the  channel  currents,  navigation 
near  the  coast  is  dangerous,  and 
the  government  maintains  several 
lighthouses  on  the  island,  which 
also  serve  as  relief  stations.  Anti- 
costi  has  considerable  salmon, 
trout,  cod,  and  herring  fisheries, 
and  is  a  resort  for  seal  and  bear 
hunting.  Marl  and  extensive  peat 
deposits  are  found.  It  is  visited 
by  fishermen  in  the  summer,  but 
practically  the  only  inhabitants 
are  the  lighthouse  keepers  and  a 
few  officials.  In  1886  the  Island 
was  purchased  as  a  game  pre- 
serve by  M.  Menier  of  Paris.  It 
is  attached  to  the  province  of 
Quebec. 

Anticy 'clone,  an  area  of  high 
barometric  pressure  surrounded 
by  nearly  circular  isobars.  The 
barometer  is  highest  in  the  cen- 
tre, and  gradually  falls  as  it  pro- 
ceeds outwards.  The  air  in  the 
centre  is  calm,  cold  in  winter 
and  warm  in  summer;  while  the 
winds  blow  spirally  outwards 
round  the  centre,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  hands  of  a  watch  in 
the  northern,  and  in  the  opposite 
way  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 
Radiation  is  a  marked  feature 
of  anticyclonic  weather,  the  sky 
being  usually  blue,  the  air  dry, 
cold  in  the  shade  but  hot  in  the 
sun,  and  hazy,  with  heavy  dew 
or  hoar  frost  at  night.  See 
Cyclone;  Weather. 

Anticyra,  an-tis'i-ra,  or  Anti- 
CIRRHA,  the  name  of  three  towns 
of  ancient  Greece — one  in  Phocis, 
on  a  bay  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth; 
one  in  Locris,  also  on  the  Corin- 
thian Gulf;  and  one  in  Thessaly. 
All  were  famous  for  the  produc- 
tion of  hellebore  (q.  v.). 

Antidlphtberitic  Serum.  See 
Serum. 

An  'tidote,  any  substance  which 
prevents  or  counteracts  the 
effects  of  poison,  either  by  its 
chemical  action  or  its  physiologi- 
cal effects.  For  a  table  of  the  com- 
moner poisons  and  their  anti- 
dotes, see  First  Aid.  See  also 
Poisons. 

Antletam  Creek,  an-te'tam,  a 
narrow  but  deep  stream  rising  in 
the  Alleghany  Mountains,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  flowing  south  into 
the  Potomac  River  near  Sharps- 
burg,  Md. 

Battle  of  Antietam  or  Sharps- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  '18. 


burg.— On  Sept.  16  and  17,  1862, 
one  of  the  most  hotly  contested 
battles  of  the  Civil  War  was 
fought  immediately  west  of  An- 
tietam Creek,  about  Sharpsburg, 
between  the  Federal  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  numbering  about  87,- 
000,  under  Gen.  G.  B.  McClellan, 
and  the  Confederate  Army  of 
Northern  Virginia,  numbering 
about  55,000,  under  Gen.  Robert 
E.  Lee.  The  Union  loss  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing  was  about 
12,400;  that  of  the  Confederates 
about  11,100,  the  combined  losses 
of  the  two  armies  on  Sept.  17, 
during  which  most  of  the  fight- 
ing occurred,  making  it,  accord- 
ing to  Longstreet,  'the  bloodiest 
single  day  of  fighting  of  the  war.* 
Lee  awaited  a  renewal  of  the 
fighting  on  the  18th,  but  McClel- 
lan remained  inactive,  and  on  the 
19th  Lee  withdrew  across  the 
Potomac  into  Virginia,  thus 
abandoning  his  Maryland  cam- 
paign. For  this  reason  the  battle 
has  been  called  a  strategical  vic- 
tory for  the  Federals;  tactically, 
however,  neither  side  can  be  said 
to  have  been  victorious,  though 
military  critics  agree  that  Lee's 
generalship  far  excelled  that  of 
McClellan.  In  the  North  the 
battle  was  regarded  as  a  Federal 
victory  both  strategically  and 
tactically,  and  it  led  President 
Lincoln  to  issue  his  preliminary 
emancipation  proclamation  of 
Sept.  22,  1862. 

Antifeb'rin,  the  trade  name 
for   Acetanilide    or  Phenyl- 

ACETAMIDE,  CHaCONHCeHs, 

prepared  by  boiling  aniline  with 
glacial  acetic  acid.  It  is  a  colorless 
crystalline  powder,  slightly  sol- 
uble in  water,  and  with  a  punrent 
taste.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as 
an  antipyretic  and  analgesic,  in 
place  of  quinine,  and  is  a  common 
ingredient  of  so-called  'headache 
powders.'  It  should  not  be  taken 
except  under  medical  advice. 

Anti-Fed 'eralists,  in  American 
political  history,  a  name  first  ap- 
plied to  those  who  in  the  various 
States  opposed  the  ratification  of 
the  Federal  Constitution  of  1787, 
which,  they  thought,  provided 
for  a  too  highly  centralized  form 
of  government;  and  afterwards 
to  those  who,  in  the  early  years 
of  the  National  Government,  in- 
sisted on  a  strict  rather  than  a 
liberal  construction  of  the  Con- 
stitution and,  in  particular, 
vigorously  opposed  the  centraliz- 
ing measures  of  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton, the  leader  of  the  Federalists. 
While  the  two  groups  were  not 
identical — for  instance,  Jefferson 
approved  the  ratification  of  the 
Constitution,  but  was  pre-emi- 
nently a  strict  constructionist — 
they  were  in  general  made  up  of 
the  same  class  of  men.  They 
furnished  most  of  the  leaders 
and  formed  the  basis  of  the  later 
Democratic-Republican  Party, 
which  came  into  existence  about 


1792.  Loosely  the  members  of 
this  latter  party  are  also  often 
spoken  of  as  Anti-Federalists. 
See  Democratic  Party;  Feder- 
alists; Hamilton,  Alexander; 
United  States,  History. 

Anti-FouUng  Compositions, 
substances  for  application  to  the 
under-water  parts  of  ships  to 
prevent  the  adherence  of  sea- 
weeds, barnacles,  etc.  They  act 
on  the  principle  of  providing  a 
coating  that  will  give  way  when 
the  plant  or  animal  attains  any 
considerable  size,  or  that  con- 
tains an  ingredient  inimical  to 
life.  With  wooden  ships,  sheath- 
ing of  copper,  or  some  alloy  of 
copper,  is  quite  effective,  acting 
chiefly,  but  not  wholly,  on  the 
second  principle;  with  iron  ships, 
however,  the  destructive  galvanic 
action  between  the  two  metals 
renders  such  a  protection  impos- 
sible without  the  interposition  of 
a  costly  wooden  sheathing.  Slow- 
moving  iron  sailing  ships  may  be 
treated  with  a  greasy  composition 
of  the  first  class;  but  as  this 
would  be  washed  off  in  the  case  of 
steamships,  a  coating  of  the 
poisonous  variety  is  necessary  to 
vessels  of  that  class.  Many  such 
paints,  of  various  degrees  of 
efficiency,  have  been  patented, 
the  most  effective  being  those 
which  contain  insoluble  mercury 
compounds,  as  the  cyanide  or 
oxide,  which  are  slowly  given  off 
from  the  vehicle  enclosing  them. 

Antlgo,  an'ti-go,  city,  county 
seat  of  Langlade  county,  Wiscon- 
sin, fn  Chicago  and  Northwestern 
Railroad;  205  miles  northwest  of 
Milwaukee.  It  is  the  centre  of  a 
rich  agricultural  region,  and  has 
numerous  industrial  establish- 
ments, including  breweries, 
dairies,  foundries,  machine  shops, 
railroad  shops,  manufactures  of 
wood  and  iron,  and  wagon  works. 
Pop.  (1900),  5,145;  (1910),  7,196. 

Antigone,  an-tig'o-ne,  in  an- 
cient Greek  legend,  the  daughter 
of  CEdipus  (q.  v.)  by  his  mother 
Jocasta.  Antigone  is  represented 
as  a  maiden  of  noble  and  un- 
selfish character.  Her  devotion 
to  her  father  led  her  to  accom- 
pany him  when  exiled  from 
Thebes,  and  her  affection  for  her 
brother  Polynices  (q.  v.)  gave 
her  courage  to  defy  the  pro- 
hibition of  Creon,  then  ruler  of 
Thebes,  which  forbade  the  honor- 
ing of  Polynices'  corpse  with  the 
rites  of  burial.  For  the  latter 
offence  she  was  buried  alive. 
It  is  particularly  in  Sophocles' 
play,  called  by  her  name,  that  her 
character  is  developed;  but  she 
appears  also  in  his  Oedipus  Colo- 
neus,  in  the  Seven  against  Thebes 
of  ^schylus,  and  in  the  Phcenissce 
of  Euripides.    See  Sophocles.^ 

Antlgonisli,  an-tig-o-nesh', 
formerly  Sydney  or  Sidney,  sea- 
port town.  Nova  Scotia,  capital 
of  Antigonish  county,  on  the 
Intercolonial  River.    It  contains 


Antigonus 


278 


Anti-Monopoly  Party 


St.  Ninian  Cathedral,  a  Catholic 
seminary,  and  the  college  of 
Saint  Francis  Xavier.  Pop. 
(1901)  1,526;  (1911)  1,787. 

Antig'onus,  known  as  Cy- 
clops or  the  One-Eyed,  one  of 
the  generals  (381-301  B.C.)  of 
AlexandertheGreatof  Macedonia. 
After  the  latter's  death  Antigonus 
became  ruler  of  Greater  Phrygia, 
Lycia,  and  Pamphylia.  Aspiring 
to  the  sovereignty  of  Asia,  he 
defeated  and  killed  Eumenes 
(316  B.C.),  and  for  several  years 
waged  war  with  Seleucus,  Ptol- 
emy, Cassander,  and  Lysimachus. 
After  defeating  Ptolemy's  fleet 
(306),  he  took  the  title  of  king. 
He  was  eventually  defeated  by 
Lysimachus  at  Ipsus,  in  Phrygia 
(301),  and  fell  in  the  battle. 

Antigonus  Do'son  ('about  to 
give'),  so  called  as  he  was  lavish 
in  promises,  but  slow  to  perform, 
was  a  son  of  Demetrius  of  Cyrene 
and  grandson  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes.  On  the  death  of 
Demetrius  ii.  of  Macedonia,  he 
married  the  latter's  widow,  and 
became  king.  He  defeated 
Cleomenes  of  Sparta  at  Sellasia, 
and  took  Sparta  (221  B.C.).  He 
died  in  220  B.C. 

Antigonus  Gona'tas,  son  of 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and 
grandson  of  Antigonus,  the  One- 
eyed  (q.  v.).  He  assumed  the  title 
of  King  of  Macedonia  in  283 
B.C.  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  drove 
him  out  of  his  kingdom  in  277 
and  again  in  273,  but  he  twice 
regained  it.    He  died  in  239. 

Antigua,  an-te'gwa,  British 
island,  the  most  important  of  the 
Leeward  group  of  the  West 
Indies,  is  situated  in  17°  6'  N.  lat. 
and  61°  45'  w.  long.  It  is  28 
miles  long  and  14  miles  wide, 
having  a  total  area  of  108  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  generally 
rugged,  and  numerous  islets, 
rocks,  and  shoals  border  the 
shore.  Sugar,  cotton,  and  pine- 
apples are  the  chief  products. 
The  island  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  British  colony.  The 
capital  and  chief  town  is  St. 
John.  Population,  including  the 
dependent  islands  of  Barbuda 
and  Redonda,  32,269  (1911). 

Antigua  was  discovered  in 
1493  by  Columbus.  It  was  first 
settled  by  a  few  English  in  1632, 
and  was  declared  a  British  pos- 
session by  the  Treaty  of  Breda 
(1667).  It  has  suffered  severely 
from  earthquakes  in  1689,  1843, 
and  1874;  and  also  from  hurri- 
canes, as  in  1899. 

Antigua,  town,  Guatemala, 
Central  America,  between  the 
volcanoes  Fuego  and  Aqua.  Pop. 
14,000. 

Antl-Jacobln.  See  Canning, 
George. 

Anti-Lebanon,  or  Anti-Li- 
BANUS.    See  Lebanon. 

Antilegomcna,  an-ti-le-gom'e- 
na  (Gr.  'things  spoken  against'), 
a  term  applied  by  Eusebius  to 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '18. 


2  Peter,  James,  Jude,  Hebrews, 
2  and  3  John,  and  Revelation, 
which  were  not  at  first  admitted 
into  the  New  Testament  canon; 
called  by  the  Roman  Catholics 
enter ocanonical.    See  Bible. 

Anti-Libanus.   See  Lebanon. 

AntUles,  an-til'lez.  See  West 
Indies. 

Anti-Loafing  Laws,  Compul- 
sory Work  Laws,  or  Lazy 
Man's  Laws,  a  name  applied  to 
a  number  of  State  laws  enacted 
in  1917  and  1918,  whereby  every 
able-bodied  man  in  the  State  is 
required  to  engage  in  some  useful 
occupation.  Laws  of  this  charac- 
ter were  passed  by  Maryland  and 
West  Virginia  in  1917  and  by 
New  York  and  New  Jersey  in 
1918. 

The  New  York  law,  which  was 
signed  by  the  Governor  on  May 
13,  and  put  into  efi"ect  by  pro- 
clamation June  1,  1918,  requires 
all  able-bodied  men  between  the 
ages  of  18  and  50  to  be  regularly 
employed  for  at  least  36  hours  a 
week.  Those  who  are  unsuccess- 
ful in  seeking  employment  are 
required  to  register  with  the 
Bureau  of  Employment  of  the 
Department  of  Labor  or  such 
other  agency  as  the  State  Indus- 
trial Commission  may  designate, 
and  any  person  failing  to  register 
within  30  days  after  the  date  of 
the  proclamation,  or  continuing 
out  of  employment  for  any  period 
of  30  days  without  having  so 
registered,  or  who  refuses  to 
accept  employment  assigned  to 
him  by  the  State  Industrial 
Commission,  is  declared  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanor  and  punishable 
by  a  fine  not  to  exceed  $100,  by 
imprisonment  for  not  more  than 
three  months,  or  both. 

A  similar  measure,  but  one 
not  to  be  confused  with  the 
State  laws,  was  taken  by  Provost 
Marshal  General  Crowder,  who 
on  May  23,  1918,  issued  an  edict 
requiring  all  men  of  draft  age 
to  engage  in  some  useful  occupa- 
tion or  be  inducted  into  military 
service  (see  Conscription). 

Antiloctius,  an-til'o-kus,  one 
of  the  heroes  of  the  Trojan  War, 
son  of  Nestor  and  friend  of 
Achilles,  renowned  for  beauty 
and  bravery;  fell  in  battle  while 
trying  to  save  the  life  of  his 
father,  but  was  revenged  by 
Achilles.  The  ashes  of  the  three 
friends,  Antilochus,  Achilles,  and 
Patroclus,  were  placed  in  the 
same  grave  near  the  Hellespont. 

Antimachus,  an-tim'a-kus,  the 
CoLOPHONiAN,  a  Greek  poet  who 
flourished  during  the  latter  period 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  His 
works,  of  which  the  chief  were 
Thebias,  an  epic,  and  Lyde,  an 
elegy,  exist  now  only  in  frag- 
ments. Quintilian  placed  him 
first  after  Homer. 

Anti- Mason Mc  Party,  a  short- 
livcfl  political  organization  in  the 
United  States,  based,  in  its  origin, 


on  opposition  to  the  Free  Masons, 
but  soon  becoming  essentially  an 
anti-Jacksonian  party.  The  occa- 
sion for  its  organization  was  the 
sudden  and  mysterious  dis- 
appearance (1826)  of  William 
Morgan,  of  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  a 
Mason,  who  had  threatened  to 
divulge  the  secrets  of  his  order. 
The  Masons  were  at  once  charged 
with  foul  play,  though  the  charge 
was  never  conclusively  proved, 
and  the  belief  became  current 
that  legislatures,  juries  and 
judges,  and  newspapers  through- 
out the  United  States  were  under 
the  influence  of  the  Masonic 
Order,  and  that  Masonry  was  a 
menace  to  the  country.  Within 
a  year  a  distinct  Anti-Masonic 
party  was  organized  (1827)  in 
New  York,  and  the  movement 
spread  rapidly  to  other  States. 

The  new  party  rose  to  power 
under  the  leadership,  in  New 
York,  of  such  men  as  Thurlow 
Weed,  W.  H.  Seward,  Francis 
Granger,  Myron  Holley,  Wil- 
liam H.  Maynard,  and  Albert 
Tracy,  and  in  Pennsylvania  of 
Thaddeus  Stevens  and  Joseph 
Ritner  (who  was  elected  governor 
in  1835);  it  elected  many  State 
officers  and  State  legislators  and 
a  number  of  Congressmen,  and 
even  entered  national  politics, 
though  its  candidates  for  the 
presidency  and  the  vice-presi- 
dency in  1832  (William  Wirt, 
himself  a  Mason,  and  Amos 
Ellmaker  respectively)  received 
only  seven  electoral  votes. 

The  party  undoubtedly  owed 
much  of  its  strength  to  the  con- 
ditions of  the  times,  being  largely 
a  complex  of  political  and  social 
discontent  under  the  guidance 
of  clever  leaders.  It  disappeared 
after  1835.  Consult  McCarthy's 
monograph  The  Anti-Masonic 
Party,  Annual  Report  of  the  Amer- 
ican Historical  Society  (1902). 

Antimonan,  an'te  -  mo  -  nan', 
seaport,  Luzon,  Philippine  Is- 
lands; 19  miles  east  of  Tayabas, 
opposite  Alabat  Island.  Pop. 
11,500. 

Anti-Monop'oly     Party,  a 

short-lived  American  political 
organization,  formed  at  Chicago, 
May,  1884,  to  regulate  commerce 
among  the  States,  to  effect  settle- 
ment of  disputes  by  arbitration, 
to  secure  a  graduated  income- 
tax,  a  direct  vote  in  senatorial 
elections,  and  the  prohibition  of 
grants  of  lands  to  corporations, 
and  of  contract  labor.  At  the 
following  election  it  united  with 
the  Greenback  Labor  Party,  and 
though  their  candidates — Ben- 
jamin Butler  of  Massachusetts 
for  President,  and  Gen.  A.  W. 
West  of  Mississippi  for  Vice- 
President — gained  only  175,370 
popular  votes  and  no  electoral 
vote,  several  of  these  reforms  were 
ultimately  carried  out.  Consult 
Stanwood's  History  of  the  Presi- 
dency. 


Antimony 


279 


Antioch  College 


An'tlmony  (Sb.  121.8),  a 
metallic  element,  which  repre- 
sents a  product  intermediate 
between  metals  and  non-metals, 
occurring  native  in  rare  instances, 
but  derived  almost  exclusively 
from  stibnite  or  gray  antimony 
ore  (Sb2S3),  which  has  been 
known  since  very  early  times. 
It  also  occurs  in  kermesite  or  red 
antimony  (2Sb2S3.Sb203) ,  valen- 
tinite  or  white  antimony  (Sb203) , 
senarmontiie  (Sb203) ,  cervantite 
(Sb203Sb205) ,  and  certain  ores  of 
lead,  silver  and  gold. 

Tlaere  are  several  methods  of 
extracting  metallic  antimony 
from  its  ores.  In  the  Roasting 
Method  stibnite,  which  must  be 
free  from  lead  and  arsenic,  is 
crushed  and  heated  to  a  tempera- 
ture not  materially  exceeding  the 
melting  point  of  the  antimony 
sulphide,  and  the  liquid  sulphide 
drawn  off  and  roasted  in  a  cur- 
rent of  air  to  form  the  oxide 
Sb203.  The  Crucible  Method,  in 
which  the  ground  ore  (stibnite  or 
native  antimony),  mixed  with 
scrap  iron  and  salt,  is  heated  in 
graphite  crucibles,  sulphide  of 
iron  and  metallic  antimony 
resulting  and  the  wet  and  electro- 
lytic processes  have  also  been 
used,  but  not  extensively.  From 
its  oxides  antimony  may  be  ob- 
tained by  reduction  with  carbon. 
The  raw  antimony  requires  re- 
fining to  separate  it  from  such 
impurities  as  arsenic,  iron,  and 
sulphur.  This  may  be  carried 
out  in  crucibles,  or  reverberatory 
furnaces. 

Antimony  is  an  extremely 
brittle  metal  of  a  flaky,  crystal- 
line texture,  tin-white  color,  and 
high  metallic  lustre.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  6.6,  hardness,  3  to  3.5, 
melting  point,  630.5°  c.  It  is 
not  acted  on  by  air  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  but  when  heated 
in  air  above  its  melting  point 
burns  brilliantly,  forming  copious 
white  fumes  of  the  oxide  Sb203. 
It  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat  and 
electricity.  It  expands  on  solidi- 
fication, a  property  which  it  also 
imparts  to  its  alloys,  rendering 
them  of  special  value  in  making 
fine  and  sharp  castings.  When 
added  to  other  metals  it  makes 
them  harder,  hence  its  alloys  are 
of  considerable  importance.  The 
more  important  alloys  include 
type  metal  (q.v.),  Britannia 
metal  (q.v.),  stereotype  metal, 
and  Babbitt  metal. 

The  principal  compounds  of 
antimony  are  the  sulphides, 
chlorides,  and  tartar  emetic. 
The  trisulphide,  Sb2S3,  as  found 
native  or  prepared  by  fusion,  is  a 
shining  crystalline  solid,  used 
in  the  preparation  of  matches  and 
percussion  caps,  and  in  pyro- 
techny.  The  orange  sulphide  is  of 
the  same  composition;  while 
kermes  mineral  contains  also 
oxide  and  alkali.  The  golden 
sulphide,  pentasulphide,  is  used 


in  vulcanizing  rubber;  antimony 
cinnabar,  an  oxysulphide,  is 
employed  for  making  paints  and 
in  calico  printing.  Antimony 
trichloride,  or  'butter  of  anti- 
mony,' is  a  caustic,  deliquescent 
solid,  used  for  bronzing  gun 
barrels.  It  is  prepared  by  the 
treatment  of  metallic  antimony 
with  chlorine.  Tartar  emetic 
(q.v.)  is  a  tartrate  of  potassium 
and  antimony  prepared  by  heat- 
ing cream  of  tartar  with  antimo- 
nious  oxide.  The  double  salts 
which  antimony  fluoride  forms 
with  various  ammonium  and 
alkali  salts  are  of  great  technical 
importance,  being  used  exten- 
sively in  the  textile  industry  in 
place  of  tartar  emetic. 

Statistics. — Antimony  is  pro- 
duced in  commercial  quantities 
mainly  in  China.  France,  Al- 
geria, Austria,  Mexico,  Bolivia, 
Canada,  Australia,  Japan,  Italy, 
and  Spain  also  produce  small 
quantities.  The  output  of  the 
United  States  is  limited.  In 
1926  the  total  production,  in- 
cluding that  from  domestic  ore, 
imported  ore,  and  that  recovered 
from  old  alloys,  scrap  and  dross, 
was  43,316  tons.  Imports  in- 
cluded 16,343  tons  of  metal, 
4,406  tons  of  crude  and  ore 
antimony,  and  1,070  tons  of 
type  metal  and  hard  lead. 

An'tino'mianism,  the  doc- 
trine, recurring  from  time  to 
time  in  the  history  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  that  Christians  are 
freed  by  faith  from  obligation  to 
observe  the  moral  law  laid  down 
in  the  Old  Testament.  From 
certain  passages  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament— e.g.,  Rom.  vi.  and  2 
Peter  ii.  18,  19 — it  would  seem 
that  a  tendency  to  antinomian- 
ism  had  manifested  itself  even  in 
the  apostolic  age;  but  the  term 
was  first  used  by  Luther  to  de- 
scribe the  opinions  of  Johann 
Agricola  (q.v.),  whose  teaching 
that  man  is  saved  by  faith  alone, 
without  regard  to  his  moral  char- 
acter, led  to  the  famous  Antino- 
mian  Controversy  of  the  Refor- 
mation period. 

Antin'omy,  a  Kantian  term  to 
denote  an  apparent  conflict  of 
reason  with  itself;  e.g.,  it  may  be 
argued  with  apparently  equal 
truth  both  that  the  universe  is 
infinitely  extended  in  space  and 
that  it  has  spatial  limits. 

Antinous,  an-tin'o-us  (d.  122 
A.D.),  a  youth  of  extraordinary 
beauty,  a  native  of  Claudiopolis, 
in  Bithynia,  the  favorite  of  the 
Emperor  Hadrian,  and  his  com- 
panion in  all  his  journeys.  He 
was  drowned  in  the  River  Nile, 
near  Besa,  perhaps  with  suicidal 
intent.  The  Emperor's  grief  know 
no  bounds.  He  enrolled  him 
among  the  gods;  built  in  his 
honor  Antinoopolis  on  the  ruins 
of  Besa,  as  well  as  numerous  tem- 
ples in  Bithynia,  Arcadia,  and 
elsewhere;  and  perpetuated  his 


memory  by  numerous  statues 
and  bas-reliefs. 

An'tioch  (modern  Antakieh), 
town  of  Syria,  on  the  Orontes 
River,  14  miles  from  the  sea,  first 
the  Syrian  and  afterward  the 
Roman  capital;  a  great  city  of 
Bible  times,  ranking  in  im- 
portance next  after  Rome  and 
Alexandria.  Built  by  Seleucus 
Nicator  about  300  B.C.,  and 
named  by  him  after  his  father,[it 
became  notorious  for  its  wealth 
and  luxury.  The  city  reached  its 
greatest  glory  in  the  time  of 
Antiochus  the  Great,  and  under 
the  Roman  emperors  of  the  first 
three  centuries.  At  that  time  it 
contained  500,000  inhabitants, 
and  vied  in  splendor  with  Rome 
itself.  Nor  did  its  glory  fade 
immediately  after  the  founding 
of  Constantinople;  for  though  it 
then  ceased  to  be  the  first  city 
of  the  East,  it  rose  to  new  dignity 
as  a  Christian  city.  There  the 
name  'Christian'  was  first  used 
(Acts  xi.  26) ;  and  it  was  th^ 
centre  whence  missionaries  were 
sent  to  the  Gentiles.  (See  Acts 
xiii.  1;  XV.  22-25;  Gal.  ii.  11,  12.) 

Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,  de- 
stroyed Antioch  in  538;  but  it 
was  rebuilt  by  Justinian,  and 
called  by  him  Theupolis.  After  a 
gradual  decline  it  was  almost  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in 
1872,  but  has  since  recovered, 
and  has  now  a  population  of 
30,000  (Mohammedans,  Greeks, 
and  Armenians) .  There  are  warm 
springs  in  the  vicinity,  and  the 
town  has  a  trade  in  silk  and 
other  local  products. 

Antioch,  in  Pisidia,  founded 
also  by  Nicator,  was  declared  a 
free  city  by  the  Romans  in  the 
second  century  B.C.,  and  made  a 
colonia  under  Augustus,  with  the 
name  Caesarca.  It  was  visited 
by  Paul  and  Barnabas. 

Antioch  College,  a  coeduca- 
tional, non-sectarian  institution 
at  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio,  organ- 
ized in  1853.  It  is  reputed  to  be 
the  first  college  to  admit  both 
sexes  of  every  race  on  equal 
terms.  Its  first  president  was 
Horace  Mann  who,  in  his  in- 
augural address,  expressed  the 
hope  that  it  would  be  a  place  of 
training  for  all  latent  qualities 
of  men  and  women.  During  his 
lifetime,  and  for  50  years  after 
his  death  the  college  continued 
as  a  small  liberal-arts  college 
similar  to  many  others  but  in 
1920  the  institution  was  thor- 
oughly reorganized  and  now 
endeavors  to  provide  an  educa- 
tion that  insures  symmetrical 
development.  It  supplies  in  a 
curriculum  of  five  or  six  years  the 
fundamentals  of  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, a  training  in  a  chosen 
profession  or  vocation  and  a 
practical  apprenticeship  to  life. 

In  September,  1927,  a  pro- 
gramme of  self-directed  study 
for  students  above  the  sopho- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '28 


Antiochus 


279  A 


Antipodes 


more  year  was  instituted.  A 
syllabus  outlining  the  work  of  a 
whole  semester  is  given  the 
student  and  he  is  free  to  master 
the  subject  in  his  own  way. 
Since  that  time,  also,  each  mem- 
ber of  the  four  upper  classes  is 
expected  to  devote  five  hours 
each  week  to  campus  service 
work  of  an  educational  character, 
such  as  assisting  in  laboratory 
work,  grading  papers,  tutoring, 
and  the  like.  Study,  is  coordi- 
nated with  practical  income- 
earning  experience  and  as  far  as 
possible  students  are  employed 
in  the  calling  for  which  they  are 
preparing  themselves.  The 
college  offers  the  degrees  of  b.a., 
B.S.,  M.A.,  and  M.S.  The  campus 
consists  of  250  acres  and  there 
are  11  buildings  which  include 
the  main  building,  dormitories, 
the  Horace  Mann  Memorial 
Library,  Mills  House,  Glen 
House  and  Weaver  House.  For 
recent  statistics  see  Table  under 
the  heading  College. 

Antiochus,  an-tl'o-kus,  the 
name  borne  by  most  of  the  kings 
of  Syria  belonging  to  the  family 
of  Seleucus,  who  founded  the 
dynasty. 

Antiochus  III.,  the  Great, 
(reigned  223-187  B.C.),  in  the 
early  part  of  his  reign  carried  on 
unsuccessful  war,  first  with 
Egypt,  then  with  Parthia  and 
Bactria.  In  198  B.C.  he  con- 
quered Palestine  and  Coele-Syria, 
and  afterward  became  involved 
in  war  with  the  Romans.  Han- 
nibal, after  his  defeat  at  Zama 
took  refuge  at  his  court,  and 
urged  him  to  invade  Italy;  but  he 
did  not  heed  the  advice.  In  192 
he  crossed  into  Greece,  and  the 
next  year  was  defeated  by  the 
Romans  at  Thermopylae,  and 
forced  to  return  into  Asia.  In 
190  he  was  again  defeated  near 
Magnesia,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  ob- 
tained peace  in  188  on  condition 
of  ceding  all  his  possessions  east 
of  Mount  Taurus  and  paying  a 
heavy  indemnity.  In  trying  to 
extract  money  for  this  purpose 
from  a  rich  temple  in  Elymais,  he 
was  murdered  by  the  people  of 
the  place  in  187. 

Antiochus  IV.,  Epiphanes, 
son  of  Antiochus  the  Great, 
succeeded  his  brother,  Seleucus 
Philopator,  in  175  B.C.,  and 
reigned  till  164.  From  171-108 
B.C.  he  successfully  waged  war 
against  Egypt.  He  is  notorious 
for  his  oppression  of  the  Jews  and 
their  religion.  But  the  Jews 
revolted,  under  Mattathias  and 
his  sons  the  Maccabees,  and  de- 
feated Lysias,  the  general  of 
Antiochus.  (See  Maccabees.) 
He  afterward  became  insane  and 
died,  a  calamity  which  both 
Jews  and  Greeks  attributed  to 
his  sacrilege. 

Antiope.    See  Amphion. 

Antioquia,  an-te-o'ki-a,  a  de- 
partment  of   Colombia,  South 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '28 


America,  bounded  by  the  depart- 
ments of  Bolivar  on  the  north, 
Santander  on  the  east,  Tolima  on 
the  south,  and  Cauca  on  the  west; 
area,  22,752  square  miles.  It  is 
occupied  by  branches  of  the 
Cordilleras.  The  soil  is  poor. 
Gold  is  abundant  in  the  Porce 
valley;  platinum,  iron,  galena, 
cinnabar,  coal,  and  rock  salt  are 
found  in  other  places.  Minerals, 
leather,  coffee,  rubber,  and  Pan- 
ama hats  are  exported.  MedelHn 
(q.v.)  is  the  capital.  Pop.  (1918) 
823,226. 

Antiparallel.  If,  in  a  triangle 
ABC,  a  line  is  drawn  cutting  ab  in 
FEC,  and  AC  in  e,  so  that  the  angle 
AEF  is  equal  to  the  angle  abc,  fe 
is  said  to  be  antiparallel  to  bc 
with  respect  to  the  angle  a. 

Antip'aros  (ancient  Oliaros), 
one  of  the  middle  Cyclades  in  the 
^gean  Sea,  close  to  Paros  (q.v.). 
It  is  well  cultivated  and  tolerably 
fertile,  nearly  14  square  miles  in 
area,  and  contains  about  500  in- 
habitants. Rich  lead  mines  were 
discovered  in  1872.  Its  wonder- 
ful stalactite  grotto  is  312  feet 
long,  98  wide,  and  82  high,  and  is 
covered  with  stalactite  and  sta- 
lagmite formations. 

An'tipas.    See  Herod. 

Antip'ater  {c.  400-319  B.C.),  a 
general  highly  trusted  by  Philip 
and  Alexander  the  Great,  left  by 
the  latter  as  regent  in  Macedonia 
when  he  crossed  over  into  Asia  in 
334  B.C.  The  murder  of  his  un- 
successful rival,  Perdiccas,  in 
Egypt  in  321  B.C.,  left  Antipater 
the  supreme  regency  of  the 
kingdom. 

Antipater  (d.  43  B.C.),  the 
father  of  Herod  the  Great,  was  a 
favorite  of  Julius  Caesar  who  ap- 
pointed him  procurator  of  Judaea 
in  47  B.C.    He  was  poisoned. 

Antipater,  the  son  of  Herod 
the  Great  by  his  first  wife.  He 
was  a  worthless  prince,  who  was 
perpetually  conspiring  against 
the  life  of  his  brothers,  but  was 
executed  in  prison  five  days 
before  Herod  died. 

Antip'atliy,  a  term  applied 
to  a  class  of  cases  in  which  indi- 
viduals are  disagreeably  affected 
by,  or  violently  dislike,  things  in- 
nocuous or  agreeable  to  the  ma- 
jority of  mankind.  These  pecu- 
liarities are  sometimes  innate; 
sometimes  they  are  due  to  a 
child's  having  been  injudiciously 
terrified  with  some  object,  the 
mental  impression  becoming  per- 
manent. vSome  medicines  af- 
fect particular  persons  danger- 
ously, even  when  given  in  very 
minute  doses.  The  air  of  some 
places  has  a  peculiar  influence  on 
individuals. 

The  most  remarkable  antipa- 
thies are  those  affecting  the  spe- 
cial senses,  such  as  loathing  at 
reptiles  and  certain  animals,  hear- 
ing a  wet  finger  drawn  on  glass, 
smelling  musk,  or  touching  any- 
thing unusually  smooth. 


Antip'atris  (Acts  xxiii,  31),  a 
city  on  the  edge  of  the  Plain  of 
Sharon,  on  the  main  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  Caesarea;  named 
after  Antipater,  father  of  Herod 
the  Great.  It  is  probably  now 
the  ruined  mound  at  Ras  el-Ain. 

Antiperiodics,  drugs  which 
relieve  or  cure  certain  diseases 
whose  attacks  occur  at  regular  in- 
tervals, as,  for  instance,  malaria, 
for  which  the  chief  antiperiodic 
employed  is  cinchona  and  its 
alkaloids  (especially  quinine). 

Antiph'anes  (408-334  B.C.). 
the  most  famous  of  the  Middle 
Attic  comic  poets  whose  plays 
number  more  than  260. 

Antiph'ilus  of  Egypt,  Greek 
painter  of  the  fourth  century  B.c 
a  pupil  of  Ctesidemus,  ranked  by 
ancient  critics  next  to  Apelles  and 
Protogenes.  He  painted  por- 
traits of  Philip  and  Alexander  of 
Macedon,  and  Ptolemy  of  Lagos. 

Antiphlogis'tics,  remedies 
counteracting  inflammation,  in- 
cluding drugs,  local  applications, 
and  blood  letting. 

Antiplilogistine,  a  trade 
name  for  cataplasma  kaolini 
(N.F.).  It  contains  boric  acid, 
methyl  salicylate,  thymol,  oil  of 
peppermint  and  glycerine,  and  is 
used  externally  in  inflammation, 
pneumonia,  and  rheumatism  as  a 
substitute  for  poultices. 

An'tiplion  (480-411  B.C.),  the 
earliest  of  the  ten  Attic  orators  in 
the  Alexandrine  canon,  was  born 
in  Rhamnus.  He  belonged  to  the 
oligarchical  party  at  Athens,  and 
to  him  was  mainly  due  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  government  of 
the  Four  Hundred  in  411  B.C. 
On  its  fall,  Antiphon  was  brought 
to  trial  and  condemned  to  death, 
in  spite  of  his  noble  defence. 
Only  fifteen  of  his  orations  have 
come  down  to  us. 

Antipli'ony,  a  piece  of  sacred 
music  sung  in  alternate  parts  re- 
plying to  each  other.  Antiphonal 
singing  has  been  practised  from 
earliest  times  in  the  Hebrew 
Church,  and  many  of  the  Psalms 
were  intended  to  be  sung  in  this 
manner.  In  the  Christian  Church 
it  has  been  in  use  since  the  first 
century.    See  Anthem;  Motet. 

Antipodes,  an-tip'6-des,  a 
word  of  Greek  origin,  signifying, 
literally,  those  who  have  their 
feet  over  against  each  other. 
As  applied  in  geography,  it  means 
the  inhabitants  of  any  two  op- 
posite points  of  the  globe. 

From  this  primary  relation 
there  necessarily  arise  many  sec- 
ondary relations.  Antipodes  must 
be  on  one  and  the  same  meridion- 
al circle,  separated  from  each 
other  by  half  the  circumference. 
Being  on  one  and  the  same  merid- 
ional circle,  they  must  differ  in 
longitude  exactly  180°,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Poles  them- 
selves, as  having  no  longitude  at 
all;  and  being  vseparated  from 
each  other  by  half  the  circum- 


Antlpope 


279  B 


Antisana 


ference,  they  must  be  equidistant 
from  the  Equator  in  opposite  di- 
rections. 

Antipope,  a  pontiff  elected  in 
opposition  to  one  canonically 
chosen.  The  first  antipopes 
were  Felix,  during  the  pontificate 
of  Liberius  (352-66);  Ursinus. 
against  Damasus  (366-84) ;  and 
Laurentius,  against  Symmachus 
(498-514).  During  the  Middle 
Ages  several  emperors  of  Ger- 
many set  up  popes  against  those 
whom  the  Romans  had  elected 
without  consulting  them.  Otho 
the  Great  displaced  successively 
two  bishops  of  Rome;  and  when 
the  rival  pope,  SyK^ester  iii., 
had  expelled  the  simoniacal  and 
profligate  Benedict  ix.  (1033-45), 
the  latter  was  brought  back  by 
the  German  king,  and  soon  after- 
ward sold  his  dignity  to  Gregory 
VI.  There  were  now,  consequent- 
ly, three  popes,  but  their  claims 
were  all  set  aside  at  a  council  con- 
vened at  Sutri  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  iii.,  and  a  new  pope  elect- 
ed as  Clement  ii.  in  1046.  Shortly 
after.  Pope  Alexander  ii.  found  a 
rival  in  Honorius  ii.,  the  nom- 
inee of  the  emperor;  but  his  claim 
was  ratified  by  a  council  con- 
vened at  Mantua. 

In  1080  the  Emperor  Henry 
IV.  elevated  to  the  papal  chair 
Guibert  of  Ravenna,  under  the 
title  of  Clement  iii.,  in  opposition 
to  his  own  implacable  adversary, 
Gregory  vii.  But  after  the  death 
of  Gregory  (1085),  Clement  was 
himself  opposed  successively  by 
Victor  III.  (1086-1088)  and  Ur- 
ban II.  (1088-99).  Innocent  ll. 
(1130-43)  triumphed  over  the 
antipope  Anacletus  ii.  by  the 
help  of  St.  Bernard;  and  Alexan- 
der III.  during  his  pontificate 
(1159-81)  had  to  contend  with 
no  fewer  than  four  successive  an- 
tipopes, the  election  of  only  one 
of  whom,  however,  Victor  v.,  in 
1159,  has  any  canonical  validity. 
After  a  long  contest,  Clement  v. 
was  elected  in  1305,  and  four 
years  later  he  transferred  his  se&t 
to  Avignon  (q.v.),  where  his  suc- 
cessors reigned  for  nearly  seventy 
years,  losing  the  while,  by  their 
subjection  to  French  influences, 
the  sympathies  of  Germany  and 
England. 

The  election  of  Urban  vi.  in 
1378  occasioned  'the  great  schism 
of  the  West,'  which  divided  the 
church  for  fifty  years.  He  was 
elected  by  the  Romans,  who  de- 
manded an  Italian  pope  after  the 
death  of  Gregory  xi.  The  French 
cardinals,  then  a  majority  in  the 
curia,  on  the  plea  that  they  had 
4  voted  for  the  pope  only  under  in- 
timidation, withdrew  to  Prov- 
ence, and  elected  a  new  pope  un- 
der the  name  of  Clement  vii., 
who  was  recognized  by  France, 
Spain,  Savoy,  and  Scotland; 
while  Italy,  Germany,  England, 
and  the  north  of  Europe  sup- 
ported Urban  vi.  For  thirty- 
VOL.  I. — Oct.  '17 


eight  years  these  two  popes,  one 
at  Avignon,  another  at  Rome, 
anathematized  each  other. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  an  attempt  was 
made  to  prevail  on  both  the  ri- 
vals, Gregory  xii.  at  Rome  and 
Benedict  xiii.  at  Avignon,  to  re- 
nounce their  claims  with  a  view 
to  promote  union,  but  both  evad- 
ed this  as  long  as  possible.  At 
length  the  cardinals  of  both  sides 
summoned  a  general  Council  at 
Pisa  in  1409,  which  deposed  both 
popes,  and  elected  Alexander  v. 
The  Council  of  Constance  (1417) 
deposed  the  three  who  now 
claimed  actually  to  be  pope,  and 
laid  the  schism  by  electing  Mar- 
tin v.  (Colonna).  The  Council  of 
Basel  (1431-47),  in  its  struggle 
with  Pope  Eugenius  iv.  (1431- 
47)  for  supremacy,  attempted  to 
arrogate  to  itself  the  papal  func- 
tions, and  proceeded  to  elect 
Amadeus  of  Savoy  pope,  as  Felix 
v.  The  attempt,  however,  failed; 
the  two  popes  Eugenius  iv.  and 
Nicholas  v.  (1447-55)  secured 
their  authority,  the  ambitious 
council  finally  dissolved  itself, 
and  Felix  v.  resigned  his  empty 
dignity,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  cardinal  by  the  magnanimous 
pope  himself.  This  was  the  last 
occasion  on  which  the  faithful 
were  distracted  by  the  sight  of  a 
rival  pontiff  within  Christendom. 

See  Papacy. 

An'tipyret'ics  are  agents 
which  lower  temperature  in  fe- 
vers. Cold  baths  are  rapid  and 
powerful  antipyretics,  but  care  in 
using  them  is  essential  (see 
Baths).  The  hot  bath  is  also 
antipyretic;  so  is  the  wet  pack. 
Alcohol  (q.v.)  externally  applied 
is  antipyretic  by  dilatation  of  the 
superficial  blood  vessels,  thus 
cooling  the  blood  at  the  body  sur- 
face. Quinine,  antipyrin,  phenac- 
etin  (qq.v.),  and  other  similar 
preparations  are  widely  used; 
and  such  drugs  as  antimony,  ipe- 
cacuanha, and  jaborandi  are  an- 
tipyretic by  inducing  perspira- 
tion. An  aperient  draught  will 
often  lower  temperature  indirect- 
ly by  removing  a  toxin  or  other 
irritant. 

An'tipy'rin,  Phenazone,  or 
Analgesin  (C11H12N2O),  a 
white,  crystalline,  inodorous  sol- 
id with  a  slightly  bitter  taste,  is 
prepared  by  treating  ethyl-dia- 
cetic-esterwith  phenylmethyl-hy- 
drazine.  It  is  a  prompt  and  usu- 
ally efficacious  antipyretic,  lower- 
ing the  febrile  temperature  in 
about  half  an  hour,  and  an  effi- 
cient analgesic,  particularly  in 
pains  of  a  neuralgic  type  and  in 
rheumatism.  It  is  used  also  as 
an  antispasmodic  and  general  sed- 
ative in  whooping  cough  and 
chorea,  and  is  applied  locally  for 
its  analgesic,  antiseptic,  and 
styptic  effects. 

The  drug  should  be  taken  only 
on  the  advice  «»f  a  physician.  It 


is  contraindicated  in  patients 
with  weak  hearts,  in  the  old  and 
feeble,  and  in  renal  diseases,  es- 
pecially when  associated  with 
febrile  conditions.  Large  or  re- 
peated doses  may  result  in  fatal 
poisoning. 

Antiquarian  Society,  Ameri- 
can, an  organization  with  head- 
quarters at  Worcester,  Mass., 
founded  in  1812.  Its  library  has 
over  100,000  volumes,  and  in- 
cludes many  valuable  publica- 
tions relating  to  early  American 
history.  It  has  published  semi- 
annual Proceedings  since  1849, 
and  Transactions  since  1820. 

Antiquities.  See  Archeol- 
ogy. 

Antiquities,    American.  See 

Archeology  in  America. 

Anti-rentism,  the  term  applied 
to  a  movement  which  caused  con- 
siderable disturbance  in  the  State 
of  New  York  (1843-47)  in  con- 
nection with  the  non-payment  of 
rent.  Large  tracts  of  land  had 
been  granted  in  old  colonial  days 
by  the  Dutch  West  India  Com- 
pany to  its  members  in  New 
York,  who  had  the  title  or  privi- 
lege of  a  lord  'patroon'  or  protec- 
tor, and  the  colony  or  manor  was 
governed  by  feudal  tenures. 
Though  the  latter  were  abolished 
by  laws  enacted  in  1779  and  1785, 
yet  the  proprietors  managed  to 
form  a  deed  by  which  rents  and 
dues  should  be  paid  as  formerly. 
Associations  were  formed  in  1839 
to  get  rid  of  these  burdens;  evic- 
tions were  tried  by  the  propri- 
etors, which  led  to  resistance  and 
outrages.  Ultimately  the  legis- 
lature gave  relief  to  the  tenantry; 
feudal  tenures  and  incidents  were 
abolished;  and  agricultural  land 
was  forbidden  to  be  leased  for  a 
longer  period  than  twelve  years. 

An'tirrhi'num.  See  Snap- 
dragon. 

Anti- Saloon  League  of  Amer- 
ica, a  non-partisan,  non-sectarian 
organization  having  for  its  object 
the  extermination  of  the  beverage 
liquor  traffic;  founded  in  1895  by 
the  coalition  of  the  Anti-Saloon 
League  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, the  Anti-Saloon  League  of 
Ohio,  and  forty-five  other  State, 
national,  and  local  temperance 
bodies.  It  maintains  branches  in 
all  the  States  of  the  Union;  has 
been  active  in  securing  State  leg- 
islation restricting  the  sale  of  in- 
toxicating liquors,  and  in  obtain- 
ing the  enforcement  of  existing 
laws;  and  has  conducted  a  vig- 
orous campaign  for  national  pro- 
hibition. It  publishes  The  Ameri- 
can Issue  and  other  temperance 
periodicals,  and  issues  a  Year 
Book.  Consult  E.  H.  Cherring- 
ton's  History  of  the  Anti-Saloon 
League  (1913). 

Antlsana,  an-te-sa'na,  a  snow- 
covered  volcanic  cone  of  the 
Andes  (19,335  feet),  in  Ecuador, 
35  miles  southeast  of  Quito.  It 
is  now  dormant,  though  partially 


Antiscorbutics 


280 


Anti-Slavery  Society,  American 


active  during  A.  von  Humboldt's 
visit  in  1802. 

An'tiscorbu'tics,  drugs  coun- 
teracting scurvy.    See  Scurvy. 

Anti-Semite  Movement.  See 
Jews. 

Antisemites,  modern  enemies 
of  the  Jews  in  Russia,  Roumania, 
Hungary,  and  Eastern  Germany. 
In  these  countries  the  Jews  are 
found  in  great  numbers,  and  their 
constantly  increasing  wealth  and 
influence  excite  popular  jealousj^ 
and  alarm.  Even  in  Berlin  the 
Judenhelze  raged  hotly;  and  an 
Anti-Semitic  League  was  formed 
in  1881  to  restrict  the  liberty  of 
Jews  in  Germany.  In  Russia 
there  have  been  frequent  massa- 
cres of  Jews,  and  a  serious  out- 
break took  place  at  Kishinev 
(q.v.)  in  Bessarabia  at  Easter, 
1903.  Austria  has  an  energetic 
Anti-Semitic  party.  French  Anti- 
Semitism  was  illustrated  in  the 
Dreyfus  Affair  (q.v.).  See  Jews. 

Antiseptics,  in  surgery,  those 
substances  which  prevent  sepsis 
or  wound  infection  from  pyogenic 
organisms,  either  by  destroying 
such  organisms  or  arresting  their 
development.  The  employment 
of  such  agencies  is  known  as  anti- 
sepsis; and  the  system  of  treating 
surgical  wounds  by  their  use,  as 
antiseptic  surgery.  vStrictly  speak- 
ing, antisepsis  and  antiseptic  sur- 
gery are  to  be  distinguished  from 
asepsis  (q.v.)  and  aseptic  surgery, 
the  latter  terms  implying  the 
total  exclusion  of  germs  from  the 
operative  field  rather  than  their 
destruction  or  inhibition.  In 
modern  surgical  practice,  how- 
ever, the  two  methods  are  so 
closely  combined  that  they  may 
be  properly  considered  together. 

Modern  antiseptic  surgery 
dates  from  about  1867,  when 
Lord  Lister  (q.v.),  realizing  that 
putrefactive  processes  —  i.e.,  sep- 
sis— constitute  the  chief  danger 
which  the  surgeon  has  to  combat 
in  dealing  with  accidental  and 
operative  wounds,  introduced  his 
method  of  treatment  based  upon 
the  fact  that  certain  chemical 
substances  have  the  power  to  de- 
stroy or  inhibit  the  action  of 
those  germs  by  which  fermenta- 
tive processes  are  induced.  By 
the  use  of  carbolic  acid  as  a  germ- 
icide he  reduced  the  death  rate 
after  major  operations  from  45 
per  cent,  to  15  per  cent,  in  his 
wards  at  Glasgow;  and  later, 
when  he  had  further  developed 
his  method,  to  about  12  per  cent, 
in  his  wards  at  Edinburgh.  In 
1881  Koch  of  Berlin  drew  atten- 
tion io  the  germicidal  properties 
of  bichloride  of  mercury,  and  his 
suggestion  of  its  use  in  1-1,000 
aqueous  solution  was  almost  uni- 
versally adopted. 

Numerous  other  antiseptics 
have  since  been  recommended; 
aseptic  measures,  as  the  steriliza- 
tion of  instruments  and  dressings 
by  means  of  heat,  have  been 
Vol.  L— Oct.  '17 


adopted;  and  pyaemia,  septi- 
caemia, erysipelas,  and  gan^aene 
(qq.v.),  once  the  scourge  of  surgi- 
cal hospitals,  have  become  dis- 
eases of  comparatively  rare 
occurrence. 

In  modern  aseptic-antiseptic 
surgical  procedure  the  hands  of 
the  operator  are  carefully  washed 
and  purified  with  a  1-1,000  bi- 
chloride of  mercury  or  other  anti- 
septic solution;  the  skin  of  the 
patient  at  the  field  of  operation  is 
shaved,  thoroughly  washed  with 
soap  and  water,  and  treated  with 
a  bichloride  of  mercury  solution; 
instruments  are  sterilized  by 
boiling  or  immersion  in  pure  car- 
bolic acid  or  lysol;  non-absorb- 
able  ligatures  are  boiled;  absorb- 
able ligatures,  as  catgut,  are  sub- 
mitted to  special  treatment  to 
render  them  sterile;  and  dress- 
ings, towels,  etc.,  are  sterilized 
under  high-pressure  steam.  Ordi- 
nary sterile  gauze  is  the  dressing 
usually  employed,  but  gauze  im- 
pregnated with  an  antiseptic  is 
necessary  where  complete  sterili- 
zation of  the  skin  cannot  be  as- 
sured, and  in  open  and  tubercu- 
lous wounds.  The  wound  itself 
is  treated  with  a  germicidal 
solution  only  if  the  presence  of 
germs  within  it  is  suspected. 

The  number  of  antiseptics  now 
in  use  is  very  large.  Those  most 
commonly  employed  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

Carbolic  acid  (q.v.),  first  rec- 
ommended as  an  antiseptic  by 
Lister,  still  finds  a  wide  applica- 
tion. It  is  used  in  solutions  of  1 
part  of  acid  to  20  parts  of  water 
for  sterilizing  instruments  and 
the  operative 'field,  and  in  a  1-40 
solution  for  the  surgeon's  hands. 
As  it  is  extremely  irritating  to 
the  skin,  it  should  never  be  used 
in  clean  wounds;  but  infected 
wounds  may  be  irrigated  with  a 
1-60  or  1-80  solution,  drainage 
being  instituted  to  allow  the  es- 
cape of  the  wound  fluid.  Pure 
carbolic  acid  is  sometimes  used 
to  cauterize  poisoned  wounds. 

Bichloride  of  mercury,  or  corro- 
sive sublimate  (q.v.),  is  a  power- 
ful and  reliable  antiseptic,  al- 
though irritating  in  its  effects 
upon  the  tissues.  In  a  solution 
of  1-1,000  it  is  used  to  disinfect 
the  hands  and  skin,  and  in  solu- 
tions of  1-2,000  to  1-4,000  as 
an  irrigating  fluid  for  infected 
wounds,  drainage  being  provided. 
It  should  never  be  used  on  serous 
membranes  because  of  its  irri- 
tating qualities  and  the  danger 
of  mercury  poisoning. 

Iodine  (q.v.)  is  most  com- 
monly used  as  a  tincture  for  ster- 
ilizing the  skin  before  operating. 
It  may  also  be  emplojied  in  a  1  or 
2  per  cent,  solution  for  irrigating 
wounds. 

Iodoform  (q.v.)  in  the  shape 
of  powder  or  iodoform  gauze, 
while  not  strongly  germicidal,  is 
valuable  as  neutralizing  bacterial 


products  and  promoting  healthy 
granulation.  It  is  especially  use- 
ful in  tuberculous  abscesses,  bone 
cavities,  and  open  wounds.  Aris- 
tol  (q.v.),  a  dusting  powder  of 
iodine  and  thymol,  is  sometimes 
used  in  preference  to  iodoform 

Hydrogen  peroxide  (q.v.),  di- 
luted with  an  equal  amount  of 
water,  is  used  for  deodorizing  and 
cleansing  septic  wounds,  but 
should  not  be  employed  in  other 
cases. 

Boracic  acid  (q.v.),  a  mild  an- 
tiseptic, is  valuable  for  its  non- 
irritating  and  non  -  poisonous 
qualities.  As  a  powder  it  may  be 
dusted  upon  wounds,  and  in  solu- 
tion it  ma^'  be  used  for  hot  fo- 
mentations, forirri  gating  wounds, 
and  as  an  eye  and  ear  wash. 

Permanganate  of  potassium 
in  a  1-5,000  solution  is  used  to 
disinfect  septic  wounds,  and  for 
free  irrigation  of  mucous  mem- 
branes. Other  familiar  antisep- 
tics are  creolin,  acetate  of  alumi- 
num, betanaphthol,  chloride  of 
zinc,  lysol,  and  acetanilid. 

In  1915  it  was  announced  that 
Drs.  Alexis  Carrel  (q.v.)  and 
Henry  D.  Dakin  had  discovered  a 
new  antiseptic  of  great  value, 
prepared  by  the  addition  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  boric  acid  to 
hypochlorite  of  lime.  A  similar 
discovery  was  made  independ- 
ently by  a  British  scientist.  Pro- 
fessor Lorrelin  Smith. 

Like  the  Dakin-Carrel  solu- 
tion, the  dyestuffs  acrijlavine  and 
malachite  green,  which  have  been 
shown  to  be  deadly  to  all  species 
of  microbes,  and  productive  of 
none  of  the  irritation  and  local 
sj-mptoms  caused  by  many  anti- 
septics, have  found  extensive  ap- 
plication in  the  treatment  of 
wounds  during  the  present  war. 

In  medicine  antiseptics  are 
used  for  their  effect  on  the  ali- 
mentary, respiratory,  or  genito- 
urinary tract.  Creosote,  carbolic 
acid,  sulphurous  acid,  menthol, 
and  other  aromatics  are  exam- 
ples. Condiments,  such  as  mus- 
tard, horse  radish,  and  garlic,  also 
act  antiseptically  on  the  intesti- 
nal tract. 

In  the  arts  antiseptics  include 
all  substances  which  prevent  or 
arrest  putrefaction  and  analo- 
gous fermentative  changes.  They 
are  used  in  the  preservation  of 
food  (see  Foods,  Preserved), 
and  in  other  processes  in  which 
it  is  desirable  to  prevent  the  de- 
composition of  putrescible  sub- 
stances,, as  in  the  manufacture  of 
size  for  writing  paper  from  scraps 
of  hides. 

See  Disinfectants.  « 

Anti  -  SJavery.  See  Aboli- 
tionists; Slavery. 

Anti- Slavery  Society,  Ameri- 
can, an  organization  advocating 
the  immediate  and  total  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  in  the  United 
States,  was  formed  at  Philadel- 
phia in  IHS'.i  under  the  leader- 


Antispasmodics 


281 


Antofagastu 


ship  of  William  Lloyd  Garrison 
(q.v.).  In  1840  a  majority  of 
the  Society's  membership,  who 
favored  concerted  political  ac- 
tion, withdrew  and  helped  to 
found  the  Liberty  Party  (q.v.). 
The  Society  continued  in  exist- 
ence until  1870.  See  Abolition- 
ists; Slavery. 

An'tispasmod'ics,  drugs  which 
relieve  or  prevent  involuntary 
muscular  spasm  (see  Spasm)  ,  and 
the  pain  which  often  accompa- 
nies it,  and  exert  a  sedative  influ- 
ence on  the  nervous  system. 
Anaesthetics  (e.g.,  chloroform), 
sedatives  (e.g.,  bromides),  nar- 
cotics (e.g.,  opium  and  its  alka- 
loids, and  stramonium  and  the 
nitrites),  are  all  antispasmodics. 
Warmth  and  friction  also  tend  to 
relieve  muscular  spasm ;  and  ton- 
ics, such  as  arsenic  and  quinine, 
are  indirectly  useful  where  spasm 
depends  partly  upon  the  general 
health,  as  in  asthma,  laryngis- 
mus stridulus,  and  infantile  con- 
vulsions. 

An'tispast,  a  tetrasyllable  foot 
— thus,     —  v^. 

Antls'thenes  (c.  445-370  B.C.), 
founder  of  the  Cynic  school  of 
philosophy,  was  the  son  of  an 
Athenian  father  and  a  Thracian 
mother.  He  was  first  a  disciple 
of  Gorgias,  afterward  a  friend 
and  follower  of  Socrates,  and  died 
at  Athens  at  the  age  of  seventy. 
After  the  death  of  Socrates  he 
taught  moral  and  practical  philos- 
ophy in  the  Athenian  gymna- 
sium Cynosarges.  Antisthenes 
held  that  virtue  mainly  consists 
in  voluntary  abstinence  from 
pleasure,  and  in  a  stern  contempt 
of  riches,  honors,  and  even  learn- 
ing. He  attracted  many  imita- 
tors, among  them  Diogenes 
(q.v.);  from  his  school  possibly 
the  Stoics  sprang.     See  Cynics. 

Antistrophe,  an-tis'tro-fe,  in 
poetry,  a  portion  of  a  poem  fol- 
lowing a  strophe  and  correspond- 
ing to  it,  applied  especially  to  the 
metrically  similar  stanzas  alter- 
nating with  strophes  in  the  Greek 
choral  ode.  In  rhetoric,  the 
repetition  of  the  same  word  at 
the  conclusion  of  successive 
clauses — as,  'Wit  is  dangerous, 
eloquence  is  dangerous,  every- 
thing is  dangerous  that  has  effi- 
ciency and  vigor  for  its  charac- 
teristics.' 

Anti-Taurus.    See  Taurus. 

Antith'esls  (Gr.  anti,  'against,' 
and  thesis,  from  tithemi,  'I  place'), 
an  opposition  or  contrast  of 
ideas  expressed  by  bringing 
words  that  are  the  natural  oppo- 
sites  of  each  other  close  together 
so  as  to  produce  a  strong  con- 
trast— e.g.,  'He  dazzles  more, 
but  pleases  less.'  Antithesis, 
when  it  is  naturally  and  moder- 
ately employed,  gives  liveliness 
to  style;  but  becomes  wearisome 
when  too  often  repeated. 

Antitoxins.  See  Serum;  Se- 
rum Therapy. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '17 


Anti  -  Trade     Winds.  See 

Trade  Winds. 

An'titrinita'rianism,  the  ten- 
ets of  those  who  oppose  the 
Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  (q.v.)  on 
philosophical  grounds.  See  Uni- 
tarianism. 

Anti- Trust  Legislation.  See 
Trusts. 

Antitype,  the  person  in  whom 
any  prophetic  type  is  fulfilled. 
See  Type  (in  theology). 

Antium,  an'shi-um  (modern 
Anzio),  an  ancient  citj'-  of  La- 
tium,  built  on  a  rocky  promon- 
tory. The  Volscian  pirates,  who 
made  it  a  stronghold,  were  one  of 
the  most  powerful  enemies  of  ris- 
ing Rome.  Conquered  in  468 
B.C.,  it  soon  revolted,  and  long 
maintained  its  independence,  but 
was  at  length  subdued  in  338 
B.C.  It  became  a  favorite  resort 
of  the  wealthy  Romans.  Among 
the  ruins  of  their  villas  and  pal- 
aces were  found  the  Apollo  Bel- 
vedere and  the  Borghese  Gladia- 
tor. It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
Emperors  Caligula  and  Nero. 

Antivari,  an-te'vii-re  (Monte- 
negrin Bar),  town,  Montenegro, 
on  the  Adriatic  coast;  18  miles 
northwest  of  Scutari.  The  old 
town,  with  its  crumbling  walls, 
ruined  castle,  mosques,  and  ba- 
zaars, lies  some  miles  inland,  in 
a  valley  surrounded  by  dense 
groves  of  olive  trees.  The  port 
is  at  Prslan,  site  of  Topolitsa, 
palace  of  the  crowTi  prince. 
There  is  trade  in  hides,  soap, 
and  petroleum.  Antivari  was  as- 
signed to  Montenegro  by  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878.  During 
the  Great  War  of  Europe  it  was 
bombarded  by  the  Austrians  (Jan- 
uary. 1916).    Pop.  2,200. 

Anti-Vivisection.  See  Vivi- 
section. 

Antlers,  bony  outgrowths  from 
the  frontal  bones  of  almost  all 
the  members  of  the  deer  family. 
Except  in  the  reindeer  (q.v.), 
they  are  restricted  to  the  males, 
and  are  secondary  sexual  char- 
acters used  as  weapons  in  fight- 
ing for  possession  of  the  females. 
They  appear  as  a  pair  of  knobs 
covered  with  dark  skin,  from 
which  the  bony  tissue  is  devel- 
oped. In  the  year  after  that  of 
birth,  the  antlers  remain  un- 
branched  conical  'beams.'  In 
the  following  spring,  the  previous 
growth  having  been  meanwhile 
shed,  the  antlers  grow  to  a  larger 
size,  and  form  their  first  branch 
or  'brow.'  Year  by  year  the 
number  of  branches  or  'tines'  in- 
creases, and  more  than  sixty 
have  been  counted  on  some  mag- 
nificent heads.  The  soft  hairy 
skin  which  secures  their  rapid 
annual  growth  is  known  as  the 
'velvet,'  and  its  accidental  in- 
jury affects  the  development  of 
the  antlers.  The  antlers  are 
shed,  in  many  cases  at  least,  an- 
nually, after  the  breeding  period. 
Antlers  being  of  very  tough,  hard 


material  and  convenient  form, 
they  have  been  utilized  by  both 
savage  and  civilized  men  for 
many  purposes. 

Ant'lia  Pneumat^ca,  *the  Air- 
Pump, '  a  southern  constellation, 
placed  by  Lacaille,  in  1752,  be- 
tween Argo  and  Hydra.  One  of 
its  stars,  S  Antliae,  is  variable  in 
a  period  of  7  hours  47  minutes. 

Ant-lion,  the  larva  of  an  in- 
sect (Myrmeleon)  of  the  order 
Neuroptera,  remarkable  for  the 
ingenuity  of  its  insect-catching 
habits.    Some  species  are  com- 


Ant-lion  and  Pit. 


a,  Larva,  the  ant-lion;  6,  adult  insect; 
c,  ant-pit. 

mon  in  North  America.  The  per- 
fect insect  is  about  1  inch  k  ng. 
and  has  a  general  resemblance  to 
a  dragon-fly.  The  grayish  yellow 
larva  is  rather  more  than  K  inch 
long;  it  has  a  stout  hairy  abdo- 
men, and  a  small  head,  which  is 
furnished,  however,  with  two 
very  large  incurved  mandibles. 
It  has  six  legs,  but  is  incapable 
of  rapid  locomotion,  and  gener- 
ally jerks  itself  backward. 

The  ant-lion  feeds  upon  the 
juices  of  insects,  especially  ants, 
in  order  to  obtain  which  it  clev- 
erly excavates  a  funnel-shaped 
pitfall  in  sandy  ground,  and  lies 
in  wait  at  the  bottom,  often  with 
all  but  its  mandibles  buried  in 
the  sand.  When  insects  ap- 
proach too  near  to  the  edge  of 
the  hole,  the  loose  sand  gives 
way,  so  that  they  fall  down  the 
steep  slope.  If  they  do  not  fall 
quite  to  the  bottom,  but  begin 
to  scramble  up  again,  the  ant- 
lion  throws  sand  upon  them  by 
jerking  its  head,  and  thus  brings 
them  back.  It  employs  its  head 
in  the  same  way  to  eject  their 
bodies  from  the  pit,  after  the 
juices  have  been  sucked,  and 
casts  them  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance. In  forming  its  pit,  the 
ant-lion  begins  by  working  round 
the  circumference,  and  gradually 
narrows  and  deepens  it;  turning 
quite  round  after  each  time  that 
it  works  round  the  hole,  so  as  to 
employ  next  time  the  fore-leg  of 
the  other  side.  The  pit  is  rather 
more  than  2  inches  deep. 

Antofagas'ta,  port,  Chile,  in 
Antofagasta  province.  The  nar- 
row-gauge railway  to  Oruro  in  Bo- 


™1 


TYPICAL  FORMS  OF  ANTLERS. 

NoH.  1-9.  Red  deer  (l.buiT,  enlarged).  10-U.  CerruH  tetraceros  (fossil).   15.  Wapiti  deer.  16.  Reindeer.  17.  Fallow  deer.   18.  Muose. 

19.  Koebucli.   20.  Irish  deer  (fossil). 


Antofagasta 


283 


Antonio 


livia,  of  which  275  miles  are 
within  Chilean  territory,  starts 
from  here;  and  there  is  railway 
connection  with  the  rich  silver 
fields  of  Caracoles  and  Huan- 
chaca.  There  are  important  salt- 
petre deposits  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Besides  Bolivian  goods, 
some  nitrate,  copper,  borate  of 
lime,  silver,  and  salt  are  exported. 
Pop.  (1914),  36,114. 

Antofagasta,  largest  province 
of  Chile,  is  bounded  by  the 
Argentine  Republic  on  the  east, 
the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west, 
and  the  provinces  of  Tarapaca 
and  Atacama  on  the  north  and 
south.  It  lies  within  the  great 
Atacama  desert  and  is  for  the 
most  part  mountainous  and 
barren.  Silver,  lead,  manganese, 
iron,  borax,  guano,  and  saltpetre 
are  the  principal  commercial  prod- 
ucts. The  capital  is  Antofagasta 
(q.  v.).  Area  46,408  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1914)  126,101. 

Antoine,  afi-twan',  Andre 
(1851),  French  theatrical  man- 
ager, was  born  in  Limoges.  In 
1887  he  founded  the  Theatre 
Libre,  Paris,  an  association  for 
producing  plays  of  unconven- 
tional type  and  literary  quality, 
which  was  imitated  in  London, 
Berlin,  and  New  York.  It  ceased 
to  exist  in  1894,  and  Antoine 
became  codirector  (1896)  and, 
later,  director  (1906)  of  the 
Odeon  Theatre,  Paris. 

Antoine  de  Bourbon,  an-twan' 
de  bobr'bon'  (1618-62),  Due  de 
Vendome  and,  by  his  marriage 
with  Jeanne  d'Albret  (1548), 
King  of  Navarre  and  Lord  of 
Bearn,  was  born  in  Picardy,  son 
of  Charles  of  Bourbon.  He 
became  Lieutenant-General  of 
France  in  1661,  and  the  following 
year  met  his  death  in  an  attack 
on  the  Huguenot  stronghold  of 
Rouen.  He  is  best  known  as 
the  father  of  Henry  of  Navarre, 
later  Henry  iv.  (q.  v.)  of  France. 
See  Bourbon  Family. 

Antoliolsld,  a  n  - 1 5  -  k  5  Ks  k  e, 
Mark  Matveyevitch  (1843- 
1902),  Russian  Jewish  sculptor, 
was  born  in  Vilna,  and  studied  in 
St.  Petersburg,  where  he  also 
worked  as  an  engraver.  He 
received  an  imperial  pension  for 
his  ivory  piece  The  Miser  in  1865, 
but  achieved  his  greatest  success 
by  his  statue  of  Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible, purchased  in  1871  by  Alex- 
ander III.  After  spending  some 
years  in  Italy,  Antokolski  settled 
in  Paris.  His  important  works 
include  Christ  Before  the  People 
(1874),  Sister  of  Mercy  Tending 
Wounded  Soldiers,  Mephistopheles 
(1881),  Spinora  (1882),  Death  of 
Socrates  (1876),  and  portrait 
statues  of  Turgenieff,  Tolstoy, 
Alexander  ii.,  Alexander  iii.,  Nich- 
olas II.,  and  Peter  the  Great. 

Antomarclil,  an-to-miir'-ke, 
Francesco  (1780-1838),  Italian 
surgeon,  was  born  in  Corsica. 
He  studied  medicine  at  Pisa  and 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '18. 


had  acquired  some  celebrity  as  an 
anatomist,  when  he  was  induced 
in  1818  to  go  to  St.  Helena  as 
physician  to  Napoleon  i.  After 
the  latter's  death  Antomarchi 
published  a  cast  of  the  ex-em- 
peror's head,  doubt  as  to  the 
genuineness  of  which  gave  rise  to 
much  discussion.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Polish  revolution, 
in  1830,  he  proceeded  to  Warsaw, 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  care 
of  the  wounded.  He  went  to 
America  in  1836,  and  died  two 
years  later  in  Cuba.  He  wrote 
Les  derniers  moments  de  Napoleon 
(1823). 

Antonelli,  an-t5-nel'le,  GiA- 
COMO  (1806-76),  Italian  cardinal 
and  statesman,  was  born  at 
Sonnino,  near  Terracina.  He 
gained  the  favor  of  Pope  Gregory 
XVI.,  and  in  1841  became  under- 
secretary of  state  to  the  ministry 
of  the  interior;  in  1844,  second 
treasurer;  and  in  the  following 
year,  finance  minister  of  the  two 
apostolic  chambers.  He  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal 
(1847)  by  Pius  ix.,  and  was  made 
premier  (1848)  in  the  liberal 
cabinet  which  framed  the  famous 
Statuto  or  Constitution  pro- 
claimed in  1848.  The  ministry 
was  short-lived,  however,  and 
Antonelli  fled  with  the  Pope  to 
Gaeta.  Upon  their  return  to 
Rome,  he  supported  the  reaction- 
ary policy,  obstinately  resisting 
all  concessions  to  the  growing 
national  spirit  of  the  Italian 
people.  In  1855  he  narrowly 
escaped  death  at  the  hands  of  an 
assassin. 

AntonePlo  da  Messi'na  (c. 
1430-79),  Italian  painter,  was 
born  in  Sicily.  According  to  the 
usual  view  he  learned  the  secret 
of  oil  painting  in  Flanders  from 
the  pupils  of  Jan  van  Eyck  (q. 
v.),  but  there  is  no  authority  for 
this  theory  and  it  seems  quite  as 
likely  that  he  acquired  the  art 
in  Naples,  where  Flemish  in- 
fluence was  then  predominant. 
He  was  in  Venice  in  1475-6,  and 
through  his  painting  of  the  lost 
altar  piece  of  San  Casciano  ex- 
erted a  marked  influence  on 
Venetian  art.  Of  his  authentic 
pictures,  the  National  Gallery, 
London,  possesses  his  earliest 
known  work,  Salvator  Mundi 
(1465),  a  portrait,  a  Crucifixion 
(1477),  and  St.  Jerome  in  His 
Study.  There  are  fine  portraits 
in  the  Louvre,  and  in  Berlin, 
Milan,  and  Rome. 

An'tonine  Cnlumn,  a  column 
erected  at  Rome  in  176  a.d.  in 
commemoration  of  the  victories 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  (q.  v.)  in  the 
German  and  Sarmatian  wars.  At 
the  present  time  it  adorns  the 
Piazza  Colonna. 

Antonine  Itinerary,  a  work, 
in  two  parts,  giving  a  survey  of 
the  principal  land  and  sea  routes 
in  the  Roman  empire,  with  the 
names  of  the  stations  and  the 


distances  between  them.  It  was 
published  in  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Antoninus  Caracalla, 
but  was  based  upon  a  survey 
made  between  the  consulship  of 
Julius  , Caesar  (44  b.c.)  and  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Augustus. 

Antonine's  Wall,  a  Roman 
rampart  erected  between  the 
Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  Scot- 
land, in  140-142  A.D.,  during  the 
reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  to  restrain 
the  encroachments  of  the  northern 
tribes.  Following  the  earlier  line 
of  Agricola's  forts  (81  a.d.),  it 
extended  some  40  miles;  the 
Eastern  termination  being  at 
Bridgeness  in  Carriden  on  the 
Forth,  while  the  western  was 
probably  at  a  point  beyond  Dum- 
barton on  the  Clyde. 

The  work  consisted  of  a  long 
vallum  built  of  sods,  upon  a  stone 
foundation,  with  an  estimated 
height  of  20  feet  on  a  base  24 
feet  thick.  Along  its  northern 
front  ran  a  V-shaped  fosse,  about 
20  feet  deep  by  40  feet  in  width, 
with  a  counterscarp  on  the 
farther  side;  and  there  was  a 
chain  of  supporting  forts  or  camps 
at  irregular  intervals.  The  vallum 
is  still  traceable.  The  popular 
name  is  Graham's  or  Grime's 
Dyke. 

Antoni'nus  Pi 'us,  Titus  Aure- 
lius FuLvus  BoiONius  Arrius 
(86-161  A.D.),  Roman  Emperor 
(138-61),  was  born  during  the 
reign  of  Domitian  of  a  family 
originally  from  Nemausus,  now 
Nimes,  in  Gaul.  He  was  made 
consul  in  120  and  afterwards  was 
sent  by  Hadrian  as  pro-consul 
into  Asia,  where  the  wisdom  and 
gentleness  of  his  rule  won  for 
him  a  high  reputation.  In  138 
he  was  adopted  by  the  Emperor 
Hadrian,  and  in  the  same  year 
came  to  the  throne.  His  reign 
was  proverbially  peaceful  and 
happy,  forming,  along  with  those 
of  his  immediate  predecessors, 
Trajan  and  Hadrian,  and  that  of 
his  successor,  Marcus  AureHus, 
the  Golden  Age  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  In  his  private  charac- 
ter he  was  simple,  temperate,  and 
benevolent;  while  in  public  affairs 
he  acted  as  the  father  of  his 
people. 

Anto'nio,  Prior  of  Crato 
.(1531-95),  pretender  to  the  Por- 
tuguese throne,  was  the  son  of 
Dom  Luis,  a  younger  son  of 
Emanuel,  King  of  Portugal,  and 
of  Yolanda  da  Gomez,  a  Jewess. 
He  was  appointed  prior  of  Crato, 
and,  later,  constable  of  the  king- 
dom. In  1580,  on  the  death  of 
King  Henry,  he  was  proclaimed 
king  of  Portugal,  but  was  after- 
wards defeated  by  Philip  ii.  and 
compelled  to  flee  to  France.  In 
1582  he  made  an  unsuccessful 
attack  on  the  Azores  and  in  1589 
an  attack,  also  unsuccessful,  on 
Lisbon.  An  account  of  his  life 
was  written  by  his  son  Chris- 
topher (1629). 


Antonio  de  Sedilla 


283  A 


Antony 


Antonio  de  Sedilla,  da  sa-de'- 
lya  {c.  1730-1829),  Spanish  mis- 
sionary priest,  was  sent  to  New 
Orleans  in  1779  in  connection 
with  the  Inquisition,  and  again  in 
1783  as  priest  of  the  St.  Louis 
Cathedral.  By  his  numerous 
charities,  he  greatly  endeared 
himself  to  the  people  by  whom 
he  was  popularly  known  as  Pere 
Antoine.  Pere  Antoine's  palm, 
said  to  have  been  planted  by  the 
priest,  was  long  a  familiar  land- 
mark in  the  city. 

Anto'nius,  the  name  of  several 
distinguished  Romans. 

(1)  Marcus  Antonius  (143- 
87  B.C.),  called Om/or,  was prsetor 
in  104  B.C.,  governor  of  Cilicia 
in  103  B.C.,  and  consul  in  99  B.C. 
He  was  one  of  the  aristocrats  who 
supported  Sulla,  and,  when  Marius 
and  Cinna  seized  Rome  in  87, 
was  executed  by  them.  He 
figures  in  Cicero's  De  Oratore. 

(2)  Gaius  Antonius,  sur- 
named  Hybrida,  son  of  the 
above-named,  was  expelled  from 
the  Senate  in  70  B.C.,  but  was 
Cicero's  colleague  as  praetor  in 
65,  and  as  consul  in  63.  He 
was  a  partisan  of  Catiline,  but 
Cicero  secured  his  loyalty  to  the 
state  by  yielding  to  him  the 
province  of  Macedonia.  His  army 
defeated  Catiline,  although,  be- 
cause of  his  friendship  for  the 
latter,  he  relinquished  the  com- 
mand to  one  of  his  lieutenants. 
He  plundered  his  province,  and  in 
59  was  condemned  for  extortion, 
though  defended  by  Cicero.  He 
retired  to  Cephalonia,  but  was 
recalled  by  Caesar  to  Rome  in 
44  B.C. 

(3)  Marcus  Antonius  (83- 
30  B.C.) ,  the  famous  Mark  Antony 
of  the  Second  Triumvirate,  son 
of  Marcus  Antonius  Creticus  and 
Julia,  sister  of  L.  Julius  Caesar, 
was  brought  up  in  the  house  of 
Lentulus,  a  fellow-conspirator 
with  Catiline.  He  spent  a  prof- 
ligate youth,  and  in  54  B.C. 
joined  Caesar  in  Gaul.  Return- 
ing to  Rome  in  50  B.C.  he  upheld 
his  great  kinsman  against  the 
oligarchical  party  and  was  ap- 
pointed quaestor,  augur,  and  trib- 
une of  the  plebs.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  expelled  from  the 
curia  because  of  his  adherence  to 
Caesar,  who  made  the  incident  a 
pretext  for  his  war  against 
Fompey. 

Caesar's  most  ardent  supporter, 
Antony  was  with  him  until  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia  (48),  when 
he  commanded  the  left  wing. 
He  was  master  of  the  horse  in 
47  B.C.,  and  was  deputy  governor 
of  Italy  during  Caesar's  absence 
in  Africa.  He  became  consul 
with  Caesar  in  44  B.C.,  and  on  the 
latter's  assassination,  so  wrought 
upon  the  passions  of  the  people 
by  his  famous  funeral  oration 
that  the  conspirators  were  forced 
to  flee  from  Rome,  leaving  him 
in  possession  of  almost  absolute 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '18. 


power.  Antony's  claims  were  dis- 
puted, however,  by  Octavianus, 
the  great-nephew  and  adopted 
son  of  Caesar,  who  afterwards 
became  the  Emperor  Augustus. 
Octavianus  won  the  support  of 
the  senate,  and  Antony  was 
severely  defeated  by  the  sena- 
torial forces  at  Mutina  (44), 
where  he  was  besieging  Brutus  in 
an  attempt  to  secure  Cisalpine 
Gaul.  Retreating  over  the  Alps 
he  joined  Lepidus,  and  with  the 
latter's  troops  and  those  of  Plan- 
cus  and  Pollio,  who  now  joined 
him,  he  returned  to  Rome.  A 
reconciliation  was  effected  with 
Octavianus,  and  the  Second 
Triumvirate — Octavianus,  An- 
tony, and  Lepidus — was  formed. 

To  secure  their  spoil  the  trium- 
virs now  entered  upon  a  course 
of  proscription  and  plunder,  in 
which  Cicero  and  many  others 
were  put  to  death.  Antony  and 
Octavian  then  led  their  troops 
into  Macedonia,  and  defeated 
Brutus  and  Cassius  at  Philippi. 
Antony  next  paid  a  visit  to 
Athens,  and  then  passed  over  to 
Asia,  to  arrange  his  dispute  with 
Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt,  whose 
conduct  had  offended  the  trium- 
virs. The  queen  herself  appeared 
to  answer  his  challenge,  and, 
captivated  by  her  beauty  and 
address,  he  followed  her  into 
Egypt,  where  he  remained  with 
her  in  idleness  and  luxury,  until 
aroused  by  tidings  of  a  quarrel 
in  Italy  between  his  own  kindred 
and  Octavian.  This  dispute  gave 
rise  to  a  short  war,  which  came 
to  an  end  before  Antony  arrived 
in  Italy. 

A  new  division  of  the  Roman 
world  was  now  arranged,  Antony 
taking  the  East,  and  Octavian 
the  West,  while  Lepidus  had  to 
be  content  with  Africa.  Antony 
had  confirmed  his  friendship  with 
Octavian  by  a  marriage  with  his 
sister,  Octavia;  but,  returning 
now  to  Cleopatra,  he  resumed  his 
voluptuous  mode  of  life,  and  was 
guilty  of  acts  of  the  grossest 
injustice.  Octavian  used  these 
facts  to  excite  the  indignation 
of  the  Roman  people,  and  war 
between  the  rivals  became  in- 
evitable. Finally  in  the  naval 
engagement  of  Actium  (31  B.C.) 
Antony  was  defeated.  He  re- 
turned to  Egypt,  but  on  the 
arrival  of  Octavian  at  Alexandria 
he  was  deserted  by  the  Egyptian 
fleet,  and  by  his  own  army.  De- 
ceived by  a  false  report  of  Cleo- 
patra's suicide,  he  killed  himself 
by  falling  upon  his  sword. 

The  character  of  Antony  is 
vividly  portrayed  in  Shake- 
speare's Julius  CcEsar  and  Antony 
and  Cleopatra.  Cicero's  Letters 
and  Philippics  give  contem- 
porary but  biased  evidence  as  to 
his  career.  There  is  also  a 
Life  by  Plutarch. 

(4)  Gaius  Antonius,  brother 
of  the  triumvir,  was  praetor  in 


Macedonia  in  44  B.C.  In  43  he 
was  captured  by  Brutus,  who 
put  him  to  death  to  avenge  the 
murder  of  Cicero. 

Antonomasia,  an-to-no-ma' 
zhi-a  (Gr.),  the  use  of  an  epithet, 
patronymic,  or  appellative  in- 
stead of  a  proper  name,  as  'the 
son  of  Peleus'  for  Achilles,  or  the 
'swan  of  Avon'  for  Shakespeare. 

An 'tony,  Mark.  See  An- 
tonius, Marcus  (3). 

Antony,  or  Anthony,  St.,  of 
Padua  (1195-1231),  was  born  in 
Lisbon.  He  joined  the  Canons 
Regular  of  St.  Augustine  in  1210, 
and  in  1220  entered  the  Francis- 
can order.  Having  won  renown 
for  his  Biblical  and  patristic  lore, 
he  was  sent  by  St.  Francis  to 
northern  Italy,  and  there  at- 
tained great  success  as  a  revival 
preacher.  He  died  in  Padua,  and 
was  canonized  by  Pope  Gregory 
IX.  He  is  credited  with  many 
miracles,  and  is  usually  repre- 
sented as  the  patron  saint  of  the 
lower  animals,  probably  because 
of  the  legend  that  he  preached 
to  the  fishes.  In  the  Roman 
calendar  his  feast  is  June  13. 
Consult  biographies  by  Hilaire, 
Beale,  and  Mrs.  A.  Bell. 

Antony,  or  Anthony,  St.,  of 
Thebes,  known  also  as  Antony 
THE  Great  (?251-356),  founder 
of  Christian  monasticism,  was 
born  at  Coma  in  Upper  Egypt. 
Having  inherited  a  considerable 
fortune,  he  disposed  of  his  wealth 
to  the  poor  and  withdrew  into 
the  wilderness  near  the  Nile, 
where  he  lived  for  twenty  years 
in  absolute  solitude.  The  fame 
of  his  sanctity  having  spread 
abroad,  he  eventually  yielded  to 
the  prayers  of  numerous  anchor- 
ites to  leave  his  retreat  and 
become  their  spiritual  guide.  He 
founded  a  monastery,  at  first 
merely  a  group  of  scattered  and 
separate  cells,  near  Memphis,  but 
later  withdrew  again  into  seclu- 
sion. In  355  the  venerable  her- 
mit, then  over  a  hundred  years 
old,  made  a  journey  to  Alexan- 
dria to  dispute  with  the  Arians, 
but  feeling  his  end  approaching, 
he  retired  to  his  desert  cell, 
where  he  died.  His  immediate 
following  at  his  death  numbered 
15,000.  His  festival  is  on  Jan- 
uary 17. 

The  temptations  of  St.  An- 
thony, and  other  incidents  of  his 
life,  many  of  them  legendary, 
have  afforded  numerous  subjects 
for  sacred  art. 

St.  Antony's  Fire  was  the  name 
given  to  a  pestilential  epidemic, 
also  called  the  sacred  fire,  which 
in  1089  swept  off  great  numbers, 
especially  in  France;  it  being 
held  that  many  sufferers  had 
been  cured  through  the  inter- 
cession of  St.  Antony.  The  dis- 
ease was  commonly  supposed  to 
be  erysipelas,  which  is  still  fre- 
quently known  as  St.  Antony's 
Fire.    (See  Erysipelas.) 


Antraigues 


283  B 


Antwerp 


Antraigues,  an-trag',  Emanuel 
Louis  Henri  de  Launay,  Count 
d'  (1755-1812),  French  diplomat, 
was  born  in  Villeneuve,  depart- 
ment of  Ardeche.  In  1788  he 
published  Memoires  sur  les  Etats- 
Generaux,  which,  by  its  advocacy 
of  liberty,  helped  to  bring  on  the 
French  Revolution.  He  was 
chosen  deputy  in  1789,  joined 
the  royalist  party,  and  in  1790 
was  sent  to  St.  Petersburg  and 
Vienna  in  the  Bourbon  interest. 
In  1803  he  was  employed  under 
Alexander  of  Russia  in  an  em- 
bassy to  Dresden,  where  he 
wrote  a  brochure  against  Bona- 
parte entitled  Fragment  du 
XVIII  livre  de  Polybe.  He  later 
settled  in  England,  where  he  was 
befriended  by  Canning.  He  was 
murdered  near  London  in  1812. 
Consult  Life  by  Pingaud. 

An 'trim,  maritime  county  in 
the  northeast  of  Ireland,  prov- 
ince of  Ulster,  including  Loughs 
Neagh  and  Beg  in  the  south  and 
southwest.  It  is  57  miles  long 
(extreme  length),  28  miles  wide 
at  its  broadest  part,  and  has  90 
miles  of  seacoast.  The  area  is 
1192  square  miles.  Off  the 
north  coast  lie  Rathlin  Island 
and  the  Skerries,  and  off  the 
east  coast  the  Maiden  Rocks. 
Between  Ballycastle  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Bann  is  the  Giant's 
Causeway  (q.  v.),  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  columnar  basalt  in 
the  world. 

There  are  many  peat  bogs,  but 
more  than  three-fourths  of  the 
area  of  the  county  is  under  cul- 
tivation, in  tillage  and  pasture. 
Flax — 21  per  cent,  of  the  total 
for  Ireland — cereals,  and  oats 
are  grown,  and  cattle,  sheep,  and 
pigs  are  raised.  This  county  is 
the  centre  of  the  Irish  linen  in- 
dustry; cotton  goods  and  coarse 
woollens  are  also  manufactured, 
and  much  beautiful  hand  em- 
broidery is  made  and  sold  by  the 
householders.  Among  the  natural 
resources  are  salt  mines  at  Dun- 
crue  and  Carrickfergus,  small 
coal  fields  near  Ballycastle  and 
in  the  interior,  rich  beds  of  iron 
ore  in  Glenravel,  and  deposits  of 
limestone.  The  ore  has  been  ex- 
ported in  large  quantities  from 
Cushendall  and  Carnlogh. 
Several  large  distilleries  are  situ- 
ated in  the  county,  and  the 
fisheries  of  the  coast  are  im- 
portant. 

The  principal  towns  are  Belfast, 
Lisburn,  Carrickfergus,  Bally- 
mena,  Larne,  Ballymoney,  Por- 
trush,  and  Antrim,  the  capital. 
The  population  of  the  county 
(1911)  is  478,603. 

Antrim,  market  town.  Ireland, 
capital  of  Antrim  county,  on  the 
Belfast  and  Northern  Counties 
Railway;  14  miles  northwest  of 
Belfast.  Linen  weaving  and 
bleaching  and  paper  manufac- 
ture are  among  the  industries. 
Antrim  Castle,  a  round  tower, 
Vol.  L— Oct.  '18. 


and  Shane  O'Neil's  Castle  are  in 
the  vicinity.    Pop.  1,900. 

Antung,  an'tdbng',  town. 
Southeastern  Manchuria,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Yalu  River,  about  7 
miles  from  its  mouth,  and  is  con- 
nected with  Mukden  by  the 
Antung-Mukden  railway  (170 
miles).  The  Battle  of  the  Yalu 
(q.  V.)  was  fought  nearby.  Pop. 
(1911)  160,000. 

Ant'werp  (Fr.  Anvers;  Flem. 
Antiverpan,  'on  the  wharf),  city, 
Belgium,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Antwerp,  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  River  Scheldt; 
about  60  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
27  miles  by  rail  north  of  Brussels. 
An  extensive  system  of  docks  and 
quays  marks  the  river  front, 
principally  at  the  north  end  of 
the  city,  and  on  elevated  ground 
above  the  quays  there  is  com- 
munication with  many  Belgian 
cities  and  towns  not  only  by 
means  of  the  railroad,  but  also 
by  the  Scheldt  and  the  canals 
that  traverse  the  city. 

The  layout  of  the  city  includes 
three  'rings'  or  circles  of  forts, 
upon  which  the  heavy  German 
siege  guns  wrought  terrible  havoc 
in  the  fall  of  1914,  and  also  a 
beautiful  park,  and  extensive 
zoological  gardens.  The  spacious 
Avenue  de  Keyzer  and  the  Place 
de  Meir,  formed  by  the  arching 
over  of  a  canal,  are  interesting 
parts  of  the  older  section. 

The  most  noteworthy  of  the 
city's  buildings  is  the  six-aisled 
cathedral  (1352-1518),  one  of  the 
noblest  Gothic  structures  in  Bel- 
gium. It  is  a  cruciform  structure, 
284  feet  long,  212  feet  wide,  and 
130  feet  high,  and  has  an  exquis- 
ite spire,  in  which  hangs  a  splen- 
did carillon  of  ninety-nine  bells. 
The  interior  of  the  cathedral  is 
ornamented  with  paintings  by 
Rubens,  including  the  famous 
'Descent  from  the  Cross'  and 
the  'Assumption.'  Other  notable 
edifices  are  the  Church  of  St. 
James  containing  the  tomb  of 
Rubens  and  a  monument  of  the 
Rubens  family;  the  Hotel-de- 
Ville  (156.5),  a  fine  building  in  the 
Renaissance  style;  and  the  Mu- 
seum, containing  a  unique  collec- 
tion of  Rubens'  paintings,  as  well 
as  works  by  Quentin  Matsys,  Jan 
van  Eyck,  Rogier  Van  der  Wey- 
den,  Steen,  Hals,  Rembrandt, 
and  others.  The  Academy  of 
Sciences,  Academy  of  Painting 
and  Sculpture,  Medical  and  Sur- 
gical School,  Flemish  Theatre,  and 
Naval  Arsenal  are  also  worthy  of 
note.  The  house  of  Rubens  is 
still  partially  preserved. 

Before  the  invasion  of  Belgium 
by  Germany  in  1914,  Antwerp 
carried  on  a  flourishing  trade 
and  commerce.  Sugar  refining, 
cigarmaking,  shipbuilding,  brew- 
ing and  distilling,  and  the  cut- 
ting of  diamonds  and  other  prec- 
ious stones  were  prominent  in- 
dustries.   Leading  manufactures 


were  white  lead,  cotton  goods, 
lace,  linen  thread,  sewing  silk, 
black  silk  stuffs,  starch,  and 
printer's  ink.  The  chief  exports 
were  flax,  sugar,  iron,  woollen 
goods,  tallow,  metal,  and  glass, 
and  the  principal  imports  were 
tobacco,  wheat,  hops,  coffee, 
hides,  wood,  and  petroleum. 

Interesting  statistics  show  a 
remarkable  increase  in  Antwerp's 
maritime  trade  during  a  twenty 
year  period  ending  shortly  be- 
fore the  Great  War  (1914),  as 
follows:  In  1893,  4,414  vessels 
(net  tonnage  4,646,000)  visited 
Antwerp;  while  in  1912,  7,043 
vessels  (net  tonnage  13,750,000) 
traded  in  the  harbor.  In  1912 
more  than  10,000,000  tons  of 
goods  came  in  on  these  ships,  and 
more  than  8,000,000  tons  went 
out,  while  the  annual  trade  was 
valued  at  over  $500,000,000, 

The  population  of  the  city  was 
40,000  in  1790;  73,500  in  1830; 
169,112  in  1880;  272,831  in  1900; 
and  301,766  in  1910. 

History. — The  history  of  Ant- 
werp extends  back  as  far  as  the 
seventh  century,  when  it  was 
known  as  a  market  town.  In 
836  it  was  destroyed  by  North- 
men, but  was  rebuilt  and  early  in 
the  eleventh  century  was  the 
capital  of  a  margravate,  formed 
to  protect  the  German  frontier 
against  the  Counts  of  Flanders. 
Its  advantageous  location  was 
conducive  to  steady  develop- 
ment, and  the  city  grew  and 
flourished,  until,  during  the  first 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  it 
was  the  commercial  capital  of 
the  world.  In  1576,  during  the 
'Furie  Espagnole,'  Spanish  sol- 
diers seized  the  town,  killed  some 
8,000  persons,  and  burned  hun- 
dreds of  buildings.  The  eff"ect  of 
this  disaster  and  of  the  siege  and 
capture  by  the  Duke  of  Parma,  in 
1585,  caused  Antwerp's  fortunes 
to  decline,  and  its  population 
was  scattered.  In  1648  Holland's 
closing  of  the  Scheldt  to  sea- 
going vessels  was  a  further  severe 
blow  to  the  city's  commercial 
prestige. 

From  1794  until  1814  Antwerp 
was  held  by  the  French.  A 
trade  revival  took  place  when 
Napoleon  i.  recognized  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  town  as  a  naval 
base,  and  the  union  of  Belgium 
with  Holland,  in  1815,  gave  an 
additional  impetus  to  the  com- 
mercial development  of  Antwerp, 
which  had  a  wonderfully  pros- 
perous career  from  1863 — when 
it  acquired  from  the  Nether- 
lands the  right  to  levy  tolls  on 
Scheldt  shipping — until  1914, 
when  the  German  invasion  took 
place. 

The  history  and  associations  of 
Antwerp  make  it  one  of  the  most 
interesting  towns  in  Belgium. 
Some  of  the  greatest  masters  of 
painting  the  world  has  ever 
known  had  their  homes  there — 


Ann 


284 


Anzio 


among  them,  Van  Dyck,  Rubens, 
Cornelius  de  Vos,  Jordaens,  and 
the  two  Teniers  (qq.  v.). 

Antwerp  in  the  Great    War. — 

A  new  interest  attaches  to  Ant- 
werp because  of  the  part  the 
city  played  in  the  defence  of 
Belgium  during  the  invasion  by 
the  Germans  in  the  fall  of  1914. 
The  German  forces  poured  across 
the  Belgian  border  on  Aug.  4, 
1914;  between  Aug.  15  and 
Aug.  17,  the  seat  of  the  Belgian 
government  was  transferred  to 
Antwerp;  and  on  Aug.  19  the 
principal  Belgian  army,  accom- 
panied by  King  Albert,  retired 
thither  before  an  overwhelming 
drive  of  German  troops.  For 
the  next  five  weeks  the  city  was 
comparatively  quiet,  but  on 
Sept.  25,  heavy  German  guns 
were  brought  up,  and  by  Sept. 
28  these  had  been  put  in  place 
and  brought  to  bear  with  terrible 
effect  upon  the  fortifications  of 
the  town.  British  reinforcements 
arrived  on  Oct.  3  and  5,  but  it 
soon  became  clear  that  retire- 
ment alone  could  save  the  Bel- 
gian army.  The  work  of  trans- 
ferring the  base  at  night  to 
Ostend  was  splendidly  carried 
out,  and  on  the  nights  of  Oct.  5 
and  7  the  Belgian  army  began  its 
retirement  to  Ghent  and  the 
seacoast.  At  the  same  time,  while 
Antwerp  was  undergoing  intense 
bombardment,  practically  the  en- 
tire civilian  population  of  about 
400,000  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren, crossed  the  Scheldt  and 
withdrew,  with  the  army,  from 
the  beleaguered  city.  The  per- 
manent Antwerp  garrison  and 
three  British  naval  brigades 
held  until  the  last  possible  rho- 
ment  what  remained  of  the  city's 
defences.  Part  of  this  heroic 
post  retired  on  the  evening  of 
Oct.  8,  and  the  rest  followed  on 
Oct.  9,  when  the  formal  surrender 
of  the  city  took  place.  See  Eu- 
rope, Great_War  of. 

Anu,  a'noo,  a  Babylonian 
deity,  supreme  god  of  heaven. 

Anubis,  a-nu'bis,  an  Egyptian 
deity,  usually  represented  in  the 
form  of  a  man  with  the  head  of 
a  jackal  or  dog.  He  was  the  god 
of  embalming,  and  the  assistant 
of  Osiris  in  weighing  the  hearts 
of  the  dead.  The  Greeks  identi- 
fied him  with  Hermes,  and  he 
was  worshipped  in  Rome  as 
Mercury. 

Anura,  an-u'ra,  an  order  of 
Amphibians  characterized  by  ab- 
sence of  the  tail  in  the  adult,  and 
including  the  frogs  and  toads. 
See  Amphibia;  Frog;  Toad. 

Anuradhapura,  a-nob-rad-ha- 
pob'ra,  ruined  city  and  ancientcap- 
ital  (437  B.C.-750  A.D.)  of  Ceylon; 
80  miles  north  of  Kandy.  It  has 
extensive  ruins,  including  monas- 
tic buildings  and  numerous  water 
tanks,  and  a  bo-tree  (Ficus 
religiosa)  venerated  as  a  shoot 
of  the  tree  under  which  Gautama 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '18. 


experienced  enlightenment  and 
became  Buddha.    Pop.  3,700. 

A'nus,  the  external  opening  of 
the  rectum.  See  Rectum. 

Anvari,  an-va're,  or  Anwari, 
AuHAD  UDDiN  Ali,  a  Celebrated 
Persian  poet  who  flourished  dur- 
ing the  twelfth  century,  was  born 
in  Khorassan.  His  verses  exhibit 
consummate  skill  and  great 
satirical  powers.  His  lyrics  (ghaz- 
els)  are  characterized  by  sim- 
plicity, but  his  kasides,  poems 
mainly  in  praise  of  his  patron,  the 
Sultan  San  jar,  are  somewhat 
marred  by  extravagant  imagery. 

Anville.    See  D'Anville. 

An'zacs,  a  term  composed  of 
the  initial  letters  of  the  words, 
Australia  New  Zealand  Army 
Corps,  and  used  to  designate  the 
Australasian  military  forces  in  the 
Great  War  (19 14-).  The  name 
was  coined  by  the  troops  them- 
selves while  they  were  in  the 
Levant. 

On  the  morning  of  Aug.  5, 
1914,  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
received  the  news  that  England 
had  decided  to  stand  with 
France,  against  Germany.  Al- 
though the  Australian  Parlia- 
ment was  at  the  time  dissolved, 
the  Prime  Minister  with  full 
popular  consent  immediately 
offered  Great  Britain  a  first 
contingent  of  20,000  men.  This 
offer  was  accepted  and  a  call  for 
volunteers  was  issued,  with  the 
result  that  more  than  the  desired 
number  responded  and  training 
was  begun  on  a  large  scale, 
Great  Britain  granting  a  war 
loan  of  $90,000,000  for  the 
furtherance  of  the  war  prepara- 
tions. New  Zealand  also  quickly 
raised  a  force  of  10,000. 

Within  sixty  days  after  the 
war  began  the  Anzacs  had  been 
largely  instrumental  in  breaking 
up  the  German  wireless  chain  in 
the  Pacific  and  in  the  seizure  of 
the  German  Pacific  colonies. 
During  the  latter  part  of  August, 
1914,  Col.  Robert  Logan,  with  a 
New  Zealand  military  force,  con- 
voyed by  Australian  warships, 
occupied  German  Samoa;  and 
toward  the  end  of  September 
1914,  Col.  William  -Holmes,  with 
an  Australian  naval  and  military 
contingent,  occupied  extensive 
territory  at  Herbetshohe  in  New 
Pommern  (New  Britain). 

By  the  end  of  November,  1914, 
the  first  Anzac  contingent  of 
about  30,000  infantry,  cavalry, 
and  artillery — more  than  20,000 
Australians,  and  about  10,000 
New  Zealanders  —  sailed  for 
Egypt,  the  emb?irkation  of  this 
force  and  its  safe  conduct  from 
Albany,  West  Australia,  to  the 
Suez  Canal,  a  distance  of  6,750 
miles,  being  in  itself  a  record 
feat. 

It  was  in  the  spring  of  1915, 
however,  during  the  Dardanelles 
campaign,  that  the  Anzacs  first 
made  themselves  famous.  To- 


ward the  end  of  April  a  force 
landed  near  Gaba  Tepeh,  on  the 
Gallipoli  Peninsula,  and  carried 
the  fortified  heights  in  the  face  of 
a  raking  Turkish  fire,  the  posi- 
tions won  at  that  time  being  held 
throughout  the  campaign,  which 
was  characterized  by  consistent 
courage  and  resourcefulness. 

From  April,  1916,  most  of  the 
Anzac  army  was  with  the  British 
on  the  Western  front  where,  as 
elsewhere,  they  acquired  a  repu- 
tation for  reckless  courage.  They 
were  conspicuous  in  the  various 
Allied  drives,  notably  Mouquet 
Farm,  Messines  Ridge,  BuUe- 
court,  and  Pozieres,  and  the 
British  offensive  of  August  and 
September,  1918.  General  Sir 
William  Birdwood,  who  led  them 
at  Gallipoli,  was  their  com- 
mander in  France  also.  In  the 
Far  East  (Southern  Palestine  and 
the  Sinai  Peninsula)  Australian 
horse  and  camel  troops  played  an 
important  part,  and  in  Mesopo- 
tamia the  Anzacs  did  brilliant 
fighting.  They  also  took  a 
glorious  part  in  the  Battle  of 
Dogger  Bank,  under  Admiral 
Beatty,  January  24,  1915,  and 
again  in  the  Battle  of  Jutland 
Bank  (q.  v.).  The  Anzac  con- 
tribution to  the  British  army, 
from  a  total  population  of  6,000,- 
000  inhabitants,  in  January, 
1918,  had  exceeded  448,000  men. 

In  1918  Anzac  troops  that  had 
seen  active  service  in  France 
visited  America  in  the  interest  of 
the  Third  Liberty  Loan. 

Anzengruber,  an'tsen-groo- 
b^r,  LuDWiG  (1839-89),  Austrian 
dramatic  writer  and  novelist, 
spent  most  of  his  life  in  straitened 
circumstances,  but  won  lasting 
fame  by  his  tragedies  of  domestic 
(peasant)  life,  notably  DerPfarrer 
von  Hirschfeld  (1870),  Der  Mein- 
eidhauer  (1871),  Das  Vierte  Gehot 
(1878),  Mahl  und  Stein  (1889). 
and  Der  Fleck  auf  der  Ehr'  (1889). 
He  also  gained  success  in  comedy, 
of  which  Die  Kreuzelschreiber 
(1872)  is  typical,  while  in  the 
novel,  he  reaches  a  high  level  in 
his  characterization  and  descrip- 
tion of  the  life  of  the  common 
people,  as  in  Der  Schandfleck 
(1876;  rewritten  1884)  and  Der 
Sternsteinhof  (1885),  His  Gesam- 
melten  Werke  were  published  in 
10  volumes  in  1890  (3rd.  ed. 
1897). 

Anzin,  an-zan',  town,  depart- 
ment of  Nord,  France,  is  situated 
on  the  River  Scheldt;  1  mile 
from  Valenciennes.  It  is  a  coal 
mining  centre  of  the  first  impor- 
tance, having  an  annual  output  of 
about  4,000,000  tons.  It  has 
also  metallurgical  industries,  ma- 
chine shops,  sugar  refineries,  glass 
works,  breweries,  and  distilleries. 
Pop.  (1911)  14,439. 

Anzio,  an'tsi-o,  formerly 
Porto  d'  Anzio  (ancient 
Antium),  small  seaport,  is  loca- 
ted 33  miles  southeast  of  Rome, 


A.okl 


285 


Ape 


Italy.  In  ancient  times  it  was  a 
stronghold  of  the  Volscians.  CaU- 
gula  and  Nero  were  born  here.  It 
was  a  favorite  Roman  watering- 
place,  and  art  treasures  {e.g.  the 
Apollo  Belvedere)  have  been  dis- 
covered there.   Pop.  (1901)  3,449. 

Aoki,  Viscount  Siuzo  (1844), 
Japanese  statesman;  was  ambas- 
sador to  Germany  in  1874  and 
1892;  foreign  Secretary  of  State 
in  Japan  1885,  1889,  and  1898; 
conducted  negotiations  for  the  re- 
vision of  Japan's  foreign  treaties 
1897;  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
1898-1900;  first  Japanese  am- 
bassador to  the  United  States 
1906-07. 

Aomori.  See  Awomori. 

Aorist  (Gr.  'indefinite'),  a  tense 
of  the  Greek  verb  expressing  in- 
definite past  time,  and  correspond- 
ing to  the  English  simple  past 
tense,  'did,'  'went,'  'came.'  There 
are  two  aorists  in  the  Greek  verb, 
known  as  'first'  and  'second' 
aorists,  but  there  is  no  distinction 
between  them  in  use. 

Aorta.  See  Heart.  The  chief 
diseases  of  the  aorta  are  atheroma, 
fatty  degeneration,  calcification, 
and  aneurism. 

Aosta  (anc.  Augusta  Pretoria), 
tn.  and  episc.  see  of  Italy,  prov. 
Turin,  50  m.  N.w.  of  Turin._  Its 
strategic  position  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  passes  over  the  Great 
and  Little  St.  Bernard  induced 
Augustus  to  found  there  (25  B.C.) 
a  military  colony.  The  walls  are 
in  great  part  those  constructed  by 
the  Romans.  Birthplace  of  An- 
selm.   Pop.  (1901)  7,554. 

The  Val  d' Aosta  is  one  of  the 
most  charming  valleys  of  the  Pied- 
montese  Alpine  country,  grassy, 
well  wooded,  and  in  part  planted 
with  vineyards.  Cretinism  is 
common  among  the  people. 

Aoudad,  AouL,  or  Arui,  a  wild 
sheep  {Ovis  tragcliphus)  inhabit- 
ing the  mountains  of  northwestern 
Africa  and  familiar  in  menageries, 
where  it  is  easily  recognized  by 
the  fringe  of  long  hairs  depending 
from  its  cheeks  and  throat  and 
about  the  fore  legs.  The  horns  of 
the  rams  are  long  and  wide- 
spreading,  but  not  coiled.  This 
sheep  still  exists  in  wild  flocks  on 
the  remoter  of  the  Atlas  ranges, 
where  it  shows  remarkable  power 
of  concealing  itself,  by  taking  a 
position  and  keeping  motionless, 
so  that  its  dun  hues  blend  invisibly 
into  the  rocky  hillside.  The  spe- 
cies is  a  transition-form  between 
the  sheep  and  goats.  ^ 

Apaches,  N.  American  Indians, 
the  southernmost  branch  of  the 
Athapascan  linguistic  family,  who 
formerly  ranged  over  the  south- 
western parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  northern  provir-ccs 
of  Mexico,  between  30°  and  35°  N, 
They  were  fierce,  predatory  tribes, 
but  are  now  confined  to  reserva- 
tions in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
where,  with  their  Navajo  kinsmen, 
Vol.  I.— 22. 


they  numbered  (1903)  about 
6,090.  Handbook  of  American 
Indians  (1907). 

Apaffl.  (1.)  Michael  i.,  prince 
of  Transylvania  (1632-90),  who 
remained  faithful  to  the  Porte 
until  the  unsuccessful  siege  of 
Vienna  (1683).  Then  he  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  the  Emperor 
Leopold  I.  of  Hungary  (1687), 
who  guaranteed  his  independence. 
(3.)  Michael  ii.  (1667-1713), 
son  of  above,  maintained  his 
claim  to  the  throne  of  Transyl- 
vania against  Count  Tokoli, 
mainly  by  aid  of  the  emperor. 
On  his  death  Transylvania  was 
incorporated  in  the  empire. 

Apalachicola.  (1.)  Riv.  in  s. 
part  of  the  U.S.,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Flint  and  Chatta- 
hoochee Rs.,  and  flowing  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  at  the  seapt.  of 
Apalachicola  in  Florida.  It  is 
navigable  throughout  its  length  of 
90  m.  (3.)  Tn.  and  port  of  entry, 
Fla.,  CO.  seat  of  Franklin  co.,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  of  the  same  name.  It 
has  a  large  export  trade,  especially 
i*"  naval  stores  and  lumber.  Pop. 
(1910)  3,065.       .  ^ 

Apar,  an  armadillo  (q.v.)  of  the 
genus  Tolypeutes,  especially  the 
small  and  numerous  three-banded 
armadillo  (7  apar),  which  defies 
its  enemies  by  quickly  rolling  into 
a  ball. 

Aparri,  port  at  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  Cagayan  Prov.,  N.  of 
Luzon,  Philiopine  Is.  Pop.,  in 
1903,  18,252.  ■ 

Apatin,  tn.  on  the  I.  bk.  of  the 
Danube,  10  m.  s.w.  of  Zombor, 
Hungary;  produces  hemp,  mad- 
der, and  silk.  Pop.  (1900)  13,- 
940. 

Apatite  is  a  phosphate  of  lime 
with  fluoride  or  chloride  of  lime, 
or  more  usually  a  mixture  of  these 
last  two  (FCajPsOia).  It  has 
various  forms,  but  always  crystal- 
lizes in  hexagonal  prisms,  with  a 
hardness  of  5,  and  an  imperfect 
cleavage.  It  is  soluble  in  dilute 
nitric  acid,  and  with  ammonium 
molybdate  the  solution  gives  a 
yellow  precipitate  (test  for  phos- 
phates). Apatite  is  the  principal 
natural  phosphate  of  the  crystal- 
line rocks.  As  phosphoric  acid  is 
an  essential  constituent  of  the  food 
of  both  plants  and  animals,  vege- 
table and  animal  life  are  depend' 
ent  on  the  existence  of  apatite  in 
the  earth's  crust.  The  phosphates 
in  sedimentary  rocks  and  in  soils 
are  derived  from  the  apatite  set 
free  by  the  disintegration  of  the 
older  crystalline  rock  masses. 
Apatite  occurs  in  a  great  variety 
ot  formations,  but  is  most  common 
in  mctamorphic  crystalline  rocks, 
particularly  in  granular  limestone, 
in  gneiss,  mica  schist,  and  in  beds 
of  iron  ore.  It  is  found  as  an 
accessory  mineral  in  many  igneous 
rocks,  the  larger  crystals  being 
characteristic  of  granite  and  peg- 


matite. From  several  places  in 
Switzerland  come  transparent  and 
colorless,  or  white  and  cloudy, 
crystals.  These  are  found  in 
fissures  in  gneiss  and  crystalline 
schists.  It  is  more  frequently  of  a 
sea-green  or  bluish-green  color; 
fine  crystals  of  this  variety  come 
from  Norway  and  many  parts  of 
N.  America.  Asparagus  stone, 
osteolite,  and  moroxite  are  names 
given  to  other  forms.  Apatite 
is  mined  at  Kragero  in  Norway; 
and  in  S.  Burgess  (Canada)  there 
is  a  vein,  3  ft.  thick,  of  pure  sea- 
green  apatite,  from  which  large 
quantities  have  been  extracted. 
The  lime  phosphate  known  in 
commerce  as  apatite  contains 
many  impurities. 

Apatornls,  one  of  the  primitive 
toothed  birds,  closely  allied  to 
Ichthyornis  (q.v.). 

Ape,  a  term  sometimes  used 
to  designate  the  anthropoid  apes 
only,  and  sometimes  quite  in- 
definitely for  the  monkeys,  ba- 
boons, and  their  allies  of  the  order 
Primates. 

Anthropoid  apes  are  those  of  the 
largest  size,  most  advanced  organ- 
ization and  attainments,  which 
are  so  called  on  account  of  their 
physical  nearness  to  man.  They 
constitute  the  family  Simiadae, 
and  include  the  chimpanzees, 
gorillas,  orang-utan  and  gibbons. 
They  are  entirely  of  the  Old 
World,  and  differ  more  widely 
from  the  American  than  from  the 
Old-Workl  branch  of  the  Pri- 
mates. Though  arboreal  for  the 
most  part,  when  they  come  to  the 
ground  they  walk  more  erect 
than  do  the  baboons  or  monkeys, 
and  _  rest  their  weight  upon  the 
outside  of  the  closed  fingers,  not 
upon  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
None  of  the  anthropoids  has  a 
tail,  any  cheek-pouches  or  ischial 
callosities,  except  the  last,  of 
small  size,  in  the  gibbons.  The 
hair  is  more  scanty — an  approach 
to  man.  The  placenta  differs  in 
detail  from  that  in  the  lower  apes, 
and  is  exactly  like  that  of  man; 
and  they  have  a  vermiform  ap- 
pendix. Their  arms  are  of 
greater  length  as  compared  with 
the  legs.  The  gorilla  is  regarded 
as  the  most  advanced  and  man- 
like, and  the  gibbons  as  nearest 
to  the  lower  apes  (Cercopithecidas). 

A  fossil  anthropoid  of  great  in- 
terest as  standing  in  an  interme- 
diate position  between  the  great 
apes  _  and  human  beings,  and 
pointing  toward  the  unknown 
common  ancestor  whence  each 
line  has  divergently  developed,  is 
the  Pithecanthropus  {P.  erectus). 
whose  fragmentary  remains  were 
discovered  in  1894,  in  Java,  by 
Prof.  Eugene  Dubois,  in  marine 
deposits  of  late  Pliocene  or  Early 
Pleistocene  age,  in  company  with 
those  of  many  extinct  mammals. 
The  remains  consisted  of  the  cap 
of  the  skull,  two  molar  teeth  and  a 


Apeldoorn 


286 


Apennines 


femur  (diseased).  They  indicate 
a  creature  which  must  have 
stood,  when  erect,  about  5^  ft.  tali, 
and  whose  cranial  capacity  was 
about  40  per  cent,  greater  than 
that  of  the  gorilla,  and  equal  to 
that  of  some  female  Australians 


tories.  Near  it  is  Castle  Loo,  the 
summer  residence  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily.  Pop.  of  comm.  (1899)  25,761. 

Apelles,  the  most  celebrated 
painter  of  ancient  Greece,  contem- 

Eorary  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
is  patron.    Born  in  Colophon, 


Apes — A  nthropoid. 
1.  Hoolock  gibbon.    2.  Orang-utan.    3.  Chimpanzee.  4.  Gorilla. 


and  Veddahs.  The  profile  of  the 
skull  comes  between  that  of  a 
chimpanzee  and  the  oldest  known 
remains  of  the  Cave-men  (Nean- 
derthal).    It   is  still   a  mooted 

Eoint  whether  this  creature  should 
e  classified  as  simian  or  human. 
Consult  Hartmann,  Anthropoid 
Apes  (18S6);  Haeckcl,  The  Last 
Link  (1898);  and  sec  Chimpanzee; 
Gorilla;  Orang-utan;  Gibbon. 

Apeldoorn,  tn.,  11  m.  by  rail 
s.W.  of  Dcventer,  Gelderland, 
Netherlands.    Several  paper  fac 


he  went  to  Macedonia  during  the 
reign  of  Philip;  there  Alexander 
gave  him  the  exclusive  right  to 
paint  his  portrait.  Two  of  his 
greatest  pictures  were,  Alexander 
wielding  a  Thunderbolt,  in  the 
temple  of  Artemis  in  Ephcsus; 
and  Aphrodite  Anadyomene  {i.e. 
rising  out  of  the  sea),  in  the  temple 
of  /^isculapius  in  Cos.  Other  cele- 
brated pictures  are,  Alexander 
entering  the  Triumphal  Car,  Her- 
cules, and  Artemis.  His  peculiar 
excellence  was  grace — i.e.  perfec- 


tion of  proportion  and  harmony 
in  the  treatment  of  his  subjects  in 
grouping,  drawing,  and  coloring. 
See  Wustmann's  Apelles'  Leben 
und  Werke  (1870),  Woltmann  and 
Woermann,  Eng.  Trans,  vol.  I. 
(1886). 

Apelt,  Ernst  Friedrich  (1812- 
59),  professor  of  philosophy 
(1840-59),  Jena,  author  of  philo- 
sophical works :  Epochen  dcr 
Geschichte  der  Menschheit  (1845: 
2nd  ed.,  1852);  Theorie  der  In- 
duktion  (1854);  Religions- Philo- 
sophie  (1860). 

Apennines  (anc.  Mans  Apen- 
ninus),  one  of  the  principal  moun- 
tain ranges  in  Europe,  running 
the  entire  length  (som.e  750  m.) 
of  the  Italian  peninsula,  and  con- 
tinued through  Sicily.  At  their 
N.w.  extremity  they  touch  the 
Maritime  Alps,  the  dividing  line 
being  drawn  at  the  Pass  of  Al- 
tare,  at  the  head  of  the  Bormida 
valley.  The  range  bears  different 
names  {e.g.  Ligurian,  Etru  can, 
Roman,  Neapolitan,  Calabrian, 
and  Apuan).  The  Calabrian  Apen- 
nines and  the  Apuan  Alps  are  of 
granite,  gneiss,  and  crystalline 
slate;  the  rest  of  the  system  is 
composed  mainly  of  sandstones 
and  limestones  of  Cretaceous  and 
Tertiary  age,  the  older  rocks  be- 
ing conspicuously  absent.  Bosses 
of  intrusive  gabbro,  trachyte, 
basalt,  diorite,  etc.,  are  found. 
In  the  Central  Apennines  the 
most  characteristic  feature  is  the 
abrupt  emergence,  above  the  broad 
base  of  the  Tertiary  strata,  of  huge 
ellipsoidal  high  limestone  plains 
of  older  formation.  On  the  E. 
side  of  the  Sibylline  Mts.,  reach- 
ing 8,010  ft.  in  Mt.  Vittore,  there 
has  been  a  gigantic  subsidence, 
exposing  the  mountain  wall  for 
a  vertical  height  of  6,500  ft.  In 
the  Abruzzi,  two  parallel  chains 
separated  by  the  valley  of  the 
Aterno,  the  loftiest  and  most 
rugged  stretch  of  the  system  oc- 
curs: the  E.  has  the  huge  knot  of 
the  Gran  Sasso  dTtalia,  culminat- 
ing in  the  snow-capped  Monte 
Corno  (9,580  ft.);  farther  to  the 
S.E.  rises  Monte  Amaro  (9,170 
ft.).  The  Calabrian  Apennines 
terminate  in  the  volcanic  upheaval 
of  Aspromonte  (Monte  Montalto, 
6,425  ft.),  overhanging  the  Gulf  of 
Messina.  The  N.  Apennines  sub- 
side into  the  valley  of  the  Po;  the 
Central  make  a  steep  plunge  to- 
wards the  Adriatic;  on  the  W.  or 
Tyrrhenian  side  the  slope  is  more 
gradual,  and  the  Apennines  en- 
close several  longitudinal  valleys 
— e.g.  the  Chiana,  the  Pistoia- 
Florencc  plain — parting  the  dif- 
ferent lateral  chains  from  the 
main  range.  The  Apennines  are, 
as  a  rule,  bare  and  picturesquely 
rugged  in  their  higher  altitudes, 
but  their  lower  slopes  are  clothed 
with  forests.  The  system  is  poor 
in  minerals,  but  is  especially  rich 
in  marble.    The  Romans  made 


Aperients 

roads  over  the  Pietra  Mala  Pass 
(2,960  ft.),  between  Florence  and 
Bologna;  the  Furlo  Pass  (flanked 
by  rocky  walls  of  over  1,500  ft.), 
debouching  upon  the  Adriatic 
coast  at  Fano;  the  Via  Salaria, 
between  the  Sibillini  Mountains 
and  the  Gran  Sasso;  and  the 
Caudine  Forks,  between  Naples 
and  Benevento.  The  Bocchetta 
Pass  (2,560  ft.)  connects  Genoa 
with  the  upper  valley  of  the  Po. 
Railways  now  unite  the  two  coast 
belts.  SesFsivtsch.'s'Die  Haupt- 
ketten  des  Centralen  Apennins,' 
in  Verhandl.  d.  Gesch.  f.  Erdkunde 
zu  Berlin  (1889);  Marinelli,  in 
Atti,  of  the  First  Ital.  Geog.  Con- 
gress, vol.  ii.;  Globus  (1899): 
L'Appenino  Bolognese  (1881);  and 
L'Appenino  Modenese  (1895). 

Aperients,  or  Laxatives,  are 
the  mildest  class  of  purgatives, 
intended  to  assist  the  natural  ac- 
tion of  the  bowels.  They  act  by 
moderately  increasing  peristalsis, 
or  in  some  cases — (e.g.  belladonna) 
apparently  by  allaying  spasm. 
As  examples  of  ^  *  natural  aperi- 
ents,' one  may  instance  hot  or 
cold  water  taken  on  an  empty 
stomach,  ripe  fruits  generally, 
whole-meal  bread,  oatmeal  bis- 
cuits, and  porridge.  Instances 
of  aperient  drugs  are  castor  oil, 
senna,  olive  oil,  sulphur,  cascara 
sagrada,  and  glycerin,  all  in  com- 
paratively small  doses;  most  of 
these  in  large  doses  become  so 
purgative  in  their  action  as  to  be 
classed  among  cathartics.  Some 
writers  classify  aperients  as  (1) 
laxatives,  (2)  purgatives — the  lat- 
ter being  subdivided  as  (a)  cathar- 
tic, and  {b)  drastic.  The  habit  of 
taking  even  mild  aperient  drugs 
is  to  be  condemned.  See  Consti- 
pation; also  Mineral  Waters. 

Apex  (in  Mining  Lavi^).  The 
end  of  a  mineral  vein  or  lode 
which  projects  above  the  en- 
closing l)ea-rock.  At  the  com- 
mon law  the  boundaries  of  land 
marked  on  the  surface  are  ex- 
tended vertically  downward  in- 
definitely, and  the  surface-own- 
er's rights  are  limited  to  the 
earth  and  minerals  enclosed 
within  those  vertical  boundaries. 
In  the  American  law  of  mines, 
however,  it  has  come  to  be  the 
accepted  doctrine  that  the  owner 
of  a  mining  claim  which  includes 
the  apex  of  a  vein  may  follow 
that  vein  on  the  dip  even  into 
and  through  the  land  of  another. 
This  doctrine  has  been  a  source 
of  great  confusion  in  mining 
rights  and  consequently  of  much 
litigation. 

Aphasia  (Gr.  'absence  of 
speech'),  total  or  partial  loss  of 
the  power  of  speech,  either  spoken 
or  written.  It  is  a  syrnptom  of 
many  brain  disorders.  The  term 
always  covers  loss  of  the  power 
of  expression  by  spoken  words, 
accompanying  some  morbid  con- 
dition of  the  brain;  but  some  ex- 


287 

tend  the  meaning,  and  include 
the  misunderstanding  of  what  is 
said  (word-deafness),  and  inability 
to  read  words  (word-blindness). 
Again,  the  inability  to  make  the 
movements  necessary  to  express 
oneself,  whether  by  gesture,  writ- 
ing, or  speech,  is  distinguished  as 
motor  aphasia,  from  inability  to 
understand  familiar  gestures  and 
written  or  spoken  words,  which 
is  sensory  aphasia.  Aphasia,  in 
any  of  these  cases,  is  the  term  used 
only  when  consciousness  is  unaf- 
fected, and  the  intellect  otherwise 
normal.  The  causes  are  lesions 
effecting  the  nerve-centres  con- 
cerned, such  as  haemorrhage,  em- 
boli, thrombi,  and  adjacent  tu- 
mors. With  the  first  two  causes 
aphasia  may  follow  almost  instan- 
taneously; with  the  other  it  is  of 
slower  growth.  Temporary  apha- 
sia may  be  caused  by  fright,  ex- 
citement, any  severe  illness,  or, 
indeed,  any  cause  disturbing  nor- 
mal cerebral  circulation.  Treat- 
ment consists  in  first  dealing  with 
the  cause  of  tbe  disorder,  and  then 
in  educating  the  brain — the  edu- 
cation being  the  same  as  that  of 
a  child.    See  also  Amnesia. 

Aphelion  (Gr.  'away  from  the 
sun').  The  planets  revolve  round 
the  sun  in  elliptical  orbits;  and 
the  sun  is  situated,  not  at  the 
centre  of  these  orbits,  but  at  one 
of  the  two  points  known  as  the 
foci.  The  greater  axis  of  each 
ellipse  is  the  line  passing  through 
the  centre  and  the  foci.    At  one 


extremity  of  this  axis  the  planet 
is  at  its  greatest  distance  from 
the  sun,  and  at  the  other  extremity 
at  its  least  distance.  The  former 
is  known  as  the  aphelion,  the 
latter  as  the  perihelion.  The  earth 
is  in  aphelion  early  in  July,  in 
perihelion  in  the  beginning  of 
January.  In  the  former  position 
we  are  distant  about  94^  millions 
of  miles  from  the  sun,  in  the  latter 
about  91^  millions. 

Aphids  are  the  minute  bugs 
known  to  gardeners  as  plant-lice, 
green-fly,  etc.,  which  feea  by  punc- 
turing plants,  and  sucking  the 


Aphids 

juices,  and  in  some  instances  they 
are  so  destructive  as  to  become 
ruinous  pests,  owing  to  the  enor- 
mous rapidity  with  which  they 
reproduce,  and  the  elaboration 
of  the  arrangements  by  means  of 
which  they  migrate  from  one  host 
to  another,  or  from  one  region  of 
the  same  host  to  another.  They 
attack  all  parts  of  a  j)lant  and 
exhaust  it  of  sap,  some  kinds  feed- 
ing upon  the  roots,  others  stunting 
the  growth  of  shoots  and  tips, 
others  attacking  the  leaves,  bark 
or  fruit. 

The  life  history  is  always  com- 
plicated. In  its  simplest  form  it 
may  be  given  as  follows: — In 
spring,  wingless  female  aphids 
hatch  from  winter  eggs,  and  bring 
forth  living  young,  which  develop 
without  previous  fertilization 
(parthenogenetically),  and  become 
themselves  capable  of  partheno- 
genetic  reproduction  after  about 
ten  days.  The  result  is  to  form 
a  rapidly-increasing  colony,  whose 
members  attach  themselves  to  the 
succulent  parts  of  plants,  and  be- 
ing well  fed  are  capable  of  con- 
tinuing their  prolific  multiplica- 
tion until  the  growth  of  the  plant  is 
checked  by  the  approach  of  au- 
tumn. Any  check  to  nutrition, 
however  produced,  leads  to  the 

Eroduction  of  winged  forms,  capa- 
le  of  migrating  to  a  new  plant, 
but  much  less  prolific  than  the 
imperfect  wingless  forms.  In  au- 
tumn there  invariably  appear 
truly  sexual  forms,  male  and  fe- 


2 


2.— Wingless  form. 


male,  from  whose  union  fertilized 
eggs  arise,  which  are  capable  of 
standing  the  winter's  cold. 

Most  aphids  secrete  a  sugary 
substance  which  exudes  through 
two  tube-like  apertures  near  the 
hinder  end  of  the  body,  and  forms 
a  sweet  food  upon  which  the 
young  are  at  first  fed.  This  is  so 
abundant  sometimes  as  to  make 
the  place  about  a  colony  stickv,  or 
it  may  even  fall  in  a  wind-blown 
spray  called  *honev-dew.*  Of 
this  ants  pre  extremely  fond,  and 
they  will  assiduously  attend  upon 
and   arrange   to   protect  apnid 


1 

Aphids. 
1.— Winged  male  of  greenfly. 


Aphonia 

colonies  in  order  to  get  it,  pro- 
moting the  secretion  by  stroking 
the  aphids.  They  a'lso  carry 
aphids  to  their  nests,  and  care  for 
them  like  herds  of  cows,  in  order 
to  maintain  a  constantly  accessible 
supply  of  the  honey. 

In  color  aphids  closely  re- 
semble their  surroundings.  They 
are  greatly  relished  as  food,  not 
only  by  birds  and  other  insect- 
eaters,  but  also  to  a  much  greater 


Aphides. 

a,  Phylloxera  vastatrix ;  6,  Schizoneiira 
lanigera ;  c.  Aphis  mali. 


extent  by  other  insects,  notably 
♦ladybirds'  (beetles).  The  cot- 
tony threads  of  'American  blight' 
{Schizoneura  lanigera),  and  the 
shell-like  shields  of  various  bark- 
lice,  are  instances  of  a  great  va- 
riety of  protective  coverings 
formed  by  aphids,  giving  the  name 
'scale-insects'  to  many  of  the 
best-known  fruit-pests  {Phylloxera 
vastatrix).  The  vine-pest  has 
wrought  great  damage  to  vineyards 
in  Europe. 

Consult  Howard,  Insect  Book 
(1901),  and  authorities  mentioned 
under  special  heads. 

Aphonia  (Gr.  ' voicelessness'), 
loss  of  voice,  sometimes  due  to 
disease  of  the  larynx  or  vocal 
cords,  sometimes  to  nervous  dis- 
orders.  See  Voice. 

Aphorism,  a  concise  statement 
of  some  truth,  generally  more  or 
less  abstract,  such  as,  'Wisdom 
is  knowledge  in  action.'  The  ad- 
jective 'aphoristic'  is  applied  to 
the  style  of  writers  who  convey 
their  meaning  in  a  series  of  ab- 
stract and  isolated  sentences, 
omitting  the  usual  logical  con- 
nectives. The  chief  examples  of 
this  in  English  are  contained  in 
the  works  of  Emerson. 

Aphrodite,  called  Venus  by 
the  Romans,  the  goddess  of  love 
and  beauty.  As  her  name  (<l</)p6?) 
indicates,  she  sprang  from  the  sca- 
foam,  though  in  the  Iliad  Zeus 
and  Dione  are  said  to  be  her 
parents.  Commonly  represented 
as  the  faithless  wife  of  Hephaes- 
tus (Vulcan),  her  loyers  were 
many,    including,    amongst  the 


288 

gods,  Hermes  (Mercury),  Arcs 
(Mars),  Dionysus  (Bacchus),  and 
Poseidon  (Neptune);  and  amongst 
mortals,  Anchises  and  Adonis. 
She  generally  bears  one  of  the 
three  epithets,  Urania,  Pontia 
or  Thai  iassia,  and  Pandemos. 
By  the  famous  judgment  of 
Paris,  described  in  Tennyson's 
CEnone,  she  was  declared  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  goddesses.  Her 
girdle  had  the  miraculous  power 
of  granting  invincible  charms  to 
others.  In  works  of  art  she  is 
constantly  represented  with  her 
son  Eros  (Cupid).  The  dove, 
swan,  swallow,  and  the  bird 
called  iynx  drew  her  chariot,  or 
served  as  her  messengers;  and 
these,  with  the  myrtle,  rose, 
apple,  and  poppy,  were  sacred  to 
her.  Of  the  statues  which  remain 
may  be  mentioned  the  celebrated 
Venus  of  Milo  in  the  Louvre, 
found  in  1820  on  the  island  Milos; 
Aphrodite  of  Capua;  and  the 
Medicean  Aphrodite  in  Florence. 
The  chief  seats  of  her  worship 
were  Cythera  and  Cyprus.  Her 
worship  is  of  alien  origin.  Un- 
doubtedly, also,  the  worship  of 
the  Phoenician  goddess  Astarte, 
brought  in  by  Phoenician  traders 
in  early  days,  helped  to  form 
the  conception  which  the  Greeks 
had  of  Aphrodite.  Compare  also 
Venus. 

Aphthae,  small  gray  and  yellow 
catarrhal  patches,  occurring  singly 
or  in  groups,  on  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  _  the  mouth,  usually  in 
teething  infants,  and  known  as 
'sprue'  or  'thrush'.  The  most 
common  position  is  within  the 
lower  lip,  and  towards  the  tip  of 
the  tongue.  Treatment  consists 
in  attention  to  digestion,  and  local 
application  of  borax. 

Apia,  seapt.  on  the  N.  coast  of 
the  German  dependency  Upolu, 
Samoan  Is.,  lat.  13°  49'  N.,  long. 
171°  44'  w.;  anchorage  for  large 
vessels,  though  exposed  to  N. 
winds.  The  U.S.S.  Vandalia  and 
Tremon,  and  the  German  men- 
of-war  Adler  and  Eher  were 
wrecked  here  by  a  fierce  hurricane 
in  1889,  the  British  warship 
Calliope  alone  escaping  without 
injury.  Apia  exports  copra  and 
cocoa  beans  and  is  the  seat  of  a 
U.  S.  consulate.   Pop.  3,750. 

Apios.   Sec  Ground-nut. 

Apis  (in  the  hieroglyphics  Hapi, 
'the  hidden'),  a  sacred  bull  wor- 
shipped by  the  Egyptians  at 
Memphis.  Tradition  varies  as  to 
the  precise  nature  of  his  marks, 
but,  as  a  rule,  he  had  a  black 
hide,  with  certain  markings  on 
the  forehead  and  back,  and  a 
peculiar  knot  in  the  shape  of 
a  scarab.eus  under  the  tongue. 
He  was  not  allowed  to  live  more 
than  twenty-five  years.  If  he  died 
before  his  allotted  span,  he  was 
embalmed  and  buried  in  a  splendid 
sarcophagus  in  a  special  part  of 
the  temple  of  Serapis,  called  the 


Apocalyptic  Llteratura 

Serapeum.  After  his  death  he 
became  an  Osiris  or  Osiris-Hapi, 
whence  by  corruption  came  tne 
name  of  Serapis,  which  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  gave  to  the  Egyp- 
tian god.  The  birthday  of  the 
bull  (which  coincided  with  the 
rise  of  the  Nile)  was  celebrated 
every  year  as  a  national  festival, 
Mariette's  discoveries  of  the 
Serapeum  at  Memphis  (1856) 
threw  much  light  upon  the  cult 
of  Apis.  See  Mariette's  Le  Sera- 
peum de  Memphis  (1882). 

Aplanatic,  a  combination  of 
lenses  so  arranged  as  to  bring  par- 
allel rays  to  a  focus  without  spheri- 
cal or  chromatic  aberration. 

Apncea  (Gr.  'breathlessness'), 
strictly  applied  only  to  that  form 
of  breathlessness  which  is  caused 
by  hyperoxygenation  of  the  blood, 
when  breathing,  for  the  time,  has 
become  unnecessary;  but  also  ap- 
plied to  cessation  of  breathing 
from  any  cause. 

Apocalyptic  Literatfire,  a 
peculiar  type  of  Jewish  literature 
which  originated  in  the  time  of 
Israel's  oppression  by  the  Syrians, 
and  furnished  a  consolatory  fore- 
cast of  the  future  of  the  nation.  In 
form  these  writings  are  pseudt  pi- 
graphic  prophecies,  issued  vinder 
the  name  of  some  famous  Israel- 
ite of  a  former  age,  and  claim- 
ing to  be  supernatural  revelations. 
From  this  assumed  standpoint  the 
writers  predict  the  future  history 
of  Israel  and  of  the  world,  and 
intentionally  veil  their  meaning 
by  the  use  of  symbols,  parables, 
and  visions,  although  naturally 
they  cease  to  be  definite  on  reach- 
ing their  own  time,  which  is  repre- 
sented as  the  time  of  judgment 
and  of  Messianic  deliverance. 
The  aim  throughout  is  at  once 
didactic  and  hortatory:  where  the 
former  element  preponderates, 
the  chief  object  in  view  is  the 
glorification  of  Judaism,  or  the 
unfolding  of  divine  mysteries; 
where  the  reverse  is  the  case, 
the  main  purpose  is  to  comfort 
the  godly  and  warn  the  sinner. 
Against  the  gloomy  background 
of  the  present  there  stand  out  in 
bold  relief  the  glories  of  the  future. 
These  apocalyptic  writings,  of 
which  the  Book  of  Daniel  is  the 
earliest  example,  did  much  not 
only  to  quicken  the  Messianic 
hope,  but  also  to  produce  among 
the  people  that  political  unrest 
whicn  culminatea  in  the  revolt 
against  the  Romans  in  a.d.  66. 
They  were  largely  the  composi- 
tions of  Jewish  Christians. 
Among  those  extant  in  whole  or  in 
part,  the  most  important  for  the 
history  of  the  Jewish  religion  are 
the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  the 
Book  of  Enoch,  the  Ascension 
of  Isaiah,  the  Book  of  Jubilees, 
the  Assumption  of  Moses,  the 
Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patri- 
archs, the  Psalms  of  Solomon,  and 
the  Sibylline  Oracles.    For  these 


Apocalyptic  Number 

works,  see  Schiirer's  Htst.  of  the 
Jewish  People  (ii.  iii.  p.  44^.), 
1890,  Prof.  Charles's  article  in  the 
Encyc.  Biblica,  and  Porter's  The 
Messages  of  the  Apocalyptical 
Writers  (1905). 

Apocalyptic  Number.  See 
Number  of  the  Beast. 

Apocarpous,  in  botany  a  term 
used  to  designate  fruits  made  up 
of  separate  carpels,  the  product 
of  a  single  flower. 

Apocatastasjs,  the  return  at 
length  of  all  lost  souls  and  fallen 
angels  to  divine  forgiveness:  a 
heresy  held  by  Origen  and  others. 

Apocrenic  Acid,  a  compound 
discovered  by  Berzelius  in  soil 
containing  rotting  vegetable  sub- 
stances, and  in  the  yellow  deposit 
of  chalybeate  waters.  It  is  formed 
by  oxidation  of  crenic  acid. 

Apocrypha  (Grk.  apo  'away' 
and  kruptein  'to  hide,'  'hidden 
away').  In  its  earlier  use  applied 
to  books  'hidden  away'  either  (1) 
to  keep  knowledge  from  the  un- 
initiated or  (2)  from  the  initiated 
but  unlearned.  2  (4) Ezra  14:44-47 
gives  the  earliest  example  of  this 
latter  use.  It  was  applied  in  a 
laudatory  sense  to  the  secret  or 
esoteric  writings  of  the  Gnostics 
and  other  sects,  then  was  used 
{e.g.  by  Augustine  and  Jerome)  to 
designate  works  the  origin  of 
which  was  veiled  in  mystery.  As 
most  of  these  were  pseudonymous, 
the  term  came  to  be  used  as  equiv- 
alent to  'heretical';  but  in  the 
Western  Church  the  meaning  was 
rather  that  of  'pseudonymous.' 
From  this,  'aprocryphal'  naturally 
came  to  signify  'non-canonical'; 
and  then  was  appropriated  as  the 
technical  designation  of  those 
books  which,  although  included 
in  the  Septuagint  and  the  Vul- 
gate, were  never  admitted  into  the 
Hebrew  canon. 

The  Apocrypha  proper  include 
the  following,  arranged  in  the 
order  of  the  EngHsh  Bible:  1  Es- 
dras;  2  Esdras;  Tobit;  Judith; 
the  Additions  to  Esther-  the 
Wisdom  of  Solomon;  Ecclesias- 
ticus;  Baruch-  the  Song  of  the 
Three  Holy  Children-  the  His- 
tory of  Susanna;  Bel  and  the 
Dragon;  the  Prayer  of  Manasses; 
1  Maccabees;  2  Maccabees.  (Two 
other  so-called  books  of  Macca- 
bees— 3  Maccabees  and  4  Mac- 
cabees—are contained  in  some 
important  MSS.  of  the  Septuagint.) 

The  books  may  be  classified 
critically  as  genuine,  legendary, 
pseudepigraphic,  or  supplemen- 
tary additions  to  canonical  books, 
or  ethnologically  as  Persian-Pales- 
tinian, pure  Palestinian,  and  Jew- 
ish-Alexandrian. But  it  is  simpler 
to  arrange  them  according  to  their 
literary  character  as  narrative, 
including  (a)  historical  and  (b) 
legendary,  prophetic,  including 
apocalyptic,  and  didactic.  Most 
of  them  belong  to  the  first  class. 
Only  1  Maccaoees,  however,  can 


289 

rank  as  history.  It  furnishes  an 
authentic  record  of  the  forty  years 
from  the  accession  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  to  the  death  of  Simon 
(B.C.  175-135).  2  Maccabees  cov- 
ers only  the  period  B.C.  176-161, 
and  is  by  comparison  inaccurate 
and  highly  colored.  1  Esdras 
is  a  combination  of  parts  of  the 
canonical  Chronicles,  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  with  legendary  tales. 
The  additions  to  Esther,  and 
to  Daniel  (the  Story  of  Susanna, 
the  Song  of  the  Three  Children, 
and  the  Story  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon),  are  purely  fabulous. 
Tobit  is  an  almost  idyllic  work 
of  fiction,  and  Judith  is  a  ro- 
mance. To  the  second  or  pro- 
phetic division  belong  the  Book 
of  Baruch  (including  the  Epistle 
of  Jeremy),  the  Prayer  of  Ma- 
nasses, and  2  Esdras,  the  last 
named  being  the  only  specimen 
of  apocalyptic  literature  contained 
in  our  Apocrypha.  The  didactic 
books  of  the  collection  are  Ecclesi- 
asticus — or,  as  its  Greek  title  is, 
the  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  the  son  of 
Sirach — and  the  Book  of  Wisdom. 
See  further  the  separate  articles. 

Although  some  of  these  books 
{e.g.  Ecclesiasticus  and  1  Macca- 
bees) were  originally  written  in 
Hebrew,  none  of  them  ever  found 
a  place  in  the  Jewish  canon.  But 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  unlike 
their  Palestinian  brethren,  drew 
no  sharp  distinction  between 
prophets  and  the  later  Scriptures, 
and  did  not  scruple  to  include  in 
the  Septuagint  other  sacred  writ- 
ings besides  the  24  books  of  the 
Hebrew  canon.  As  the  Greek 
Bible  remained  practically  the 
Bible  of  the  Christian  Church  for 
centuries,  the  place  given  by  it  to 
the  Apocrypha  conferred  upon 
some  of  these  books  an  exagger- 
ated importance.  But  in  rela- 
tion to  Jewish  history,  and  apart 
altogether  from  the  question  of 
canonicity,  the  apocryphal  books 
as  a  whole  are  of  singular  interest 
and  value.  Except  the  writings 
of  Josephus,  who  was  largely  in- 
debted to  them,  the  Apocrypha 
form  the  only  important  source  of 
information  for  the  period  be- 
tween the  Testaments.  In  this 
connection,  1  Maccabees,  as  a 
trustworthy  record,  is  of  priceless 
worth;  and  most  of  the  other 
books  afford  significant  gUmpses 
into  the  internal  condition  and 
religious  feelings  of  the  people. 
Generally  speaking,  and  in  spite 
of  the  chilling  influence  of  a 
rigid  Pharisaism,  they  mark  an 
advance  in  the  religious  life  of 
the  Jews  as  compared  with  the 
position  reached  in  the  time 
of  Nehemiah.  There  is  reflected 
in  them  a  deeper  reverence  for 
the  law,  a  purer  monotheism,  a 
stronger  Messianic  hope,  ana  a 
clearer  apprehension  of  a  future 
life.  Some  of  them  also  present 
an    interesting   combination  of 


Apocrypha 

Jewish  thought  and  Greek  phi- 
losophy, especially  the  Book  of 
Wisdom. 

The  Apocrypha  are,  however, 
inferior  to  the  canonical  Scrip- 
tures in  originality  and  strengtn. 
Instead  of  the  freshness  and  sim- 
plicity of  the  earlier  literature,  we 
have  the  mechanical  stifl'ness,  the 
artificial  and  florid  verbiage,  and 
the  imitaton  of  older  models 
which  show  that  the  nation  had 
begun  to  live  on  its  past.  That 
books  should  have  been  issued 
under  assumed  names  was  per- 
haps a  necessity  in  times  of  perse- 
cution; but  such  distortions  of 
Old  Testament  narratives  (Wisd. 
11  :  2-20)  as  sometimes  occur, 
as  well  as  the  introduction  of 
ostensibly  genuine  but  really 
fabricated  official  documents  (1 
Mace.  12  : 20-23;  2  Mace.  1:  1-9; 
Esth.  16),  indicate  that  these 
writings  are  on  a  lower  plane  than 
the  canonical  books. 

The  judgment  of  the  Christian 
Church  as  to  the  Apocrypha  has 
been  far  from  viniform.  Some  of 
the  New  Testament  writers  (St. 
Paul,  St.  James,  and  the  author  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews)  were 
evidently  familiar  with  them. 
They  were  excluded  from  the 
canon  of  Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis 
{c.  A.D.  172).  By  many  of  the 
early  fathers,  however,  they  are 
referred  to  in  the  same  terms  as 
the  canonical  books.  Among  the 
Greek  fathers  thev  are  so  treated 
by  Clement  and  Origen,  and 
among  the  Latin  fathers  _  by 
Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  and  Cyprian. 
After  Jerome's  time  the  tendency 
was  to  refrain  from  using  them 
in  matters  of  controversy.  This 
writer  adopted  the  Hebrew  canon, 
but  allowed  an  'ecclesiastical' 
use  of  the  Apocrypha.  _To  this 
position  Ambrose,  Augustine,  etc., 
adhered.  At  the  reformation  the 
Roman  CathoUc  Church  adopted 
the  Greek  Bible,  and  the  Prot- 
estant Church  the  Hebrew.  The 
Council  of  Trent  (1546)  accepted 
as  canonical  all  the  books  em- 
braced in  the  Vulgate — i.e.  the 
whole  of  the  Apocrypha  except  the 
Prayer  of  Manasses,  and  1  and  2 
Esdras.  Till  about  the  end  of  the 
17th  century  all  English  Bibles 
contained  the  Apocrypha.  Cover- 
dale's  Bible  (1«'535)  was  the 
first  in  which  they  were  placed 
by  themselves  under  a  separate 
title  at  the  end  of  the  O.T. 
They  were  also  printed  in  rnost 
copies  of  the  Geneva  Bible 
(1560).  Within  the  Reformed 
Church  itself  the  fortunes  of  the 
Apocrypha  have  been  varied.  In 
the  Sixth  Article  of  the  Church 
of  England  it  is  declared  that  'the 
other  books  [viz.  the  Apocrypha] 
the  church  doth  read  for  example 
of  Hfe  and  instruction  of  manners; 
and  yet  doth  it  not  apply  them 
to  establish  any  doctrine.'  The 
Westminster  Confession,  on  the 


Apocrypha 

other  hand,  asserts  that  they  *are 
of  no  authority  in  the  Church  of 
God,  nor  to  be  any  otherwise 
approved  or  made  use  of  than 
other  human  writings'  (ch.  i.  3). 
See  Fritzsche  and  Grimm,  in  the 
^  Kurzgefasstes  Exegctisches  Hand- 
buch'  Series  (1851-GO);  Nicolas's 
Des  Doctrines  Religieuses  desJuifs, 
pendant  les  2  Siedes  anterieures  a 
F  Ere  Chretienne  (1860);  Langen's 
Das  Judenthum  in  Palestina  zur 
Zeit  Christi  (1866);  Ewald's  Hist, 
of  Israel,  vol.  v.  (Eng.  trans. 
1874);  Bissell,  in  Schaff-Lange 
Comm.  (1880);  Churton's  Uncan- 
onical  and  Apocryphal  Scriptures 
(1884);  Wace  and  Salmon's 
Speaker^ s  Comm.:  'Apocrypha': 
Schiirer's  Hist,  of  the  Jewish 
People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ 
(Eng.  trans.  1890);  Strack  and 
Zockler's  Apokryphen  d.  Alt.  Test. 
(1891);  Kautzscn's  Die  Apok.  und 
Pseudepig.  des  Alt.  Test.  (1898). 
For  the  text,  see  Ball's  The  Va- 
riorum Apocrypha;  the  Revised 
Version  of  the  Apocrypha  (1895); 
Fritzsche' s  Libri  Apocryphi  Vet. 
Test.  GrcBC.  (1871);  and  Swete's 
Cambridge  Septuagint  (1894),  and 
articles  in  Hastings'  Diet.  Bible 
(1898);  Encyc.  Biblica  (1899);  and 
Schaff-Herzog  (new  ed.  in  press). 

Besides  the  O.  T.  Apocrypha 
proper,  'an  unspeakable  quantity 
of  apocryphal  writings'  (Iren. 
1:20)  were  current  in  the  early 
centuries  of  our  era.  The  great 
value  of  these  in  tracing  the  de- 
velopment of  thought  from  the 
Old  to  the  New  Testament  is 
increasingly  recognized.  Hardlv 
a  doctrine  of  the  N.  T.  exists  which 
is  not  either  expressed  or  implied 
in  these  books.  Those  that  sur- 
vive group  themselves  naturally 
into  two  divisions,  according  as 
they  link  themselves  on  to  the 
Old  or  to  the  New  Testament. 

Old  Testament. — 1.  Poetical. — 
This  category  includes  the  very 
interesting  collection  of  eighteen 
psalms  called  The  Psalms  of  Solo- 
mon. These  short  poems  (see 
Ryle  and  James'  ed.  of  1891 
containing  text,  translation  and 
notes)  give  expression  to  the 
clearest  faith  in  the  resurrection, 
and  depict  the  triumphant  rule 
of  the  Messianic  King.  Of 
Pharisaic  authorship,  they  prob- 
ably date  from  the  middle  of  the 
1st  century  B.C.  In  this  connec- 
tion mention  may  also  be  made  of 
a  psalm  on  David's  victory  over 
Goliath,  which  appears  as  Ps.  151 
in  the  Greek  Psalter;  and  of  three 
apocryphal  psalms  in  Syriac — viz. 
a  thanksgivmg  of  David,  a  prayer 
of  Hezekiah,  and  a  psalm  on  the 
restoration. 

2.  Legendary. — Many  hagga- 
dic  histories — e.g.  of  David,  the 
Captivity,  etc. — exist  only  in  man- 
uscript translations  preserved  in 
great  libraries.  ^  The  Testament 
of  Adam,  a  Jewish  romance  pur- 
porting to  give  a  biographical 


290 

account  of  Adam  and  Eve  subse- 
quent to  the  Fall,  is  found  in 
Greek,  Latin,  Syriac,  Arabic,  and 
Ethiopic  fragments.  The  Testa- 
ments of  the  Three  Patriarchs  de- 
scribe circumstantially  tne  deaths 
of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob; 
and  The  Apocalypse  of  Abraham 
tells  the  story  of  Abraham's  con- 
version. In  the  Life  of  Aseneih 
we  have  an  attractive  Jewish 
sketch  of  the  circumstances  at- 
tending her  marriage  with  Joseph. 
The  Testament  of  Solomon  re- 
counts that  monarch's  magical 
supremacy  over  demons,  and  his 
ultimate  downfall.  All  these 
books  have  been  more  or  less 
Christianized.  Liber  Antiquitatum 
Biblicarum,  a  compendium  of 
Bible  history  down  to  the  death 
of  Saul,  by  Pseudo-Philo,  and  ex- 
isting only  in  a  Latin  version, 
appears,  however,  to  be  pre- 
Christian.  ^  The  Book  of  Jasher^ 
a  haggadic  commentary  upon 
the  Hexateuch,  and  a  Hebrew 
Midrash  called  The  Book  of  Noahj 
practically  complete  the  list. 

3.  Apocalyptic— (1.)  The  Book 
of  Enoch,  a  composite,  represents 
the  residue  of  an  extensive  litera- 
ture that  grew  up  around  this 
honored  name.  It  takes  the  form 
of  a  series  of  revelations  vouch- 
safed to  Enoch  as  he  journeyed 
through  earth  and  heaven.  The 
work  has  been  much  disarranged 
and  interpolated.  The  most  com- 
plete and  trustworthy  text  is  the 
Ethiopic.  Apart  from  its  marked 
influence  upon  Jewish  literature, 
this  book  helped  to  shape  the 
language  and  doctrine  of  the  N.  T. 
It  is  directly  quoted  in  Jude 
(14,  15),  and  numerous  coinci- 
dences of  language  in  the  Gospels, 
Acts,  and  Epistles,  but  especially 
in  the  Revelation,  show  that  it 
was  known  to  the  N.  T.  writers. 
The  Messianic  title  'the  Son  of 
man'  is  first  found  here.  This 
book  furnishes  important  material 
for  the  study  of  doctrinal  develop- 
ment {e.g.  as  regards  the  Messiah, 
angels,  Sheol,  and  the  resurrec- 
tion) in  the  period  between  the 
two  Testaments.  In  the  Epistle 
of  Barnabas  it  is  cited  as  Scrip- 
ture, and  many  of  the  early 
fathers  quote  it  with  approval. 
But  it  gradually  lost  favor,  and 
was  condemned  in  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  vi.  16.  Best  ed.  of 
the  Ethiopic  is  by  Dillmann  (1851), 
and  best  Eng.  trans,  by  Charles 
(1893),  who  promises  critical  ed. 
of  the  Ethiopic.  (2.)  The  Apoc- 
alypse of  Baruch.  In  this  book 
Baruch  recounts  his  experiences 
immediately  before  and  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and 
represents  himself  as  receiving 
revelations  regarding  the  future 
of  Israel.  It  is  a  composite  work, 
of  Pharisaic  sympathies,  ana 
written  after  A.D.  70.  Preserved 
in  a  Syriac  MS.  of  the  6th  century, 
it  was  rendered  into  Latin  by 


Apocrypha 

Ceriani  in  1866.  This  Latin 
version  has  been  reprinted  by 
Fritzsche  in  his  Lib.  Apoc.  Vet. 
Test.  Grcec,  pp.  654-699.  The 
Syriac  in  a  facsimile  ed.  (1893), 
and  Eng.  trans,  by  Charles  (1896). 
(3.)  The  Assumption  of  Moses  pur- 
ports to  have  been  addressed  to 
Joshua  by  Moses  prior  to  his 
death.  After  handing  over  to 
his  successor  certain  prophetical 
books,  Moses  gives  a  forecast  of 
Israel's  history.  The  book  was 
probably  written  in  Hebrew  by  a 
Pharisee  during  the  period  B.C.  3- 
A.D.  30.  It  is  referred  to  by 
Origen  {De  Prin.  iii.  2,  1)  as  the 
source  of  the  legend  about  the 
strife  between  the  archangel 
Michael  and  Satan  regarding  the 
body  of  Moses;  but  it  was  only  in 
1861  that  Ceriani  published  part 
of  an  old  Latin  version  discovered 
by  him  at  Milan.  Best  ed.  by 
Charles  (1897).  (4.)  The  Testa- 
ments of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs. 
In  each  case  the  patriarch  tells 
the  story  of  his  life,  bases  upon 
this  an  exhortation  to  avoid  his 
errors  and  imitate  his  virtues,  and 
predicts  the  future  fortunes  of  his 
descendants.  The  apocalyptic 
sections  are  from  the  hand  of  a 
Jewish  interpolator,  and  the  work 
contains  many  interpolations  by 
Christian  writers.  Date  uncer- 
tain. See  article  in  Hastings' 
Diet,  of  Bible.  (5.)  The  Book  of 
Jubilees,  so  called  irom  its  adop- 
tion of  the  jubilee  period  of  forty- 
nine  years  as  the  basis  of  reckon- 
ing in  its  system  of  chronology, 
is  a  haggadic  commentary  on 
Genesis  (since  called  also  'Little 
Genesis'),  written  from  the  stand- 
point of  Pharisaic  legalism,  and 
dating  probably  from  the  1st  cen- 
tury A.D.  Preserved  in  Ethiopic. 
See  ed.  by  Charles  (1895),  and 
trans,  with  notes  by  same  (1902). 
(6.)  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah.  A 
composite  work  containing  (a)  the 
account  by  a  Jewish  author  of  the 
martyrdom  of  Isaiah;  {b)  the  vision 
of  Isaiah,  which  is  of  Christian 
origin;  (c)  an  apocalyptic  section 
by  a  later  editor.  Written  origin- 
allv  in  Hebrew,  and  preserved  in 
Ethiopic.  Date,  1st  century  a.d. 
(7.)  The  Sibylline  Oracles  are  a  het- 
erogeneous collection  of  Jewish 
and  Christian  matter,  the  earliest 
portions  of  which  are  separated 
from  the  latest  by  about  five 
hundred  years.  They  purport  to 
be  the  utterances  of  tne  ancient 
sibyl  prophesying  the  fate  of  the 
world  from  the  beginning,  who  is 
made  to  address  the  heathen 
world  in  Greek  hexameters. 

For  further  details  regarding 
these  books,  see  Schiirer,  Hist,  of 
the  Jewish  People  (1886),  etc.,  II. 
iii.;  T)x\xmm.onQ!s  Jewish  Messiah 
(1877). 

New  Testament. — 1.  Gospels. — • 
There  are  extant  or  known  more 
than  fifty  uncanonical  gospels  in 
more  or  less  fragmentary  form; 


Apocrypha 

though  they  are  all  of  later  date 
than  our  canonical  gospels,  they 
reveal  a  wealth  of  material  for 
elucidating  archaeological  and  dog- 
matic problems.  (1.)  The  Ara- 
maic Gospel  o}  the  Hebrews,  which 
contains  some  independent  say- 
ings of  Jesus,  was  used  by  Jewish 
Christians  in  Palestine.  It  is 
colored  by  Ebionitic  views,  and 
The  Gospel  0}  the  Ebionites  and 
The  Gospel  of  Peter  are  perhaps 
only  altered  forms  of  it  (editions 
of  this  and  of  the  apocalypse  of 
Peter  recently  discovered  were 
issued  by  Robinson  and  James, 
1892;  J.  R.  Harris,  1893;  and 
Schubert,  1893).  (2.)  The  Gospel 
of  the  Egyptians,  quoted  oy 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  men- 
tioned by  Epiphanius,  was  used 
by  the  Encratites.  It  exhibits 
Gnostic  and  mystic  tendencies. 
(3.)  The  Logia  is  the  name  given 
to  eight  'sayings  of  our  Lord,' 
first  published  in  1897  from  a 
Greek  papyrus  (5f  x  3f  inches) 
discovered  at  Oxyrhynchus,  and 
to  five  more  since  discovered 
and  published  1903.  They  partly 
resemble  sayings  contained  in 
the  canonical  gospels,  and  partly 
present  features  that  are  novel.  (4.) 
Several  gospels  deal  in  a  legendary 
way  with  the  infancy  and  child- 
hood of  Jesus.  Of  these,  the  best 
known  are  The  Protevangelium 
of  James,  an  Arabic  Gospel  of 
the  Infancy,  and  The  Gospel  of 
Thomas.  (5.) Others — e.g.  TheGos- 
pel  of  Nicodemus,  with  the  Letters 
of  Pilate,  and  The  Narrative  of 
Joseph  of  Arimathea — treat  of  the 
Saviour's  trial  and  passion.  (6.)  Of 
The  Gospels  of  Matthias  and  Bar- 
tholomew, mentioned  by  Origen 
and  Jerome  respectively,  nothing 
definite  is  known.  The  same  is 
true  of  The  Gospel  of  Apelles. 
The  Gospel  of  Marcion  was  used 
by  his  own  sect,  and  some  regard 
it  as  having  been  a  form  of  St. 
Luke's  Gospel.  Many  of  these 
are  translated  in  Ante-Nicene 
Fathers  (Am.  ed.,vol.  viii.,ix.,  1886 
and  1897). 

2.  Acts. — These  constitute  an 
extensive  literature  purporting  to 
set  forth  the  labors  of  the  apostles. 
At  first  repudiated  by  the  church, 
they  were  afterward  edited  in  the 
interests  of  orthodoxy  and  formed 
part  of  the  private  reading  of  the 
faithful.  These  are  probably  of 
later  date  than  the  earliest  01  the 
apocryphal  gospels.  The  Acts  of 
Peter,  John,  Thomas,  Andrew 
and  Paul  are  usually  ascribed  to 
one  Leucius,  and  seem  to  belong 
to  the  2nd  century.  The  Acts  of 
Philip  may  be  referred  to  the  same 
period.  The  Acts  of  the  remain- 
ing apostles  are  of  later  origin.  Of 
the  sixteen  extant  writings  of  this 
class,  the  most  interesting  perhaps, 
and  certainly  the  oldest  romance 
of  its  type,  is  The  Acts  of  Paul  and 
Thekla.  TertuUian  speaks  of  it 
as  having  been  composed  in  hon- 


291 

or  of  Paul  by  a  presbyter  of  Asia. 
It  recounts  the  heroic  devotion 
shown  by  a  virgin  of  Iconium  con- 
verted under  Paul's  preaching. 
Its  geographical  basis  has  been 
shown  to  be  remarkably  exact. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  Mira- 
cles, Travels^  and  Martyrdoms  of 
the  apostles  which  are  usually 
classed  as  Acts. 

3.  Apocalypses. — These  include 
The  Apocalypse  of  Ezra  and  The 
Apocalypse  of  John — the  one  a 
feeble  imitation  of  the  apocryphal 
2  (4)  Esdras,  and  the  other  of 
the  canonical  Book  of  Revelation; 
The  Apocalypse  of  Paul,  detaihng 
the  revelations  made  to  him  when 
caught  up  into  paradise;  The 
Apocalypse  of  Peter,  containing  a 
history  of  the  world  from  its  be- 
ginning till  the  appearing  of  ^Anti- 
christ (see  remark  under  Gospel 
of  Peter);  The  Apocalypse  of  Bar- 
tholomew, which  sets  forth  the 
favors  bestowed  upon  the  apostles 
in  answer  to  the  prayers  of  Christ; 
The  A  pocalypse  of  Mary,  describ- 
ing her  descent  into  Hades;  and 
The  Apocalypse  of  Daniel,  which 
deals  with  the  consummation  of 
the  world. 

4.  Miscellaneous. — (1.)  The  Ab- 
garus  Epistles,  consisting  of  a 
letter  from  Abgar,  king  of  Edessa, 
to  Jesus,  inviting  Him  to  his  city, 
and  a  reply  from  the  Saviour,  de- 
clining the  invitation,  but  under- 
taking to  send  an  apostle,  Euse- 
bius  found  in  Syriac  at  Edessa, 
and  rendered  into  Greek  {H.E.,  i. 
13).  (2.)  The  Didache,  or  'Teach- 
ing of  the  Apostles,'  is  a  handbook 
of  ethics  and  ecclesiastical  pro- 
cedure, dating  perhaps  from  the 
middle  of  the  2nd  century,  and 
first  pubHshed  in  1883.  (3.)  The 
Preaching  of  Peter.  Of  this  book 
fragments  liave  been  preserved 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria.  They 
consist  of  sayings  of  Jesus  ad- 
dressed to  the  apostles,  ©and  of 
warnings  against  Judaism  and 
polytheism.  (4.)  There  are  also 
spurious  epistles  of  Paul  to  the 
Laodiceans,  Alexandrians,  etc. 
See  Fabricius,  Codex  Apoc.  N.T. 
(1719;  2nd  ed.  1743);  Nicolas, 
Etudes  sur  les  Evangiles  Apo- 
cryphes  (1866);  Hilgenfeld,  N.T. 
extra  Canonem  Receptum  (1884); 
Bleek,  Introd.  to  the  N.T.  (Eng. 
trans.,  2nd  ed.  1875);  James, 
Apocrypha  Anecdota  (1897),  i., 
ii.;  Lipsius  and  Bonnet,  Acta 
Apostotorum  Apoc.  (1891),  i.,  ii. 
For  an  English  translation  of  the 
apocryphal  Gospels,  Acts,  and 
Revelations,  based  on  Tischen- 
dorf's  edition  of  these  writings, 
see  vol.  xvi.  of  Clark's  A^itc- 
Nicene  Christian  Library  (1867, 
etc.;  in  more  complete  form  in 
Am.  ed.,  vols,  viii.,  ix.,  1886, 
1897). 

Apocynaceae,  an  order  of 
plants  represented  in  America 
chiefly  by  the  cultivated  creeping 
blue  periwinkles,  and  the  dog- 


Apollinarls 

banes.  One  of  the  latter,  Apo- 
cynum  androsamifolium,  is  a  drug, 
and  A.  cannabinum  furnished  the 
American  Indian  with  a  strong 
fibre.  The  genus  Allamanda 
furnishes  several  hothouse  climb- 
ers having  usually  large  yellow 
flowers.  Most  of  the  genera  be- 
long to  the  tropics,  and  many  of 
the  plants  are  poisonous.  Most 
species  have  a  milky  juice,  which 
in  certain  cases  forms  caoutchouc; 
some  are  tropical  climbers  known 
as  lianas.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant species  are  several  pro- 
ducing india-rubber,  trees  yield- 
ing dita  and  other  medicinal  barks, 
cow-tree  of  Demerara,  and  or- 
deal-nut tree  of  Madagascar. 

Apodictic,  or  Apodeictic  (Gr. 
'proving'),  in  logic,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  judgments  which  admit 
of  no  contradiction,  their  truth 
being  implied  in  the  nature  of 
thought  or  reason. 

Apogee  (Gr.  'away  from  the 
earth'),  that  point  in  its  orbit  at 
which  the  moon  is  farthest  from 
the  earth — the  point  where  it  is 
nearest  the  earth  being  known  as 
perigee.  At  apogee  the  distance  is 
253,000  m.,  at  perigee  222,000  m. 

Apol,  L.  F.  H.  (1850-),  Dutch 
painter  of  winter  and  snow 
scenes.  In  1880  he  went  with  the 
William  Barents  expedition  to 
the  Arctic  seas,  and  produced 
many  pictures — e.g..  Nova  Zem- 
bla  (1896).  His  January  Even- 
ing in  the  Hague  Wood  is  in  the 
Amsterdam  Museum, 

Apolda,  an  industrial  tn.  in  the 
duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar,  Germany, 
9  m,  E.N.E.  of  Weimar;  manufac- 
tures hosiery,  bells,  preserved 
foods,  etc.    Pop.  (1900)  20,364. 

ApoUinaris,  a  spring  in"  the 
Prussian  prov.  of  Rhineland, 
situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Ahr, 
about  5  m.  from  Remagen.  It 
was  discovered  in  1851,  and  yields 
the  well-known  alkaline  ApoUi- 
naris water. 

ApoUinaris.  (l.)  The  Elder, 
native  of  Alexandria  (4th  century 
A.D.),  became  presbyter  of  Laodi- 
cea,  and  was  associated  with  his 
son  in  an  attempt  to  reproduce 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  form 
of  classical  poetry,  and  the  New 
in  the  form  of  the  Platonic  dia- 
logues. (3.)  The  Younger  (d.  390 
A.D.),  bishop  of  Laodicea,  son  of 
the  above,  a  controversial  theolo- 
gian upon  whose  teaching  a  sect, 
the  Apollinarians,  founded  their 
creed.  He  denied  the  true  hu- 
manity of  Christ,  asserting  that 
the  place  of  human  mind  was  in 
Him  taken  by  the  Divine  Reason, 
or  Logos.  The  sect  spread  rapidly 
in  Syria  and  the  East,  and  after 
the  death  of  ApoUinaris  split  into 
two  divisions — the  Vitalians  and 
the  Polemeans,  who  carried  their 
doctrine  so  far  as  to  assert  that 
the  very  body  of  Christ  was  divine. 
These  tenets  were  condemned  in 
373,.  381,  388,  397,  428  A.D.,  and 


THE  APOLLO  BELVEDERE.  'THE  NOBLEST  REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  HUMAN  FORM.' 


Apollo 


293 


Apollos 


gradually  merged  into  the  Mono 
physite  heresy. 

Apollo,  one  of  the  great  gods  of 
the  Greeks,  and  next  to  Zeus  the 
most  widely  worshipped;  son  of 
Zeus  and  Leto  (Latona),  and  twin- 
brother  of  Artemis.  He  was  born 
in  the  island  of  Delos.  He  was 
worshipped  as  the  god  of  punish- 
ment, sending  death  by  his  arrows 
— all  sudden  deaths  were  ascribed 
to  him;  as  the  god  of  deliverance, 
and  so  the  father  of  ^^Isculapius; 
as  the  god  of  prophecy,  especially 
at  Delphi,  Delos,  and  Branchidae; 
as  the  god  of  song  and  music,  the 
patron  of  poets,  and  the  leader  of 
the  choir  of  the  nine  Muses;  as 
the  god  of  sheep  and  cattle,  especi- 
ally in  the  story  of  his  connection 
with  Admetus;  as  founder  of  cities 
and  political  life — no  Greek  colony 
was  founded  except  under  the 
advic«  of  his  oracle;  and  as  the 
god  of  the  Sun — that  is,^  the  god 
of  spiritual  light.  He  is  above 
all  the  god  of  the  Dorians,  whose 

Predominance  in  Greece  increased 
is  influence.  In  Christian  times 
a  parallel  was  drawn  between  the 
relations  of  Zeus  and  Apollo  and 
those  of  the  first  and  second  Per- 
sons in  the^  Trinity.  Apollo, 
though  worshipped  at  Rome  (his 
first  temple  was  built  in  430  B.C.), 
was  not  originally  a  Roman  god. 
The  wolf,  swan,  raven,  hawk, 
cock,  and  crow  were  all  sacred 
to  him. 

The  Apollo  Belvedere,  the 
most  famous  statue  of  the  god, 
discovered  in  1495  among  the 
ruins  of  ancient  Antium,  and 
now  in  the  Vatican,  Rome,  is 
perhaps  the  noblest  representa- 
tion of  the  human  form.  (See 
illustration,  p.'  292.)  The  figure 
is  fully  seven  feet  high,  and  for- 
merly held  a  bow  in  the  left  hand, 
which,  with  the  right  fore  arm, 
was  restored  by  Montorsoli,  a 
pupil  of  Michael  Angelo.  The 
statue  is  supposed  to  be  a  Roman 
copy  of  a  bronze  votive  statue  at 
Delphi,  probably  dating  from  the 
3rd  century  B.C. 

Apollo  OF  Rhodes.  See  Colos- 
sus OF  Rhodes. 

A  p  o  1 1  od  oru.s.  (1.)  Greek 
painter,  born  in  Athens  (fl.  B.C. 
400).  He  is  considered  as  the  in- 
ventor of  chiaroscuro,  for  he  was 
the  first  to  succeed  in  blending 
tones  and  in  handling  light  and 
shade.  {2.)  Greek  poet  (300-260 
B.C.),  born  at  Carystus  in  Euboea. 
writer  of  forty-seven  comedies, 
two  of  which  were  borrowed  by 
Terence,  who  fully  recognized  his 
great  merits.  (3.)  A  Greek  gram- 
marian of  Athens  (fl.  c.  140  B.C.); 
wrote  many  works,  all  lost  ex- 
cept the  Btbliolhcca,  a  systematic 
account  of  the  myths  and  legends 
of  Greece  as  far  as  the  time  of 
Theseus.  The  work  is  of  great 
value  as  a  rnythological  commen- 
tary to  the  Greek  poets.  It  has 
been   edited   by   Heyne  (1803), 


Clavier  (with  French  trans.  1805) 

in  MuUer's  Fragmenta  Histori- 
corum  GrcBcoriim  (1841),  and  bv 
Bekker  (Teubner  Series,  1854). 
(4.)  Apollodorus  of  Damascus, 
architect  in  Rome  during  the 
reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian, 
designed  and  erected  the  Forum 
Trajani  and  its  famous  column. 
He  also  built  a  bridge  across 
the  Danube,  remains  of  which 
can  still  be  seen  near  the  town  of 
Turnu-Severinu,  Roumania.  He 
is  the  author  of  a  book  about  war- 
machines,  entitled  Poliorcetica, 
republished  in  Wescher's  Polior- 
cetique  des  Grecs  (1867).  He  was 
exiled  and  killed  in  129  by  order 
of  Hadrian. 

Apollonia.  (1.)  An  important 
ancient  town  in  lUyria,  not  far 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Aoiis  R. 
(modern  Voyutsa),  7  m.  from  the 
sea.  It  was  founded  by  the  Co- 
rinthians and  Corcyreans,  and  in 
Roman  times  was  famous  as  a 
place  of  learning,  the  Emperor 
Augustus  and  Maecenas  among 
others  having  studied  there.  (2.) 
Ancient  town  of  Thrace,  a  colony 
of  Milesia;  it  held  a  famous  statue 
of  Apollo,  which  was  carried  to 
Rome  by  M.  Lucullus  in  72  B.C. 

Apollonius.  (1.)  Perg/eus  (3rd 
century  B.C.),  known  in  his  own 
age  as  the  'great  geometer,'  was 
born  at  Perga  in  Pamphylia.  He 
passed  his  life  in  Alexandria,  in 
the  schools  of  the  successors  of 
Euclid,  at  the  time  when  the 
Ptolemies  iv.  and  v.  were  kings 
of  Egypt.  Of  his  many  books, 
only  the  magnum  opus  on  conic 
sections  and  the  De  Sectione  Rati- 
onis  have  come  down  to  us.  The 
work  on  conies  contains  nearly 
400  theorems,  many  of  them  orig- 
inal. Apollonius  was  the  first  to 
make  use  of  the  terms  'ellipse' 
and  'hyperbola,'  and  was  the  dis- 
coverer of  many  important  quali- 
ties of  curves.  See  Heath's  Apol- 
lonius of  Perga  (1896).  The  chief 
editions  are  by  Halley  (1710)  and 
Heiberg  (1891-3).  (3.)  Rhodius 
(c.  240-180  B.C.),  born  at  Alexan- 
dria, was  famous  both  as  poet  and 
scholar.  He  taught  rhetoric  at 
Rhodes.  Returning  to  Alexan- 
dria, he  succeeded  Eratosthenes 
as  chief  librarian  of  the  Great 
Library.  His  only  surviving  work 
is  an  epic  poem  in  four  books, 
the  Argonautica,  describing  the 
adventures  of  the  Argonauts.  It 
is  the  work  of  a  scholar,  a  learned 
epic  as  contrasted  with  the  natu- 
ral epic  of  Homer;  but  it  main- 
tains a  high  level  of  style,  and  is 
remarkable  for  its  treatment  of 
the  character  of  Medea  and  of 
her  love  for  Jason.  It  is,  in  fact, 
the  first  love  poem  of  antiquity: 
Virgil  imitated  it  freely  in  the 
4th  book  of  his  yEncia;  a  later 
Roman  poet,  Valerius  Flaccus, 
copied  it  closely  in  his  Argonau- 
tica; it  showed  the  way  to  the 
Greek  romance  writers;  and  may 


perhaps  be  considered  the  re- 
mote parent  of  the  modern  novel. 
Eds.:  Text  only,  Merkel  (Ger.), 
1854;  with  notes  and  trans.,  in 
French,  by  La  Ville  de  Mirmont, 
1893;  Eng.  prose  trans.,  E.  P. 
Coleridge  (1889).  (3.)  Molon, 
Greek  rhetorician  of  the  1st  cen- 
tury B.C.;  studied  at  Rhodes; 
came  to  Rome,  ivhere  he  taught 
rhetoric  to  Cicero  (b.c.  88).  His 
numerous  works  are  wholly  lost. 
(4.)  Tyaneus  'of  Tyana'  (c.  4 
B.C.-96  A.D.),  a  Pythago  ean  phi- 
losopher. A  remarkable  life  of 
him  by  Philostratus  (c.  200  A.D.) 
has  come  down  to  us.  He  trav- 
elled through  Asia  Minor,  Parthia, 
and  India,  where  he  discussed 
philosophy  with  the  Brahmins; 
then  returned  to  Greece,  ana 
visited  Rome.  Later  he  went  to 
Alexandria,^  where  he  encouraged 
Vespasian  in  his  attempt  to  se- 
cure the  imperial  throne,  and  to 
Ethiopia.  He  claimed  super- 
human powers,  and  many  mira- 
cles are  ascribed  to  him — some 
so  like  those  of  the  gospels  that 
it  has  been  conjectured  that  his 
whole  story  is  a  fabrication,  in- 
tended by  its  author  as  a  rival  to 
the  Christian  narrative.  But  the 
evidences  of  his  existence  are  tod 
strong  to  be  disregarded.  He  cer- 
tainly was  a  man  of  remarkable 
powers  and  influence,  and  many 
notable  sayings  are  attributed 
to  him.  None  of  his  writings 
are  extant.  See  Philostratus. 
Froude's  Short  Studies,  vol.  iv. 
(1878-83)  may  be  read.  See  also 
B.  L.  Gildersleeve's  Essays  and 
Studies  (1890).  (5.)  Dyscolos 
('bad-tempered.'),  originator  of 
scientific  grammar-  born  in  Alex- 
andria; flourished  during  the 
reigns  of  Hadrian  and  Antoninus 
Pius.  Bekker  edited  his  works 
in  1817,  the  most  notable  of  these 
being  that  On  Syntax.  See 
Egger's^.  Dyscole  (1854);  Lange's 
System  der  Syntax  des  A.  (1852). 

Apollonius  of  Tyre,  a  Latin 
romance  of  the  3rd  or  4th  century, 
is  undoubtedly  derived  from  a 
lost  Greek  original.  It  contains 
the  story  of  Antiochus,  king  of 
Syria,  who,  in  selfish  affection 
for  his  daughter  Tarsia,  keeps 
off  suitors  by  a  baflling  riddle. 
Apollonius,  king  of  Tyre,  dis- 
covers the  answer,  but  is  obliged 
to  save  himself  by  flight.  An 
abridgment  is  included  in  the 
Gesta  Romanorum.  The  earliest 
English  version  (1510)  was  made 
from  the  French  Appollyn,  Roy 
de  Thire.  An  ancient  Anglo- 
Saxon  translation  was  printed 
by  Thorpe  in  1834.  The  story 
forms  the  foundation  of  Shake- 
speare's Pericles  (1609).  See  E. 
Klcbs's  Die  Erzdhlung  von  A  p. 
von  Tyrus  (1899). 

Apollos,  a  Jew  of  Alexandria, 
who,  embracing  Christianity,  be- 
came noted,  first  in  Ephesus  and 
afterwards  in  Corinth,  as  an  elo- 


Apollyon 


294 


Apologue 


quent  preacher  of  the  gospel. 

Misinformed  at  first  regarding  the 
ordinance  of  baptism,  he  was  set 
right  by  Aquila  and  Priscilla.  His 
name  became  the  rallying-point 
for  one  of  the  four  parties  in  the 
Christian  community  at  Corinth. 
Tradition  makes  him  one  of  the 
Seventy;  and  Luther,  followed 
by  many  moderns,  ascribes  to  him 
the  authorship  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews.  See  Conybeare  and 
IJowson's  St.  Paul,  ch.  xiv.  (2nd 
ed.,  1856),  and  commentaries  on 
Acts  (18:24/.)  and  1  Cor.  (1:12). 

Apollyon,  a  Greek  word  sig- 
nifying 'destroyer,'  employed  to 
translate  the  Hebrew  word  Abad- 
don, represented  in  Rev.  9:11  as 
the  angel  'having  dominion  over 
the  locusts  which  came  up  from 
the  bottomless  pit  at  the  sound  of 
the  fifth  trumpet.'  The  name  As- 
modeus  (Tobit  3:8)  is  the  Grx- 
cized  form  of  a  Hebrew  word  of 
similar  meaning.  He  is  best  known 
as  the  antagonist  of  Christian  in 
the  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

Apoiogetics  is  the  science  of 
the  Christian  apology  or  'defence.' 
It  is  well  defined  in  the  sub-title 
of  the  late  Professor  Bruce' s  work 
(Apologetics,  1891)  as  'Christian- 
ity defensivelv  stated.'  Within  the 
New  Testament  itself,  in  the  Acts, 
we  have  apologetic  elements — viz. 
a  defence  of  Christianity  against 
the  charge  of  being  politically 
mischievous.  The  Christian  apol- 
ogists of  the  early  centuries,  too, 
were  largely  on  the  defensive 
against  the  vilest  charges.  Since 
the  close  of  the  age  of  Christian 
persecution,  the  Church  has  had 
to  cultivate  the  apologetic  ap- 
peal to  conviction — always  its 
proper  method. 

Four  subdivisions  may  be 
named: — 

1.  Independently  of  the  Chris- 
tian revelation,  it  may  be  held 
that  reason,  or  conscience,  proves 
the  being  of  God,  the  existence 
of  a  soul,  freedom  of  will,  and 
immortality.  Most  Christians 
hold  that  revelation  presupposes 
a  natural  theology.  Conceivably, 
indeed,  Christianity  might  be  the 
first  distinct  self-manifestation  of 
God  in  the  world.  Yet,  even  if 
that  were  true,  revelation  must 
throw  fresh  light  on  the  world 
it  entered,  and  must  gather  to  it- 
self something  that_  might  be 
called  natural  religion.  (See 
Theism.) 

2.  Passing  now  to  the  Christian 
revelation  proper,  apologetics  in- 
volves the  truth  of  the  broad  out- 
lines of  New  Testament  history. 
This  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
historical  evidence.  But  histori- 
cal testimony,  whether  within  the 
New  Testament  or  outside  of  it, 
does  not  prove  the  existence  of  a 
divine  revelation  or  redemption. 
It  proves  only  that  there  was  such 
a  being  as  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  who 
advanced  stupendous  claims.  This 


is  at  most  a  preliminary  stage 
in  the  Christian  argument.  The 
oldest  Christian  document  pre- 
served in  its  original  form  is  prob- 
ably 1  Thessalonians;  and  the 
student  of  apologetics  ought  to 
know  by  heart  the  order  of  the 
Pauline  Epistles,  and  the  various 
degrees  of  certainty  or  uncertainty 
with  which  their  genuineness  may 
be  asserted.  But  even  in  the  New 
Testament  we  have  nothing  to 
compete  with  the  gospels  as  af- 
fording information  regarding 
Christ.  Much  less  important, 
though  still  of  great  interest, 
are  the  questions  of  the  historical 
value  of  the  Book  of  Acts,  and 
of  the  genuineness  of  the  other 
books  of  the  New  Testament, 
or  the  problems  of  Old  Testa- 
ment criticism.  C)n  all  these  histo- 
rical questions  the  Christian  apol- 
ogist holds  a  'watching  brief.' 
He  may  be  permitted  to  deny 
Jowett's  assertion,  that  we  know 
very  little  really  about  Christ;  and 
the  view  of  Amiel  and  Professor 
Percy  Gardner,  that  Christianity 
ought  to  be  transferred  from  the 
region  of  history  to  that  of  psy- 
chology. But  the  apologist  must 
beware  of  straining  the  evidence. 
His  supreme  concern  is  the  truth; 
and  when  violent  attacks,  hke  that 
of  the  Tubingen  School,  have  been 
repelled,  he  must  thankfully  see 
the  points  at  issue  handed  over  for 
treatment  to  disinterested  science. 

3.  External  evidence.  While 
some  of  the  best  work  of  EngUsh 
18th  century  writers  belongs  to 
the  preceding  head  (Paley's  Horcs 
Paulincp.,  1790;  Lardner's  Credi- 
bility ol  the  Gospel  Hist.,  1727- 
55),  their  typical  subject  is  mira- 
cle, and  the  typical  book  is  Paley's 
Evidences  (1794).  The  miracles, 
as  a  divine  seal,  are  held  to  prove 
that  the  message  spoken  by  Christ, 
or  by  His  authorized  represen- 
tatives, is  to  be  received  as  from 
God.  Along  with  rniracles,  pro- 
phecies are  also  relied  on — pre- 
dictions, miracles  of  foreknowl- 
edge. The  late  J.  B.  Mozley 
{On  Miracles)  represents  the 
same  point  oi  view.  On  this 
theory,  the  proper  proof  of  Chris- 
tianity is  external  to  its  substance. 
Modern  study  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, while  making  the  argument 
from  prophecy  more  important 
than  ever,  has  made  it  difficult 
to  say  how  far  we  can  regard 
prophecy  as  a  strictly,  and  tech- 
nical, miraculous  process,  or  how 
far  we  can  prove  this  to  others' 
satisfaction.  There  is  less  uncer- 
tainty as  to  the  nature  of  alleged 
physical  miracles,  but  their  credi- 
bility is  much  canvassed.  Some 
modern  theologians,  in  the  sup- 
posed interests  of  science,  deny 
all  miracles.  Others  {e.g.  Har- 
nack),  in  the  supposed  interests  of 
a  deeper  faith,  exclude  miracles 
from  playing  any  part  in  the  Chris- 
tian argument.   It  will  be  best  to 


follow  the  guidance  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  to  assign  to  mir- 
acles an  important  yet  subordinate; 
place  as  evidence  {cj.  John  14:11). 

4.  Internal  evidence.  The  ap- 
peal to  this  form  of  evidence  was 
introduced  into  Great  Britain  by 
Thomas  Erskine  of  Linlathen, 
and  by  Chalmers.  The  phrase  is, 
unfortunately,  ambiguous.  Even 
Paley,  in  Horce  Paulince,  may  be 
regarded  as  discovering  internal 
evidence  in  the  'undesigned  co- 
incidences' between  Acts  and 
Epistles.  We  mean  something 
different — the  evidence  of  Chris- 
tian experience-  the  evidence 
found  in  what  Christianity  is,  not 
in  anything  'external'  to  it,  how- 
ever closely  associated.  (Rothe 
and  the  best  modern  apologists  re- 
gard even  the  Christian  miracles, 
not  as  an  external  'seal,'  but  as 
part  of  the  revelation.^  Another 
misapprehension  must  be  guarded 
against.  We  do  not  mean  to 
transfer  Christianity  from  history 
to  psychology.  We  mean  experi- 
ence of  the  historical  Christ;  and 
the  topics  of  importance  will  be 
the  character  and  sinlessness  of 
Jesus — the  Gesta  Chris ti,  or  His 
influence  in  history — the  testi- 
mony of  the  Christian  Church 
and  of  Christian  believers — all 
leading  up  to  the  final  evidence 
described  in  2  Cor.  4:6.  On  this 
view  we  cannot  prove  the  truth  of 
Christianity  to  others,  or  even  to 
our.selves,  but  we  can  bear  witness 
to  God's  voice.  This  internal  evi- 
dence furnishes  the  proper  and 
supreme  reason  for  believing  in 
Christ;  while  it  has  its  roots  in 
the  conscience  of  every  man. 

Besides  books  already  men- 
tioned, Bruce' s  Chief  End  of  Reve- 
lation (1881)  may  be  specially 
commended,  and  a  reference  may 
be  added  to  Row's  Manual  of 
Christian  '  Evidences  (1887),  to 
Dr.  Newman  Smyth's  Old  Faiths 
in  New  Light  (new  ed.  1882),  and 
other  books,  to  R.  Mackintosh's 
First  Primer  of  Apologetics  (1900), 
to  the  Apologetics  of  Delitzsch 
(1869),  and  (trans.)  of  Ebrard  (3 
vols.  1886-7);  also  the  translation 
of  Luthardt's  Apologetic  Lectures 
on  Fundamental  Trullis  of  Chris- 
tianity (2nd  ed.  1869);  the  Boyle, 
Bampton,  and  Hulseau  lectures; 
G.  P.  Fisher's,  The  Grounds  of 
Theistic  and  Christian  Belief 
(1902);  F.  S.  Beattie's  Apologetics 
(3  vols.  1903). 

Apologia  pro  Vita  sua,  reli- 
gious autobiography  by  Cardinal 
Newman  (1864).  explaining  his 
position  in  the  Oxford  movement, 
and  his  reasons  for  joining  the 
Roman  Catholic  church;  and  in- 
cidentally refuting  Kingsley's 
accusation  that  'truth  for  its  own 
sake  need  not  be,  and  on  the 
whole  ought  not  to  be,  a  virtue 
of  the  Roman  clergy.* 

Apologue  (Gr.),  a  fictitious 
narrative  used  to  convey  moral 


Apomorphine 


295 


Apotheosis 


lessons;  it  is  a  general  term  of 
which  fable,  parable,  etc.,  are  the 
varieties.  For  the  differences  be- 
tween apologue  and  allegory,  see 
Allegory.  One  of  the  shortest 
and  best  examples  is  the  scorn- 
ful Biblical  apologue  of  the  cedar 
and  the  thistle  (2  Ki.  14:9).  In 
English  literature  the  most  note- 
worthy apologues  are,  perhaps, 
Robert  Henryson's  Town  Mouse 
and  Country  Mouse  (1621);  the 
fable  of  the  rats  and  niice  who 
resolved  to  bell  the  cat,  in  Lang- 
land's  Piers  Plowman;  and  the 
apologue  of  the  Bee  and  the  Spider 
at  the  commencement  of  Swift's 
Battle  of  the  Books,  from  which 
last  Matthew  Arnold  derived  his 
famous  phrase,  'sweetness  and 
light.' 

Apomorphine,  Hydrochlo- 
ride or,  is  produced  by  heating 
morphine  or  codeine  in  sealed 
tubes  with  hydrochloric  acid.  It 
appears  as  small,  grayish  needles, 
turning  to  green  in  the  presence 
of  air  and  light.  It  is  tne  most 
powerful  and  certain  of  all  emet- 
ics, and  may  be  given  hypoder- 
mically. 

Aponeurosis,  a  broad,  fibrous 
expansion  of  a  tendon,  attaching 
a  muscle  at  its  origin  or  insertion. 
Aponogeton.  See  Pondweed, 
Apophysis,  a  prominent  eleva- 
tion or  process  of  a  bone  which 
has  no  independent  centre  of 
ossification,  being  thus  distin- 
guished from  an  epiphysis.  A 
slender  apophysis  is  termed  a 
'spine';  blunt,  a  'tubercle';  a 
tubercle  with  broad  base,  a  'tuber- 
osity.' In  botany,  a  swelling  under 
the  base  of  the  spore-case  of  some 
mosses. 

Apoplexy,  the  state  of  insen- 
sibility caused  by  the  rupture  of 
a  cerebral  vessel,  or  the  blocking 
of  one  by  an  embolus  or  a 
thrombus.  The  term  apoplexy  is 
disused  by  modern  writers;  the 
disease  is  described  as  cerebral 
haimorrhage,  embolism  or  throm- 
bosis. The  predisposing  condi- 
tions which  produce  lesions  in  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  brain  are 
usually  connected  with  kidney  dis- 
eases, abuse  of  alcohol,  syphilis, 
and  the  degeneration  of  blood- 
vessels in  advanced  life.  Violent 
muscular  exertion,  mental  excite- 
ment, or  anything  that  throws  an 
increased  strain  upon  degenerated 
vessel  walls  may  cause  a  rupture. 
An  apoplectic  seizure  is  often  pre- 
ceded by  premonitory  symptoms, 
such  as. vertigo,  loss  of  memory, 
headache,  tingling  in  some  part 
of  the  body,  or  some  local  loss  of 
muscular  power.  The  attack  is 
more  or  less  sudden  in  its  onset. 
The  patient  may  fall  down  sud- 
denly, utterly  motionless  and  un- 
conscious; or  he  may  feel  power- 
lessness  and  lethargy  slowly  creep- 
ing over  him.  He  may  have  a 
convulsion.  The  patient  may  die 
at  once,  or  he  may  recover,  with 


impaired  powers.  The  extent  of 
permanent  paralysis  sometimes 
cannot  be  determined  for  some 
weeks  after  an  attack.  With 
slight  lesions  it  may  pass  off 
entirely.  There  are,  however, 
several  other  conditions  with 
which  apoplexy  may  be  con- 
founded: for  instance,  drunken- 
ness, other  narcotic  poisoning 
{e.g.  by  opium),  epilepsy,  syncope 
or  fainting,  and  urtemic  convul- 
sions, all  have  their  points  of  like- 
ness. Unequal  pupils  are  strong 
evidence  in  favor  of  apoplexy. 

Treatment. — After  an  attack 
absolute  rest  in  bed,  with  the 
head  a  little  raised,  and  with  hot 
bottles  to  the  feet  if  they  are 
cold,  blister  to  the  nape  of  the 
neck,  and  ice  to  the  head  if  the 
face  shows  much  flush.  Alcoholic 
stimulants  should  not  be  given. 
Strychnine  or  other  heart  sup- 
portive treatment  may  be  neces- 
sary. Croton  oil  or  calomel  is 
often  given  as  a  purge,  if  the 
pulse  is  strong  enough;  and 
venesection  is  rarely  used,  to 
lower  the  blood  pressure. 

Aposiopesis  (Gr.),  an  abrupt 
breaking  away  from  a  sentence, 
and  leaving  it  unfinished,  for  the 
sake  of  greater  effect. 

Apospory.  See  Fern. 
.  Apostasy,  originally  a  soldier's 
desertion  in  war;  later,  in  early 
Christian  times,  the  desertion  or 
perversion  from  the  true  faith. 
Christian  conduct,  and  the  disci- 
pline of  church  or  order. 
A  posteriori.  See  A  PRIORI. 
Apostle  (Gr.  'ambassador' — i.e. 
not  merely  the  messenger  but  also 
the  representative  of  the  sender) 
was  the  name  applied  by  Jesus 
to  those  disciples  whom  He  spe- 
cially commissioned  to  preach  the 
gospel  and  heal  the  sick.  They  re- 
ceived a  second  commission  after 
the  resurrection  (Matt.  28:19). 
Their  names  are  found  in  Matt. 
10,  Mark  3,  Luke  6  (see  also  Acts 
1):  note  that  Simon  Zelotes  and 
Simon  the  Canaanite  denote  the 
same  individual,  while  Judas  (not 
Iscariot)  seems  to  be  the  Lebbaeus 
(Thaddeus)  of  other  lists.  Their 
number,  twelve,  corresponding  to 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  does 
not  seem,  after  Christ's  departure, 
to  have  been  regarded  as  fixed-  for 
though  Matthias  was  electee!  to 
fill  the  place  of  Judas  (Acts  1:  26), 
thereby  maintaining  the  sacred 
number  intact,  we  find  later  that 
the  name  apostle  is  applied  to 
Paul,  Barnabas,  James  the  Lord's 
brother,  and  even  to  an  Androni- 
cus  and  a  Junias  in  Rome  (Rom. 
16:7).  The  qualifications  for  the 
office  were — (1)  having  seen  the 
Lord  (Acts  1:22,  1  Cor.  9:1);  (2) 
possession  of  the  signs  of  an  apos- 
tle (2  Cor.  12:12);  and  (3)  inspira- 
tion and  a  direct  call  from  aoove 
(John  16:13;  1  Cor.  12:28)  To 
the  apostles  alone  seems  to  have 
belonged  the  power  to  ordain 


(Acts  6:6);  while,  as  regards  the 
determination  of  disputed  points 
of  doctrine  and  practice,  the  de- 
cision of  those  resident  in  Jerusa- 
lem was  evidently  regarded  as  of 
paramount  authority  (Acts  15).  In 
their  apostolic  labors  their  field  was 
the  world.  See  Lightfoot's  Comm. 
on  Galatians  (10th  ed.  1890). 

Apostles,  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve.    See  Dldache. 

Apostles*  Creed.  See  Creeds. 

Apostles*  Islands,  or  The 
Twelve  Apostles,  in  Ashland  co., 
Wisconsin,  a  cluster  of  27  islands, 
area  125,000  acres,  in  Lake  Supe- 
rior, covered  with  valuable  tim- 
ber. The  Jesuits  have  several 
mission  stations  here.  Lapointe, 
on  Madeleine  Island,  is  the  only 
town  of  importance. 

Apostle  Spoons,  spoons  which 
terminated  in  an  image  of  one  of 
the  apostles,  usually  made  in  sets 
of  thirteen. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  a  name 
applied  to  the  authors  of  an  im- 
portant group  of  writings  dating 
from  the  transition  period  be- 
tween the  apostles  proper  and 
the  theological  apologists  of  the 
2nd  century  A.D.  Those  usually 
included  under  the  term  are 
Clement  of  Rome  (7.  and  II 
Eps.),  Hermas  {Shepherd),  Bar- 
nabas {Ep.),  Ignatius  {Eps.),  Poly- 
carp  {Ep.  to  Philip j^ians),  and 
Papias.  But  the  designation,  so 
used,  is  arbitrary.  See  Donald- 
son's Apostolic  Fathers  (1874); 
MoUer's  Church  History,  i.  108  /.; 
and  articles  in  this  book  on  all 
names  given  above.  Editions, 
Lightfoot,  Gebhardt,  Harnack, 
and  Zahn  (1876  ft.;  smaller  issue, 
1901);  F.  H.  Funk  (1901);  transla- 
tions in  The  Ante-Nicene  Chrir- 
tian  Fathers,  i.  (1887). 

A p ostrophe.  (1.)  A  gram- 
matical sign  (')  denoting  the 
omission  of  a  letter  or  letters  in 
a  word — e.g.  ne'er,  don't.  In  the 
genitive  singular  of  nouns  it  is 
used  to  indicate  the  suppression 
of  the  vowel  in  the  old  termina- 
tion es — e.g.  son's  in  place  of 
sones.  The  apostrophe  in  the 
genitive  plural  (as  in  sons')  has 
no  etymological  justification.  (3.) 
A  rhetorical  figure  of  speech  by 
which  the  speaker  addresses  his 
remarks  directly  to  the  object  of 
them.  A  more  intense  form,  in 
which  the  speaker  actually  seems 
to  see  the  object  addressed,  j-^ 
termed  'vision.' 

Apothegm,  or  Apophthegm 
(Gr.  'from  a  word'),  a  short, 
pithy,  and  sententious  saying, 
as  distinguished  from  a  maxim, 
which  js  a  truth  useful  for  practi- 
cal guidance  in  life,  and  from  an 
aphorism,  which  contains  a  state- 
ment of  some  abstract  truth.  The 
most  famous  collection  in  our 
literature  is  Bacon's  Apophthegms 
New  and  Old  (1625). 

Apotheosis,  the  deification  of 
mortals.  Originating  in  ancestor- 


Appalachian  Mountain  Club 

worship,  its  later  development 
among  the  higher  races,  as  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  was  due  to 
the  desire  of  men  in  power  to  add 
divine  attributes  to  their  honors. 
Thus,  JuUus  Caesar  caused  his 
statue  to  be  worshipped  in  ever)' 
Roman  temple.  Augustus  was 
deified  in  every  cicy  of  the  empire 
except  Rome,  and  his  successors 
claimed  deification  as  their  right. 

Appalachian  Mountain  Club, 
an  organization,  which  dates  from 
1878.  whose  object  is  to  preserve 
mountain  and  forest  lands  in  New 
England.  Under  its  auspices  the 
club  holds  field  meetings  and 
conducts  excursions  with  a  view 
to  familiarizing  its  members  with 
beautiful  mountain  and  wood- 
land scenery  and  preserving  such 
from  destruction  and  desecration. 
The  club  has  a  membership  of 
over  1,250;  it  pubUshes  an  an- 
nual Register  and  a  club  journal, 
entitled  Appalachia. 

Appalachians,  the  easternmost 
mountain  system  of  N.  America, 
separating  the  basin  of  the  Missis- 
sippi from  the  streams  flowing 
directly  into  the  Atlantic.^  It 
extends  from  S.E.  Canada  in  a 
s.W.  direction  through  the  United 
States  as  far  as  N.  Georgia  and 
Alabama,  a  distance  of  some  1,300 
m,,  through  New  England,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  W.  Virginia, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  N.  Caro- 
lina, Alabama,  and  Georgia. 
The  average  elevation  may  be 
given  at  about  2,500  ft.  The  more 
important  ranges  are  the  Adiron- 
dacks  of  New  York  (highest  sum- 
mit, Mt.  Marcy,  5,344  ft.)-  the 
Taconic  Range  and  the  Berk- 
shire Hills  of  Massachusetts;  the 
Green  Mts.  of  Vermont  (Killing- 
ton  Peak,  4,241  ft.);  the  White 
Mts.  of  New  Hampshire,  culmi- 
nating in  Mt.  Washington  (6,293 
ft.);  the  Blue  Riclge,  stretching 
S.  from  Maryland,  and  rising  to 
4,000  ft.  at  Stony  Man  and  the 
Peaks  of  Otter,  midway  across 
Virginia,  and  broadening  in  N. 
Carolina  into  a  plateau  that  bears 
irregular  ranrjes  such  as  the  Great 
Smoky  Mts.  and  the  Black  Mts., 
the  latter  having  Mt.  Mitchell 
(6,711  ft.),  the  highest  point  E.  of 
the  Rockies.  The  Alleghany  Mts. 
are  three  parallel  ranges  S.  of 
New  York,  and  their  name  is 
often  applied  to  the  Appalachian 
system  as  a  whole.  Tne  Cum- 
berland Range  is  separated  from 
the  S.  Appalachians \v  the  head- 
waters of  the  Tennessee.  The 
White  and  Green  Mts.,  the  Berk- 
shire Hills,  the  Adirondacks,  and 
the  Blue  Ridge  are  health  resorts. 
West  of  the  Blue  Ridge  is  the 
Appalachian  valley,  known  as  the 
Shenandoah  valley  in  N.Virginia, 
and  the  Tennessee  valley  farther  s. 

The  rocks  of  the  Alleghany- 
Cumberland  plateau  are  of  Car- 
boniferous age,  and  coal  of  bi- 


296 

tuminous  quality  is  found  in 
abundance  from  Pennsylvania  to 
Alabama,  as  well  as  anthracite  in 
Pennsylvania,  while  petroleum 
qnd  natural  gas  are  obtained  in 
vasl-  quantities.     See  B.  VVihis, 


*  The  Northern  Appalachians,' 
and  Hayes,  *  The  Southern  Ap- 
palachians,' in  The  Physiography 
of  the  United  States  (1895);  A. 
Guyot,  The  Appalachian  Moun- 
tain System. 

Appanage,  more  correctly 
Apanage,  originally,  in  P'rench 
feudal  law,  grants  made  to  the 
sons  of  the  sovereign  for  their 
support,  such  as  lands  of  feudal 
superiorities;  these,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  male  issue,  reverted  to 


Appeal 

the  crown.  In  England  the 
Duchy  of  Cornwall,  supplemented 
by  money  grants,  is  the  appanage 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

Apparitions.  See  PsYCHiCAi 
Research. 


Appeal.  The  judicial  process 
whereby  a  judgment,  order  or 
decree  of  a  court  of  justice  is 
carried  up  to  a  higher  court  for 
review.  A  'higher'  or  'appellate' 
court  is  one  which  possesses  the 
power  to  review  the  decisions  of 
another  court  and  to  correct  their 
errors  or  reverse  them,  and  a 
'court  of  last  resort'  is  one  from 
whose  judgment  no  appeal  can 
be  taken.  The  appeal  is  an  an- 
cient institution  in  all  legal  sys- 


Appeal 


297 


Appendix 


terns  and  has  been  greatly  favored 
in  the  United  States,  where  it  has 
in  certain  classes  of  cases  be- 
come a  serious  menace  to  law 
and  justice.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  those  jurisdictions  where 
as  many  as  three  or  four  appeals 
to  higher  and  still  higher  courts 
are  allowed  in  a  single  case.  In 
our  legal  system  the  object  of  an 
appeal  is  usually  the  correction 
of  an  erroneous  ruling  on  a  ques- 
tion of  law,  and  an  appeal  can 
seldom  be  taken  from  a  decision 
of  a  court  or  jury  on  a  question 
of  fact,  except  where  the  latter 
is  manifestly  contrary  to  the 
evidence  on  which  it  was  based. 
In  jury  cases,  therefore,  the  re- 
sult of  a  successful  appeal  is  not 
usually  a  reversal  or  annulment 
of  the  judgment  from  which  the 
appeal  was  taken,  but  the  direction 
of  a  new  trial  by  the  lower  court 
in  which  the  errors  of  the  former 
trial  shall  not  be  repeated. 
Formerly  appeals  were  allowed 
only  in  civil  cases,  and  this  is  still 
the  case  in  England.  In  the 
United  States,  however,  appeals 
in  criminal  cases  are  also  per- 
mitted and  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. The  term  'appeal'  has 
in  this  article  been  somewhat 
loosely  employed  to  describe  any 
method  of  bringing  up  a  case  for 
review  by  a  higher  tribunal. 
There  are,  in  fact,  several  ways  in 
which  this  may  be  done,  to  which 
the  term  'appeal'  is  not_  strictly 
applicable,  such  as  the  issuance 
by  the  higher  court  of  a  writ  of 
error  directed  to  the  trial  court. 
The  latter  method  of  correcting 
judicial  errors  is  still  employed 
in  several  of  the  United  States, 
but  has  generally  been  superseded 
by  the  direct  appeal.  The  meth- 
od of  taking  an  ajDpeal  varies  in 
different  jurisdictions,  but  in 
general  it  is  a  process  instituted 
by  the  defeated  party  in  a  litiga- 
tion by  the  service  upon  the  op- 
posing party  of  a  notice  of  appeal 
within  the  time  limited  by  law 
and  the  filing  of  such  a  notice 
with  the  clerk  of  the  court  from 
whose  judgment  the  appeal  is 
taken.  A  transcript  of  the  evi- 
dence and  other  proceedings 
upon  the  trial  (or  so  much  of 
them  as  is  relevant  to  the  appeal) 
is  then  prepared  by  the  appealing 
party  (called  the  'appellant')  and 
submitted  by  him  to  the  opposing 
party  (known  as  the  'appellee' 
or  'respondent')  and  finally  'set- 
tled' by  the  judge  of  the  trial 
court.  This  record  (known  var- 
iously as  'the  case'  or  'appeal 
book')  is  the  basis  of  all  subse- 
quent proceedings  on  appeal  and 
is  conclusive  on  the  parties  there- 
to. _  The  appeal  is  then  regularly 
noticed  for  hearing  and  is  argued 
in  open  court  by  counsel  for  the 
appellant  and  respondent,  re- 
spectively, usually  on  printed 
briefs  previously  '  prepared  and 


submitted  to  the  court  and  to 
opposing  counsel.  The  judg- 
ment of  the  appellate  court  is 
rendered  by  a  majority  vote  of 
the  judges  sitting.  See  Ap- 
pellate Court. 

In  the  legal  procedure  of  the 
middle  ages  an  appeal  was  a 
formal  charge  of  felony  whereby 
the  accuser  (appellant)  offered 
to  make  good  the  charge  'on  his 
body,'  i.e.  by  offering  battle.  In 
this  sense  the  term  survived  until 
the  final  abolition  of  trial  by 
battle  early  in  the  last  century. 

Appeal,  Court  of.  In  the  re- 
formed judicial  system  of  Great 
Britain,  that  branch  of  the  High 
Court  of  Justice  which  hears  ap- 
peals from  the  several  divisional 
courts.  See  High  Court  of 
Justice;  also  Appellate  Court. 

Appeals,  Court  of.  The  title 
of  various  courts  of  appellate 
jurisdiction  in  the  United  States, 
usually  courts  of  last  resort.  See 
Appellate  Court. 

Appearance.  See  Phenom- 
enon. 

Appearance.  The  submission 
of  the  defendant  in  a  lawsuit  or 
other  legal  proceeding  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  court.  The 
rules  of  procedure  prescribe  a 
definite  time  within  which  a 
party  summoned  by  writ  or  other- 
wise to  appear  and  make  answer 
to  a  complaint  shall  present  him- 
self. In  some  cases  the  appear- 
ance is  required  to  be  in  person 
or  by  attorney  in  open  court  on 
the  return  day  of  the  summons; 
more  commonly,  however,  it  is 
effected  by  the  service  of  a  written 
answer  or  of  a  notice  of  appear- 
ance signed  by  the  summoned 
party  or  his  attorney.  Failure  to 
appear  within  the  time  limited 
therefor  is  default  and  entitles  the 
plaintiff  to  the  judgment,  order 
or  decree  demanded  by  him. 

Appellate  Court.  A  court 
empowered  to  review  the  judg- 
ments, orders  or  decrees  of 
another  court  or  judge.  In  our 
legal  system  the  court  organized 
for  the  trial  of  causes  in  the  first 
instance  is  usually  composed  of 
a  single  judge,  whereas  an  ap- 
pellate court  consists  of  a  'bench' 
of  three,  five,  seven,  nine  or  more 
judges  sitting  together.  An  ap- 
pellate court  may  be  an  inter- 
mediate tribunal,  whose  decisions 
are  themselves  subject  to  revision, 
or  it  may  be  a  'court  of  last  re- 
sort.' 

In  Great  Britain  appeals 
from  the  various  divisions  of  the 
High  Court  of  Justice — as  well  as 
from  certain  n  inor  tribunals — lie 
in  the  first  instance  to  the  Court 
of  Appeal  (con  posed  of  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  the  Lord  Chief  Jus- 
tice of  England,  the  Master  of 
the  Rolls,  the  President  of  the 
Probate  Division  and  five  Lord 
Justices  of  Appeal)  which  usually 
sits  in  two  sections.    From  this 


court  appeals  may  in  many  cases 
be  further  taken  to  the  House  of 
Lords,  whose  judicial  function 
as  a  court  of  last  resort  is  of  great 
antiquity  and  authority.  In  prac- 
tice appeals  are  heard  in  the 
House  only  by  the  Lords  of  Ap- 
peal, who  are  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor, four  Lords  of  Appeal  in 
Ordinary  and  peers  who  hold  or 
have  held  high  judicial  office. 
This  high  tribunal  hears  appeals 
not  only  from  the  Court  of  Ap- 
peal in  England,  but  from  the 
Court  of  Appeal  in  Ireland  and 
the  Court  or  Session  in  Scotland, 
as  well.  Of  coordinate  authority 
and  dignity  with  the  House  of 
Lords  as  an  appellate  court  is 
the  _  Priyy  Council,  which,  by 
its  judicial  committee,  hears  ap- 
peals from  India  and  the  British 
colonies  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

United  States.  The  multi- 
plicity of  appellate  jurisdictions 
in  the  United  States  renders  it 
impracticable  to  describe  them 
in  detail.  In  the  federal  judicial 
organization  a  Circuit  Court  of 
Appeals  is  provided  to  hear  ap- 
peals from  decisions  of  the  Cir- 
cuit and  District  Courts  of  the 
United  States.  This  is  a  court 
of  last  resort  for  certain  classes 
of  cases,  but  in  many  others  a 
further  appeal  lies  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States.  This 
double  organization  of  appellate 
courts  has  come  to  prevail  in 
several  of  the  states  as  well, 
there  being  an  intermediate  court 
known  as  an  'appellate  division' 
or  an  'appellate  term'  of  the 
court  of  first  instance  and  a  court 
of  last  resort,  called  in  New  York 
and  several  other  states  the 
'Court  of  Appeals,'  but  known 
in  most  states  as  the  'Supreme 
Court.'  In  a  few  jurisdictions 
the  descriptive  phrase  'Court  of 
Errors'  or  'Court  for  the  Cor- 
rection of  Errors'  has  been  em- 
ployed to  describe  the  ultimate 
court  of  appeal.  Most  of  the 
American  states,  however,  are 
still  satisfied  with  a  single  sys- 
tem of  appeals  and  a  single  ap- 
pellate court. 

Appendant.  See  Appurte- 
nance, Commons. 

Appendix  and  Appendicitis. 
The  appendix  vermiformis  is  a 
slender,  round,  tapering  process 
given  off  from  and  opening  into 
the  inner  and  back  part  of.  the 
caecum,  near  the  ileo-caecal  valve 
in  the  human  intestine.  It  is 
usually  .3^  in.  long,  though  it 
varies  greatly;  its  diameter  is 
about  equal  to  that  of  a  goose 
quill.  It  is  a  rudimentary  organ; 
hence  its  vitality  is  low,  and  it  is 
liable  to  infection.  Appendicitis 
occurs  at  all  ages,  most  frequently 
between  twenty  and  thirty.  It  is 
started  most  commonly  by  the 
irritative  action  of  infective  sub- 
stances passing  through  the  bowel. 
It  may  do  acute  or  chronic,  with 


Appenzell 

consequent  ulceration  and  per- 
foration, leading  to  peritonitis  and 
various  complications,  resulting 
from  the  spread  of  inflammation 
to  neighboring  organs.  The  usual 
symptoms  are  pain  and  tender- 
ness. The  temperature  usually 
rises,  in  very  severe  cases  reach- 
ing 104°-105°;  it  is  rarely  normal. 
With  early  care  recovery  is  the 
rule;  but  recurrence  is  common, 
and  neglect  may  easily  lead  to 
complications,  such  as  peritonitis, 
followed  by  death.  The  treatment 
of  slight  cases,  taken  in  hand 
early,  consists  in  rest  for  the  part, 
ensured  by  fluid  diet  limited  in 
quantity,  analgesics  to  ease  the 
pain  and  to  restrain  the  muscular 
spasm  of  the  bowel,  with  poul- 
tices. Early  operative  treatment 
for  removal  of  the  appendix  is 
generally  necessary.  Appendicitis 
is  always  a  surgical  disease  and 
should  always  be  referred  as  soon 
as  suspected  to  a  surgeon;  he 
should  decide  if  or  when  operation 
must  be  performed.  See  The 
Vermiform  Appendix  and  its  Dis- 
eases, Kelly  and  Hurdon  (1905). 

Appenzell,  canton  in  N.  E.  of 
Switzerland.  Its  name  {Ahhatis 
Cella)  indicates  its  former  posses- 
sion by  the  abbots  of  St.  Gall. 
In  1401  and  1405  the  victories  of 
Vogelinseck  and  the  Stoss  freed 
it  from  the  rule  of  the  abbots; 
in  1411  it  became  an  ally,  and  in 
1513  a  full  member,  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation.  In  1597,  owing  to 
religious  disputes,  it  was  divided 
into  half  cantons — Inner  Rhodes 
(cap.  Appenzell;  pop.  (1900)  4,574) 
being  Romanist  and  pastoral- 
and  Outer  Rhodes  (cap.  Trogen) 
Protestant  and  industrial.  Inner 
Rhodes  (in  which  rises  Mt.  Sentis, 
8,216  ft.,  the  culminating  point  of 
Appenzell)  has  an  area  of  61  sq. 
m.,  of  which  55|-  sq.  m.  are  pro- 
ductive; pop.  (1900)  13,499.  Outer 
Rhodes  has  an  area  of  100^  sq.  m., 
of  which  98  sq.  m.  are  productive ; 
pop.  (1900)  55,281.  Both  halves 
are  practically  entirely  German- 
speaking,  and  have  preserved 
their  primitive  democratic  assem- 
blies, which  meet  annually.  Many 
spots  in  Inner  Rhodes  are  resorted 
to  in  summer  for  the  whe}''  cure; 
while  in  Outer  Rhodes  the  mus- 
lin and  cotton  industry  is  the 
chief  occupation.  The  largest 
town  in  the  canton  (Outer  Rhodes) 
is  Herisau;  pop.  (1900)  13,497.  ^ 

Apperception,  as  a  psychologi- 
cal term  signifies  the  process  of 
mental  assimilation,  the  process 
in_  which  a  new  presentation  re- 
ceives significance  by  virtue  of 
being  referred  to  already  existing 
knowledge — e.g.,  certain  motions 
of  a  flag  become  a  signal  for  one 
who  knows  the  code.  A  few  years 
ago  the  definition  and  application 
of  the  apperceptive  process  was 
the  most  important  topic  of  dis- 
cussion in  pedagogical  circles 
and  still  constitutes  one  of  the 


298 

chief  principles  of  Herbartian 
Pedagogy.  The  idea  is  that  the 
general  notion  is  apperceived 
only  when  the  necessary  indi- 
vidual notions  are  a  part  of 
the  ready  knowledge  in  the 
consciousness  of  the  individual. 
In  educational  practice  it  is  urged 
that  the  children  should  acquire 
by  experience — testing  with  their 
five  senses — the  isolated  percep- 
tions or  elementary  ideas  pertain- 
ing to  a  series  of  objects  before 
the  formalized  generalizations 
expressing  class  attributes  are 
presented  to  them.  Courses  of 
study,  especially  for  the  kinder- 
garten and  primary  schools,  are 
projected  so  that  instruction  will 
proceed  systematically  in  provid- 
ing the  individual  notions  or  per- 
ceptions that  are  to  serve  as  the 
raw  material  for  the  appercep- 
tive process.  See  Lange's  Apper- 
ception; Wundt's  Outlines  of 
Psychology;  De  Garmo's  Essen- 
tials of  Method;  Baldwin's  Dic- 
tionary of  Philosophy  and  Psy- 
chology. 

Appert,  Francois  (1797-1840), 

French  technologist,  born  in 
Paris,  who  discovered  a  food- 
preserving  process  without  the 
use  of  chemicals.  It  is  the  now 
famihar  one  used  in  canning, 
where  the  article  of  food  is  first 
heated,  then  placed  in  the  tin  and 
hermetically  sealed.  His  method, 
which  gained  for  him  a  prize  from 
the  French  government,  is  de- 
scribed in  a  work  issued  in  Paris 
in  1810  (English  trans.  1811), 
entitled  Art  of  Preserving  Animal 
and  Vegetable  Substances. 

Appiani,  Andrea  (1754-1817), 
nicknamed  'The  Painter  of  the 
Graces,'  a  famous  ItaUan  fresco 

Sainter;  born  and  died  at  Milan, 
[e  was  patronized  by  Napoleon. 
His  best  works  are  a  series  of 
frescoes  {Amor  and  Psyche)  at 
Monza,  and  those  in  the  Royal 
Palace  at  Milan. 

Appianus,  or  Appian,  the  his- 
torian of  Rome,  was  born  at  Alex- 
andria, but  lived  in  Rome  about 
100-140  A.D.  His  history  was 
written  in  Greek,  and  gave  a 
separate  account  of  each  district 
until  it  became  part  of  the  Roman 
empire.  The  subjects  of  the  dif- 
ferent books  were — (1)  the  Kingly 
Period  of  Rome;  (2)  Italy;  (3)  the 
Samnites;  (4)  the  Gauls;  (5)  Sicily 
and  the  other  Islands;  (6)  Spain; 
(7)  Hannibal's  Wars;  (8)  Libya, 
Carthage,  and  Numidia;  (9)  Mace- 
donia; (10)  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor;  (11)  Sy'ria  and  Parthia: 
(12)  Mithridates;  (13-21)  the  Civil 
Wars  from  Marius  and  Sulla  to 
Actium;  (22)  the  Hundred  Vears 
from  Actium  to  Vespasian's  Ac- 
cession, 69  A.D.;  (23)  lUyria;  (24) 
Arabia.  Onlv  eleven  books  are 
extant— 6-8,  11-17,  and  23— with 
some  fragments  of  the  others. 
Appian  is  merely  a  compiler 
from  previous  writers;  he  cannot 


Apple 

claim  any  excellence  of  style  or 
historical  acumen;  yet  his  author- 
ity for  the  civil  wars,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  other  histories,  is  of  great 
value.  Editions:  Text,  Bekker 
(1852-3),  Mendelssohn  (1879-81)— 
both  German;  the  latter  trans,  by 
H.  White  (1899).  See  Hannak's 
A.  und  seine  Quellen  (1869). 

Appian  Way  (Lat.  Via  Appia), 
Italy,  an  ancient  Roman  militarv 
road  which  connected  Rome  with 
Alba  Longa,  and  thence  led  on  to 
Capua,  Beneventum,  and  Brundu- 
sium.  It  was  called  'the  queen 
of  roads'  (regina  viarum),  and 
was  begun  by  the  censor  Appius 
Claudius  in  312  B.C.  It  was  care- 
fully and  solidly  built,  paved  with 
blocks  of  hewn  stones  laid  on 
cement,  and  was  of  an  average 
breadth  of  20  feet.  Parts  have 
been  excavated  and  found  in  an 
excellent  state  of  preservation. 
Immediately  outside  Rome  it  is 
lined  with  interesting  memorials 
of  the  past,  chief  among  which  are 
the  church  Domine  Quo  Vadis,  the 
temple  or  rather  tomb  of  the  Deus 
Redlculus,  the  ancient  tomb 
known  as  the  temple  of  Bacchus, 
the  catacombs  and  the  church  of 
St.  Sebastian,  the  circus  of  Maxen- 
tius,  the  round  mausoleum  of 
Caecilia  Metella,  the  tomb  of  M. 
Servilius  Quartus,  and  various 
other  tombs,  the  reputed  Villa 
Quintiliana,  the  tomb  known  as 
Casale  Rotondo,  the  12th  century 
tower  called  Torre  di  Selce,  and 
the  ruins  of  the  old  Latin  town 
of  Bovillae. 

The  new  Appian  Way  runs 
from  Rome  to  Albano,  parallel 
to  the  above;  it  was  made  by 
Pope  Pius  VI.  in  1789.  Beside  it 
stand  the  ruins  of  the  basilica 
of  St.  Stephen  (4th  century),  and 
the  Acqua  Santa  baths. 

Apple,  the  fruit  of  a  tree  (Pyrus 
mains)  which  grows  wild  through- 
out Europe  except  in  the  extreme 
north,  Asia  Minor,  and  Persia. 
All  cultivated  varieties  have  been 
derived  from  the  wild  (or  crab^ 
apple.  Its  cultivation  has  spread 
over  the  whole  world,  exceot 
where  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
prevent  its  growth.  The  tree 
flowers  in  May,  and  after  the 
flowers  have  been  fertilized  bv 
bees  the  anthers  and  petals  fall, 
and  the  fleshy  receptacle  swells  up 
to  form  the  main  part  of  the  fruit, 
enclosing  the  ovary,  which  be- 
comes the  core  of  the  apple.  At 
the  depressed  apex  of  a  ripe  apple 
the  persistent  calvx  of  five  with- 
ered sepals  may  be  seen,  around 
a  canal  which  leads  down  past  the 
old  filaments  of  many  of  the  sta- 
mens to  the  bases  of  the  five  styles, 
which  stand  up  freely  in  the 
canal.  Since  more  than  the  pis- 
til enters  into  the  composition  of 
the  apple,  the  fruit  is  known  as  a 
pseuaocarp,  or  'false  fruit.'  There 
are  over  1,500  varieties  of  applts 
in  cultivation.     After  numerous 


Apple  of  Sodom 


299 


Apponyi 


experiments  a  coreless  and  seed- 
less variety  has  been  developed 
in  Colorado. 

North  America  is  the  greatest 
apple-growing  country  in  the 
world,  its  annual  crop  exceeding 
100,000.000  barrels.  Among  the 
most  popular  of  the  so-called 
summer  apples,  which  ripen  in 
late  summer  and  early  fall,  are 
the  Early  Harvest,  Red  Astra- 
kan.  Fall  Pippin.  Gravenstein, 
and  Wealthy.  The  best  known 
of  the  winter  apples  are  the 
Baldwin,  Ben  Davis,  Northern 
Spy,  Winesap,  Greening,  Russet, 
Fameuse,  and  Mcintosh  Red. 

Apples  are  propagated  by 
means  of  seeds,  grafts,  and  cut- 
tings. The  cultivated  tree  is  at 
its  prime  when  about  fifty  years 
old,  but  bears  fruit  considerably 
longer. 

The  chief  diseases  of  the  apples 
are  bitter-rot,  apple-scab,  black- 
rot  canker,  and  rust.  These  dis- 
eases, and  several  others  to 
which  the  apple  is  susceptible, 
are  best  controlled  by  spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  sul- 
phur-lime spray.  Insect  pests — 
the  codling  moth,  canker-worm, 
bud-moth,  tent  caterpillar,  and 
several  -species  of  wood -boring 
beetles — can  usually  be  con- 
trolled by  the  application  of 
Paris  green  and  other  insecticides. 

See  Fruit  Farming.  Consult 
Waugh's  The  American  Apple 
Orchard;  Beach's  The  Apples  of 
hiew  York;  Wilkinson's  The  Apple 
(1915);  Bailey's  The  Apple  Tree 
(1922);  Farmers  Bulletins  113 
and  491  (U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture),  and  reports  of  the 
State  Experiment  Stations. 

Apple  of  Sodom,  or  Dead  Sea 
Apple,  the  fruit  of  a  tree  said 
to  grow  on  the  site  of  Sodom; 
according  to  Josephus  and  other 
ancient  writers,  it  was  beautiful 
to  the  eye,  but  turned  to  ashes 
when  plucked.  It  is  sometimes 
identified  with  the  Solanum  so- 
domeum  of  North  Africa. 

Ap'pleton,  city,  Wisconsin, 
county  seat  of  Outagamie  county, 
on  the  Fox  River,  at  the  foot  of 
Lake  Winnebago,  and  on  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St. 
^aul,  the  Chicago  and  North 
Western,  and  the  Minneapolis  St. 
Paul  and  vSault  Ste.  Marie  Rail- 
roads; 95  miles  northwest  of  Mil- 
waukee. It  is  the  seat  of  Law- 
rence College  and  has  two  libra- 
ries and  a  hospital.  The  falls  of 
the  Fox  River  supply  water 
power  for  various  manufactures, 
chiefly  paper  and  pulp.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Federal  Census  for 
1919,  industrial  establishments 
number  96,  with  $14,031,470 
capital,  and  products  valued  at 
$17,106,932.  Dairying  interests 
are  also  important.  Pop.  (1900) 
15,085;  (1910)  16,773;  (1920) 
19,561. 

AppIeton,DANiEL(1785-1849). 
American  publisher,  founder  of 


the  house  of  'D,  Appleton  and 
Co.,'  was  born  in  Haverhill, 
Mass.  He  was  a  dry-goods  mer- 
chant there  and  in  Boston  for 
some  3'ears,  and  in  1825  went 
to  New  York  where  he  estab- 
lished a  bookselling  business,  at 
first  limited  to  the  importation 
and  sale  of  English  books.  Hav- 
ing associated  with  him  his  son, 
William  H.  Appleton  (1814-99), 
he  began  the  publication  of 
books  on  his  own  account  in  1831. 
William  H.  Appleton  was  made 
a  partner  in  1838,  and  the  firm 
assumed  the  name  which  it  has 
continued  to  bear. 

Appleton,  James  (1786-1862), 
American  temperance  advocate, 
was  born  in  Ipswich,  Mass.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Massachu- 
setts legislature  and  served  in 
the  American  army  during  the 
War  of  1812.  He  afterward  re- 
sided in  Portland,  Me.,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  temperance 
movement  which  culminated  in 
the  'Maine  law.'  He  was  promi- 
nent as  an  abolitionist. 

Appleton,  Jesse  (1772-1819). 
American  educator,  was  born  in 
New  Ipswich.  N.  H.,  and  was 
educated  at  Dartmouth  College. 
For  some  years  he  was  pastor  of 
a  Congregational  church  in 
Hampton,  N.  H.,  and  in  1807-19 
was  president  of  Bowdoin  College. 

Appleton,  John  (1815-64), 
American  lawyer  and  diplomat, 
was  born  in  Beverly,  Mass.  He 
was  educated  at  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege, was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  for  a  time  edited  the  Eastern 
Argus,  at  Portland,  Maine.  He 
then  removed  to  Washington, 
where  he  was  chief  clerk  in  the 
Navy  and  State  Departments. 
He  was  charge  d'affaires  in 
Bolivia  in  1848-9;  member  of 
Congress  in  1851-3;  secretary  ol 
legation  in  London,  1855-6;  assist- 
ant secretary  of  state,  1857;  and 
U.  S.  minister  to  Russia,  1860-61. 

Appleton,  Nathan  (1779- 
1861),  American  merchant,  was 
born  in  New  Ipswich.  N.  H.  He 
was  active  in  the  establishment 
of  cotton  factories  in  Lowell. 
Mass..  and  was  instrumental  in 
introducing  into  the  United 
States  the  use  of  the  pov/er-loom 
for  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
cloth.  He  was  for  a  time  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Massachusetts  legis- 
lature, and  represented  that 
State  in  Congress,  where  he  was 
an  earnest  advocate  of  protection. 

Appleton,  Samuel  (1766- 
1853),  American  merchant  and 
philanthropist,  was  born  in  New 
Ipswich,  N.  H.  After  teaching 
for  a  short  time,  he  became  in- 
terested in  the  importing  busi- 
ness and  cotton  trade  in  Boston, 
and  helped  to  establish  the 
Lowell  cotton  mills.  With  his 
brother  Nathan,  he  amassed  a 
large  fortune,  the  income  of 
which  he  devoted  largely  to 
philanthropic  purposes. 


Appleton,  Thomas  Gold 
(1812-84).  American  author,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  and  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  (1831) 
with  Wendell  Phillips  and  the 
historian  Motley.  He  was  a  man 
of  means,  a  liberal  benefactor  of 
public  institutions,  a  great  travel- 
ler, and  a  noted  wit.  His  publi- 
cations include:  Faded  Leaves 
(verse);  Nile  Journal  (1876); 
Syrian  Sunshine  (1877).  Con- 
sult his  Life  and  Letters,  edited  by 
Susan  Hale. 

Appleton,  William  Henry, 
See  Appleton,  Daniel. 

Appoggiatura,  ap-pod-ja-too'- 
ra,  an  ornamental  note  in  musical 
score  used  to  embellish  a  melody, 
is  a  small  note  prefixed  to  a  prin- 
cipal note,  and  may  be  long  or 
short;  in  the  latter  case  it  is 
generally  termed  an  acciaccatura, 
and  has  an  oblique  line  across 
the  end  of  its  stem.  The  short 
appoggiatura  must  be  heard  dis- 
tinctly, but  takes  little  apprecia- 
ble time  value  from  the  principal 
note.  In  its  most  common  form 
the  long  appoggiatura  takes  half 
the  value  of  the  note  to  which  it 
is  prefixed,  except  when  placed 
before  a  dotted  note,  when  it  is 
given  two-thirds  of  the  value;  in 
either  case  the  long  appoggiatura 
receives  the  accent. 

Appointment,  the  designation 
by  proper  authority  of  a  person 
to  held  an  office  of  trust  or  honor. 
The  term  is  employed  in  con- 
nection with  private  as  well  as 
public  service  and  with  officers 
of  all  grades  except  such  as  are 
elective.  When  no  further  act  is 
prescribed  by  law.  an  appoint- 
ment to  office  of  itself  vests  in  the 
appointee  the  right  to  perform 
the  duties  of  the  office  and  to  take 
the  emoluments  thereof.  In 
cases  where  confirmation  by  a 
council,  senate  or  board  is  re- 
quired, an  appointment  may  be 
only  a  nomination,  or  it  may 
operate  to  confer  de  jure  author- 
ity the  appointee,  subject  to 
revocation  through  failure  of  the 
confirmation. 

Appomattox,  ap-o-mat'uks, 
village,  formerly  Appomattox 
Courthouse.  Virginia.  Appomat- 
tox county,  on  the  Norfolk  and 
Western  Railroad;  23  miles  east 
of  Lynchburg.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
agricultural  school  and  a  govern- 
ment experiment  station.  Here, 
on  April  9,  1865,  General  Lee  and 
the  main  Confederate  army  sur- 
rendered to  Cieneral  Grant.  This 
virtually  brought  the  Civil  War  to 
a  close.    Pop.  (1923)  about  1,000. 

Apponyi,  op'po-nyi,  Albert 
Georc;es,  Count  (1846-  ), 
Hungarian  statesman,  was  born 
in  Budapest,  of  a  family  conspic- 
uous in  the  history  of  Hungary. 
He  entered  politics  with  the  Cler- 
ical Conservative  party,  became 
a  Nationalist  leader,  and  was 
elected  to  parliament  in  1872. 
In  1902-3  he  was  president  of  the 
Vol.  I.— March  '24 


Apportionment 


300 


Apricot 


Chamber  and  a  leader  of  the 
Opposition  and  in  1904  he  joined 
the  Independents.  From  1906  to 
1910  he  was  minister  of  education 
and,  owing  to  Kossuth's  illness, 
took  over  the  greater  part  of  his 
work  as  leader  of  the  Indepen- 
dence party.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  commission  established  by 
the  Hungarian  chamber  to  over- 
see the  conduct  of  foreign  policy 
during  the  Great  War,  and  in 
1919  was  elected  deputy  to  the 
National  Assembly  and  head  of 
the  Hungarian  peace  delegation 
in  Paris. 

Apportionment,  the  division 
of  a  rent,  common,  contract,  in- 
cumbrance, etc,  into  parts.  Thus, 
if  a  lessee  be  partially  evicted  un- 
der title  paramount  from  a  de- 
mised estate,  the  entire  rent  of 
which  is  due  from  every  separate 
part,  he  becomes  liable  to  pay 
only  a  rent  apportioned  to  the 
value  of  the  remainder  of  the 
estate  from  which  he  has  not 
been  evicted. 

The  apportionment  of  an  in- 
cumbrance is  the  determination 
of  the  sums  which  each  of  two  or 
more  parties,  having  different  in- 
terests in  an  estate,  shall  contrib- 
ute towards  the  support  or  ex- 
tinction of  such  incumbrance.  In 
a  more  technical  sense  the  term  is 
used  to  denote  the  statutory  di- 
vision of  beneficial  interests  in 
recurring  payments,  which  are 
indivisible  at  common  law.  As 
regards  rents,  annuities,  and 
other  payments  at  fixed  periods, 
with  the  exception  of  interest, 
which  is  held  to  accrue  from  day 
to  day,  the  rule  of  the  common 
law  is  that  if  the  interest  of  the 
party  entitled  comes  to  an  end  at 
a  time  other  than  one  of  the  re- 
curring periods  he  is  not  entitled 
to  a  portion  of  the  current  rent, 
etc.,  corresponding  to  the  time 
which  has  elapsed  since  the  last 
period.  The  Apportionment  Acts 
in  the  United  States  and  England 
have  made  the  principle  of 
accrual  from  day  to  day  general, 
so  that  now  in  nearly  all  instances 
of  recurring  payments  apportion- 
ment is  the  rule  (see  Annuity). 

Appraise'ment,  the  valuation 
of  property,  real  or  personal,  by 
persons  appointed  pursuant  to 
law  or  agreement  for  the  purpose. 
In  many  cases  an  appraisement 
is  required  by  law  as  an  incident 
of  judicial  proceedings,  as  in  the 
valuation  of  a  decedent's  estate 
preliminary  to  administration, 
or  the  valuation  of  goods  subject 
to  revenue  tax. 

Apprehension.  See  Arrest. 

Appren'tice,  a  person  bound 
to  service  in  some  trade  or  occu- 
pation during  minority  or  for  a 
definite  term  of  years.  An  ap- 
prenticeship, though  created  by 
contract,  is  a  species  of  domestic 
relation  in  which  the  master 
stands  in  a  parental  relation  to 
the  apprentice,  with  the  obliga- 

VoL.  I. — March  '24 


tion  of  supporting  him,  of  caring 
for  him  in  illness,  and  of  in- 
structing him  in  the  master's 
trade,  the  apprentice  on  his  part 
being  bound  to  serve  the  master 
diligently  and  to  render  him  due 
obedience. 

In  modern  industry  appren- 
ticeship has  lost  much  of  its  im- 
portance, and  an  apprenticeship 
is  now  a  matter  of  special  agree- 
ment. In  some  trades,  however, 
it  is  still  extensively  employed  in 
England.  In  the  United  States 
the  institution  has  passed  through 
the  same  phases  as  in  England, 
though  its  role  as  a  domestic 
arrangement  has  been  and  still 
is  an  insignificant  one  in  the 
former  country. 

Trade  union  apprenticeship 
systems  in  the  United  States  and 
England  are  frequently  charged 
by  employers  with  undue  limi- 
tation of  apprentices  to  the  detri- 
ment of  industry.  The  conten- 
tion is  that  restricting  the  oppor- 
tunity of  young  persons  to  learn 
a  trade  is  unwarranted  and  that 
every  mechanic  is  a  valuable 
business  asset.  Trade  unionists, 
on  the  other  hand,  affirm  that 
this  so-called  limitation  is  simply 
an  administrative  method  to 
bring  about  a  natural  distribu- 
tion of  apprentices  among  all  the 
trades  rather  than  permit  one 
trade  to  be  overwhelmed.  Their 
aim  is  to  regulate  rather  than 
limit,  to  the  end  that  industry 
may  always  have  an  adequate 
supply  of  workers  at  wages  and 
conditions  conforming  to  trade 
union  standards. 

The  term  apprenticeship  is 
also  applied  to  the  system  of  en- 
listing minors  between  the  ages 
of  fifteen  and  seventeen  for  serv- 
ice in  the  navy  of  the  United 
vStates  and  for  training  in  the 
duties  oi  seamanship. 

Appropriation,  the  application 
of  specific  sums  of  money  to  a 
particular  purpovse.  The  term  is 
most  frequently  employed  of  the 
application  of  payments  made 
by  a  debtor.  When  a  debtor 
owes  different  debts  to  the  same 
creditor,  and  makes  a  payment  on 
account,  he  is  entitled  at  the  time 
to  appropriate  the  money  paid  to 
any  debt  he  chooses;  but  if  he 
pays  the  money  generally,  with- 
out making  any  appropriation, 
the  creditor  may  appropriate  the 
payment  to  the  discharge  of 
whichever  debt  he  likes.  If 
neither  the  debtor  nor  the  credi- 
tor makes  any  appropriation,  the 
law  will  appropriate  the  pay- 
ment, generally,  to  the  discharge 
of  the  earliest  debt  unpaid. 

In  Constitutional  Law  acts  of 
appropriation  are  measures  by 
which  the  legislature  sets  apart 
sums  of  money  for  the  use  of  the 
different  departments  of  the  exec- 
utive. The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  provides  that  'no 
money  shall  be  drawn  from  the 


treasury  but  in  consequence  of 
appropriation  made  by  law.' 

Approx'imation,  in  mathemat- 
ics, denotes  a  result  which,  though 
not  rigorously  accurate,  is  suffi- 
ciently accurate  for  the  end  in 
view.  Tables  of  logarithms  are 
approximations  accurate  to  a  cer- 
tain number  of  decimal  piaces. 
and  many  equations  can  be 
solved  only  approximately.  It  is 
often  possible  to  find,  by  plotting 
on  squared  paper  (see  Graphs),  a 
simple  expression  to  represent 
approximately  a  complex  mathe- 
matical expression. 

Appur'tenances,  rights  in  or 
over  another's  land  which  are 
regarded  by  law  as  attaching  to 
another  parcel  of  land  for  whose 
benefit  the  rights  have  been 
created.  The  classes  of  incor- 
poreal hereditaments  known  as 
easements  and  commons,  or 
profits,  are  appurtenances  when 
enjoyed  in  connection  with  such 
other  land,  and  pass  as  incident 
thereto  upon  a  conveyance  of 
the  latter.  When  such  rights 
exist  in  an  individual  and  without 
reference  to  any  land  which  he 
may  possess — as  a  personal  right 
of  fishing  in  another's  stream  or 
pond — they  are  notappurtenances 
but  rights  'in  gross.'  Neither  is 
the  term  appurtenances  properly 
applied  to  houses,  gardens,  fix- 
tures, stock,  or  other  corporeal 
property. 

Apraxin,  a-prak'sin,  Fedor, 
Count  (1671-1728),  Russian  ad- 
miral, often  considered  the  found- 
er of  the  Russian  navy.  He 
early  entered  the  service  of  Peter 
the  Great,  by  whom  he  was  made 
general-admiral  of  the  navy.  He 
took  a  successful  part  in  the  ex- 
pedition against  Sweden  in  1710, 
and  in  1713  was  in  command  of 
the  fleet  against  Finland  and 
forced  Sweden  to  conclude  the 
treaty  of  Nystad,  which  gave 
Russia  the  Baltic  provinces. 

Apraxin,  Stephen  Feodoro- 
viTCH,  Count  (1702-58),  Rus- 
sian general,  nephew  of  Feodor 
Apraxin  (q.  v.),  served  under 
Miinnich  against  the  Turks 
(1737),  and  in  1757,  having  been 
made  field  marshal,  led  an  army 
of  97,000  men  against  Prussia, 
defeating  the  Prussian  field  mar- 
shal Lehwald  at  the  battle  of 
Grossjaherndorf  (Aug.  30). 

A'pricot  {Prunus  armeniaca), 
a  species  of  the  plum  division  of 
the  Rosacea?,  supposed  by  De 
CandoUe  to  be  a  native  of  China, 
although  it  is  now  naturalized  in 
Syria,  Armenia,  and  Egypt.  From 
its  abundance  in  Palestine,  Canon 
Tristram  supposes  it  to  be  the 
apple  of  the  Bible.  The  fruit  is 
variable,  about  the  size  of  a 
peach,  single-stoned,  with  a  sweet 
or  bitter  kernel  (seed)  and  golden 
or  orange  flesh,  and  a  velvety 
skin  of  similar  color,  with  pink 
or  red  on  the  sunny  side.  A  dis- 
tinct shallow  groove  runs  down 


AprU 


301 


Apulelus 


one  side.  The  Persian  name, 
misch-misch,  is  applied  to  the 
sweetest  variety  of  apricot  ex- 
ported from  the  .Levant,  and 
2ommonly    known    as  •  *musch- 


Apricot  in  Fruit. 
1,  Flower ;  2,  section  of  fruit. 


musch,'  which  is  often  dried 
and  rolled  into  cakes.  The  plant 
has  been  grown  out  of  doors  in 
Britain  for  over  three  and  a  half 
centuries,  and  is  usually  budded 
on  the  stocks  of  plums.  Candied 
apricots  come  from  the  south  of 
France.  The  older  English  name 
of  'apricock'  is  reminiscent  of 
the  Latin  name  prcBCoqua,  'early 
ripe.'  See  De  Candolle's  Origin 
of  Cultivaled  Plants  (1872). 

April,  Month  of.   See  Year. 

April  Fools*  Day.  See  All 
Fools'  Day, 

A  priori  and  a  posteriori. 
The  antithesis  of  a  priori  and  a 
posteriori  knowledge  has  passed 
through  various  modifications  of 
meaning.  In  earlier  usage  it 
expressed  the  contrast  between 
knowledge  through  causes  and 
knowledge  through  effects;  then, 
later,  the  contrast  between  ra- 
tional and  empirical  knowledge. 
The  Kantian  usage  connects  itself 
with  the  latter  contrast.  A  priori 
principles  are  for  Kant  those  that 
are  independent  of  experience,  in 
the  sense  that  their  truth  is  not 
proved  by  a  collection  of  empirical 
mstances,  but  is  seen  to  be  pre- 
supposed in  the  very  nature  of 
a  connected  or  intelligible  ex- 
perience: e.g.  'Every  event  must 
nave  a  cause'  is  such  a  principle. 
A  posteriori  knowledge,  on  the 
other  hand,  must  be  referred  to 
particular  experience  for  its  proof 
— e.g.  the  proposition,  'Arsenic  is 
poisonous.  But  the  expression 
a  priori  is  commonly  applied  to 
any  knowledge  which  is  general  in 
its  character,  and  thus'  independ- 
ent of  particular  verifications:  e.^. 
a  general  proof  of  the  impossi- 
bility of  squaring  the  circle  makes 
it  needless  to  examine  particular 
attempts  to  solve  the  problem. 
Vol.  L— 23. 


Apron,  in  engineering,  a  cover- 
ing built  to  protect  a  surface  from 
the  action  of  flowing  water  or 
from  heavy  shocks. 

Apsaras',  a  race  of  female  be- 
ings in  Hindu  tradition  who 
form  attachments  with  the  Gand- 
harvas,  and  bear  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  swan-maidens  and 
seal-women  of  European  folk- 
lore. They  were  originally  water- 
sprites.  Probably  the  best  known 
is  Urvafi,  who  figures  in  one  of 
Kalidasa's  dramas. 

Apse,  in  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture, the  easternmost  portion 
of  a  church;  the  recess  at  the  end 
of  the  chancel.  It  is  semicircular, 
or,  more  commonly,  consists  in 
plan  of  five  sides  of  an  octagon. 
It  is  supposed  to  represent  the 
raised  platform  of  the  secular 
basilica  or  public  hall;  though 
others  maintain  that  it  was  bor- 
rowed from  the  presidential  plat- 
form of  the  meeting-room  of 
the  early  Christian  guilds.  See 
Basilica. 

Apsheron  (Per.  'sweet  water'), 
a  peninsula  at  the  extremity  of 
the  Caucasus  range,  jutting  out 
for  30  to  40  m.  eastwards  into  the 
Caspian.  Geologically  it  is  com- 
posed of  limestone  and  sandy 
clay,  and  contains  saUne  lakes, 
petroleum  wells  (see  Baku),  and 
mud  volcanoes. 

Apsides,  two  points  in  the  orbit 
of  a  planet  or  satellite  where  the 
curvature  is  circular,  the  moving 
body  there  crossing  the  major  axis 
at  right  angles.  These  points  are 
at  apheUon  and  periheUon,  and 
the  'line  of  apsides'  is,  therefore, 
equivalent  to  the  major  axis,  and 
since  it  shifts  forward  through  the 
effects  of  perturbation,  the  anom- 
alistic year  or  month  is  longer 
than  the  corresponding  sidereal 
period. 

Apteryx,  or  Kiwi,  a  ratite  bird 
peculiar  to  New  Zealand.  It  is 
very  much  smaller  than  its  near- 


The  New  Zealand  Kiwi. 


est  allies,  the  extinct  moas  (q.  v.) 
but,  Uke  them,  is  without  obvious 
wings.  The  leathers  are  hair- 
like in  appearance,  and  the  beak 
is  long  and  curved,  with  the  nos- 
trils nf  arly  at  its  extremity.  The 
food  consists  chiefly  of  earth- 
worms, obtained  by  boring  with 


the  long,  sensitive  bill,  and  the 

birds  are  entirely  nocturnal  in 
habit.  Kiwis  breed  slowly,  one 
or  two  very  large  eggs  only  being 
laid  during  the  season,  and  will 
not  rear  young  in  captivity. 
Though  now  carefully  protected, 
the  extermination  of  the  species  is 
imminent. 

Apthorp,  William  Foster 
(1848),  American  music  critic, 
was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  and 
graduated  (1869)  at  Harvard. 
After  musical  studies  under  J.  K. 
Paine  and  others,  he  gave  in- 
struction in  various  conserva- 
tories of  music  in  Boston  until 
1884,  at  the  same  time  fiUing 
positions  as  music  or  dramatic 
critic  on  the  Atlantic  Monthly 
and  Boston  daily  and  weekly 
papers.  In  1881  he  became 
music  and  dramatic  critic  of  the 
Boston  Evening  Transcript.  He 
published  Hector  Berlioz  (1879), 
Musicians  and  Music-Lovers 
(1894),  By  the  Way  (1898),  The 
Opera,  Past  and  Present  (1901), 
and  was  critical  editor  of  Cham- 
plm's  Cyclopcedia  of  Music  and 
Musicians  (1888-90). 

Apuan  Alps,  in  Italy,  lie  be- 
tween the  Ligurian  Alps  and 
the  Mediterranean,  parallel  to 
the  former,  and  reach  an  alti- 
tude of  6,385  ft.  in  Monte  Pisa- 
nino.  They  are  outliers  of  the 
Apennine  system.  Their  length 
is  about  30  m.,  and  they  descend 
steeply  to  the  sea  on  the  w.  Their 
upper  layers  are  composed  of  some 
of  the  finest  white  marble  in  the 
world,  which  was  known  to  the 
Romans,  and  was  rediscovered  by 
Michael  Angelo.  (See-  Carrara 
and  Massa.) 

Apuleius,  Lucius,  Roman  rhet- 
orician, b.  c.  130  A.D.  in  Madaura, 
N.  Africa;  educated  at  Carthage 
and  Athens.  On  the  death  of  his 
father,  who  left  him  a  large  for- 
tune, he  travelled  extensively, 
visiting  Italy  and  Asia.  The 
knowledge  he  thereby  acquired 
of  priestly  irregularities  forms  the 
groundwork  of  many  of  the  stories 
in  his  Golden  Ass.  On  one  of  his 
journeys  he  was  hospitably  en- 
tertained during  an  illness  by  a 
young  man,  whose  mother,  a  rich 
widow  named  Pudentilla,  married 
him.  Her  relatives  accused  him 
of  gaining  her  affection  by  witch- 
craft; and  the  defence  spoken 
(173)  by  Apuleius  is  stilly  extant, 
under  the  title  Apologia.  Hxs 
later  life  was  spent  as  a  rhetori- 
cian at  Carthage.  His  most  im- 
portant work  is  known  as  Meta- 
morphoseon,  seu  de  Asino  Aureo, 
lihri  xi.,  the  'Metamorphosis  of 
the  Golden  Ass.'  The  story  of 
Cupid  (Amor)  and  Psyche,  in  the 
4th,  5th  ancl  6th  books,  forms 
the  most  interesting  part  of  the 
work.  This  served  as  a  basis 
to  Raphael  for  his  beautiful  fres- 
coes. Story  of  Psyche,  in  the  Villa 
Farnesina  in  Rome.    Some  other 


lpull£ 


303 


Aquarius 


writings,  mostly  philosophical, 
and  of  less  interest,  are  still  ex- 
tant, besides  the  'Defence'  al- 
ready mentioned.  The  latest  and 
best  edition  is  J.  van  de  VHet's 
Metamorphoseon  (1897)  and  Apo- 
logia and  Florida  (1900).  English 
translations  are:  The  Golden  Ass, 
by  Sir  G.  Head  (1851),  and  by 
AdUngton  (1566;  new  ed.  1892); 
and  Eros  and  Psyche  bv  R. 
Bridges  (1885).  See  also  J.  G. 
Frazer's  Golden  Bough. 

Apulia  (Ital.  Puglia),  a  terri- 
torial div.  (corapartimento)  of  S. 
Italy-  stretches  along  the  Adri- 
atic from  the  river  Fortore  (w.  of 
the  lofty  Gargano  promontory)  to 
the  extreme  s.E.  corner  of  the  pen- 
insula, C.  Santa  Maria  di  Leuca, 
and  thus  embraces  the  three  prov- 
inces of  Foggia,  Bari,  and  Lecce. 
Its  total  area  is  7,380  sq.  m.,  and 
its  pop.  (1901)  1,949,423.  Apart 
from  Monte  Gargano  (5,120  ft.), 
the  N.  part  of  the  territory  is  a  level 
plain — a  rich  grazing  ground  in 
winter,  when  it  supports  thou- 
sands of  sheep,  but  in  summer  it 
is  parched  and  dry.  The  s.  part, 
between  the  Gulf  of  Taranto  and 
the  Adriatic,  is  in  part  a  low,  dry 
limestone  plateau,  but  yields  ex- 
cellent wheat,  which  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  macaroni,  also 
barley,  maize,  beans,  lentils,  pease, 
and  good  olive  oil.  Wine  is  gen- 
erally produced;  other  products 
are  Jruits  (figs,  oranges,  lemons, 
oUves,  etc.)  and  salt,  besides  a 
little  cotton,  flax,  tobacco,  and 
silk.  Marble  is  quarried  on 
Monte  Gargano.  The  people  live, 
for  the  most  part,  in  large  towns, 
which  are,  as  a  rule,  situated  either 
on  the  Adriatic  coast  or  on  the 
edge  of  the  limestone  plateau. 
Among  the  former  are  B arietta, 
Bari,  MonopoH,  and  Brindisi; 
among  the  latter,  Andria,  Bitonto, 
Putignano,  Lecce.  The  chief  ports 
on  the  Gulf  of  Taranto  are 
Taranto  and  Gallipoli.  The 
summers  are  hot,  and  malaria 
cHngs  to  certain  swampy  tracts 
along  the  coasts.  For  centuries 
this  part  of  Italy  was  dominated 
by  Greek  civilization,  dissemi- 
nated from  the  cities  of  Magna 
Graecia:  but,  opposing  Rome,  it 
sulferea  severely  in  the  social  war 
of  90-88  B.C.,  and  again  after  the 
failure  of  Hannibal's  designs, 
which  it  had  supported.  After 
Rome's  supremacy  crumbled  to 

gieces,  the  region  was  divided 
etween  the  Eastern  empire  and 
the  duchy  of  Benevento.  During 
the  11th  and  12th  centuries  it  was 
overrun  and  subjugated  by  the 
Normans,  and  so  passed  under  the 
crown  of  the  Two  SiciUes.  See 
Gregorovius's  Apulische  Land- 
schajten  (4th  ed.  1897).  See  also 
Italy;  and  for  history,  Naples. 

Apure,  riv.  in  Venezuela.  See 
Orinoco. 

Apurimac.  (1.)  River,  S. 
America,  rises  about  15°  s.  in  the 


Peruvian  Andes,  and  is  a  head 
stream  of  the  Amazon.  After  its 
union  with  the  Pirene,  it  flows 
under  the  name  of  Tambo,  and 
after  a  course  of  500  m.  it  joins 
the  UcayaU.  (3.)  Department, 
Peru,  S.  America.  Area,  8,187  sq. 
m.;  pop.  (1896)  177,387.  Its  cap. 
is  Abancay  (pop.  3,000). 

Aqua  f  ortis.  See  Nitric  Acid. 

Aquamarine,  a  name  given  to 
the  transparent  bluish-green  or 
sea-green  varieties  of  beryl.  As 
compared  with  the  pure  green 
beryl  or  emerald,  it  is  of  little 
value;  it  is,  however,  used  to 
some  extent  as  a  semi-precious 
stone.  It  is  found  in  many  places, 
but  comes  chiefly  from  Brazil  and 
the  Urals.  Some  specimens  weigh 
as  much  as  15  lbs.  Fine  aqua- 
marine has  been  found  at  Stone- 
ham  and  at  other  localities  in 
Maine.  See  G.  F.  Kunz,  Gems 
and  Precious  Stones  of  North 
America,  and  O.  C.  Farrington, 
Gems  and  Gem  Minerals. 

Aqua  regia  (Lat.  'royal  water,' 
because  it  dissolves  gold),  a  mix- 
ture of  nitric  acid  with  from  two 
to  four  times  as  much  hydrochloric 
acid,  which  sets  free  chlorine;  to 
this  its  solvent  action  is  due. 

Aquarium,  tank  or  vessel,  or  a 
collection  of  these,  containing 
aquatic  plants  and  animals,  living 
as  nearly  as  possible  under  natural 
conditions.  The  basis  of  the  mod- 
ern aquarium  is  the  mutual  de- 
pendence of  animals  and  plants, 
plants  absorbing  the  carbon  di- 
oxide generated  by  animals,  and 
liberating  the  oxygen  necessary 
for  their  respiration.  Plants,  also, 
are  able  to  utilize  the  waste  ma- 
terials of  animals.  Except  on  a 
small  scale,  however,  the  con- 
dition of  balance  is  difficult  to 
preserve;  and  almost  all  recent 
aquaria,  especially  those  for  public 
exhibition  where  a  considerable 
depth  and  bulk  of  water  is  to  be 
maintained,  have  mechanical  ar- 
rangements for  aerating  or  renew- 
ing the  water. 

The  relative  simpHcity  of  the 
fresh-water  aquarium  is  largely 
due  to  the  fact  that  many  fresh- 
water plants  are  easy  to  obtain, 
and  grow  readily,  especially  if 
planted  in  submerged  flower-pots. 
The  Canadian  water- weed  {Anach- 
aris)  will  grow  and  flourish  with- 
out soil.  Various  species  of 
duckweed  (Lemna)  can  similarly 
obtain  all  the  food  they  require  frorn 
water;  but  as  their  fronds  float 
at  the  surface,  their  aerating  value 
is  slight.  Bladderworts  (Utricu- 
laria),  floating  or  partially  sub- 
merged, are  interesting,  with 
thread-like  leaves  and  many 
larva-trapping  bladders.  Ponci- 
weeds  {Potamogeton),  with  float- 
ing or  submerged  leaves;  the 
water-nut  [Trapa)'  the  fan  wort 
(Cabomba)  with  dissected,  fan- 
like submerged  leaves;  the  horn- 
wort  (jCeratophyllwn),  spreading 


finely  forked  foliage  under  the 
water;  and  the  common  tape- 
grass  {Vallisneria)  which  sends 
long  leaves  to  the  surface;  the  com- 
mon water  buttercup  {Ranunculus 
delphinifolius)  ;  and  water  star- 
wort  {Callitriche  verna)  all  grow 
well  in  aquaria  and  assist  in  aerat- 
ing the  water.  Of  the  animai  in- 
habitants, by  far  the  easiest  to 
keep  alive  are  those  capable  of 
breathing  both  air  and  water,  such 
as  the  aquatic  amphibians,  espe- 
cially newts,  axolotls  and  larval 
forms,  molluscs  such  as  the  water 
snails,  and  larvae  of  aquatic  in- 
sects. A  glass  aquarium  should 
always  contain  a  few  water-snails 
{Limnea,  Planorbis,  Physa),  since 
these  will  eat  the  minute  vegeta- 
tion {ConfervcB)  which  tends  to 
grow  everywhere,  and  so  keep  the 
glass  clean  and  clear.  Fish  require 
care;  the  beginner  is  most  likely 
to  be  successful  with  sticklebacks 
and  minnows.  ^  If  the  water  be- 
comes contaminated  with  sur- 
plus food,  the  fish  are  liable  to 
attacks  of  'fungus'  (Saprolegnia). 
If  noticed  in  time,  this  may  be 
cured  by  transferring  the  affected 
forms  to  running  water*  but  if  the 
disease  once  obtains  a  hold,  there 
is  no  cure  except  the  removal  of 
all  the  inhabitants,  and  the  thor- 
ough disinfection  of  the  aquarium. 

The  salt-water  aquarium  pre- 
sents more  difliculties  than  the 
fresh,  as  it  is  not  easy  to  repair 
damage  wrought  by  inattention 
or  accident,  and  an  unnoticed 
death  may  poison  all  the  other 
inhabitants.  Nor  are  seaweeds  so 
easy  to  grow  as  fresh-water  plants. 
Sea  lettuce  {Ulva)  is  as  good  a 
plant  as  any,  and  should  oe  ob- 
tained attached  to  a  stone  or  piece 
of  rock.  Of  animals,  the  beautiful 
sea-anemones,  many  of  which  are 
hardy  in  captivity;  the  echino- 
derms — star-fishes,  sea  urchins, 
brittle  stars,  etc.;  marine  worms, 
such  as  Sabella,^  Serpula,  and 
others;  and  certain  marine  mol- 
luscs and  crustaceans,  are  well 
worth  cultivation.  Extensive  ex- 
perimental marine  aquaria  are 
attached  to  the  biological  stations 
of  Naples  and  elsewhere  in  Eu- 
rope, and  at  Wood's  Holl,  Cold 
Spring  Harbor  and  elsewhere  in 
the  United  States.  Other  notabl ; 
aquaria  exist  at  Brighton  (Eng- 
land), Berlin  and  Hamburg  (Ger- 
manv),  and  in  New  York  and 
Washington.  That  in  the  old  Fort 
Clinton  (Castle  Garden)on  the  Bat- 
tery in  New  York,  managed  since 
1903  by  the  N.  Y.  Zoological  So- 
ciety, IS  one  of  the  largest  and 
finest  in  the  world.  See  Taylor's 
Aquarium  (1881);  Smith's  "  The 
Aquarium  (1900). 

Aquarius,  a  southern  zodiacal 
constellation,  and  the  eleventh 
sign  of  the  zodiac,  symbolized 
by  the  hieroglyph  for  water 
The  sun  enters  the  sign  on  Jan- 
uary 21,  but  reaches  the  formerly 


Aquatic  Animals 


304 


Aquatic  Plants 


coincident  asterism  only  on  Feb- 
ruary 14.  None  of  its  stars  are  of 
the  third  magnitude,  but  it  in- 
cludes the  fine  binary  ^  Aquarii, 
to  which  Doberck  has  assigned  a 
period  of  1,625  years,  a  magnifi- 
cent globular  cluster  (Messier  2), 
and  the  'Saturn'  nebula  (N.G.C. 
7009),  a  pale-blue  planetary  with 
ring-like  appendages. 

Aquatic  Animals.  It  has  be- 
come almost  an  axiom  of  modern 
science  that  life  originated  in  the 
water,  and  numbers  of  animals, 
especially  the  simpler  forms,  still 
inhabit  that  medium.  _  This  is 
true  of  the  vast  majority  of  the 
Protozoa,  sponges,  _  Coelenterata 
and  echinoderms.  It  is  the  rule  for 
unsegmented  worms,  except  where 
these  are  parasitic;  and,  among 
annelids,  the  earthworms  and 
land-leeches  are  obviously  forms 
which  have  later  acquired  a  ter- 
restrial habit.  Though,  among 
arthropods,  the  great  groups  of 
insects,  myriapods,  and  arach- 
noids are  typically  terrestrial,  yet 
the  Crustacea  are  almost  all  aqua- 
tic. Among  molluscs,  only  the 
gasteropod  class  includes  land 
forms. 

In  vertebrates,  the  line  which 
separates  the  typically  aquatic 
and  typically  terrestrial  forms 
passes  through  amphibians,  which 
may,  as  in  the  frog,  be  water  ani- 
mals in  youth  and  land  animals 
in  adult  life.  Nevertheless,  the 
crocodiles,  turtles,  and  water 
snakes  among  reptiles,  many 
birds,  the  sirenians,  cetaceans, 
and  seals  among  mammals,  illus- 
trate the  fact  that  members  of 
typically  terrestrial  groups  may 
return  to  a  purely  _  aquatic  life. 
An  important  point  in  these  cases 
is  that  the  aquatic  reptile,  bird, 
or  mammal  retains  its  terrestrial 
habit  of  breathing  air  by  lungs, 
and  shows  no  tendency  to  re- 
acquire gills.  In  general  we  ma}'  say 
that  in  the  above  amphibians  the 
aquatic  habit,  when  present  in  a 
vertebrate,  has  been  secondarily 
acquired  by  a  return  from  an 
earlier  terrestrial  habit.  The 
adaptations  to  the  aquatic  life 
are  therefore  usually  more  easily 
studied  in  such  vertebrates  than 
in  invertebrate;;,  where  the  aquatic 
habit  is  often  the  primary  one. 
The  whale,  for  example,  as  con- 
trasted with  an  ordinary  terres- 
trial mammal,  shows  some  very 
striking  modifications  of  struc- 
ture. The  spindle-shaped  form 
repeated  in  fish,  is  less  an  adapta- 
tion to  the  aquatic  life  in  itself 
than  to  swift  movement  in  water. 
To  a  similar  cause  the  absence 
of  the  hair  and  of  the  hind  limbs 
is  to  be  assigned.  The  use  of 
the  tail  as  the  main  organ  of 
propulsion  is  common  among 
aquatic  animals;  while  the  fact 
that  the  body  loses  in  water  a 
large  x^roportion  of  its  weight 
sets  the  limbs  free  from  the  sup- 


porting function  which  they  must 
perform  in  land  animals  and  en- 
ables this  animal  to  acquire  its 
huge  size. 

A  very  common  structure  in 
those  aquatic  animals  which  are 
capable  of  rising  and  sinking  in 
the  water  is  some  form  of  hydro- 
static organ,  or  internal  reservoir 
of  gas.  All  air-breathing  verte- 
brates have  these  in  their  lungs, 
which  were  perhaps  themselves  in 
origin  merely  hydrostatic  organs; 
fish  have  usually  a  swim-bladder; 
many  cuttles  have  air-spaces  in 
their  *bone'  or  float;  the  pearly 
nautilus  has  its  chambered  shell 
filled  with  gas;  even  many  of  the 
Protozoa  have  bubbles  of  air  in 
their  soft  bodies.  While  many 
aquatic  animals  are  swift  swim- 
mers, and  others  creep  passively 
at  the  bottom,  the  fact  that  large 
bodies  of  water  are  themselves 
always  in  motion  renders  life  in 
water  possible  for  two  sets  of  ani- 
mals to  whom  terrestrial  life  would 
be  impossible.  There  are,  first, 
the  drifters  or  'plankton,'  ani- 
mals which  can  make  no  headway 
against  currents,  but  float  idly 
with  them.  This  fauna  consists 
largely,  though  not  exclusively,  of 
the  simpler  forms  of  animal  life. 
Secondly,  those  able  to  swim 
activelv  are  designated  collective- 
ly as  nekton.'  Finally  a  large 
class  of  forms  are  fixed  to 
the  ground  or  to  other  animals, 
and  depend  upon  the  currents  in 
the  water  to  bring  food;  but  in 
these  the  eggs  or  larval  forms 
are  usually  able  to  drift  or  swim 
m  their  earlier  I'f-^. 

Though  aquatic  life  is  most 
abundant  in  warm  waters,  and 
near  shore,  it  exists  in  all  climates 
and  at  all  depths;  yet  there  are 
few  forms  which  are_  able  to  range 
widely,  especially  in  a  vertical 
direction. 

Aquatic  Plants,  or  Hydro- 
phytes, are  wholly  or  partially 
submerged,  but  do  not  include 


Pondweed. 


marsh  plants.  Seaweeds  and 
fresh-water  algjc  are  .  aquatic. 
Many  of  the  former  are  left 
exposed  to  the  air  at  low  tide,  but 
are  prevented  from  drying  entirely 
by  the  presence  of  mucilage, 
which  enters  into  the  omposition 


of  their  cell-walls.  The  sliminess 
of  water  plants  is  due  to  a  secre- 
tion of  mucilage  over  the  surface. 
The  better-known  examples  of 
aquatic  flowering  plants  are  the 


Water  Buttercup. 


water  buttercups  (Ranunculus), 
some  of  them  with  all  the  leaves 
submerged,  and  repeatedly  di- 
vided into  linear  segments  which 
enable  them  to  yield  readily  before 
currents,  and  also  to  increase  the 
absorptive  area;  others  with  simi- 


Water  Lily. 


lar  leaves  to  these,  and  also 
floating  leaves  with  the  blade  in 
one  piece,  lying  flat  on  the  water; 
water  Wilts'  {Nyniphcea  and  Nu- 
phar),  with  large,  elUptical,  undi- 
vided leaves  floating  on  the  sur- 
face; and  the  pondweeds  {Pota- 


Duckwccd,  with  Floiver  enlarged. 

mogcton),  with  submerged  and 
floating  petioled  leaves,  or  with 
ribbon-shaped  leaves.   The  Cape 


Aquatint 


305 


Aqueducts 


pondweed  (Aponogeion)  and  Ca- 
nadian Pondweed  (Elodea)  are 
other  examples;  but  there  are 
many  more. 

The  majority  of  water  plants 
are  fixed  in  the  soil,  but  some, 
like  Duckweed  {Lemna)  and 
Water  Soldier  {Stratiotes),  float, 
or  at  least  are  free  from  the  soil. 
The  whole  surface  of  a  water 
plant  in  contact  with  the  water 
absorbs  liquid  and  gaseous  food, 
and,  in  the  case  of  flowering 
plants,  such  absorptive  surfaces 
are  almost  or  entirely  devoid  of 
^  the  stomata  and  cuticle  which  are 
commonly  found  in  the  epider- 
mal surfaces  of  land  plants;  but 


Water  Soldier. 


both  stomata  and  cuticle  occur 
on  the  upper  surfaces  of  floating 
leaves.  The  vascular  and  fibrous 
tissues  of  the  stems  and  leaves 
are  poorly  developed,  since  they 
are  scarcely  required,  and  the 
roots  are  reduced.  Large  air 
spaces  occur  in  the  cellular  tissue 
of  most  water  plants,  and  these 
become  filled  with  oxygen,  for 
the  better  respiration  of  the 
plant. 

Most  aquatic  plants  expose 
their  flowers  above  the  surface, 
and  thus  are  subject  to  the  same 
means  of  pollination  as  land 
plants.  A  few  only  have  entirely 
submerged  flowers,  as  in  Sea 
Wrack  (Zostera),  which,  like  very 
few  other  plants,  is  submerged 
in  sea  water.  Most  aquatic 
plants  are  perennial.  Some — 
e.g.,  Utricularia  (Bladderwort) — 
form  dense  terminal  winter  buds 
in  autumn;  these  drop  off,  rest 
at  the  bottom  during  the  winter, 
and  then  develop  during  the 
following  spring.  Others  peren-< 
nate  by  means  of  fleshy  rhizomes, 
which  store  up  food. 

vSee  the  separate  articles  on  the 
various  plants  mentioned. 

Aquatint,  an  etching  process 
on  copper  by  which  prints  are 
produced  imitating  the  broad 
effects  of  India  ink  and  sepia 
drawings.  In  this  process,  areas, 
not  lines,  are  bitten  in  by  dilute 
acid  on  a  copper  plate,  covered 


with  black  resin,  on  which  the 
design  has  already  been  traced. 
Devised  by  Abbe  St.  Non  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  perfected 
by  Jean  Baptiste  le  Prince  (1733- 
81),  the  process  has  now  fallen 
into  disuse,  except  for  the  tints 
printed  in  some  colored  pictures. 
See  Engraving;  Etching. 

Aqua  Tofana,  a'kwa  t5-fa'na, 
a  mysterious  poisonous  liquid, 
applied  to  criminal  purposes  by 
a  Sicilian  woman  named  Tofana, 
about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Toxicologists  believe 
that  it  was  principally  a  solution 
of  arsenic. 

Aqua  Vitae  (Latin,  'water  of 
life'),  ardent  spirits;  especially, 
in  commerce,  the  spirits  of  the 
first  distillation,  or  unrectified. 
French  eau  de  vie  (brandy)  has 
the  same  meaning,  as  well  as  the 
words  whiskey  and  usquebaugh; 
the  former  a  Scotch,  the  latter 
an  Irish  form. 

Aqueducts,  artificial  channels 
for  carrying  water.  Formerly 
aqueducts  were  usually  masonry 
conduits  built  on  a  gentle  slope 
at  or  above  the  ground  level  to 
convey  water  with  a  free  surface. 
With  a  larger  variety  of  materials 
to  choose  from,  and  greater 
engineering  skill,  aqueducts  are 
now  carried  at  will  up  and  down 
or  through  mountains,  thus  sav- 
ing long  detours  or  costly  piers 
and  arches  around  or  across 
valleys,  and  at  the  same  time 
conserving  the  head  or  pressure 
for  generating  hydro  -  electric 
power  as  the  water  drops  from 
a  higher  to  a  lower  elevation. 
The  term  aqueducts  is  usually 
restricted  to  relatively  large  and 
long  conduits  leading  from  a 
source  of  supply  to  a  city. 
Where  cast  iron,  steel,  wood,  or 
concrete  pipes  are  used  to  con- 
vey water  under  pressure,  these 
conduits  are  generally  called 
supply  mains  or  pipe  lines.  In 
irrigation  (q.  v.)  the  terms  canals, 
ditches,  or  flumes  are  used  in 
place  of  aqueducts,  the  flumes 
being  of  wood  or  steel  supported 
on  timber  trestles,  or  reinforced 
concrete  on  trestles  of  the  same 
material. 

The  Romans  made  little  use 
of  pipes  under  pressure;  they 
raised  the  channel  on  arches  to 
keep  it  at  the  proper  gradient. 
Where  the  height  was  great,  they 
built  two  or  three  tiers  of  arches 
one  above  another;  and  to  make 
the  channel  impervious  to  water, 
the  masonry  was  coated  with 
stucco.  Hewn  masonry  was  gen- 
erally used,  but  the  Tepula  aque- 
duct at  Rome  was  largely  con- 
structed of  concrete.  Some  of 
these  early  aqueducts  are  still  in 
a  good  state  of  repair,  and  con- 
tinue to  carry  water;  a  typical 


example  is  that  at  Segovia  in 
Spain,  built  about  109  a.d. 

Before  the  end  of  the  first  cen- 
tury A.D.,  Rome  was  supplied  by 
nine  aqueducts,  with  a  total 
length  of  over  270  miles,  of  which 
about  35  miles  was  raised  above 
ground  on  arches.  The  last  of 
these  to  be  built,  the  Anio  Novus, 
at  one  point  is  109  feet  above 
ground  level.  It  is  built  above 
the  Aqua  Claudia,  the  two  waters 
flowing  in  separate  conduits  on 
the  same  arches.  The  aqueduct 
Ponte  delle  Torri,  at  Spoleto, 
dates  from  the  seventh  or  eighth 
century,  and  is  about  300  feet 
high,  with  two  series  of  pointed 
arches.  In  the  Roman  provinces 
there  were  the  incomparable 
aqueducts  at  Nimes,  at  Segovia 
and  Tarragona,  at  Metz  and 
Mainz,  at  Antioch,  and  at  Pyr- 
gos,  near  Constantinople.  The 
ancient  Greek  world  possessed 
famous  aqueducts  at  Athens 
(c.  560  B.C.),  at  Samos  (c.  625), 
and  at  Syracuse  (still  in  use). 
In  France,  the  aqueduct  of 
Maintenon  was  constructed  in 
Louis  XIV. 's  time,  to  bring 
water  to  Versailles;  it  is  4,400 
feet '  long,  over  200  feet  high, 
and  has  three  tiers  of  arches  of 
about  50  feet  span.  The  first 
aqueducts  of  importance  in 
Great  Britain  were  built  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  to  carry  canals.  They 
were  of  masonry,  with  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  of  the  canal  pud- 
dled. 

United  States. — The  earliest  and 
for  half  a  century  the  most  impor- 
tantaqueductinthe United  States 
was  the  Croton  Aqueduct  (com- 
pleted 1842).  This  was  surpassed 
by  the  New  Croton  Aqueduct  in 
1890,  and  that  by  the  Catskill 
Aqueduct  (completed  in  1915). 
By  far  the  largest  American  aque- 
duct was  completed  by  the  city  of 
Los  Angeles  (q.  v.)  in  1914;  and 
in  the  same  year  a  notable  Cana- 
dian aqueduct  was  begun  for  the 
Greater  Winnipeg  Water  Dis- 
trict in  Manitoba.  Aqueducts 
have  been  built  by  other  Amer- 
ican cities  as  follows:  Boston, 
1848,  1878  and  (Metropolitan 
Water  Board)  1897;  Baltimore, 

1862  and    1880;  Washington, 

1863  and  1902;  St.  Louis,  about 
1893;  Jersey  City,  1904.  Most 
American  cities  make  use  of  pipe 
lines  or  supply  mains,  rather  than 
aqueducts. 

The  Croton  Aqueduct  is  38.1 
miles  long,  of  stone  masonry  with 
a  brick  lining,  horseshoe  shaped, 
8.64  feet  high,  7.42  feet  wide,  with 
a  cross-sectional  area  of  53.34 
square  feet,  and  a  total  fall 
from  Croton  River  to  the  Central 
Park  Reservoir  of  43.7  feet.  The 
Harlem  River  is  crossed  by  means 


MODERN  AQUEDUCTS. 
1.  Cabin  John  Bridge  (Washington,  D.  C,  Water  Works).   2.  High  Bridge,  Old  Croton  Aqueduct,  New  York  City.   3.  Aqueduct 
over  river  Rea,  near  Cleobury  (Birmingham,  England,  Water  Works),  longest  unsupported  steel  pipe  yet  made.    4.  Masonry  and 
Bteel  Aqueduct,  Carmel  near  Llandriudod  (Birmingham,  England,  Water  Works). 


Aqueducts 


305  B 


Aqueducts 


of  pipes  on  a  masonry  bridge, 
and  the  Manhattan  Valley  by 
inverted  cast-iron  siphons  two 
miles  long.  Since  construction, 
the  lower  part  of  the  aqueduct 
has  been  replaced  by  cast-iron 
pipe  lines.  The  masonry  portion 
of  the  New  Croton  Aqueduct  is 
30.75  miles  long,  besides  which 
there  are  2.35  miles  of  pipe  lines 
to  connect  with  the  Central  Park 
Reservoir.  Nearly  all  of  the 
aqueduct  is  in  tunnel,  and  about 
seven  miles  is  under  pressure, 
including  the  crossing  beneath 
the  Harlem  River,  where  the 
pressure  is  55  lbs.  per  square  inch. 
The  pressure  tunnel  is  generally 
12M  feet  in  diameter;  but  under 
the  Harlem  River  the  diameter  is 


tunnels,  horseshoe  shaped,  17 
feet  high  and  13K  feet  wide;  17 
miles  are  concrete-lined  pressure 
tunnels,  some  14  feet  in  diameter; 
and  6  miles  are  inverted  siphons 
of  riveted  steel  pipe,  9  and  11 
feet  in  diameter,  the  plates  being 
15  to  M  inch  thick,  lined  with  2 
inches  of  cement  mortar  and  cov- 
ered with  concrete,  the  whole  in 
earth  embankment.  Altogether, 
more  than  one-fourth  the  length 
of  the  Catskill  Aqueduct  is  under 
pressure.  Of  the  seven  pressure 
tunnels,  the  one  beneath  the 
Hudson  River,  above  West  Point, 
is  1, 100  feet  below  the  surface  and 
3,022  feet  long.  The  City  Tunnel 
extension  of  the  Catskill  Aque- 
duct is  in  rock,  concrete  lined. 


Tl:ie  Los  Angeles  Aqueduct  is 
longer,  has  a  greater  total  fall, 
more  diverse  elements,  and  was 
built  under  greater  difficulties  of 
climate  and  location  than  any 
other  of  the  notable  aqueducts 
of  the  world.  Counting  8.5  miles 
of  flow  through  reservoirs,  and 
some  10  miles  of  power  canal,  this 
aqueduct  has  a  total  length  of 
about  235  miles  from  its  intake 
on  the  Owens  River  in  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  to  its  ter- 
minal reservoirs  near  San  Fer- 
nando, from  which  13  miles  of  72 
to  62  inch  steel  pipe  will  lead  to 
Los  Angeles.  It  was  built  almost 
entirely  by  day  labor,  without 
contractors,  including  the  manu- 
facture of  cement  in  mills  which 


Roman  Aqueduct,  the  Pont  du  Card,  Nimes. 


lOH  feet,  and  the  masonry  is 
lined  with  cast  iron.  Except  in 
the  pressure  portions,  the  aque- 
duct is  horseshoe  shaped,  13.53 
feet  high  and  13.6  feet  wide.  The 
rated  capacity  of  the  old  Croton 
Aqueduct  was  72,000,000  gallons 
a  day,  and  of  the  new  one  about 
300,000,000  gallons,  diminishing 
to  250,000.000  gallons  below  the 
Jerome  Park  Reservoir,  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  city. 

The  Catskill  Aqueduct,  which 
will  convey  500,000,000  gallons 
daily  from  the  Ashokan  Reservoir 
on  Esopus  Creek,  is  92  miles  long, 
not  includmg  the  great  city  tun- 
nel over  17  miles  long  and  various 
pipe-line  extensions.  Of  the  92 
miles,  55  are  of  concrete,  near  the 
surface,  horseshoe  shaped,  17 
feet  high  and  17M  feet  wide;  14 
miles  are  concrete-lined  grade 


15  to  11  feet  in  diameter,  200  to 
750  feet  below  the  surface.  It 
extends  beneath  the  Harlem 
River,  Manhattan  Borough,  the 
East  River,  and  Brooklyn  Bor- 
ough. From  the  Brooklyn  end 
of  the  City  Tunnel  pipes  extend  to 
the  boroughs  of  Queens  and  Rich- 
mond (Staten  Island),  the  Nar- 
rows being  crossed  by  a  sub- 
merged cast-iron  pipe,  with  flex- 
ible joints.  Numerous  concrete- 
lined  uptake  shafts,  with  special 
valves,  connect  the  city  tunnel 
with  the  distributing  mains  of  the 
city. 

The  Wachusett  Aqueduct,  which 
supplies  the  Boston  Metropolitan 
District  with  water  from  the 
Nashua  River,  has  a  rated  capac- 
ity of  300,000,000  gallons  and  a 
length  of  12  miles,  including  two 
miles  of  canal  at  its  lower  end. 


were  part  of  the  construction 
equipment  of  the  city.  The  upper 
end  of  the  aqueduct  is  3,812  feet, 
the  water  surface  of  the  lower 
terminal  reservoir  1,135  feet,  and 
the  business  section  of  Los  Ange- 
les some  275  feet  above  sea  level. 
This  makes  it  possible  to  realize 
some  120,000  horse  power  at  hy- 
dro-electric plants.  Moreover,  as 
the  full  259,000,000  gallons  capac- 
ity of  the  aqueduct  will  not  be 
required  for  many  years,  a  large 
volume  of  water  is  at  present 
available  to  irrigate  land  near 
Los  Angeles,  which  it  is  expected 
will  become  a  part  of  the  city, 
and  gradually  change  from  agri- 
cultural to  residential  areas. 
Beginning  at  its  upper  end,  the 
aqueduct  is  an  unlined  canal,  59 
feet  wide  and  with  a  water  depth 
of  7  feet  for  21  miles;  then  a  con- 


Aqueous  Humor 


306 


Aquinas 


crete-lined  open  canal,  30  feet 
wide  at  the  water  surface  for 
some  40  miles;  then,  save  for  the 
reservoir-flow  sections,  a  closed 
conduit  of  many  different  types, 
including  concrete-lined-and-cov- 
ered  conduits,  grade  and  pressure 
tunnels,  and  both  riveted  steel 
and  reinforced-concrete  inverted 
siphons.  One  of  the  larger  con- 
crete-lined-and-covered  sections 
has  a  water  depth  of  about  9  feet 
and  a  width  of  about  11  feet.  The 
siphons  are  from  about  11  to 
feet  in  diameter,  according  to  the 
pressure;  and  one,  of  steel  plates 
with  a  maximum  thickness  of  1 
inch,  is  under  a  head  or  pressure 
of  850  feet.  The  aqueduct  ex- 
tends for  miles  across  the  Mojave 
Desert,  and  a  t  other  points  up  and 
down  and  through  mountains. 

Notable  foreign  aqueducts  of 
modern  times  are  those  of  Glas- 
gow, Manchester,  Liverpool,  and 
Vienna;  also  one  in  Southeastern 
Italy,  put  under  construction  in 
1906  to  supply  water  from  the 
River  Sele,  beyond  the  Appen- 
nines,  to  towns  and  cities  having 
a  combined  population  of  3,000,- 
000,  and  scattered  over  an  area 
of  8,000  square  miles  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Puglia.  The  aqueduct 
has  a  daily  capacity  of  150,000,- 
000  gallons.  Numerous  tunnels 
aggregate  60  miles  in  length,  be- 
sides which  there  are  cut-and- 
cover  sections  and  inverted  si- 
phons. Except  the  siphons,  the 
aqueduct  is  not  under  pressure. 
The  aqueduct  proper  and  a  net- 
work of  cast-iron  pipes  have  a 
combined  length  of  some  1,900 
miles.  At  a  number  of  points 
available  head  is  used  to  drive 
pumps  to  supply  water  to  places 
above  the  aqueduct  level.  The 
whole  water-supply  system  is 
being  built  for  the  government, 
but  at  private  expense  under  a 
90-year  concession.  The  Winni- 
peg Aqueduct,  started  in  1914, 
will  be  85  miles  long  from  Shoal 
Lake,  an  arm  of  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods,  to  a  terminal  reservoir 
near  Winnipeg.  It  will  be  of  con- 
crete, reinforced  where  necessary, 
mostly  of  horseshoe  shape,  with 
maximum  dimensions  of  lOH  by 
9  feet.  It  is  designed  for  a  ca- 
pacity of  85,000,000  imperial  or 
102,000,000  U.  S.  gallons  per  day. 

See  Water;  Water  Conduits; 
Water  Supply;  Water  Works. 
Consult  Turneaure  and  Russell's 
Public  Water  Supplies;  White's 
The  Cats  kill  Water  Supply  of  New 
York  City  (1913). 

A'queous  Humor.    See  Eye. 

Aqueous  Rocks,  the  name 
given  to  those  rocks  that  have 
been  laid  down  beneath  water, 
whether  in  the  form  of  sedi- 
mentary deposits,  of  accumula- 
tions of  shells  and  other  animal 


or  plant  remains,  or  of  chemical 
precipitates.  In  some  systems  of 
classification  the  term  is  synony- 
mous with  sedimentary  rocks  (q. 
v.)    See  Rocks. 

Aquila,  ak'wi-la,  an  ancient 
constellation  placed  southeast 
of  Lyra,  and  traversed  by  the 
Milky  Way.  Nova  Aquilae, 
photographically  discovered  by 
Mrs.  Fleming  in  April,  1899,  was 
then  of  seventh  magnitude.  Its 
bright-line  stellar  spectrum  be- 
came nebular  as  it  faded.  A 
second  Nova  was,  when  dis- 
covered in  1905,  of  magnitude 
6^.  One  of  the  best  known 
short-period  variables  is  V  Aquilae, 
which  fluctuates  from  3.5  to  4.7 
magnitude  in  7  days  4  hours, 
and  was  found  by  Belopolsky  in 
1895  to  be  a  spectroscopic  binary. 
6  Aquilae  is  also  a  spectroscopic 
binary  with  a  period  of  17.2  days. 
Of  the  double  stars  in  the  con 
stellatioh,  hardly  any  exhibit  de- 
cided relative  motion. 

AquUa,  Caspar  (1488-1560), 
the  Latin  name  of  a  German 
theologian,  Adler,  who,  after 
suffering  imprisonment  in  1519- 
20  for  his  advocacy  of  the  Re- 
formed doctrines,  became  profes- 
sor of  Hebrew  at  Wittenberg 
(1524) ,  and  aided  Luther  in  trans- 
lating the  Old  Testament.  Be- 
coming Protestant  pastor  of 
Saalfeld  (1527),  he  was  outlawed 
by  Charles  v.  (1548),  but  was 
restored  to  his  pastorate  in  1552. 

Aquila,  Ponticus,  a  native  of 
Sinope  in  Pontus,  who  flourished 
about  130  A. D.  He  made  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  into 
Greek,  which  was  so  literal  that 
the  Jews  preferred  it  to  the 
Septuagint,  as  did  also  the 
Ebionites.  The  version  was 
praised  by  both  Jerome  and 
Origen,  and  such  fragments  of  it 
as  remain  may  be  found  in  the 
latter's  Hexapla. 

Aquila  degli  Abruzzi,  a'kwe- 
la  da'lye  a-broot'se,  province, 
Italy,  in  the  territorial  division 
of  Abruzzi  and  Molise,  between 
the  two  main  chains  of  the 
Central  Apennines.  Cereals, 
flax,  hemp,  and  fruits  are  the 
chief  productions.  Area,  2,485 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1901)  397,- 
645;  (1911)  407,812. 

Aquila  degli  Abruzzi,  episco- 
pal see  and  summer  resort,  Italy, 
chief  town  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  stands  on  a  plateau 
at  the  foot  of  the  Gran  Sasso 
d'ltalia,  the  culminating  knot  of 
the  Central  Apennines;  55  miles 
northeast  of  Rome.  The  Cathe- 
dral, first  built  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  has  been  injured  by 
earthquakes,  and  has  been  re- 
cently rCvStored.  Saffron  is  ex- 
tensively grown  in  the  vicinity. 
Lace  making  gives  employment 


to  many  of  the  women.  Aquila 
was  founded  by  the  Emperor 
Frederick  ii.  in  1240,  on  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  Amiternum. 
Pop.  (1901)  21,261;  (1911)  21,929. 

Aquilegia.    See  Columbine. 

Aquileia,  ii-kwe-la'ya,  or  Ag- 
LAR,  village,  Austria,  in  Gorz  and 
Gradisca,  at  the  head  of  the 
Adriatic;  26  miles  by  rail  north- 
west of  Trieste.  It  was  in  an- 
cient times  strongly  fortified, 
and,  owing  to  its  position  at  the 
foot  of  several  Alpine  passes,  and 
on  the  Via  Emilia,  was  the 
principal  bulwark  on  the  north- 
east frontier  of  Italy.  It  was  an 
important  commercial  centre, 
having  access  to  the  sea  by  means 
of  a  lagoon  now  silted  up.  It 
was  founded  in  182  B.C.,  was 
strongly  fortified  by  Marcus 
Aurelius,  and  in  the  fourth 
century  a.d.  was  the  fourth  city 
in  point  of  size  and  population 
in  all  Italy.  Here  the  Emperor 
Maximin  perished;  and  in  the 
vicinity  Constantius  lost  his  life 
in  a  battle  against  his  brother 
Constans.  In  452  it  was  cap- 
tured by  Attila,  who  razed  it 
to  the  ground,  the  inhabitants 
escaping  to  the  lagoons  in  which 
Venice  was  afterward  built.  In 
the  sixth  century  (the  town 
having  been  rebuilt  by  the  Os- 
trogoths) it  became  the  seat  of  a 
patriarch  of  the  church,  who 
wielded  great  political  power; 
but  the  dignity  was  suppressed 
in  1750.  Aquileia  still  possesses 
an  eleventh-century  cathedral, 
and  has  a  museum  full  of  val- 
uable Roman  antiquities.  Pop. 
(1900)  2.319;  (1911)  2,651. 

Aquin,  a'kah',  town,  Haiti, 
West  Indies,  on  the  south  coast; 
75  miles  southwest  of  Port  an 
Prince.  Dyewoods  are  exported. 
Pop.  22,000. 

Aqui'nas,  Thomas,  'the  An- 
gelic Doctor,'  was  the  son  of  the 
Count  of  Aquino,  near  which 
town,  situated  between  Rome 
and  Naples,  he  was  born  about 
1226.  Having  received  the  ele- 
ments of  his  education  in  the 
monastery  of  Monte  Cassino,  he 
proceeded  to  the  University  of 
Naples,  and  in  his  sev^cntecnth 
year  joined  the  Dominicans.  He 
afterward  studied  under  the 
celebrated  Albertus  Magnus  at 
Cologne;  accompanied  his  master 
in  a  three  years'  sojourn  at  Paris 
(where  he  graduated  bachelor  of 
theology);  then  returned  with 
Albert  to  the  school  of  Cologne 
as  second  teacher  and  magister 
studentium.  The  University  of 
Paris  having  assumed  a  bitter 
hostility  to  the  mendicant  orders, 
Thomas  sprang  to  the  defence 
of  the  latter  with  tongue  and 
pen;  and  having  received  the 
Pope's   special    commission  to 


Aquinas 


307 


Arabesque 


act  as  the  champion  of  the 
Dominicans,  he  vindicated  their 
position  with  such  acumen  and 
address  that  he  procured  the 
discomfiture  of  their  chief  oppo- 
nent, WilHam  of  St.  Amour. 

Although  this  strife  somewhat 
delayed  his  academic  progress, 
so  that  he  was  over  thirty  before 
Paris  granted  his  doctorate,  the 
career  of  Aquinas  was  thence- 
forward a  triumphal  march. 
Called  to  Italy  by  Pope  Urban 
IV.  in  1261,  he  lectured  with 
signal  success  on  behalf  of  the 
Church  and  his  order;  in  1272  he 
was  made  a  professor  in  Naples; 
and  so  great  was  his  devotion  to 
learning,  and,  be  it  also  said,  his 
modesty,  that  when  the  highest 
ecclesiastical  preferments,  such 
as  the  archbishopric  of  Naples 
and  the  abbacy  of  Monte  Cas- 
sino,  were  offered  him,  he  felt 
it  his  duty  to  decline  them  one 
and  all. 

He  continued  his  labors  in 
church  statesmanship,  public 
lecturing,  and  writing  till  1274, 
when  he  was  summoned  by  Pope 
Gregory  to  assist  in  the  settle- 
ment of  the  dispute  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Churches 
at  a  council  to  be  held  at  Lyons. 
While  on  the  way  his  overwrought 
frame  collapsed,  and  he  was 
carried  to  the  Cistercian  mon- 
astery of  Fossa  Nuova,  near 
Terracina,  where  he  died  on 
March  7,  1274.  His  remains 
were  deposited  at  Toulouse.  He 
was  canonized  in  1323,  and  made 
a  doctor  of  the  church  in  1567. 

Aquinas'  greatest  work  is  the 
Summa  Theologies,  which  exer- 
cised an  immense  influence  in  his 
own  and  later  times,  and  which 
even  to-day  forms  the  main  doc- 
trinal standard  of  Catholicism. 
It  is  designed  on  a  magnificent 
scale,  and  its  great  purpose  is  to 
exhibit  theology  as  the  synthesis 
and  embodiment  of  all  human 
knowledge,  whether  of  faith  or 
of  reason;  in  a  manner  it  seeks 
to  realize  the  famous  tenet  of 
Scotus  Erigena  —  namely,  the 
identity  of  philosophy  and  the- 
ology. The  ostensible  antagon- 
ism between  natural  and  super- 
natural knowledge  formed  the 
problem  of  Aquinas,  as  of  the 
scholastics  generally;  and  Aqui- 
nas, following  in  the  wake  of  his 
master,  Albertus  Magnus,  tasks 
himself  to  fuse  the  two,  and  to 
show  that  they  are  but  supple- 
mentary aspects  of  the  one  in- 
divisible truth,  the  natural  world 
and  the  Christian  religion  being 
but  the  twin  channels  of  the  Di- 
vine self-manifestation. 

But  it  was  only  after  Thomas 
had,  with  tireless  industry,  made 
himself  master  of  both  provinces 
of  learning  that  he  projected 


their  synthesis  in  his  magnum 
opus,  and  his  other  works  may  be 
regarded  as  only  marking  stages 
on  the  two  converging  lines  by 
which  he  proceeded  to  the  con- 
summation of  his  labors.  Thus, 
on  the  one  hand,  we  have  his 
volumes  on  'disputed  questions,' 
and  his  Scripture  commentaries 
(Psalms,  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah, 
Gospels,  Epistles),  in  which  he 
draws  mainly  from  the  fathers; 
and,  on  the  other,  his  De  Ente 
et  Essentia,  his  Summa  Philo- 
sophica  Contra  Gentiles  (dealing 
with  natural  religion,  and  of 
scarcely  less  importance  than 
the  Summa  Theologies),  and  his 
commentaries  on  the  writings  of 
Aristotle.  Thus  equipped,  he 
proceeds  to  his  crowning  work, 
the  Summa,  a  complete  system 
of  human  knowledge,  the  intel- 
lectual antitype  of  the  universal 
empire  and  the  universal  church. 
The  Summa  is  in  three  great 
divisions,  treating  respectively 
of  God,  Man,  and  the  God-Man, 
the  last  having  been  left  incom- 
plete at  his  death. 

It  should  be  noted  that  by 
revelation  Aquinas  understands 
the  delivery  of  a  definite  body 
of  doctrines,  not  the  actual 
presence  of  a  divine  life  in  the 
world;  and  that  with  him  faith 
is  an  intellectual  acquiescence  in 
this  system  of  revealed  truth, 
not  a  personal  trust  in  a  divinely 
commissioned  Saviour.  Aquinas 
marks  the  zenith  of  scholasti- 
cism. His  great  opponent  was 
Duns  Scotus,  the  Franciscan 
doctor,  who,  taking  the  will 
(voluntas)  as  his  principle  (as 
Aquinas  had  taken  intellectus, 
the  understanding),  really  trans- 
ferred theology  to  the  sphere  of 
practice,  and  so,  separating  again 
the  provinces  of  reason  and  faith, 
inaugurated  the  decline  of  scho- 
lasticism, and  prepared  the  way 
for  modern  philosophy  and  the 
Reformation.  St.  Thomas  was 
the  author  of  the  famous  Pange 
Lingua,  and  other  eucharistic 
hymns  of  the  Roman  Breviary. 
Consult  Vaughan's  Life. 

Aquino,  a-kwe'no  (ancient 
Aquinum),  town,  Caserta  prov- 
ince, Italy;  78  miles  southeast 
of  Rome.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  Juvenal  and  Thomas  Aquinas. 
Pop.  3,000. 

Aquisgranum,  the  ancient 
name  of  Aix  la  Chapelle  (q.  v.). 

Aq'uita'nia,  a  district  of  Gaul, 
lying  between  the  Garonne  and 
the  Pyrenees.  Its  inhabitants 
were  one  of  the  three  races  which 
originally  inhabited  Gaul;  they 
were  not  Celtic,  but  were  more 
akin  to  the  Iberians  in  Spain,  a 
pre-Aryan  population  now  repre- 
sented by  the  Basques,  though 
the  modern  inhabitants  of  Aqui- 


taine  are  probably  to  a  large 
extent  true  descendants  of  the 
Aquitani.  The  district  was  con- 
quered (57  B.C.)  by  Ca?sar's  lieu- 
tenants; and  again,  after  a  re- 
volt, in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 
The  Roman  province  of  the  same 
name  was  bounded  (from  37 
B.C.)  on  the  north  by  the  Loire, 
on  the  east  by  the  Cevennes,  on 
the  south  by  the  Pyrenees,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  The  Visigoths,  the  Mer- 
ovingians, and  the  Carlovin- 
gians  successively  possessed  the 
district,  and  its  name  in  the 
tenth  century  became  corrupted 
into  Guienne.  In  1137,  by  the 
marriage  of  Louis  vii.  with 
Eleanor,  daughter  of  William  x. 
of  Guienne,  it  became  attached 
to  the  ^  French  crown.  After 
Eleanor's  divorce  she  married 
Henry  ii.  of  England,  and  brought 
him  the  possession  as  her  dowry. 
It  remained  in  English  hands 
until  the  battle  of  Castillon  in 
1453,  after  which  it  was  finally 
restored  to  France. 

Aquitanus  Sinus.  See  Bis- 
cay, Bay  of. 

Ara,  or  Arara,  a  cockatoo  of 
Northern  Australia  and  the  Ma- 
layan Islands,  which  is  entirely 
black  except  the  cheeks,  which 
are  bare  and  red.  It  is  the  largest 
known  parrot,  reaching  a  length 
of  30  inches,  and  has  a  beak  so 
powerful  that  it  cracks  such 
hard  nuts  as  those  of  the  kanari 
palm,  living  principally  upon 
them.    It  is  rarely  caged. 

Ara,  an  ancient  constellation 
situated  to  the  south  of  Scorpio, 
and  possibly  embodying  a  rem- 


The  Constellation  Ara. 

iniscence  of  the  mound  altar  of 
the  Tower  of  Babel.  Among  the 
stars  composing  it  are  S  Arae,  a 
short-period  variable,  and  R  Arae, 
undergoing  eclipses  once  in  4 
days  10  hours. 

Arabesque  (French),  the  style 
of  decoration,  either  sculptured 
or  painted,  which  the  Spanish 
Moors  introduced  into  Europe. 
The  species  of  enrichment  to 
which  this  term  is  now  applied 


Arabia 


308 


Arabia 


was  extensively  employed  both 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The 
Egyptians  also  employed  it  in 
their  monumental  decorations. 
The  arabesque  of  the  Moors 
entirely  excluded  the  figures  of 
animals,  and  confined  itself  to 
the  foliage,  etc.,  of  plants  and 
trees,  elaborately  intertwined. 
The  arabesques  with  which 
Raphael  adorned  the  galleries 
of  the  Vatican  are  at  once  the 
most  famous  and  the  most 
beautiful  which  the  modern 
world  has  produced.  The  mod- 
ern arabesque  consists  usually 
of  combinations  of  plants,  birds, 


one-third  that  of  Europe.  The 
Red  Sea  coast,  which  is  ex- 
tremely deficient  in  harbors,  is 
fringed  with  shoals  and  coral 
reefs;  and  there  are  a  few  small 
islands  as  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb  is  approached,  the  Brit- 
ish island  of  Perim,  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  Strait,  being  the 
most  important.  The  south 
coast  presents  a  convex  shore  to 
the  Indian  Ocean,  and  has  a 
number  of  good  harbors,  such  as 
Aden,  Dafar,  and  Keshin.  The 
Oman  coast,  on  the  east,  has  the 
deep  and  almost  landlocked 
harbor  of  Muscat  (Maskat) ;  but 


fVTD^irMvrinp-vrvvYYvirT  ■  w^-  r  v.  varayg 


Moorish  Arabesque  Ornament  {Hall  of  Crowns,  Alhamhra). 


and  animals  of  all  kinds,  includ- 
ing the  human  figure,  and  em- 
bracing not  only  every  natural 
variety,  but  stepping  beyond  the 
bounds  of  nature. 

Ara'bia,  known  to  its  inhab- 
itants as  Jezirat-al-Arah,  and  to 
the  Turks  as  Arabistan,  is  a  mas- 
sive quadrangular  peninsula  of 
Asia  in  the  southwest  of  the 
continent,  lying  between  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of 
Oman  on  the  east,  and  the  Red 
Sea  on  the  west,  with  no  natural 
frontier  on  the  north,  the  con- 
ventional boundai  y  being  rough- 
ly the  parallel  of  30°  N.  Length, 
north  to  south,  1,500  miles;  ave- 
rage breadth,  800  miles;  area, 
1,200,000  square  miles,  or  about 


the  sandy  shores  of  the  shallow 
Persian  Gulf,  to  the  east  and 
north  of  the  Strait  of  Ormuz, 
possess  no  harbor  of  importance 
until  El  Kuweit  (Koweit),  at  its 
head,  is  reached.  This  place 
has  been  rnentioned  as  the 
terminus  of  the  railway  from 
Constantinople  through  Bagdad 
(see  Bagdad  Railway).  Tur- 
key claims  that  the  port  is  with- 
in the  sphere  of  her  admini- 
stration, but  this  Great  Britain 
will  not  admit.  The  Gulf  con- 
tains numerous  islands,  the  chief 
being  Bahrein,  which  is  the 
centre  of  the  Gulf  pearl  fisheries, 
valued  at  about  $1,500,000  an- 
nually. British  influence  is  pre- 
dominant in  the  Gulf. 


The  coasts  of  Arabia  are 
among  the  hottest  regions  of  the 
world.  The  mean  temperature 
of  Aden  varies  from  75°  f.  in 
January  to  85°  F.  in  July;  but 
the  higher  parts  of  the  plateau, 
which  have  a  great  range  of 
temperature  and  almost  no  rain- 
fall, experience  intense  cold  on 
winter  nights.  In  several  parts 
of  Arabia  hardly  a  refreshing 
shower  falls  in  the  course  of  the 
year,  and  vegetation  is  almost 
unknown;  in  other  sultry  dis- 
tricts, the  date  palm  is  almost 
the  only  proof  of  vegetable  life. 
The  short  rainy  season,  which 
occurs  on  the  west  coast  during 
our  summer  months,  fills  peri- 
odically the  wadys  (hollow  places) 
with  water,  while  slight  frosts 
mark  the  winters  in  the  centre 
and  northeast.  During  the  hot 
season  the  Simoom  blows,  but 
only  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
land. 

In  shape  Arabia  is  an  irregular 
parallelogram,  broadest  at  the 
south  end.  The  vast  central 
plateau  rises  from  a  height  of 
2,500  feet  in  the  north  to  7,000 
feet  in  the  southwest,  and  is 
bounded  by  west  and  south 
mountain  chains,  the  former 
attaining,  to  the  south  of  Mecca, 
a  height  of  8,500  feet.  Between 
the  mountains  and  the  sea  is  a 
low  hot  strip  of  land,  partially 
fertile,  of  varying  width.  There 
is  a  desert  in  the  north  of  the 
interior,  the  mountainous  coun- 
try of  Nejd  near  the  very  centre, 
and  to  the  south  of  Nejd  an- 
other very  sterile  sandy  desert. 
Large  portions  of  Arabia  are 
perfectly  arid — nowhere  does  a 
river  reach  the  sea  all  the  year 
round;  but  the  more  fertile  por- 
tions are  so  extensive  as  to  con- 
stitute two-thirds  of  the  total 
area;  one-third  of  the  whole  may 
be  accounted  desert  and  unin- 
habitable. 

Divisions.  —  Ptolemy  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  author  of  the 
famous  threefold  division  into 
Arabia  Petrcea — i.e.,  the  Arabia 
of  the  city  of  Petra — in  the 
northwest;  Arabia  Felix,  all  along 
the  west  and  southA'est  coasts; 
and  Arabia  Deserta,  in  the  inte- 
rior. The  modern  divisions  are 
the  Sinai  Peninsula,  between  the 
Gulfs  of  Suez  and  Akabah;  Hejaz 
('the  barrier'),  fronting  the  Red 
Sea,  and  succeeded  by  the  fer- 
tile, well-watered,  and  well-cul- 
tivated country  of  Yemen;  Te- 
hama, the  low-lying  sandy  strip, 
covered  with  coral  debris,  from 
20°  N.  to  15°  N.;  Hadramaut  and 
Mahra,  fronting  the  Gulf  of  Aden 
and  the  Indian  Ocean  respec- 
tively; the  mountainous  kingdom 
of  Oman,  the  extreme  southwest 


Arabia 


309 


Arabia 


end  of  the  peninsula;  Hasa,  front- 
ing the  Persian  Gulf;  and  Nejd, 
the  oasis-studded  middle  portion 
of  the  interior. 

Hejaz  and  Yemen  extend  from 
the  Red  Sea  indefinitely  toward 
the  interior,  and  consist  partly 
of  the  Tehama,  or  low  country, 
along  the  sea,  and  partly  of  the 
mountain  district  beyond.  The 
chief  centres  of  Hejaz,  through 
which  pass  the  pilgrim  routes 
from  Syria  and  Egypt,  are  Me- 
dina and  Mecca  (qq.v.).  A  tel- 
egraph line  has  been  laid  along 
the  caravan  route  from  Damas- 
cus to  Medina  and  Mecca.  A 
railway  from  Damascus  to  Me- 
dina has  been  completed,  which 
will  probably  eventually  be 
extended  to  Mecca. 

Yemen  comprises  the  province 
of  Asir,  Aden,  the  protectorate  of 
Aden,  and  Yemen  proper.  It 
has  rich  and  fertile  valleys,  and 
contains  about  one-fifth  of  the 
whole  population  of  Arabia. 
The  capital  is  Sanaa,  and  its 
port  is  Hodeida,  which  exports 
the  coffee  and  hides  of  the  prov- 
ince. 

Hadramaut  resembles  the  Hej- 
az in  character.  The  capital  is 
Shibam,  lying  in  a  broad  valley 
parallel  to  the  south  coast.  Ma- 
kalla  is  the  principal  seaport. 
Oman  (q.v.)  is  mainly  mountain- 
ous, but  is  fertile  in  places. 
Hasa  is  comparatively  level  and 
fertile.  Koweil,  on  the  north- 
western coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
has  the  finest  harbor  (Koweit)  in 
Eastern  Arabia. 

Knowledge  of  the  interior  of 
Arabia  is  still  imperfect  in  detail. 
The  largest  portion  of  it  lies  in 
that  great  desert  zone  which 
stretches  from  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic  to  those  of  the  Northern 
Pacific.  Nejd,  the  central  plat- 
eau of  Arabia,  is  a  compact 
settled  district,  culminating  in 
the  crescent-shaped  Jebel  To- 
weyk,  which  is  intersected  by 
numerous  valleys,  roaring  tor- 
rents during  the  rains,  but  dry 
depressions  at  other  times. 
North  of  Nejd,  and  separated 
from  it  by  a  narrow  arm  of  Ne- 
fud,  or  the  northern  desert  of 
Arabia,  is  the  smaller  plateau  of 
Jebel  Shammar,  crossed  by  the 
ranges  of  Jebel  Aja  and  Jebel 
Selma.  The  northern  desert, 
partly  stony,  and  partly  a  burn- 
ing expanse  of  red  sand,  is  thinly 
sprinkled  over  with  oases  of  wells 
and  grass,  serving  as  halting 
places  for  the  caravans  of  mer- 
chants or  pilgrims.  Dahna,  the 
south  and  main  desert  of  Arabia, 
extends  from  Nejd  to  the  Hadira- 
maut  coast  range,  and  is  sterile 
sandy  waste. 

Products  and  Industry. — The 
terraced  districts  of  Arabia  are 
favorable  to  culture,  and  produce 
Wheat,  barley,  millet,  palms,  to- 
bacco, indigo,  cotton,  sugar, 
tamarinds,  coffee,  senna,  and 
many  aromatic  and  spice  plants, 


as  balsam,  aloe,  myrrh,  and 
frankincense.  Arabia  is  desti- 
tute of  forests,  but  has  vast 
stretches  of  desert  grass  fragrant 
with  aromatic  herbs,  and  furnish- 
ing admirable  pasturage  for  a 
splendid  breed  of  horses.  Coffee, 
one  of  the  most  important  ex- 
ports, is  an  indigenous  product 
of  Arabia.  Other  products  are 
the  acacia,  which  yields  gum 
arable,  senna,  henna  and  indigo. 

Sheep,  goats,  oxen,  camels, 
donkeys,  and  horses  are  abun- 
dant among  the  settled  inhabi- 
tants; the  wandering  tribes  have 
no  oxen.  Gazelles  and  ostriches 
frequent  the  oases  of  the  deserts, 
where  the  lion,  panther,  hyena, 
and  jackal  hunt  their  prey.  Mon- 
keys, pheasants,  and  doves  are 
found  in  the  fertile  districts,  and 
flights  of  locusts  often  make 
serious  devastation.  Fish  and 
turtle  abound  on  the  coast. 

Among  the  minerals  of  Arabia 
may  be  mentioned  iron,  copper, 
lead,  coal,  basalt,  and  asphaltum; 
and  the  precious  stones,  emerald, 
carnelian,  agate,  and  onyx. 
Pearls  are  found  in  the  Persian 
Gulf. 

Arabia  has  few  manufactures, 
but  carries  on  a  transit  trade  in 
foreign  fabrics. 

People. — The  people  are  main- 
ly Arabs  (Bedouins  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  deserts)  and  followers 
of  Mohammed  (see  Mohammed- 
anism). Estimates  of  the  pop- 
ulation of  Arabia  vary  widely, 
but  the  best  available  figures 
place  the  total  at  about  7,000,- 
000. 

The  Arab  is  of  medium  stat- 
ure, muscular  make,  and  brown 
complexion.  He  is  quick,  sharp- 
witted,  imaginative,  and  passion- 
ately fond  of  poetry.  Courage, 
temperance,  hospitality,  and  good 
faith  are  his  leading  virtues; 
but  these  are  often  marred  by  a 
spirit  of  rapacity  and  revenge. 
See  also  Bedouins. 

Education  is  mostly  confined 
to  that  within  the  household, 
where,  however,  a  boy  is  instruct- 
ed in  reading  and  writing,  in 
grammar,  history,  and  poetry, 
and  where  he  is  trained  to  habits 
of  politeness  and  self-restraint. 
In  the  few  higher  public  schools, 
writing,  grammar,  and  rhetoric 
compose  the  curriculum.  The 
government  is  patriarchal,  and 
the  chief  men  of  the  various 
tribes  have  the  title  of  Emir, 
Sheik,  or,  in  a  religious  sense. 
Imam. 

History. — Arabian  history  is 
divided  by  Islam  into  two  epochs, 
each  with  different  "characteris- 
tics. Of  the  pre-Islamic  period 
only  a  few  facts  stand  out  with 
any  distinctness;  one  is,  that  the 
Romans  tried  in  vain  to  subdue 
the  peninsula.  Arab  history 
proper  is  commonly  dated  from 
the  breakdown  of  the  great  dyke 
at  Mareb.  in  Yemen,  which 
forced  many  tribes  to  seek  new 


habitations  in  the  north.  There 
they  founded  a  number  of  small 
states.  One  of  these  tribes, 
Thamud,  settled  in  the  Hejaz 
(northwestern  coast  strip) .  Traces 
of  their  existence  are  still  found 
at  the  ruins  of  Al  Hijr  (Al 
Ola),  the  inscriptions  on  which 
have  been  deciphered  by  Euro- 
pean scholars. 

Through  Islam,  Arabia  entered 
upon  the  second  or  political  pe- 
riod of  its  history.  Mohammed 
founded  a  theocratic  state,  as 
chief  of  which  he  united  in  him- 
self the  highest  secular  and 
ecclesiastical  .powers.  Only  the 
first  four  califs — viz.,  Abu-Bekr, 
Omar,  Othman,  Ali  (632-660) — 
held  sway  over  all  believers  (see 
Calif).  More  from  political 
than  religious  reasons,  a  schism 
arose,  which  henceforth  sepa- 
rated Sunnites  (conservatives) 
from  Shiites  (sectarians).  The 
dynasty  of  the  Ommayads  (661- 
749)  represents  the  old  aristo- 
cratic party  of  Mecca.  Through 
the  removal  of  the  court  from 
Medina  to  Damascus,  Mecca  and 
Medina  had  sunk  to  the  position 
of  religious  centres  only,  while 
the  history  of  Arabia  became 
merged  in  that  of  the  Moslem 
empire.  The  dominion  of  the 
Arabs,  from  the  time  of  Mo- 
hammed to  the  fall  of  the  Cali- 
fate  of  Bagdad  in  1258,  or  even 
to  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors 
from  Spain  in  1492,  is  an  impor- 
tant period  in  the  history  of 
civilization  (see  Calif). 

In  the  year  1517  a  considerable 
portion  of  Arabia  passed,  to- 
gether with  Egypt,  under  the 
domination  of  the  Ottoman  Sul- 
tan Selim.  From  that  time  for- 
ward until  the  break-up  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire  four  hundred 
years  later,  Turkey  claimed  su- 
zerainty over  the  greater  part 
of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  Yem- 
en in  the  southwest  was  a  per- 
petual source  of  anxiety  and  ex- 
pense to  the  Constantinople  au- 
thorities. Collection  of  taxes 
and  raising  of  levies  in  this  region 
cost  considerably  more  than  the 
results  were  worth,  for  although 
Yemen  was  relatively  fertile  and 
populous,  its  inhabitants  never 
rendered  a  moral  fealty  to  their 
Turkish  overlords.  But  to  main- 
tain Turkey's  prestige  in  the 
eyes  of  the  rest  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula  the  Ottoman  govern- 
ment continued  to  assert  its 
rights  in  Yemen  at  whatever  cost 
and,  in  spite  of  opposition,  main- 
tained a  precarious  hold  on  the 
country  until  the  Turkish  defeat 
during  the  Great  War. 

In  the  Hejaz  and  especially  in 
the  holy  cities  of  Mecca  and 
Medina  Turkish  control  was 
usually  easier  to  maintain.  But 
in  the  deserts  of  Nejd  in  the  in- 
terior Turkish  influence  was  not 
strongly  felt.  Here,  indeed,  there 
arose  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  a  power  to 

Vol.  I. — Oct.  '29 


Arabia 


310 


Arabian  Language  and  Literature 


rival  that  of  the  Turks  when 
Sheik  Mohammed  Ibn  Saoud, 
embraeing  the  puritan  Moham- 
medan doctrines  of  Ibn  Abdul 
Wahhab,  set  out  to  win  the  in- 
habitants of  Central  and  Eastern 
Arabia  to  the  newly-founded  sect 
by  persuasion  and  the  sword. 
As  the  strict  Wahhabi  creed 
gained  rapid  acceptance  in  this 
area  so  too  did  the  political  pre- 
tensions of  the  house  of  Ibn 
Saoud.  A  Turkish  punitive  ex- 
pedition arrived  in  1798.  but  was 
driven  back  by  the  Wahhabis. 
The  latter  expressed  their  disap- 
proval of  the  'idolatrous'  prac- 
tices of  the  pilgrims  of  the  day 
by  attacking  pilgrim  caravans  on 
their  way  to  Mecca  or  Medina. 
In  1801  the  Wahhabis  sacked 
Kerbela,  a  Shiite  shrine  in  Meso- 
potamia, and  put  the  inhabitants 
of  the  place  to  the  sword.  Three 
years  later  they  had  gained  con- 
trol of  both  Mecca  and  Medina 
in  the  west.  The  political  do- 
minion of  the  house  of  Ibn  Saoud 
extended  from  the  Persian  Gulf 
to  the  Red  Sea. 

But  in  1810  the  Ottoman  gov- 
ernment deputed  Mehemet  AH, 
governor  of  Egypt,  to  overthrow 
the  Wahhabi  kingdom.  After 
seven  years  of  difficult  campaign- 
ing Mehemet  Ali  accomplished 
this  task,  but  shortly  afterward, 
while  he  was  himself  occupied 
with  a  revolt  against  his  Turkish 
sovereign,  a  member  of  the  Ibn 
Saoud  family  was  able  to  re- 
establish himself  at  Riyadh  in 
Central  Arabia.  The  Egyptian 
pasha  did  not  renew  his  attack 
on  Nejd,  but  in  1875  Midhat 
Pasha,  a  famous  Turkish  pro- 
consul, advanced  into  El  Hasa 
on  the  Persian  Gulf,  claimed  it 
for  the  Ottoman  government  and 
detached  it  from  the  territory 
ruled  over  by  Ibn  Saoud. 

In  Nejd  itself,  meanwhile,  an- 
other family — that  of  Ibn  Rashid 
— had  been  increasing  its 
strength,  and  in  1891  challenged 
Ibn  Saoud 's  mastery  of  Nejd. 
The  latter  was  defeated  in  battle 
and  took  refuge  in  Koweit  im- 
mediately north  of  El  Hasa. 

It  was  in  1901  that  a  son,  Ab- 
dul Aziz  Ibn  Saoud,  returned  to 
Riyadh  and  began  by  slow  de- 
grees to  build  up  the  political 
dominion  his  forefathers  had 
won  and  lost.  He  was  able  to 
drive  off  not  only  Ibn  Rashid  but 
also  Turkish  troops  which  came 
to  the  latter's  assistance  in  1904. 
In  1910  he  initiated  a  plan  for 
establishing  cantonments  of  de- 
voted Wahhabis  at  various  stra- 
tegic points  to  ensure  the  per- 
manence of  his  victories  and  to 
act  as  nuclei  for  the  diffusion  of 
Wahhabi  doctrines.  In  1913  he 
reconquered  El  Hasa  from  the 
Turks.  In  the  following  year, 
before  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War,  he  made  a  treaty  with  the 
Ottoman  government.    In  De- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '29 


cember,  1915,  Great  Britain  rec- 
ognized him  as  independent  ruler 
of  Nejd  and  El  Hasa.  A  British 
subsidy  from  1916  to  1924  was  of 
material  assistance  to  him  in 
further  extending  and  consoli- 
dating his  dominions,  and  espe- 
cially in  capturing  Hail,  the  home 
of  his  rival,  Ibn  Rashid,  whose 
power  was  thereby  brought  to  an 
end  (1921). 

Another  rival  remained  in  the 
Hejaz  in  the  person  of  the  Sherif 
Hussein,  who  had  allied  himself 
with  the  British  during  the  Great 
War  in  the  hope  of  establishing 
under  his  own  moral  leadership 
a  great  federation  of  Arab  states 
extending  from  Aden  on  the 
south  to  Cilicia  on  the  north  and 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the 
east  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
west.  Hussein  had  succeeded  in 
having  himself  proclaimed  'King 
of  the  Arabs'  and  had  won  repre- 
sentation for  the  Hejaz  at  the 
Paris  Peace  Conference.  He  ex- 
pected also  to  have  the  Hejaz 
enrolled  among  the  list  of  mem- 
bers of  the  League  of  Nations. 
But  the  assumption  of  mandates 
by  Great  Britain  and  France  in 
Mesopotamia,  Palestine  and 
Syria  made  it  impossible  and  the 
Hejaz  was  consequently  left  out- 
side of  the  League  and  Hussein 
found  himself,  as  before,  with 
only  a  section  of  the  Red  Sea 
littoral  under  his  control.  In- 
justice and  corruption  flourished 
in  the  country  and  Ibn  Saoud,  as 
soon  as  his  British  subsidy  ceased 
in  1924,  was  able,  with  the  ap- 
proval of  certain  other  Moslem 
countries,  to  attack  Hussein  and 
drive  him  and  then  his  son  Ali 
out  of  the  Hejaz  on  the  plea  that 
the  holy  places  of  Islam  should 
be  entrusted  to  a  better  adminis- 
tration than  the  Hashimite  fam- 
ily had  provided.  By  December 
25,  1925,  Ibn  Saoud  was  master 
of  the  whole  of  the  Hejaz  as  well 
as  of  Nejd  and  El  Hasa.  Not 
long  afterward  he  extended  his 
influence  still  further  by  estab- 
lishing a  protectorate  over  Asir, 
directly  south  of  the  Hejaz. 

Immediately  after  he  assumed 
the  reins  of  government  in  the 
Hejaz,  measures  were  taken  to 
improve  conditions  surrounding 
the  annual  pilgrimage.  Extor- 
tion was  forbidden  and  special 
provisions  were  made  for  the 
comfort  and  safety  of  pilgrims 
and  for  the  protection  of  their 
health  and  property.  These  and 
other  matters  were  discussed  by 
an  all-Moslem  Congress  called 
by  Ibn  Saoud  in  Mecca  in  1926, 
but  although  certain  members 
of  the  Congress  were  desirous  of 
establishing  an  international 
Moslem  regime  for  the  Hejaz,  no 
change  was  actually  made  in  its 
status.  It  remained  an  autono- 
mous kingdom  within  the  do- 
minions of  Ibn  Saoud. 

In  1927-29  disorders  along  the 


northern  boundary  of  Nejd  made 
it  seem  not  unlikely  that  the 
Wahiiabis  would  attempt  to  ex- 
tend tlieir  intiuence  into  Iracj, 
Transjordan  and  Koweit.  But 
these  attacks  were  repudiated 
and  punished  by  Ibn  Saoud  in 
1929,  and  war  with  the  British 
and  their  Arab  proteges  thereby 
avoided. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Zwer- 
ner's  Arabia,  the  Cradle  of  Islam; 
Great  Britain,  Naval  Intelligence 
Division,  A  Handbook  on  Arabia 
(1920);  'Arabia:  Rise  of  the 
Wahhabi  Power,'  in  Survey  of 
Inter-national  Affairs,  1925,  Vol, 
I.  (1927);  Rihani's  Maker  of  Mod- 
ern Arabia  (1928);  Philby's  Ara- 
bia of  the  Wahhabis  (1928). 

Arabian  Gulf.    See  Red  Sea. 

Arabian  Language  and  Lit- 
erature. Arabic  forms  a  branch 
of  the  Semitic  languages,  and  be- 
longs to  its  southern  group,  which 
also  includes  Ethiopic.  It  would 
be  more  correct  to  say  North 
Arabic,  since  the  southern  dia- 
lects bear  the  names  Sabaean 
(Himyaritic)  and  Minaean. 
Through  the  Koran,  Arabic  was 
spread  over  large  tracts  of  Asia, 
Africa,  several  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  Spain. 
In  spite  of  its  numerous  dialects, 
Arabic  has  retained  a  certain 
unity,  due  to  the  retarding  influ- 
ence of  the  Koran  and  the  old 
poetic  literature.  As  the  lan- 
guage remained  for  many  cen- 
turies secluded  in  the  Arabian 
desert,  it  preserved  much  of  its 
originality  down  to  the  seventh 
century.  It  approaches  primi- 
tive Semitic  speech  more  nearly 
than  any  other  .nember  of  the 
family. 

The  ramifications  of  Arabic 
grammar  are  much  more  numer- 
ous than  those  of  any  kindred 
tongue.  Its  terminations  of  in- 
flection not  only  secure  to  the 
morphology  of  Arabic  a  great 
variety  of  forms,  but  endow  it 
with  a  syntax  to  which  none  of 
the  other  Semitic  languages  can 
show  a  parallel.  It  is  particu- 
larly suitable  for  metric  style, 
and  Arabic  prosody  alone  forms 
a  vast  chapter  in  the  history  of 
the  language.  The  language 
has  preserved  roots  lost  in  the 
other  Semitic  dialects.  Many 
obscure  words  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment receive  light  from  Arabic. 
Persian  and  Turkish  teem  with 
Arabic  words. 

The  pre-Islamic  period  of  Ara- 
bic literature  consists  of  poems 
which  lived  in  the  mouths  of  the 
people.  Beginning  with  rhort 
ditties  and  epigrams  of  an  im- 
promptu character,  it  soon  de- 
veloped more  artistic  forms,  and 
about  one  hundred  years  before 
Mohammed  we  find  that  a  num- 
ber of  metres  had  been  devel- 
oped. Native  scholars  wrote  on 
the  lives  of  the  poets,  and  ar- 
ranged  their  works  in  groups 


ARABIAN  DESERT  SCENES 
1.  Moslem  Facing  Mecca  as  he  Prays,   v    2.  A  Trek  across  the  Desert. 
Vol.  I. — Page  311  Vol.  I.— March  '28 


Arabia 


312 


Arago 


according  to  their  pre-eminence. 
One  of  these  is  the  seven  famous 
Muallakat  ('the  suspended  ones'), 
a  name  which  gave  rise  to  the 
legend  that  the  poems,  having 
won  the  prize,  were  woven  in 
gold  brocade  and  suspended  in  or 
on  the  Kaaba..  The  truth  of  this 
tale  has,  however,  been  dis- 
proved, the  term  being  only  a 
simile  for  a  necklace  of  pearls 
hung  around  the  neck.  The 
actual  number  of  classical  poets, 
however,  was  much  greater,  and 
included  Imru'l-Kais,  Zuhair, 
Nabigha,  Al-Asha,  Tarafa,  Am- 
ribn,  Kulthum,  Labid,  Antara, 
Alkama,  Harithibn,  Hilliza,  and 
others.  The  first  prose  composi- 
tion was  the  Koran,  which 
marks  the  most  important  epoch 
in  Arabic  literature.  (See  Ko- 
ran.) The  composing  of  the 
Koran  gave  an  impetus  to  the 
compilation  of  the  traditional  lore 
that  was  needful  to  establish  the 
minutiae  of  Mohammedanism,  to 
fix,  or  rather  embellish,  incidents 
in  the  life  of  the  prophet,  and  to 
collect  his  real  and  alleged  say- 
ings. This  is  called  the  Sunna, 
and  it  forms  an  enormous  chapter 
in  Arab  literature. 

The  Sunna  was  followed  by 
writings  on  the  history  of  the 
Koran,  its  reading  and  exegesis, 
and  biographies  of  the  prophet. 
At  about  the  same  time  the  Arabs 
became  acquainted  with  the  gist 
and  method  of  Greek  thought, 
and  employed  their  knowledge  to 
construct  a  scholastic  theology. 
They  philosophized  on  the  nature 
of  God,  and  the  question  whether 
the  Koran  was  eternal  or  created. 
The  great  philosophers  Al-Kindi, 
Al-Farabi,  Avicenna  (ibn-Sina), 
and  Averroes  (ibn-Roshd)  exer- 
cised an  important  influence  on 
the  spread  of  Aristotelian  philo- 
sophy in  Europe.  The  mere  ne- 
cessity of  understanding  the  Ko- 
ran awakened  linguistic  studies, 
which  were  subsequently  taken 
up  for  their  own  sake,  and  re- 
sulted in  compendia  of  grammar 
astounding  in  their  hair-splitting 
elaboration.  Dictionaries  were 
compiled,  which,  in  our  time,  are 
indispensable  to  the  European 
student  of  Arabic.  There  is 
hardly  any  branch  of  human 
thought  to  which  the  Arabs  did 
not  devote  their  attention.  The 
tales  of  the  Arabian  Nights  be- 
long to  the  world's  literature;  the 
Assemblies  of  Hariri  have  been 
translated  into  various  European 
languages,  and  imitations  of  the 
ancient  forms  of  Arab  songs  may 
be  found  in  the  works  of  many 
modern  European  poets.  vSince 
Napoleon's  expedition  into  Egypt 
in  1798,  the  Arabs  in  that  country 
and  in  Syria  and  North  Africa 
have  come  more  and  more  in 
contact  with  European  culture 
and  as  influence  has  been  in- 
creasingly apparent.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  printing-press  in 
1821  was  epoch  making  since  it 

Vol.  I.— March  '28 


made  possible  the  publication 
not  only  of  works  of  European 
science  and  culture,  but  also  of 
the  classics  of  the  Arabs  them- 
selves. Nevertheless  modern 
literary  advancement  has  thus 
far  only  touched  the  surface  of 
Arabia  and  is  confined  almost 
entirely  to  the  emancipated  few. 
Consult  Green's  Practical  Arabic 
Grammar;  Huart's  History  of 
Arabic  Literature  with  bibliog- 
raphy; Clouston's  A ra&ion  Poetry 
for  English  Readers. 

Arabian  Nights  Entertain- 
inents(Ar.  Alf  Laylah  wa  Laylah, 
'A  Thousand  Nights  and  a 
Night')  a  collection  of  tales  be- 
lieved to  be  in  form  and  substance 
the  Arabic  translation  of  a 
Persian  book,  Hazdr  Afsdnah,  or 
'Thousand  Tales.'  Mohammed- 
ibn-Ishak  states  that  the  book 
was  compiled  by  or  for  Humai, 
daughter  of  Bahman  Ishak 
( Artaxerxes) ,  whose  mother  ac- 
cording to  Al-Masudi,  was  the 
Jewess  Esther  of  Old  Testament 
history. 

Much  difference  of  opinion 
exists  regarding  the  authorship 
and  the  date  of  composition  of  the 
Arabian  Nights.  They  are  full 
of  valuable  material  regarding 
the  customs  and  social  conditions 
in  the  Orient  at  that  period,  and 
while  often  coarse  and  somewhat 
indecent  to  the  Occidental  mind, 
are  nevertheless  of  great  assist- 
ance in  throwing  light  on  the 
social  life  of  the  time.  Many 
translations,  generally  more  or 
less  expurgated,  have  been  pub- 
lished. 

Arabian  Sea,  a  body  of  water 
forming  the  northwestern  part 
of  the  Indian  Ocean,  stretching 
from  India  to  Arabia.  Its 
northwestern  extension  known 
as  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  between 
Persia  and  Arabia,  leads  through 
the  Strait  of  Ormuz  into  the 
Persian  Gulf.  Its  southwestern 
extension,  known  as  the  Gulf  of 
Aden,  has  connection  through  the 
Strait  of  Babel-Mandeb  with  the 
Red  Sea.    See  Indian  Ocean. 

Arabis,  a  genus  of  dwarf 
perennials  of  the  order  Cruciferae. 
They  have  white  or  purple 
flowers,  mostly  in  terminal  spikes 
or  racemes.  A.  albida  is  the 
white  rock-cress,  whose  masses 
of  white  flowers  are  excellent  for 
garden  surfaces  or  borders. 

Aracan.    See  Arakan. 

Aracatl,  a-ra-ka-te',  city.  Bra- 
zil, in  the  state  of  Ceara.  75  miles 
southeast  of  Ceara.  There  are 
exports  of  cotton,  cattle,  and 
hides.    Pop.  about  12,000. 

Aracese.    See  Arum. 

Arachnida,  a-rak'ni-da,  a  class 
of  arthropods,  including  spiders, 
harvest-mfen,  scorpions,  and  mites, 
and  differing  from  insects  in 
having  four  pairs  of  legs  instead 
of  three,  and  in  the  absence  of 
antennae,  or  feelers.  Near  the 
mouth  there  are  two  pairs  of 
appendages,  known  as  chelicerae 


and  pedipalpi;  and,  as  in  the 
scorpion,  there  may  be  abdominal 
appendages  in  addition.  The 
eyes  are  generally  simple.  There 
are,  indeed,  few  resemblances  to 
insects,  save  in  the  frequent 
presence  of  tracheae,  which  may 
be  functionally  replaced  by  the 
lung-books  of  the  scorpion.  The 
following  are  the  orders  usually 
recognized: — (1)  Scorpionida,  the 
true  scorpions;  (2)  Pseudoscor- 
pionida,  book  scorpions;  (3) 
Pedipalpida,  whip  scorpions;  (4) 
Phalangida,  harvest-men;  (5)  Sol- 
pugida,  wind  scorpions;  (6)  Ara- 
neida,  or  spiders;  (7)  Acarina,  or 
mites  and  ticks.  Some  other 
groups  are  doubtfully  included. 

Arad,  or'od.  district,  Rou- 
mania,  in  the  western  part;  area 
about  2,500  square  miles.  The 
eastern  part  is  occupied  by  the 
Bihar  Mountains;  the  western 
part  is  a  fertile  plain  traversed 
by  the  White  Koros  and  the  Ma- 
ros.  Productions  include  cereals, 
wine,  tobacco,  and  iron. 

Arad,  town,  Roumania,  capital 
of  the  district  of  Orad,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Maros,  35  miles 
north  of  Temesyar.  It  is  the  see 
of  a  Greek  Orthodox  bishop,  and 
has  a  Greek  seminary.  It  is  an 
important  railway  centre,  being 
the  junction  of  the  Transylvanian 
railway  system,  and  on  the  line 
Budapest-Temesvar.  It  is  an 
important  commercial  centre  and 
has  a  large  export  trade  in  grain 
and  wine.  Industries  include 
distilleries,  leather  manufacture 
and  starch  works.  The  fortifica- 
tions surrounding  the  town  were 
several  times  captured  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  Turks  in  the 
Hungarian-Turkish  wars  of  the 
17th  century,  but  were  rebuilt  in 
1763,  and  played  an  important 
part  in  the  Hungarian  revolution 
of  1848.  On  August  17  of  the 
following  year,  the  town  was  sur- 
rended  to  the  Russians  by  Gorgei. 
Until  after  the  Great  War  it  was 
a  Hungarian  city.  Pop.  (1914) 
63,166. 

Araf,  ar'af  (Ar.  Al-Araf),  as 
stated  in  the  Koran,  the  Moham- 
medan purgatory,  a  raised  wall  of 
separation  between  heaven  and 
hell.  There  is  a  great  variety  of 
opinion  as  to  who  are  admitted 
to  Araf,  and  whether  their  abode 
there  is  temporary  or  permanent. 

Arafat,  a-ra-fiit',  or  Jebel-er- 
rahm  ('Hill  of  Mercy'),  a  granite 
hill  (about  250  feet  high)  15  miles 
southeast  of  Mecca.  An  im- 
portant duty  of  Mohammedan 
pilgrims  is  to  spend  the  ninth 
day  of  the  pilgrimage,  or  last 
month(  Dhu'l  Hijja),  of  the 
Mohammedan  year  on  this  hill 
fasting  and  praying_^ 

Arafura,  a-rii-foo'ra,  or  Al- 
fura  Sea,  the  division  of  the 
Pacific  lying  between  the  north 
of  Australia  and  the  western  half 
of  New  Guinea. 

Arago,  a'rii-go,  Dominique 
(1786-1853),  French  astronomer 


Arago 


313 


Araguaya 


and  physicist,  born  near  Per- 
pignan;  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes  at 
the  age  of  nineteen,  and  in  1806 
assisted  Biot  in  measuring  an  arc 
of  the  meridian.  While  engaged 
in  making  observations  in  Ma- 
jorca, Arago  was  mistaken  for  a 
spy.  After  a  series  of  adventures, 
he  returned  to  France  in  1809, 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  In- 
stitute, and  appointed  professor 
of  analytical  geometry  in  the 
Ecole  Pqlytechnique.  Arago  filled 
that  chair  for  twenty  years,  and 
did  much  to  popularize  scientific 
discovery,  especially  in  optics, 
astronomy,  and  magnetism.  He 
confirmed  the  undulatory  theory 
of  light  (1816),  and  for  his  dis- 
covery of  rotatory  magnetism  re- 
ceived (1825)  the  Copley  medal 
from  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don. In  1830  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  observatory  in 
Paris,  and  perpetual  secretary  to 
the  Academy  of  Mathematical 
Science.  He  opposed  the  presi- 
dency of  Louis  Napoleon,  and 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance (Dec,  1851);  but  his  posi- 
tion and  character  were  such 
that  the  new  government  re- 
frained from  prosecuting  him. 
Among  his  best-known  works  are 
his  Autobiog.  (trans.  Powell, 
1858);  Lectures,  etc.  (trans. 
Smyth  and  Grant,  1855);  Astro- 
nomie  Populaire  (1834-5;  Eng.  ed. 
1855-8).  A  complete  edition  of 
his  works  was  published  in  1854- 
62;  2nd  ed.,  1865,  etc.  See  Au- 
diganne's  Frangois  Arago  (2nd 
ed.,  1869). 

Aragon,  an  ancient  kingdom 
and  former  province  of  Spain, 
with  an  area  of  17,976  sq.  m.  and 
a  pop.  (1900)  of  912,711;  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  Pyrenees.  Cap. 
Zaragoza.  It  is  now  divided  into 
the  three  provinces  of  Huesca  in 
the  N.,  Zaragoza  in  the  middle, 
and  Teruel  in  the  s.  The  soil  is 
sterile,  though  intersected  by  the 
Ebro,  but  is  rich  in  minerals  of 
almost  every  kind.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  characterized  by  intense 
nationalistic  conservatism,  and 
by  vindictiveness  and  bigotry, 
but  are  patriotic,  intrepid,  and 
energetic.  Aragon  was  a  county 
from  the  9th  century,  and  a 
kingdom  from  the  middle  of  the 
11th  century.  By  the  marriage 
of  its  ruler's  daughter  in  1137 
it  acquired  the  county  of  Barce- 
lona, and  under  Jaime  the  Con- 
queror (1238)  annexed  the  Moor- 
ish kingdom  of  Valencia.  It  be- 
came the  most  powerful  maritime 
state  in  Spain,  and  aspired  to 
found  a  great  Romance  kingdom 
on  the  Mediterranean;  but  the 
growing  power  of  France  made 
this  impossible.  The  marriage  of 
King  Ferdinand  with  Isabella  of 
Castile  united  the  two  crowns. 
From  1282  to  1730  it  also  em- 
braced Sicily,  and  from  1416  to 


1713  Sardinia.  The  Canal  of 
Aragon  was  first  projected  by  the 
Emperor  Charles  v.  (1528),  but 
was  not  seriously  taken  in  hand 
until  the  accession  of  Charles  iii. 


Aragonite,  an  orthorhombic 
variety  of  carbonate  of  lime,  first 
found  in  Aragon.  It  crystallizes 
in  six-sided  prisms,  or  in  long, 
narrow,  pointed  forms,  and  has 


Arachnida. 

1.  ScoRPiONTDA— .9cor'/)?o?nd?cMs,  J  nat.  size.  2.  VY.mvxx.vi—TitanodamonJohnstonii, 
4  nat.  size.  3.  Phalangida— P/ffiiang/Mm  copticum.  4.  AcAuiDA—Rhypicephalus  an- 
nulatus.  5.  Solpugida— jB/iax  brevipe.i,  J  nat.  size.  6.  Araneida— .4mweM.s-  tnrnensis, 
nat.  size.  7.  Pseudoscorpionida— Cfteh/er  sesamoides.  (No.  i,  somewhat  enlarged ; 
3  and  7  greatly  enlarged.) 


(1760).  PignatelH,  the  Italian 
engineer,  constructed  it  from 
Zaragoza  to  Tudela.    See  ^Spain. 

Aragona,  tn.,  prov.  Girgenti, 
Sicily,  10  ni.  by  rail  N.  of  Gir- 
genti. Has  important  sulphur 
mines.    Pop.  (1901)  14,126. 


the  same  composition  as  calcite, 
though  differing  from  it  in  speci- 
fic gravity,  crystalline  form,  and 
physical  properties.  (See  Di- 
morphism.) Satin  spar  is  a 
fibrous  variety  of  aragonite. 
Araguaya,  or  Rio  Grande,  a 


Arakan 

riv.  of  Brazil,  rises  in  the  Serra 
Cayapo,  and  joins  the  Tocantins 
near  Sao  Francisco.  It  flows  n.e., 
and  has  a  length  of  1,300  m.its, 
one-half  of  which  is  navigable. 

Arakan,  or  Aracan,  the  N.w. 
division  of  Lower  Burma,  on  E. 
shore  of  Bay  of  Bengal;  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  (1826);  cap.  Akyab. 
Area,  18,540  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1901) 
762,102. 

Aral,  Sea  of  {Aralskoye  More), 
the  second  largest  sheet  of  inland 
water  in  Asia,  fills  the  lowest  part 
of  the  W.  Turkestan  depression, 
between  43°  40'  and  46°  45'  n. 
and  58°  20'  and  61°  45'  E.  It 
lies  160  ft.  above  sea-level,  and 
245  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
Caspian;  measures  280  m.  from 
N.  to  s.,  and  140  m.  to  190  m.  in 
breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  26,- 
000  sq.  m.  On  the  N.  and  w.  are 
plateaus  of  clay  formation  about 
230  to  330  ft.  high,  including  that 
of  Ust-Urt,  which  separates  the 
Sea  of  Aral  from  the  Caspian; 
and  cn  the  e.  is  a  sandy  desert, 
broken  only  by  the  Syr  Daria. 
Evaporation  being  in  excess  of 
precipitation,  the  sea  is  gradually 
drying  up.  As  late  as  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century  it  extended 
50  m.  farther  to  the  n.e.  than  it 
now  does;  and  the  Aibughir  Gulf, 
in  the  s.,  has  disappeared  since 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century. 
The  average  depth  is  less  than 
100  ft.;  the  deepest  part,  220  ft., 
is  towards  the  N.w.  Its  water  is 
only  slightly  saline,  and  every 
winter  it  freezes  for  several  miles 
all  around  its  shores.  Its  fish,  of 
which  it  yields  a  rich  harvest,  are 
fresh-water  species.  The  two 
great  desert  streams  of  W.  Tur- 
kestan, the  Syr  Daria  (Jaxartes) 
and  the  Amu  Daria  (Oxus),  both 
pour  their  waters  into  this  sea. 
There  exists  very  conclusive  evi- 
dence that  at  a  comparatively 
recent  geological  period  the  Sea 
oif  Aral  and  the  Caspian  Sea  both 
formed  part  of  a  much  more  ex- 
tensive basin  or  inland  sea. 

Aralia,  a  genus  of  the  Aralia- 
ce<2,  or  ginseng  family,  natives  of 
the  temperate  and  tropical  re- 
gions. The  greenhouse  plant, 
commonly  called  A.  Sieholdii, 
now  known  as  Fatsia  japonica, 
was  introduced  from  Japan  in 
1858.  Its  large,  round  leaves  are 
often  mistaken  for  those  of  the 
castor-oil  plant.  The  roots  of 
another  species,  A.  edulis  (cor- 
data),  are  eaten  by  the  Japanese. 
A  species  in  Formosa  produces 
pith  which  the  Chinese  make  into 
rice-paper.  Several  American 
species  have  aromatic  rootstocks, 
as  the  wild  sarsaparilla.  and  wild 
spikenard;  and  one.  the  Hercules' 
Club,  or  Angelica  Tree  (A.  spi- 
nosa).  has  bark  which  smells  like 
Angelica,  when  bruised.  But  the 
one  chiefly  known  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  is  the  Devil's  Club,  Fatsia 
horrida,  of  snaky,  awkward  habit. 


314 

and  covered  with  vicious  spines 
which  make  bad  wounds. 

Aram,  an  old  Semitic  geograph- 
ical term  which  included  Syria 
and  Mesopotamia,  but  excluded 
Palestine.  It  gave  name  to  a 
division  of  the  Semitic  family 
of  speech,  Aramean  or  Aramaic, 
the  dialects  of  which  formed 
the  group  of  North  Semitic,  as 
distinguished  from  Middle  Sem- 
itic {i.  e.  Hebrew  and  Phoeni- 
cian) and  from  South  Semitic 
{i.  e.  Arabic  and  Ethiopic). 
Aramaic  was  divided  into  two 
rnain  branches — Chaldee  and  Sy- 
riac.  Large  portions  of  the 
Books  of  Daniel  and  Ezra  are 
written  in  the  former,  which 
was,  for  this  and  other  reasons, 
taken  to  have  been  the  language 
of  ancient  Babylonia.  But  this 
is  an  error;  even  the  Semitic  dia- 
lects employed  in  the  Assyrian 
and  Babylonian  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions are  not  Aramaic.  Dur- 
ing the  rule  9f  the  Persian  dynas- 
ties ^  Aramaic  was  a  sort  of 
official  language  and  commercial 
lingua  franca  for  the  provinces 
of  the  empire  which  stretched  w. 
and  s.w.  from  the  Euphrates  to 
Egypt.  In  this  way  Aramaic  is 
believed  (the  fact  is  not  definitely 
known)  to  have  supplanted  the 
Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  as 
the  everyday  speech  of  the  peopk- 
of  Palestine.  At  any  rate,  Ara- 
maic was  the  vernacular  of  Pales- 
tine in  the  time  of  Christ,  and  it 
is  Aramaic  that  is  meant  when 
the  New  Testament  speaks  of 
'  Hebrew.'  Chaldee  (Aramaic)  is 
the  language  of  the  Targums  and 
Talmuds  of  Jerusalem  and  Baby- 
lon. Syriac,  a  literary  language, 
embraced  the  Peshito  version  of 
the  Bible,  and  was  extensively 
used  from  the  4th  to  the  13th 
century,  though  it  is  now  super- 
seded by  Arabic.  The  ancient 
Samaritans,  the  Nabataeans 
(though  Arab  by  blood),  and  the 
Mandeans  all  spoke  Aramaic  dia- 
lects. See  Noldeke's  Die  Semi- 
tischen  Sprachen  (1887). 

Aram,  Eugene  (1704-59),  an 
English  felon:  born  at  Ramsgill, 
Yorkshire.  Though  wholly  self- 
educated,  he  was  the  first  to  grasp 
clearly  the  affinity  of  the  Celtic 
to  the  other  Indo-European  lan- 
guages. He  became  a  school- 
master at  Knaresborough,  where 
he  was  intimate  with  a  man 
named  Daniel  Clark,  who  soon 
after  disappeared.  A  man  named 
Houseman,  who  was  apprehended 
on  the  charge  of  rnurdering  Clark, 
gave  evidence  against  Aram,  who 
was  tried,  and  after  an  able  self- 
defence  convicted.  After  an  un- 
successful attempt  at  suicide,  he 
was  hanged  at  York.  The  in- 
terest attaching  to  Aram's  crime 
is  mainly  dvie  to  Bulwer  Lytton's 
novel  and  Hood's  poem  on  the 
subject  of  the  murder.  See 
Scatcherd's  Memoirs  of  Eugene 


Arany 

Aram  (1838);  also  the  Annual 
Register  (1759). 

Aran,  or  Arran  Isles,  a  group 
of  small  islands  at  the  entrance  to 
Galway  Bay,  about  4  m.  off  the  w. 
coast  of  Ireland,  and  27  m.  s.w. 
of  Galway  city.  The  chief  islands 
are  named  Inishmore,  Inishmaan, 
and  Inisheer.  The  isles  are  rich 
in  archaeological  remains,  among 
which  Dun  yEngus,  a  Cyclopean 
fort  of  unhewn  stone,  is  notable. 
They  were  anciently  the  seat  of 
a  monastic  school,  and  .their  old 
shrines  attract  many  visitors  to 
'  Aran  of  the  Saints.'  The  chief 
industry  is  fishing. 

Aranda,  Pedro  Pablo  Abar- 
ca  y  Bolea,  Count  of  (1718- 
99),  Spanish  statesman,  born  at 
Saragossa  of  a  noble  family,  was 
sent  in  1759  as  ambassador  to  the 
Polish  court,  and  in  1766  was 
made  prime  minister  and  military 
governor  of  Castile.  His  home 
policy  was  very  liberal,  and  much 
influenced  by  the  ideas  of  the 
French  philosophers.  He  sup- 
pressed many  abuses  of  the 
church,  restrained  the  Inquisi- 
tion, and  procured  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits  from  Spain  (Apr. 
1,  1767).  In  his  foreign  poUcy 
he  was  a  great  adversary  of  Eng- 
land. The  clergy  worked  for  his 
downfall,  and  at  their  instigation 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Paris  (1773),  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty  of  Paris  (1783).  Recalled 
in  1787,  he  was  in  1792  for  a 
short  time  prime  minister,  until 
supplanted  by  Godoy. 

Aranjuez  (anc.  Ara  Jovis),  tn., 
prov.  Madrid,  Spain,  on  1.  bk.  of 
Tagus,  21  m.  by  rail  s.  of  Madrid. 
It  is  the  spring  residence  of  the 
Spanish  court,  and  has  a  beauti- 
ful castle  bvnlt  by  Philip  ii.,  con- 
taining many  art  treasures.  Here 
took  place  the  insurrection  which 
forced  King  Charles  iv.  to  abdi- 
cate in  favor  of  Ferdinand  (Apr. 
18,  1808).    Pop.  (1900)  12.670. 

Aransas  Pass,  a  strait,  the  en- 
trance to  Aransas  Bay,  an  arm 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  the 
Texan  coast.  Here,  in  Nov., 
1864,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War 
was  fought,  in  which  the  Federal 
troops  captured  the  Confederate 
fortifications  at  the  P?ss. 

Arany,  Janos  (1817-82),  Hun- 
garian poet,  born  in  Nagy-Sza- 
lonta,  Bihar,  won  in  1845  a  prize 
of  the  Kisfaludy  Society  of  Buda- 
pest with  a  humorous  epic,  As 
Elevs.-:ett^  Alkotmdny  (The  Lost 
roncfitntion).  His  eoic  poems, 
Toldi  (1847)  and  Murnny  Os- 
troma  (The  Siege  of  Murany) 
(1847),  made  him  the  favorite 
poet  of  the  Hungarian  nation.  In 
the  revolution  of  1848  he  held  an 
appointment  in  the  national  gov- 
ernment, and  after  the  defeat  of 
Kossuth  lived  in  poverty  in  his 
native  town  until  1854,  when  he 
became  professor  at  the  college 


ArapahoeS 

of  Nagy-Koros,  whence  he  went 
(1860)  to  Budapest  as  director  ot 
the  Kisfaludy  Society.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Hungarian  Acad- 
emy in  1859,  and  in  1865  became 
its  perpetual  secretary.  Among 
his  works  not  previously  men- 
tioned are  Toldi  Esteje  (Toldi's 
Evening)  (1865),  and  Toldi 
Szerelme  (Toldi's  Love)  (1879), 
Buda  Halala  (The  Death  of 
Buda)  (1864),  and  the  humorous 
epic,  Nagyidai  Cziganyok  (The 
Gypsies  of  Eida)  (1852).  An 
English  translation  of  several  of 
his  poems  was  published  by 
William  Loew  in  1914. 

Arany  is,  after  Petofi,  the  most 
popular  and  important  modern 
poet  of  Hungary.  His  poetry  is 
realistic,  and  abounds  in  life  and 
color;  while  his  rounded  style, 
fidelity  of  observation,  and  lofty 
ideals  make  him  a  notable  con- 
tributor to  the  language  and 
character  of  his  race. 

Arapahoes,  a-rap'a-hoz,  a 
tribe  of  North  American  Indians 
of  Algonquian  descent,  closely 
associated  with  the  Cheyenne. 
They  are  a  brave  and  kindly 
people,  much  given  to  ceremonial 
observance,  and  some  years  ago 
were  the  chief  adherents  of  the 
ghost  dance  religion.  The  annual 
sun  dance  is  their  chief  ceremony; 
symbolism  plays  an  important 
part  in  their  customs.  The 
southern  Arapahoes  were  placed 
with  the  Cheyennes  in  Oklahoma 
and  in  1892  became  American 
citizens.  The  northern  Arapa- 
hoes occupy  a  reservation  in 
Wyoming.  Their  total  number 
is  something  over  2,000. 

Arapalma,  ar-a-pi'ma,  a  genus 
of  tropical  fishes,  including  some 
of  the  largest  known  fresh-water 
forms,  remarkable  for  the  mosaic 
work  of  strong  bony  scales  with 
which  the  body  is  covered.  They 
are  found  in  the  rivers  of  South 
America,  where  specimens  15 
feet  in  length  and  400  pounds  in 
weight  have  been  taken.  Most 
of  the  species  are  highly  colored, 
and  their  flesh  is  greatly  esteemed. 
A.  gigas  is  the  most  important 
species. 

Ararat,  ar'a-rat  (Armenian 
Airarat),  the  ancient  name  for 
the  district  through  which  the 
Aras  (q.  v.)  flows.  While  the 
name  was  not  originally  applied 
to  any  particular  mountain,  the 
association  of  the  region  with  the 
landing  place  of  the  ark  after 
the  flood  (Gen.  viii.  4).  naturally 
enough  led  to  its  being  appro- 
priated to  the  highest  peak, 
which  in  Armenian  is  called 
Massis  or  Massis  Ljarn ;  in  Tartar 
and  Turkish,  Aghri-Dagh,  or 
curved  mountain;  and  in  Persian, 
Koh-i-Nuh,  or  Noah's  mountain. 

The  twin  mountain  of  Ararat 
lies  at  the  point  where  three  em- 
pires met — Russia,  Turkey,  and 
Persia.  It  forms  an  elliptical 
mass,  25  miles  in  length  from 
southeast  to  northwest,  by  half 


515 

that  in  breadth,  rising  on  the 
north  and  east  out  of  the  alluvial 
plain  of  the  Aras.  The  mass 
stands  quite  isolated  on  all  sides 
except  the  northwest,  where  a 
column  7,000  feet  high  connects 
it  with  a  long  ridge  of  volcanic 
mountains  extending  westward. 
From  confluent  bases  of  common 
level,  8,800  feet  high,  the  two 
peaks,  both  of  igneous  formation, 
shoot  upward — Great  Ararat  to 
16,969  feet.  Little  Ararat  to  12,- 
840  feet  above  the  sea  level;  the 
two  summits  7  miles  apart.  The 
limit  of  perpetual  snow  rises  to 
nearly  14,000  feet. 

Tournefort  made  a  partial 
ascent  of  Mount  Ararat  in  1700. 
Ascents  have  been  made  in  1829 
by  Professor  Parrot  of  Dorpat; 
in  1834  by  Spassky  Aftonomoff ,  a 
Russian  astronomer;  in  1850  by 
Colonel  Chodzko;  and  since  then 
by  numerous  others.  See  Ar- 
menia. Consult  Bryce's  Trans- 
caucasia and  Ararat. 

Araroba.  See  Andira;  Chrys- 

AROBIN. 

Aras,  a-ras'  (ancient  Araxes), 
large  river  of  Armenia;  rises  in 
Erzerum  vilayet.  For  the  greater 
part  of  its  course  of  600  miles  it 
forms  the  boundary  between 
Russia  (Cis-Caucasia)  and  Persia. 
It  formerly  joined  the  Kura  60 
miles  west  of  its  mouth;  but  in 
1897  it  changed  its  lower  course, 
and  now  flows  direct  into  the 
Caspian  Sea  at  Kizil  Agach  Bay. 

Ara'tus  of  Sicyon  (271-213 
B.C.),  Greek  general  and  states- 
man. In  251  B.C.  he  expelled  the 
tyrant  Nicocles,  and  united  (251) 
vSicyon  to  the  Achaean  League 
(see  AcH^i),  and  in  245  B.C.  was 
chosen  general  of  the  League,  an 
office  which  he  held  for  many 
years.  He  obtained  the  acces- 
sion to  the  league  of  Megara, 
Argos,  and  other  cities;  but  hav- 
ing thus  aroused  the  jealousy  of 
the  iEtolians  and  of  Cleomenes, 
king  of  Sparta,  he  was  obliged, 
tor  safety,  to  secure  an  alliance 
with  the  king  of  Macedonia. 
Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  joined 
the  ^tolians  and  Cleomenes,  and 
in  a  succession  of  battles  Aratus 
and  the  Achaeans  were  defeated. 
At  this  crisis  Antigonus  of  Mac- 
edon  arrived  with  his  army  to 
assist  Aratus,  and  defeated  the 
Spartans  at  the  battle  of  Sellasia 
(222  B.C.).  The  relations  be- 
tween Antigonus'  successor, 
Philip,  and  Aratus,  however, 
became  strained  and  Philip  pro- 
cured the  death  of  Aratus  by 
poison  in  213  B.C.  Aratus  left 
thirty  books  of  memoirs  (now 
lost),  which  were  drawn  upon  by 
Polybius  and  Plutarch. 

Aratus  OF  Soli,  Cilicia,  a 
Greek  poet  and  astronomer, 
flourished  about  270  B.C.,  only 
two  ot  whose  works  are  extant, 
the  Phoenomena  and  the  Diose- 
meia.  The  former  treats  of 
astronomy,  and  the  latter  of  the 
weather.  Cicero  and  Germanicus 


Araucaria 

translated  them,  and  Virgil  made 
use  of  them  in  the  Georgics. 
Paul  quotes  from  the  Phoenomena 
(Acts  xvii.  28). 

Ar'auca'oia,  the  country  of 
the  Araucos  or  Araucanian  In- 
dians, whose  territory  comprised 
that  part  of  Chile  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Bio-Bio  and  Valdivia 
Rivers,  and  bordered  north  on 
the  Peruvian  empire.  The  pres- 
ent Chilean  province  of  Arauco, 
lying  between  the  Andfes  and 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Concepcion  and  on 
the  south  by  Valdivia,  was  formed 
in  1875,  and  has  an  area  of  2,189 
square  miles  and  a  population  of 
60,233  (1920).  Its  capital  is 
Lebu,  55  miles  south  of  Concep- 
cion. 

A  large  part  of  the  territory  in 
Arauco  and  the  more  southern 
province  of  Valdivia  is  occupied 
by  the  Araucanians,  an  Indian 
tribe  characterized  b)'^  an  in- 
domitable courage,  which  ena- 
bled them  to  stem  the  southward 
advance  of  the  Incas  and  to  hold 
out  for  centuries  against  the 
Spaniards.  The  Araucanian  war 
against  the  Spanish  invaders 
lasted  for  nearly  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years  (about  1537- 
1773),  and  in  its  course  brought 
to  prominence  many  valiant  and 
courageous  leaders.  Spain  recog- 
nized the  independence  of  their 
four  confederate  states  in  1773. 
The  pure  Araucanian  population 
is  now  estimated  at  less  than 
50,000. 

The  Araucanians  are  an  under- 
sized but  vigorous  race.  Their 
chief  industry  is  the  breeding  of 
cattle  and  vicunas.  All  are 
polygamists,  and  their  religion 
is  based  on  the  principle  of  good 
and  evil  {Apo,  Pillan).  Araucan, 
a  language  of  high  polysynthetic 
type,  has  been  reduced  to  writ- 
ten form,  and  in  it  are  embodied 
a  large  number  of  myths  and 
national  legends. 

Ar'auca'ria,  a  genus  of  ever- 
green conifers  including  a  number 
of  species  of  lofty  trees  native  to 
South  America  and  Australia. 
They  are  of  a  singularly  geo- 
metrical habit  of  growth,  resem- 
bling the  pines  and  firs,  and  the 
young  trees  are  used  extensively 
for  lawn  decoration  and  as  orna- 
mental pot  plants.  The  leaves 
are  small,  stiff,  and  scale-like. 

Araucaria  excelsa,  the  Nor- 
folk Island  Pine,  is  the  species 
most  commonly  seen  in  the 
United  States,  whore  it  is  popular 
as  a  house  plant.  In  its  native 
places  it  attains  a  height  of  200 
feet,  bearing  solid,  globular  cones 
4  or  5  inches  in  diameter.  The 
wood,  which  is  heavy  and  white, 
is  used  in  shipbuilding.  A.  im- 
bricata,  the  hardiest  species,  pop- 
ularly known  as  the  Monkey 
Puzzle  or  Chile  Pine,  is  a  native 
of  the  Chilean  Andes,  where  it 
reaches  a  height  of  100  to  150 
feet.    The  trunk  is  straight  and 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Arauco 


315  A 


Arbitration,  Industrial 


free  from  knots,  and  yields  abun- 
dant resin.  The  timber  is  heavy, 
solid,  hard,  fibrous,  yellowish 
white,  and  beautifully  veined, 
and  is  suitable  for  masts  of  ships. 
The  seed  is  pleasant  to  the  taste, 
and  is  an  important  article  of 
food  to  the  Indians. 

Arauco,  a-rou'ko.  See  Arau- 

CANIA. 

Araujo  Porto  Alegre,  a-rou'- 
zhdb  por'to  a-la'gra,  Manoel  de 
(1806-79),  Brazilian  poet  and  ar- 
chitect, was  born  in  Rio  Pardo,  in 
the  state  of  Sao  Pedro,  Brazil. 
He  completed  his  artistic  training 
in  Paris  (1831)  and  in  Italy 
(1835).  In  1837  he  became  pro- 
fessor at  the  Academy  of  Arts, 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  a  little  later 
at  the  military  college.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  national 
theatre,  for  which  he  wrote 
several  plays  with  a  patriotic 
tendency.  His  principal  poetical 
works  are  Colombo  and  Brasilia- 
nas  (1863). 

Araure,  a-rou'ra,  town,  Vene- 
zuela, in  the  state  of  Portuguesa; 
170  miles  southwest  of  Caracas, 
in  a  region  producing  cotton, 
coffee,  and  cattle.    Pop.  12,500. 

Aravali  Hills,  ar-a-vul'e,  In- 
dia, extend  from  Gujarat,  in 
Bombay  Presidency,  for  300 
miles  northeast  through  Rajpu- 
tana  (q.  v.).  Mount  Abu  (5,650 
feet)  is  the  highest  point. 

Arawaks,  a'ra-waks.  South 
American  aborigines  who  for- 
merly ranged  over  a  great  part  of 
Northern  Brazil,  the  Guianas, 
and  Venezuela,  and  appear  to 
have  formed  the  chief  element  in 
the  West  Indies  and  Bahamas. 
They  are  still  numerous  on  the 
mainland.  In  the  Arawak  family 
two  distinct  types  have  been 
noticed — one  marked  by  short, 
thick-set  frames,  broad  and  rather 
fiat  features,  retreating  forehead, 
slightly  oblique  eyes,  small  nose, 
and  yellowish  skin;  the  other  with 
tall,  slim  figures,  straight  eyes 
and  nose,  more  regular  oval  fea- 
tures, reddish-brown  complexion, 
and  bright,  animated  expression. 
All  alike  are  rude,  uncultured 
tribes. 

Araxes.   See  Aras. 

Arayat,  a-ri'at,  town,  Philip- 
pine Islands,  in  Pampanga  prov- 
ince, Luzon;  12  miles  northeast 
of  Bacolor.  During  the  Filipino 
insurrection  of  1899  it  was  occu- 
pied by  U.  S.  troops.  Pop.  (1918) 
12,302. 

Arbaces,  ar-ba'sez,  the  Mede, 
who,  according  to  the  historian 
Ctesias,  overthrew  the  Assyrian 
empire  in  the  seventh  century 
B.C.  by  defeating  Sardanapalus 
(q.  v.),  and  founded  the  Median 
empire.  Another  of  the  name 
was  a  general  of  Artaxerxes  Mem- 
non  in  his  war  with  his  brother 
Cyrus  (401  B.C.). 

Arbalest.   vSee  Crossbow. 

Arbela,  ar-be'la,  now  Erbil  or 
Arbil,  a  small  town  of  Assyria, 
east  of  Mosul,  famous  as  having 


given  name  to  the  battle  in  which 
Alexander  the  Great  (q.  v.)  finally 
defeated  Darius  (q.  v.),  331  B.C. 
The  battle  was  really  fought  near 
Gaugamela  (q.  v.),  40  miles 
northwest. 

Ar'bitrage,  a  business  trans- 
action of  a  kind  common  on  the 
stock  exchange  (q.  v.)  of  New 
York  and  of  London,  wherein 
the  trader  buys  in  a  cheaper  and 
sells  in  a  dearer  market,  being 
thus  enabled  to  pocket  the  differ- 
ence in  quotations  between  the 
markets.  Arbitrage  transactions 
may  cover  bullion  or  coin,  stocks 
and  bonds,  bills  of  exchange,  etc. 

Ar'bitra'tion  is  the  adjudica- 
tion by  one  or  more  private  per- 
sons, called  arbitrators,  appoint- 
ed to  decide  a  matter  or  matters 
in  controversy.  It  may  be  (1) 
voluntary,  when  the  parties  freely 
consent  to  submit  the  question  at 
issue  to  arbitration,  or  (2)  com- 
pulsory, when  they  are  compelled 
to  do  so  by  statute.  At  com- 
mon law  all  submissions  are 
voluntary,  though  the  court  may 
suggest  a  reference  to  arbitra- 
tors. 

As  a  rule,  any  civil  question, 
whether  of  fact  or  of  law,  may  be 
the  subject  of  arbitration,  but  not 
matters  of  criminal  law,  nor  any- 
thing clearly  illegal  or  contrary 
to  public  policy.  A  reference  to 
arbitrators  being  of  the  nature  of 
a  contract,  any  one  who  is  capa- 
ble of  validly  contracting  with 
respect  to  the  subject  matter  of 
the  dispute  may  become  a  party 
to  an  arbitration.  If  his  status 
be  such  that  a  contract  entered 
into  by  him  would  be  voidable — 
e.g.,  if  he  be  a  minor — the  refer- 
ence will  likewise  be  voidable. 
Any  person  agreed  upon  by  the 
parties  may  act  as  arbitrator  in 
spite  of  any  incapacity  or  dis- 
ability, such  as  infamy  or  cover- 
ture, which  would  prevent  him 
from  performing  legal  acts.  No 
arbitrator  is  permitted  to  dele- 
gate his  functions. 

Arbitrations  are  largely  resort- 
ed to  by  business  men,  the  object 
being  to  have  the  matter  decided 
by  a  practical  man,  and  to 
avoid  the  comparatively  slow  and 
costly  procedure  of  courts  of  law. 
A  common  practice  is  for  each  of 
the  disputants  to  appoint  one 
arbitrator,  on  the  footing  that  if 
an  agreement  as  to  the  award  is 
not  reached,  the  arbitrators  so 
appointed  shall  appoint  a  third 
party  as  umpire,  whose  decision 
shall  be  final. 

See  Arbitration,  Industrial; 
Arbitration,  International. 

Arbitration,  Industrial.  In 
the  settlement  of  controversies 
arising  between  employers  and 
employees,  the  questions  at  issue 
are  frequently  referred  to  one  or 
more  persons,  known  as  arbitra- 
tors, who  have  been  appointed  to 
consider  the  facts  and  render  a 
decision  or  award.  This  method 
of  settlement  is  termed  Industrial 


Arbitration.  Usually,  where  the 
parties  concerned  are  unable  to 
arrive  at  an  agreement  by  direct 
negotiation,  efforts  are  made  by 
public-spirited  citizens,  either  as 
individuals  or  as  representatives 
of  civic  or  other  organizations, 
to  arrange  for  further  conferences 
in  the  hope  of  bringing  about  a 
settlement,  particularly  in  those 
cases  where  continued  disagree- 
ment might  result  in  widespread 
inconvenience.  When  such  at- 
tempts— termed  conciliation  or 
mediation — fail,  the  more  formal 
procedure  (arbitration)  is  often 
followed. 

In  many  countries,  statutory 
provision  is  made  for  the  forma- 
tion of  permanent  official  or  semi- 
official boards,  before  which, 
either  by  mutual  consent  of  both 
parties  or  upon  application  of  a 
single  party,  industrial  disputes 
may  be  arbitrated.  In  some  cases 
provision  is  made  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  local  and  temporary 
boards  for  the  settlement  of 
minor  disputes.  These  boards, 
whether  permanent  or  tempo- 
rary, are  authorized  to  hold 
hearings,  at  which  testimony  is 
takefi  and  following  which  an 
award  is  rendered.  It  is  custom- 
ary, where  both  parties  have 
voluntarily  resorted  to  arbitra- 
tion, for  them  to  agree  formally 
to  abide  by  the  award;  but 
except  in  those  countries  where 
arbitration  is  compulsory  (nota- 
bly New  Zealand),  the  award  is 
not  legally  binding. 

The  earliest  attempts  to  avoid 
industrial  conflicts  by  reference 
of  controversies  to  industrial 
courts  were  those  made  in  Euro- 
pean countries.  In  France, 
boards  of  experts  (conseils  des 
prud" hommes  (having  as  a  distinct 
function  the  consideration  of 
controversies  between  employers 
and  individual  employees  were 
established  as  early  as  1806,  and 
in  Germany  industrial  courts 
covering  manufacturing  indus- 
tries (Gewerbegerichte)  were  estab- 
lished early  in  the  nineteenth 
century;  but  not  until  recent 
years  was  provision  made  in 
either  country  for  the  arbitration 
of  collective  disputes — that  is, 
disputes  between  one  or  more 
employers  and  a  group  of  em- 
ployees. In  England,  voluntary 
arbitration  through  private 
boards  has  been  encouraged  by 
legislation  since  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century;  and  in  1896 
provision  was  made  for  the  regis- 
tration of  such  boards  by  the 
British  Board  of  Trade,  and 
definite  rules  and  regulations 
governing  their  procedure  were 
formulated. 

Compulsory  arbitration  laws 
have  been  enacted  in  Australasia, 
the  first  and  most  noteworthy  of 
which  was  that  passed  in  1894  in 
New  Zealand,  and  since  amended 
in  certain  respects.  The  compul- 
sory principle  is  not  wholly  suc- 


VOL.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Arbitration,  Industrial 


315  B 


Arbitration,  Industrial 


cessful  in  New  Zealand,  where 
a  considerable  section  of  public 
opinion,  notably  among  the 
organized  workers,  is  opposed  to 
the  method.  In  the  United  States 
the  adoption  of  compulsor\^  arbi- 
tration, has  been  advocated  from 
time  to  time,  particularly  in  dis- 
putes between  public  service  cor- 
porations and  their  employees, 
but  the  trade-union  movement  is 
opposed  to  it,  on  the  ground  that 
compulsory  arbitration  means 
'compulsory  labor  at  wages, 
hours,  and  conditions  prescribed 
by  the  arbitration  tribunal.' 

The  Canadian  Industrial  Dis- 
putes Investigation  Act,  passed  by 
the  Dominion  Parliament  in 
1907,  applies  to  all  disputes  in- 
volving ten  or  more  persons  em- 
ployed in  mining,  or  in  connec- 
tion with  public-service  utilities, 
including  railroad  and  steamship 
transportation,  telegraph  or  tele- 
phone communication,  and  gas, 
electric  light,  water  and  power 
services. 

The  restrictive  provisions  of 
the  Act  make  it  'unlawful  for  any 
employer  to  declare  or  cause  a 
lockout,  or  for  any  employee  to 
go  on  strike  on  account  of  any 
dispute  prior  to  or  during  a 
reference  of  such  dispute  to  a 
board  of  conciliation  and  inves- 
tigation'; employees  and  em- 
ploj'ers  are  required  to  give  'at 
least  thirty  days  notice  of  an 
intended  change  affecting  condi- 
tions of  employment  with  respect 
to  wages  and  hours';  if  such 
intended  change  results  in  a  dis- 
pute, 'until  the  dispute  has  been 
finally  dealt  with  by  a  board, 
neither  of  the  parties,  nor  the 
employees  affected,  shall  alter  the 
conditions  of  employment  with 
respect  to  wages  and  hours,  or, 
on  account  of  the  dispute,  do  or 
be  concerned  in  doing,  directly 
or  indirectly,  anything  in  the 
nature  of  a  lockout  or  strike  or  a 
suspension  or  discontinuance  of 
employment  or  work;  but  the 
relationship  of  employer  and 
employee  shall  continue  uninter- 
rupted by  the  dispute,  or  any- 
thing arising  out  of  the  dispute. 
.  .  .  '  The  Act  provides  penalties 
for  the  individual  who  quits  work 
as  well  as  for  'any  person  who 
incites,  encourages,  or  aids  in  any 
manner  any  employer  to  declare 
or  continue  a  lockout,  or  any 
employee  to  go  on  or  continue  on 
strike'  contrary  to  the  provisions 
of  the  Act,  and  until  a  final 
decision  or  award  of  the  board, 
compulsory  labor  obtains. 

Pending  the  final  decision  of 
the  board,  the  procedure  of  the 
criminal  code  is  used  to  enforce 
the  penalties  imposed  for  strikes 
or  lockouts  or  inciting  such  action. 
The  courts  have  imposed  fines 
upon  employers,  and  fines  and 
jail  sentences  upon  employees 
for  violations  of  the  restrictive 
provisions. 

The  decisions  of  the  boards  of 


investigation  are  not  binding  on 
the  parties  to  the  disputes;  con- 
sequently, it  is  necessary  to 
secure  compliance  through  the 
pressure  of  public  opinion,  or  by 
persuading  the  parties  themselves 
to  accept  the  awards  of  the 
boards. 

The  Canadian  Trades  and 
Labor  Congress  since  1912  has 
demanded  the  repeal  of  the 
Canadian  Act,  declaring  that  'the 
right  to  strike  is  the  one  thing 
that  distinguishes  the  free  work- 
man from  the  chattel  slave.' 
Canadian  trade  unions  also 
charge  that  the  compulsory 
thirty  days'  notice  is  used  by 
employers  to  fortify  their  posi- 
tions to  the  prejudice  of  the 
workers.  In  August,  1923,  in  an 
opinion  rendered  in  a  dispute  be- 
tween the  Toronto  Electrical 
Commission  and  its  employees. 
Justice  Orde  of  Toronto  held 
that  the  boards  of  investigation 
do  not  possess  authority  to 
compel  the  attendance  of  wit- 
nesses. 

In  the  United  States,  boards  of 
arbitration  were  established  in 
New  York  State  and  Massa- 
chusetts in  1886,  and  at  least 
twenty-seven  other  States  have 
since  made  statutory  provisions 
for  the  arbitration  of  industrial 
disputes  either  by  special  boards 
or  commissions  created  for  this 
purpose,  or  by  making  this  one 
of  the  functions  of  boards,  com- 
missions, or  officials  having  other 
functions. 

Federal  statutes  providing  for 
the  creation  of  boards  or  commis- 
sions which  should  endeavor  to 
bring  about  the  settlement  of 
controversies  that  might  arise 
between  railroad  employees  and 
employers  were  enacted  in  1888, 
1898,  1913,  and  1920.  The  New- 
lands  Act  (passed  in  1913) 
created  the  United  States  Board 
of  Mediation  and  Conciliation, 
consisting  of  a  commissioner,  an 
assistant  commissioner,  and  two 
other  officials  of  the  government 
appointed  by  the  President,  sub- 
ject to  confirmation  by  the  Sen- 
ate. The  purpose  of  the  act  was 
to  bring  about  an  'amicable 
adjustment'  of  all  controversies 
concerning  'wages,  hours  of 
labor,  and  conditions  of  employ- 
ment' arising  between  railroad 
employees  and  railroad  execu- 
tives. When  a  controversy  in- 
terrupted or  threatened  to  inter- 
rupt the  railroad  business  'to  the 
serious  detriment  of  public  inter- 
est,' either  party  could  bring  the 
matter  before  the  board;  in  its 
judgment  the  board  could  proffer 
its  services.  The  function  of  the 
board  was  to  endeavor  by  media- 
tion and  conciliation  to  settle 
controversies  which  might  arise, 
and  in  case  such  mediation 
failed,  provision  was  made  for 
arbitration  boards  formed  upon 
the  request  ot  one  or  both  parties. 
Section  7  of  the  Act  contained 


a  provision  declaring  that  noth- 
ing in  this  Act  contained  shall  be 
construed  to  require  an  employee 
to  render  personal  service  with- 
out his  consent,  and  no  injunc- 
tion or  other  legal  process  shall 
be  issued  which  shall  compel  the 
performance  by  any  employee 
against  his  will  of  a  contract  for 
personal  labor  or  service.'  It 
further  provides  that  employees 
of  receivers  shall  have  the  right 
to  be  heard  through  their  repre- 
sentatives, in  the  court  having 
jurisdiction,  'upon  all  questions 
affecting  the  terms  and  condi- 
tions of  their  employment,'  and 
stipulated  that  'no  reduction  of 
wages  shall  be  made  by  such  re- 
ceivers without  authority  of  the 
court  therefor,'  and  after  due 
notice. 

From  the  organization  of  the 
Board  in  July  1913,  up  to  June 
30,  1916,  its  services  were 
requested  in  56  controversies  be- 
tween railroad  managers  and 
their  employees,  in  45  of  which 
a  settlement  was  reached  by 
mediation  alone;  of  the  remaining 
11  cases,  8  were  settled  by  arbi- 
tration, in  two  cases  arbitration 
was  pending,  and  in  one  case  a 
settlement  was  reached  by  the 
parties  after  arrangements  for 
arbitration  were  completed. 

Notwithstanding  the  number 
of  disputes  adjusted  by  the  Board 
of  Mediation  and  Conciliation, 
the  railway  managers  and  the 
railway  brotherhoods,  represent- 
ing   over    300,000  employees, 
could  not  reach  an  agreement  as 
to  what  questions  are  arbitrable. 
In  a  controversy  between  the 
brotherhoods  and  the  managers 
in  1916,  the  managers  refused  to 
refer  the  dispute  to  arbitration 
unless  the  so-called  'eight-hour' 
question  was  included,  while  the 
brotherhoods,  regarding  the  eight- 
hour  question  as  not  subject  to 
arbitration,  refused  to  refer  the 
dispute  to  arbitration  if  it  was 
included.    Confronted  with  this 
deadlock  and  an  impending  rail- 
road strike  in  September,  1916, 
Congress  enacted  the  Adamson 
law,  which  provided  that  eight 
hours  should   be  the  standard 
measure  of  a  day's  work  for  the 
purpose  of  reckoning  the  com- 
pensation of  employees  engaged 
in  the  operation  of  trains.  The 
railroad   executives   refused  to 
apply  the  law  pending  judicial 
determination  of  its  constitution- 
ality.   A  strike  was  prevented 
only  by  the  mediation  of  a  com- 
mission appointed  by  President 
Wilson;  the  commission  effected 
an   adjustment   by   which  the 
eight-hour  standard  workday  was 
voluntarily  recognized  by  both 
parties;  a  few  hours  later  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court  affirmed 
the   validity   of   the   law  (see 
Eight-Hour  Day). 

The  Newlands  Act  has  not 
been  repealed,  but  its  adminis- 
tration has  lapsed  through  lack  of 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Arbitration,  Industrial 


315  C 


Arbitration,  International 


appropriations,  and  the  functions 
of  the  Board  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  United  States  Rail- 
roac^  Labor  Board,  created  by  the 
Transportation  Act  ot  1920, 
returning  the  railroads  to  private 
control.  The  Transportation 
Act  provides  three  methods  for 
adjusting  disputes  between  rail- 
road employees  and  railroad 
management.  The  Act  makes  it 
mandatory  tor  both  parties  to 
refer  disputes  to  a  conference  of 
representatives  of  employees  and 
carriers  for  possible  adjustment. 
For  settlement  of  disputes  in- 
volving only  'grievances,  rules, 
and  working  conditions'  not 
determined  in  conference  be- 
tween representatives  of  the 
employers  and  employees,  the 
Act  provides  that  'railroad  labor 
boards  of  adjustment  may  be 
established  by  agreement  be- 
tween any  carrier,  group  of 
carriers,  or  the  carriers  as  a  whole 
and  any  employees  or  subordi- 
nate ofifiicials  of  carriers  or  organ- 
ization or  group  of  organizations 
thereof.' 

The  Railroad  Labor  Board, 
created  by  the  Act,  is  the  appeal 
body  to  hear  disputes  concerning 
wages,  salaries,  or  disputes  not 
settled  by  conference  between 
employees  and  carriers.  It  con- 
sists of  nine  members,  three 
representing  the  carriers,  three 
the  employees,  and  three  the 
public,  all  appointed  by  the 
President  and  subject  to  confir- 
mation of  the  Senate.  The  em- 
ployee and  carrier  members  are 
nominated  to  the  President  by 
the  railroad  labor  organizations 
and  carriers'  associations  respec- 
tively, while  the  public  members 
are  his  personal  selection.  Dis- 
putes between  carriers  and  em- 
ployees over  wages,  salaries,  and 
working  rules  come  before  the 
Board  upon  application  of  either 
party,  or  the  Board  may  make 
an  investigation  upon  its  own 
motion  if  it  is  of  the  opinion  that 
the  dispute  is  likely  substantially 
to  interrupt  commerce.  The 
Board  is  not  vested  with  legal 
power  to  enforce  its  awards,  the 
principle  of  the  statute  being 
that  the  equity  of  the  Board's 
decisions  and  the  pressure  ot 
public  opinion  will  secure  accept- 
ance by  both  carriers  and  em- 
ployees. 

In  practice  the  method  of  arbi- 
tration provided  for  by  the 
Transportation  Act  has  not 
proved  an  unqualified  success. 
The  organized  railroad  workers 
and  the  trade-union  movement 
generally  opposed  the  creation  of 
the  Railroad  Labor  Board  and 
have  persistently  demanded  the 
repeal  of  the  statute,  claiming 
that  the  law  establishes  a  form  ot 
compulsory  arbitration,  thus  de- 
nying the  trade-union  principle  of 
bona  fide  collective  bargaining. 

Failure  of  the  Association  of 
Railway  Executives  to  approve 
Vol.  I. — Oct.  '24 


the  national  adjustment  boards 
established  by  the  Act ;  abolition, 
under  pressure  from  the  Asso- 
ciation, of  the  national  agree- 
ment as  to  rules  and  conditions 
of  work  arrived  at  during  the 
period  of  Federal  control  be- 
tween the  railway  unions  and 
the  railway  administration,  and 
substitution  of  rules  formulated 
by  the  Board;  the  adoption  by 
certain  carriers  of  the  practice  of 
contracting  out  railway  repair 
shops  to  outside  contractors  in 
order  to  escape  the  wages  and 
working  rules  of  the  Board  and  to 
avoid  submission  of  unsettled 
controversies  to  the  Board, 
further  discredited  the  Board 
with  the  workmen  and  following 
a  series  of  wage  reduction  awards 
a  shopmen's  strike  ensued  (July 
1,  1922).  The  strike  grew  in 
strength  until  Sept.  13,  when  the 
management  of  a  number  of  the 
larger  railroads  broke  away  from 
the  Association  of  Railway  Exec- 
utives and  concluded  a  strike 
settlement  plan,  known  as  the 
'Baltimore  agreement.'  with  the 
general  committee  of  the  Fed- 
erated Shop  Crafts;  the  shopmen 
yielded  their  demand  for  the 
restoration  of  the  national  agree- 
ments, while  the  carriers  conceded 
imimpaired  seniority  rights  for 
the  strikers,  with  the  Railroad 
Labor  Board's  wage  award  of 
July  1  temporarily  effective 
pending  direct  wage-rate  nego- 
tiations between  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  imions  and  the 
carrier's.  Federated  Shop  Crafts 
officials  reported  that  up  to 
September,  1923,  the  railroad 
executives  of  135  roads,  repre- 
senting a  considerable  portion  of 
the  railroad  mileage,  had  settled 
with  their  striking  employees  in 
accordance  with  the  Baltimore 
agreement. 

Despite  the  provisions  of  the 
Clayton  Act  that  in  labor  dis- 
putes such  as  the  shopmen's 
strike  'no  restraining  order  or 
injunction  shall  be  granted  by 
any  court  of  the  United  States, 
or  a  judge  or  the  judges  thereof,' 
Federal  District  Judge  James  H. 
Wilkerson,  on  Sept.  1,  upon  the 
request  of  Attorney-General 
Daugherty,  granted  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  a 
nation-wide  injunction  restrain- 
ing the  officers  and  members  of 
the  shop  crafts  from  exercising 
practically  all  of  the  constitu- 
tional and  legal  activities  neces- 
sary for  organized  collective 
withholding  of  the  shopmen's 
labor  power  from  the  service  of 
the  railroad  executives.  The 
basis  for  the  Daugherty-Wilker- 
son  injunction  was  the  allegation 
that  the  shopmen's  concerted 
refusal  to  work  for  the  wages  and 
under  the  working  conditions 
laid  down  by  the  railroad  execu- 
tives and  the  Railroad  Labor 
Board  constituted  a  conspiracy  in 
restraint  of  interstate  commerce. 


On  July  12,  1923,  the  injunction 
was  made  permanent.  See  Eight- 
Hour  Day;  Injunction;  Strikes 
and  Lockouts. 

Consult  Report  of  the  U.  S. 
Industrial  Commission  (Vol. 
XVII.);  Government  Industrial  Ar- 
bitration {Bulletin  No.  6o,  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Labor.  1905);  The 
Settlement  of  Labor  Disputes 
(Annals  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Political  and  Social 
Science,  Vol.  xxxvi..  No.  2, 1910), 
and  The  Outlook  for  Industrial 
Peace  (same  publication.  Vol. 
XLiv.,  1912);  Bulletin  No.  98, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  1912; 
Report  of  the  U.  S.  Board  of 
Mediation  and  Conciliation  (Sen- 
ate Document  No.  493,  1916); 
C.  H.  Mote's  Industrial  Arbitra- 
tion (1916);  The  Case  of  the  Rail- 
way Shopmen  (Railway  Em- 
ployees' Department,  American 
Federation  ot  Labor) ;  Operation 
of  the  Industrial  Disputes  Investi- 
gation Act  of  Canada  {Bulletin 
No.  233,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics);  American  Federation 
of  Labor  history,  Encyclopcedia, 
Reference  Book  (1919). 

Arbitration,  International. 
By  international  arbitration  is 
meant  the  determination  of 
controversies  by  international 
tribunals  judicial  in  their  con- 
stitution and  powers.  It  difTers 
essentially  from  mediation,  in 
that  the  latter  is  an  advisory 
process,  while  arbitration  is  a 
judicial  process — mediation  rec- 
ommends, arbitration  decides. 

In  international  practice  con- 
troversies may  be  referred  to  a 
single  individual  or  to  an  uneven 
number  of  persons  described  as 
arbitrators,  but  unless  the  deci- 
sion arrived  at  is  the  result  of 
the  application  of  law  and  judi- 
cial methods  it  is  not  properly 
an  arbitration.  Decisions  reached 
by  a  body  of  persons  as  a  result 
of  negotiation  and  diplomatic 
compromise  are  more  properly 
classed  as  mediations. 

Arbitration  is  unquestionably 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  widely 
used  legal  devices  for  the  settle- 
ment of  international  disputes. 
The  recently  discovered  records 
at  Boghazkoi  and  Tel-al-Amarna 
indicate  that  it  was  often  resorted 
to  among  the  early  oriental 
peoples  as  a  means  of  securing 
an  amicable  settlement  of  their 
almost  incessant  disputes.  It 
was  among  the  Greeks,  however, 
that  it  reached  its  greatest 
florescence.  The  Hellenic  world 
was  composed  of  a  number  of 
independent  states  closely  resem- 
bling in  their  powers  and  practices 
the  modern  national  states.  The 
records,  of  which  a  great  number 
have  been  preserved,  indicate 
that  an  important  role  was 
played  by  arbitration  in  the 
international  affairs  of  these 
states.  Indeed,  the  efforts  to 
rule  their  affairs  by  law  led  to  the 
development  of  a  rudimentary 


Arbitration,  International 


315  D 


Arbitration,  International 


international  organization — the 
Amphictyonic  Council  (q.  v.)- 

During  the  rise  and  the  preemi- 
nence of  the  Roman  state  the 
practice  of  arbitration  fell  into 
decay  owing  to  the  military 
character  of  the  Roman  Empire 
and  to  the  prevailing  theory  that 
there  was  no  other  state  enjoying 
equal  legal  capacity,  a  theory 
which  naturall}^  precluded  the 
development  of  international  law 
and  arbitration. 

It  is  not  until  well  into  the 
mediaeval  period  that  records 
are  again  found  of  international 
arbitration.  The  early  theory  of 
European  political  organization 
was  that  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  was  the  true  successor 
to  the  classical  Roman  Empire, 
and  that,  therefore,  the  various 
kings  in  Europe  owed  obedience 
to  the  emperor.  The  failure  of 
the  Empire,  however,  to  sustain 
this  role  with  proper  force  led  to 
the  gradual  recognition  of  the 
principle  that  the  monarchs  of 
the  European  polities  were  legal 
equals,  and  from  this  it  was  but 
a  single  step  to  the  develop- 
ment of  international  arbitration 
as  a  mode  of  settling  contro- 
versies. Throughout  Europe, 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  so- 
called  feudal  period,  the  active 
principle  of  the  procedural  law 
was  that  no  man  could  be  tried 
except  by  his  equals  or  by  a 
superior.  The  adoption  of  this 
principle  into  the  rudimentary 
international  law  of  the  time 
marked  a  great  advance  in  the 
growth  of  the  legal  regulation  of 
international  relations.  One  of 
the  important  early  arbitrations 
was  a  dispute  submitted  to 
Henry  vi.  of  England  by  the 
Kings  of  Castile  and  Aragon 
(1180). 

As  a  general  rule,  where  the 
dispute  was  between  petty  feudal 
lords  who  enjoyed  a  position  of 
de  facto  independence  with  refer- 
ence to  their  feudal  overlords,  a 
noble  of  equal  estate  and  promi- 
nence was  chosen  as  arbitrator. 
Frequently,  too,  bishops  or  more 
exalted  prelates  were  chosen. 
The  Emperor,  the  King  of  France, 
and  particularly  the  Pope  func- 
tioned as  arbitrators  in  the  more 
important  cases.  Indeed,  the 
church  was  a  most  potent  factor 
in  the  development  of  interna- 
tional conciliation. 

In  the  Empire  the  attempt  of 
feudal  lords  to  break  away  from 
the  central  authority  led  to  a 
widespread  refusal  to  resort  to 
the  imperial  courts  and  a  syste- 
matic recourse  by  these  semi- 
independent  rulers  to  arbitration. 
During  the  Renaissance  the  prac- 
tice of  arbitration  may  be  said 
to  have  reached  the  high  point  in 
its  development  as  an  agency  for 
the  pacific  settlement  of  inter- 
national disputes. 

After  the  discovery  of  America 
and  during  the  rise  of  the  modern 


national  states  the  use  of  arbi- 
tration gradually  declined.  One 
of  the  last  important  instances 
of  its  use  prior  to  the  nineteenth 
century  was  the  conference  at 
Badajoz,  in  1524,  where  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  mon- 
archs attempted  to  settle  the 
ownership  of  the  Molucca  Islands 
by  judicial  means. 

During  the  sixteenth,  seven- 
teenth, and  eighteenth  centuries 
the  general  and  incessant  condi- 
tion of  warfare  brought  about  the 
almost  complete  disappearance 
of  international  arbitration.  In 
1729,  by  the  treaty  of  Seville, 
England  and  Spain  established  a 
mixed  commission  for  the  settle- 
ment of  claims  growing  out  of 
searches  and  seizures  on  the  high 
seas,  but  this  proceeding,  while 
arbitral  in  nature,  was  not 
strictly  an  arbitration,  as  the 
commission  was  composed  of  an 
equal  number  of  citizens  of  each 
country.  There  are  a  number 
of  other  instances  where  attempts 
were  made  to  arbitrate  contro- 
versies between  states  during 
the  eighteenth  century,  such  as 
the  Manila  Ransom  (1767)  and 
the  Falkland  Islands  (1770)  dis- 
putes between  England  and 
Spain,  but  none  of  these  attempts 
was  successful. 

Modern  Practice. — The  Jay 
Treaty  (q.  v.),  of  1794,  between 
the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  marks  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  arbitration.  It  made 
provision  for  three  arbitrations. 
The  first  of  these  concerned 
boundary  disputes;  the  second 
dealt  with  claims  on  account  of 
confiscated  debts;  the  third 
related  to  neutral  rights  and 
duties. 

The  boundary  question  was 
settled  by  a  mixed  commission  of 
three  persons,  which  rendered  its 
award  on  Oct.  25,  1798,  following 
sessions  extending  over  two 
years.  A  mixed  commission  of 
five  persons  met  in  Philadelphia 
in  1797  to  determine  the  question 
of  confiscated  debts.  The  pro- 
ceedings of  this  body  were  so 
stormy  that  after  sitting  for  only 
a  year  the  commission  was 
broken  up  by  the  withdrawal  of 
the  American  members.  The 
claims  not  settled  by  the  com- 
mission were  disposed  of  by  the 
treaty  of  Jan.  8,  1802,  by  which 
Great  Britain  accepted  a  fiat 
sum  in  satisfaction  of  its  de- 
mands. 

The  most  important  of  the 
three  arbitrations  under  the  Jay 
Treaty  was  that  which  dealt  with 
the  claims  of  the  United  States 
for  captures  made  by  Great 
Britain  in  the  war  with  France, 
and  with  the  claims  by  Great 
Britain  on  account  pf  the  failure 
of  the  United  States' to  enforce  its 
neutrality.  The  board,  which 
had  a  very  distinguished  mem- 
bership, sat,  except  for  an  in- 
terruption of  two  and  one  half 


years,  until  February,  1804.  The 
American  claimants  recovered 
over  eleven  million  dollars  for 
illegal  captures.  The  British 
claimants  recovered  $103,428.14. 

Practically  all  of  the  great 
disputes  between  the  United 
vStates  and  Great  Britain  since 
the  war  of  1812  have  been  settled 
by  arbitration.  The  Treaty  of 
Ghent  (1814)  which  ended  the 
War  of  1812  provided  for  three 
arbitrations,  and  in  the  years 
following  not  only  were  boundary 
questions  decided  but  outstand- 
ing claims  were  determined  at 
various  times  by  arbitral  boards. 

The  acrimonious  disputes  with 
Great  Britain  arising  out  of  the 
Civil  War  severely  strained  the 
relations  of  the  two  countries, 
and  but  for  the  adoption  of 
arbitration  as  a  mode  of  settle- 
ment, serious  consequences  might 
have  ensued.  The  Treaty  of 
Washington  (1871)  provided  for 
four  arbitrations,  the  first  dealing 
with  the  claims  generically  known 
as  the  Alabama  claims  arising 
out  of  the  war;  the  second  dealing 
with  the  San  Juan  water  bound- 
ary; the  third  dealing  with  war 
claims  other  than  the  Alabama 
claims;  the  fourth  with  questions 
arising  out  of  the  Northeastern 
Fisheries.  The  Alabama  claims 
were  arbitrated  at  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  from  which  place 
the  arbitration  takes  its  name. 
(See  Alabama,  The.) 

Two  other  important  arbitra- 
tions of  controversies  with  Great 
Britain  have  been  held.  One  of 
these  was  the  Fur  Seal  Arbitra- 
tion held  in  Paris  under  the 
treaty  of  Feb.  29,  1892.  The 
award  was  unfavorable  to  the 
United  States  (see  Bering  Sea 
Controversy).  The  other  was 
that  of  the  Fisheries  question, 
the  award  in  which  was  rendered 
by  the  Permanent  Court  of 
Arbitration  at  the  Hague  on 
Sept.  7,  1910,  and  which  was 
generally  favorable  to  the  United 
States. 

On  various  occasions,  vexa- 
tious claims  of  American  citizens 
against  Mexico  have  been  suc- 
cessfully arbitrated.  An  im- 
portant arbitration  with  Mexico 
was  the  so-called  Chamizal  Case, 
the  award  in  which  was  rendered 
Jan.  15,  1911.  This  case  involved 
the  boundary  between  the  United 
States  and  Mexico  on  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  award,  however, 
was  not  accepted  by  the  United 
States. 

With  Spain  arbitration  was 
employed  under  the  treaty  of 
1795  down  to  the  Spanish- 
American  War.  Between  the 
United  States  and  France,  also, 
various  important  questions  have 
been  arbitrated.  Arbitrations 
have  also  been  held  by  the  United 
States  with  Colombia,  Costa 
Rica,  Denmark,  Ecuador,  Ger- 
many, Haiti,  Nicaragua,  Nor- 
way, Paraguay,  Peru,  Portugal, 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Arbitration,  International 


E 


Arbitration,  International 


Salvador,  Santo  Domingo,  Siani, 
and  Venezuela. 

The  same  disposition  to  resort 
to  a  judicial  settlement  of  inter- 
national disputes  that  has  been 
manifested  by  the  United  States 
has  also  been  shown  by  the  South 
American  states,  for  during  the 
nineteenth  century  v«ome  one 
hundred  and  fifty  cases  were 
submitted  to  arbitration  by  the 
states  in  the  western  hemisphere. 
In  addition  to  the  special  treaties 
of  arbitration  it  was  a  general 
practice  for  treaties  negotiated 
in  the  nineteenth  century  by 
these  states  to  contain  clauses 
providing  for  arbitration. 

In  1881,  James  G.  Blaine  as 
Secretary  of  vState  extended  an 
invitation  to  all  the  American 
states  to  attend  a  general  con- 
ference for  the  purpose  of  discuss- 
ing methods  of  preventing  war 
between  the  nations  of  America. 
The  project  was  not  carried  out, 
however,  until  1889,  when  the 
International  American  Con- 
ference assembled  at  Washing- 
ton. On  April  18,  1890,  a  plan 
of  arbitration  was  adopted.  It 
declared  that  as  arbitration  was 
a  principle  of  American  inter- 
national law,  it  should  be  obli- 
gatory in  all  controversies  con- 
cerning diplomatic  and  consular 
privileges,  boundaries,  territories, 
indemnities,  the  right  of  naviga- 
tion, and  the  validity,  construc- 
tion, and  enforcement  of  treaties. 
Arbitration  was  to  be  equally 
obligatory  in  all  other  cases  with 
the  exception  of  those  where  one 
of  the  states  believed  its  inde- 
pendence was  involved;  in  such 
a  case  arbitration  would  be 
optional  on  that  state  but  obliga- 
tory on  its  adversary.  While 
this  plan  was  never  approved  by 
the  governments  represented,  it 
nevertheless  marks  the  com- 
mencement of  a  great  and  sus- 
tained agitation  for  universal 
arbitration. 

Hague  Conference.  — The  cul- 
mination of  the  popular  agitation 
for  arbitration  was  at  the  con- 
ference which  met  at  the  Hague 
in  1899.  The  notable  achieve- 
ment of  the  conference  was  the 
Convention  for  the  Pacific  Settle- 
ment of  International  Disputes. 
This  convention  contained  pro- 
visions first  as  to  mediation ;  and 
secondly  as  to  arbitration.  The 
signatories  agieed  in  case  of 
controversy  to  have  recourse, 
before  appealing  to  arms,  to  the 
good  offices  of  friendly  powers, 
and  provision  was  made  for  Com- 
missions of  Inquiry  and  a  Per- 
manent Court  of  Arbitration  (see 
Hague  Peace  Conferences), 

The  Convention  of  1899  was 
renewed  in  1907  at  the  Second 
Peace  Conference.  At  this  con- 
ference an  attempt  to  make 
recourse  to  arbitration  obligatory 
failed.  The  United  States  signed 
and  ratified  both  conventions. 

The  first  case  decided  by  the 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Permanent  Court  of  International 
Arbitration  was  the  Pious  Fund 
case  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico  (Oct.  14,  1902).  The 
chief  issue  in  this  case  was 
whether  an  award  in  a  previous 
arbitration  between  the  same 
parties  governed,  on  the  principle 
of  res  judicata,  the  claim  of  the 
United  States  for  indemnity 
made  in  behalf  of  certain  Cali- 
fornia prelates.  The  position  of 
the  United  States  was  upheld  by 
a  unanimous  decision.  Other 
cases  in  which  the  United  States 
has  appeared  as  a  party  are  the 
case  of  the  Orinoco  Steamship 
Company  (Oct.  25,  1910);  the 
North  Atlantic  Fisheries  Arbi- 
tration (Sept.  7,  1910);  the 
Norwegian  Claims  Arbitration 
(1922). 

The  Permanent  Court  of  Inter- 
national Arbitration  has  also 
rendered  awards  in  the  following 
cases:  the  Preferential  Claims 
case  (Feb.  22,  1904)  between 
Germany,  Italy,  Great  Britain, 
and  Venezuela;  the  Japanese 
House  Tax  case  (May  22,  1904) 
between  Germany,  France,  Great 
Britain,  and  Japan;  the  case  of 
the  Muscat  Dhows  between 
France  and  Great  Britain  (Aug. 
8,  1905);  the  Casablanca  De- 
serters case  between  France  and 
Germany  (May  22,  1909);  the 
Norwegian-Swedish  Maritime 
Boundary  case  (Oct.  23,  1909); 
the  Savakar  Extradition  case 
(Feb.  24,  1911)  between  France 
and  Great  Britain;  the  Canevaro 
Claim  (May  3,  1912)  between 
Italy  and  Peru;  the  Russian 
Indemnities  case  (Nov.  11,  1912) 
between  Russia  and  Turkey;  the 
Manouba  and  Carthage  cases 
(May  6,  1913)  between  Italy  and 
France;  the  Timor  Boundary 
case  (June  25,  1914)  between 
Holland  and  Portugal;  the  Re- 
ligious Property  case  GSept.  2  and 
4,  1920)  between  Spain,  France, 
Great  Britain  and  Portugal;  the 
Peruvian  Claims  (Oct.  11,  1921) 
between  France  and  Peru. 

Pan-American  Arbitration. — 
There  was  no  immediate  progress 
made  in  the  project  of  securing  a 
general  arbitration  agreement 
among  the  American  states  fol- 
lowing the  failure  to  adopt  the 
plan  agreed  on  in  1890.  At  the 
Second  International  Conference 
of  American  States,  which  met 
at  Mexico  City  in  1901,  a  second 
plan  was  devised  and  a  protocol 
was  signed  by  all  of  the  delega- 
tions except  those  of  Chili  and 
Ecuador  looking  to  adhesion  to 
the  Hague  Convention.  A  proj- 
ect of  a  treaty  of  compulsory 
arbitration  was  also  signed  by 
certain  delegations.  The  United 
States  did  not  sign  this  treaty 
but  it  was  signatory  to  a  third 
treaty  which  regulated  the  arbi- 
tration of  pecuniary  claims.  By 
the  terms  of  this  treaty,  signed 
in  January  1902,  the  parties 
agreed  to  submit  to  the  Perma- 


nent Court  of  Arbitration  at  the 
Hague,  unless  they  should  prefer 
to  create  a  special  jurisdiction, 
'all  claims  for  pecuniary  loss  or 
damage,  which  may  be  presented 
by  their  respective  citizens  and 
which  cannot  be  amicably  ad- 
justed through  diplomatic  chan- 
nels, when  the  claims  are  of 
sufficient  importance  to  warrant 
the  expense  of  arbitration.'  This 
treaty  was  ratified  by  Bolivia, 
Guatemala,  Honduras,  Mexico, 
Nicaragua,  Peru,  Salvador,  and 
the  United  States.  When  the 
Third  International  Conference 
met  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  (1906)  the 
five  years  for  which  the  treaty 
had  been  concluded  had  nearly 
run.  A  new  treaty  with  some 
amendments  was  concluded, 
therefore,  and  was  ratified  by 
Chile,  Colombia,  Costa  Rica, 
Panama,  Salvador,  Cuba,  Ecua- 
dor, Honduras,  Mexico,  Nicara- 
gua, and  the  United  States.  At 
the  Fourth  International  Con- 
ference at  Buenos  Ayres  in  1910 
the  treaty  was  renewed  with  cer- 
tain amendments,  one  of  which 
provided  that  the  treaty  was  to 
continue  in  force  indefinitely, 
subject  to  a  right  of  withdrawal 
on  two  years'  notice. 

Compulsory  Arbitration. —  Com- 
pulsory arbitration  as  a  means  of 
furthering  peace  was  agitated  in 
the  United  States  for  a  con- 
siderable period  after  the  First 
International  American  Con- 
ference. In  1903,  a  treaty  was 
concluded  between  France  and 
Great  Britain  that  sought  to 
make  arbitration  obligatory.  It 
provided  that  differences  of  a 
legal  nature  or  relating  to  the 
interpretation  of  treaties  which 
were  not  possible  of  adjustment 
by  diplomacy  should  be  referred 
to  the  Permanent  Court  of  Arbi- 
tration; provided,  such  disputes 
did  not  'affect  the  vital  interests, 
the  independence  or  the  honor' 
of  the  two  contracting  States  and 
did  not  concern  the  interests  of 
third  parties.  This  form  of 
treat v  enjoyed  a  great  vogue 
largely  because  of  the  far-reach- 
ing character  of  the  exceptions. 

Shortly  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  Anglo-French  convention 
the  United  States  signed  treaties 
with  various  powers  in  the  pre- 
cise terms  of  the  former.  Seven 
of  these  treaties  were  submitted 
to  the  Senate  in  January  1905. 
They  required  that  in  each  indi- 
vidual case  before  resort  was  had 
to  the  Permanent  Court  of 
Arbitration  a  special  agreement 
would  have  to  be  concluded 
defining  the  matter  in  dispute, 
the  scope  of  the  arbitrator's 
powers,  and  the  procedure  to  be 
followed.  While  before  the 
Senate  the  treaties  were  amended 
so  that  the  special  agreement 
would  in  each  case  have  to  be 
submitted  to  that  body  for 
approval.  President  Roosevelt 
declined  for  some  time  to  submit 


Arbitration,  International 

these  amendments  to  the  coun- 
tries with  which  the  treaties  had 
been  negotiated,  but  eventually 
the  amendments  were  accepted. 

The  result  of  these  treaties  was 
to  produce  a  radical  change  in 
the  policy  of  the  United  States. 
Previous  to  this  time  the  ordi- 
nary claims  conventions  had  been 
made  in  the  form  of  executive 
agreements  not  requiring  sena- 
torial consent.  Indeed,  twenty- 
seven  of  the  international  arbi- 
trations in  which  the  United 
States  had  participated  up  to 
1908  had  been  entered  into  under 
executive  agreements  as  against 
nineteen  by  formal  treaty. 

In  1911,  two  notable  agree- 
ments were  concluded  by  the 
United  States  with  France  and 
Great  Britain,  respectively,  com- 
monly known  as  the  Taft-Knox 
treaties.  According  to  these 
agreements,  all  future  differences 
between  the  contracting  parties 
which  were  not  adjustable  by 
diplomacy,  involving  a  'claim  of 
right'  made  by  one  party  against 
the  other  and  'justiciable  in  their 
nature  by  reason  of  being  sus- 
ceptible of  decision  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  of  law 
and  equity'  were  to  be  submitted 
to  arbitration.  In  each  case 
there  was  to  be  a  special  agree- 
ment which,  in  the  case  of  the 
United  States,  was  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  Senate.  On  its 
part  the  British  Government 
reserved  the  right,  before  con- 
cluding a  special  agreement 
affecting  the  self-governing  do- 
minions, to  obtain  the  concur- 
rence of  such  dominions.  The 
treaties  further  provided  that  as 
occasion  might  arise  a  Joint  High 
Commission  would  be  instituted 
to  which  any  controversy  might 
be  submitted  for  investigation, 
including  any  controversy  as  to 
whether  a  dispute  was  'justiciable' 
in  the  sense  of  the  treaty.  The 
third  article  provided  that  should 
all  but  one  of  the  members  of  the 
commission  report  that  a  dispute 
was  justiciable,  the  dispute 
should  thereupon  be  referred  to 
arbitration.  When  the  treaties 
came  before  the  Senate  they 
were  so  (radically  amended  that 
they  were  subsequently  aban- 
doned. 

In  1913,  a  paper  subsequently 
published  under  the  title  of 
President  Wilson's  Peace  Proposal 
was  handed  by  Wm.  Jennings 
Bryan,  Secretary  of  State,  to  the 
members  of  the  Diplomatic 
Corps  at  Washington.  The 
proposal,  also  known  as  the 
'Bryan  Peace  Plan,'  was  that  all 
disputes  which  diplomacy  should 
fail  to  adjust  should  be  submitted 
to  an  international  commission 
for  an  investigation  and  report. 
Pending  the  report  of  this  com- 
mission war  was  not  to  be  de- 
clared, nor  were  hostilities  to  be 
begun.  It  was  suggested  in  an 
accompanying  memorandum  that 


315  F 

the  international  commission, 
which  was  to  have  power  to  act 
on  its  own  initiative,  should  be 
composed  of  five  members,  each 
government  choosing  two,  only 
one  of  which  should  be  a  citizen 
of  such  state,  and  the  fifth  should 
be  agreed  on  by  the  contracting 
parties.  A  year  was  to  be  allowed 
for  the  investigation  and  the 
report.  It  was  further  announced 
that  the  United  States  was  pre- 
pared to  consider  the  question  of 
maintaining  the  status  quo  in  the 
matter  of  military  and  naval 
preparations  pending  the  investi- 
gation; there  should,  moreover, 
be  no  change  in  the  military  or 
naval  plans  of  either  party  during 
the  investigation  unless  danger 
from  a  third  state  should  compel 
a  change.  A  written  confiden- 
tial statement  by  the  menaced 
party  was  to  operate  as  a  release 
of  both  parties. 

The  first  state  to  accept  the 
plan  in  its  entirety  was  Salvador 
(Aug.  7,  1915).  The  treaty  with 
this  power  was  followed  by 
acceptances  from  Guatemala, 
Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and  Pan- 
ama. Down  to  January,  1924, 
treaties  based  on  the  Bryan  plan 
have  been  concluded  also  with 
the  following  states:  Argentine 
Republic,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Chile, 
China,  Costa  Rica,  Denmark, 
Dominican  Republic,  Ecuador, 
France,  Great  Britain,  Greece, 
Italy,  The  Netherlands,  Norway, 
Paraguay,  Persia,  Peru,  Portu- 
gal, Russia,  Salvador,  Spain, 
Sweden,  Switzerland,  Uruguay, 
and  Venezuela. 

These  treaties  have  been  widely 
heralded  as  'all-inclusive  arbitra- 
tion' treaties,  but  in  fact  they  do 
not  bind  the  parties  to  arbitra- 
tion, for  they  expressly  reserve  to 
the  contractants  entire  freedom 
of  action  after  the  report  of  the 
commission  shall  have  been  sub- 
mitted. Their  chief  purpose  is  to 
furnish  means  of  suspending  con- 
troversy and  tranquillizing  the 
public  mind. 

Development  Since  the  World 
War. — The  outbreak  of  war  in 
1914  brought  about  the  tem- 
porary suspension  of  the  pro- 
gramme of  judicial  settlement 
of  international  disputes.  The 
Treaty  of  Peace  with  Germany 
signed  at  Versailles  (1919),  how- 
ever, made  provision  for  the 
resumption  of  arbitration:  first, 
by  certain  stipulations  of  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  articles 
of  the  Covenant  of  the  League 
of  Nations,  which  contemplate 
recourse  to  arbitration  and  the 
constitution  of  a  world  court; 
secondly,  by  the  stipulation  that 
certain  classes  of  claims  pending 
between  the  former  belligerent 
states  were  to  be  arbitrated  by 
mixed  commissions  specially  con- 
stituted for  the  purpose  (Part  x., 
Section  vi.).  These  latter  bodies 
in  many  instances  have  been  set 
up  and  are  now  functioning. 


Arbitration,  International 

By  article  thirteen  of  the 
Covenant  of  the  League  of 
Nations  the  members  of  the 
League  have  agreed  that  when- 
ever a  dispute  shall  arise  between 
them  which  they  recognize  to  be 
suitable  for  arbitration  and 
which  diplomacy  cannot  settle, 
they  will  submit  the  matter  to 
arbitration.  The  article  also 
specifies  the  types  of  dispute 
which  are  suitable  for  arbitration 
to  be  those  which  concern,  (1) 
the  interpretation  of  a  treaty;  (2) 
any  question  of  international  law; 
(3)  the  existence  of  any  fact 
which  if  established  would  con- 
stitute a  breach  of  an  interna- 
tional obligation;  (4)  the  nature 
or  extent  of  the  reparation  to  be 
made  for  the  breach  of  an  inter- 
national obligation.  It  is  pro- 
vided that  these  disputes  may  be 
tried  by  a  court  agreed  upon  by 
the  parties  or  stipulated  in  any 
convention  between  them. 

The  fourteenth  article  of  the 
Covenant  empowers  the  Council 
of  the  League  to  formulate  and 
submit  to  the  members  of  the 
League  plans  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  permanent  court  of 
international  justice,  to  be  com- 
petent to  hear  and  determine  any 
dispute  of  an  international  char- 
acter which  the  parties  may  sub- 
mit to  it.  The  Covenant  also 
gives  the  court  the  function  of 
rendering  advisory  opinions  upon 
disputes  or  questions  referred  to 
it  by  the  Council  of  the  League 
of  Nations. 

It  is  important  to  notice  that 
the  court  which  was  subsequently 
instituted  under  the  name  of  the 
Permanent  Court  of  Interna- 
tional Justice  did  not  displace 
the  arrangements  previously 
made  at  the  Hague.  The  Perma- 
nent Court  of  International 
Justice  was  intended  to  function 
as  a  tribunal  sitting  at  regular 
intervals  and  with  a  fixed  per- 
sonnel, whereas  the  Permanent 
Court  of  International  Arbitra- 
tion instituted  by  the  Hague  con- 
ventions was  merely  a  panel  from 
which  judges  where  chosen  for  a 
particular  arbitration.  The  Per- 
manent Court  of  International 
Arbitration,  therefore,  continues 
to  exist  as  heretofore. 

Up  to  the  present  session  (1924), 
the  Permanent  Court  of  Inter- 
national Justice  has  delivered 
eight  advisory  opinions  and  has 
rendered  a  decision  in  a  single 
litigated  case.  The  opinions  of 
the  court  have  been  of  importance 
chiefly  in  defining  the  nature  and 
extent  of  its  own  jurisdiction,  and 
as  an  accessory  to  the  Council 
of  the  League  of  Nations. 

The  attempt  to  secure  the 
adhesion  of  the  United  States  to 
the  protocol  accepting  the  statute 
of  the  Permanent  Court  of  Inter- 
national Justice  is  the  most  recent 
development  in  the  cause  of 
arbitration.  On  Feb.  24,  1923, 
President  Harding  asked  the 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Arbitration,  International 


316 


Arboleda 


Senate  to  give  its  advice  and 
consent  to  the  adhesion  of  the 
United  States  to  the  protocol 
but  not  to  the  so-called  'optional 
clause,'  by  the  terms  of  which  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  court  was  made 
compulsory  in  the  class  of  cases 
set  forth  in  article  13  of  the 
Covenant  mentioned  above,  and 
article  36  of  the  statute  of  the 
Court.  As  the  United  States  is 
not  a  member  of  the  League  of 
Nations  it  was  proposed  in  the 
report  of  Secretary  of  State 
Hughes,  which  accompanied  the 
President's  message,  that  the 
United  States  adhere  to  the  pro- 
tocol on  condition  that  this  gov- 
ernment be  permitted,  through 
representatives  designated  for 
the  purpose,  to  participate  with 
the  members  of  the  League  in  the 
election  of  judges,  such  partici- 
pation, however,  not  to  be  taken 
to  involve  any  legal  relation  on 
the  part  of  the  United  States  to 
the  League  of  Nations,  or  the 
assumption  of  any  obligation  by 
the  United  States  under  the 
Covenant  of  the  League  of  Na- 
tions. In  his  message  of  Dec. 
6,  1923,  President  Coolidge  again 
recommended  the  adhesion  of  the 
United  States  to  the  protocol, 
but  ,up  to  July,  1924,  the  Senate 
had  taken  no  affirmative  action. 
At  the  present  time  the  United 
States  is  a  member  of  the  Perma- 
nent Court  of  International  Arbi- 
tration and  may  litigate  in  the 
Permanent  Court  of  Interna- 
tional Justice,  as  the  latter  court 
is  open  to  all  nations  without 
regard  to  formal  adhesion  of 
any  particular  powers. 

Arbitral  Procedure. — There  are 
no  settled  rules  of  arbitral  pro- 
cedure; practice  varies  depending 
upon  the  systems  of  law  of  the 
litigants.  The  Hague  Conven- 
tion of  1907,  however,  makes 
certain  provisions  for  the  pro- 
cedure before  the  Permanent 
Court  of  Arbitration. 
.  Prior  to  the  adjudication  the 
disputants  draw  up  a  document 
known  as  the  compromis,  in 
which  the  subject  of  the  dispute 
must  be  clearly  defined,  the  mode 
of  appointing  the  arbitrators,  the 
scope  of  their  powers,  the  lan- 
guage to  be  employed,  the  place 
of  meeting,  and  any  other  essen- 
tial conditions.  As  a  rule,  if  a 
sovereign  of  a  state  is  chosen  as 
arbitrator,  he  will  settle  the  pro- 
cedure. If  more  than  one  arbi- 
trator is  chosen,  the  umpire  is 
the  president  of  the  tribunal; 
and  if  no  umpire  is  included,  the 
tribunal  chooses  its  own  presi- 
dent. 

A  person  known  as  an  agent 
acts  as  the  intermediary  between 
the  litigant  state  and  the  tribu- 
nal. It  is  the  agent's  function  to 
present  the  case  to  the  tribunal. 
Associated  with  him  is  counsel  to 
defend  the  rights  of  the  state. 
There  are  no  formal  pleadings, 
nor  are  there  any  elaborate  rules 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '24 


of  evidence.  According  to  the 
United  States'  practice,  the  facts 
of  the  case  are  set  forth  in  a  docu- 
ment known  as  the  'case.'  This 
is  usually  drawn  in  narrative 
form  and  points  out  the  conclu- 
sions to  be  drawn  from  the  facts. 
It  is  usually  accompanied  by 
documentary  evidence  in  support 
of  the  facts  by  way  of  appendix. 
In  answer  to  the  case  of  the  other 
litigant  a  'counter  case'  is  pre- 
sented by  way  of  rebuttal.  If 
oral  argument  is  to  follow  the 
presentation  of  case  and  counter 
case,  as  is  usually  the  practice,  it 
is  at  this  stage  that  the  legal 
contentions  of  the  litigant  are 
developed.  The  continental  Eu- 
ropean practice  and  that  which 
the  Latin- American  states  follow, 
is  to  use  case  and  counter  case  as 
a  means  of  presenting  both  law 
and  facts.  This  method  is  some- 
times followed  by  the  British  and 
has  the  advantage  of  a  complete 
development  of  the  litigant's 
position  at  the  outset. 

The  tribunal  itself  generally 
has  broad  discretionary  powers 
in  the  conduct  of  the  case.  After 
the  submission  of  the  case  by 
each  side  it  may  exclude  all  new 
papers  from  discussion,  and  it 
may  require  the  production  of 
further  evidence  and  may  put 
questions  to  the  agents  or  coun- 
sel. Under  the  Hague  Conven- 
tion the  tribunal  considers  its 
decision  in  private  and  these  pro- 
ceedings remain  secret.  All  ques- 
tions are  decided  by  a  majority 
of  the  members.  The  decision 
of  the  tribunal  is  known  as  an 
award  and  settles  the  dispute 
definitely  and  without  appeal. 

Disputes  between  the  parties 
as  to  the  interpretation  and  exe- 
cution of  the  award  are,  in  the 
absence  of  agreement,  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  tribunal  which  pro 
nounced  it.  Unless  there  is  a 
reservation  in  the  compromis,  an 
award  cannot  be  revised.  A 
demand  for  revision,  according  to 
the  Hague  Convention,  can  be 
made  only  on  the  ground  of  the 
discovery  of  a  new  tact  calcu- 
lated to  exercise  a  decisive  influ- 
ence upon  the  award  and  which 
was  unknown  to  the  tribunal  and 
to  the  party  demanding  the  revi- 
sion at  the  time  that  the  discus- 
sion was  closed.  An  adverse 
award  may  be  attacked  on  the 
ground  that  the  tribunal  disre- 
garded the  terms  of  submission. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  whole 
theory  of  arbitration  is  that  the 
determination  of  the  dispute  by 
judicial  means  is  final. 

See  League  of  Nations; 
Hague  Conferences;  World 
Court. 

Consult,  for  history  of  arbi- 
tration, J.  B.  Moore's  History 
afid  Digest  of  International  Arbi- 
trations; Tod's  International  Arbi- 
tration Among  the  Greeks  (1913); 
Goebel's  Equality  of  States  (1923). 
For  modern  practice  consult  J. 


B.  Scott's  The  Hague  Peace  Con- 
ferences; Ralston's  International 
Arbitral  Law  and  Procedure;  A. 
P.  Higgins'  The  Hague  Peace 
Conference;  Moore's  Digest  of  In- 
ternational Law  and  International 
Law  and  Some  Current  Illusions 
(1924);  also  Proceedings  of  the 
American  vSociety  of  Interna- 
tional Law,  and  of  the  Lake  Mo- 
honk  Conferences  on  Interna- 
tional Arbitration;  Publications 
of  the  American  Society  for  Ju- 
dicial Settlements  of  Interna- 
tional Disputes,  the  American 
Association  for  International  Con- 
ciliation, and  the  Carnegie  Endow- 
ment for  International  Peace. 

Arblay,  Madame  d'.  See  Bur- 
ney.Frances. 

Arbo'ga,  town,  Sweden,  prov- 
ince of  Vestmanland,  situated  on 
the  Arboga  River,  an  affluent  of 
Lake  Malar;  25  miles  northeast 
of  Orebro.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest 
places  in  Sweden.  In  the  14th, 
15th,  and  16th  centuries  it  was 
the  scene  of  various  church  as- 
semblies and  diets,  at  the  last  of 
which  (1561)  the  Arboga  Articles, 
limiting  the  power  of  the  nobles, 
were  passed.    Pop.  (1920)  5,085. 

Ar'bogast  (d.  394),  a  Frank 
by  origin,  who  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  Roman  general  under  the 
Emperors  Gratian  (367-383)  and 
Valentinian  ii.  (388-392).  Being 
dismissed  by  Valentinian,  he 
refused  to  give  up  his  command, 
and  upon  the  latter's  death  (said 
by  some  writers  to  have  been 
instigated  by  Arbogast) ,  he  made 
the  rhetorician  Eugenius  em- 
peror. Two  years  later  (394)  the 
Emperor  of  the  East,  Theodo- 
sius,  invaded  Italy,  and  defeated 
Arbogast  near  Aquileia.  Eu- 
genius was  decapitated,  and 
Arbogast  committed  suicide. 

Arbois  de  Jubainville,  ar-bwa' 
de  zhii-ban-vel',  Marie  Henri  d' 
( 1827- 1 910) ,  distinguished  French 
philologist  and  historian,  was 
born  in  Nancy.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  Celtic  language  and 
literature  at  the  College  de  France 
(1882),  and  member  of  the  Acad- 
emic des  Inscriptions  et  Belles- 
Lettres  (1884),  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  many  important  books,  as 
Histoire  des  dues  et  des  comtes  de 
Champagne  (7  vols.,  1859-69); 
Les  premiers  habitants  de  V Europe 
(1877;  2d  ed.,  1889-94);  Etudes 
grammaticales  sur  les  langues  cel- 
tiques  (1881);  Le  cycle  mytholo- 
gique  irlandais  et  la  mythologie 
grecque  (1884);  La  famille  celtique 
(1905);  L'enlevement  du  taureau 
divin  et  des  vaches  de  Cooley 
(1907). 

Arboleda,  ar-bo-la'da,  Julio 
(1817-62),  Colombian  poet  and 
political  leader,  was  a  native  of 
Barbacoas.  As  leader  of  the 
revolting  Conservatives  in  Antio- 
quia  he  made  an  alliance  with 
Ecuador  and  waged  war  with  the 
Federalist,  Mosquera,  before  he 
was  assassinated.  His  chief  work 
is  Gonzjlo  de  Oyon  (partially  de- 


Arbor  Day 


317 


Arcade 


stroyed);  he  stands  high  among 
Spanish-American  poets. 

Arbor  Day,  a  day  set  apart  in 
the  United  States,  Canada,  and 
other  countries  for  the  planting 
of  trees,  especially  by  children, 
and  for  the  encouragement  of 
general  interest  in  forestry.  The 
annual  planting  of  trees  under 
State  auspices  on  a  certain  day  is 
said  to  have  been  first  suggested 
in  1865  by  B.  G.  Northrop,  secre- 
tary of  the  Connecticut  Board  of 
Education,  while  the  name  Arbor 
Day  was  probably  first  used  by  J. 
C.  Morton,  through  whose  influ- 
ence the  custom  was  adopted  in 
Nebraska  in  1872.  In  1882  Ohio 
introduced  the  observance  of  the 
day  into  the  public  schools,  and 
since  that  time  it  has  spread 
rapidly  until  nearly  all  the  States 
have  set  aside  certain  days  for 
the  purpose  either  as  school  or 
legal  holidays.  The  date  varies: 
in  the  Northern  States  it  is  late 
in  April  or  early  in  May;  in  the 
Southern  States,  in  December, 
January,  or  February. 

Arboriculture.  See  Forestry; 
Gardening. 

Ar'bor  Vi'tae  (Thuja),  an  ever- 
green genus  of  coniferous  trees 
and  shrubs  allied  to  the  cypress 
(q.  v.).  The  common  Arbor  Vi- 
tae  (T.  occidentalis)  is  a  native  of 
North  America,  especially  be- 
tween lat.  45°  and  49°,  but  has 
long  been  well  known  in  Europe. 
It  is  a  tree  20  to  50  feet  high; 
the  young  leafy  twigs  have  a  bal- 
samic smell;  and  both  they  and 
the  wood  were  formerly  in  high 
repute  as  a  medicine.  The  oil  ob- 
tained by  distillation  from  the 
twigs,  which  has  a  pungent  anii 
camphor-like  taste,  has  been  em- 
ployed as  a  vermifuge.  The  wood 
of  the  stem  is  reddish,  soft,  and 
very  light,  but  compact,  tough, 
and  durable,  bearing  exposure  to 
the  weather  remarkably  well. 

The  Chinese  Arbor  Vitae  {T. 
Biota  orientalis),  a  native  of 
China  and  Japan,  which  is  easily 
distinguishable  from  the  former 
species  by  its  upright  branches 
and  larger,  almost  globose  and 
rough  cones,  is  also  a  common 
ornament  of  pleasure  grounds  in 
Europe.  The  balsamic  smell  is 
very  agreeable.  The  tree  yields 
a  resin  having  a  pleasant  odor, 
to  which  high  medicinal  virtues 
were  formerly  ascribed ;  hence  the 
name,  Arbor  Vitas  ('tree  of  life'), 
given  to  this  species,  and  ex- 
tended to  the  genus. 

Arbroath,  ar-broxn',  formerly 
Aberbrothwick  and  Aberbroth- 
OCK  ('mouth  of  the  Brothock'), 
seaport  and  manufacturing  town, 
Forfarshire,  Scotland;  17  miles 
northeast  of  Dundee.  It  manu- 
factures linen,  sail-cloth,  and 
leather,  and  spins  flax  and  jute. 
There  are  also  engineering  works 
and  shipbuilding  yards.  The 
dock  area  is  2>^  acres.  Ruins  re- 
main of  the  abbey  founded  by 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '17 


William  the  Lion  in  1178.  Ar- 
broath is  the  'Fairport'  of  Scott's 
Antiquary.  The  famous  Bell 
Rock  is  12  miles  southeast.  Pop. 
(1901)  22,398;  (1911)  20,648. 

Arbues,  ar-boo-as',  Pedro  de 
(1441-85),  Spanish  inquisitor, 
born  at  Epila,  Aragon;  became  an 
Augustine  monk  at  Saragossa, 
and  was  appointed  (1484)  by 
Torquemada  (q.  v.)  first  inquisi- 
tor there.  His  excessive  zeal  in 
the  persecution  of  the  heretics 
led  to  his  assassination  in  1485. 

Ar'buthnot,  John  (1667-1735), 
Scottish  author  and  physician, 
was  born  at  Arbuthnot,  Kincar- 
dineshire, and  graduated  m.d.  at 
St.  Andrews.  He  was  physician 
to  Queen  Anne,  a  close  friend  of 
Swift,  and  intimate  with  Pope 
and  Gay.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  celebrated  satire,  The  History 
of  John  Bull  (1712).  The  Mem- 
oirs of  Martinus  Scriblerus  (1741), 
though  published  among  Pope's 
works,  is  now  ascribed  to  Arbuth- 
not. Among  his  scientific  works 
the  essays  On  Aliments  (1731) 
and  Concerning  the  Effects  of  Air 
on  Human  Bodies  (1732)  possess 
much  merit.  Consult  the  Life 
and  Works,  by  G.  A.  Aitken. 

Arbutus,  ar'bu-tus  or  ar-bu'- 
tus,  a  genus  of  small  trees  and 


scarlet,  somewhat  resembling  a 
strawberry,  with  a  vapid,  sweet- 
ish taste.  A  wine  is  made  from 
it  in  Southern  Europe. 

Trailing  Arbutus  (also  known  as 
Ground  Laurel  and  Mayflower) 
is  an  American  creeping  shrub  of 
the  heath  family  (Epigcea  repens) , 
famous  for  its  early  blooming,  and 
fragrant,  exquisite,  pink  and 
white  flowers. 

Arc  (Latin  arcus,  'a  bow')  is 
any  part  of  a  curved  line.  The 
straight  line  joining  the  ends  of 
an  arc  is  its  chord,  which  is  always 
less  than  the  arc  itself.  Arcs  of 
circles  are  similar  when  they  sub- 
tend equal  angles  at  the  centres 
of  their  respective  circles;  and  if 
similar  arcs  belong  to  equal  cir- 
cles, the  arcs  themselves  are  equal. 
The  length  of  an  arc  is  found  thus : 
Let  the  whole  circumference  be 
100,  and  the  angle  of  an  arc  50°, 
the  length  of  the  arc  is  360°  : 
50°  :  :  100  :  100><50  _  nearly. 
360 

See  Curve;  Asymptotes. 

Arc,  Electric.  See  Electric 
Lamps;  Electro-Metallurgy. 

Arc,  Jeanne  d'.  See  Joan  of 
Arc. 

Arcachon,  ar-ka-shon',  health  re- 
sort, department  Gironde,  France, 
on  the  Bassin  d' Arcachon;  35 


Arcade  in  the  Ducal  Palace,  Venice. 


shrubs  belonging  to  the  order 
Ericaceae.  A.  unedo,  the  Straw- 
berry Tree,  is  a  native  of  the 
South  of  Europe,  found  also  in 
Asia  and  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
United  States,  where  it  is  often 
planted  as  an  ornamental  ever- 
green. It  grows  to  a  height  of  20 
to  30  feet,  but  is  rather  a  great 
bush  than  a  tree.  The  bark  is 
rugged;  the  leaves  oblong-lance- 
olate, smooth,  shining,  serrate; 
the  flowers  nodding;  corolla  urn 
shaped,  greenish  white;  the  fruit 


miles  southwest  of  Bordeaux.  The 
town  proper  is  situated  on  the  la- 
goon; the  winter  town  is  com- 
posed of  numerous  villas  scat- 
tered among  the  pine  woods.  The 
climate  is  mild  and  bracing  (59° 
F,  average  for  the  whole  year, 
48°  F.  average  for  winter).  Pop. 
(1911)  10,266. 

Arcade,  a  term  in  architecture 
generally  used  for — (1)  a  series  of 
apertures  or  recesses  with  arched 
ceilings;  (2)  a  single-arched  aper- 
ture or  enclosure,  equivalent  to  a 


Arcadelt 


318 


Arch 


vault;  (3)  the  space  covered  by  a 
continued  arch  or  vault  supported 
on  piers  or  columns.  The  first  is 
the  true  arcade,  behind  which 
there  is  usually  a  walk  or  ambula- 
tory. The  Romans  erected  ar- 
cades one  over  the  other.  The 
piers  of  arcades  may  be  decorated 
with  various  columns,  pilasters, 
niches,  and  apertures. 

The  term  is  also  applied,  but 
improperly,  to  a  glass-covered 
street  or  lane,  with  a  row  of  shops 
or  stalls  on  each  side. 

Ar'cadelt,  Jacob  (d.  1575), 
musical  composer,  born  in  the 
Netherlands  at  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  or  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  He  went  to 
Rome  in  1539,  and  was  employed 
as  a  singer  at  the  Vatican  until 
1555,  when  he  accompanied  Car- 
dinal Charles  of  Lorraine  to  Paris. 
He  wrote  many  masses,  over  two 
hundred  madrigals  for  four  and 
five  voices,  and  a  collection  of 
songs. 

Arca'dia,  a  mountainous  and 
picturesque  country  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  Peloponnesus,  Greece; 
bounded  by  Achaia  on  the  north, 
by  Argolis  on  the  east,  by  La- 
conia  and  Messenia  on  the  south, 
and  by  Elis  on  the  west;  entirely 
surrounded  by  mountains.  The 
loftiest  peak  in  Arcadia — the  loft- 
iest also  in  the  Peloponnesus — is 
Mount  Cyllene,  in  the  northeast 
(7,787  feet).  The  chief  river  is 
the  Alpheus.  Its  chief  towns 
were  Tegea,  Mantineia,  and,  after 
370  B.C.,  Megalopolis  (qq.  v.). 
The  Arcadians  claimed  to  be  the 
most  ancient  people  in  Greece — 
'older  than  the  moon,'  according 
to  the  name  they  gave  themselves. 
They  were  certainly  a  primitive 
people,  chiefly  occupied  in  pas- 
toral pursuits  and  hunting.  Their 
devotion  to  music  is  responsible 
for  the  Arcadia  of  modern  poetry 
and  romance.  They  retained 
their  independence  against  the 
Spartans,  and  in  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C.  joined  the  Achaean 
League,  and,  with  its  other  mem- 
bers, submitted  to  the  Romans  in 

146  B.C. 

Modern  Arcadia  forms  a  nom- 
archy  or  department  of  Greece. 
Area,  2,020  square  miles.  Pop. 
167,000. 

Arca'dius  (377-408),  first  em- 
peror of  the  East  alone,  was  born 
in  Spain,  and  was  the  son  of  the 
Emperor  Theodosius  (q.  v.),  after 
whose  death,  in  395  a.d.,  the 
Roman  empire  was  divided  into 
East  and  West,  the  West  falling 
to  Honorius.  Arcadius  lived  in 
Oriental  state  and  splendor,  and 
his  dominion  extended  from  the 
Adriatic  Sea  to  the  River  Tigris, 
and  from  Scythia  to  Ethiopia; 
but  the  real  rulers  over  this  vast 
empire  were,  first,  the  Gaul  Ru- 
finus,  and  afterward  the  eunuch 
Eutropius.  Eutroi)ius  was  later 
supplanted  by  Eudoxia,  the  wife 
of  the  Emperor,  who  exiled  the 
Vol.  L— Mar.  '17 


great  archbishop,  Chrysostom, 
because  of  his  stern  denunciation 
of  vice.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Theodosius  ii. 

Arcani  Disciplina.  See  Dis- 
ciPLiNA  Arcani. 

Arca'num,  Royal.  See  Royal 
Arcanum. 

Arcanum,  the  Great.  See  Al- 
chemy. 

Arce,  ar'tha,  Francisco  (1822- 
78),  Mexican  settler  in  California, 
who,  before  the  era  of  the  Forty- 
Niners  (q.  v.)  and  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  the  country,  was  at- 
tacked on  June  6,  1846,  by  some 
Americans  belonging  to  Capt. 
John  C.  Fremont's  party,  as  he 
was  conveying  a  number  of  horses 
southward  for  the  Mexican  gov- 
ernment. The  Arce  Incident  was 
one  of  several  that  preceded  the 
raising  of  the  Bear  Flag  in  Cali- 
fornia and  its  annexation  as  one 
of  the  States  of  the  Union. 

ArcesUaus,  ar-ses-i-la'us  (316- 
241  B.C.),  Greek  philosopher, 
founder  of  the  Middle  Academy, 
was  born  at  Pitane  in  Eolia.  He 
ultimately  became  the  head  of 
the  Academic  school,  or  of  those 
who  held  the  doctrines  of  Plato; 
but  he  introduced  so  many  inno- 
vations that  its  philosophic  char- 
acter was  completely  changed  in 
the  direction  of  scepticism.  '  His 
great  rivals  were  the  Stoics.  A 
true  successor  to  Pyrrho  in  his 
antagonism  to  the  dogmatic 
schools,  he  denied  that  there  is 
any  standard  by  which  truth  and 
error  may  be  distinguished.  Our 
convictions,  he  said,  are  opinion 
rather  than  knowledge;  but  in  the 
practical  or  moral  sphere  we  must 
be  guided  by  probability. 

Arch,  a  structure  of  brickwork 
or  masonry,  or  of  iron  or  steel 
ribs,  whereby  a  load  is  supported 
over  an  open  space,  as  in  door- 
ways, windows,  roofs,  bridges, 
and  tunnels.  The  word  is  not 
applied  to  a  straight  horizontal 
support,  such  as  a  lintel  or  girder, 
which  fulfils  its  purpose  by  its 
mere  tensile  strength  and  rigidity. 

Arches  are,  as  the  name  im- 
plies, curved  (or  polyhedral) 
structures  designed  to  receive  the 
load  equally  at  all  points,  and  to 
transmit  the  pressure  through 
elements  (stones,  rios,  etc.)  placed 
in  the  'line  of  pressure.'  The 
latter  has  a  definite  geometrical 
form  for  every  amount  and  dis- 
tribution of  load,  and  it  is  the 
business  of  the  architect  or  en- 
gineer to  calculate  where  that 
curved  line  of  pressure  will  lie, 
and  to  build  his  arch  to  coincide 
with  it.  Limited  to  this  prin- 
ciple, architects  have  yet  given 
to  the  arch  a  wonderful  variety 
of  forms,  and  it  has  been  the 
most  important  factor  in  de- 
termining the  several  architec- 
tural styles  of  history. 

The  arch  was  known  to  and 
used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
and  the  Assyrians  were  acquainted 


with  its  principles.  The  arch  w^s 
not  unknown  to  the  Greeks, 
though  they  did  not  employ  it 
generally  in  their  architectural 
structures.  It  is  to  the  Romans 
that  the  nations  of  the  modern 
world  are  indebted  for  the  use  of 
the  arch.  The  Romans  most 
probably  derived  their  acquaint- 
ance with  it  from  the  Etruscans, 
who,  as  well  as  the  Pelasgians  of 
Greece,  made  their  arches  pointed. 
The  introduction  of  the  arch  by 
the  Romans  gradually  effected  a 
complete  revolution  in  the  archi- 
tectural forms  which  they  had 
borrowed  from  the  Greeks.  The 
predominance  of  horizontal  lines 
gave  way  by  degrees,  till,  in  the 
works  of  the  late  empire,  such  as 
the  palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spala- 
tro,  the  entablature  was  entirely 
omitted,  and  the  archivolt  sprang 
from  the  capital  of  the  columns. 
In  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic 
styles  the  arches  sprang  freely 
from  the  caps  of  the  shafts.  The 
introduction  of  steel  girders 
(which,  in  this  respect,  have  the 
same  qualities  as  wooden  beams) 
has,  for  many  purposes,  elimi- 
nated the  arch,  vault,  and  dome 
frOm  modern  structures. 

A  typical  arch  is  supported  by 
two  piers,  the  distance  between 
which  is  the  span  of  the  arch. 
Above  each  pier  is  a  horizontal 
block,  the  impost;  then  the  spring- 
er, or  lowest  voussoir  of  the  curve ; 
then  other  voussoirs,  all  wedge 
shaped;  until  at  the  apex  is 
reached  the  keystone,  which  is 
the  centre  of  the  arch.  The  con- 
cave side  of  the  arch  is  the  intra- 
dos,  the  convex  the  extrados;  the 
rise  is  the  height  of  the  intrados 
at  its  highest  point,  above  the 
middle  of  the  line  joining  the 
top  of  the  imposts;  the  thrust  is 
the  pressure  which  the  arch  ex- 
erts outward.  Masonry  arches 
are  built  upon  a  wooden  struc- 
ture, called  a  centring,  which  is 
afterward  removed.  The  dia- 
gram shows  the  most  notable 
forms  of  arch,  indicating  the  style 
of  architecture  with  which  each 
is  associated.  The  engineering 
questions  involved  are  discussed 
under  Bridges.  See  also  Abut- 
ment; Architecture;  Vault. 

The  Triumphal  Arch  was  a 
monument  erected  by  the  Romans 
fn  honor  of  an  individual,  or  to 
commemorate  some  historical 
event,  usually  a  great  victory. 
Such  structures  were  originally 
temporary  wooden  erections  fes- 
tooned with  garlands  of  flowers, 
stretching  across  the  road  or 
street  along  which  the  victorious 
general  and  his  army  entered  the 
city.  Afterward  the  triumphal 
arch  became  a  massive,  highly  or- 
namental, permanent  piece  of  ar- 
chitecture, decorated  with  appro- 
priate bas-reliefs  and  inscriptions. 
The  oldest,  although  not  now  in 
existence,  were  tho.se  erected  in 
honor  of  Scipio  Africanus  (190 


Arch 

B.C.)  and  Fabius  Maximus  (120 
B.C.).  Among  surviving  arches 
there  are  three  at  Rome  —  the 
Arch  of  Titus  (80  A.D.),  erected  in 
honor  of  the  conquest  of  Judea 
(it  is  richly  sculptured,  and  shows 
reliefs  of  Titus  in  triumph,  with 
the  plunder  of  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem); the  Arch  of  Septimius 
Severus  (203  a.d.),  erected  in 
commemoration  of  his  victories 
over  the  Parthians;  and  the  Arch 
of  Constantine  (312  A.D.),  which 
has  a  large  central  archway  with 
a  smaller  arch  on  either  side,  and 
four  Corinthian  columns  on  each 
front.  It  was  the  greatest  and 
most  lavishly  decorated  of  all,  and 
was  erected  in  honor  of  Constan- 
ine's  victory  over  _  Maxentius. 
Triumphal  arches  existed  also  in 
all  parts  of  the  Roman  empire — 
as  at  Ancona;  at  Benevento  (114 
A.D.),  in  honor  of  the  Emperor 
Trajan;  and  at  Saint-Remy  and 
Carpentras,  in  honor  of  Marcus 
Aurelius.  In  modern  times  there 
are  the  arch  erected  at  Naples 
in  honor  of  Alphonso  of  Aragon 
(in  the  15th  century);  the  Arco  del- 
la  Pace  at  Milan  (in  the  19th  cen- 
tury); the  two  arches  erected  by 
the  municipality  of  Paris  in 
honor  of  Louis  xiv.,  called  after- 
ward Porte  Saint-Denis  and  Porte 
Saint-Martin;  the  Arc  du  Car- 
rousel (1806),  and  the  Arc  de  Tri- 
omphe  de  I'Etoile  (1836),  both  at 
Paris,  and  both  dedicated  to  the 
Grande  Armee.  The  Arc  de  Tri- 
omphe  de  I'Etoile  is  situated  at  the 
end  of  the  Champs  Elysees,  in  the 
middle  of  a  circus  from  which 
twelve  large  avenues  radiate.  Its 
erection  was  begun  by  Napoleon  i. 
after  the  battle  of  Austerlitz 
(1806),  and  completed  in  1836.  It 
stands  150  ft.  high,  is  135  ft.  broad 
and  69  ft.  deep.  It  is  splendidly 
decorated  and  adorned  with  alle- 
gorical statues,  and  contains  the 
names  of  the  principal  victories 
of  Napoleon,  and  of  386  generals 
who  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
the  revolution  and  of  the  first  em- 
pire. The  Arc  du  Carrousel,  in 
the  square  of  the  same  name  in 
Paris,  was  erected  by  Napoleon 
in  1808,  after  the  model  of  the 
Arch  of  Septimius  Severus  in 
Rome.  Other  notable  arches  are 
the  Brandenburger  Thor  at  Ber- 
lin, the  Siegesthor  at  Munich;  and 
in  America  the  Washington  Arch 
at  New  York,  Memorial  Arch  at 
Brooklyn,  and  others. 

Arch,  Joseph  (1826),  agitator 
(1867-1900)  in  favor  of  farm  la- 
borers, was  born  in  Warwick- 
shire; worked  as  a  farm  hand; 
became  a  Methodist  preacher; 
founded  the  National  Agricul- 
tural Lalwrers'  Union  (1872); 
was  elected  to  Parliament  as  a 
Liberal  (1885).  See  his  Auto- 
biography, ed.  by  Countess  of 
Warwick  (1898). 

Archaean  System.  A  geologi- 
cal term  applied  to  those  rocks 


319 

which  are  older  than  the  earliest 
fossiliferous  strata.  The  name 
means  'initial'  (Gr.  archaios), 
and  was  suggested  by  J.  D.  Dana 
on  the  supposition  that  they  in- 
cluded the  remains  of  the  first 
crust  found  on  the  cooling  globe. 


That  the  original  crust  has  been 
preserved,  except  in  a  highly 
modified  form,  is  now  regarded, 
however,  as  very  doubtful.  Such 
rocks  have  also  been  called  Azoic 
and  Primitive.  The  term  Pre- 
cambrian  has  now  come  into  gen- 
eral use  as  a  synonym  for  Ar- 
chaean in  the  broad  sense  defined 
above,  and  the  latter  is  usually 
limited  to  the  basal  (Laurentian) 


Archsean  System 

group  of  the  Precambrian  which 
is  composed  entirely  of  crystal- 
line rocks.  The  overlying  group 
of  sedimentary  and  metamorphic 
strata,  with  the  included  igneous 
rocks,  is  known  as  Algonkian. 
The   Precambrian   rocks  are 


spread  over  wide  areas  of  both 
hemispheres,  everywhere  exhibit- 
ing great  diversity  of  character, 
and  structures  often  intricate  and 
difficult  to  decipher.  As  a  general 
rule  gneisses  and  metamorphic 
schists  are  the  prevalent  rock 
types,  but  sedimentary  rocks  and 
igneous  masses  are  found  in  prac- 
tically every  area.  The  lower  or 
Laurentian    series    is  probably 


Normtan.  1066-1109. 


Norman. 
( 'Rom<Anesqcje.) 


or  "Romcvnesqae. 
(  Semi-circulcvr) 


Smied  Arch 
(  Horme\n) 


QoiWic — ^^oinhed 

(1159-1546) 


Xni^lisb. 
(1189  -  1507) 


JJJL 


^erpendicalcvr. 
(ii77-  ts^e) 


Tudor 
liAas-tsAt,) 

Advcvoced 

Perpend  icaI<^r 


Typical  Forms  of  Arch. 


Arc  de  Triomphe  dc  I'Eloile,  Paris. 


are  rocks  which  present  a  normal 
igneous  fades — e.g.  granite,  peg- 
matite, diorite,  peridotite,  which 
seem  to  have  been  injected  as 
veins,  sills,  and  rude  sheets  in 
fissures  of  the  gneisses.  The  up- 
per or  Algonkian  series  is  well 
developed  in  North  America  and 


schists,  graphitic  schists,  chlorite 
schists,  quartzites,  granulites  of 
various  types,  slates,  phyllites, 
and  crystalline  limestones.  Much 
of  this  material  was  originally 
of  sedimentary  origin,  and  has 
reached  its  present  condition  as 
the  result  of  extensive  regional 


Archaean  System 

metamorphism.  Conglomerates 
are  also  not  infrequent,  and  indi- 
cate extensive  unconformabilities. 
How  far  in  every  case  these  up- 
l)er  rocks  are  really  Precambrian, 
or  include  greatly  altered  mem- 
l)ers  of  tTie  Cambrian  or  later 
formations,  it  is  at  the  present 
moment  impossible  to  decide. 
The  search  for  fossils  has  al- 
ready in  some  cases  been  re- 
warded, as  in  the  mica  schists  of 
S.  Norway,  and  in  Great  Britain, 
Newfoundland,  the  Lake  Supe- 
rior district  and  Colorado.  There 
is  still  another  fades  of  Precam- 
brian rocks,  which  in  Scotland  is 
represented  by  the  Torridonian, 
in  Norway  by  the  Sparagmite 
beds,  and  in  N.  America  by  the 
Keweenawan  beds.  These  are  de- 
trital  sedimentary  masses,  sand- 
stones, grits,  arkoses,  conglomer- 
ates, etc.,  in  most  cases  little 
altered.  Sheets  of  lava  and  ash 
beds  are  mingled  with  them  in 
many  areas,  and  they  are  often 
penetrated  by  igneous  injections. 
These  are  in  Scotland  known  to 
be  of  Precambrian  age;  elsewhere 
their  true  position  is  often  uncer- 
tain. Not  the  least  interesting 
feature  of  the  Archaean  and  Pre- 
cambrian rocks  is  their  enormous 
thickness,  which  in  N.  America 
has  been  estimated  to  be  as  much 
as  15  miles.  Although,  owing  to 
their  very  complex  and  much- 
folded  structure,  such  estimates  in 
this  case  are  apt  to  be  fallacious, 
yet  they  indicate  how  large  a  por- 
tion of  the  history  of  the  terres- 
trial globe  must  be  represented  by 
these  masses  of  rock.  We  have 
other  evidence  which  leads  to  the 
same  conclusion:  the  earliest 
known  fauna — that  of  the  Cam- 
brian— has  never  been  regarded 
by  zoologists  as  in  any  real  sense 
primitive,  but  its  members  are  so 
highly  developed  that  they  must 
have  had  a  long  series  of  ances- 
tors of  whom  no  record  has  been 
found.  In  addition  to  those  dis- 
tricts already  mentioned,  Precam- 
brian rocks  are  found  in  Brittany, 
Finland,  Bohemia,  Spain,  and 
Portugal;  in  India,  N.  China,  and 
over  large  areas  in  Brazil,  Aus- 
tralia, and  Africa.  They  outcrop 
very  frequently  along  the  axes  of 
mountain  chains,  flanked  on  either 
side  by  rocks  of  later  age,  as  in 
the  Urals,  Alps,  Pyrenees,  and 
Himalayas.  Owing  to  their  re- 
sistant nature  they  usually  form 
elevated  plateaus,  or  even  moun- 
tainous masses.  They  are  in  many 
places  repositories  of  valuable 
ores,  as  in  Scandinavia,  N,  Amer- 
ica, and  Brazil,  where  they  yield 
iron,  silver,  gold,  copper,  nickel, 
and  often  precious  stones.  See 
Sir  Archibald  Geikie's  Text-book 
of  Geology ;  Dana's  Geology ; 
Lapworth's  Intermediate  Geol. 
(1899);  Van  Hise,  Correlation 
Papers  —  Archean  and  Algon- 
kian. 


Arcbaeorogical  Institute 


321 


Archaeology 


Archaeological  Institute  of 
America,  an  association  or- 
ganized in  1879  in  Boston  with 
numerous  branches  in  different 
cities.  Its  object  is  the  encour- 
agement of  research  in  the 
antiquities  of  all  lands,  but  from 
the  nature  of  its  membership, 
which  is  drawn  largely  from  col- 
lege and  university  instructors, 
much  of  its  attention  is  devoted 
to  the  classical  field.  The  In- 
stitute holds  a  general  meeting 
annually,  and  publishes  the  bi- 
monthly American  Journal  of 
Archceology,  besides  various  spe- 
cial reports.  It  has  had  great 
influence  on  classical  scholarship 
in  America  through  its  establish- 
ment of  the  American  School 
of  Classical  Studies  in  Athens 
(1881),  the  American  School  of 
Classical  Studies  in  Rome  (1895), 
consolidated  with  the  American 
Academy  in  Rome  in  1913  and 
henceforth  known  as  the  School 
of  Classical  Studies  of  the 
American  Academy  in  Rome,  the 
American  Schools  of  Oriental 
Research,  the  School  of  American 
Research  (1907),  and  American 
School  of  Prehistoric  Research 
(1921).  In  addition  to  the  con- 
tributions from  various  American 
Colleges,  the  support  of  these 
schools  comes  from  private  con- 
tributions. The  membership  is 
about  3,000. 

Archaeology,  the  science  that 
deals  with  the  material  remains 
of  antiquity,  began  as  a  sub- 
sidiary subject  belonging  to 
philology;  then  it  became  one  of 
the  subjects  allied  to  the  general 
field  of  the  Humanities;  and 
about  1875  it  grew  to  full  status 
as  a  separate  and  distinct 
science.  But  it  should  not,  and 
cannot,  do  what  it  must  do 
scientifically,  apart  from  its''two 
brothers,  anthropology  and  eth- 
nology, and  without  the  assist- 
ance of  the  ancillary  sciences  of 
geology,  paleontology,  ethno- 
geography,  sculpture,  architec- 
ture, epigraphy,  paleography, 
ceramics  and  numismatics. 

Classification. — In  1832  Thom- 
sen,  a  native  of  Denmark, 
delimited  for  the  first  time  the 
broadest  classifications  of  general 
antiquity  into  the  Ages  of  Stone, 
Bronze,  and  Iron.  The  Stone 
Age  was  soon  divided  into 
Paleolithic  and  Neolithic,  Bronze 
and  Iron  into  Early,  Middle, 
and  Late  periods.  In  France  the 
so-called  prehistoric  archaeolo- 
gists delimited  the  Paleolithic  age 
into  four  chronological  phases: 
the  Chellean,  Mousterian,  Soul- 
trian,  and  Magdalenian.  In 
Greece  the  periods  known  now  as 
Early,  Middle,  and  Late  Minoan, 
Mycenaean,  Helladic,  and  Cy- 
cladic  are  based  on  comparative 
ceramic  strata.  In  Syria,  one 
finds  Chalcolithic,  Early  and 
Late  Hittite  and  Persian  periods; 


in  Palestine,  Early,  Middle,  and 
Late  Canaanite,  Palestinian,  and 
Arab;  in  Egypt,  Badarian,  Amra- 
tian,  and  Gerzean  Ages,  Early, 
Middle,  and  New  Kingdom 
Dynasties.  Objects  of  bronze 
and  iron  have  been  found 
widely  scattered,  and  as  research 
proved  derivative  or  copied 
shapes  and  technique,  and  as  the 
elements  of  ancient  gifts  and 
commerce  disturbed  an  abso- 
luteness of  statement,  the  ulti- 
mate sources  of  mine,  quarry, 
and  manufacture  were  sought. 
In  many  cases  definite  names 
of  archaeological  periods  have  at- 
tached themselves  to  such  places 
of  origin,  with  the  result  that 
there  is  considerable  overlapping 
both  in  time  and  technique.  It  is 
only  the  specialist  who  pretends 
to  keep  a  detailed  list  of  the 
names  of  periods  and  a  chart  of 
cross  sections  that  shows  deriva- 
tive identities  or  similarities. 
The  word  'pre-history'  in  all 
its  connotations  must  de  dis- 
carded. Nothing  is  prehistoric 
which  tells  truly  its  own  story. 
In  fact,  the  story  told  by  arti- 
facts is  much  more  free  of  error 
than  written  history. 

Methods.  —  The  science  of 
archaeology  is  one  with  meticu- 
lous methods.  There  are  the 
necessary  preliminary  studies  of 
ancient  and  modern  writers,  of 
local  traditions,  of  actual  roads 
and  probable  sites.  Then  comes 
the  assembling  of  an  archaeologi- 
cal outfit,  which  consists  of  ex- 
perienced directive  personnel, 
of  maps,  of  surveying  and 
photographic  implements,  of  the 
best  materials  for  the  drawing, 
copying  and  recording  of  finds, 
and  for  preservation,  packing, 
and  marking  of  objects.  A 
knowledge  of  all  the  chronological 
data  is  necessary  for  determining 
the  periods  of  construction  or 
manufacture.  There    is  a 

technique  all  its  own  of  excavat- 
ing and  cleaning  objects;  of  de- 
termining the  dates  of  pottery 
by  fabric,  by  style,  by  shape,  by 
maker's  craft,  by  type  of  paint- 
ing; and  last  there  is  the  indis- 
pensable necessity  of  exegesis, 
interpretation  (called  Hermeneu- 
tics)  and  publication  of  the 
objects  discovered. 

Although  isolated  finds  had 
often  been  made  as  far  back  as 
1506,  when  the  famous  Laocoon 
group  was  discovered  in  Rome  in 
a  room  of  the  Golden  House  of 
Nero,  the  event  which  neces- 
sitated scholarly  and  scientific 
examination  was  the  work  of 
Heinrich  Schliemann,  who  in 
1868  visited  various  Homeric 
sites.  His  discovery  of  ancient 
Troy  on  the  hill  of  the  modern 
Turkish  Hissarlik,  a  discovery 
which  was  flouted  by  historians 
and  philologists  alike,  was  seem- 
ingly the  rock  on  which  the 


scholarly  world  split.  It  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  the  desire 
of  the  archaeologists  to  sub- 
stantiate Schliemann's  discovery 
caused  a  rift  on  one  side  of 
which  archaeology  built  itself  up 
as  a  separate  scientific  con- 
struction on  its  own  founda- 
tions. The  many  scientific  ar- 
chaeologists working  in  various 
countries  at  once  combined  with 
the  new  development,  and  as  a 
result  Archaeology  appeared  al- 
most over  night  as  a  major 
scientific  subject. 

For  several  centuries  previous 
to  the  discovery  of  Troy,  the 
finds  of  artifacts  and  material 
which  constitute  the  subject 
matter  of  archaeology  had  been 
made  by  persons  who  were 
interested  in  the  collection  of 
objects  of  vertu  for  their  own 
private  collections  or  for  muse- 
ums, or  titled  personages  who 
furnished  the  funds  with  which  to 
conduct  explorations  and  ex- 
cavations with  a  view  to  per- 
sonal pleasure  or  national  profit. 
The  term  'pot-hunters'  is  the 
opprobrious  designation  given 
in  the  United  States  to  such 
persons.  It  was  at  once  evident 
that  archaeology  could  not  main- 
tain its  place  as  a  science  unless 
the  work  in  its  field  was  done  by 
trained  men;  unless  the  sites  for 
excavations  were  obtained  from 
governmental  authority  in  a 
properly  recognized  way;  unless 
the  finds  were  handled  by 
experts  in  digging,  in  engineering, 
in  photography,  in  geology,  and 
in  comparative  ceramics,  epig- 
raphy, architecture  and  art; 
and  unless  the  finds  were  treated 
so  that  neither  damage  to  them 
be  done  nor  deterioration  through 
their  disposition  or  exhibition  be 
left  inherent  in  them.  To  train 
experts  who  could  handle  satis- 
factorily the  many  tools  neces- 
sary to  the  archaeologist's  pro- 
fession was  and  is  a  slow  task. 
Many  things  done  fifty  years 
ago  are  not  in  accord  with  the 
meticulous  demands  of  the  sci- 
ence of  today,  but  in  general, 
since  1875,  the  best  methods 
known  at  the  time  have  been 
employed.  An  excavation,  as 
now  conducted  under  the  aus- 
pices of  a  government  grant  by 
experts  from  a  museum  or  an 
academic  institution,  is  a  marvel 
in  its  all-round  scientific  effective- 
ness. 

The  Results  of  Archaeology. — 

History  has  perhaps  gained 
most  from  the  results  of  archaeo- 
logical research.  The  finds  of 
Schliemann  at  Troy  in  Anatolia 
(or  Asia  Minor)  south  of  the 
Dardanelles,  and  at  Mycenae, 
Tiryns,  and  Orchomenus  in 
Greece,  filled  the  historical  gap 
between  the  traditional  Fall  of 
Troy  and  the  rise  of  Hellas  into 
world  significance;  a  gap  of  some 

Vol.  I.— 030 


Archaeology 


321  A 


Archaeology 


400  years  extending  from  1150 
to  750  B.C.  covering  a  period 
which  has  well  been  called  the 
Greek  Dark  Ages.  It  became 
apparent  that  peoples  of  wealth 
and  culture  had  built  up  a 
civilization  in  Troy  and  in 
Greece  which  in  fighting  itself  to 
death  with  newcomers  from  the 
north  had  contributed  its  su- 
perior culture  to  a  barbaric  one, 
and  that  from  the  amalgamation 
had  come  the  Hellenic  civiliza- 
tion of  which  history  knew  so 
much. 

When  the  Englishman,  Arthur 
Evans,  began  in  1900  to  work  at 
the  site  of  Cnossus  in  the  island 
of  Crete,  the  world  had  no 
expectation  that  his  discoveries 
would  amount  to  the  greatest 
historical  sensation  that  archaeol- 
ogy has  thus  far  brought  about. 
His  excavations,  and  those  of 
Americans  and  Italians  who 
worked  at  other  Cretan  sites, 
brought  into  the  light  of  his- 
torical day  a  civilization — to 
which  Evans  gave  the  name 
Minoan — which  had  been  entire- 
ly forgotten,  in  fact  one  which 
was  not  even  dreamed  of. 
Cnossus  in  Crete  turned  out  to  be 
nothing  less  than  the  chief 
city  of  a  great  island  sea  power, 
or  thalassocracy,  which  was 
contemporary  in  date  and  equal- 
ly advanced  in  civilization  with 
Egypt  and  Mesopotamia  during 
the  Bronze  Age.  Comparison  of 
objects  soon  showed  that  the 
civilization  of  Troy  and  Greece, 
which  had  been  given  the  name  of 
Mycenaean  Civilization,  was  a 
later  development  of  the  Minoan 
civilization  which  had  spread 
from  Crete  after  the  destruction 
of  the  city  of  Cnossus,  and  the 
consequent  loss  of  supremacy 
over  Crete  and  near-by  islands 
of  the  Aegean  Sea. 

The  name  Hittites  was  known 
from  the  Bible.  The  accidental 
discoveries  here  and  there  in 
Anatolia  of  monuments  on  which, 
in  relief,  were  the  faces  of  an 
unrecognized  people  with  large 
hooked  noses,  and  with  dress 
and  ornaments  that  were  not 
unlike  objects  of  the  same  kind 
known  from  discoveries  in  Meso- 
potamia, roused  curiosity.  On 
Egyptian  monuments  there  were 
carved  personages  who  resem- 
bled the  people  graven  on  the 
stones  found  in  Anatolia.  The 
Germans  began  archaeological 
work  at  Boghazkeui  in  1906,  the 
place  which  by  that  time  had 
been  proved  to  be  the  capital  of 
the  Hittite  Empire.  The  work 
there  and  at  many  other  sites  in 
Anatolia  soon  brought  to  light 
the  evidence  which  proved  that 
Anatolia  had  been  a  great 
empire  in  the  second  millennium 
B.C.  Concurrent  evidence  in 
papyrus  mss.  found  in  Egypt, 
the  many  traces  of  Hittite 
Vol.  I. — 030 


occupation  in  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine made  it  evident  that  here 
again,  as  in  Crete,  there  had 
come  to  light  the  remains  of 
another  great  civilization.  In- 
stead therefore  of  the  Hittites 
being  one  of  many  small  tribes 
whose  names  were  carried  in 
Bible  annals  as  being  one  of  the 
groups  that  inhabited  Palestine, 
these  Hittites  turned  out  to  be 
the  fourth  of  the  great  empires  of 
the  Near  East.  They  at  once 
took  rank  in  history  as  a  great 
contemporary  civilization  along- 
side those  of  Mesopotamia, 
Egypt,  and  Crete. 

Within  the  last  decade,  two 
more  ancient  civilizations  have 
come  into  the  light,  also  due  to 
the  work  of  archaeology.  At 
Kish  and  Ur,  and  other  places 
in  South  Mesopotamia,  the 
Sumerians  have  risen,  as  it  were, 
from  the  dead,  and  more  than 
that  many  traces  of  the  great 
Sumerian  civilization  have  now 
been  found  under  the  riverine 
deposit,  a  deposit  which  seems 
clearly  to  be  none  other  than  that 
left  by  the  Flood  known  to  Bible 
history,  and  authenticated  by 
the  traditions  of  a  flood  which 
are  found  in  the  writings  of 
several  of  the  peoples  who  in- 
habited the  valleys  of  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  or 
who  lived  in  the  highlands 
bordering  Mesopotamia.  The 
relics  of  the  early  Sumerians 
just  found  give  to  that  people, 
at  least  for  the  nonce,  the 
primacy  in  date  over  all  other 
early  civilizations. 

The  second  of  the  two  latest 
recoveries  of  ancient  cultures  is 
that  in  upper  India.  At  Harappa 
and  Mohenjo-daro  Sir  John 
Marshall  has  uncovered  two 
cities  in  which  are  sufificient 
objects  to  date  this  early  Indian 
civilization  back  to  the  fourth 
millennium  B.C.,  and  thus  bring 
another  culture  into  the  same 
chronological  category  as  those  in 
Egypt,  Crete,  and  Mesopotamia. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  believe 
that  ancient  civilization  will  soon 
be  carried  back  to  perhaps 
10,000  years  B.C.  These  civiliza- 
tions are  certain  to  be  in  the 
fertile  valleys  of  the  great 
rivers  in  warm  countries,  i.e.,  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Nile,  Tigris, 
Euphrates,  Indus,  Brahmaputra, 
and  Ganges;  and  perhaps  quite 
as  certainly  also  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Hoang-Ho  and  Yangste  in 
China. 

Archaeological     Discoveries. — 

The  earliest  archaeological  dis- 
coveries of  importance  came  at 
intervals  of  a  century.  It  was 
exactly  a  hundred  years  after 
the  Laocoon  group  of  statuary 
was  discovered  in  Rome  that,  in 
1606,  also  in  Rome,  in  a  room  on 
the  Esquiline  Hill  was  found  a 
wall  painting  to  which,  from  the 


ownership  of  the  property,  was 
given  the  title  'The  Aldobrandini 
Marriage.'  It  was  more  than  a 
hundred  years  later,  in  1711, 
before  the  first  discoveries  were 
made  at  Herculaneum,  one  of  the 
several  towns  which  had  been 
overwhelmed  in  the  year  79  a.d. 
by  the  great  eruption  from  Ve- 
suvius. Some  years  later,  Her- 
culaneum was  the  most  interest- 
ing spot  in  the  archaeological 
world,  due  to  the  discovery  there 
in  1753  of  more  than  one  hundred 
ancient  marbles  and  bronzes, 
and  of  some  three  thousand 
rolls  of  charred  papyri,  which 
were  on  the  point  of  being  de- 
stroyed because  they  were 
thought  to  be  pieces  of  wood 
that  had  been  burned  to 'char- 
coal. Not  much  of  this  papyri 
could  be  saved  to  science,  but 
those  parts  which  could  be 
deciphered  proved  to  be  copies 
of  the  philosophy  of  one  of  the 
less  well-known  Greek  philoso- 
phers. Excavation  began  at 
Pompeii,  in  1748,  but  the  work 
was  done  slowly,  and  for  many 
years  not  much  of  importance 
was  brought  to  light. 

Egypt. — The  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  saw  the 
field  of  archaeological  interest 
change  suddenly  to  Egypt.  In 
his  expedition  to  Egypt,  Na- 
poleon had  taken  several  archae- 
ologists. In  August,  1799  a 
stone,  destined  to  become  one  of 
the  most  famous  in  the  world, 
was  found  near  the  Rosetta 
mouth  of  the  Nile.  On  it  were 
three  inscriptions,  one  in  Greek 
which  was  easily  read,  one  in 
Egyptian  hieroglyphic,  and  a 
third  in  demotic,  a  sort  of 
shorthand  and  more  common 
variation  of  hieroglyphic,  both 
of  which  latter  were  undecipher- 
able. Although  much  attention 
was  given  by  many  scholars  to 
the  engraved  writing  on  this 
Rosetta  Stone,  it  was  not  until 
1822  that  the  Egyptian  inscrip- 
tions were  read.  Engraved 
elliptical  lines  were  round  certain 
combinations  of  characters. 
ChampoUion  made  a  guess  that 
these  lines  were  round  the  names 
of  King  Ptolemy  and  Queen 
Cleopatra,  whose  names  were, 
engraved  plainly  enough  in  the 
Greek  text.  His  guess  proved  to 
be  correct,  and  the  secret,  for- 
gotten for  centuries,  of  the 
mysterious  hieroglyphics  was 
revealed.  But  for  that  discovery 
it  may  be  believed  that  the 
thousands  of  Egyptian  inscrip- 
tions discovered  during  the 
past  century  would  be  still 
unread,  and  the  history  of  that 
famous  land  of  antiquity  be  still 
classed  among  the  undecipher- 
able relics  of  the  ancient  past. 

The  excavation  of  the  Sera- 
peum  at  Memphis  was  the  work 
of   a  Frenchman,    Mariette,  a 


Archaeology 


321  B 


Archaeology 


college  teacher  in  his  native 
city  of  Boulogne.  An  Egyptian 
sarcophagus,  which  had  been 
acquired  for  the  local  museum 
from  one  of  the  archaeologists 
who  had  been  in  Egypt  with 
Napoleon,  interested  Mariette 
so  much  that  he  began  to  study 
Egyptian.  His  progress  was  so 
notable  that  he  was  made  an 
assistant  in  the  Louvre,  for 
which,  in  1850,  he  went  out  to 
Egypt  to  purchase  Coptic  manu- 
scripts. Mariette  remembered 
that  the  historian  Strabo  in  his 
account  of  Egypt  had  written 
about  Ptah,  the  god  of  Memphis, 
who  was  incarnate  in  Apis,  the 
sacred  bull.  As  these  bulls  died, 
they  had  been  buried  in  a  ceme- 
tery at  Sakkara,  known  to 
history  also  as  the  site  of  the 
famous  step-pyramid.  This 
cemetery,  and  the  buildings 
connected  with  the  worship  of 
the  bulls,  was  called  the  Sera- 
peum,  a  Greek  corruption  of 
Osiris-Apis.  In  Alexandria  and 
Cairo  Mariette  noticed  a  number 
od  sphinxes.  He  became  con- 
vinced that  they  had  been  found 
not  far  away,  and  were  part  of  a 
private  discovery  which  was 
being  commercialized.  When 
one  day  he  discovered  a  sphinx, 
like  those  he  had  seen  in  the 
private  gardens  in  Cairo  and 
Alexandria,  sticking  out  of  the 
sand  at  Sakkara,  and  then  when 
later  he  found  near  by  a  tablet  on 
which  there  was  a  dedication  to 
Osiris-Apis,  his  mind  reverted 
at  once  to  the  passage  in  Strabo, 
and  he  visualized  in  the  sand 
beneath  his  feet  the  splendid 
avenue  of  sphinxes,  600  feet 
long,  which  led  to  the  temple  of 
the  god.  During  his  excavations 
he  discovered  141  of  the  sphinxes. 
The  temple,  however,  has  dis- 
appeared, due  doubtless  to  the 
general  medieval  practice  of 
removing  the  stones  of  ancient 
buildings  for  contemporary  con- 
structions. In  one  of  the  temple 
rooms,  however,  a  passage  was 
found  that  led  Mariette  down  to 
the  vaults  where  the  Apis  bulls 
had  been  buried  in  almost 
Pharaonic  splendor.  The  vaults 
were  built  during  the  centuries 
covered  by  the  xviii.  to  the 
XXVI.  dynasties.  In  side  rooms 
off  the  vaulted  galleries  were 
found  twenty-four  of  the  granite 
sarcophagi  in  which  the  sacred 
bulls  had  been  buried.  These 
coffins  of  huge  dimensions  and 
weight  are  each  of  one  piece  of 
Assouan  granite,  and  had  been 
transported  nearly  600  miles 
from  their  quarry.  Mariette 
excavated  in  Egypt,  during  his 
thirty  years  there,  at  thirty- 
seven  different  places.  His 
greatest  success,  after  that  of  the 
discovery  of  the  Serapeum,  was 
the  uncovering  of  the  Ptolemaic 
temple  of  Edfu,  a  building  which 


shows  the  almost  pure  type  of 
Egyptian    temple  architecture. 

Tell  el-Amarna  is  famous  in 
Egyptian  annals  for  two  things. 
First,  it  was  for  a  time  the 
capital  of  Egypt  during  the 
ascendency  of  Akhenaten,  known 
to  religious  history  as  the 
'heretic  king,'  and  to  religious 
philosophy  as  'the  world's  first 
individual.'  Secondly,  it  is  the 
site  which  gave  its  name  to  the 
Tell  el-Amarna  Tablets.  These 
were  tablets  of  clay,  inscribed  in 
cuneiform  writing,  which,  ac- 
cidentally found  in  1887,  when 
read  became  of  prime  im- 
portance. They  dated  about 
1400  B.C.  and  contained  much  of 
the  diplomatic  correspondence 
between  Egypt  and  Babylonia, 
In  1890  the  discovery  of  the 
Gurob  papyrus  and  one  leaf  of 
the  Antiope  of  Euripides,  made  a 
great  stir  in  literature.  This 
was  followed,  in  1891,  by  the 
find  at  El  Hibet  in  Upper  Egypt 
of  a  papyrus  roll  containing  the 
adventures  of  Wenamen.  In 
1895  the  Englishmen  Grenfell, 
Hunt,  and  Hogarth  began  to 
hunt  for  Egyptian  papyri.  They 
did  some  work  in  the  Fayum, 
but  coming  upon  the  track  of 
what  bade  to  be  a  greater  cache, 
they  moved  on  south  to  Oxyr- 
rhyncus  in  1897  and  there  found 
almost  at  once  some  papyrus 
which  contained  the  Sayings 
(Logia)  of  Jesus.  Their  greatest 
find,  however,  was  on  January 
13,  1906.  A  basket  of  broken 
rolls  of  papyrus  was  found  to 
contain  parts  of  the  Pceans  of  the 
Green  Pindar,  some  of  the 
tragedy  of  the  Hypsipyle  of 
Euripides,  some  portions  of  the 
works  of  Phaedrus,  and  also  of  a 
history  of  Greece. 

Beginning  about  the  same  time 
as  the  discovery  in  1888  at  Haw- 
ara  of  lst-2d  century  a.d. 
mummy  cases  with  the  portraits 
of  the  dead  painted  on  them, 
archaeological  work  in  Egypt 
began  to  increase.  British, 
French,  and  Americans  put 
expeditions  into  the  Egyptian 
field,  all  supplied  with  large 
funds  for  their  work.  In  1894  at 
Dahshur,  de  Morgan  found 
much  beautiful  jewelry  of  the 
XI.  and  XII.  dynasties;  work  was 
begun  on  the  temple  of  Queen 
Hatshepsut  at  Deir  el-Bahari; 
in  1904  the  American,  T.  M. 
Davis,  found  the  sarcophagus  of 
Queen  Hatshepsut,  and  the 
next  year  he  discovered  the 
tomb  of  the  father  and  mother  of 
Queen  Tyi.  The  discovery  by 
Petrie  in  1914  of  the  Treasure  of 
Lahun,  of  which  one  object 
was  a  royal  diadem  of  gold,  the 
uraeus,  inlaid  with  lazuli  and 
carnelian  on  its  front,  was  the 
finest  find  of  its  kind  up  to  that 
date. 

The    Pyramids    in  popular 


estimation  have  always  stood 
for  Egypt.  Many  successful 
attempts  were  made  to  find  their 
concealed  inner  chambers,  but 
when  found  they  proved  to  be 
empty,  the  contents  having  been 
rifled  in  contemporary  antiquity. 

Egypt  has  more  than  70  pyra- 
mids, but  the  great  field  is  that 
of  the  IV.  dynasty,  to  which 
belong  the  pyramids  across  the 
Nile  from  Cairo,  those  of  Cheops 
( Khuf  u) ,  Chephren  ( Khaf  ra) . 
and  Mycerinus  (Menkaura).  The 
pyramid  field  extends  up  the 
western  bank  of  the  Nile  for 
sixty  miles.  Next  above  the 
Gizeh  field  are  the  pyramids  of 
Abusir  of  the  v.  dynasty;  then 
the  field  of  Sakkara,  with  its 
step  pyramid  of  Zoser,  of  the 
III.  dynasty;  then  those  of  the 
XXII.  dynasty  at  Dahshur  and 
Lisht.  In  addition  to  these 
strictly  Egyptian  pyramids, there 
are  two  fields  in  the  Sudan,  one 
at  Gebel  Barkal  near  the  fourth 
cataract,  and  one  at  Meroe,  be- 
tween the  fifth  and  sixth  cata- 
racts. 

The  excavators  in  Egypt  had 
finally  found  all  but  one  of  the 
tombs  of  the  Pharaohs,  but  all 
had  been  entered,  for  the  most 
part  in  ancient  times,  and  most 
of  the  valuables  had  been  stolen. 
The  undiscovered  Pharaoh  was 
Tutankhamen,  a  young  noble- 
man who  came  to  the  throne 
through  his  marriage  to  the 
daughter  of  a  Pharaoh.  Theodore 
M.  Davis,  the  American,  held 
on  to  his  concession  for  many 
years  during  which  time  he 
hunted  for  the  unfound  king. 
He  discovered  the  tomb  of 
Horemheb,  the  general-in-chief 
of  Tutankhamen,  who  usurped 
the  throne  after  the  short  reigns 
of  Tutankhamen  and  his  succes- 
sor. Ay.  All  that  was  left  un- 
broken in  Horemheb's  tomb  was 
a  red  granite  sarcophagus.  In 
1906,  Mr.  Davis  discovered  a 
tomb  which  was  nearly  full  of 
mud.  In  it,  and  near  by,  he 
found  a  numtjer  of  small  articles 
which  had  inscribed  on  them  the 
names  of  Tutankhamen  and 
his  consort.  Davis  thought  he 
had  found  the  tomb  of  the  lost 
Pharaoh,  and  soon  thereafter 
gave  up  his  concession.  It  was 
taken  over  by  Lord  Carnarvon 
of  England,  who  associated  with 
him  the  archaeologist,  Howard 
Carter.  They  worked  for  several 
years  until  Carnarvon  also  was 
ready  to  give  up  the  search,  and 
went  back  to  England.  On 
November  5,  1922,  Carter  was 
working  at  the  last  possible  un- 
touched spot.  After  moving  a 
workman's  hut,  Carter  began  on 
the  broken  shale  from  a  tomb 
shaft  on  which  the  hut  had  stood. 
Suddenly  he  came  upon  a  step 
cut  in  the  rock.  After  some 
steps  had  been  dug  out.  Carter 

Vol.  I.— 030 


ArchaeologF 


322 


Archaeology 


found  on  a  door  the  seal  of  the 
royal  cemetery  inspectors,  de- 
cided he  had  found  the  tomb 
for  which  they  had  been  seeking, 
filled  in  the  steps,  and  cabled 
for  Lord  Carnarvon.  On  his 
arrival  they  reopened  the  en- 
trance, and  beyond  the  door  at 
the  end  of  a  passage  they  found 
the  four-chambered  tomb  of 
Tutankhamen.  The  chambers 
were  full  of  funerary  articles  of 
artistic  value,  such  as  a  wonder- 
ful pink  granite  sarcophagus, 
another  of  gesso-gilt,  inside 
which  was  another,  the  sides  and 
bottom  of  which  were  of  solid 
gold.  The  throne  chair  of  gold 
and  lapis  inlay  with  the  portraits 
of  the  Pharaoh  and  his  consort  is 
a  work  of  inimitable  beauty. 
The  mummy  of  Tutankhamen 
was  wrapped  in  layers  of  linen 
mummy  cloth  inside  the  layers 
of  which  were  found  143  pec- 
torals of  gold  and  gems,  daggers, 
belts,  and  other  ornaments  worth 
many  times  a  king's  ransom. 
The  objects  fastened  within  the 
mummy  bandage  gave  the  clue 
to  the  hitherto  misunderstood 
ritual  of  the  Egyptian  Book  of 
the  Dead. 

The  excavations  conducted  by 
the  Vienna  Academy  of  Science 
near  the  pyramids  of  Gizeh 
during  1928-29  brought  to  light 
on  three  sides  of  the  pyramid  of 
Cheops  cemeteries  of  the  Old 
Kingdom.  The  wives  and 
children  of  the  Pharaoh  were 
found  on  the  east  side,  buried  in 
small  pyramids;  on  the  west 
were  the  tombs  of  other  members 
of  the  royal  family  and  other 
persons  of  the  nobility.  The 
finest  piece  of  statuary  found 
was  that  of  the  court  physician, 
a  seated  figure  with  a  splendid 
and  intelligent  face. 

Across  the  Nile  from  Luxor, 
built  and  cut  in  against  the 
beetling  cliffs,  is  the  temple  of 
Queen  Hatshepsut,  the  most 
famous  woman  in  the  annals  of 
Egypt.  Early  in  1929,  Winlock 
of  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
staff  found  a  brick- work  shaft 
which  was  the  mouth  of  a  tomb. 
The  corridor  beyond  the  en- 
trance was  full  of  shawabli 
boxes  and  baskets  of  the  xviii. 
dynasty  type.  A  later  burial 
was  next  found,  the  inner  coffin 
and  mummy  of  Princess  Entiu-ny 
of  about  1000  B.C.  Beyond  this 
was  a  deep  well,  cut  to  trap 
robbers.  Beyond  the  well  the 
great  coffin  of  Meryet-amun, 
the  daughter  of  Thothmes  iii. 
was  discovered.  The  coffin  is  12 
feet  long.  Over  the  body  are 
rows  of  nail-holes  which  prove 
that  the  coffin  was  once  covered 
with  sheet  gold.  Inside  was  a 
second  coffin,  which  like  the 
outer  one  had  been  sheathed  in 
gold.  Both  coffins  had  been 
stripped  of  their  gold  covering, 

Vol.  L— 030 


and  the  mummy,  after  being 
unwrapped  to  steal  what  articles 
of  value  were  on  it,  had  been 
bandaged  again  in  clean  linen, 
and  the  robbers  had  even 
written  across  the  mummy's 
breast  in  a  hieratic  script  the 
exact  date,  1049  B.C.,  when  it 
had  been  done. 

The  discovery  near  the  pyra- 
mid of  Cheops  by  Reisner  of 
Harvard  University  of  the  tomb 
of  Hetepheres,  the  mother  of 
Cheops,  is  of  prime  importance. 
It  is  an  intact  tomb  of  the  early 
period,  and  afforded  for  the 
first  time  an  opportunity  to 
examine  the  burial  of  a  noble 
personage,  not  a  Pharaoh.  The 
burial  turned  out  to  be  a  re- 
burial.  Hetepheres'  husband, 
the  Pharaoh  Sneferu,  had  made 
for  her  a  tomb  near  his  own 
pyramid  at  Dahshur.  Sneferu 
died  first,  but  when  Hetepheres 
died,  her  son  Cheops  buried  her 
mummy.  Cheops  was  at  the 
time  preparing  another  tomb  for 
his  mother  near  his  own  pyramid. 
Robbers  were  discovered  in  her 
tomb,  and  after  they  had  been 
killed,  Cheops  removed  her  to 
the  new  tomb,  although  it  was 
not  yet  entirely  completed. 
Many  splendid  funerary  ob- 
jects were  found,  but  when  the 
lid  of  the  sarcophagus  was 
lifted,  there  was  no  mummy 
there.  It  had  been  buried  in 
some  other  hiding  place  as  yet 
undiscovered. 

Mesopotamia. — The  materials 
for  building  in  Mesopotamia 
were  mainly  sun-dried  or  kiln- 
dried  clay  in  brick  form,  which 
have  therefore  succumbed  to 
weather,  to  flood,  and  to  war 
more  readily  than  the  stones  and 
granites  of  Egypt.  The  deeper 
archaeological  excavations  go, 
the  more  remote  in  time  are  the 
objects  found.  The  latest 
excavations  (1929)  are  at  Urand 
Kish  in  the  lower  valley  of  the 
Euphrates.  Widespread  re- 
mains of  a  great  civilization  as 
early,  if  not  earlier  than  that  in 
Egypt  have  been  brought  to 
light.  Archaeology  has  proved 
that  there  was  a  pre-Flood 
people  called  the  Sumerians  who 
lived  in  the  fertile  land  where  the 
Accadians,  Babylonians,  and  As- 
syrians had  their  later  homes. 
A  deep  fluvial  layer  of  sand  has 
lately  been  found  over  a  large 
part  of  this  region,  which  is 
clearly  the  residuum  of  the  great 
Flood  which  is  known  from  Bible 
story  and  from  the  traditions  of 
several  of  the  peoples  who  lived 
in  or  near  Mesopotamia.  Both 
below  and  above  this  riverine 
stratum  of  sand  are  the  clearest 
evidences  of  the  same  Sumerian 
civilization,  that  below  showing 
the  havoc  wrought  by  the  flood, 
and  that  above  the  new  recon- 
structions of  the  people  who  had 


suffered  from  its  effects.  Com- 
parisons of  pottery  have  made  it 
possible  to  date  the  Flood  as 
nearly  an  absolute  date  as 
3500  B.C.  As  in  Egypt  the  most 
splendid  finds  have  been  those 
in  the  tombs  of  kings  and  nobles. 
The  richness  in  gold  and  gems 
found  at  Ur  of  the  Chaldees 
quite  matches  in  value,  though 
not  in  amount,  the  objects  from 
the  tomb  of  Tutankhamen,  and 
they  far  outmatch  them  in  artis- 
tic and  historical  value,  because 
they  are  2000  years  older. 

The  pyramid  and  the  mastaba 
tomb  are  the  outstanding  funeral 
constructions  of  Egypt.  In 
Mesopotamia  these  are  matched 
by  the  ziggurat  and  the  under- 
ground vaulted  burial  chamber. 
The  ziggurat,  of  which  there  are 
hundreds,  is  a  'Tower  of  Babel.' 
The  loft  building  of  today,  in 
its  backset  stories,  is  a  replica  of 
the  ziggurat.  The  bronze  tired 
wheels  of  the  oldest  chariot  in 
the  world  have  lately  been 
found  near  Kish.  Woolley,  the 
discoverer  of  the  Sumerian  civili- 
zation, so  carefully  excavated 
out  of  the  sand  an  ancient  harp 
that  he  was  able  to  photograph 
the  white  lines  which  are  the 
decayed  gut  strings  of  a  harp 
more  than  5000  years  old. 

The  first  archaeological  work  in 
Mesopotamia  of  scientific  con- 
sequence began  in  Babylonia  and 
Assyria  in  1811  by  Rich,  but 
the  first  exploit  that  caused 
universal  excitement  was  the 
discovery  and  copying  of  the 
inscription  on  the  Rock  of 
Behistun  by  H.  Rawlinson.  As 
the  Rosetta  Stone  was  the  key 
to  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  so 
the  Behistun  Rock  was  the  key 
to  cuneiform  writing.  The  entiie 
inscription  was  translated  in 
1856  by  Edwin  Norris.  Layard 
excavated  Nimrud  in  1845-47; 
Americans  excavated  Nippur  in 
Babylonia  in  1888-90;  the  Ger- 
mans began  work  at  Babylon  in 
1899,  and  at  Assur  in  1903.  In 
1902  another  important  find  was 
made  in  the  epigraphic  field. 
J.  de  Morgan  discovered  the  Law 
Code  of  King  Hammurabi,  the 
oldest  code  of  laws  thus  far 
found.  In  1918  H.  R.  Hall  found 
near  Ur  the  oldest  Sumerian 
temple,  which  Woolley  in  1923 
identified  as  that  of  King  Aanni- 
padda  of  the  first  dynasty  of  Ur. 
The  name  came  from  an  in- 
scription on  a  gold  bead,  which  is 
the  oldest  piece  of  known 
Sumerian  jewelry.  The  Ameri- 
cans found  1.000  tablets  in 
Assyria  near  Bagdad  in  1925; 
in  1928  Harvard  began  to  work 
at  Tarkalan,  Michigan  at  Tel- 
Omar,  near  Ctesiphon,  Penn- 
sylvania at  Tel-O,  and  the 
Field  Museum  at  Kish. 

India. — The  Government  of 
India  under  the  direction  of  Sir 


Archaeology 


323 


Archaeology 


John  Marshall  has  not  yet 
entirely  completed  the  excava- 
tion of  two  ancient  cities.  Mo- 
henjo-dars  and  Harappa,  but 
it  is  evident  from  the  finds  that 
this  Indian  civilization  goes 
back  to  3000  B.C.  and  beyond. 
Already  objects  have  been  identi- 
fied, and  when  compared  with 
like  objects  belonging  to  the 
early  Mesopotamians,  they  give 
clear  evidence  that  there  was  a 
connection  between  the  two 
cultures  from  and  in  very  early 
times.  Americans  are  just  enter- 
ing the  field  of  Indian  archaeology 
The  Roerich  Museum  of  New 
York  began  work  in  the  year 
1930  in  the  Kulu  valley  of  the 
Western  Himalayas,  and  the 
School  of  Indo  Iranian  Re- 
search of  the  American  Council 
of  Learned  Societies  will  soon 
establish  itself  at  Benares.  India 
and  China  seem  to  be  the  two 
countries  that  offer  at  the  present 
time  the  greatest  opportunities 
to  archaeology. 

Crete  and  the  Mgean  Sea. — 
The  archaeological  discoveries 
at  Troy  in  Asia  Minor,  and  at 
Tiryns,  Mycenae,  and  Orcho- 
menus  in  Greece,  made  it  evident 
that  there  lay  back  of  the  so- 
called  Mycenaean  civilization  a 
culture  which  was  not  that  of 
Mesopotamia  or  Egypt.  Both 
tradition  and  geographical  loca- 
tion seemed  to  point  to  the  island 
of  Crete  as  the  most  probable 
origin  of  a  civilization  in  the 
islands  and  on  the  coasts  of  the 
.(Egean  sea.  As  early  as  1857 
the  first  inscribed  stone  was  found 
of  what  later  was  discovered  to 
be  the  great  law  inscription  of 
Gortyna.  It  was  early  Greek, 
however,  and  not  Cretan.  The 
excavation  of  tombs  by  the 
Cesnolas  in  Cyprus  in  1872-78 
found  objects  of  an  early  date 
which  also  asked  more  of  archaeo- 
logical research  for  origins  than 
the  eastern  or  northeastern 
countries  bordering  the  Mediter- 
ranean. When  in  1884  the 
Italians  excavated  the  grotto  of 
Zeus  on  Mount  Ida,  objects  were 
found  which  seemed  to  point  to 
early  settlements  in  Crete.  But 
it  was  not  until  Arthur  Evans, 
the  British  archaeologist,  began 
in  1900  to  work  at  Cnossus,  four 
miles  south  of  the  north  coast 
seaport  Candia,  that  Crete  began 
to  emerge  as  a  real  factor  in  the 
early  history  of  the  eastern 
Mediterranean.  Soon  the  walls 
of  Cnossus  disclosed  themselves 
as  the  basis  of  the  Theseus  and 
Minotaur  tradition,  the  seat 
where  the  religion  with  the 
double  ox  as  its  symbol  was 
localized  as  the  place  of  origin 
of  the  art  of  the  Mycenaeans. 
Cnossus  was  recognized  as  the 
head  of  an  island  sea  empire  the 
beginning  of  which  went  back  to 
a   time  contemporaneous  with 


that  of  the  powers  of  Egypt  and 
Mesopotamia.  The  wall  paint- 
ings portrayed  the  very  people 
whose  pictured  presentments  had 
previously  been  found  in  Egyp- 
tian excavations  where  they  were 
called  the  Peoples  from  the 
North.  Egyptian  scarabs  were 
found  in  Cnossus  and  soon  it  was 
possible  to  make  cross  measure- 
ments which,  even  apart  from  the 
pottery  chronology,  settled  the 
comparative  dates  of  culture  in 
Crete  and  Egypt.  Evans  set  a 
chronology  for  Cretan  antiquity 
to  which  he  gave  the  apt  name 
Minoan,  dividing  it  into  three 
periods,  Early,  Middle,  and  Late 
Minoan,  subdividing  each  into 
I,  II,  and  III,  which  covered  the 
period  for  about  3000  to  1200 
B.C.,  at  which  latter  date  Cnossus 
was  destroyed  by  the  iron-using 
northerners  from  Greece  who  had 
swept  into  the  Balkan  peninsula 
some  centuries  earlier  and  had 
conquered  and  then  amalgamat- 
ed with  the  autochthones  and 
Mycenaeans  already  settled  there. 
Few  sites  have  been  better  ex- 
cavated than  Cnossus,  and  per- 
haps no  single  site  has  brought 
to  light  so  unexpected  and  so 
important  new  historical  facts. 
The  Danes  excavated  the  site  of 
Lindos  in  1902-04,  the  French  in 
1924  resumed  at  Mallia  their 
earlier  work  in  the  ancient  palace, 
and  Americans,  Seager,  Mrs. 
Hawes,  and  Miss  Edith  Hall  by 
their  work  at  a  number  of  sites 
extended  the  knowledge  of  early 
Cretan  culture  in  all  its  phases. 

Palestine  and  Syria. — The  dis- 
covery of  Petra  in  1812  by  Burck- 
hardt  turned  the  attention  of 
archaeologists  to  the  lands  that 
lay  between  ancient  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Egypt.  The  Bible 
and  inscriptions,  both  hieroglyph- 
ic and  cuneiform,  agreed  in 
mentioning  warlike  expeditions 
that  had  swept  over  the  sparsely 
settled  country  which  we  know 
now  as  Palestine,  Syria,  and 
Transjordania.  Most  of  the 
ancient  sites  had  been  destroyed 
so  utterly  that  their  locations 
were  no  longer  known.  The 
American,  Edward  Robinson, 
who  began  work  in  Palestine  in 
1838,  was  among  the  first  to 
enter  the  field.  With  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund  (British)  work 
was  possible  on  an  increased 
scale.  In  1868  the  stela  of  Mesa, 
known  as  the  Moabite  stone, 
gave  to  Palestine  a  discovery  in 
the  field  of  epigraphy  somewhat 
parallel  to  those  of  the  Rosetta 
Stone  and  the  Behistun  inscrip- 
tion. In  1890  at  Tell  el-Hezy. 
Petrie  began  to  try  to  identify 
lost  Biblical  sites.  I 

The  Germans  began  work  in 
1903  at  Megiddo,  the  Austrians 
in  1908  at  Jericho,  and  the 
Americans  in  1909  at  Samaria. 


Not  much  was  found  at  any  of 
these  sites,  and  the  work  lapsed 
even  before  the  beginning  of  the 
Great  War.  In  1921  the  French 
Archaeological  School  in  Jerusa- 
lem took  over  the  excavation  at 
Jericho,  and  the  Oriental  Insti- 
tute in  1928  began  work  at 
Megiddo.  The  Jewish  Palestine 
Exploration  Society  in  1921 
began  to  work  at  Tiberias,  and 
the  Franciscans  excavated  Ca- 
pernaum. Fisher  and  Rowe  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
Museum,  in  1921,  identified  the 
mound  at  Beisan  as  the  Beth- 
Shan  of  the  Bible.  In  1921-22 
the  British  worked  at  Ashkelon 
and  Gaza.  In  1923  Albright  of 
the  American  School  in  Jerusa- 
lem by  his  work  identified  Tel 
el-Ful  as  the  Gibeah  of  Saul,  and 
the  same  year  a  beginning  was 
made  on  Mount  Ophel  in  Jeru- 
salem by  the  British.  An  im- 
portant Bronze  Age  site  was 
discovered  and  excavated  in 
1924  by  Albright  and  Kyle  at 
Bab  ed-Dra,  and  was  identified 
as  one  of  the  'High  Places'  known 
to  Biblical  archaeology.  In  1925 
the  British  laid  bare  the  eastern 
wall  of  the  pre-Davidic,  i.e., 
Jebusite,  Jerusalem.  In  1926  a 
joint  American  expedition  iden- 
tified Tell  Beit  Mirsim  as  the 
Biblical  Kirjath-sepher,  and  Bade 
of  the  Pacific  School  of  Religion 
did  a  fine  piece  of  work  at  Tell 
en-Nasbeh,  some  miles  north  of 
Jerusalem,  which  he  identified  as 
Mizpah.  The  American  School 
in  1927  proved  by  its  archaeo- 
logical work  that  the  town  at 
Beitin  had  been  begun  earlier 
than  1800  B.C.,  and  also  succeed- 
ed in  identifying  it  with  the 
Canaanite  Luz  and  the  later 
Israelitish  Bethel.  Biblical 
Hazor  was  found  by  Garstang  in 
1928-29.  Some  ten  different 
expeditions  are  now  located  per- 
manently in  Palestine,  and  that 
little  land  has  become  the  cyno- 
sure of  all  eyes  both  historical 
and  archaeological. 

The  Near  East. — Archaeology 
has  shown  that  the  Near  East 
was  thickly  settled  from  at  least 
3000  B.C.  Traces  of  Old  Stone 
Age  culture  were  found  as  early 
as  1814  in  the  Central  Caucasus. 
In  1821  Nibby  identified  the 
groups  of  sculptured  Galatians 
as  being  those  of  the  Altar  ot 
Pergamum  in  Asia  Minor.  In 
1830  the  tomb  under  the  Hill  of 
Ashes  (Kul  Oba)  near  Kertch  in 
the  Crimea  was  opened,  and 
South  Russian  archaeology  began 
as  a  field  for  exploration,  al- 
though scientific  excavation  did 
not  begin  there  until  1852.  The 
uncovering  of  the  Mausoleum  of 
Halicarnassus  by  Newton  in 
1857  brought  to  the  students 
new  facts  of  the  architectural 
side  of  archaeology.  In  1862  the 
famed  temple  of  Hera  on  the 
Vol.  I. — 030 


Archaeology 


323  A 


Archaeology 


iEgean  island  of  Samos  was 
first  investigated,  and  in  1869-74 
Wood  and  Hogarth  at  Ephesus 
excavated  the  Artemisium,  better 
known  as  the  temple  of  Diana  of 
the  Ephesians.  During  1872-73 
work  was  done  at  the  towns  of 
Miletus,  Magnesia,  and  Priene, 
in  the  Maeander  valley. 

One  of  the  greatest  of  German 
excavations  was  that  at  Per- 
gamum,  the  Hellenistic  rival  of 
Alexandria,  in  1878-86,  the 
famous  sculptures  from  the 
temple  going  to  the  Museum  in 
Berlin.  In  1882-85  the  Austrians 
carried  forward  excavations  in 
Caria  and  Lycia  where  further 
work  was  done  in  laying  bare 
the  Heroon  at  Giolbashi.  At 
Clazomenae  the  first  of  the  many 
painted  terra-cotta  sarcophagi 
was  found  in  1882.  The  most  im- 
portant discovery  of  this  kind, 
however,  was  that  in  1887  of  the 
Sarcophagus  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  at  Sidon.  The  Austrians 
from  1896  at  Ephesus  and  the 
British  Museum  from  1899  at 
Miletus  carried  on  excavations 
which  were  fruitful  in  results 
both  to  history  and  to  later 
museum  display. 

With  1906  began  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  excavations  in 
Asia  Minor,  which  have  resulted 
in  restoring  the  Hittite  Empire 
to  its  proper  place  of  importance 
as  one  of  the  great  governments 
of  the  Near  East  ancient  world. 
Winckler  found  that  Boghazkeui 
in  the  valley  of  the  Halys  river 
was  the  ancient  capital  of  that 
great  empire  which  in  the  second 
millennium  B.C.  fought  on  equal 
terms  with  Babylonia  and  Egypt. 
At  Boghazkeui  documentary  evi- 
dence .  about  the  Hittites  was 
discovered  that  ranks  almost 
with  the  Rosetta  Stone  and  the 
Behistun  inscription.  Over  3,000 
broken  clay  tablets  were  found  in 
a  palace  and  a  temple.  The  writ- 
ing was  in  the  wedge  shaped 
cuneiform  letters  of  Mesopota- 
mia, and  was  dated  about  1300 
B.C.  Although  all  were  inscribed  in 
cuneiform  letters,  a  Swiss  scholar 
named  Forrer  proved  that  eight 
different  languages  were  repre- 
sented. Cuneiform  was  the 
invention  of  the  Sumerians,  and 
so  the  discovery  at  Boghazkeui 
gave  evidence  of  the  widespread 
use  of  their  language. 

In  1911  the  Americans,  Buck- 
ler and  Butler,  began  work  at 
Sardes  in  Anatolia.  Their  steady 
work  there  has  produced  the 
best  piece  of  archaeological  work 
in  Asia  Minor  to  date.  Kelsey 
and  Robinson  under  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan  Near  East 
Expedition  worked  in  1924  at 
Antioch  in  Pisidia  and  discovered 
some  200  fragments  of  the  local 
copy  in  Latin  of  the  Res  Gestae  or 
autobiography  of  the  Roman 
emperor  Augustus,  and  thus 
Vol.  I.— 030 


helped  to  increase  the  value  of 
the  earlier  copy  which  had  been 
found  in  fragments  at  Angora 
(Ancyra)  in  Asia  Minor  and 
collected  by  Duhn  in  1879-81. 
In  1927  the  Italians  found  130 
cremation  ossuaries  of  a  Tyr- 
rhenian necropolis  in  the  island 
of  Lemnos.  The  Germans  in  the 
same  year  resumed  their  pre- 
war work  at  Pergamum,  and  the 
Austrians  discovered  many  fine 
pieces  of  sculpture  at  Ephesus. 

Greece. — More  sites  in  Greek 
lands  have  been  excavated  than 
in  any  other  one  country  of  the 
ancient  world.  It  was  also  on  a 
Greek  site  that  the  real  science  of 
archaeological  excavation  was 
developed  in  its  best  technique, 
a  method  which  all  archaeologists, 
except  as  yet  most  of  those  in  the 
Americas,  have  followed.  Greece 
having  been  the  creator  of  the 
best  the  world  has  known  in 
architecture,  sculpture,  painting, 
and  literature,  the  discovery  of 
any  object  belonging  to  Grecian 
fields  has  been  the  greatest 
desideratum  of  the  archaeologist. 
Two  English  painters,  Stuart 
and  Revett,  had  visited  Athens 
in  1751.  In  1761  they  brought 
out  a  book  which  roused  in 
British  antiquaries  a  desire  to 
visit  Greece.  The  British  were 
brought  to  a  high  pitch  of  excite- 
ment when  they  learned  that 
Lord  Elgin,  their  ambassador  to 
the  Sublime  Porte,  was  in  1801- 
03  collecting  Parthenon  marbles 
in  Athens.  In  1811  the  pedi- 
mental  groups  of  sculpture  be- 
longing to  the  temple  on  the 
island  of  ^gina  were  discovered, 
and  in  1812  the  temple  frieze  at 
Bassae  in  southern  Greece  was 
found.  The  ^Eginetan  sculp- 
tures were  acquired  for  the  mu- 
seum at  Munich  by  Crown 
Prince  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  and 
this  fact,  noised  through  all 
Europe,  put  the  authorities  of 
other  museums  on  the  qui  vive. 
London  purchased  the  temple 
frieze  of  Bassae  in  1814,  and  in 
1816  the  British  Museum  bought 
the  Parthenon  sculptures  which 
he  had  collected  at  Athens. 

In  1829  the  French  began  their 
famous  excavation  of  the  temple 
of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  the  ancient 
site  of  the  Olympian  games.  The 
Germans  in  1841  started  excava- 
tions at  Delphi,  the  site  of  the 
famous  temple  of  Apollo  and  the 
Pythian  games.  But  for  political 
reasons  in  1867  an  exclusive 
excavation  permission  to  work 
at  Delphi  was  given  to  the 
French  School  at  Athens  for  five 
years.  At  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  and 
Orchomenus  Schliemann  was 
working  ,  from  1871  to  1890 
bringing  to  light  the  splendid 
proofs  of  the  Mycenaean  civiliza- 
tion in  Greece.  Meanwhile  at 
Olympia  from  1875  to  1881  for 
the  first  time  the  Germans  were 


laying  the  correct  foundations 
for  the  science  of  archaeological 
excavation.  The  French  ob- 
tained another  good  concession 
for  the  island  of  Delos.  a  site, 
like  Delphi,  where  Apollo  had  a 
famous  temple  in  ancient  times. 
They  worked  there  from  1877  to 
1894,  and  began  again  in  1902. 

The  Archaeological  Institute  of 
America,  founded  in  1879,  started 
in  Athens  its  first  archaeological 
school,  and  began  at  once  to 
excavate  Eretria,  a  town  in  the 
island  of  Euboea,  and  at  the 
same  time  was  excavating  at 
Assos.  The  Greeks  had  hitherto 
permitted  foreigners  to  do  most 
of  the  work  in  their  country,  but 
in  1881  they  themselves  began  to 
clear  the  Hieron  at  Epidaurus, 
where  they  worked  until  1903. 
In  1882  they  began  also  to 
excavate  Eleusis  (q.v.).  In  1884 
Stamatakes,  a  Greek,  started 
excavation  on  the  Athenian 
Acropolis,  and  the  work  there, 
which  was  taken  over  by  Kav- 
vadias,  continued  from  1885  to 
1891.  The  Greeks  permitted 
Doerpfeld,  who  began  in  1882  to 
work  with  Schliemann,  to  ex- 
cavate the  theatre  of  Dionysus 
on  the  slope  of  the  Acropolis. 
Then  followed  the  excavations 
of  the  Stoa  of  Eumenes  in  1887- 
88,  and  the  discovery  of  the 
Odeum  of  Pericles  in  1922,  where 
the  Americans  worked  in  1928. 
Work  on  the  Acropolis  was 
remunerative.  Hundreds  of 
pieces  of  terra  cotta  and  marble 
statuary,  many  fine  reliefs  and 
inscriptions  were  discovered 
which  belonged  to  the  pre- 
Periclean  period.  A  concession 
has  been  granted  to  the  American 
School  to  do  what  will  be  the 
greatest  excavation  ever  under- 
taken in  Greece,  namely,  that  of 
the  ancient  Agora,  or  market 
place.  That  work  presumably 
will  begin  in  1931,  and  is  ex- 
pected to  last  for  fifty  years. 

In  1888  the  Greeks  excavated 
at  Vaphio  in  Sparta,  where 
among  many  other  things  the 
finest  objects  found  were  the 
famous  gold  cups  with  bulls  in 
repousse.  The  British  uncovered 
Megalopolis  in  1850-51.  In 
1852  the  Americans  started  work 
at  the  temple  of  Hera  in  Argos, 
for  which  Polyclitus  made  his 
ivory  statue  of  the  goddess. 
In  1896  the  Americans  received 
the  concession  to  excavate  an- 
cient Corinth,  the  early  rival  of 
Athens.  These  excavations  are 
still  in  progress  (1930),  and  with- 
in the  past  few  years  the  great 
theatre  has  been  almost  entirely 
laid  bare.  The  British  in  1907 
began  work  at  Sparta,  and  have 
continued  with  varying  success 
ever  since.  The  work  done  by 
the  American  Blegen  and  the 
British  Wace  by  1920  gave  them 
criteria  sufficient  to  set  a  scien- 


Archaeology 


323  B 


Archaeology 


tific  classification  of  pre- Myce- 
naean pottery  on  the  Greek 
mainland  as  Early,  Middle,  and 
Late  Helladic,  with  dates  which 
corresponded  to  the  Minoan  chro- 
nology set  in  Crete  by  Evans. 
In  1920-22  the  discovery  by 
Wace  of  Mycenae  of  a  seventh 
shaft  grave  and  houses  that 
dated  in  L.  H.  iii  was  of  great 
archaeological  interest.  Blegen 
began  to  work  in  1921  at  Zy- 
gouries  in  the  Peloponnesus  and 
discovered  the  earliest — thus  far 
— settled  site  in  Greece.  This 
interesting  discovery  was  nearly 
matched  in  1924-25  by  Miss 
Hetty  Goldman,  working  at 
Eutresis  in  Boeotia  for  the  Fogg 
Museum  and  the  American 
School.  Here  she  proved  occu- 
pation extending  from  Early 
Helladic  to  Byzantine  times. 

The  discovery  of  the  earliest 
skeletal  remains  in  the  Pelopon- 
nessus  was  made  in  1924-27  at 
Nemea  where  Blegen  excavated 
for  the  University  of  Cincinnati 
and  the  American  School.  Blegen 
in  1925  also  found  the  first 
Neolithic  pottery  in  the  Argolid. 
In  1926  a  Swedish  expedition 
made  a  magnificent  discovery  at 
Midea  in  the  Argolid  where  they 
found  an  unplundered  tholos 
tomb  in  which  were  three  skele- 
tons and  a  splendid  funeral 
treasure  of  gold  vessels  and  of 
jewelry  that  were  Mycenaean  in 
date  and  type.  In  1928  Robin- 
son began  to  excavate  Olynthus 
in  Macedonia  for  Johns  Hopkins 
University  and  the  Baltimore 
Museum  of  Art.  His  work  made 
it  possible  for  the  first  time  to 
fill  the  archaeotogical  and  his- 
torical gap  in  the  period  just 
before  that  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  for  Olynthus  had  been 
destroyed  in  348  B.C. 

Rome. — The  gold  mine  of 
Italy  consists  of  the  archaeo- 
logical strata  of  ancient  Rome. 
As  in  Egypt  and  Greece,  many  of 
the  larger  buildings  of  Roman 
antiquity  were  not  destroyed  .and 
were  never  entirely  lost.  But 
the  objects  from  which  archaeo- 
logical science  reconstructs  the 
history  and  art  of  ancient  times 
were  buried  deep  beneath  the 
ruins  wrought  by  war,  by  fire, 
by  both  accidental  and  wilful 
destruction,  and  by  contempo- 
rary negligence  and  ignorance. 
When  Rienzi  discovered  and 
read  a  few  ancient  inscriptions  in 
Rome,  and  froin  their  graven 
record  of  tribunician  democratic 
power  brought  about  his  own 
election  to  a  Roman  tribunate, 
he  was  unwittingly  a  pioneer  in 
Roman  archaeological  discovery. 

When  in  1506  the  painting  of 
Hector  and  Andromache,  and 
the  statuary  group  of  Laocoon 
and  his  two  sons  writhing  in  the 
coils  of  the  serpents,  were  found 
in  Nero's  Golden  House,  another 


wave  of  excitement  was  added  to 
the  westward  sweep  of  the 
'Rebirth  of  the  Sciences,'  known 
in  Italy  as  the  Rinascimento  and 
in  France  as  the  Renaissance. 
The  first  discoveries  at  Her- 
culaneum  in  1711,  followed  by 
others  in  1738  and  1753,  gave  an 
added  impetus  to  the  reawakened 
desire  to  discover  the  buried 
glories  of  the  past.  Digging 
began  at  Pompeii  in  1748,  but 
real  excavation  did  not  start 
until  1808,  continuing  until  1815 
under  the  patronage  and  direc- 
tion of  Queen  Caroline.  The 
first  field  to  repay  the  excavators 
was  in  Tuscany,  where  in  1827- 
29  Etruscan  tombs  were  found 
at  Corneto  and  at  Vulci,  the 
walls  of  which  were  decorated 
with  paintings  of  a  mixed  mytho- 
logical and  antiquarian  character. 
Then  attention  was  suddenly 
diverted  again  to  Pompeii,  where 
in  1831  the  mosaic  portraying 
Alexander  the  Great  at  the 
battle  of  Issus  was  found.  In  all, 
up  to  the  present,  some  7,000 
tomb  chambers  have  been  found 
in  Etruria,  only  three  of  which 
were  intact.  The  first  one  dis- 
covered was  the  Regulini-Galassi 
tomb  at  Cervetri.  Its  marvel- 
lous contents  in  gold  and  silver 
jewelry  still  rank  among  the 
great  finds  of  archaeology.  The 
Barberini  and  the  Bernard  ini 
tombs  are  the  others.  The 
Francois  vase,  which  has  under- 
gone so  many  vicissitudes,  was 
found  at  Chiusi  in  1844.  The 
painting  in  the  Etruscan  tombs 
were  copied  almost  as  rapidly 
as  they  were  found,  and  the  best 
of  them  are  the  chief  ornaments 
of  the  Ny-Carlsberg  Glyptotheck 
in  Copenhagen. 

As  might  have  been  expected, 
the  first  layer  of  buried  Rome 
was  Christian.  De  Rossi  in  1849 
discovered  the  catacomb  of  St. 
Calixtus  just  outside  the  city,  a 
find  which  was  the  first  of  many 
which  have  been  so  numerous 
and  so  important  that  Early 
Christian  Archaeology  is  almost 
a  science  in  its  own  right. 

Tradition  in  all  the  lands  sur- 
rounding the  Mediterranean  is 
rife  in  the  first  historical  written 
records  of  settlers  that  before 
them  there  were  earlier  peoples. 
In  Greece  those  earliest  settlers 
were  referred  to  as  Pelasgi  or 
autochthones  {i.e.  self  sprung 
from  the  earth),  in  Italy  as 
aborigines.  The  Romans  recog- 
nized that  the  Etruscans  were  a 
people  earlier  than  they  them- 
selves, but  they  were  sure  that 
there  were  others  yet  earlier. 
We  know  now  that  peoples  called 
the  Mediterranean  race  were 
living  on  the  shores  and  islands 
of  that  sea  as  far  back  as  40,000 
B.C.  The  relics  left  by  a  group 
which  trekked  from  somewhere 
in  north  Africa  across  into  Spain 


at  Gibraltar  and  round  the  coast 
into  northern  Italy  have  been 
traced.  The  first  hint  of  pre- 
Roman  peoples  in  Italy  came 
when  in  1853  a  necropolis  was 
found  at  Villanova  near  Bologna. 
The  objects  found  were  so  dif- 
ferent from  anything  known  that 
the  name  Villanovan  was  coined 
to  define  the  people.  Now  the 
designations,  Villanovan,  Benac- 
ci,  Comacine,  Atestine,  Picene, 
and  a  dozen  others  have  been 
differentiated  and  divided  into 
periods  by  comparative  study  of 
their  work  in  bronze  and  clay,  so 
that  Italy  now  has  a  pre- written 
archaeological  history  as  sharply 
defined  as  that  in  Mesopotamia. 

Work  was  begun  on  the  imperial 
palaces  on  the  Palatine  hill  in 
Rome  in  1861  and  continued 
until  1869.  In  the  latter  year 
the  so-called  House  of  Livia  with 
its  painted  walls  was  discovered. 
In  1871  the  discovery  of  the 
Certosa  necropolis  near  Bologna 
gave  the  much  wanted  means  of 
comparison  with  the  Villanova 
cemetery.  Wall  paintings  in 
ancient  Roman  houses  had  be- 
come so  numerous  that  it  was 
possible  to  make  them  serve  as 
chronological  data.  The  Ger- 
man archaeologist  Mau  in  1873 
distinguished  four  styles  of  paint- 
ing at  Pompeii,  and  delimited 
them  so  successfully  that  only 
slight  corrections  of  his  criteria 
have  been  made  up  to  now. 

Pompeii,  Herculaneum,  and 
several  other  towns,  as  was 
known  from  the  ancient  Roman 
writer,  Pliny  the  Younger,  had 
been  overwhelmed  in  79  a.d.  by 
an  eruption  from  Vesuvius. 
All  these  towns  were  buried  by 
showers  of  volcanic  ash  and 
scoriae,  and  overrun  to  some 
extent  with  volcanic  mud;  all  of 
which  hardened  considerably 
when  it  cooled.  Nearly  all  the 
inhabitants  had  time  to  escape, 
and  some  months  after  the 
eruption  they  returned  and  dug 
down  at  Pompeii  through  some 
twenty  feet  of  hard  ashes  and 
pulled  out  what  valuable  articles 
they  could.  At  Herculaneum 
the  scoriae  was  too  deep  to  dig 
through,  and  for  that  reason  it  is 
believed  that  the  excavations, 
just  now  being  renewed,  will 
bring  to  light  important  things. 
Excavation  at  Pompeii  went  on 
for  many  years  before  an  intact 
house  was  found,  but  in  1894,  the 
archaeologists  were  rewarded  by 
the  discovery  of  the  house  of  the 
Vettii.  In  it  the  most  important 
discovery  was  that  of  the  wall, 
paintings  in  one  of  the  rooms. 
Mau  was  able  to  show  by  one 
painting  alone  that  the  decora- 
tion had  been  done  before  the 
earlier  volcanic  eruption  in  63 
A.D.,  after  which  other  house 
walls  had  been  repainted  hur- 
riedly by  job-work.     This  proof 

Vol.  I. — 030 


Archaeology 


323  C 


Archaeology 


gave  a  criterion  by  which  wall 
decoration  thereafter  could  be 
more  surely  delimited  chrono- 
logically. In  1895  a  magnificent 
set  of  silver  table  ware  was 
found  at  Boscoreale,  a  few  miles 
from  Pompeii.  Only  one  other 
such  complete  set  of  Roman 
silver  table  ware  has  been  dis- 
covered, that  at  Hildesheim  in 
Germany. 

Roman  history  set  the  origin 
of  Rome  as  754  B.C.  Although 
the  Greek  historians,  by  pointing 
out  discrepancies  in  chronology 
by  their  Perian  Stone,  caused  the 
Romans  to  set  up  a  series  of 
Silvii  as  early  kings  of  Rome,  the 
traditional  date  had  hung  until 
Boni  in  1902  found  alongside  the 
Sacra  Via  in  the  Roman  Forum, 
at  considerable  depth,  a  cemetery 
in  which  were  burials  together 
of  both  inhumation  and  crema- 
tion styles.  Objects  in  the  graves 
and  burial  urns  were  clearly 
older  than  anything  that  had 
been  found  up  to  that  time  in 
Rome.  It  was  several  years 
before  other  discoveries  of  ceme- 
teries with  objects  of  the  same 
sort  were  found  in  such  places 
that  geology  could  help  with  the 
date  of  the  necropolis.  The 
objects  were  then  assigned  scien- 
tifically to  some  900  and  more 
B.C.,  which  threw  the  history  of 
Rome  back  at  once  several 
centuries. 

Perhaps  no  discovery  caused 
more  speculation  than  that  of  a 
hypogeum  outside  one  of  the 
gates  of  Rome.  This  under- 
ground vaulted  basilica  with  its 
decorations  of  mythico-religious 
character  was  found  in  1917,  and 
since  its  discovery  has  been  the 
object  of  hundreds  of  learned 
articles  on  its  probable  use.  It  is 
now  generally  conceded  to  have 
been  the  meeting  place  of  some 
Neo- Pythagorean  sect.  In  1920 
Calza  discovered  at  Ostia  many 
fine  pieces  of  sculpture,  a  store 
house  for  grain,  some  public 
baths,  and  a  Mithraeum,  which 
have  helped  to  make  the  history 
of  this  early  seaport  of  Rome 
more  complete.  Also  in  1920 
excavation  under  the  former 
German  embassy  on  the  Capito- 
line  hill  found  the  remains  of  the 
early  temple  of  Jupiter  which 
had  been  built  by  the  Etruscan 
Tarquins  when  they  were  kings 
of  Rome.  In  1922  settlements  of 
the  Bronze  Age  and  Etruscan 
tombs  were  found  on  Monte 
Mario  in  Trastevere,  a  discovery 
which  was  more  important  than 
the  Forum  cemetery  in  throwing 
back  the  early  settlements  at  the 
bend  in  the  Tiber  where  Rome 
finally  grew.  In  1923  Professor 
Esther  B.  Van  Deman,  the 
American  archaeologist,  made  one 
of  the  greatest  of  Roman  Forum 
discoveries.  Between  the  Arch 
of    Titus    and    the    ruins  of 

Vol.  I.— 030 


the  Atrium  of  Vesta  there  is  a 
mass  of  heterogeneous  ruins  so 
complex  that  archaeologists  had 
despaired  of  bringing  order  out 
of  that  chaos.  Professor  Van 
Deman  proved  that  most  of  it 
belonged  to  the  great  arcades 
which  flanked  an  avenue,  100 
feet  wide,  which  Nero  had  made 
as  a  monumental  approach  from 
the  Forum  to  his  Golden  House. 

In  1924  the  Fascist  regime 
began  the  great  task  of  uncover- 
ing the  fora  between  the  Roman 
Forum  and  the  forum  of  Trajan, 
and  restoring  to  modern  Rome 
the  civic  centre  of  ancient  Rome. 
That  task  is  now  well-nigh  com- 
plete. In  1927  work  was  re- 
sumed at  Herculaneum,  and  has 
since  been  extended  to  Cumae 
and  the  near  by  Vergilian  terri- 
tory, preliminary  to  the  celebra- 
tion in  Italy  of  the  2000th  anni- 
versary of  the  birth  of  the 
Roman  epic  poet  Vergil  which 
comes  in  the  year  1930.  In 
1928  an  Etruscan  necropolis 
was  found  near  Valle  Treba  and 
the  Greek  vases  found  there  bid 
fair  to  be  the  greatest  find  of 
that  sort  thus  far  ever  made. 
Although  divers  at  various  times 
in  the  past  seventy-five  years 
have  brought  up  a  few  things 
from  the  pleasure  barges  of  the 
Roman  emperor  Caligula  which 
have  been  for  nearly  2,000  years 
on  the  bed  of  Lake  Nemi  in  the 
Alban  Hills,  fourteen  miles  south 
of  Rome,  no  successful  methods 
of  recovering  them  had  been 
initiated  until  Mussolini  in  1928 
arranged  to  have  the  water 
pumped  out  of  the  lake  through 
an  ancient  emissarium.  One  of 
the  barges  is  now  entirely  out  of 
the  water.  A  number  of  valuable 
things  were  found,  but  not 
enough  to  make  it  worth  while  to 
drain  the  lake  sufficiently  to 
clear  the  other.  The  exposed 
barge  was  sheathed  with  lead 
and  bronze  in  water-tight  com- 
partments much  on  the  same 
plan  as  ships  of  today.  The 
latest  discovery  of  consequence 
in  Rome  is  that  of  four  temples  of 
Republican  date  across  the  street 
from    the    Argentina  theatre. 

Roman  objects  and  buildings 
have  been  found  in  late  years  in 
nearly  all  the  countries  that 
formed  part  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
man empire.  In  Italian  colonial 
territory,  however,  the  most 
important  excavations  have  been 
those  of  Cyrene  in  the  Cyrenaica, 
and  of  Lepcis  Magna  and  Sab- 
ratha  in  Tripolitania  in  northern 
Africa.  Lepcis  Magna,  which 
was  buried  by  the  sand  of  the 
Sahara,  seems  about  ready  to 
justify  'the  claim  of  being  the  best 
preserved  of  ancient  Roman 
provincial  towns. 

Continental  Europe  and  Great 
Britain. — Until  late  years  archae- 
ology  dealt   with   remains  of 


Roman  civilization  in  those 
European  countries,  and  north- 
ern Africa  as  well,  which  had 
been  Roman  provinces.  Now 
earlier  remains  are  known.  The 
paintings  found  in  1879  in  the 
Altamira  cave  in  Spain  date 
back  to  some  50,000  years  B.C.; 
the  artifacts,  necklaces,  and 
other  small  objects  found  in  the 
Les  Eyzies  valley  in  France 
belong  to  one  of  the  intra- 
glacial  periods.  In  Great  Britain, 
in  Sardinia,  in  Britanny,  there 
are  menhirs,  cromlechs,  stone 
circles,  roads,  and  human  re- 
mains that  are  pre-Roman  by 
centuries.  Scandinavia  and 
Russia  have  discovered  many 
sites  that  have  yielded  archaeo- 
logical treasures  that  are  local 
in  origin. 

The  first  discoveries  at  Hall- 
statt  and  the  digging  there  in 
the  Iron  Age  cemetery  in  1846 
were  so  important  from  the 
point  of  view  of  antiquity  that 
the  name  became  that  of  a  local 
and  unique  culture.  Prehistoric 
caves  were  first  found  in  France 
in  1853.  In  1854  the  discovery 
of  lake  pile-dwellings  in  Switzer- 
land threw  mid-European  history 
back  by  many  centuries.  Another 
cultural  epoch  took  its  name  from 
the  discoveries  in  1864  at  La 
Tene.  In  1868  the  unearthing  of 
a  splendid  dinner  service  of 
Roman  silver  plate  at  Hildesheim 
in  Germany  gave  an  impetus  to 
the  archaeological  work  of  the  Ro- 
man period  of  occupation.  At  Les 
Eyzies  in  France  a  Cro-Magnon 
rock  shelter  was  found  in  1868. 
Many  paleolithic  implements 
were  found  in  the  banks  of  the 
Thames,  and  their  study  began 
with  Worthington  Smith  in  1878. 
The  Gogstad  Viking  ship  was 
discovered  in  1880.  Evidence  of 
Old  Stone  Age  inhabitants  was 
discovered  in  Scotland  in  1926, 
and  a  Pict  village  in  the  Orkney 
Islands  was  excavated  in  1928. 
In  Great  Britain  alone  more  than 
100  sites  have  been  located  and 
excavated  within  the  past  twenty 
years. 

The  Americas. — Ethnology  set 
the  question  before  itself  as  to 
the  racial  progenitors  of  the 
early  peoples  in  the  Americas; 
archaeology  settled  it.  There 
was  some  probability  inherent 
in  the  Mongoloid  craniology  of 
the  American  Indian.  Many 
theories  were  brushed  aside  and 
definite  facts  arrived  at  when  the 
archaeological  discoveries  in  both 
North  and  South  America  traced 
not  only  the  development  of 
artifacts  but  also  found  the 
objects  left  by  the  immigrants 
from  Asia  into  Alaska  down  the 
west  coast  of  the  United  States. 
'Aboriginal'  Peruvians,  Maya, 
Toltec,  Aztec,  Mixtec,  Indians 
of  the  Pueblos,  of  the  Clifif 
dwellings,  of  the  forest,  and  of 


Archaeology 


323  D 


Archangel 


the  seashore,  and  the  Mound 
Builders  all  alike  are  the  de- 
scendants of  those  Asian  immi- 
grants. 

Stephen's  expedition  to  Yuca- 
tan and  Central  America  in  1840 
was  followed  in  1845  by  the  in- 
vestigations by  Squier  and  Davis 
of  the  Mounds  and  the  Mound 
Builders  in  the  United  States. 
Scientific  work,  however,  began 
in  1880  when  Bandelier  began 
systematic  excavation  in  the 
Southwest.  Maudsley's  first 
expedition  to  Central  America 
was  in  1881,  and  Los  Muertos 
was  explored  in  1887  by  the 
Hemenway  Expedition,  In  1891 
the  Peabody  Museum  began  a 
ten  year's  piece  of  work  in  Hon- 
duras, and  in  1895  the  American 
Museum  started  work  at  Pueblo 
Bonito.  The  establishment  by 
the  Archaeological  Institute  of 
America  of  a  school  of  American 
Research  at  Santa  Fe  in  1907 
gave  a  great  impetus  to  work  in 
the  Southwestern  States.  Fewkes 
started  excavations  at  Mesa 
Verde  in  1908.  The  Yale 
Expedition  discovered  Machu 
Picchu  in  Peru  in  1911.  The 
announcement  in  1914  by  Hewett 
of  the  Santa  Fe  School  that  his 
excavations  at  Quirigua  justified 
setting  a  date  for  the  Mayan 
culture  at  at  least  2,000  years  ago 
was  the  first  authoritative  pro- 
nouncement of  early  antiquity 
in  America.  In  the  same  year 
the  Peabody  Museum  began  to 
study  the  culture  of  the  Basket 
Makers  in  the  Southwest. 

Many  mounds  had  been  dug 
into  and  rifled  during  the  years 
1825  to  1900,  but  with  the 
excavation  in  1915  of  the 
Tremper  mound  by  the  Ohio 
Archaeological  Society,  better 
scientific  work  began,  and  legisla- 
tion soon  showed  that  a  realiza- 
tion of  the  importance  to  early 
American  culture  and  history 
had  become  a  state  and  national 
matter.  The  most  ancient  Mayan 
city,  Uaxactum,  was  discovered 
in  1916.  In  1921  the  temple  of 
Quetzalcoatl  at  Teotihuacan  was 
excavated,  and  in  1922  Cum- 
mings  worked  at  the  prehistoric 
pyramid  at  Cuicuilco  in  Mexico. 
In  1926  the  Mason-Spinden  ex- 
pedition explored  the  ruins  of 
eastern  Yucatan.  Fine  work  was 
done  in  1928  on  the  excavation 
and  repair  of  the  Temple  of  the 
Warriors  at  Chichen  Itza  by  the 
Carnegie  Institution.  Evidence 
of  the  transition  from  pre- 
Pueblo  to  Pueblo  culture  was 
found  in  Colorado  by  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution.  A  most  im- 
portant discovery  was  made  in 
the  Mimbres  Valley  in  New  Mexi- 
co by  which  Bradfield,  ceramic 
expert  of  the  School  of  American 
Research  at  Santa  Fe,  traced 
pottery  in  America  back  to  its 
earliest  stages. 


Most  Important  Archaeological 
Finds. — Rosetta  Stone,  1799;  dis- 
covery of  Petra,  1812;  discovery 
of  Aphrodite  of  Melos,  1820; 
inscription  on  rock  of  Behistun, 
1835;  necropolis  at  Villanova  in 
Italy,  1853;  prehistoric  caves  in 
France,  1853;  Victory  of  Samo- 
thrace,  1863;  Moabite  stone, 
1868;  Mycenae,  1876;  Hermes  of 
Praxiteles,  1877;  Altamira  cave 
paintings,  1879;  archives  at  Tell 
el-Amarna,  1887;  House  of 
Vettii,  Pompeii,  1894;  Boscoreale 
silver  treasure,  1895;  pre-Roman 
cemetery  in  Forum,  1902; 
Egyptian  papyri  of  Greek  litera- 
ture, 1906;  Venus  of  Cyrene, 
1913;  Treasure  of  Lahun,  1914; 
Uaxactum,  1916;  oldest  Sumerian 
temple  near  Ur,  1918;  gold 
statues  of  Croesus,  1922;  Mo- 
henjo-daro  and  Harappa  in 
India,  1923;  Forum  of  Augustus, 
1924;  Galilee  Skull,  1925;  Greco- 
Celtic  bronze  flagons  near  Metz, 
1928;  Olynthus  in  Macedonia, 
1928;  Greek  vases  in  Etruscan 
cemetery  at  Valle  Treba,  1928. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Mid- 
dleton's  Grecian  Remains  in 
Italy;  Iven  Nelson's  The  Primi- 
tive Inhabitants  of  Scandinavia; 
F.  Petrie's  Ten  Years  Digging 
in  Egypt;  W.  H.  Holmes'  Archa- 
ological  Studies  among  the  Ancient 
Cities  of  Mexico;  M.  L.  D'Ooge's 
The  Acropolis  of  Athens;  A.  J, 
B.  Wace  and  M,  S.  Thomp- 
son's Prehistoric  Thessaly;  C.  H, 
Weller's  Athens  and  its  Monu- 
ments; S.  G.  Morley's  An  In- 
troduction to  the  Study  of  Maya 
Hieroglyphs  (1915);  T.  A.  Joyce's 
Central  American  Archaeology 
(1916);  H.  R.  Hall's  Ancient 
History  of  the  Near  East  (1919); 
W.  H.  Holmes'  Handbook  of 
Aboriginal  American  Antiquities 
(1919);  F.  H.  Marshall's  Dis- 
covery in  Greek  Lands  (1920); 
R.  A.  S.  Macalister's  Textbook  of 
European  Archaeology  (vol.  i, 
1921);  G.  G.  Maccurdy's  Human 
Origins  (1924);  G.  A.  Barton's 
Archaeology  and  the  Bible  (1925); 
V.  G.  Childe's  The  Dawn  of 
European  Civilization  (1925); 
R.  A.  S.  Macalister's  A  Century 
of  Excavation  in  Palestine  (1925); 
H.  B.  Walter's  The  Art  of  the 
Greeks  (1925);  A.  Norden's  The 
Bronze  Age  of  Oestergoetland 
(1926) ;  W.  J.  Anderson  and  R.  F. 
Spiers'  The  Architecture  of  An- 
cient Rome  (1927);  J.  R.  Moir's 
The  Antiquity  of  Man  in  East 
Anglia  (1927);  D.  Randall- 
Maclver's  The  Early  Iron  Age  in 
Italy  (1927);  H.  R.  Hall's  The 
Civilization  of  Greece  in  the 
Bronze  Age  (1928);  G.  M.  A. 
Richter's  The  Sculpture  and 
Sculptors  of  the  Greeks  (1929); 
R.  C.  Thompson  and  R.  W. 
Hutchinson's  A  Century  of  Ex- 
ploration  at   Nineveh  (1929). 

Archaeopteryx,  ar-ke-op'te- 
riks,   or   Lizard-tailed  Bird, 


an  extinct  bird,  the  remains  of 
which  have  been  obtained  in  the 
Solenhofen  lithographic  stone — 
a  limestone  of  Jurassic  age — 
which  is  quarried  at  Aichstadt  in 
Bavaria.  Only  two  specimens  of 
the  archaeopteryx  are  known — 
one  in  the  British  Museum,  and 
the  other  in  Berlin.  The  bird 
appears  to  have  been  about  the 
size  of  a  rook.  It  was  at  first  be- 
lieved to  be  a  reptile,  then  a  tran- 
sition form  between  reptiles  and 
birds,  but  Professor  Owen  showed 
that  it  was  a  true  bird.  The 
anomalous  structure  which  led  the 
first  observers  astray  was  the  tail, 
which,  instead  of  consisting  of  a 
few  shortened  vertebrae  united 
together  into  a  coccygean  bone, 
as  in  all  known  birds,  recent  or 
fossil,  was  formed  of  twenty  elon- 
gated vertebrae,  each  of  which 
supported  a  pair  of  quill-feathers. 
The  long  lizard-like  tail  is  not  so 


Fossil  Archaeopteryx,  Berhn 


anomalous  as  it  at  first  sight  ap- 
pears, for  in  the  early  embryonic 
condition  of  the  bird  the  verte- 
brae are  distinct  and  separate, 
and  the  anastomosis  which  inva- 
riably takes  place  in  the  subse- 
quent development  of  the  embryo 
does  not  occur  in  the  archaeop- 
teryx, so  that  is  may  be  consid- 
ered to  exhibit  the  temporary 
embryonic  condition  of  the  bird 
as  a  permanent  structure;  and 
that  this  is  the  true  position  of 
this  singular  fossil  is  further  es- 
tablished by  the  existence  of  oth- 
er features  which  are  found  only 
in  birds,  such  as  the  structure  of 
the  wings  and  legs,  the  occur- 
rence of  feathers,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  a  merry-thought  (furcu- 
lum),  which  is  found  in  no  other 
class  of  animals. 

Archangel,  ark-an'jel,  or 
Archangelsk,  most  northerly 
government  of  European  Russia, 
bordering  on  the  Arctic  Ocean 
and  the  White  Sea,  extending 
from  Finland  on  the  west  to  the 
Ural  Mountains  on  the  east,  and 
including  the  archipelago  of 
Novaya  Zemblya  (q.v.);  area, 

Vol.  I.— 030 


Archangel 


324 


Archbishop 


326,063  square  miles.  The 
northern  portion  of  the  govern- 
ment, lying  within  the  Arctic 
Circle,  is  desolate  marsh  land, 
but  southward  are  immense 
tracts  of  forest,  constituting  the 
chief  wealth  of  the  country. 
Four  navigable  rivers — the  Pet- 
choro,  Onega,  Dvina,  and  Mesen 
empty  into  the  White  Sea.  The 
climate  presents  sharp  contrasts. 
The  Murman.  Coast  (q.v.)  is 
fairly  mild,  the  ocean  never 
freezes,  and  the  ports  are  always 
open,  while,  on  the  shores  of  the 
White  Sea  and  eastward  to  the 
Kara  Sea  and  in  the  interior,  the 
cold  is  severe.  Pasturage  is  fairly 
good  in  parts,  and  cattle-raising 
is  carried  on  to  a  small  extent; 
deer  are  also  raised;  rye,  oats, 
barley,  and  potatoes  are  grown; 
fishing  flourishes  especially  for 
salmon,  seal,  herring,  and  cod; 
the  forests  yield  large  amounts  of 
timber;  and  coal,  iron,  zinc, 
gold,  salt,  silver,  lead,  marble, 
and  copper  are  found.  Ship- 
building is  carried  on  along  the 
shores  of  the  White  Sea  and  on 
the  Murman  Coast.  There  is  a 
railway,  from  Archangel  to  Vo- 
logda, and  one  from  Perm  to 
Kotlas.  Archangel  (q-v.)  is  the 
capital.  The  population  is  about 
429,000,  mostly  Russians. 

Archangel,  city,  capital  of 
the  government  of  Archangel  and 
chief  Arctic  port  of  Russia,  is 
situated  on  the  Dvina  River, 
about  thirty  miles  from  the 
White  Sea;  at  the  terminus  of 
the  Moscow- Vologda  Railway; 
750  miles  northwest  of  Lenin- 
grad. It  has  a  beautiful  cathe- 
dral, dating  from  the  early 
nineteenth  century,  a  museum, 
town  hall,  and  marine  hospital. 

Archangel  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial city  for  Northern  Russia 
and  Siberia.  The  harbor,  which 
has  been  deepened  from  12  to 
22  feet,  is  an  excellent  one 
and,  though  ice-bound  from 
October  to  May,  is  visited  annu- 
ally by  more  than  800  vessels; 
while  the  Dvina  River  is  con- 
nected with  nearly  all  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  Russia  by  a  fine 
system  of  inland  waterways 
which  offer  excellent  faciHties 
for  the  shipment  of  freight  to  the 
Russian  interior.  The  chief  ar- 
ticles of  export  are  timber,  fish, 
furs,  cereals,  wax,  and  caviare; 
imports  include  coal,  salt,  fruit, 
and  machinery.  During  the  year 
1915  the  growth  of  Archangel  as 
a  trade  centre  was  phenomenal. 
It  was  the  only  port  of  European 
Russia  open  for  foreign  business 
by  direct  sea  communication,  and 
from  a  comparatively  small  port 
it  suddenly  rivalled  the  great 
commercial* cities  of  the  world  in 
the  number  and  tonnage  of  ships 
arriving  and  departing.  Over 
100  large  warehouses  were  built 
within  a  year;  two  of  the  largest 

Vol.  I— 030 


ice  breakers  in  the  world  were  in- 
stalled at  Archangel;  and  the 
harbor  was  kept  open  until  Jan- 
uary. Railroad  construction 
was  pushed,  building  boomed, 
and  Archangel  became  one  of 
the  most  important  wheat  ex- 
porting ports  of  the  world,  most 
of  what  had  formerly  been  ex- 
ported from  Black  Sea  or  Baltic 
ports  being  shipped  from  there. 
Population  71,000. 

Archangel  was  founded  in 
1584  by  Czar  Feodor  and  was 
the  chief  port  of  Russia  until 
Peter  the  Great  founded  St. 
Petersburg  in  1703,  from  which 
date  Archangel's  prosperity  de- 
clined .    I  n  the  Great  War  (1914- 

18)  Archangel  was  of  special 
importance  as  the  one  outlet  of 
Russia  to  her  Allies.  On  Au- 
gust 4,  1918,  Allied  forces,  in- 
cluding an  American  contingent, 
were  landed  at  Archangel  and 
were  in  control  of  the  coast  from 
there  to  Murmansk,  cooperating 
with  local  anti- Bolshevist  forces 
in  defending  the  port  and  in 
guarding  supplies  against  seizure 
by  the  Germans. 

Archangel  (Gr.  'chief  angel'), 
one  of  the  higher  ranks  of  the 
angels.  Their  number  varies 
from  three  to  seven  (Enoch  xc. 
31;  xl.  2,  20;  Tobit  xii.  15;  cf. 
Rev.  iv.  5;  viii.  2).  The  Bible 
names  two — Michael  (Dan.  x. 
13;  Jude  ix.;  Rev.  xii.  7)  and 
Gabriel  (Dan.  viii.  16;  Luke  i. 

19)  .  Raphael  is  named  in  the 
Book  of  Tobit  (xii.  15) ;  Uriel  in 
II  Esdras  (v.  20)  and  with 
Raguel  and  Sariel  (Sarakiel),  in 
Enoch  (xx).  Other  names  are 
Jerahmeel,  Chamuel,  Jophiel, 
Zadkiel.  The  idea  of  a  highest 
class  of  angels  as  well  as  the 
number  seven  probably  shows 
Persian  influence  and  there  may 
be  some  connection  with  Baby- 
lonian mythology.     See  Angel. 

Archangel,  the  (plant)  dead- 
nettle.    See  Lamium. 

Archangel,  New,  Russian 
name  for  Sitka  (q.v.). 

Archangelica.  See  Angelica. 

Archibald,  borough,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  Lackawanna  County, 
on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson, 
and  the  New  York,  Ontario,  and 
Western  Railroads;  10  miles 
northeast  of  Scranton.  It  is 
situated  in  a  rich  anthracite 
region,  and  is  a  mining  centre. 
Pop.  (1920)  8.603. 

Archbishop  (Gr.  arch-,  and 
episcopos,  'overseer'),  a  metro- 
politan bishop  who  superintends 
the  conduct  of  the  other  bishops 
in  his  province,  and  also  exercises 
episcopal  authority  in  his  own 
diocese.  Occasionally,  however, 
the  title  has  been  bestowed  upon 
a  prelate  of  a  famous  city,  with- 
out his  being  made  a  metro- 
politan and  having  bishops  under 
iiim.  The  title  arose,  in  the  3rd 
and  4th  centuries,  from  the  pro- 


vincial synods  being  held  once  or 
twice  a  year  in  the  chief  town  of 
the  province  under  the  presidency 
of  the  bishop  of  the  place.  An- 
other cause  of  the  origin  of  the 
title  is  said  to  be  the  custom  of 
planting  new  bishoprics  as  Chris- 
tianity spread,  a  slight  suprem- 
acy being  still  retained  by  the 
original  chief  pastor  over  those 
newly  appointed.  In  the  Ori- 
ental Church  the  archbishops  are 
still  called  'metropolitans,'  from 
the  circumstance  first  mentioned. 
In  the  African  Church,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  term  used  was 
'primus.'  The  great  archbishop- 
rics of  the  early  Church  were 
those  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch, 
Ephesus,  Alexandria,  Constanti- 
nople, and  Rome.  Since  the  6th 
century  the  archbishop  of  Rome 
has  claimed  exclusively  the  name 
of  Pope  (papa),  which  early 
fathers — e.g.  St.  Jerome — apply 
to  all  bishops,  and  occasionally 
even  to  presbyters.  There  is  an 
official  letter  by  Justinian,  ad- 
dressed to  'John  Archbishop  of 
Rome  and  Patriarch' ;  and  several 
ecclesiastical  constitutions  are 
addressed  to  'Epiphanius,  Arch- 
bishop of  Constantinople  and  Pa- 
triarch.' The  synod  of  Antioch, 
in  341,  assigned  to  the  archbishop 
the  superintendence  over  all  the 
bishoprics,  and  a  precedence  in 
rank  over  all  the  bishops  of  the 
Church,  who,  on  important  mat- 
ters, were  bound  to  consult  him 
and  be  guided  by  his  advice.  By 
degrees  there  arose,  out  of  this 
superiority  of  rank,  privileges 
which  at  length  assumed  the 
character  of  positive  jurisdiction 
in  ecclesiastical  matters. 

The  election  of  an  archbishop 
does  not  difl'er  from  that  of  a 
bishop;  nor  is  the  form  of  con- 
secration essentially  different,  ex- 
cepting that  the  oath  of  obedience 
to  the  archbishop  is  necessarily 
omitted.  He  also  writes  himself 
'by  Divine  Providence';  a  bishop 
being  'by  Divine  Permission*; 
and  has  the  title  of  'Grace',  and 
'Most  Reverend  Father  in  God,' 
whilst  a  bishop  is  styled  'Lord,' 
and  'Right  Reverend  Father  in 
God.'  In  the  Scottish  Episcopal 
Church  the  title  primus  is  adopt- 
ed instead  of  archbishop. 

For  twelve  centuries  England 
has  been  divided  into  two  arch- 
bishoprics —  Canterbury  and 
York.  The  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, the  Primate  of  all 
England,  has  as  his  province 
(containing  '  wenty-four  dioceses) 
the  whole  of  England  except  the 
six  northern  counties  and  Che- 
shire— the  province  (containing 
nine  dioceses)  of  the  Archbishop 
of  York,  or  Primate  of  England. 
The  former  is,  after  the  royal 
princes,  .the  first  peer  of  England, 
with  the  right  of  placing  the 
crown  on  the  sovereign's  head  at 
the  coronation;  the  latter  has 


Afctadeacon 


325 


Archei 


precedence  after  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  and  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  and  claims  the  right 
of  crowning  the  queen-consort, 
whose  perpetual  chaplain  he  is. 
In  Ireland  there  are  two  Angli- 
can archbishops — the  archbishop 
of  Armagh  and  the  archbishop  of 
Dublin,  Of  the  Roman  Catholic 
archbishops,  there  is  one  in  Eng- 
land (Westminster),  two  in  Scot- 
land (St.  Andrews  and  Edin- 
burgh, and  Glasgow),  and  four  in 
Ireland  (Armagh,  Dublin,  Cashel, 
Tuam).  In  the  British  colonies 
the  Church  of  England  has  five 
archbishops — viz.,  Sydney,  who 
is  primate  of  Australia  and  Tas- 
mania; Rupertsland,  who  is  pri- 
mate of  all  Canada;  Montreal; 
Cape  Town;  and  Jamaica.  In  the 
same  colonies  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  twenty-one  arch- 
bishops: six  in  Australia — Syd- 
ney, Adelaide,  Brisbane,  Hobart, 
Melbourne,  Wellington;  eight  in 
Canada  and  West  Indies — Que- 
bec, Halifax,  Kingston,  Montreal, 
Ottawa,  Toronto,  Port-of-Spain, 
and  St.  Boniface;  and  seven  in 
Asia — Agra,  Bombay,  .  Calcutta. 
Colombo,  Cyprus,  Madras,  and 
Verapoly.  In  the  United  States 
there  are  no  Protestant  archbish- 
ops, but  there  are  fourteen  Roman 
Catholic  archbishops  —  viz.  (ar- 
ranged in  the  order  of  the  foun- 
dation of  the  archdioceses),  Balti- 
more (1808),  Cincinnati,  Portland, 
St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  New 
York,  San  Francisco,  Milwaukee, 
Boston,  Philadelphia,  Santa  Fe, 
Chicago,  St.  Paul,  and  Dubuque. 
See  Episcopacy;  Arches,  Court 
of;  also  Hook's  Archbishops  of 
Canterbury  (12  vols.  1860-76); 
Raine's  Archbishops  of  York 
(1879);  Lightfoot's  Dissertations 
on  the  Apostolic  Age,  pp.  19, 150, 
190  (1892). 

Archdeacon,  an  ecclesiastical 
dignitary  in  charge  of  the  affairs 
of  a  diocese,  particularly  of  its 
charities,  acting  as  the  bishop's 
assistant  in  things  temporal,  as 
the  archpriest  in  things  spiritual, 
being  in  reality  the  *  bishop's  eye  * 
and  '  right  hand.'  As  the  church 
organization  became  more  settled, 
the  powers  of  the  archdeacon  in- 
creased, including  separate  juris- 
diction in  the  lowest  ecclesiastical 
court,  which  powers  were  con- 
siderably reduced  by  the  Council 
of  Trent,  and  entrusted  to  the 
bishop's  vicar-general.  The  arch- 
deacons' court  in  the  Church  of 
England  is  now  a  mere  survival. 
In  the  Anglican  Church  there  are, 
in  accord  with  the  Act  of  1836, 
from  two  to  four  archdeacons  to 
each  bishop,  there  being  eighty- 
five  in  all;  their  duties  specially 
including  examination  of  candi- 
dates for  holy  orders,  induction 
of  beneficed  clergy,  parochial 
visitation,  dispensation  of  chari- 
ties, care  of  church  fabrics  and 
glebe  houses,  and  holding  general 


synods  as  deputy  of  the  bishop. 
They  are  found  in  many  of  the 
dioceses  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  and  among  the  Lu- 
therans. See  Cripps's  Lmv  Re- 
lating to  the  Church  and  Clergy. 

Archduke.  Archduchess, 
titles  borne  by  the  members  of 
the  imperial  house  of  Austria.  It 
began  to  be  used  about  the  middle 
of  the  14th  century,  but  was  form- 
ally conferred  by  the  Emperor 
Frederick  iii.  in  1453, 

ArChegoniata  include  the 
moss,  fern,  and  gymnosperm 
groups  of  plants,  whose  common 
f ernale  organ  is  the  archegonium, 
which  is  multicellular  and  flask- 
shaped,  consisting  of  a  hollow 
body  or  venter,  a  tubular  neck, 
and,  when  ripe,  an  open  mouth. 
In  the  moss  group  the  whole  or- 
gan stands  out  from  the  surface 
of  the  tissue;  in  ferns  the  venter 
is  sunk  in  this  tissue,  with  the 
neck  exposed;  in  gymnosperms,  of 
which  the  'evergreen'  trees  are 
leading  examples,  the  mouth  alone 
reaches  the  surface.  Archegonia 
do  not  occur  in  flowering  plants. 

Archelaiis.  (1.)  A  Greek  phi- 
losopher (c,  450  B.C.),  born  at 
Athens  or  at  Miletus;  studied 
under  Anaxagoras.  By  observa- 
tion he  inferred  for  the  first  time 
the  sphericity  of  the  earth.  (2.) 
King  of  Macedonia  (d.  399  B.C.), 
natural  son  of  Perdiccas  ii.;  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  in  413.  He 
introduced  great  reforms  in  the 
country,  fortifying  cities,  making 
roads,  and  organizing  the  army. 
He  removed  his  court  from  ALg^e 
to  Pella,  where  he  gathered  round 
him  the  great  poets  (Euripides, 
Agathon),  painters  (Zeuxis),  and 
musicians  of  the  age.  He  was 
killed  by  his  favorite,  Craterus, 
(3.)  Served  as  general  under 
Mithridates  in  Cireece,  where  (86 
B.C.)  he  was  twice  defeated  with 
great  loss,  and  sued  for  peace. 
On  the  eve  of  the  second  Mithri- 
datic  war  his  loyalty  was  sus- 
pected by  the  king,  and  he  de- 
serted to  the  Romans.  (4.)  Son 
of  the  preceding,  became  king  of 
Egypt  by  marrying  Berenice, 
daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  in 
56  B.C.,  who  had  obtained  the 
sovereignty  of  Egypt  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  her  father.  At  the  end 
of  six  months  he  was  defeated 
by  the  Roman  proconsul  Gabini- 
us,  who  had  marched  into  Egypt 
to  restore  Ptolemy  to  his  throne. 
(5.)  Son  of  Herod  the  Great,  was 
bequeathed  (4  B.C.)  the  kingdom 
of  Judaea.  His  elder  brother  An- 
tipas  was  preferred  by  the  people, 
but  Augustus  on  appeal  decided 
in  favor  of  Archelaus,  and  made 
him  ethnarch  of  Tudjea,  Samaria, 
and  Idumrea.  Subsequently  Au- 
gustus banished  him,  and  he  died 
at  Vienne  in  Gaul.  a.d.  7. 

Archenholz,  Johann  Wil- 
HELM  VON  (1743-1812).  German 
historian,  was  born  near  Danzig. 


Hewas  in  England  from  1769-79, 
and  in  Italy;  then  went  (1792)  to 
Hamburg,  and  died  at  his  country 
seat  of  Oyendorf,  close  to  that 
city.  His  Gcschichte  des  Sicben- 
jdhrigen  Kricges  (1789)  attained 
great  popularity  in  Germany,  ow- 
ing to  the  freshness  of  its  style 
and  its  admiration  for  Frederick 
the  Great.  He  also  wrote  suc- 
cessful books  on  England — Eng- 
land und  Italien  (5  vols.,  1785); 
Annalen  der  Britischen  Gcs- 
chichte (20  vols.,  1789-98). 

Archer,  Branch  T.  (1790- 
1856),  Texan  patriot  and  legisla- 
tor, born  in  Farquhar  co.,  Va. 
He  at  first  practised  medicine  in 
that  state,  and  was  a  representa- 
tive in  its  Legislature.  He  emi- 
grated to  Texas  in  1831,  and  soon 
became  one  of  the  leaders  in  the 
revolutionary  movement.  He  was 
one  of  the  commissioners  ap- 
pointed at  a  public  meeting  of 
citizens  at  Brazoria  (1831),  to 
protest  against  the  order  closing 
Texas  ports,  excepting  that  of 
Anahuac  (Galveston),  and  was 
chiefly  responsible  for  the  revo- 
cation of  that  order.  He  presided 
at  the  '  consultation  '  of  Texans, 
held  at  San  Felipe  (1835),  and, 
with  W.  H,  Wharton  and  Stephen 
F.  Austin,  was  chosen  to  present 
the  grievances  of  Texas  to  the 
United  States.  He  served  in  the 
first  Congress  of  the  Republic, 
was  speaker  of  the  second  session, 
which  met  at  Houston  in  1837, 
and  was  secretary  of  war  for  a 
time  under  President  Lamar.  He 
presided  at  the  mass  meeting  held 
at  Brazoria  (1845)  to  consider 
the  question  of  annexation. 

Archer,  Frederic  (1838-1901), 
American  organist,  author  of  a 
treatise  on  The  Organ,  and  of 
many  compositions  adapted  for 
that  instrument;  was  born  in  Ox- 
ford, England,  and  studied  for 
his  profession  in  London  and 
Leipsic.  In  1880,  he  became  or- 
ganist of  Plymouth  Church, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  twenty  years 
later  filled  the  same  office  at  the 
Church  of  the  Ascension,  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  where  he  was  also 
director  of  the  Carnegie  Music 
Hall,  For  a  time  he  was  also 
conductor  of  the  Oratorio  Society 
at  Boston,  Mass.  In  1885.  he 
founded,  and  for  a  time  edited. 
The  Keynote. 

Archer,  William.  English  crit- 
ic, was  born  at  Perth,  1856.  He 
worked  on  the  staff  of  the  Edin- 
burgh Evening  Nezvs  (1875-8), 
with  an  interval  of  a  year  in  Aus- 
tralia; settled  in  London  in  1878, 
and  was  dramatic  critic  to  the 
London  Figaro  from  1879-81,  and 
since  1884  has  held  a  similar  post 
on  The  World.  In  1900  he  paid  a 
visit  to  the  United  States,  chiefly 
for  the  purpose  of  recording  his 
impressions  of  the  American 
stage.  He  was  mainly  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  the  per- 


Archer  Fish 


Archimedean  Screw 


formance  in  London  of  the  plays 
of  Ibsen,  whose  works  he  has 
translated.  His  criticisms  are 
marked  by  scholarly  insight  and 
a  determination  to  take  the  drama 
seriously  as  an  art.  His  works, 
besides  his  translations  (1890-2) 
of  Ibsen's  plays,  and  editions  of 
Leigh  Hunt's  and  Hazlitt's  dra- 
matic essays,  include  English 
Dramatists  of  To-day  (1882), 
Henry  Irving  (1883),  Masks  or 
Faces  (1888),  William  Charles 
Macready  (1890),  Study  and 
Stage  (1899),  America  To-day 
(1900),  Poets  of  the  Younger 
Generation  (1901).  His  dramatic 
criticisms  in  The  World  from 
1893-7^  were  republished  in  book 
form  in  annual  volumes,  under 
the  title  of  The  Theatrical  World. 

Archer  Fish,  a  name  for  sev- 
eral E.  Indian  and  Polynesian 
fishes  (particularly  Toxotes  jacii- 
lator),  from  their  alleged  habit  of 
shooting  from  the  mouth  drops 
of  water  a  distance  of  three  or 
four  feet,  and  thus  bringing  down 
insects  into  the  water  for  food. 

Archery,  the  art,  practice,  or 
skill  of  shooting  with  a  bow  and 
arrows.  Stone  arrow-heads  have 
been  found  in  French  caves  be- 
side remains  of  the  reindeer  and 
the  mammoth.  Neolithic  arrow- 
heads and  bows  are  numerous. 
Among  ancient  peoples  the  bow 
was  extensively  used  by  the 
Scythians,  the  Egyptians,  the  Par- 
thians,  the  Thracians,  and,  in  the 
time  of  the  Romans,  by  the 
Cretans,  the  Numidians,  Balearic 
Islanders,  and  other  foreign  mer- 
cenaries. These  last  did  not  form 
a  part  of  the  legion,  but  were 
skirmishers,  like  the  Moorish 
dartmen  and  the  Balearic  sling- 
ers,  their  office  being  to  fight  here 
and  there,  and  draw  the  enemy 
into  action.  The  Greeks  em- 
ployed archers  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 

^  The  real  interest  in  archery  be- 
gins with  the  use  of  the  English 
longbow,  which  was  encouraged 
from  Edward  i.  to  Charles  i.,  and 
won  at  Cregy  and  Agincourt.  The 
kings  of  Scotland  were  not  long 
in  imitating  the  English  archery 
laws,  from  the  days  of  James  i. 
to  those  of  James  v. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  had  Lapp 
bowmen  in  his  army  when  he 
invaded  Germany  in  1630;  and 
Cossack  bowmen  are  said  to  have 
formed  part  of  the  allied  army 
which  took  Paris  in  1814.  Many 
uncivilized  peoples  have  been  ex- 
pert with  the  bow — e.  g.,  the  N. 
A.merican  Indians.  The  dwarf 
Akka  of  Central  Africa  are 
dreaded  bowmen,  because  they 
use  poisoned  arrows;  as  also  did 
the  native  tribes  of  the  Guianas 
and  the  Orinoco  region  in  S. 
America. 

The  English  archery  laws  com- 
pelled all  able-bodied  males  under 
a  certain  rank  to  practise  with 


the  bow  on  Sundays  and  holidays; 
ordered  targets  to  be  set  up  in  all 
villages;  commanded  sheriffs  to 
provide  archery  facilities,  and 
fixed  the  quality  and  the  prices 
of  these  weapons.  In  the  reign 
of  Henry  viii.  the  use  of  cross- 
bows and  hand-guns  was  forbid- 
den, as  it  interfered  with  the 
practice  of  archery;  and  all  arch- 
ers above  the  age  of  twenty-four 
were  commanded  not  to  shoot 
with  their  light-flight  arrows  at 
a  distance  under  220  yards,  the 
effective  range  of  the  old  archery. 
But  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century,  when  hand  firearms  be- 
gan to  be  more  used,  the  war  bow 
and  shaft  were  allowed  to  fall 
rapidly  into  disuse.  British  arch- 
ery is  still  one  of  the  national 
sports,  though  a  minor  one.  A 
tradition  of  the  old  martial  times 
is  kept  alive  by  various  organiza- 
tions, such  as  the  Woodmen  of 
Arden  (revived  in  1785)  and  the 
Royal  Scottish  Archers. 

In  the  United  States,  archery- 
has  never  had  much  vogue  as  a 
sport,  though  it  is  practised  to  a 
small  extent.  The  sport  is  con- 
trolled by  the  National  Archery 
Association,  the  Eastern  Archery 
Association,  and  the  Potomac 
Archery  Association,  which  hold 
tournaments  on  stated  occasions, 
at  which  individuals  and  teams 
participate,  shooting  at  various 
distances. 

See  Oman's  Art  of  War  in  the 
Middle  Ages  (1898);  Ascham's 
ToxophiliiSj  or  The  Schole  of 
Shootinge  (1545;  or  Arber's  edi- 
tion, 1868);  Markham's  Art  of 
Archerie  (1634):  Ford's  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Archery  (new  ed. 
1887);  and  Archery  in  the  Bad- 
minton Library  (1894) — an  ex- 
cellent bibliography  is  given  at 
the  end  of  this  book. 

Arches,  Court  of.  The  court 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
established  to  hear  appeals  from 
the  various  consistorial  courts  of 
the  province.  It  is  so  called  be- 
cause it  held  its  sittings  in  the 
church  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow,  in  the 
city  of  London — Ecclcsia  BcatcB 
Maries  de  Arcubus.  See  Philli- 
morc's  Ecclesiastical  Law. 

Archibald,  Sir  Adams  George 
(1814-92),  Nova  Scotian  jurist 
and  Canadian  statesman,  was 
born  in  Truro,  N.  S.,and  educated 
at  Picton  Academy.  From  1856 
to  1863  he  was  a  member  of  the 
executive  council  of  his  native 
province,  a  privy  councillor,  and 
secretary  of  state  for  the  province 
of  Nova  Scotia.  From  1870  to 
1873  he  was  lieutenant-govern- 
or of  Manitoba,  and  later  was 
lieutenant-governor  of  Nova  Sco- 
tia. He  subsequently  became  a 
member  of  the  Dommion  House 
of  Commons  (1886). 

Archidamus,  the  name  of  five 
kings  of  Sparta.  The  best  known 
are— Archidamus   ii.,  who 


reigned  469-427  B.C.,  and  com- 
manded (431-427)  the  Spartans 
in  the  Peloponnesian  War — a  good 
soldier,  wise  in  counsel,  and  of 
marked  moderation  in  his  policy; 
and  Archidamus  hi.,  who 
reigned  358-338  B.C.,  and  led  an 
army  into  Itafy. 

Archil,  or  Orchil,  a  fugitive 
coloring  matter  analogous  to  lit- 
mus, obtained  from  lichens,  espe- 
cially Roccella  tinctoria,  and  for- 
merly used  in  the  dyeing  of  silk 
and  woollen  fabrics,  giving  red  or 
violet  colors. 

Archilochus  OF  Paros,  Greek 
poet,  lived  probably  in  the  earlier 
half  of  the  7th  century  B.C.  He 
went  as  a  colonist  to  Thasos,  and 
there  lost  his  shield  while  fight- 
ing against  the  Thracians.  He 
returned  to  Paros,  and  fell  in 
battle  against  the  Naxians.  Of 
his  poetry  only  fragments  sur- 
vive- but  he  enjoyed  a  great  rep- 
utation in  Greece,  being  classed 
at  the  head  of  satirical  poets.  Per- 
sonal satire  was  his  strongest 
point,  but  he  wrote  in  many  other 
lorms — elegiacs,  lyrics,  drinking 
songs,  hymns,  and  poems  of  re- 
flection. He  invented  several  new 
metrical  forms,  particularly  the 
iambic  and  trochaic,  and,  accord- 
ing to  some,  also  the  elegiac.  See 
Callinus.  For  the  fragments,  see 
Bergk's  PoetcB  Lyrici  Grceci. 

Archimage.  (1.)  The  personi- 
fication of  Falsehood  in  Spenser's 
Faerie  Queene,  who  deceives  Una 
by  putting  on  the  disguise  of  the 
Red-Cross  Knight.  (3.)  The  per- 
sonification of  Indolence  in  Thom- 
son's Castle  of  Indolence  (1748). 

Archimandrite,  an  Eastern 
abbot  or  superior  of  a  monastery, 
especially  one  of  the  first  order. 
Formerly  it  was  used  in  a  wider 
sense,  being  sometimes  applied  to 
archbishops. 

Archimedean  Screw,  an  ap- 
paratus invented  by  the  Greek 
mathematician  Archimedes,  was 


Archimedean  Screw  (Section). 


first  used  in  Egypt  for  the  pur- 

f)ose  of  raising  water  from  a 
ower  to  a  higher  level.  It  con- 
sists of  a  hollow  tube  in  the  form 
of  a  spiral  screw  wound  round  a 
central  axis.  When  in  use  the  one 
end  is  immersed  in  water,  and  the 
whole  is  set  at  a  slope  which  must 
not  be  greater  than  a  limiting 


Archimedes 


327 


Architecture 


position  dependent  upon  the  pitch 
of  the  screw;  for  in  order  that 
the  water  may  work  gradually 
upwards  from  thread  to  thread,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  lowest  part 
of  one  thread  must  not  be  higher 
than  the  highest  part  of  the  con- 
tiguous lower  thread.  As  the 
Archimedean  screw  is  made  to 
rotate  about  its  axis,  the  water 
in  the  lowest  bend  works  its  way 
along  the  screw,  and  is  ultimately 
expelled  at  the  upper  end. 

Archimedes,  a  genus  of  fossil 
shells  belonging  to  the  family 
FenestelUdce.  It  has  a  solid 
central  axis  and  is  so  named  from 
its  resemblance  to  a  screw-hke 
cylinder  invented  by  Archimedes 
for  raising  water.  Its  remains 
are  found  in  the  Sub-Carbonifer- 
ous. 

Archimedes  {c  287-212  B.C.), 
the  most  famous  mathematician 
of  antiquity,  intermediate  in  time 
between  E'uclid  and  Apollonius, 
was  a  native  of  Syracuse.  Be- 
sides making  many  important 
discoveries  in  mechanics  and 
mathematics,  he  invented  numer- 
ous mechanical  contrivances.  (See 
Archimedean  Screw.)  The  ma- 
chines he  made  for  showering 
stones  on  the  Roman  ships,  and  for 
seizing  them  and  raising  them  in 
the  air,  so  terrorized  the  attack- 
ing party  in  the  siege  of  Syracuse 
that  Marcellus  at  once  stopped  his 
assault.  He  was  killed  in  the  con- 
fusion atts'jndant  upon  the  capture 
of  Svracuse  by  the  Romans.  The 
extant  books  of  Archimedes  are: 
On  the  Equilibrium  of  Planes,  or 
Centres  of  Gravity  of  Planes;  The 
Quadratilre  of  the  Parabola;  The 
Equilibrium  of  Planes;  On  the 
Sphere  and  Cylinder;  On  Spirals; 
On  Conoids  and  Spheroids;  On 
Floating  Bodies;  The  Measurement 
of  a  Circle.  Among  the  more  im- 
portant editions  of  his  works  are 
those  bv  Torelli  (1792),  and  (in 
Ger.)  N'izze  (1825).  See  Heath's 
Works  of  Archimedes  (1897). 

Archipelago.  Originally  con- 
noting the  island-studded  ^gean 
Sea,  lying  between  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor,  the  term  has  been 
transferred  to  any  group  of  islands 
considered  collectively. 

Architects,  American  Insti- 
tute of,  an  association  organized 
in  1857,  with  offices  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  It  has  27  chajjters, 
360  fellows,  400  associates,  63 
corresponding  members,  and  70 
honorary  members. 

Architecture  is  the  art  of 
building  according  to  certain  well- 
defined  principles  of  proportion 
and  symmetry,  so  th?i:  an  edifice, 
when  completed,  shall  not  only 
suit  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
erected,  in  accommodation  and 
usefulness,  but  at  the  same  time 
form  a  harmonious  whole,  ex- 
ternally and  internally.  The 
origin  of  this  art  is  mainly  due  to 
man's  necessity  for  a  protection 


from  the  various  climates  of  the 
globe.  In  prehistoric  times  there 
is  ample  evidence  to  show  that  in 
northern  and  in  tropical  climates 
the  inhabitants  lived  in  under- 
ground dwellings  and  caves,  in 
temperate  regions  in  huts  (such  as 
the  lake  dwellings  and  bee-hive 
huts),  and  in  warm  countries  in 
tents.  War  also  has  had  a  certain 
influence  on  the  form  of  architec- 
ture, compelling  man  to  construct 
his  dwelling  in  such  a  manner 
and  of  such  material  as  to  be  well- 
nigh  invulnerable  to  the  attack 
of  an  enemy.  _  But  by  far  the 
greatest  incentive  man  has  ex- 
perienced in  the  production  of 
buildings  has  been  through  the 
spiritual  sense — i.e.  the  desire  or 
craving  to  erect  a  habitation  in 
honor  of  his  god. 

Prehistoric  Structures.  — 
These  embrace  the  following: — 

Monoliths  . — Single  upright 
stones.  An  example  is  the  Car- 
nac  stone  in  Brittany,  63  ft.  high, 
14  ft.  in  diameter,  and  260  tons  in 
v/eight. 

Cromlech. — Table  -  stone  sup- 
ported on  others  that  are  verti- 
cal. Finest  example  is  Kits  Coity 
House,  near  Maidstone,  the  table- 
,  stone  being  12  ft.  in  length,  9^  ft. 
in  width,  2  ft.  thick,  and  lO^-  tons 
in  weight. 

Stone  Circles. — The  best  exam- 
ple is  Stonehenge,  near  Salisbury. 
The  circumference  (over  300  ft.) 
of  the  circle  consisted  of  numerous 
uprights,  each  18  ft.  high,  with 
architrave  stones  on  the  top.  There 
are  also  inside  circles  of  stones, 
and  possibly  it  was  entirely  roof ed 
over. 

Bee-hive  Huts  and  Picts'  Houses 
— The  first  nam:d,  so  called  from 
their  shape,  are  built  of  stone,  and 
are  found  throughout  the  British 
Isles;  while  the  latter  is  a  form  of 
underground  dwelling  belonging 
to  the  same  period. 

Lake  Dwellings. — Huts  of  wood 
erected  on  piles  above  the  water- 
level.  These  remains  have  been 
discovered  in  Switzerland,  through 
the  water  in  lochs  or  lakes  falling 
exceptionally  low. 

Cyclopean  A  rchitecturc. — The 
name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  the 
prehistoric  forms  of  masonry  sup- 
posed to  have  been  erected  by 
the  Cyclops  or  giants.  The  av- 
erage blocks  of  stone  were  9  ft. 
long  and  4  ft.  thick.  These  blocks 
were  fitted  closely  in  the  w;alls  (25 
ft.  wide  and  60  ft.  in  height)  of 
the  ancient  cities  of  Tiryns  and 
Mycenae.  Similar  materials  were 
used  at  Praencstt,  Rusellaj,  Popu- 
lonia,  and  other  places  in  Italy 
(Etruria). 

Ancient  American. — The  build- 
ings of  Yucatan,  discovered  in  the 
forests  of  Mexico,  show  that  that 
country  was  at  one  time  peopled 
by  a  race  of  high  intelligence. 
They  used  the  arch  opening,  not 
with  radial  beds,  but  corbelled  out 


on  each  side  with  stones  in  hori- 
zontal layers.  No  less  than  sixty 
cities  have  been  discovered  with 
temples  raised  on  high  mounds, 
and  of  considerable  magnitude, 
the  temple  of  Palenque  being  24f. 
ft.  long  and  210  ft.  wide.  The 
prehistoric  remains  in  Peru  are  of 
even  more  interest.  In  addition 
to  many  tombs  circular  in  plan 
and  widening  towards  the  top, 
which  is  covered  with  a  bee-hive 
roof  (not  found  elsewhere),  there 
are  other  immense  mounds  sup- 
ported b}''  retaining  walls,  one  of 
these  being  828  ft.  long,  225  ft. 
wide,  and  108  ft.  high.  The  fortifi- 
cations at  Cuzco  consist  of  three 
terraces  1,800  ft.  long,  the  retain- 
ing walls  that  uphold  them  being 
respectively  25  ft.,  18  ft.,  and  14 
ft.  in  height;  and  the  width  be- 
tween the  walls,  which  are  built 
of  solid  masonry  accurately^  cut, 
is  30  ft.  and  18  ft.  respectively. 
One  stone  measures  27  ft.  in 
length  by  14  ft.  by  12  ft.,  and  many 
others  are  about  the  same  size. 

Babylonian  and  Assyrian 
Architecture  were  developed  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates, the  former  from  3800 
B.C.  till  500  B.C.;  the  latter  at  first 
dependent  upon  Babylonian,  but 
independent  from  the  12th  to  the 
7th  centuries  B.C.  The  building 
material  used  was  composed  of 
two  classes  of  brick,  the  inside 
walls  being  built  of  sun-dried 
bricks,  while  the  outside  faces 
were  constructed  of  the  class 
known  as  kiln-burnt  bricks.  The 
peculiarity  of  those  buildings  is 
their  rectangular  shape,  while 
their  length  is  out  of  all  proportion 
to  their  breadth.  The  designs 
employed  show  hat  seem  proto- 
types of  Grecian  architecture. 
One  of  the  bas-reliefs  represents  a 
small  temple  having  two  columns 
on  bases,  and  a  form  of  Ionic 
capital  between  two  plain  pilas- 
ters ;  another  shows  a  palace 
with  windows  divided  by  Ionic 
columns;  while,  more  astonish- 
ing still,  we  find  .some  designs  of 
columns  with  Corinthian  capitals, 
and  entablature  on  top  composed 
of  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice, 
though  not  in  the  perfect  propor- 
tion of  the  Grecian  order. 

Until  recent  times  the  enor- 
mous mounds  which  represent  the 
ruins  of  Babylon,  etc.,  were  not 
considered  the  work  of  man-  but 
excavations  have  unearthed  brick 
walls,  in  some  cases  38  ft.  thick. 
Hitherto  the  most  intere.sting 
building  brought  to  light  is  the 
temple  of  Birs  Nimrud,  said  to 
have  been  reconstructed  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. It  was  built  in  di- 
minishing stages  towards  the  top, 
and  was  of  enormous  extent,  for 
at  the  present  time  the  heap  of 
debris  is  200  ft.  high  and  2,286  ft. 
in  circumference.    Above  this  a 

f)ortion  of  brickwork  is  visible,  28 
t.  square  and  37  ft.  high.  Ala- 


Architecture 


328 


Architecture 


baster  slabs  (19^  ft.  by  12  ft.), 
beautifully  carved,  and  evidently 
used  as  a  pavement,  have  been 
discovered,  showing  that  the  in- 
teriors of  those  palaces  were  mag- 
nificent. Carved  figures  of  huge 
proportion,  representing  bulls 
with  human  heads  and  winged, 
stood  in  pairs  on  either  side  of  the 
doorways,  while  numerous  rem- 
nants of  tiles  and  colored  plaster 
work  have  also  been  brought  to 
light. 

Egyptian  Architecture. — 
Pyramids. — Among  the  oldest 
monuments  are  the  pyramids  at 
Ghizeh,  north  of  Memphis 
(Cheops,  Chephren,  and  Myce- 
rinus),  formed  of  solid  masses  of 
masonry,  the  sides  being  stepped 
from  four  to  five  feet  on  each 
course.  The  great  pyramid  of 
Cheops,  called  after  the  king  of 
that  name,  has  a  base  of  750 
(originally  755;  ft.  square,  and  a 
height  of  451  ft.  (originally  481 
ft.).  The  Great  Sphinx  at  Ghizeh  is 
another  monument  to  the  genius 
and  ambition  of  the  Egyptians. 
It  has  the  body  of  a  lion  crouch- 
ing, with  the  head  of  a  man.  The 
length  is  172.5  ft.,  breadth  34  ft., 
and  height  to  the  top  of  head  66 
ft.  (from  chin  to  crown  is  alone  28 
ft.).  With  the  exception  of  the 
front  paws  "and  a  small  temple 
resting  between,  this  monument 
is  carved  out  of  the  solid  rock. 

Temples. — Although  temples 
were  built  contemporary  with  the 
pyramids  (like  the  so-called  Tem- 
ple of  the  Sphinx)  and  although 
the  classic  type  of  temple  origi- 
nated during  the  middle  empire, 
the  greatest  surviving  examples 
date  from  the  new  empire  (begin- 
ning c.  2100  B.C.),  the  Ptolemaic 
and  even  the  Roman  period.  The 
temples  were  of  two  types,  the  one 
excavated  out  of  the  solid  rock, 
and  the  other  built  in  the  ordinary- 
manner.  Of  the  former,  Abu- 
Simbel  in  Nubia  (1400  B.C.)  is  the 
finest  example.  The  fa(;ade  was 
cut  in  the  perpendicular  face  of 
the  rock,  the  entrance  having 
gigantic  figures,  66  ft.  high,  on 
either  side.  The  interior  con- 
sisted of  a  great  hall,  supported 
by  two  rows  of  detached  piers, 
with  immense  statues  in  front  of 
each.  In  some  temples  the  walls 
were   lined   with   marble.  The 

Elan  of  an  Egyptian  temple,  when 
uilt  of  masonry,  was  always 
uniform,  symmetrical,  and  rect- 
angular, the  principal  feature 
being  the  number  of  columns. 
These  columns  were  necessary 
owing  to  the  roof  being  built  of 
stone,  because  of  the  scarcity  of 
timber.  The  temple  of  Edfu,  near 
Thebes,  is  a  typical  example  (450 
ft.  long  by  140  ft.  wide).  At  one 
end  is  the  entrance,  20  ft.  wide, 
between  two  buildings  pyramidal 
in  form,  which  project  bcvond  the 
sides  of  the  temple,  100  ft." by  35  ft. 
This  leads  to  a  quadrangle  140  ft. 


by  161  ft.,  flanked  by  columns  a 
few  feet  from  the  main  walls,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  had  a  flat  roof. 
At  the  farther  end,  opposite  the 
entrance,  is  a  portico  extending 
the  full  width  of  the  quadrangle, 
and  45  ft.  in  depth,  the  roof 
being  supported  on  three  rows  of 
columns.  In  the  centre  of  the 
inner  vestibule  we  find  a  cell  or 
aoartment,  surrounded  by  rooms 
of  various  sizes,  where  the  priests 
lived. 

The  carving  on  Egyptian  monu- 
ments, where  they  are  not  plain 
or  covered  with  hieroglyphics, 
is  peculiar,  representing  a  bundle 
of  trees  or  reeds  bound  together 
by  a  rope  at  regular  intervals. 
The  capitals  exhibit  a  great  vari- 
ety of  form.  The  entablature  is 
very  little  subdivided,  and  what 
might  be  termed  the  cornice 
consists  of  a  projecting  concave 
member  without  moulclings,  but 
highly  sculptured.  The  architrave 
is  often  covered  with  patterns 
representing  an  orb  with  a  large 
and  small  wing  and  bird's  head 
on  either  side,  the  lotus  flower  or 
water  lily,  and  palm  leaves. 

Persian  Architecture. — As 
ancient  Persia  possessed  a  plenti- 
ful supply  of  timber,  the  people 
were  induced  to  erect  their  dwell- 
ings, temples,  and  palaces  mostly, 
if  not  entirely,  of  wood;  hence  few 
historical  remains  are  left.  There 
are,  however,  several  exceptions, 
the  most  notable  of  which  is  per- 
haps PersepoUs,  the  ancient  cap- 
ital, commenced  fifty  years  after 
the  empire  was  founded  by  King 
Cyrus,  whose  tomb,  situated  at 
Murghab,  40  m.  n.e.  of  Shiraz  in 
Persia,  is  still  in  a  wonderful  state 
of  preservation.  The  city  proper 
has  disappeared,  but  there  still 
remain  the  ruins  of  a  portion  of 
the  palace  called  Chehil  Minare. 
This  consists  of  a  raised  platform 
from  14  to  40  ft.  high,  sufjported 
by  retaining  walls,  1,424  ft.  long 
on  the  west  and  926  ft.  on  the 
north,  composed  of  immense 
stones,  and  approached  by  the 
finest  double  staircase  in  the 
world,  the  steps  being  22  ft.  long, 
with  4  in.  of  a  rise,  and  14  in.  on 
the  tread.  At  the  top  two  large 
entrance  gateways  still  stand, 
though  there  was  originally  a 
third.  The  centre  portal  meas- 
ures 39  ft.,  while  the  side  one  is 
28  ft.  in  height.  This  was  the 
main  entrance  to  the  grand  hall, 
the  columns  of  which,  still  stand- 
ing, are  60  ft.  in  height.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  remaining  por- 
tions of  the  building,  including 
the  roof,  were  completed  in  richly 
carved  and  gilt  woodwork.  The 
entablatures  are  very  similar  in 
many  ways  to  the  Egyptian,  but 
of  more  refined  design,  while  the 
columns  exhibit  proportions  un- 
rivalled in  the  history  of  art. 
The  only  form  resembling  Assyr- 
ian architecture  is  the  massive 


sculpture  of  winged  bulls  with 
human  heads. 

Moresque,  Saracenic,  or  Ara- 
bian Architecture. — See  special 
article. 

Jewish  Architecture.  —  Of 
the  buildings  constructed  by  the 
Jews  no  ruins  remain.  The 
temple  was  built  in  the  time  of 
Solomon,  and  was  largely  com- 
posed of  cedar  wood.  The  design, 
which  was  carried  out  by  Phoe- 
nician workmen  (the  Israelites 
were  untrained  in  the  method  of 
cutting  wood),  is  supposed,  from 
Biblical  writings,  to  have  been 
similar  to  an  Egyptian  temple, 
and  probably  due  to  the  then 
world-wide  Phoenician  enterprise. 
The  second  temple,  that  of  Ze- 
rubbabel  (515  B.C.),  was  inferior 
to  its  predecessor;  but  both  were 
surpassed  by  the  extensive  and 
magnificent  structure  of  Herod 
(18  B.C.),  in  which  Roman  archi- 
tectural detail  and  carved  decora- 
tion were  blended  with  the  Orien- 
tal plan. 

Chinese  and  Japanese  Archi- 
tecture.— The  Chinese  style  of 
architecture  is  based  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  tent.  Owing  to  the 
peculiar  customs,  laws,  and  tradi- 
tions of  the  country,  each  indi- 
vidual is  obliged  to  have  a  house 


Chinese  Pagoda. 


suitable  in  size  and  form  to  his 
rank  in  society.  The  dwellings 
are  composed  of  bamboo  and 
bricks,  their  ])cculiarity  being  that 
after  the  bamboo  framework  is  put 
together  the  roof  is  erected,  leav- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  building 
to  be  filled  in.  The  roof  is  the 
feature  of  the  Chinese  style,  and 


Architecture 


329 


Architecture 


has  wide  projecting  eaves  turned 
upwards  on  the  outside.  Chinese 
pagodas  are  octagonal  towers  40  ft. 
in  diameter,  having  seven  to  nine 
stories,  200  ft.  high,  with  a  small 
.staircase  to  the  top.  The  walls 
are  composed  of  marble  or  brick, 
and  have  many  niches  fdled  with 
idols,  while  the  whole  place  is 
lighted  by  means  of  numerous 
small  windows.  A  projecting  roof, 
with  corners  turned  up,  and  hung 
with  bells,  encircles  each  story, 
while  the  top  is  raised  to  a  con- 
siderable height,  terminating  in  a 
finial.  With  the  exception  of  the 
wall  of  China,  triumphal  arches, 
and  bridges,  we  find  little  stone- 
work used.  Japanese  architect- 
ure resembles  the  Chinese,  ex- 
cept that  the  decorative  details 
are  more  refined  and  delicate. 
Wood  is  the  chief  material  used, 
and  the  prevalence  of  earthquakes 
prevents  even  the  building  of 
towers. 

Indian  Architecture.  —  See 
special  article. 

Grecian  Architecture. — The 
Greeks  may  be  justly  called  the 
most  perfect  masters  of  the  art. 
In  proportion  and  symmetry  of 
design  they  have  never  been  sur- 
passed, and  although  they  made 
no  use  in  monumental  structures  of 
the  principles  of  the  arch,  yet  their 
architecture,  which  was  entirely 
of  the  columnar  order,  exhibits  a 
massiveness  and  auiet  repose 
lacking  in  the  buildings  of  any 
other  nation.  There  is  a  resem- 
blance in  some  points  between 
their  architecture  and  that  of  As- 
syria. To  the  casual  observer 
the  columns,  capitals,  bases,  and 
mouldings  in  Grecian  art  appear 
similar  to  those  of  Rome;  but  on 
closer  observation  it  will  be  no- 
ticed that,  while  the  Roman  mould- 
ings are  formed  with  the  curves 
of  a  circle,  those  of  Greece  are 
produced  in  the  curve  of  a  conic 
section.  The  proportion  of  the 
different  members  is  also  dissimi- 
lar. The  artistic  genius  of  the 
Greeks  enabled  them  to  perceive 
those  defects  in  a  building  which 
are  due,  not  to  its  actual  construc- 
tion, but  to  optical  illusion.  The 
sides  of  a  column,  though  straight, 
may  appear  hollow;  this  was  recti- 
fied by  giving  a  sUght  outward 
curve.  And.  again,  a  cornice 
with  top  peaiment  may  seem  de- 
pressed; tlois  defect  they  obviated 
by  making  the  highest  point  in 
the  centre,  the  entablature  being 
slightly  curved.  We  are  also  in- 
de  Dted.  to  the  Greeks  for  the  pedi- 
ment design. 

It  is  supposed  that  Grecian  tem- 
ples and  buildings  were  originally 
made  of  wood,  and  this  accounts 
largely  for  the  various  forms  found 
in  their  stone  architecture.  The 
architrave  represented  the  beam 
on  the  top  of  the  columns,  which 
again  supported  the  main  rafters, 
the  triglyphs  represented  the  ex- 


ternal ends  of  the  same,  while  the 
slope  of  the  roof  rafters  necessi- 
tated the  filling  in  of  the  ends  of 
the  building  by  what  is  known 
as  the  pediment.  The  three  dis- 
tinct orders  of  Grecian  architec- 


a  building  with  a  fine  interior; 
but  the  Greeks  did  exactly  the 
reverse.  Owing  to  their  main 
building  being  formed  of  stone 
walls  without  any  moulding,  the 
grace  and  beauty  of  the  structure 


BC£-Hiy£  HUTS 


Sectwnof  PICTS  ftOUSC  *T  SAVROCf.  ORKUCI 


CROMLECH  MITS  COITY HOUSC 


lAKl  DWCLLINCS  Sty-ner/and 
(■^fttr  TrayonJ 


Prehistoric  or  Primitive  Structures. 


ture,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian, 
are  given  under  Classic  Orders 
(see  below),  showing  the  different 
proportions  of  column,  entabla- 
ture, and  mouldings  between  those 
of  Greece  and  Rome.  Comparing 
the  temples  with  those  of  Egypt, 
we  find  the  centre  cell  similar  in 
both  cases,  yet  in  every  other 
respect  they  are  different.  The 
Egyptians  sacrificed  external  ef- 
fect, in  the  endeavor  to  procure 


depended  entirely  on  the  surround- 
ing columnar  arrangement. 

Our  knowledge  of  Grecian  archi- 
tecture is  derived  entirely  from 
the  ruins  of  the  ancient  temples, 
for  there  are  no  traces  left  of  pri- 
vate dwellings.  Among  the  most 
prominent  and  ancient  ruins  of 
the  Doric  order  we  may  mention 
the  temple  of  Athena  at  .^gina, 
the  fagade  of  which  is  hexastyie 
peripteral  (5th  century).  Among 


Architecture 

the  principal  ruins  in  Athens  are 
the  Theseum  (c.  470-50  B.C.)  and 
the  Parthenon,  finished  in  438  B.C. 
Both  belong  to  the  Doric  order, 
which  was  the  favorite  order 
in  Greece.    The  Athenian  build- 


330 

ment  are  the  finest  examples. 
There  is,  besides,  an  additional 
order,  called  the  Caryatic  order, 
in  which  the  statues  of  women 
were  used  instead  of  columns. 
Roman  Architecture. — If  the 


Egyptian  Architecture. 
1.  Temple  at  Edfu.  2.  Rock  Temple  at  Abu-Simbel.  3.  The  Great  Sphinx,  Ghizeh. 


ings  were  built  of  white  marble, 
and  it  is  supposed  that,  both  ex- 
ternally and  internally,  they  were 
painted  in  many  bright  colors, 
in  conjunction  with  a  considerable 
amount  of  gikling.  In  Athens  the 
three  principal  Ionic  ruins  are  the 
temples  of  Ilissus,  Minerva  Polias, 
and  Erechtheum;  while,  of  the 
Corinthian  order,  the  Tower  of  the 
Winds  and  the  Choragic  Monu- 


Greeks  were  indebted  to  Assvria 
and  Egypt  for  the  origin  of  their 
designs  in  building,  it  is  equally 
true,  though  to  a  greater  extent 
the  case,  that  the  Romans  almost 
entirely  borrowed  their  ideas  from 
the  Greeks.  Until  the  conquest  of 
Greece  by  the  Romans  in  145  B.C., 
the  buildings  of  the  latter  were  of 
the  rudest  description.  The  war- 
Uke  Romans  had  no  time  to  pursue 


Architecture 

the  arts,  but  left  those  peaceful 
occupations  in  the  hands  of  Gre- 
cian workmen.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era  the  intro- 
duction of  buildings  circular  in 
plan,  the  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  arch,  and  the  combi- 
nation of  both  forming  the  dome, 
had  the  wonderful  efi'ect  of  plant- 
ing edifices  of  imposing  beauty 
and  grandeur  throughout  the  van- 
quished countries.  The  Romans, 
being  more  practical  and  less  aes- 
thetic than  the  Greeks,  introduced 
the  segments  of  circles  instead 
of  adopting  Grecian  mouldings; 
while,  as  engineers,  their  aque- 
ducts, roads,  sewers,  and  bridges 
were  of  the  most  substantial  and 
perfect  description.  When  the 
nation  became  less  warlike,  and 
settled  on  more  peaceful  times, 
the  artistic  sense  of  the  people 
increased;  but,  unhappily,  tne  ad- 
vance was  checked  by  the  down- 
fall of  the  empire  at  a  moment  of 
exceptional  promise.  The  orders 
of  Roman  architecture  (Corinth- 
ian, Doric,  Ionic,  and  Composite) 
are  given  under  Classic  Orders 
below.  Although  the  Greeks  fa- 
vored the  Doric,  the  Romans  pre- 
ferred the  Corinthian. 

Rectangular  Temples  {Corinthian 
Order). — The  temple  of  Jupiter 
(now  known  as  that  of  Castor  and 
Pollux),  situated  in  the  Forum, 
Rome,  is  octastyle  peripteral  in 
plan,  with  11  columns  on  either 
side,  while  the  cell  is  8  columns  in 
length.  When  completed,  it  must 
have  been  a  building  of  most  per- 
fect form  and  proportion.  The 
temple  of  Saturn,  or  Vespasian,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Capitol,  Rome,  was 
hexastyle  peripteral  in  plan  (ex- 
treme size,  115  ft.  long  and  92  ft. 
wide);  but  onl}'  the  columns  re- 
main. It  is  not  so  refined  and 
perfect  in  design  as  the  temple  of 
Jupiter,  the  cornice  being  weak. 

Ionic  Order. — Of  this  order  only 
two  examples  are  found  in  Rome 
— the  temples  of  Fortuna  Viriljs 
and  Concord.  Both  are  weak  in 
design,  with  an  excessive  amount 
of  ornament. 

Of  the  Doric  Order,  the  temple 
of  Cora  is  but  a  poor  imitation 
of  the  Grecian,  Roman  mouldings 
being  adopted  in  place  of  Greek. 
The  last  two  orders,  although 
found  in  Roman  architecture,  can 
scarcely  be  classified  as  such,  being 
simply  weak  imitations. 

Circular  Temples. — This  class  is 
purely  Roman.  Among  the  finest 
specimens  stands  the  Pantheon 
at  Rome,  begun  27  B.C.,  but  re- 
built under  Hadrian  (117-38  A.D.). 
It  is  circular  in  plan;  inside  diam- 
eter 142  ft.,  and  columns  3o  ft. 
high.  At  a  height  of  75  ft.  from 
the  ground  is  the  dome,  with  five 
horizontal  ranks  of  panels,  the  top 
having  a  circular  opening  27  ft.  in 
diameter.  The  portico  was  prob- 
ably built  by  Marcus  Aurelius 
Antoninus,  166  A.D.,  while  the  in- 


Architecture 


331 


Archltectur* 


terior  was  completed  by  the  intro- 
duction of  columns  by  Septimius 
Severus,  202  A.D.  The  whole  de- 
sign belongs  to  the  Corinthian 
order.  The  temple  of  Vesta  at 
Rome  and  that  of  the  Sibyl  at 
Tivoli  are  of  greater  antiquity. 
The  cells  in  each  case  are  encir- 
cled by  a  colonnade  of  the  Cor- 
inthian order. 

Forums. — All  large  cities  con- 
tained several  of  these  bviildings. 
They  consisted  of  a  large  rec- 
tangular court  surrounded  by  a 
colonnade  or  arjeostyle  portico 
(with  ambulatory  above),  through 
which  entrances  led  to  temples, 
law  courts,  theatres,  etc.  The 
finest  specimen  known  is  that  at 
Pompeii.  The  forum  of  Trajan, 
Rome,  is  perhaps  the  largest  (1,150 
ft.  long  and  470  ft.  broad).  At  one 
end  was  placed  the  celebrated 
column  of  Trajan  (115  ft.  high), 
and  at  the  other  a  triumphal  arch. 

Triumphal  Arches. — In  Rome 
we  find  those  built  in  honor  of 
Titus,  Severus,  and  Constantine. 
In  earlier  times  they  represented 
a  single  arch,  but  latterly  con- 
sisted of  a  large  central  arch 
flanked  by  two  smaller  ones,  and 
excessively  decorated. 

Villas. — The  private  dwellings 
of  the  Romans,  although  built 
externally  of  plain  brick,  surpass 
those  of  any  other  nation  in  in- 
ternal magnificence.  Hadrian's 
villa  at  TivoH,  and  the  palace 
of  Diocletian  at  Spalato,  are  the 
finest  examples.  These  houses  are 
generally  of  one  story,  with  the 
atrium,  or  entrance-hall,  in  front, 
and  behind  it  an  interior  court 
surrounded  by  a  colonnade,  off 
which  opened  the  various  apart- 
ments, from  10  to  12  ft.  square. 
The  ceilings  were  lofty,  and  usu- 
ally formed  of  stone  slabs  sup- 
ported on  arched  ribs  (of  stone). 
The  apartments  rovmd  the  atrium 
were  reserved  for  guests.  In 
many  of  the  villas  facing  a  thor- 
oughfare the  frontage  next  the 
street  was  laid  out  in  shops,  in  a 
manner  very  similar  to  that  of 
some  continental  towns  at  the 
present  day. 

Amphitheatres. — These  are  also 
of  Roman  design,  ruins  existing  in 
most  countries  conquered  by  the 
Romans.  The  most  important  is 
the  Coliseum,  Rome,  built  by  Ves- 
pasian and  Titus.  Elliptical  in 
shape,  it  has  a  length  of  615  ft. 
and  a  breadth  of  510  ft.,  or  about 
6^  ac.  in  area.  The  arena,  281  ft.  bv 
176  ft.,  was  encircled  by  a  high 
wall  with  a  parapet,  behind  which 
seats  rose  in  tiers  to  the  outside 
wall.  This  wall  was  divided  exter- 
nally into  three  stories  of  columns 
and  arches,  and  on  the  top  was 
yet  another  wall,  divided  by  Corin- 
thian pilasters,  which  were  really 
the  upward  continuation  of  the 
columns  below.  The  whole  was 
surmounted  by  a  frieze  and  cor- 
nice, and  the  total  height  from 
Vol.  I.— 25. 


base  to  summit  was  162  ft.  This 
vast  building  could  accommodate 
87,000  spectators. 

Baths. — It  is  said  that  there  were 
at  one  time  as  many  as  850  baths 
in  the  city  of  Rome,  the  largest 
being  those  of  Diocletian,  Titus, 
and  Caracalla.  The  baths  of  the 
last-named  were  of  enormous 
size,  as  is  shown  by  their  length 
of  1,840  ft.  and  breadth  of  1,476 
ft.  At  each  end,  and  at  the  sides, 
were  temples,  while  the  main 
building  contained  a  large  vesti- 
bule, with  four  halls  (on  each  side) 
for  cold,  tepid,  warm,  and  steam 
baths.  In  the  centre  was  an  im- 
mense quadrangle  for  taking  exer- 


the  base  the  stylobate  is  from  two- 
thirds  to  one  diameter  of  the  col- 
umn in  height,  and  is  divided  into 
equal  courses  or  steps.  Resting  on 
the  top  step  is  the  column,  4  to  6 
diameters  in  height,  and  diminish- 
ing in  a  slightly-curved  line  to  the 
necking  or  hypotrachelium,  where 
it  is  between  two-thirds  and  four- 
fifths  diameter  at  base.  It  is  gen- 
erally divided  into  20  flutes.  The 
capital,  which  is  included  in  the 
height  of  the  column,  is  slightly 
less  :han  half  a  diameter,  and  is 
divided  into  the  necking  (one- 
fifth),  echinus  or  ovolo  (two-fifths), 
and  the  abacus  (two-fifths  of  the 
height).    The  entablature  varies 


Ruined  Palace  of  Chehil  Minare,  Persepolis. 


cise,  and,  beyond,  a  hall  with  1 ,600 
seats  for  bathers,  while  at  each 
end  were  libraries.  In  addition 
there  were  music,  lecture,  and 
dressing  rooms,  besides  gymnasia 
and  swimming  baths,  all  conceived 
in  the  highest  ideal  of  Roman  ar- 
chitecture, and  gorgeously  deco- 
rated. 

Basilicas. — These  were  the  halls 
of  justice,  usually  attached  to  the 
forum.  In  earlier  times  they 
were  open  in_  the  centre,  the  only 
covered  portion  being  the  colon- 
nade. In  later  times  the  walls 
were  raised  and  roofed  in,  the  part 
above  the  colonnade  being  used 
as  a  gallery — one  end  .semicircular 
in  shape — where  the  judges  sat. 
In  many  respects  these  buildings 
have  become  models  for  modern 
Christian  churches. 

Classic  Orders. — In  distin- 
guishing between  Greek  and  Ro- 
man orders,  in  addition  to  the 
curves  of  the  mouldings  being 
different,  there  is  the  variation  in 
the  proportion  of  the  diameter  of 
the  columns,  not  only  to  their 
height  and  to  the  distance  they 
are  apart,  but  also  to  the  depth  of 
the_  entablature.  This  is  again 
divided  by  varying  proportions 
into  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice. 

Grecian  Doric  Order. — Gener- 
ally used  in  Greek  temples,  and 
consisting  of  three  parts — stylo- 
bate,  column,  and  entablature.  At 


from  If  diameters  to  2  diameters, 
and  is  divided  into  architrave 
(two-fifths),  either  absolutely  plain 
or  divided  into  three  projecting 
horizontal  fillets;  frieze  (two- 
fifths),  divided  horizontally  into 
triglyphs,  usually  half  a  diam- 
eter in  width;  'metopes  (equal 
in  length  to  the  height  of  the 
frieze),  which  regulate  the  inter- 
columniations;  and,  lastly,  the 
cornice  (one-fifth),  which  projects 
its  own  height. 

Grecian  Ionic  Order. — This  was 
doubtless  borrowed  from  Assyr- 
ian designs.  The  stylobate  '  is 
from  four-fifths  to  one  diameter  in 
height,  and  is  divided  into  3  steps. 
The  column,  9  diameters  in  height, 
is  divided  into  base  (two-fifths  of 
a  diameter),  consisting  of  a  torus 
and  scotia  moulding,  with  a  series 
of  smaUer  mouldings  above;  these 
again  are  divided  by  fillets.  The 
column,  which  diminishes  to  five- 
sixths  at  the  hypotrachelium,  is 
divided  into  24  elliptical  flutes 
and  alternating  fillets.  The  capi- 
tal, three-quarters  of  a  diameter 
in  height  (including  the  necking), 
is  like  a  paper  roll  lying  on  the 
top  of  a  column,  with  the  rolls  or 
volutes  hanging  downwards  on 
each  side. 

Grecian  Corinthian  Order. — Of 
this  order  there  are  only  two  re- 
maining specimens  in  Greece,  all 
others  at  present  standing  having 


Architecture 


332 


Architecture 


been  built  after  the  Roman  inva- 
sion. The  Choragic  Monument 
at  Athens — circular,  and  standing 
on  a  square  pediment — is  the  best 
example.  The  stylobate  and  col- 
umn are  similar  to  those  of  the 
Ionic  crder,  with  the  exception 
that  the  latter  is  10  instead  of 
9  diameters  in  height.  The  base 
is  two-fifths  and  the  capital  1^ 
diameters  in  height,  composed  of  a 
cylindrical  core  with  eight  leaves 
clustered  round  it,  wmle  above 
are  four  acanthus  leaves  cyma  recta 
in   contour,   surmountea   by  a 


sisted  of  architrave  and  cornice 
alone,  divided  into  equal  portions. 

Roman  Doric  Order. — This  is 
a  rude  imitation  of  the  Grecian 
design,  and  seldom  used.  In  the 
theatre  of  Marcellus,  Rome,  the 
columns  are  8  diameters  in  height, 
and  consist  of  a  perfectly  plain 
shaft,  tapering  to  four-fifths  of  its 
diameter  at  the  neck.  The  capi- 
tal consists  of  necking  with  torus 
moulding  and  3  fillets  below,  and 
the  abacus,  equal  to  three-fifths 
of  a  diameter.  The  entablature, 
2  diameters  in  height,  has  a  very 


band  of  mouldings  between  the 
volutes  in  the  capital  is  horizontal 
instead  of  being  bent  downwards 
in  the  centre.  The  entablature 
consists  of  an  architrave  unequally 
divided  by  fascise  mouldings;  a 
frieze,  plain,  but  enriched  by  fig- 
ures and  foliage;  while  the  cor- 
nice is  largely  composed  of  carved 
mouldings. 

Roman  Corinthian. — This  was 
the  favorite  order  adopted  by 
the  Romans,  the  stylobate  being 
similar  to  that  of  Ionic,  and  about 
3  diameters  in  height.  The  column 


Greek  Doric— Temple 
of  Theseus,  Athens. 


Roman  Doric- 
Theatre  of  MarceUus. 


Greek  Ionic— 
Erechtheum, 
Athens. 


Roman  Ionic- 
Temple  of 
Fortuna  Virilis. 


Greek  Corinthian— 
Choragic  Monument 
of  Lysicrates,  Athens. 


Roman  Corinthian- 
Pantheon,  Rome. 


Greek  and  Roman  Orders. 


moulded  abacus  curved  inwards 
on  each  face.  The  entablature  is 
2?  diameters  in  height,  the  archi- 
trave being  divided  into  3  hori- 
zontal fillets,  separated  by  a  nar- 
row moulding  from  the  frieze, 
on  which  bas-reliefs  are  carved; 
while  the  cornice,  which  has  a 
projection  equal  to  its  height,  con- 
sists of  bed  mouldings,  corona, 
small  crown  mouldings,  and  fillet, 
surmounted  by  a  cut  fascia. 

Grecian  Caryatic  Order. — In 
this  order  the  statues  of  women 
were  substituted  instead  of  col- 
umns, and  rested  on  a  stereobatic 
dado,  which  in  turn  stood  on  the 
stylobate.    The  entablature  con- 


short  architrave,  perfectly  plain; 
a  deep  frieze,  with  triglyphs  half 
a  diameter  in  width,  and  square 
metopes  between;  while  the  pro- 
jection of  the  cornice  is  equal  to 
Its  depth. 

Roman  Ionic  Order. — This  de- 
sign is  in  many  respects  similar  to 
the  Grecian.  The  only  building  in 
Rome  worthy  of  note  is  the  temple 
of  Fortuna  Virilis.  The  stylobate 
is  higher  than  that  of  the  Grecian, 
and  has  no  steps.  The  column, 
9  diameters  in  height,  and  taper- 
ing to  nine-tenths  of  its  diameter 
at  the  neck,  has  20  flutes.  The 
base  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
Grecian  orcler,  but  the  connecting 


consists  of  base,  shaft,  and  capital, 
10  diameters  in  height — the  base 
similar  to  Ionic,  the  only  differ- 
ence being  that  it  stands  on  a 
square  plinth.  The  shaft  dimin- 
ishes to  seven-eighths  at  the  neck, 
and  it  has  usually  24  flutes  and 
fillets.  The  capital  is  1|  diameters 
in  height,  consisting  of  two  rows, 
one  above  the  other,  of  eight  acan- 
thus leaves,  surmounted  by  helices 
and  foliage,  and  the  abacus,  with 
inward  curved  moulded  faces.  The 
entablature  is  about  2  diameters 
in  height — of  architrave,  divided 
into  3  unequal  fasci.^n;  frieze, 
divided  from  the  latter  by  carved 
mouldings,  and   perfectly  plain; 


Architecture 

and  cornice,  with  bed-moulding 
of  considerable  projection. 

Second  Corinttiian  Order. — This 
order,  afterward  known  in  Ital- 
ian Renaissance  as  the  Composite 
order,  is  similar  in  m.ost  respects 
to  the  Corinthian.  The  columns, 
however,  were  not  quite  so  high, 
and  have  a  deeper  capital,  which 
in  appearance  is  a  combination 
of  Corinthian  with  4  Ionic  volutes 
projecting  at  each  corner  directly 
under  the  abacus.  The  entabla- 
ture has  a  small  architrave,  di- 
vided into  3  projecting  fillets; 
the  frieze  is  plain;  while  the  cor- 
nice is  deep,  \nih.  a  large  number 
of  carved  mouldings. 

The  several  mouldings  used  in 
Grecian  and  Roman  orders  are 
shown  in  the  plate  on  this 
page. 

Early    Christian. — ^This  style 
is  an  adaptation  of  the  architecture 
of  the  decHning  Roman  empire, 
to  the  needs  of  Christian  worship, 
which  consisted  in  a  large  interior 
space  for  public  worship.  The 
result  in  the  western  world  was 
the  Christian  basilica;  the  devel- 
opment of  which  into  the  Roman- 
esque and  Gothic  church  forms 
the  history  of  architecture  during 
the  middle  ages.    Early  Christian 
architecture  began  soon  after  the 
spread  of  Christianity,  attained 
importance  with  the  accession  of 
Constantine  (303  A.D.)  and  flour- 
ished till  c.  800;  although  it  hn- 
gered  at  Rome  until  the  advent 
of  the  Renaissance  in  the  fifteenth 
century.    The  ground  plan  of  the 
Christian  basilica  consisted  of  a 
nave  and  two  or  four  aisles  for 
the  congregation,   and  a  semi- 
circular apse  for  the  clergy,  in 
which  were  also  the  bishop's  seat 
and  the  altar.    In  the  basilicas 
of  the  western  world,  though  not 
in  those  of  the  Orient,  there  was 
a  transept;  and  wherever  the  space 
permitted,  a  forecourt  or  atrium 
in  front  of  the  church.    The  most 
prominent  feature  of  the  interior 
was  the  rows  of  columns,  upon 
which  rested  the  architraves  sup- 
porting the  clerestory  under  the 
roof.    The  roofs  were  flat  or  in 
the  form  of  a  simple  gable,  and 
the    light    entered    the  church 
through  perforated  stone  or  horn 
windows  in  the  clerestorv.  The 
exterior  was  purely  negative;  and 
the  fafade,  when  not  ooscured  by 
the  forecourt,  was  the  only  deco- 
rated part.    The  chief  surviving 
examples  are  at  Rome  and  Ra- 
venna; among  the  former  are  St. 
Paul's  Without  the  Walls  (386), 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  (432),  and 
San  Clemente  (1084);  among  the 
latter  Sant'  Apollinare  Nuovo  (520) 
and   Sant'  Apollinare  in  Classe 
(538).    Excellent  monuments  of 
the  same  style  are  preserved  in 
the  desert  cities  of  Syria  and  in 
Northern  Africa. 

Byzantine  is  the  Christian 
architecture  of  the  Eastern  ^m- 


333 

pire  as  distinguished  from  the 
Early  Christian  in  the  Western. 
Its  principal  characteristic  was 
the  development  of  domical 
structures.  Although  the  Ro- 
mans had  built  domes  upon  cir- 
cular walls,  and  early  Christian 
architects  went  a  step  further  by 


^/?£C/AA/  MO(/L  D/NC5 


Architecture 

ually  with  golden  backgrounds. 
Byzantine  architecture  was  prac- 
tised in  most  parts  of  the  Eastern 
empire;  and  styles  which  have 
been  developed  from  it  still  pre- 
vail wherever  the  Greek  Catholic 
Church  exists;  as  in  Russia,  the 
Balkan  states  and  Asia  Minor. 


/SOMAU  MOi/LO/A/CS 


CYA-TA  /?£V£/?3A 


1  ( X  \ 


CAV£rrro 


POP 


BSAD 


Grecian  and  Roman  Mouldings  compared. 


converting  the  lower  wall  into  a 
colonnade,  it  was  reserved  for  the 
Byzantines  to  construct  the  larg- 
est domes  and,  by  the  invention  of 
the  pendentives,  to  suspend  them 
in  mid-air.  The  apse  and  the  side 
aisles  were  strictly  subordinated 
to  the  central  structure.  After 
successful  preliminary  attempts 
in  San  Vitale  (527-40)  at  Ravenna 
and  St.  Sergius  and  Bacchus  at 
Constantinople,  the  style  reached 
its  culmination  in  St.  Sophia  in 
Constantinople  (532-8).  Another 
striking  characteristic  of  the  By- 
zantine style,  which  originated 
in  the  love  of  color  peculiar  to  the 
Orient,  was  the  glittering  mosaic 
decorations  of  the  interiors,  us- 


Its  influence  extended  to  Italy, 
dominating  Venice,  Ravenna,  arid 
the  south,  and  even  extended  to 
Southern  France.  The  most  mag- 
nificent example  in  Italy  is  San 
Marco  at  Venice,  which  has  best 
preserved  the  decorative  features 
of  the  style. 

Romanesque. — This  term  is 
applied  to  the  style  of  architecture 
which  succeeded  early  Christian  in 
the  western  world,  because  all  of 
its  elements  are  found  in  Roman 
architecture.  Its  beginnings  date 
from  about  800  \.D.,  and  its  most 
important  works  vrere  created  in 
the  10th,  nth,  and  12th  centuries; 
it  lingered  in  some  countries  as 
late  as  the  13th.    The  architect? 


Architecture 


334 


Architecture 


were  for  the  most  part  monks. 
Romanesque  architecture  differed 
from  the  early  Christian  in  that 
its  ground  plan  was  always  a 
Latin  cross:  in  the  use  of  piefs  in 
place  of  columns,  and  of  groined 


and  ribbed  vaulting  in  place  of  the 
ancient  flat  ceilings. 

Germany. — The  origin  of  Ro- 
manescjue  architecture  was  due  to 
the  general  revival  of  culture  under 
Charles  the  Great  {c.  800),  and  the 
seat  of  its  earliest  development 
was  the  valleys  of  the  Rhine  and 
the  Moselle.  The  principal 
structures  were  concentric;  the 
minster  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  (804) 
and  its  imitations  being  the  only 
survivals.  The  next  type  to  be 
developed  (12th  century)  was  the 
flat  ceiled  basiUca  in  the  ancient 
Duchy  of  Saxony.  Both  piers  and 
columns  were  used,  sometimes 
alternately;  the  windows  were 
small,  and  the  interiors  were  deco- 
rated with  brilliant  polychromatic 
elfects.  The  normal  type  of  the 
Romanesque  church  which  dis- 

E laced  the  others  was  the  vaulted 
asilica  of  the  Rhinelands.  At  an 
earlier  period  the  aisles  and  the 
crypts  had  been  roofed  with  groin 
vaulting,  but  it  was  reserved  for 
the  11th  century  to  apply  this 
treatment  to  the  nave.  The  first 
examples  were  the  cathedrals  of 
Speyer  and  Mayence,  built  under 
Henry  iv.,  and  others  are  the 
abbey  church  of  Laach,  and  the 
Cathedrals  of  Treves  and  Worms. 
The  exteriors  were  harmoniously 
developed  to  correspond  with  the 
interiors.  The  large  towers  were 
made  an  integral  part  of  the 
building  and  the  intersection  of 


the  nave  and  the  transept  was 
crowned  with  a  cupola.  Double 
transepts  and  double  choirs,  with 
two  corresponding  pairs  of  towers, 
were  often  used.  The  Roman- 
esque lingered  longest  in  Ger- 


many, and  in  its  later  develop- 
ment, called  the  'Transitional 
Style,'  certain  Gothic  elements, 
especially  the  pointed  arch,  were 
acfopted,  as  in  the  beautiful  ex- 
amples at  Limburg  on  the  Lahn 
anct  the  Cathedral  of  Bonn  (early 
13th  century). 

Norman.  —  Corresponding  to 
the  political  division  of  P'rance 
during  the  middle  ages  and  the 
langue  (Toe  and  langue  d' oil  as 
boundaries  of  its  culture,  there 
were  two  distinct  types  of  archi- 
tecture: the  flat  ceiled  basilica  of 
the  north,  which  is  best  termed 
the  Norman,  and  the  vaulted 
churches  of  the  south.  The  chief 
characteristics  of  the  Norman 
architecture  is  the  strict  insistence 
upon  the  Latin  cross  as  the  ground 
form,  the  use  of  square  instead  of 
round  choirs  and  the  extremely 
long  and  narrow  nave.  The  prin- 
cipal examples  of  the  Roman- 
esque in  Normandy  (11th  century) 
are  at  Jumicges,  Caen  and  Cerisy. 
In  Great  Britain  the  earliest 
buildings  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
were  of  wood,  or  if  of  stone  they 
were  in  primitive  Romanesque. 
The  Normans  imported  their  own 
architects  from  the  continent,  and 
soon  developed  great  building 
activity.  The  English  churches 
are  longer  and  narrower  than  the 
Norman,  especially  as  regards  the 
choir.  They  contain  large  crypts 
and  the  facades  are  flanked  oy 


towers  and  porticoes.  The  prin- 
cipal examples  are  the  Cathedrals 
of  Winchester  (in  part)  and  St. 
Albans  of  the  11th  century,  and 
Ely  and  Peterborough  of  the  12th. 
It  was  evidently  the  intention  of 
the  builders  to  vault  these  basili- 
cas* but  with  the  single  exception 
of  JDurham,  which  was  vaulted 
at  a  later  period,  flat  ceilings  were 
adopted. 

Soutliern  France. — la  line  with 
the  independent  pohtical  and 
heterodox  ecclesiastical  develop- 
ment of  Southern  France,  archi- 
tecture developed  in  types  diver- 
gent from  the  basilica  of  the 
western  church.  During  the  11th 
and  1 2th  centuries  there  were  two 
principal  types,  in  accordance 
with  the  use  of  barrel  or  cupola 
vaulting.  The  former  was  very 
generally  used;  sometimes  over 
single  naves,  hall  churches  (as  in 
Notre  Dame  la  Grande  at  Poitiers 
and  St.  Sernin  at  Toulouse)  or 
over  the  usual  basilican  form. 
The  other  type  was  vaulted  by  a 
number  of  cupolas  resting  upon 
arches;  like  St.  Front  at  Perigueux 
(c.  1047)  and  the  Cathedrals  of 
Angouleme,  Angers,  Poitiers.  The 
exterior  of  French  Romanesque 
churches  is  usually  a  simple  mani- 
festation of  the  interior  structure. 
Spain  is,  generally  speaking,  a 
province  of  Southern  France  dur- 
ing the  Romanesque  epoch. 
Among  its  chief  edifices  are  St. 
lago  at  Compostela  and  the  ca- 
thedral of  Salamanca,  with  barrel 
vaulting.  A  sort  of  transition  to 
the  Gothic  with  cross  groined  vault- 
ing, developed  in  buildings  like  the 
cathedrals  of  Lerida  and  Tudela. 

Italy. — Owing  to  the  preva- 
lence of  antique  structures,  the 
development  in  Italy  was  slower. 
The  so-called  Lombard  style  in 
northern  Italy,  in  its  use  of 
groined  vaulting,  bears  much  re- 
semblance to  those  of  northern 
Europe.  The  earliest  example  is 
that  of  Sant'  Ambrogio  in  Milan, 
in  which  a  heavy  vaulting  is  sup- 
ported by  thin  piers  running  up 
the  sides.  The  general  type  was 
that  of  a  basihca  with  side  gal- 
leries, like  San  Michele  at  Pavia 
and  the  Cathedrals  of  Parma  and 
Modena.  The  Tuscan  Roman- 
esque is  more  closely  related  to 
the  antique.  The  interior  is  flat 
ceiled  and  the  roof  is  supported  by 
antique  columns.  The  exterior  is 
in  perfect  harmony  with  the  in- 
terior, and  is  adorned  by  tiers  of 
columns  and  variegated  marbles. 
The  chief  example,  the  model  for 
Central  Italy,  is  the  Cathedral  of 
Pisa  (1063-1118).  with  its  Bap 
tistery  and  cclenrated  Leaning 
'I'owe'r.  The  Florentine  Roman- 
esque bore  even  greater  rcscm- 
l)lance  to  the  antique,  and  carried 
the  use  of  marble  incrustation  to 
the  highest  perfection.  In  south- 
ern Italy  and  Sicily  a  peculiar 
variety  of  Romanescjue  originated, 


Worms  Cathedral. 


Architectute 


335 


Architecture 


with  strange  admixture  of  Byzan- 
tine, Saracen  and  Norman  ele- 
ments. The  chief  characteristic 
is  the  splendor  of  its  mosaic  deco- 
ration, the  delicacy  of  its  carvings 
and  the  occasional  use  of  the 
pointed  arch.  The  finest  exam- 
ples are  in  Sicily,  among  which 
the  Cathedral  of  Monreale  is  pre- 
eminent. 

Gothic. — This  term  was  ap- 
plied by  the  Italians  to  the  archi- 
tecture preceding  the  Renaissance, 
in  derision  of  its  supposed  bar- 
baric character;  wrongly  so,  since 
it  was  not  German,  but  origi- 
nated in  France.  The  term 
'Pointed  Architecture'  is  _  also 
erroneous  because  the  pointed 
arch  is  a  mere  incident  of  the 
style.  Its  forms  were  a  develop- 
ment of  the  Romanesque,  re- 
sulting from  the  concentration  of 
strains  incidental  to  the  universal 
use  of  ribbed  vaulting.  The 
weight  of  the  vaults  was  concen- 
trated upon  great  piers  assisted  by 
balanced  thrusts  in  the  shape  of 
flying  buttresses.  The  result  was 
a  complete  dissolution  of  the 
masses  of  the  heavy  walls,  the 
place  of  which  was  occupied  by 
beautiful  windows  rich  in  tracery. 
The  pointed  arch,  which  by  its 
downward  thrust  admits  of  more 
lofty  vaults,  was  generally  intro- 
duced: and  the  semicircular  apse 
of  the  Romanesque  church  was 
transformed  into  a  radiating  choir 
with  a  beautiful  crown  of  chapels. 

France.  —  Gothic  architecture 
originated  in  the  He  de  France  as 
the  result  of  a  combination  of 
Northern  and  Southern  influences. 
Its  first  example  was  the  choir  of 
the  abbey  church  of  St.  Denis, 
near  Paris  (c.  1140).  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  12th  century  arose  a 
series  of  fine  cathedrals,  in  which 
the  new  system  prevailed;  but 
whose  massiveness  shows  the 
transition  from  the  Romanesque: 
those  of  Laon,  Bourges,  and, 
finest  of  all,  Notre  Dame  at  Paris. 
The  most  perfect  development 
was  attained  in  the  13th  century 
in  such  cathedrals  as  Rheims, 
Amiens,  Chartres,  Beauvais  and 
Rouen.  In  these  buildings  the 
place  of  the  walls  is  taken  by 
magnificent  stained  glasses,  and 
the  fagade  and  lateral  portals  are 
transformed  into  forests  of  statu- 
ary, all  in  perfect  harmony  with 
the  upward  striving  of  the  Gothic. 
In  the  late  or  florid  Gothic  period 
(1375-1525)  the  design  became 
lighter  and  even  richer,  the 
sculptural  decoration  increasingly 
realistic.  Profuse  decoration  and 
cleverness  of  technical  execution 
replaced  dignity  of  design,  finally 
degenerating  into  the  unrestrained 
extravagances  of  the  Flamboyant 
.style.  Among  the  chief  churches 
of  this  period  are  St.  Ouen  and  St. 
Malcou  at  Rouen,  St.  Jacques  at 
Dieppe,  and  St.  Walfrand  at 
Abbeville. 


England. — Although  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture was  introduced  from 
France  into  England,  it  soon  ex- 
perienced in  that  country  a 
peculiarly  national  development. 
It  retained  the  long  and  narrow 
naves  of  the  Norman  jieriod  and 
the  straight  determination  of  the 
choir  which  is  usualh''  adorned 
with  a  beautiful  window.  Small 
use  is  made  of  buttresses  and  the 
early  Gothic  period,  correspond- 
ing roughly  with  the  13th  centur}?^, 
is  known  in  England  as  the  Early 
English  or  Lancet  style,  so  called 
from  the  shape  of  the  windows, 
usually  arranged  in  groups  of 
three.  The  first  example  (1174)  of 
the  Gothic  style  in  England  was 
the  choir  of  Canterbury.  Of  the 
churches  of  the  13th  century 
Westminster  Abbey  shows  French 
influence,  but  the  Cathedrals  of 
Lincoln  and  Salisbury  are  thor- 
oughly English;  other  remarkable 
examples  are  Wells  and  Litchfield. 
The  Decorative  or  Geometric 
style  (1280-1380)  corresponding 
roughly  with  the  High  Gothic  in 
France,  is  characterized  by  deco- 
rative richness  and  a  lighter  con- 
struction, among  the  finest  exam- 


at  Cambridge  and  the  Chapel  of 
Henry  vil.  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
While  the  sides  and  east  ends  of 
the  English  Cathedral  were  often 
of  a  beautiful  design,  the  facades 
were  not  always  so.  The  most 
successful  features  of  English  ex« 
teriors  were  the  lofty  and  massive 
central  towers. 

Spain. — The  Gothic  style  was 
transplanted  into  Spain  from 
France  during  the  13th  century. 
The  Cathedral  of  Toledo  is  mod- 
elled after  Notre  Dame  of  Paris, 
and  those  of  Leon,  Valencia  and 
Barcelona  also  show  French  in- 
fluence, while  that  of  Burgos,  in 
its  spires  at  least,  resembles  Ger- 
man work.  The  largest  of  the 
Spanish  cathedrals,  which  are 
themselves  more  extensive  than 
other  European  churches,  is  that 
of  Seville,  begun  in  1401.  The 
later  Gothic  in  Spain  is  charac- 
terized by  overloaded  decoration, 
which  may  be  attributed  to  Moor- 
ish tendencies.  The  Gothic  style 
entered  Portugal  at  a  relatively 
late  period  and  is  characterized  by 
the  same_  exaggerated  decoration 
as  in  Spain. 

Gerniafiy.— Gothic  architecture 


Pisa  Cat/iLdral. 


pies  being  the  Cathedrals  of 
Exeter,  Winchester,  York,  and 
Carlisle,  and  a  series  of  abbeys 
like  Melrose.  The  Perpendicular, 
so  called  because  of  its  pre- 
dominantly vertical  character, 
corresponds  with  the  late  Gothic 
periou  elsewhere,  and  extends 
well  into  the  Kith  century,  when  it 
is  called  the  Tudor  style.  It  is 
characterized  by  the  use  of  com- 
plicated systems  of  vaulting, 
especially  of  fan  vaulting.  The 
college  buildings  of  the  English 
universities  are  largely  built  in  this 
style;  and  among  its  principal  ex- 
amples are  St.  George's  Chapel, 
Windsor,  King's  College  Chapel 


was  introduced  into  Germany  at  a 
later  period  than  elsewhere,  owing 
to  the  tenacity  with  which  the 
Germans  clung  to  the  Roman- 
esque. The  most  important  de- 
velopment took  place  in  the 
Rhinelands,  under  direct  French 
influence;  the  chief  examples 
being  the  great  cathedrals  of 
Strasburg,  Cologne  and  Freiburg, 
all  begun  shortly  before  the  mid- 
dle of  the  13th  century.  An  es- 
pecial German  development  was 
the  Hall  churches,  in  which  the 
aisles  are  in  equal  height  with 
the  nave  (St.  Elizabeth  at  Mar- 
burg). The  churches  at  Nurem- 
berg and  the  minster  of  Dim  are 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE,  I. 

1.  Hotel  Ponce  de  Leon,  St.  Augustine,  Fla.  2.  •  Flatiron '  Building,  New  York.  8.  Public  Library,  Boston. 

A.  Trinity  Cliurch,  Boston. 


Architecture 


337 


Architecture 


good  examples  of  the  late  Gothic 
period  in  Germany  (1350-1530). 

Italy. — The  Italian  Gothic  was 
decorative  rather  than  construc- 
tive. The  pervading  tendency 
was  horizontal  rather  than  verti- 
cal; the  nave  only  high  enough 
to  admit  sufficient  light;  while 
the  fagade  was  not  a  constructive 
part  of  the  church  but  free  to 
take  any  form,  and  the  towers 
were  built  apart  from  the  church. 
The  mendicant  orders  play  an 
important  part  in  its  introduc- 
tion. Among  the  principal  ex- 
amples are  the  Cathedral  of 
Milan,  begun  in  1386,  a  com- 
promise of  Italian  and  Northern 
methods;  the  cathedrals  of  Siena 
and  Orvieto,  begun  in  1245  and 
1290  respectively,  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  consistent  examples  of 
the  Tuscan  Gothic;  and  the 
Cathedral  of  Florence,  begun  in 
1232  after  the  plans  of  Arnolfo  di 
Cambio  and  continued  through- 
out the  14th  century. 

Secular  Architecture. —  Espe- 
cially during  the  later  Gothic 
period,  conincident  with  the 
highest  development  of  mediaeval 
municipalities,  there  was  an  im- 
portant manifestation  of  secular 
architecture  in  the  town  halls  of 
Northern  France,  Germany,  and 
especially  in  the  Netherlands  and 
Italy.  From  this  period  date  the 
municipal  palaces  of  Florence, 
Siena,  the  ducal  palace,  and 
many  of  the  private  mansions  of 
Venice.  For  the  development  of 
private  dwellings  and  castles 
during  the  Romanesque  and 
Gothic  period  see  article  on 
Castle. 

Renaissance. — As  a  result  of 
the  revival  of  antique  studies  in 
general  and  the  study  of  Roman 
ruins  in  especial,  an  architecture 
originated  which  was  an  adapta- 
tion of  classic  forms  to  architec- 
tural needs  of  the  day.  Unlike 
previous  architectural  develop- 
ments, it  was  a  personal  rather 
than  a  national  style,  and  its 
works  were  those  of  individuals. 
Its  principal  divisions  are  the 
Early  or  Free  Renaissance  (1420- 
1500),  the  High  or  Classical 
(1500-1575),  and  the  DecUning 
Renaissance  or  Baroque  (1575- 
1780). 

Italy. — The  Renaissance  began 
in  Florence  and  its  early  works 
were  by  Florentine  architects. 
The  founder  of  the  style  was  Bru- 
nellesco  who,  after  long  studies 
at  Rome,  produced  in  his  cupola 
of  the  Cathedral  of  Florence 
(1420-64)  the  first  monument 
of  the  new  style.  In  his  churches 
(Santo  Spirito,  San  Lorenzo),  as 
well  as  in  his  palaces,  of  which 
the  finest  example  is  the  Pitti. 
he  adopted  rather  than  imitated 
the  features  of  Roman  buildings; 
as  did  also  his  principal  pupil 
Michelozzo  (Palazzo  Riccardi). 
Roman  forms  were  more  closely 
imitated  by  Alberti,  the  great 


theorist  of  the  Early  Renaissance. 
Their  successors  carried  the  style 
throughout  Italy.  In  Lombardy 
it  was  highly  decorative  in  the 
celebrated  Certosa  of  Pavia.  In 
Venice,  whither  the  Renaissance 
was  introduced  latest  of  all,  it 
developed  into  the  most  richly 


of  Vitruvius  and  of  the  Roman 
ruins  was  accepted  as  a  part  of 
the  training  of  every  architect. 
The  pioneer  of  the  style  was 
Bramante  of  Urbino,  whose  chief 
activity  was  at  Rome,  which  now 
succeeded  Florence  as  the  centre 
of  artistic  endeavor.    His  princi- 


Chancel  and  East  Window,  York  Cathedral 


North  Aisle,  Ely  Cathedral 
English  Gothic 


decorative  of  the  Italian  styles, 
as  may  be  seen  in  such  character- 
istic examples  as  the  church  of 
the  Miracoli  and  the  court  of  the 
Ducal  Palace. 

The  High  Renaissance  had 
much  more  of  the  Roman  spirit. 
The  decoration,  which  was  much 
less  rich,  was  subordinated  to 
constructive  principles,  with  the 
result  of  a  grandiose  and  severe 
style,  abounding  in  plain  surfaces 
and  colossal  details.   The  study 


pal  successor  was  Michelangelo, 
who  in  his  cupola  of  St.  Peter's 
created  a  model  for  the  churches 
of  the  following  period.  The 
tendency  was  increasingly  classi- 
cal, and  about  1450  a  period  of 
formal  classicism  began  with 
stricter  imitation  of  Roman  mod- 
els. The  greatest  representatives 
were  Vignola,  the  author  of  the 
celebrated  treatise  on  architec- 
ture, and  Palladio  (Basilica  of 
Vincenza  and  San  Giorgio  Mag- 

VoL.  I.— March  '27 


Architecture 


339 


Architecture 


giore  at  Venice).  The  Baroque 
or  Declining  Renaissance  was  a 
reaction  against  classical  sever- 
ity: it  emphasized  the  pictur- 
esque rather  than  the  monumen- 
tal, and  was  characterized  by 
exaggerated  forms  and  construc- 
tions and  a  general  disregard  for 
architectural  propriety.  Its  great- 
est representatives  were  Ma- 
derna,  Bernini,  and  Borromini. 

France. — The  introduction  of 
the  Renaissance  into  France  was 
greatly  promoted  by  the  close 
political  relations  with  Italy  in 
the  latter  15th  and  early  16th 
centuries.  Its  chief  result  during 
the  16th  century  was  the  trans- 
formation of  the  mediaeval  castle 
into  a  superb  modern  residence, 
with  the  picturesque  retention  of 
such  mediaeval  details  as  bas- 
tions, dormer  windows,  towers, 
and  spiral  staircases.  In  the 
course  of  the  century  it  became 
increasingly  classic,  and  in  such 
works  as  Pierre  Lescot's  court  of 
the  Louvre  (1546)  the  mediaeval 
elements  are  practically  elim- 
inated. It  found  its  chief  expres- 
sion in  the  magnificent  series  of 
chateaux  along  the  Loire  and 
elsewhere.  The  16th  century  saw 
the  development  of  what  may  be 
called  the  classic  period  of  French 
architecture,  which  found  its 
chief  expression  in  the  works  exe- 
cuted during  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.,  like  the  Palace  of  Versailles, 
the  Invalides,  and  especially  in 
the  colonnade  of  the  Louvre. 
While  in  the  exteriors  strict  clas- 
sic forms  were  preserved,  the  in- 
terior decoration  was  elaborate, 
though  tasteful  in  comparison 
with  similar  efforts  elsewhere.  In 
the  declining  or  Rococo  period 
(1715-74)  capricious  and  exuber- 
ant details  ran  riot  with  construc- 
tive design. 

Germany. — Owing  to  the  relig- 
ious wars  and  other  conditions 
inimical  to  art,  the  Renaissance 
did  not  enter  Germany  until  the 
early  part  of  the  16th  century. 
Its  adoption  was  attended  with 
the  preservation  of  many  mediae- 
val features,  a  great  mass  of  pic- 
turesque detail  being  retained. 
The  most  important  monuments 
are  the  castles  and  town  halls; 
such  as  the  castle  of  Heidelberg 
(the  Otto  Heinrichsbau,  1554, 
and  the  Friedrichsbau,  1601), 
and  the  town  halls  of  Augsburg, 
Rothenburg,  and  Bremen.  Dur- 
ing the  later  17th  century  the 
Baroque  was  introduced  from 
Italy,  and  a  large  number  of 
palaces  were  built  in  this  style. 

England. — The  Renaissance 
was  introduced  into  England  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1558- 
1()03),  for  which  reason  the  ad- 
mixture of  the  Renaissance  and 
Gothic  elements  of  that  period, 
as  seen  in  such  country  seats  as 
Burghley  House,  is  called  the 
Elizabethan  style.  Under  James 
I.  classic  forms  came  into  more 


general  use,  but  it  was  reserved 
for  Inigo  Jones,  the  chief  English 
architect  of  the  early  17th  cen- 
tury, to  introduce  a  purer,  classic 
style.  He  was  a  very  successful 
imitator  of  Palladio,  and  in  such 
works  as  the  Banqueting  Hall  of 
Whitehall  showed  the  highest 
ability.  His  style  was  further 
developed  by  his  greatest  succes- 
sor in  the  later  17th  century.  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  who  in  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral  designed  the 
second  largest  and  one  of  the 
most  perfect  Renaissance 
churches  in  any  country.  The 
principal  architects  of  the  early 
18th  century  were  Van  Brugh, 
whose  style  was  heavy  and  mas- 
sive (Blenheim  Palace),  and 
Gibbs.  Sir  William  Chambers 
was  the  most  prominent  architect 
of  the  later  18th  century  (Som- 
erset House). 

Spain. — The  Renaissance  was 
not  introduced  into  Spain  until 
about  1500,  and  from  that  date 
until  the  middle  of  the  century  a 
style  of  rich  surface  decoration 
called  the  Plateresque  style  was 
common.  About  1550  a  pure 
classic  style  was  adopted  by 
Berruguete  and  Herrera  (Cathe- 
dral of  Valladolid  and  the  Esco- 
rial).  About  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century  this  was  succeeded 
by  the  Churrigueresque,  named 
after  an  architect,  in  which  all 
structural  principles  were  lost 
sight  of  in  an  excess  of  ornamen- 
tation. 

Modern  Architecture. — 
What  may  be  called  the  prede- 
cessor of  modern  architecture  was 
introduced  by  the  so-called  Clas- 
sic Revival,  a  reaction  against  the 
extravagances  of  the  Baroque, 
which  took  the  form  of  an  even 
stricter  return  to  classic  models 
than  had  been  practised  during 
the  Renaissance.  The  tendency 
appeared  in  France  as  early  as  the 
reign  of  Louis  xv.,  in  the  Pan- 
theon by  Souflflot;  but  as  most  of 
its  monuments  date  from  the 
reign  of  Napoleon,  it  is  also  called 
the  Empire  style.  Roman  models 
were  almost  exclusively  followed, 
as,  for  example,  in  all  the  great 
constructions  of  Napoleon,  like 
the  Arc  de  Triomphe  and  the 
Madeleine.  In  Great  Britain  the 
modified  Palladian  style  contin- 
ued until  the  revival  based  upon 
Greek  models,  which  had  become 
known  through  the  studies  of 
Stuart  and  Revett  in  Attica. 
Among  its  many  monuments  are 
the  British  Museum,  the  High 
School  at  Edinburgh,  and  St. 
George's  Hail  at  Liverpool.  In 
Germany  the  researches  of  Winc- 
kelrriann  and  others  bore  fruit  in 
such  works  as  the  Old  Museum 
at  Berlin  by  Schinkel,  the  Val- 
halla near  Ratisbon  by  von 
Klenze,  the  Glyptothek  at  Mu- 
nich, and  the  Parliament  House 
at  Vienna  by  Hansen.  The  build- 
ings of  Athens  are  in  this  style, 


and  many  of  those  in  Russia.  But 
notwithstanding  the  taste  and 
excellent  plans  of  the  architects, 
the  strict  Greek  forms  were  found 
too  constrained  for  the  needs  of 
modern  life. 

The  Gothic  Revival. — The  reac- 
tion against  the  imitation  of  clas- 
sic forms  took  the  form  of  a  re- 
vival of  mediaeval  architecture, 
especially  of  the  Gothic  style.  It 
appeared  earliest  in  England 
under  the  leadership  of  Pugin 
and  others,  and  acquired  real 
architectural  importance  in  the 
so-called  Victorian  Gothic  be- 
tween 1850  and  1870.  Among 
its  chief  monuments  are  the 
Houses  of  Parliament  in  London 
and  the  Natural  History  Muse- 
um, in  a  sort  of  modified  Roman- 
esque, at  South  Kensington.  The 
corresponding  movement  in 
France,  which  began  about  1845 
under  VioUet-le-Duc,  took  the 
form  of  an  accurate  and  tasteful 
restoration  of  mediaeval  monu- 
ments. In  Germany  and  Austria 
the  principal  result  was  a  number 
of  important  church  buildings. 
This  movement  had  an  elevating 
influence  upon  church  architec- 
ture and  was  probably  influential 
in  suggesting  and  preparing  the 
development  of  the  late  use  of 
Gothic  forms  in  tall  buildings  of 
cage  construction  where  vertical 
lines  are  so  appropriate. 

Recent  Architecture. — In 
France  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts 
has  exercised  a  conservative  ten- 
dency in  tlie  direction  of  a  uni- 
form, refined,  and  correct  archi- 
tecture. The  preferred  style  is 
usually  the  Renaissance.  The 
reign  of  Napoleon  iii.  was  signal- 
ized by  the  completion  of  the 
Louvre  and  Tuileries  by  Visconti 
and  Lefuel,  a  noteworthy  exam- 
ple of  modern  French  architec- 
ture; the  New  Opera  House 
(1863-75)  by  Garnier,  the  most 
sumptuous  theatre  in  existence; 
and  a  large  number  of  decorative 
and  municipal  works,  including 
great  street  improvements  in 
Paris.  The  new  Hotel  de  Ville 
by  Ballu  and  de  Perthes,  resem- 
bling the  structure  destroyed  by 
the  Commune,  the  Sorbonne  by 
Nenot,  and  the  Church  of  Sacre 
Coeur  at  Montmartre  by  Abadie 
are  among  the  achievements  of 
the  Third  Republic.  A  note- 
worthy and  from  many  points  of 
view  successful  effort  was  made 
in  the  Eiffel  Tower  to  use  struc- 
tural steel  in  decorative  forms. 
The  exhibition  of  1900  furnished 
a  motive  for  the  construction  of 
the  Grand  Palais  de  1' Industrie, 
of  which  Deglane  designed  the 
main  portion  and  fine  east  fagade 
and  Thomas  the  west  front, 
while  Gerault  was  the  architect 
of  the  charming  Petit  Palais. 

In  Germany  there  has  been  a 
strong  tendency  towards  the 
Renaissance,  especially  through 
the  instrumentality  of  Gottfried 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


Architecture 


340 


Architecture 


Semper.  German  architecture 
has  been  very  successful  with 
theatres,  in  which  the  auditorium 
was  expressed  by  an  external 
curvilinear  plan,  as  in  the  Dres- 
den Theatre  (1841)  by  Semper. 
Among  rectangular  theatrical 
structures  are  the  Opera  House 
and  new  Burgtheater  at  Vienna. 
It  has  also  succeeded  with  aca- 
demic buildings  like  Schinkel's 
Bauschule  at  Berlin,  and  Sem- 
per's  Polytechnic  School  at  Zur- 
ich; in  university  and  educa- 
tional buildings,  and  in  the  new 
Parliament  House  at  Berlin  by 
Wallot.  Nowhere  has  building 
been  more  extensive  than  at 
Vienna,  in  which  the  principal 
buildings  are  grouped  about  one 
magnificent  avenue,  the  Ring- 
strasse.  L'art  nouveau,  which  in 
its  application  to  architecture 
signifies  a  complete  negation  of 
all  traditional  types,  became 
popular  in  Germany  and  Austria; 
but  with  certain  exceptions  like 
the  Rathaus  at  Leipzig,  it  was 
more  successful  in  private  resi- 
dences than  in  ambitious  efforts. 

In  England,  also,  the  general 
tendency  has  been  to  turn  away 
from  the  Gothic  and  adopt  Re- 
naissance forms,  freely  treated; 
as  in  the  Albert  Memorial  Hall 
(1863)  by  Scott;  the  Imperial  In- 
stitute by  Collcutt;  the  Munici- 
pal Buildings  of  Cardiff;  and  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museums  at 
South  Kensington  by  Webb.  In 
ecclesiastical  architecture  the 
most  important  achievements 
are  the  strange  and  imposing 
Westminster  Catholic  Cathedral 
(E.  F.  Bentley)  and  the  Liver- 
pool Cathedral  in  English  13th 
century  Gothic  by  Bodley  and 
Scott. 

United  States.  —  In  the  pe- 
riod following  the  first  settlement 
there  was  little  architecture  of 
any  special  significance.  The  so- 
called  Colonial  style  (1753-75) 
was  based  upon  contemporary 
English  practice,  with  such  modi- 
fications of  detail  as  the  general 
employment  of  wood  required. 
The  stately  brick  manor  houses 
of  Maryland  and  Virginia  often 
had  elaborate  interiors;  while 
New  England  residences,  built 
almost  entirely  of  wood,  were 
also  admirable  in  tasteful  interior 
finish.  The  church  architecture 
of  the  period,  exemplified  in  such 
buildings  as  Old  South  Church 
in  Boston,  St.  Paul's  in  New 
York,  and  Christ  Church  in 
Philadelphia,  was  modelled  after 
the  buildings  by  Wren  and  Gibbs. 
Public  buildings  were  generally 
modest  and  inexpensive,  the  best 
known  examples  being  Faneuil 
Hall  in  Boston  and  Independence 
Hall  in  Philadelphia.  To  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  same  period  belong 
most  of  the  monuments  of  Span- 
ish rule  in  the  United  vStates,  as 
the  Cathedrals  of  St.  Augustine, 
Tucson,  and  other  towns,  and  the 

Vol.  I.— March  "27 


Spanish  missions  of  California, 
built  in  a  phase  of  the  Churri- 
gueresque. 

The  Early  Republican  period 
was  characterized  by  a  series  of 
works  of  a  more  monumental 
character,  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  new  state  and  na- 
tional life;  such  as  the  Capitol  at 
Washington  (1793-1830)  by 
Thornton,  Hallet,  and  Latrobe, 
the  State  House  at  Boston  (1795) 
by  Bulfinch,  the  New  York  City 
Hall  (1803-12)  by  McComb  and 
Mangin,  and  the  University  of 
Virginia  (1817)  by  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson. Before  the  close  of  this 
period  the  influence  of  the  classic 
revivals  of  Europe  began  to  ap- 
pear. It  left  its  strongest  im- 
pression upon  Federal  architec- 
ture, but  also  influenced  domestic 
architecture.  Among  its  buildings 
are  the  White  House  (1792)  by 
Hoban.and  other  public  buildings 
at  Washington;  the  old  Custom 
Houses  of  New  York  and  Boston, 
and  Girard  College  at  Philadel- 
phia. As  each  distinctive  expres- 
sion of  style  in  America  followed 
its  prototype  in  England  or 
France  by  about  ten  or  twenty 
years,  so  the  reversion  to  Greek 
details  in  those  countries  was 
mirrored  in  America  by  a  similar 
reversion.  The  Sub-Treasury  in 
New  York  and  the  Patent  Office 
in  Washington  are  two  particu- 
larly fine  examples  of  this  mani- 
festation. 

The  absorption  of  the  people 
by  political  activity  and  indus- 
trial progress  during  the  War 
Period  (1850-76)  resulted  in  a 
decline  of  taste,  as  may  be  seen 
in  numerous  State  capitols  and 
in  such  buildings  as  the  huge 
City  Hall  of  Philadelphia.  Ex- 
cepting the  dome  of  the  Capitol 
at  Washington  by  Walters,  the 
Federal  buildings  were  unimpor- 
tant. The  most  notable  achieve- 
ments were  in  church  architec- 
ture in  the  style  of  the  Gothic 
revival,  as  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathe- 
dral in  New  York,  by  Renwick, 
and  Trinity  Church,  New  York 
(1843),  by  Upjohn. 

Recent  American  Architecture. 
— A  number  of  causes  contrib- 
uted to  the  artistic  awakening  of 
the  years  following  1870,  among 
which  was  the  increasing  practice 
of  studying  abroad.  Two  pupils 
of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts, 
R.  M.  Hunt  and  H.  H.  Richard- 
son, exercised  a  great  influence. 
In  such  buildings  as  Trinity 
Church,  Boston,  and  the  county 
buildings  at  Pittsburgh,  the  lat- 
ter used  Romanesque  in  a  highly 
individual  manner,  but  although 
his  style  was  much  imitated,  it 
proved  ineffective  in  other  hands. 

A  school  proclaiming  the  pre- 
eminence of  Gothic  prevailed 
until  well  into  the  19th  century, 
but  in  1893  the  World's  Fair  in 
Chicago,  whose  buildings  were 
designed  by  the  most  eminent 


architects  of  the  time,  under  the 
direction  of  D.  H.  Burnham  and 
John  Wellborn  Root,  with  the 
elder  Olmstead  as  landscape 
architect,  opened  the  eyes  of  the 
public  to  the  possibilities  of 
monumental  effect  obtainable 
through  the  use  of  classical 
architecture.  Charles  Follen  Mc- 
Kim  and  Stanford  White  were 
instrumental  in  the  development 
of  an  Italian  Renaissance  cult. 
This  produced  a  large  number  of 
unusually  fine  buildings  through- 
out the  Eastern  States,  many  of 
them  in  New  York. 

A  great  innovation  in  the  con- 
struction of  commercial  buildings 
was  caused  by  the  increased  use 
of  the  elevator  and  the  resulting 
introduction  of  the  steel  cage 
system  of  construction,  which 
admits  of  an  indefinite  number 
of  stories.  The  exterior  thus  be- 
came a  mere  shell. 

The  Mid- Western  School  with 
its  centre  at  Chicago  was  radical 
in  its  attempts  in  design.  Louis 
Sullivan  evolved  some  exceed- 
ingly beautiful  ornament,  but  on 
the  whole  the  buildings  in  New 
York  and  the  East  are  better  in 
composition  and  mass  and  more 
pleasing  to  the  eye. 

The  first  quarter  of  the  19th 
century  has  produced  buildings 
in  all  styles,  Louis  xvi.,  Roman- 
esque, Adam's,  and  finally  a  type 
of  structure  with  simple  masses, 
set  back  as  they  rise,  in  obedience 
to  the  requirements  of  the  muni- 
cipal zoning  laws  (see  City 
Planning).  Among  the  earlier 
commercial  buildings  are  the 
Auditorium  in  Chicago;  the  Ma- 
jestic Building  in  l3etroit;  the 
Flatiron,  Times,  and  Trinity 
buildings  in  New  York,  and  a 
number  of  colossal  and  luxurious 
hotels  in  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, and  other  cities.  Later 
commercial  buildings,  much  in 
advance  of  those  of  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century,  are  the 
Woolworth,  Cunard,  Bush  Ter- 
minal, American  Radiator,  and 
Telephone  Buildings  in  New 
York,  and  the  Chicago  Tribune 
Building.  These  were  designed 
by  Cass  Gilbert,  Benjamin  Mor- 
ris, Helmle  and  Corbett,  Ray- 
mond Hood,  McKenzie,  Voor- 
hees  and  Gmelin,  and  John  How- 
ells  and  Raymond  Hood,  associ- 
ated, respectively. 

Equally  original  and  charac- 
teristic is  present  domestic  archi- 
tecture, especially  in  the  wooden 
residences  preferred  in  country 
places  and  planned  with  a  view 
to  the  practical  needs  of  the 
inmates;  even  in  stone  and  brick 
structures,  however,  this  rarely 
attains  the  dignity  of  a  modern 
style. 

In  late  years  it  has  become 
the  policy  of  the  most  important 
educational  institutions  to  secure 
imposing  buildings;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  Boston    Public  Li- 


Architectnre 


341 


Archlute 


brary,  the  Congressional  Library 
at  Washington,  the  New  York 
Public  Library,  the  national 
military  and  naval  academies  at 
West  Point  and  Annapolis,  the 
present  buildings  of  Columbia 
University  and  the  University  of 
California,  and  of  later  date  of 
Yale  and  Princeton  Universities. 

In  such  structures  as  the  Cus- 
tom House  at  New  York  and  the 
House  and  Senate  office  build- 
ings in  Washington,  the  improve- 
ment in  Federal  buildings  is  also 
noteworthy,  while  the  Nebraska 
State  Capitol  is  a  notable  ad- 
vance in  State  architecture. 

There  are  several  examples  of 
beautiful  church  architecture  of 
which  mention  should  be  made. 
In  Gothic  are  St.  Thomas,  by 
Cram,  Goodhue  and  Ferguson; 
St.  Vincent  Ferrers  and  the 
Chapel  of  the  Intercession  by 
Bertram  Goodhue;  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  John  the  Divine,  originally 
begun  by  Hines  and  LaFarge, 
but  now  being  finished  by  Ralph 
Adams  Cram.  In  Romanesque 
are  St.  Bartholomew's  Church, 
the  porch  by  McKim,  Mead, and 
White,  the  main  church  by  Ber- 
tram Goodhue,  and  the  Church 
of  St.  John  of  Nepomuk  by  John 
V.  Van  Pelt,  all  of  them  in  New 
York.  The  Scottish  Rites  Tem- 
ple in  Washington,  by  John  Rus- 
sell Pope,  and  the  Masonic  Rites 
Temple  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  by 
Helmle  and  Corbett,  are  impor- 
tant examples  of  buildings  erected 
by  fraternal  orders,  while  the 
Liberty  Memorial  in  Kansas  City 
by  H.  Van  Buren  Magonigle  is 
an  outstanding  example  of  the 
impress  that  the  World  War  has 
made  upon  architecture. 

American  architecture  has 
marched  to  the  front  with  such 
rapid  strides  that  a  number  of 
buildings  have  been  erected 
abroad  by  American  architects. 
Perhaps  the  largest  of  these  are 
the  Bush  Buildings  in  London,  of 
which  the  architects  were  Helmle 
and  Corbett,  and  the  Gennadeion 
Library,  the  most  modern  of 
Athens'  monumental  buildings, 
designed  by  Van  Pelt  and 
Thompson.  At  present  several 
war  memorials  are  being  erected 
abroad  both  in  France  and  Eng- 
land by  Americans,  and  the  in- 
terest of  foreign  architects  in 
American  architecture  is  evi- 
denced by  the  annual  visits  of 
architects  from  other  countries 
coming  to  study  American  de- 
sign as  well  as  novel  methods 
of  construction.  Although  no 
uniformity  of  style  pervades 
American  architecture  and  the 
present  efforts  are  all  more  or 
less  eclectic,  there  is  a  constant 
improvement,  and  the  outlook 
for  the  future  is  promising. 

Bibliography. — A  convenient 
and  scholarly  handbook  for  stu- 
dents is  Hamlin's  Text  Book  of 
the  History  of  Architecture.  Oth- 


ers are  Rosengarten's  Handbook 
of  Architectural  Styles;  and  Fletch- 
er's History  of  Architecture  on  the 
Comparative  Method.  The  most 
complete  general  work  in  English 
is  Ferguson's  History  of  Archi- 
tecture in  all  Countries,  but  this 
is  not  always  reliable.  The  best 


arly.  The  two  standard  works  on 
architectural  composition  are  Es- 
sentials of  Composition  by  John 
V.  Van  Pelt  (2d  ed.,  1914),  and 
Curtis'  Architectural  Composition. 

■  Architrave,  ar'ki-trav,  the 
lowest  of  the  three  principal 
members  of  an  entablature  (q.v.). 


Flwloby  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 


The  Cathedral  of  Florence 


_  The  cunola  of  the  cathedral  (a  section 
picture),  the  work  of  Brunellesco,  was  the 
Italy. 

known  foreign  works  are  Ramee's 
Histoire  de  I' architecture,  and 
Lubke's  Geschichte  der  Architeklur. 
There  are  two  great  series  cov- 
ering the  whole  ground  of  archi- 
tecture in  separate  volumes:  one 
in  P'rench  under  the  general  title 
of  Bihliotheque  de  V enscignement 
des  Beaux  Arts,  and  an  even 
more  exhaustive  one  in  German, 
edited  by  Durm.  A  brief  prac- 
tical dictionary  of  architecture 
in  English  is  Gwilt's  Encyclo- 
pa<'dia  of  Architecture,  but  Stur- 
gis'  Dictionary  of  Architecture  (3 
vols.)  is  more  complete  and  schol- 


of  which  is  seen  at  the  extreme  left  of  the 
first  example  of  Renaissance  architecture  in 

the  other  two  being  the  frieze  and 
the  cornice.  An  architrave  cor- 
nice is  an  entablature  consisting 
of  an  architrave  and  cornice  only, 
without  a  frieze.  The  architrave 
of  a  door  or  window  is  any 
moulded  or  otherwise  orna- 
mented band  surrounding  the 
opening. 

Archives.  See  Records. 

Archivolt,  iir'ki-volt,  the  or- 
namental band  of  mouldings 
around  an  arch.  The  word  is 
used  by  mediaeval  writers  for  a 
vault. 

Archlute.   See  Lute. 

Vol.  L — March  '27 


Archon 


342 


Arcot 


Archon,  ar'kon,  originally  the 
lowest,  and  eventually  the  high- 
est, magistrate  of  the  city  of 
Athens.  At  first  the  power  was 
held  by  several  lines  of  kings, 
but  in  752  B.C.  the  monarchy 
was  altered  into  a  presidency  of 
ten  years.  From  the  beginning  of 


the  civil,  military,  and  religious 
functions  remaining  in  the  hands 
of  the  original  three,  the  title 
archon  being  applied  strictly 
only  to  the  president. 

Under  Solon's  constitution  the 
popular  courts  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  jury  system  greatly 


1 

m 


J'rcnch  Rcndissdncc 
The  Louvre,  Paris.   2.  The  Pantheon,  Paris 


the  seventh  century  the  power  of 
the  king  had  been  limited  by  the 
establishment  of  two  other  rul- 
ers, one  to  be  the  commander  in 
war  and  the  other  having  charge 
of  the  religious  rites  and  cere- 
monies. This  division  of  power 
continued  during  the  decennial 
kingship  which  in  GS.'i  was 
changed  into  an  annual  tenure 
and  six  more  archons  were  added. 
Merely  routine  duties  were  at 
first  assigned  to  these  added  six, 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


lessened  the  power  of  the  arch- 
ons, their  administrative  duties 
became  merely  those  of  routine, 
and  ultimately  the  office  ceased 
to  be  important. 

Arch'priest,  a  church  digni- 
tary whose  office  was  formerly 
given  in  each  diocese  to  the  priest 
senior  bv  ordination.  He  was  the 
helper  of  the  bishop  in  his  spir- 
itual functions,  as  the  archdeacon 
was  in  his  temporal  functions.  In 
company  with  the  parish  priests 


he  formed  the  rural  chapter  cor- 
responding to  the  cathedral  chap- 
ter of  the  bishop  and  canons. 
From  the  ninth  century  his  place 
was  often  taken  by  a  rural  dean 
and  since  the  sixteenth  century 
the  office  has  either  declined  in 
importance  or  else  disappeared 
entirely  and  its  duties  have  been 
discharged  by  the  vicar-general 
or  the  auxiliary  bishop. 

Archytas  of  Tarentum  (c. 
400  B.C.),  ar-kl'tas,  Greek  general 
and  mathematician,  and  a  friend 
of  Plato,  was  the  first  to  apply 
geometry  to  mechanics.  He  is 
known  only  by  references  in 
ancient  writers. 

Arcis-sur- Aube,  ar'se-su-rob', 
town,  France,  in  the  department 
of  Aube;  17  miles  north  of 
Troves.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Danton,  and  scene  of  the  battle 
of  March  20-21,  1814,  during 
which  Napoleon  was  forced  to 
retreat,  leaving  the  route  to  Paris 
open  to  the  Allies.  Pop.  (1921) 
2,690. 

Arcole,  ar'k5-la,  town,  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Verona;  15 
miles  southeast  of  Verona.  It 
was  the  scene  on  Nov.  15,  16,  and 
17,  1796,  of  stubborn  battles  be- 
tween the  Austrians  (about 
40,000,  under  Alvinczy)  and 
Napoleon,  in  which  the  latter 
finally  gained  a  victory,  prevent- 
ing the  relief  of  Mantua.  Pop. 
about  1,300. 

Arcjon,  ar-s6h',  Jean  Claude 
Eleonore  le  Michaud  d' 
(1733-1800),  French  general  and 
engineer,  was  born  in  Pontarlier. 
He  is  best  known  as  the  inventor 
of  the  floating  batteries  used  in 
the  unsuccessful  attack  upon 
Gibraltar  in  1782.  He  also  took 
part  in  the  French  Revolution. 
His  most  important  work  is 
Considerations  sur  les  fortifica- 
tions (1795). 

Arcona.  See  Arkona. 

Arcos  de  la  Frontera,  ar'k5s 
da  la  frdn-ta'ni,  town,  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Cadiz;  19  miles 
northeast  of  Jerez.  It  is  situated 
on  the  slopes  of  a  sandstone  blufif 
affording  beautiful  views  of  the 
surrounding  country.  Features 
of  interest  are  the  churches  of 
Santa  Maria  dc  la  Asuncion  and 
San  Pedro,  and  the  town  hall. 
There  is  a  trade  in  oil,  wine,  and 
fruit.    Pop.  (1920)  16,088. 

Arcot,  ar-kot',  town,  India,  in 
Madras  Presidency,  65  miles  V 
southwest  of  Madras;  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  Carnatic.  The 
fort,  now  in  ruins,  was  taken  and 
brilliantly  defended  by  Clive  in 
1751,  and  by  the  French  in  1758, 
from  whom  it  was  recaiUured  in 
1760.  During  the  Mysore  War, 
Arcot  was  taken  by  Haidar  Ali 
in  1780.  It  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  British  in  1801.  Pop. 
(1921)  11,450. 

Arcot,  North  (area,  7,616  sq. 
m.),  a  district  of  the  Madras 
Presidency,  formed  part  of  the 


Arcot 


343 


Arctic  Exploration 


kingdoms  of  Carnatic  and  My- 
sore, and  at  the  termination  of 
the  Mysore  War  was  ceded  to  the 
British.  Paddy,  ragi,  and  cholam 
are  grown,  and  there  are  manu- 
factures of  carpets,  brass  work, 
and  carved  wood.  Pop.  2,210,000. 

Arcot,  South,  district,  India, 
in  the  Madras  Presidency.  It 
has  an  area  of  5,217  square  miles, 
and  its  products  are  similar  to 
those  of  North  Arcot  (q.  v.). 
Pop.  2,362,000. 

Arctic  Exploration.  The  Arctic 
Sea  was  first  entered  by  Ohthere 
or  Othere,  a  Norwegian,  who 
sailed  to  the  north  coast  of 
Russia,  and  made  a  report  of  his 
voyage  to  King  Alfred.  About 
1001  the  west  coast  of  Greenland 
was  colonized  by  the  Icelander, 
Erik  the  Red,  but  no  further 
progress  was  made  in  Arctic 
discovery  until  1553,  when  Sir 
Hugh  Willoughby  sighted  No- 
vaya  Zemlya.  Three  years  later 
the  Kara  Straits  and  Kolguyef 
Island  were  discovered  by 
Stephen  Burrough,  and  in  1580 
the  Yugor  Strait  by  Pet  and 
Jackman.  William  Barents 
(Barendszoon  or  Barendsz),  a 
Dutchman,  made  three  voyages 
to  the  north,  and  in  1596,  having 
discovered  Bear  Island  and 
Spitzbergen,  rounded  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  Novaya  Zemlya, 
and  wintered  on  the  east  coast. 
This  was  the  first  time  that  a 
winter  had  been  spent  by  any 
European  in  the  Arctic  regions. 
Novaya  Zemlya  was  first  circum- 
navigated by  EUing  Carlsen  in 
1871. 

In  1607  Henry  Hudson  sailed 
up  the  east  coast  of  Greenland 
to  Cape  Hold  with  Hope,  and 
crossing  over  to  Spitzbergen, 
named  Hakluyt  Headland.  On 
his  return  he  discovered  Hudson 
Tutches,  afterward  named  Jan 
Mayen  after  a  Dutch  skipper. 
In  another  voyage,  in  1610,  he 
discovered  Hudson  Strait.  In 
1617  Thomas  Edge,  in  the  em- 
ployment of  the  Muscovy  Com- 
pany, sighted  and  named  Wyche's 
Land  (1617),  renamed  by  Von 
Heuglen  in  1870,  after  the  king 
of  Wurtemberg,  Konig  Karl 
Land.  In  1707  a  Dutch  captain, 
Giles  or  Gillis,  reported  sighting 
land  25  miles  northeast  of  Spitz- 
bergen, but  this  has  been  sought 
for  in  vain  by  later  navigators. 
Parry,  in  1827,  travelling  partly 
over  ice-fioes,  reached  lat.  82°  45' 
to  the  north  of  Spitzbergen — the 
farthest  north  until  the  Nares 
expedition.  Nordenskjold  made 
several  voyages  to  this  group, 
on  one  of  which  (1868)  he  carried 
his  vessel,  the  Sofia,  to  81°  42'. 
Captain  Carlsen  (1863)  was  the 
first  to  sail  around  Spitzbergen. 
In  1873  Payer  and  Weyprecht 
discovered  Franz  Josef  Land.  In 
1822  Dr.  Scoresby  surveyed  the 
east  coast  of  Greenland  from 
Gael  Hamke  Bay  (discovered  in 
1654  by  a  Dutch  skipper,  Gael 


Hamke)  down  to  lat.  69°;  and  in 
1823  Clavering  and  Sabine,  in  the 
Griper,  made  pendulum  observa- 
tions at  Pendulum  Island,  and  ad- 
vanced north  to  the  Haystack. 
The  southern  extremity  of  the 
east  coast  was  visited  by  Captain 
Graah  in  1829,  and  explored  up 
to  65°  18'  N.  More  important 
was  the  first  German  expedition 
of  1869-70  in  the  ships  Germania 
and  Hansa,  under  the  command 
of  Captain  Koldewey.  Accom- 
panied by  Lieut.  Payer,  Captain 
Koldewey  reached  with  sledges 
the  north  shore  of  Dove  Bay, 
north  of  Cape  Bismarck,  in  lat. 
77°  N.,  while  the  crew  of  the 
Hansa,  which  was  crushed  by 
the  ice,  made  a  remarkable 
journey  on  an  ice-floe  to  the 
southern  extremity  of  Greenland. 

As  early  as  1576  Frobisher 
made  a  voyage  to  the  southern 
extremity  of  Greenland  and  the 
opposite  American  coast,  and  in 
1585  the  strait  forming  the  en- 
trance to  the  Arctic  regions  west 
of  Greenland  was  discovered  by 
John  Davis.  In  1616  Baffin 
and  Bylot  passed  through  Davis 
Strait,  and  sailed  up  the  North 
Water  to  Smith  Sound,  discover- 
ing on  the  homeward  voyage 
Jones  Sound  and  Lancaster 
Sound,  which  were  closed  by  ice. 
Except  for  the  voyage  in  1631  of 
Luke  Fox,  who  sailed  up  Fox 
Channel  to  Peregrine  Point,  in 
lat.  66°  47'  N.,  nothing  further 
was  learned  of  these  regions  for 
about  two  hundred  years,  and 
Baffin's  discoveries  were  almost 
forgotten. 

At  length,  the  interest  in  a 
North- West  Passage  having  re- 
vived. Commander  John  Ross 
was  sent  out  in  1818  with  the 
Isabella  and  Alexander.  He 
confirmed  the  accuracy  of  Baf- 
fin's observations,  and  named 
Melville  Bay,  Capes  Isabella  and 
Alexander,  and  other  points. 
The  following  year  Lieutenant 
Parry,  commanding  the  Hecla 
and  Griper,  sailed  through  Lan- 
caster Sound,  and  laid  down  on 
his  chart  the  islands  of  North 
Devon,  Cornwall,  Bathurst,  and 
Melville  on  the  north  and  N. 
Somerset,  Cape  Walker  (Russell 
I.),  and  Banks  Land  on  the 
south;  and  in  1821-3,  with  the 
Fury  and  Hecla,  he  passed  up 
Fox  Channel  and  traced  the 
Fury  and  Hecla  Straits  to  Re- 
gent Inlet.  Sir  John  Ross  made 
another  voyage  in  1829-33  in 
the  Victory,  a  vessel  equipped 
by  Felix  Booth,  a  wealthy  dis- 
tiller, and  passed  up  Regent 
Inlet  to  the  Gulf  of  Boothia; 
while  his  nephew,  James  C. 
Ross,  traversed  the  southern 
part  of  Boothia  and  the  strait 
named  after  him,  and  discovered 
the  north  magnetic  pole,  then 
situated  on  King  William  Land, 
in  lat.  70°  5'  N.  and  long.  96°  46' 
w.  A  few  years  earlier,  in  1826, 
Dr.    Richardson    had  passed 


through  Dolphin  and  Union 
Straits,  and  sighted  WoUaston 
Land,  part  of  which  was  after- 
ward named  Victoria  Land  by 
Simpson  of  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, who,  with  Dease,  in 
1838-9,  passed  through  Dease 
Strait  and  the  entrance  of 
Simpson  Strait;  while  Dr.  John 
Rae,  in  1845-7,  explored  the 
southern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Boothia  from  Fury  and  Hecla 
Straits  on  the  east  to  Lord 
Mayor's  Bay  on  the  west,  and 
proved  Boothia  to  be  a  penin- 
sula. 

The  successful  though  ill-fated 
expedition  of  Sir  John  Franklin 
in  search  of  a  North- West  Pas- 
sage set  sail  from  the  Thames  on 
May  20,  1845.  With  the  Erebus 
and  the  Terror,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Captains  Fitzjames  and 
Crozier,  Franklin  passed  through 
Lancaster  Sound,  and,  as  was 
afterward  ascertained,  sailed  up 
Wellington  Channel  to  Penny 
Strait  and  down  Crozier  Channel, 
returning  to  Beechey  Island  in 
winter.  Subsequently  the  vessels 
made  their  way  to  the  northwest 
coast  of  King  William  Land, 
where  Franklin  died  in  June, 
1847.  The  survivors,  under  Cap- 
tain Crozier,  started  in  1848  for 
the  Great  Fish  River,  and  their 
remains  were  found  along  the 
route  to  Adelaide  Peninsula. 
The  expedition  had,  therefore, 
ascertained  the  existence  of  a  sea 
passage  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
channels  south  of  Victoria  and 
Wollaston  Lands,  leading  to 
Bering  Strait. 

Nothing  having  been  heard  of 
Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  ves- 
sels, some  forty  expeditions  were 
sent  out  between  the  years  1847 
and  1857,  during  which  many 
new  discoveries  were  made.  Of 
those  entering  the  Arctic  regions 
from  the  east  may  be  mentioned 
that  of  Lieutenant  De  Haven,  of 
the  U.  S.  Navy,  in  the  Advance, 
equipped  by  Mr.  Grinnell,  who, 
sailing  up  Wellington  Channel, 
named  Grinnell  Land,  to  the 
northwest  of  North  Devon 
(1850-1);  that  of  Captain  Aus- 
tin of  the  Resolute  (1850-1),  who 
with  Lieutenant  M'Clintock, 
surveyed  the  south  shores  of  the 
Parry  Islands;  the  expedition  of 
Sir  E.  Belcher,  with  the  ships 
Assistance,  Resolute,  Pioneer,  In- 
trepid, and  North  Star  (1852-4), 
when  the  commander  of  the  ex- 
pedition surveyed  the  Belcher 
Channel,  Lieut.  Sherard  Osborn 
the  north  shores  of  the  Parry 
Islands,  and  Lieutenants  M'Clin- 
tock and  Mecham  Prince  Patrick 
Island.  In  1857-9,  Captain 
M'Clintock,  in  the  Fox,  sailed  up 
Regent  Inlet,  and  established  his 
winter  quarters  at  Port  Ken- 
nedy in  Bellot  Strait  (discovered 
in  1851-2  by  Captain  Kennedy 
and  Lieutenant  Bellot  of  the 
French  navy) ,  whence  sledge  par- 
ties, under  the  command  of  Cap- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '25 


Arctic  Exploration 


344 


Arctic  Exploration 


tain  Allen  Young  and  Lieuten- 
ant Hobson,  set  forth  to  examine 
the  west  coast  of  North  Somer- 
set and  Boothia,  the  south  coast 
of  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  and 
the  shores  of  King  William  Land. 
On  the  west  coast  of  the  last- 
named  island  was  found  a  paper 
recording  the  voyage  of  the 
ships  Erebus  and  Terror,  the 
death  of  Franklin,  and  the  de- 


Dr.  Hayes  reached  Cape  Lieber, 
lat.  81°  35'. 

Captain  C.  F.  Hall,  in  1871, 
carried  his  vessel,  the  Polaris,  up 
to  82°  16'  N.  lat.,  and  wintered 
in  Polaris  Bay,  north  of  Peter- 
mann  Fjord.  He  was  followed, 
in  1875-6,  by  the  Nares  expedi- 
tion, with  the  ships  Alert  and 
Discovery.  The  Alert  wintered 
off  the  coast  of  Grinnell  Land, 


U.  S.  A.,  led  an  expedition  up 
Kennedy  Channel,  and  explored 
the  interior  of  Grinnell  Land 
westward  to  the  Greely  Fjord 
(1882).  Lieutenant  Lockwood 
and  Sergeant  Brainerd  of  this 
expedition  followed  the  Green- 
land coast  beyond  Sherard  Os- 
born  Fjord  to  Lockwood  Island, 
83°  24'  N. — the  highest  latitude 
reached  by  man  until  the  Nansen 


Reprinted  from  Foreign  Affairs,  an  American  Quarterly  Review,  N.  Y.    Vol.  iv.  No.  1. 

The  Arctic  Regions 


parture  of  the  crews  for  the 
Great  Fish  River. 

Meanwhile,  Dr.  Kane  led  an- 
other Grinnell  expedition,  in 
1853-5,  up  through  Smith  Sound 
to  Kane  Basin,  whence  Dr. 
Hayes  explored  the  coast  of 
Grinnell  Land  (north  of  Ellesmere 
Land,  not  the  Grinnell  Land  of 
De  Haven)  up  to  lat.  79°  45', 
and  Wm.  Morton  the  Humboldt 
glacier  and  WavShington  Land. 
In  a  second  journey,  1860-1, 


in  lat.  82°  24';  the  Discovery  in 
Discovery  Harbor,  opposite  Po- 
laris Bay.  A  sledge  party  under 
Commander  A.  H.  Markham 
pushed  northward  over  the  ice 
to  lat.  83°  20'  26"  N.;  a  second, 
under  Lieutenant  Aldrich,  ex- 
plored the  north  coast  of  Grant 
Land;  and  a  third,  under  Lieu- 
tenant Beaumont,  reached  the 
farther  coast  of  Sherard  Osborn 
Fjord. 

In  1881-4  Lieutenant  Greely, 


expedition.  Two  vessels  sent  to 
relieve  the  expedition  failed  to 
reach  it,  and  of  the  23  men  in 
the  party,  17  died,  mainly  of 
starvation,  at  Cape  Sabine. 
The  survivors  were  rescued  in 
1884,  by  a  U.  S.  expedition 
under  Captain  Schley. 

Several  exploring  vessels  have 
entered  the  Arctic  seas  by  Bering 
Strait,  Captain  Cook  having 
reached  Icy  Cape  in  1778.  The 
greatest  expedition  by  this  route 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '25 


FAMOUS  FIGURES  IN  ARCTIC  EXPLORATION 
1.  Sir  John  Ross    2.  Sir  Robert  M'Clure.    3.  Sir  James  C.  Rosa.   4.  Sir  W.  Parry.   5.  Robert  E.  Peary.   6.  Sir  John  Franklin. 
7  Fridtjof  Nansen    8.  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi.   9.  Baron  Nordenskiold.    10  Vilhialmur  Stefansaon.    11.  Donald  MacMillan.    12.  Roald 
Amundsen.   (1 1  and  12  World  Wide  Photos.) 


Arctic  Exploration 


346 


Arctic  Exploration 


was  that  of  the  Investigator 
and  Enterprise,  under  Captains 
M'Clure  and  Collinson  (1850-4), 
which  explored  the  west  coast  of 
Wollaston  Land  and  the  coasts 
of  Banks  Land,  while  M'Clure 
and  his  crew  made  the  North- 
west Passage  on  the  ice.  An- 
other important  voyage  was 
made  through  Bering  Strait  in 
1879-81.  Lieutenant  De  Long 
of  the  U.  S.  Navy  set  sail  toward 
the  pole  in  the  Jeannette  (Cap- 
tain Allen's  yacht  Pandora),  and 
having  ascertained  that  Wrangel 
Land  was  only  a  small  island, 
drifted  with  the  ice  past  Jean- 
nette and  Henrietta  Islands,  and, 
his  ship  being  crushed  in  the  ice, 
endeavored  to  reach  the  river 
Lena.  One  party,  under  the 
command  of  Engineer  Melville, 
reached  Yakutsk,  About  the 
same  time  (1878-9)  Baron  Nor- 
denskjold  made  the  Northeast 
Passage  in  the  ship  Vega.  The 
only  vessel  which  ever  made  its 
way  through  the  Northwest  Pas- 
sage was  the  Gjoa  in  command 
of  Captain  Amundsen  in  1903-06. 
The  latter  performed  also  the 
Northeast  Passage  in  the  Maud 
in  1918-20.    (See  below.) 

During  the  last  decade  of  the 
nineteenth  and  the  first  of  the 
twentieth  century  a  large  num- 
ber of  expeditions  visited  the 
Arctic  regions.  Commander 
R.  E.  Peary  spent  several  sea- 
sons in  Greenland  and  on  the 
neighboring  coast.  In  1892,  ac- 
companied by  Eivind  Astrup,  he 
crossed  the  north  of  Greenland 
to  Independence  Bay,  in  lat. 
81°  37'  N.;  and,  in  1899,  crossed 
Ellesmere  Land,  and  connected 
his  survey  of  the  west  coast  with 
that  of  Lieutenant  Lockwood. 
In  1900  he  skirted  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  archipelago 
above  Greenland,  and  named 
Cape  Morris  Jesup  (83°  39'),  the 
most  northern  land  then  known. 
He  also  pushed  on  over  the  ice- 
pack to  83°  50';  and  again,  in 
1902,  reached  lat.  84°  17'  to  the 
north  of  Grant  Land.  In  the 
summer  of  1905  he  again  sailed 
northward  in  the  specially  built 
Roosevelt,  and  on  April  21,  1906, 
reached  what  was  then  'farthest 
north,'  87°  6',  174  nautical  miles 
from  the  pole.  The  expedition 
found  new  land  northwest  of  the 
northwest  part  of  Grant  Land. 

Nansen  entered  the  ice  with 
the  Fram  near  the  New  Siberia 
Islands  in  1893,  drifted  during 
two  winters  toward  the  pole,  and 
with  Johansen  marched  over 
the  ice  to  lat.  86°  4  'n..  while  the 
Fram  reached  lat.  85°  57'  to  the 
north  of  Spitzbergen. 

The  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi  also 
visited  Franz  Josef  Land,  in  the 
Stella  Polare,  and  one  of  his 
party.  Captain  Cagni,  advanced 
in  1900  to  86°  34'  N.  American 
explorers  in  this  region  are 
Walter  Wcllman  (1898-9)  and 
Evelyn  B.  Baldwin  (1901-02). 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '25 


Anthony  Fiala  (1903-05)  lost 
his  ship,  but  discovered  some 
small  islands  and  headlands.  In 
1906  and  1907  Wellman  planned 
voyages  from  Spitzbergen  to  the 
pole  in  a  specially  designed 
dirigible  balloon  or  airship,  the 
America,  but  was  unable  to  pro- 
ceed because  of  unfavorable 
weather.  Captain  Sverdrup  in 
1898-1902  visited  Jones  Sound, 
and  determined  the  western  side 
of  King  Oscar  Land,  Ellesmere 
Land,  and  Grinnell  Land,  and 
the  connection  between  North 
Devon  Island  and  the  Grinnell 
Land  immediately  to  the  north- 
west of  it,  and  discovered  the 
large  islands  Ringnes  Island  and 
Axel  Heiberg  Island  to  the  west 
of  Grinnell  Land,  the  explora- 
tions of  the  sledging  parties  ex- 
tending to  106°  w.  long,  and 
81°  40'  N.  lat. 

In  1905  an  expedition  under 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  surveyed 
the  east  coast  of  Greenland 
from  Cape  Bismarck  to  lat. 
78°  16'  N.  Roald  Amundsen,  a 
Norwegian,  started  in  1903  to 
relocate  the  magnetic  pole;  this 
he  accomplished  in  the  summer  of 
1905,  and  brought  his  vessel  to 
Alaska  in  1905 — the  first  vessel 
to  make  the  Northwest  Passage. 
Mylius  Erichsen,  leader  of  a 
Danish  Greenland  expedition, 
after  completing  the  mapping  of 
the  unknown  coast  of  North- 
eastern Greenland,  lost  his  life 
on  the  northeast  coast  in  1908. 
The  following  year  the  body  of 
one  of  Erichsen's  companions 
was  found  in  Lambert  Land,  by 
Mikkelsen,  who  also  discovered 
Erichsen's  records  and  diary. 

Discovery  of  the  North  Pole. — 
On  Sept.  6,  1909,  the  memorable 
announcement  was  made  to  the 
world  by  Commander  Peary,  who 
had  just  reached  Indian  Harbor, 
that  five  months  previously  (on 
April  6)  he  had  'nailed  the  Stars 
and  Stripes  to  the  Pole.'  The 
Peary  expedition,  consisting  of 
the  Commander,  Dr.  Goodsell, 
Profs.  Donald  McMillan  and 
Ross  G.  Marvin,  Mr.  George 
Borup,  Matthew  Henson.  a  col- 
ored attendant,  and  Capt.  R.  A. 
Bartlett  and  crew  of  the  steamer 
Roosevelt,  had  left  the  United 
States  in  the  summer  of  1908. 
From  Etah,  the  northernmost 
settlement  in  Greenland,  it  pro- 
ceeded to  Cape  Sheridan,  where 
quarters  were  erected,  and  the 
long  winter  night  partly  spent  in 
transporting  stores  to  Cape  Co- 
lumbia, on  the  northern  shore  of 
Grant  Land.  From  this  point, 
on  Feb.  28.  1909,  the  northward 
journey  to  the  Pole  was  resumed. 
The  expedition  consisted  of  the 
seven  men  named  above,  besides 
seventeen  Eskimos,  with  numer- 
ous sledges  and  dogs.  On  March 
14,  on  account  of  a  week's  delay 
caused  by  open  water,  only  84° 
29'  had  been  reached,  and  Dr. 
Goodsell,  in  command  of  the  first 


supporting  party,  turned  back. 
The  next  day  one  of  McMillan's 
feet  was  found  to  be  frost-bitten, 
and  he  was  also  forced  to  return. 
On  March  20,  at  85°  23',  Borup, 
in  charge  of  the  second  support- 
ing party,  was  sent  back.  Five 
days  of  rapid  progress  followed, 
which  brought  the  expedition  to 
latitude  86°  38',  a  point  beyond 
the  records  of  Nansen  and 
Cagni.  Here  Marvin  started 
back,  and  was  drowned  when, 
only  forty  miles  from  Cape  Co- 
lumbia, the  treacherous  ice  gave 
way.  Strong  winds  and  bad  ice 
proved  heavy  handicaps  to  the 
party  until  the  88th  parallel  was 
reached.  Here  Captain  Bartlett 
turned  southward,  and  the  expe- 
dition was  reduced  to  Peary  him- 
self, Henson,  and  four  Eskimos, 
with  supplies  for  forty  days.  On 
April  1  the  final  dash  began. 
Good  ice  was  found  and  the 
temperature  rose  to  — 15°. 
Thirty-two  miles  were  made  in 
twelve  hours — an  observation  re- 
corded the  latitude  as  89°  57' — 
and  then  the  long-coveted  goal 
was  won!  Flags  were  hoisted 
and  the  Pole  was  claimed  for 
the  United  States  (April  6,  1909). 
No  evidence  of  land  was  seen 
through  the  telescope  in  any  di- 
rection, though  Peary  went  on 
ten  miles  beyond  the  camp  and 
eight  miles  to  the  right  of  it. 
Thirty  hours  were  spent  around 
the  Pole  in  making  observations 
and  taking  photographs.  During 
this  time  the  temperature  ranged 
between  —12°  and  —33°  F., 
though  much  lower  tempera- 
tures had  been  experienced  on 
the  march.  The  return  journey 
was  quickly  made,  unusually 
favorable  conditions  being  en- 
countered, and  on  April  23  Cape 
Columbia  was  reached,  whence 
the  expedition  proceeded  to  the 
United  States  by  easy  stages. 

Recent  Explorations. — The 
discovery  of  the  North  Pole 
marked  an  epoch  in  Arctic  ex- 
ploration. Since  that  remarkable 
achievement  numerous  impor- 
tant expeditions  have  been  un- 
dertaken, and  our  knowledge  of 
the  regions  within  the  Arctic 
Circle  has  been  greatly  extended. 
The  outstanding  names  of  this 
period  are  those  of  Stefansson 
and  his  associate  Anderson; 
Donald  McMillan,  who  had 
accompanied  Peary  in  1908-09; 
Vilkitski  of  Russia;  Knud  Ras- 
mussen  and  Koch  of  Denmark; 
and  Roald  Amundsen,  who  had 
previously  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Antarctic.  Not  only  has 
much  progress  been  made  in 
mapping  the  Polar  regions,  but 
a  vast  amount  of  scientific  data 
has  been  gathered. 

The  Stefansson  Expeditions. — 
Vilhjalmur  Stefansson  made  his 
first  expedition  to  the  American 
Arctic  in  1906-07,  for  the  purpose 
of  anthropological  vStudy  of  the 
Eskimos  of  the  Mackenzie  Delta, 


LIFE  IN  THE  ARCTIC  REGIONS 

A.  Greenland  whale.  B.  Long-tailed  skua.  C.  Guillemot.  D.  Great  northern  diver.  E.  Greenland  falcon.  F.  Iceland  gull. 
G.  Great  snowy  owl.  H.  Stoat.  I.  Polar  bear  J.  Porpoise.  K.  Harp  or  Greenland  seal.  L.  Narwhal.  M.  Arctic  Fox.  N.  Caribou. 
0  Ptarmigan.  P.  Arctic  or  mountain  hare.  Q  Walrus.  R.  Musk  ox.  S.  Little  auk.  T.  Larch.  U.  Dwarf  birch,  V.  Iceland  moss, 
W.  Androsace  villosa.   X.  Thiaspi  alpinum.   Y.  Saxifraga  oppositifolia.   Z.  Protococcufl  haematococcus. 

Vol.  I.— Page  347  Vol.  I.— Oct.  '25 


Arctic  Exploration 

under  the  joint  auspices  of  Har- 
vard University  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Toronto.  A  second  expe- 
dition, undertaken  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History  and  the  Ca- 
nadian Geological  Survey,  cov- 
ered a  period  of  about  four  years 
(1908-12),  during  which  impor- 
tant ethnological  and  anthro- 
pological studies  were  made,  and 
the  Horton  River,  emptying  into 
the  Arctic  Ocean  between  Liver- 
pool and  Franklin  Bays,  was 
discovered  and  in  part  explored. 
In  1913  a  third  expedition  was 
organized  under  the  direction  of 
the  Canadian  government.  The 
purpose  of  the  expedition  was 
chiefly  scientific,  and  a  notable 
group  of  scientists  was  brought 
together  to  make  extensive 
studies  in  anthropology,  biology, 
geography,  geology,  mineralogy, 
oceanography,  and  terrestrial 
magnetism.  The  expedition  was 
gone  from  1913  to  1918,  and 
though  the  loss  of  one  of  its  three 
vessels — the  Karluk — prevented 
the  carrying  out  of  the  original 
plans  in  their  entirety,  the  results 
were  exceedingly  significant. 

The  achievements  of  the  expe- 
dition fall  under  two  heads — 
the  discoveries  of  Stef ansson  him- 
self and  the  work  of  his  associate 
Anderson  in  the  region  around 
Coronation  Gulf.  After  spend- 
ing the  first  winter  at  Collinson 
Point  (on  Melville  Sound),  Stef- 
ansson  made  a  remarkable  sledge 
journey  to  Banks  Land,  where 
he  established  a  field  base.  He 
traced  the  continental  shelf  from 
Alaska  to  Prince  Patrick  Island, 
explored  unknown  parts  of  Prince 
Patrick  Island,  to  the  north  of 
which  he  found  new  land,  and 
discovered  a  number  of  impor- 
tant islands.  The  northeast 
coast  of  Victoria  Island  was 
mapped  by  Storkesen,  who  ac- 
companied Stefansson  on  his 
northern  sledge  journey,  and 
the  interior  of  the  island  was 
visited.  A  large  area  of  the 
Beaufort  Sea  was  explored  and 
sounded.  In  the  meantime 
Anderson,  farther  south,  sur- 
veyed Bathurst  Inlet,  made  im- 
portant scientific  studies  of  the 
surrounding  regions,  and  col- 
lected a  vast  number  of  biologi- 
cal and  geological  specimens. 

MacMillan's  Crocker  Land  Ex- 
pedition and  Other  Expeditions. — 
In  1913  an  expedition  under  Don- 
ald MacMillan  left  the  United 
States  for  Ellesmere  Island, 
whence  it  was  to  undertake  the 
exploration  of  Crocker  Land, 
which  had  been  sighted  by  Peary 
in  1906,  northwest  of  Cape 
Thomas  Hubbard.  With  his  as- 
sociate, Green,  MacMillan  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  lat.  82°  30'  N. 
and  long.  102°  w.,  only  to  find 
that  the  supposed  land  was  non- 
existent. He  explored  the  north- 
ernmost part  of  the  Parry  Ar- 
chipelago and  discovered  six  new 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '25 


347  A 

islands.  In  1921-2  he  was  in 
command  of  an  expedition  to 
Baffin  Land,  and  in  1923-4  made 
his  eighth  polar  voyage. 

Russian  Explorations. —  The 
most  important  recent  achieve- 
ment of  Russian  explorers  was 
that  of  Vilkitski,  who  in  1915 
made  the  first  northeast  passage 
ever  accomplished  from  east  to 
west.  Two  years  previously 
Vilkitski  had  made  important 
explorations  in  the  waters  north- 
west of  the  New  Siberian  Archi- 
pelago, to  which  he  added  two 
new  islands,  and  had  discovered 
and  claimed  for  Russia,  Nicholas 
II.  Land,  30  miles  north  of  Cape 
Chelyuskin. 

In  Greenland  Rasmussen  dis- 
proved the  existence  of  Peary 
Channel  (1912-3),  which  was 
formerly  believed  to  form  the 
northern  boundary,  and  made 
extensive  explorations  (1916-18) 
along  the  Hazen  Coast  discovered 
in  1882  by  the  Greely  expedi- 
tion. In  a  subsequent  expedi- 
tion he  engaged  in  ethnographic 
studies  of  the  Eskimos  of  Arctic 
America.  In  1920  Koch,  who 
had  previously  been  associated 
with  Rasmussen,  led  a  scientific 
expedition  to  Northern  Green- 
land. 

The  Amundsen  Expeditions. — 
In  1918  Roald  Amundsen  sailed 
from  Christiania  (now  Oslo)  on 
the  Maud,  planning  to  drift 
across  the  top  of  the  world  from 
Alaska  to  Asia  with  the  Arctic 
ice.  He  accomplished  the  North- 
east Passage  in  1918-20,  but  in 
the  latter  year  his  ship  was  laid 
up  for  repairs.  In  1922  the 
Maud  was  again  started  on  her 
westward  drift,  while  the  ex- 
plorer made  arrangements  for  an 
aeroplane  flight  over  the  North 
Pole.  A  test  flight  in  1923  led  to 
the  abandonment  of  the  idea  at 
that  time,  and  the  first  polar 
flight  expedition  was  postponed 
until  1925. 

The  Amundsen-Ellsworth  Polar 
Flight  Expedition,  financed  by 
Lincoln  Ellsworth,  an  American, 
and  under  the  leadership  of  Roald 
Amundsen,  took  off  from  Kings 
Bay,  Spitzbergen,  May  21,  1925, 
in  the  first  attempt  by  airplane 
to  reach  the  North  Pole,  600 
nautical  miles  distant. 

The  flight  was  sponsored  by 
the  Aero  Club  of  Norway  and 
flew  under  the  Norwegian  flag. 
The  expedition's  two  Dornier- 
Wal,  all-metal  flying  boats,  the 
N.  25  and  N.  24,  were  built  in 
Italy,  had  pontoons,  or  floats, 
arranged  on  each  side  of  the 
hull  for  landing  on  ice,  and  each 
was  equipped  with  two  Rolls- 
Royce  motors  arranged  tandem 
above  the  wing-spread,  capable 
of  generating  640  h.p.  The  maxi- 
mum lift  of  each  plane  was  ap- 
proximately 6,100  lbs.,  and  as 
each  carried  a  total  load  of  7,800 
lbs.,  it  was  deemed  inadvisable 
to  add  a  radio  equipment  to  the 


Arctic  Exploration  * 

outfit,  which  itself  weighed  300 
lbs. 

The  personnel  of  the  expedi- 
tion was  as  follows:  In  N.  25 
Roald  Amundsen  was  navigator, 
Hjalmar  Riiser-Larsen  pilot,  and 
a  German,  Carl  Feucht,  me- 
chanic. In  N.  24  Lincoln  Ells- 
worth was  navigator,  with  Leif 
Dietrichsen  pilot,  and  Oskar 
Omdahl  mechanic. 

After  leaving  Amsterdam  Is- 
land, off  the  northeast  coast  of 
Spitzbergen,  the  planes  encoun- 
tered a  strong  northeast  wind 
which  continued  to  drift  them 
heavily  to  the  westward  of  their 
flight  meridian  of  12°  e.  The 
planes  were  in  the  air  exactly 
eight  hours,  and  with  their  aver- 
age speed  of  75  miles  per  hour 
should  have  reached  the  Pole  but 
for  the  head-wind  and  consequent 
drift.  At  the  end  of  that  period, 
with  their  gasoline  half  con- 
sumed and  position  uncertain,  it 
was  deemed  necessary  to  take 
advantage  of  the  first  'lead'  of 
open  water  large  enough  for  the 
planes  to  land  in  that  they  had 
encountered  on  the  whole  north- 
ward journey  of  600  miles,  and 
descend  for  an  observation,  af- 
terwards continuing  on  to  the 
Pole.  The  observation  showed 
their  position  to  be  in  lat.  87° 
44'  N.  and  long.  10°  20'  w. 

The  planes  had  become  sepa- 
rated in  landing,  and  although 
they  were  but  three  miles  apart, 
it  was  six  hours  before  they  lo- 
cated each  other  among  the 
rough,  hummocky  ice,  and  five 
days  before  the  two  parties  were 
able  to  reunite.  During  this  in- 
terval the  ever-shifting  ice  had 
closed  in  upon  the  two  planes 
and  locked  them  as  in  a  lobster's 
claw.  The  N.  24  was  badly 
wrecked  and  it  was  considered 
advisable  to  abandon  her  and 
concentrate  all  effort  on  extri- 
cating the  N.  25  from  its  icy 
grip.  After  25  days  of  heroic 
effort,  during  which  the  equiva- 
lent of  300  tons  of  ice  (according 
to  Amundsen)  was  moved  with 
only  wooden  shovels,  sheath- 
knives,  and  a  2-pound  pocket 
safety-axe,  a  'take-off'  was  ef- 
fected, and  then  after  five  pre- 
vious attempts  had  failed.  After 
a  flight  of  eight  hours  and 
thirty-five  minutes,  the  N.  25 
reached  North  Cape,  North- 
eastland,  Spitzbergen,  100  miles 
east  of  the  starting-point  at 
Kings  Bay,  with  only  90  litres  of 
gasoline  (a  half  hour's  fuel  sup- 
ply) left  in  the  tanks. 

The  scientific  results  of  the 
expedition  included  soundings 
taken  in  lat.  87°  44'  N.,  showing 
a  depth  of  3,750  metres  (12,375 
ft.)  of  the  Polar  Sea,  and  an  air 
survey  covering  64,000  square 
miles  of  previously  unknown  re- 
gion, precluding  the  likelihood 
of  the  existence  of  any  land  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Pole  on  the 
Norwegian  side  of   the  Polar 


EEGION  AROUND  THE 

l^OETH  POLE 

Giving-  the  Records  of  the 
Most  Important  Explorations 
Copyright  Ijy  C.S.Hammond  &  COm  Nev/  York 


Scale  along  the  Meridians. 
50    100  200  300 


jPoinI 
Exclore 
D»Tl«,-l58T  CO.,    .      .  . 
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Franklin  1845-18'4T 
McClure,  1850-1853  ' 
Collinson,  1850-1854'- 
Kane,  1Si3-\9bb-  - 
Sec.  Ger-Eip.,  1869-70 
Peary,  1891.1894,  1901-190S,  "ftcj 
AmufldBen^e.KocthfreBt^aisage  y 
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Rasmussen,  1912 
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KEGIOX  AROUND  THE 

NORTH  POLE 

Giviiis:  the  Itecords  of  the 
Most  Importaut  li^xplorationa 
Copyright  by  C.S.Hammond  &  Co.,  Nev/  York 


0  50 


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Arctic  Exploration 


347  B 


Arctic  Exploration 


Basin.  At  the  altitude  the  planes 
were  flying,  1,600  feet,  it  was 
possible  to  see  as  far  as  lat.  88° 
30',  or  to  within  90  miles  of  the 
North  Pole.  The  only  animal 
life  seen  during  the  stay  in  the 
ice  was  one  seal,  one  little  auk, 
and  two  geese. 

The  Amundsen-Ellsworth-No- 
hile  Transpolar  Flight  of  1926 
was  a  continuation  of  the  1925 
Arctic  exploration  plans  of  Cap- 
tain Roald  Amundsen  and  Lincoln 
Ellsworth  and  was  officially 
sponsored  by  the  Aero  Club  of 
Norway.  A  semi-rigid  airship, 
347  feet  over  all  in  length,  with 
three  250  horse-power  Maybach 
dirigible  engines,  capable  of 
making  62  miles  an  hour,  a  gas 
capacity  of  640,000  cubic  feet, 
built  by  Italy  as  the  N-1  and 
rechristened  the  Norge,  was  used 
instead  of  aeroplanes,  the  choice 
dictated  by  the  experience  of  the 
previous  year.  At  the  time  of 
its  purchase  from  the  Italian 
government.  Colonel  Umberto 
Nobile,  designer  and  builder  of 
the  N-1,  became  identified  with 
the  expedition  as  ship  com- 
mander, his  name  being  added 
to  that  of  the  expedition  as  a 
tribute  to  Italy  for  her  part  in 
the  expedition.  The  line  of 
flight  from  Rome  was  over 
France,  England,  Norway,  Swed- 
en, and  Russia,  to  Kings  Bay, 
Spitzbergen,  a  distance  of  about 
5,000  miles;  there  the  Norge 
arrived  May  7.  At  8:  55  a.m. 
(g.  m.  t.),  on  May  11,  the  start 
over  the  Polar  Sea  was  made. 
The  personnel  of  the  airship  was 
as  follows:  Captain  Roald 
Amundsen  and  Lincoln  Ells- 
worth, leaders  of  the  expedition; 
Colonel  Umberto  Nobile,  in  com- 
mand of  the  airship ;  Lieutenants 
Hjalmar  Riiser-Larsen,  second  in 
command,  Oscar  Omdahl,  motor 
expert,  and  Emil  Horgen,  helms- 
man; Frederik  Ramm,  journal- 
ist; Captain  Oscar  Wisting 
(Amundsen's  companion  to  the 
South  Pole),  helmsman;  Fenn 
Malmgren,  meteorologist;  Cap- 
tain Birger  Gottwaldt,  wireless 
expert;  Fritz  Storm  Johnson, 
wireless  operator;  an  five 
other  Italians,  Cecioni,  chief 
engineer,  Caratti  and  Pomella, 
engineers,  and  Alessandri  and 
Arduino,  riggers. 

The  polar  pack  showed  no 
signs  of  life  north  of  83K°.  Up 
to  this  latitude  polar  bear  and 
white  whale  were  observed. 
After  leaving  the  Pole  the  first 
sign  of  life  —  a  lone  polar  bear 
track  —  was  seen  at  lat.  86°. 

On  reaching  the  North  Pole 
(600  nautical  miles  from  Spitz- 
bergen) at  1:30  A.M.,  May  12, 
the  airship  was  slowed  down, 
and  from  an  altitude  of  300  feet, 
the  Norwegian,  American,  and 
Italian  flags  were  dropped  in  the 
order  named;  here,  too,  the  first 


and  only  hot  meal  of  the  entire 
71-hour  flight  was  partaken  of. 
The  'ice  pole,'  or  'pole  of  in- 
accessibility,' the  centre  of  the 
great  Polar  'pack,'  was  reached 
about  6:  30  a.m.,  on  the  12th. 
Between  8  and  9  a.m.,  on  May 
12,  south  of  latitude  86°,  inter- 
mittent fogs  were  encountered, 
and  the  expedition's  troubles 
began.  Fog  and  ice  were  ex- 
tremely dangerous  handicaps 
from   this   time   on,  hindering 


navigation  and  making  wireless 
transmission  and  reception  im- 
possible, (in  fact,  after  the  North 
Pole  was  passed  wireless  com- 
munication ceased),  and  giving 
increasing  danger  that  flying  bits 
of  ice  would  shatter  the  pro- 
pellers and  cut  holes  in  the 
gas  bag,  thus  causing  a  forced 
landing.  This  perilous  condition 
continued  to  the  end  of  the 
voyage,  and  several  times  the 
motors  were  stopped  to  clean  the 
ice  from  the  blades.  It  was  a 
surprise,  therefore,  to  find  from 
observation  at  4  a.m..  May  13, 
that  the  Norge  was  on  a  line 
striking  the  Alaska  coast  and 
passing  only  21  nautical  miles 
west  of  Point  Barrow  (1,200 
nautical  miles  from  the  North 
Pole),  which  was  sighted  at  6:  50 
P.M.  (g.  m.  t.)  on  May  13,  46 
hours  and  45  minutes  after 
leaving  Kings  Bay,  during  which 
the  members  of  the  expedition 
looked  down  upon  approximately 
100,000  square  miles  of  hitherto 
unknown  territory.  A  safe  land- 
ing was  effected  at  Teller,  Alaska, 
a  few  minutes  before  8  a.m.,  May 
14,  after  a  flight  of  71  hours.  The 
mean  average  temperature  during 
the  flight  was  -  10°  c. 

The  expedition  proved  that 
between  the  North  Pole  and 
Alaska  lies  only  a  deep  Polar 
Sea;  compiled  valuable  meteo- 
rological and  wireless  data; 
bisected   the    1,000,000  square 


miles  of  unknown  region  by  a 
trail  of  approximately  100  miles 
in  width,  crowning  with  success 
the  plans  and  ambitions  of  the 
leaders,  who  had  met  with  such 
a  severe  reverse  the  preceding 
year. 

Byrd  Polar  Flight. — The  month 
of  May  1926  was  a  notable  one 
in  the  history  of  Arctic  explora- 
tion, for  not  only  was  the  Pole 
reached  by  the  Norge  in  its  trans- 
polar    flight,    but    three  days 


earlier  (May  9,  1926)  Lieut.- 
Com.  Richard  E.  Byrd  of 
the  U.  S.  Navy  and  his  pilot, 
Floyd  Bennett,  passed  over  the 
pole  in  the  airplane  Josephine 
Ford.  The  expedition  was 
financed  by  men  of  note  in  the 
United  States.  The  flight  was 
made  in  a  Fokker  plane — com- 
mercial type— equipped  with 
three  200-H.  p.  Wright  motors. 
Its  equipment  included  a  Bum- 
stead  sun  compass,  a  drift  indi- 
cator, and  the  bubble  sextant 
devised  by  the  Commander. 
In  view  of  a  possible  emergen- 
cy landing  there  were  also 
carried  a  short  wave  radio  with 
hand  dynamo  for  sending;  a 
sled  for  manhauling  supplies 
over  the  snow;  two  and  a  half 
months'  food;  a  rubber  boat 
for  getting  across  leads  in  the 
ice;  extra  fur  clothes  and  shoes; 
a  rifle  and  pistol  and  ammuni- 
tion; a  Primus  gasoline  stove;  a 
light  waterproof  tent;  hunting 
knives,  ice  knives  and  axes;  a 
complete  medical  kit  with  surgi- 
cal instruments,  and  smoke 
bombs.  Fortunately  none  of 
these  supplies  were  required 
during  the  flight. 

The  fliers  took  off  from  Kings 
Bay,  Spitzbergen,  at  12:37  a.m. 
(Greenwich  time)  May  9;  and 
reached  the  Pole  at  9:03.  They 
did  not  land,  but  after  caking 
observations,  returned  to  Spitz- 
bergen, which  they  reached 
Vol.  I. — Oct.  '26 


The  1926  Polar  Flights 
(Reproduced  by  permission  from  Current  History  Magazine) 


Arctic  Life 


347  C 


Arctic  Ocean 


at  4:34  in  the  afternoon,  about 
fifteen  hours  after  their  departure, 
having  flown  a  distance  of  some 
1,500  miles. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Parry' s 
Journals:  Sir  John  FrankUn's 
Thirty  Years  in  the  Arctic  Re- 
gions and  Narration  of  a  Journey 
to  the  Shores  of  the  Polar  Sea  (new 
ed.  1910);  Sir  J.  Ross'  A  Voyage 
of  Discovery — for  the  purpose  of 
Exploring  Ba  ffln's  Bay  and  Inquir- 
ing into  the  Possibility  of  a  North- 
West  Passage;  M'Clure  and  Le 
Mesurier's  The  Discovery  of  the 
Northwest  Passage,  by  H.M.S. 
Investigator;  Nares'  Narration  of 
a  Voyage  to  the  Polar  Sea,  1875-6; 
De  Long's  The  Voyage  of  the 
Jeanette;  Nordenskiold's  The 
Voyage  of  the  Vega  (trans,  by  A. 
LesUe);  Severdrup's  New  Land 
(trans,  by  Hearn);  Amundsen's 
The  North-West  Passage;  Nan- 
sen's  Farthest  North  and  In 
Northern  Mists;  Peary's  Nearest 
the  Pole  and  The  North  Pole; 
Greely's  Three  Years  of  Arctic 
Service  and  Handbook  of  Polar 
Discoveries;  E.  K.  Kane's  Arctic 
Explorations;  P.  L.  Simmond's 
The  Arctic  Regions  and  Polar 
Discoveries  during  the  Nineteenth 
Century;  The  North-West  and 
North-East  Passages,  1576-1611, 
edited  by  P.  F.  Alexander  (1915); 
MacMillan's  Four  Years  in  the 
White  North  (1918);  Rasmussen's 
Greenland  by  the  Polar  Sea  (1921) ; 
Haworth's  Trailmakers  of  the 
Northwest  (1921) ;  Sir  C.  R.  Mark- 
ham's    The    Lands    of  Silence 

(1921)  ;  Golder's  Bering's  Voy- 
ages (1922);  Stefansson's  The 
Northward    Course    of  Empire 

(1922)  ;   Rouch's   Le   pole  nord 

(1923)  . 

Arctic  Life.  The  Arctic  zone 
forms  a  well-defined  geographical 
region,  characterized  by  many 
peculiar  animals  and  plants.  In 
certain  parts — as  in  the  interior 
of  Greenland — this  region  is  sin- 
gularly barren  and  devoid  of  life; 
but  elsewhere,  as  in  the  tundras 
of  Asia,  there  is,  during  the  brief 
but  hot  summer,  an  exceedingly 
luxuriant  growth  of  plant  life, 
with  a  corresponding  abundance 
of  insects,  birds,  and  herbivorous 
and  carnivorous  mammals.  There 
are  relatively  few  varieties  of 
herbivorous  mammals;  though 
as  in  the  case  of  lemmings  and 
reindeer,  those  present  may  be 
numerous  in  individuals.  Many 
Arctic  animals  depend  directly 
or  indirectly  upon  the  marine 
organisms  with  which  the  Arctic 
Ocean  teems.  This  is  true  of 
man,  no  less  than  of  such  char- 
acteristic Arctic  forms  as  fur 
seals,  walruses,  and  polar  bears; 
of  entirely  aquatic  forms  like  the 
whales;  and  of  the  flocks  of 
birds  which  are  temporary  in- 
habitants of  the  region. 

Plant  Life. — Among  the  land 
plants  the  mosses  and  lichens  de- 


serve special  mention,  on  ac- 
count of  their  abundance  and 
importance  as  food  for  the  rein- 
deer, musk  ox,  and  lemming. 
Among  mosses,  the  bog  moss 
{Sphagnum)  and  species  of  Hyp- 
num  and  Polytrichum  are  com- 
mon, and  cover  vast  tracts.  The 
so-called  'Iceland  moss'  (Cetraria 
islandica)  is  an  important  part 
of  the  reindeer's  diet,  and  is  also 
exceedingly  abundant.  In  addi- 
tion, there  are  many  flowering 
plants.  Among  such  may  be 
mentioned  the  pink  Andromeda 
polifolia,  the  cloudberry  (Rubus 
chamcemorus) ,  various  rushes  and 
sedges,  and  saxifrages. 

Within  the  Arctic  region  prop- 
er, trees  do  not  occur,  the  Arctic 
species  of  willow  and  birch  being 
low-growing  plants — herbs  rather 
than  shrubs.  The  majority  of  the 
plants  display  xerophytic  char- 
acters, and  many  possess  rounded 
or  centric  leaves,  which  have  not 
an  upper  and  lower  surface,  but 
stand  erect,  and  are  so  arranged 
structurally  that  light  falling  on 
any  part  of  the  surface  can  be 
utilized  in  assimilation.  This  is 
an  adaptation  to  the  peculiar 
conditions  of  illumination,  the 
light  falling  on  each  side  of  the 
plant  in  turn.  Again,  the  conti- 
nuity of  the  light  during  the 
brief  period  of  summer  checks 
growth,  so  that  the  plants  are 
dwarfed  and  tufted  in  habit. 
Further,  although  insects  are 
numerically  abundant,  they  are 
largely  short-tongued  forms,  such 
as  flies  (Diptera) ,  and  the  flowers 
are,  therefore,  mostly  short- 
tubed,  with  honey  near  the  sur- 
face; very  many  are  self-fertilized, 
and  where  self-fertilization  is 
impossible,  the  power  of  sexual 
reproduction  is  marked. 

The  plant  life  of  the  sea  would 
not  appear  to  be  of  great  direct 
importance.  Indirectly,  the  algae, 
both  large  and  small,  are  of  great 
importance,  as  they  furnish  ulti- 
mately the  food  upon  which  the 
marme  organisms  depend. 

Animal  Life. — Of  sea  forms, 
the  molluscs  are  of  interest; 
among  them  may  be  mentioned 
Pecten  islandicus,  Astarte  borealis, 
Turrilella  polaris,  and  Leda  ro- 
slrata.  Mya  truncate  and  Saxi- 
cava  arctica,  which  are  very 
abundant,  constitute  the  chief 
food  of  the  walrus;  the  ptero- 
pods,  Clio  borealis  and  Limacina 
arctica,  form  the  staple  diet  of 
the  whalebone  whale,  and  the 
cuttles  feed  many  of  the  toothed 
whales.  The  Crustacea  also  de- 
serve notice.  Crabs  are  few,  but 
shrimps,  schizopods,  and  amphi- 
pods  are  abundant;  in  the  case 
of  the  ill-fated  Greely  expedi- 
tion they  formed  the  only  food 
obtainable  by  the  survivors.  In 
certain  parts  of  the  Arctic  region 
fish  are  extraordinarily  plentiful, 
and  reach  a  large  size.  They 


form  an  essential  part  of  the  diet 
of  many  of  the  Arctic  mammals. 

Of  terrestrial  animals,  the  birds 
in  certain  regions  are  very 
abundant  during  the  summer 
months.  The  valuable  eider 
duck,  cormorants,  mergansers, 
oyster  catchers,  puffins,  guille- 
mots, terns,  auks,  razor-bills, 
and  many  others,  literally  darken 
the  air  in  the  vicinity  of  their 
breeding  haunts.  In  the  tun- 
dras such  land  birds  as  the 
ptarmigan,  the  golden  plover, 
and  the  phalarope  abound. 

The  mammals  themselves  show 
many  striking  peculiarities.  As 
the  conditions  throughout  the 
region  are  quite  uniform,  a  domi- 
nant species  is  likely  to  be  widely 
distributed.  This  is  true  of  the 
reindeer  {Rangifer  tarandus)  and 
the  elk  (Alces  machlis);  the  musk 
ox  (Ovibos  moschatus),  now  con- 
fined to  the  northern  parts  of  the 
western  hemisphere,  is  an  appar- 
ent exception,  but  it  occurs  as  a 
fossil  in  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
was  undoubtedly  once  widely 
distributed.  Among  other  inter- 
esting forms  should  be  men- 
tioned the  fossil  mammoth  {Ele- 
phas  primigenius) ,  which  consti- 
tutes an  important  source  of 
fossil  ivory;  the  lemming,  impor- 
tant on  account  of  its  fecundity; 
the  Arctic  fox,  which,  like  the 
marten,  ermine,  sable,  and  others 
exhibits  a  seasonal  change  of 
color,  and  is  a  valuable  fur  animal. 

Of  even  greater  importance  are 
the  aquatic  or  semi-aquatic 
mammals,  such  as  the  true  fur 
seal  (Otaria),  whose  breeding 
habits  are  of  great  interest,  the 
whalebone  whale  (Balcena  mysti- 
cetus),  and  the  bottlenose  {Hype- 
roddon  rostratus).  Of  less  com- 
mercial but  equal  zoological  im- 
portance are  the  hooded  seal 
(Cystophora  cristata),  the  polar 
bear,  the  narwhal  (Monodon  mo- 
noceros),  the  white  whale  (Del- 
phinapterus  leucas),  the  Green- 
land seal  {Phoca  grcenlandica) , 
the  walrus  (Odobcenus  rosmarus 
and  Odobcenus  obesus),  and  others. 

Consult,  in  addition  to  the 
works  cited  under  Arctic  Ex- 
ploration, Stefansson's  The 
Friendly  Arctic  (1921)  and  Ma- 
son's The  Arctic  Forests  (1924). 

Arctic  Ocean,  one  of  the  great 
water  divisions  of  the  globe,  is  for 
the  most  part  enclosed  between 
the  northern  coasts  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America.  The 
only  wide  connection  it  has  with 
the  Atlantic  runs  over  the  ridge 
which  links  Iceland  with  Scot- 
land by  way  of  the  Faroes,  Shet- 
lands,  and  Orkneys;  but  it  has 
three  other  narrower  openings — 
viz.,  Denmark  vStrait  between 
Greenland  and  Iceland;  Davis 
Strait  (with  Baffin  Bay,  Smith 
Sound,  Lancaster  Sound,  and 
Jones  Sound),  between  Green- 
land and  British  North  America 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


From  Wide  World  Photos 

POLAR  FLIGHTS  OF  1926 
1.  The  Norge  preparing  to  land  at  Kings  Bay,  Spitzbergen.    2.  The  Josephine  Ford,  receiving  final  inspec- 
tion before  the  departure  for  the  Pole. 
Vol.  I.— page  347  D  Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Arctic  Ocean 


348 


Arden 


(both  of  these  connecting  it  with 
the  Atlantic) ;  and  Bering  Strait, 
which  unites  it  with  the  Pacific. 
Apparently  there  is  no  land  in 
the  higher  latitudes,  and  the 
North  Pole  is  in  a  vast  sea  of 
comparatively  smooth  ice. 

At  its  periphery  the  Arctic  is 
bordered  by  a  tolerably  broad 
continental  shelf,  above  which 
the  water  is  exceptionally  shal- 
low; at  least  this  is  the  case  along 
the  north  of  Europe  and  the 
north  of  Siberia  as  far  as  135°  E. 
long.  West  of  this  point  the 
depth  of  water  on  the  continental 
shelf  is  generally  between  50  and 
80  fathoms;  but  in  the  Kara 
Sea  it  sinks  to  400  fathoms  or 
more,  and  between  Novaya 
Zemlya  and  Franz  Josef  Land 
there  exists  a  depression  of  100 
to  150  fathoms  deep.  There  is 
also  another  depression  between 
Norway  and  Bear  Island,  meas- 
uring 240  fathoms.  But  east  of 
135°  E.  long,  the  depth,  even 
on  the  line  of  continuation  of 
the  continental  shelf,  suddenly 
plunges  down  to  2,000  fathoms. 
Five  miles  from  the  Pole  Peary 
found  no  bottom  with  1,500 
fathoms  of  line.  Along  the  route 
where  the  Fram  (Nansen's  ves- 
sel) drifted  in  1893-6  the  sound- 
ings exceeded  1,800  fathoms  and 
often  2,000  fathoms,  from  79°  N. 
lat.  and  138°  E.  long,  to  near 
Spitzbergen,  Soundings  taken 
by  the  Amundsen  -  Ellsworth 
Flight  expedition  showed  a 
depth  of  2,062.5  fathoms  at 
87°  44'  N.  lat.,  10°  20'  W.  long. 
The  greatest  depth  yet  sounded 
in  the  Arctic  is  2,100  fathoms,  in 
81°  N.  and  130°  E.;  or  2,650  fath- 
oms, if  we  accept  the  sounding 
of  the  Sofia  made  in  1868. 

The  area  of  the  Arctic  Ocean 
is  estimated  at  5,908,000  square 
miles,  and  it  is  computed  to  re- 
ceive the  drainage  of  8,614,000 
square  miles.  In  the  Polar  basin 
the  temperature  of  the  surface 
water  is  generally  at  29.2° — 
about  the  freezing-point  of  salt 
water.  At  about  110  fathoms  it 
suddenly  increases  to  33°-33.5°. 
But  the  temperature  (and  with 
it  the  salinity)  ranges  highest  be- 
tween 120  and  350  fathoms — viz. 
35°  to  39.9°.  Underneath  this 
warm  stratum — which  has  been 
charged  to  the  diffusion  of  the 
Gulf  Stream — there  comes  a  sec- 
ond cold  layer  the  middle  of 
which  lies  at  about  500  fathoms, 
where  Nansen  found  the  tem- 
perature to  be  31.9°.  But  from 
1,000  fathoms  to  the  bottom 
there  is  a  pretty  uniform  tem- 
perature of  33.1°  to  33.4°.  Dur- 
ing the  thirty  hours  which  Peary 
spent  around  the  Pole  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  ranged  be- 
tween —  12°  and  —33°,  though 
—  59°  was  recorded  beyond  the 
84th  parallel,  with  which  it  is 
interesting  to  compare  the  low- 
est land  temperature  of  —  90°  f. 
at  Verkhoyansk  in  Siberia. 

Vol.  I. — Oct.  '26 


Normally,  the  ice-pack  seldom 
exceeds  from  7  to  13  feet 
in  thickness.  It  is  neither 
unchangeably  fixed  nor  unalter- 
ably solid,  but,  in  the  sum- 
mer at  any  rate,  is  in  almost 
unceasing  motion.  Not  only 
does  it  drift  bodily  from  the 
middle  of  the  northern  coast 
of  Siberia  in  a  northerly  curve 
westward  toward  the  northeast 
shoulder  of  Greenland,  but  it  is 
locally  subject  to  continuous  dis- 
turbance, being  thrust  up  into 
hummocks  by  pressure  from  be- 
low, and  alternately  split  asunder 
and  again  driven  together.  In 
summer,  outside  the  edge  of  the 
permanent  ice-pack,  there  is  in 
many  places  a  permanent  layer 
of  fresh  water,  sometimes  5  to  6 
feet  in  depth,  which  has  resulted 
from  the  melting  of  the  ice-pack 
itself,  and  from  the  outflow  of 
the  great  Siberian  rivers. 

In  addition  to  the  movements 
just  mentioned,  there  is  a  never- 
ceasing  circulation  between  the 
waters  of  the  Arctic  and  the 
waters  of  the  Atlantic,  in  that 
the  warm  surface  water  of  the 
latter  flows  up  between  Green- 
land and  Norway,  and  then,  be- 
coming chilled  on  contact  with 
the  cold  Arctic  water  and  ice, 
sinks  toward  the  bottom,  and 
finally  flows  back  southward  as 
a  cold  current,  chiefly  along  the 
east  side  of  Greenland  and  down 
Davis  Strait,  carrying  with  it  the 
icebergs  which  are  so  often  a 
menace  to  vessels  navigating  the 
Atlantic  (see  Icebergs).  But 
this  circulation,  thus  generally 
outlined,  is  locally  much  compli- 
cated by  the  Gulf  Stream,  by 
the  winds,  and  by  the  submarine 
ridges  and  trough-like  depres- 
sions which  intervene  between 
the  continental  shelf  and  the 
islands,  and  among  the  islands 
themselves. 

Animal  life  is  fairly  abundant 
in  the  Arctic  regions  (see  Arctic 
Life),  though  in  the  highest 
latitudes  no  form  of  life  is  re- 
ported either  by  Peary  or  Nan- 
sen.  The  sun  remains  perma- 
nently above  the  horizon  about 
160  days  and  for  a  corresponding 
period  remains  permanently  be- 
low it — this  is,  of  course,  in  high 
latitudes. 

Arctinus,  ark-ti'nus,  of  Mile- 
tus (fl.  c.  750  B.C.),  one  of  the 
'cyclic'  poets,  who  completed  the 
cycle  of  epic  stories  begun  by 
Homer.  Only  fragments  of  his 
poems  survive,  but  he  is  said  to 
have  written  two  epics — the 
jEthiopis,  continuing  the  story 
of  the  Iliad,  and  the  Sack  of 
Troy.  His  fragments  are  col- 
lected in  Kinkel's  Epicorum 
GrcBCorum  Fragmenta  (1878)  and 
in  Monro's  Oxford  Text  of 
Homer  (1896). 

Arcturus,  ark-tii'rus,  a  Bootis, 
one  of  the  brightest  stars  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  its  magni- 
tude being  0.24.  It  is  first  men- 


tioned by  Hesiod,  who  selected 
the  acronychal  rising  of  Arc- 
turus (the  latest  visible  after 
sunset)  as  the  signal  for  the 
pruning  of  the  vines;  and  whose 
fixing  of  the  occurrence  at  sixty 
days  after  the  winter  solstice 
gives  730  B.C.  as  the  approxi- 
mate date  of  composition  of  the 
Works  and  Days.  Arcturus  had 
a  stormy  reputation.  The  spec- 
trum of  the  star  is  of  the  ko 
type,  and  its  rays  have  a  reddish 
tinge.  The  minuteness  of  its 
parallax  indicates  for  it  a  light- 
power  about  90  times  greater 
than  that  of  the  sun;  and, 
taken  in  conjunction  with  its 
proper  motion  of  2.3"  annually, 
shows  it  to  have  an  actual  veloc- 
ity in  space  of  about  114  km.  a 
second.  Arcturus  was  one  of  four 
stars  which  Halley  in  1718  ob- 
served had  unmistakably  shifted 
their  positions  since  Ptolemy's 
epoch.  The  apparent  diameter, 
measured  with  the  interferome- 
ter, is  0.022",  which  corresponds 
to  a  linear  diameter  of  21  million 
miles.  The  volume  is  14,000 
times  that  of  the  sun  and  the 
density,  if  the  generous  assump- 
tion be  made  that  the  star  has 
10  times  the  mass  of  the  sun,  is 
Vs  that  of  air.  The  heat  re- 
ceived from  it,  measured  with 
radiometer  and  thermocouple, 
amounts  to  1/100,000,000  of  that 
from  a  candle  at  a  distance  of 
one  meter. 

Arcus  Senilis,  ark'us  se-ni'lis,  a 
gray  curved  band  partially  or 
wholly  occupying  the  rim  of  the 
cornea  of  the  eye,  occurring 
generally  in  the  aged.  It  is 
usually  a  symptom  of  general 
arterial  degeneration. 

Ardastiir,  ar-da-sher',  founder 
of  the  Sassanian  dynasty  of 
Persia,  wrested  the  crown  from 
Artabanus,  the  last  of  the  Ar- 
sacid  (Parthian)  line,  in  a  battle 
fought  by  appointment  on  the 
plain  of  Hormizjan  (227  or  224). 
He  had  first  made  himself  master 
of  Istakhr  (Persepolis) ,  and  built 
his  power  upon  the  influence  of 
the  ancient  Zoroastrian  faith. 
His  career  of  conquest  was 
checked  by  the  Romans  in  233. 

Ardebil,  ar-de-bel',  Ardabil, 
or  Ardabeel,  town,  Persia,  in 
Azerbaijan,  110  miles  east  of 
Tabriz.  It  is  a  trading  centre 
on  the  route  to  Astara  on  the 
Caspian  Sea.  The  shrine  of 
Sheikh  Sufi  is  annually  visited 
by  numerous  pilgrims.  Pop. 
10,000  to  15,000. 

Ardeclie,  iir-desh',  mountain- 
ous and  picturesque  department 
of  Southern  France,  bounded  on 
the  east  by  the  Rhone.  It  is 
watered  mainly  by  the  swift- 
flowing  Ardeche  and  its  tribu- 
taries. Though  mainly  agricul- 
tural, it  has  mining  and  some 
silk-spinning  interests.  The  area 
is  2,144  square  miles;  the  capital 
Privas.   Pop.  (1921)  294,308. 

Arden,  Forest  of,  a  former 


Arden 


349 


Areopagus 


forest  (patches  of  woodland 
rather  than  continuous  forest) 
in  Warwickshire,  north  of  the 
Avon  (see  Shakespeare's  As  You 
Like  It,  Act  ii.,  in  which,  though 
the  characters  are  French,  the 
allusions  to  Robin  Hood  and  the 
descriptions  of  scenery  clearly 
indicate  the  English  fores'^V 
Previous  to  the  division  of  Eng- 
land into  counties,  the  name  was 
applied  to  a  more  extended  tract 
^  reaching  north  to  the  Trent  and 
rtS  west  to  the  Severn. 

Arden,  Edwin  Hunter  Pen- 
nDLETON  (1864),  American  actor, 
^  manager,  and  writer  of  plays, 
was  born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.  He 
first  appeared  on  the  stage  in 
^  1882  with  Thomas  W.  Keene's 
^  company  in  Chicago.    His  best 
known  plays,  some  of  which  have 
Q  been    written    in  collaboration 
.  ^  with  other  playwrights,  are  Zo- 
^rah,    The  Eagle's  Nest,  Barred 
^^Out,  Raglan's  Way,  and  Told  in 
the  Hills. 

Ardennes,  wooded  mountain 
system.  Southeast  Belgium,  be- 
tween the  Meuse  and  Moselle; 
geologically  connected  with  the 
hills  which  fence  in  the  Rhine 
between  Bonn  and  Bingen.  The 
general  elevation  is  about  1,800 
feet.  It  consists  mainly  of  bar- 
ren moors,  with  densely  wooded 
(oaks  and  beeches)  slopes  and 
fertile  river  valleys.  Large  stal- 
actite caves  exist  at  Han  and 
other  places,  and  the  region 
yields  coal,  iron,  lead,  antimony, 
copper,  manganese,  and  clay. 
Consult  -vlacquoid's  In  the  Ar- 
dennes. 

Ardennes,  department,  North 
France,  with  only  the  northwest- 
ern portion  in  the  Ardennes 
system.  It  is  crossed  by  the 
Meuse  and  the  Aisne,  these  riv- 
ers being  joined  by  a  canal.  The 
climate  is  continental,  and  dry 
and  pleasant  in  autumn.  The 
department  is  agricultural  in  the 
centre  and  south,  pastoral  in  the 
east,  with  a  renowned  race  of 
sheep,  and  industrial  (iron  and 
textiles)  in  the  Meuse  Valley. 
Capital,  Mezieres;  but  its  neigh- 
bor, Charleville,  is  twice  as  pop- 
ulous. Area,  2,028  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1901)  315,589;  (1911)  318,- 
896. 

Ardestan,  or  Ardistan,  town, 
Irak  Adjemi  province,  Persia;  80 
miles  northeast  of  Ispahan, 
Pop.  about  10.000. 

Arditi,  LuiGi  (1822-1903), 
musical  composer  and  conduc- 
tor, was  born  in  Crescentino, 
Piedmont.  He  studied  music  at 
Milan,  and  became  an  expert 
violinist.  In  1841  he  produced 
his  opera  /  Briganli,  and  made 
his  debut  as  an  operatic  conduc- 
tor at  Vercelli  in  1843.  He  con- 
ducted in  Milan,  London,  Vienna, 
Madrid,  Constantinople,  St. 
Petersburg,  Havana,  and  the 
large  cities  of  the  United  States 


(1846-56);  and  from  1858,  when 
he  settled  in  London,  he  was 
conductor  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  brilliant  vocal  compositions 
— e.  g.,  II  Bacio  and  L'Ardita. 
Consult  My  Reminiscences  (ed. 
by  Baroness  von  Zedlitz). 

Ardmore,  town,  Oklahoma,  on 
the  Gulf,  Colorado,  and  Santa 
Fe  Railroad ;  a  b  o  u  t  95  miles 
northeasL  of  Fort  Worth,  Texas. 
It  is  in  the  lands  of  the  Chicka- 
saw Nation.  It  has  cotton  trade, 
and  asphalt  and  coal-mining  in- 
terests. Hargr.^ve  College  is  the 
chief  educational  institution. 
Pop.  (1900)  5,681;  (1910)  8,618. 

Ardrossan,  seaport  and  water- 
ing place,  Ayrshire,  Scotland;  1 
mile  northwest  of  Saltcoats.  In- 
dustries are  shipbuilding,  engi- 
neering, iron  works,  sawmills, 
and  timber  yards.  Castle  Craig 
Head  was  the  site  of  a  castle  of 
the  Montgomeries,  which  was 
captured  by  Wallace  and  de- 
molished by  Cromwell.  Pop. 
(1901)  6,077;  (1911)  11,720. 

Ardsley,  urban  district.  West 
Riding,  Yorkshire,  England;  2 
miles  east  of  Barnsley.  It  has 
collieries  and  glass  works.  Pop. 
(1911)  6,870. 

Ardstraw,  parish  and  village, 
county  Tyrone,  Ireland;  3  miles 
northwest  of  Newton-Stewart. 
It  has  freestone,  lime,  and  clay- 
slate  quarries.    Pop.  8,500. 

Are  (Latin  area)  in  the  French 
metric  system  is  the  unit  of 
superficial  measurement,  being 
100  square  metres,  equivalent  to 
119.6  square  yards.  The  hectare 
(100  acres)  =  2.47  imperial  acres, 

Areca.  See  Betel- Nut  Palm, 

Arecibo,  town,  north  coast  of 
Porto  Rico,  West  Indies,  capital 
of  department  of  Arecibo,  at  the 
outlet  of  the  Rio  Grande  de  Are- 
cibo; 40  miles  west  of  San  Juan, 
It  exports  coffee  and  sugar. 
There  is  a  lighthouse  120  feet 
high,  with  white  light,  visible  17 
nautical  miles.    Pop.  10,000. 

Arecibo,  department,  north 
coast  of  Porto  Rico,  having 
Aquadilla  on  the  west,  Bayamon 
on  the  east,  and  Ponce  on  the 
south.  The  department  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Rio  Grande  de  Are- 
cibo and  several  tributaries 
which  flow  north  through  pictur- 
esque valleys  in  which  are  plan- 
tations of  coffee  and  sugar.  Ba- 
nana trees  are  cultivated  every- 
where, and  there  are  cocoanut 
groves  on  the  low  coast  lands. 
The  macadamized  military  road 
from  Ponce  crosses  the  depart- 
ment to  Arecibo.  Area,  620 
square  miles.    Pop.  160,000. 

Arenaceous  Rocks,  a  class  of 
sedimentary  rocks  composed  es- 
sentially of  quartz  particles, 
formed  by  the  disintegration  of 
other  silicious  rocks.  Among  the 
important  varieties,  depending 
on  the  size  and  state  of  aggrega- 


tion of  the  constituent  particles, 
are  sand,  gravel,  shingle,  sand- 
stone, quartzite  and  conglomer- 
ate.  See  Sandstone. 

Arenaria,  or  Sandwort,  a 
large  genus  of  rock  and  alpine 
plants,  belonging  to  the  pink 
family,  of  wide  distribution. 
They  are  low,  mainly  tufted 
herbs,  either  annual  or  perennial ; 
and  they  have  small,  sessile 
leaves  and  white  flowers,  gener- 
ally in  terminal  heads  or  cymes. 

Arendal,  or  Arndal,  town, 
Nedenas  county,  Norway,  on  the 
south  coast;  36  miles  northeast 
of  Christiansand.  It  has  timber 
and  carrying  trade,  and  iron 
mines.  Pop,  (1900)  4,370; 
(1910)  10,315. 

Arenicola.    See  Lugworm. 

Arens,  Franz  Xavier  (1856). 
German-American  musical  con- 
ductor and  voice  specialist,  was 
born  in  Neef,  Rhenish  Prussia, 
and  in  1866  emigrated  to  the 
United  States.  In  1885  he  was 
graduated  from  the  Royal  Con- 
servatory of  Music,  Dresden. 
He  conducted  the  Philharmonic 
Orchestra  of  Cleveland,  O. 
(1885-8)  and  the  American 
Composers'  concerts  at  Vienna 
and  in  other  European  capitals 
(1890-2).  From  1892  to  1897 
he  resided  in  Indianapolis,  Ind., 
directing  the  May  music  fes- 
tivals, and  acting  as  president 
of  the  Metropolitan  School  of 
Music,  and  as  head  of  its  vocal 
department.  He  was  conductor 
of  the  New  York  Manuscript 
Society  concerts  in  1898;  and  in 
1900  he  founded  and  has  since 
conducted  the  New  York  People's 
Symphony  Concerts. 

Arensky,  Anton  Stephano- 
VITCH  (1861-1906),  Russian  mu- 
sical composer,  was  born  in 
Novgorod.  He  was  professor 
at  the  Moscow  Conservatoire 
(1883-95),  and  director  of  the 
imperial  choir  at  St.  Petersburtr. 
He  wrote  three  operas — Un 
Songe  sur  le  Volga  (1892),  Rapn- 
ael  (1894),  and  Nal  et  Damayanti 
(1899),  besides  symphonies,  etc. 
His  trio  (Op.  32)  and  quintet 
(Op.  51)  for  pianoforte  and 
strings  are  well  known.  In  his 
Attempts  at  Some  Forgotten 
Rhythms  (1894)  he  revived  some 
interesting  ancient  forms. 

Areometer.  See  Hydrometer. 

Areopagus,  'Hill  of  Ares' 
(Mars),  a  hill  in  Athens,  west 
of  the  Acropolis;  on  its  northern 
slope  stood  the  temple  of  Ares. 
It  gave  its  name  to  the  council 
of  the  Areopagus,  which  met 
there.  This  council  represents 
the  'council  of  elders'  possessed 
by  every  Aryan  nation.  Until 
the  establishment  of  the  democ- 
racy, it  constituted  the  govern- 
ment of  Athens;  but  Solon's 
council  of  400,  and  Clisthenes' 
of  500,  took  away  some  of  its 
powers,  which  were  further  re- 


Arequlpa 


350 


Argand  Burner 


duced  (460  B.C.)  by  Ephialtes 
and  Pericles.  Its  composition  in 
earlier  days  is  unknown;  but  from 
600  B.C.  it  consisted  of  ex- 
archons. 

Arequipa,  coast  department, 
Southern  Peru,  with  an  area  of 
22,000  sq^uare  miles.  The  region 
along  the  coast  is  a  desert  fur- 
rowed by  gorges  of  the  streams 
descending  from  the  Andes. 
Rain  seldom  falls.  The  small 
river  valleys  are  fertile,  and  pro- 
duce coffee,  sugar  cane,  and  cot- 
ton. The  railroad  from  Mol- 
lendo  to  Arequipa  and  Puno 
(325  miles)  continues  into  North- 
western Bolivia,  bringing  mer- 
chandise to  the  coast  for  export 
Pop.  230,000. 

Arequipa,  city,  capital  of  Are- 
quipa department,  Peru,  the 
second  largest  city  in  the  re- 
public, on  the  Chile  River;  500 
miles  southeast  of  Lima.  It 
stands  at  the  base  of  the  volcano 
El  Misti  (q.  v.),  in  the  former 
bed  of  a  lake.  It  is  107  miles 
(by  rail)  from  its  seaport  Mol- 
lendo,  on  an  important  railroad, 
which  continues  to  Puno,  on 
Lake  Titicaca,  crossing  the 
Andes  at  a  height  of  14,660  feet 
above  sea  level.  The  town, 
which  was  founded  by  Francisco 
Pizarro  in  1540,  has  suffered  se- 
verely from  earthquakes — most 
disastrously  in  1868.  Besides 
the  cathedral,  there  are  large 
churches,  monasteries,  and  con- 
vents, and  a  university.  Near 
the  town  are  the  springs  of  Tingo 
and  Jesus,  the  latter  impreg- 
nated with  carbonic  acid,  and 
with  a  temperature  of  87°  F., 
and  Yura  (17  m.),  with  a  tem- 
perature above  90°  f. 

Arequipa  sends  to  Mollendo 
for  shipment  sheep,  alpaca,  and 
vicuna  wool,  borate  of  lime,  ores, 
etc.  There  is  extensive  man- 
ufacture of  jewelry,  and  fabrics 
with  gold  and  silver  threads. 
Gold,  silver,  and  copper  are 
mined  in  the  vicinity.  The  shops 
of  the  Southern  Railroad  are  lo- 
cated here.  Harvard  University 
has  maintained  here  a  branch 
astronomical  observatory,  where 
meteorological  observations  of 
great  value  have  been  secured. 
Alt.  7,850  feet.  Pop.  40,000. 
See  El  Misti. 

Ares,  the  Greek  god  of  war, 
whom  the  Romans  identified 
with  their  god  Mars,  is  repre- 
sented as  the  son  of  Zeus  and 
Hera.  He  is  represented  by 
Homer  as  not  on  equal  terms 
with  the  other  Olympians,  and 
is  somewhat  of  a  swashbuckler 
and  ruffian.  He  is  constantly  in 
undignified  positions — as  when 
Athene  and  Diomedes  drive  him 
from  the  field  {Iliad,  v.),  and  the 
pain  of  his  wounds  makes  him 
roar  as  loud  as  9,000  or  10,000 
warriors  together,  and  Zeus  re- 
fuses him  sympathy;  and,  again, 


in  his  amour  with  Aphrodite 
{Odyssey,  viii.),  Sophocles  calls 
him  'the  god  unhonored  among 
the  gods  divine  '  {QLd.  Tyr.). 
His  worship  originally  belonged 
to  Thrace,  where  Dionysos  was 
his  younger  rival.  This  'bar- 
barous origin'  lowered  the  esti- 
mate of  him  in  Greece. 

Aretaeus  {c.  100  A.  D.),  a  Greek 
physician  who  is  ranked  next 
after  Hippocrates  as  a  diagnoser 
of  diseases.  He  was  born  in 
Cappadocia;  practised  in  Rome; 
and  left  two  important  medical 
works,  written  in  elegant  and 
concise  Ionic  Greek. 

Arethusa,  a  genus  of  Or- 
chidaceae,  represented  in  America 
by  A.  biilbosa.  It  is  found  gen- 
erally in  large  colonies  in  sphag- 
num bogs,  having  a  tiny  bulb, 
and  a  solitary  linear  leaf.  The 
flower  is  borne  at  the  top  of  a 
scape  about  a  foot  high,  and  is 
nearly  two  inches  long  itself.  It 
is  magenta-pink  in  hue,  with  a 
drooping,  mottled  lip,  bearded 
and  crested  with  white  hairs  in 
three  ridges.  It  blooms  at  the 
end  of  spring. 

Arethusa,  one  of  the  Nereids, 
and  nymph  of  the  famous  foun- 
tain of  the  same  name  in  the 
island  of  Ortygia,  near  Syracuse. 
See  Alpheus. 

Aretino,  Pietro  (1492-1557), 
Italian  poet  and  satirist,  was 
born  (in  Arezzo,  whence  he  was 
banished  on  account  of  his  lam- 
poon against  indulgences.  He 
worked  as  a  bookbinder  at  Peru- 
gia; visited  Rome  (1517),  where 
he  was  favorably  received  by 
Pope  Leo  x.,  whose  patronage, 
however,  he  lost  by  the  publica- 
tion of  obscene  sonnets  as  letter- 
press to  drawings  by  Giulio  Ro- 
mano. He  then  became  a  client 
of  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  and 
received  favors  from  Francis  i. 
of  France  and  Charles  v.  of  Ger- 
many. His  later  days  were  spent 
i.i  Venice.  Although  his  life  was 
licentious  and  venal,  and  his 
writings  impudent,  Pietro  en- 
joyed extraordinary  popularity 
for  the  wit  of  his  verses  and 
plays.  He  wrote  dialogues 
{Ragionamenti,  1535-38),  five 
prose  comedies  (//  Marescalco, 
1533;  La  Corligiana,  1534;  L'- 
Ipocrilo,  1542;  La  Talanla,  1542, 
and  //  Filosofo,  1546),  a  tragedy 
{Orazia,  1546),  letters  (6  vols. 
1538-57),  and  sonnets,  the  last 
of  which  have  been  translated 
into  French  under  the  title  of 
Academic  des  Dames.  Consult 
Lives  by  Sinigaglia,  Schultheiss, 
and  Bertani. 

Arezzo,  province  of  Italy, 
forming  the  southeast  division  of 
Tuscany,  stretching  across  the 
main  chains  of  the  Central  Apen- 
nines. Cereals,  wine,  fodder  crops, 
olives,  etc.,  are  grown,  and  wool- 
lens, hats,  and  leather  are  the 
chief    industries.     Area,  1,273 


square  miles.  Pop.  (1900)  272,359; 
(1911)  284,520. 

Arezzo  (ancient  Arrelium), 
city,  capital  of  above  and  episco- 
pal see,  55  miles  by  rail  southeast 
of  Florence,  stands  on  the  side 
of  a  hill  overlooking  the  valley 
of  the  Chiana.  It  was  one  of  the 
twelve  confederate  cities  of  the 
ancient  Etruscans,  and  possesses 
several  very  interesting  buildings 
of  the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth 
century.  Chief  among  them  is 
the  Gothic  Cathedral,  begun  in 
1277,  and  containing  monumen- 
tal tombs  of  Pope  Gregory  x., 
who  died  here  in  1276,  and  of 
Tarlati,  the  warlike  bishop  of 
Arezzo  (died  1327).  Silk,  cloth, 
leather,  pottery,  etc.,  are  manu- 
factured. It  is  the  birthplace  of 
Maecenas,  the  patron  of  Horace, 
and  of  the  poet  Petrarch  (1304). 
Pop.  (1901)  44,316;  (1911)  47,498. 

Argaeus  (Turkish  Arjish-Dagh 
or  Erjish-Dagh) ,  extinct  volcano 
and  loftiest  mountain  in  Asia 
Minor;  10  miles  south  of  Kaisar- 
ieh.  It  was  active  in  the  time  of 
Strabo  and  Claudian  (first  to 
fourth  century).  Alt.  over  13,- 
000  feet. 

Argali,  an  Asiatic  mountain 
sheep  {Ovis  vignei),  ranging  from 
Western  Tibet  to  Kamchatka, 
on  the  highest  ranges  and  pla- 
teaus, but  becoming  increasingly 
scarce,  and  difficult  to  stalk.  It 
grows  to  the  size  of  a  donkey, 
and  is  covered  by  short,  coarse, 
gray-brown  hair,  the  rump  and 
under  surface  of  the  body  being 
white.  The  rams  carry  great 
coiled  horns,  often  measuring  15 
inches  around  the  base  and  over 
40  inches  along  the  curve. 

The  term  Argali  is  sometimes 
extended  to  include  the  whole 
group  of  mountain  sheep  with 
coiled  horns,  of  which  Poll's 
sheep  in  the  Pamir  and  the 
North  American  bighorns  are 
striking  examples. 

Argali,  Sir  Samuel  {c.  1580- 
1626),  an  English  adventurer  and 
naval  officer,  deputy-governor  of 
Virginia  (1617-19).  In  1609  he 
discovered  a  short  route  to  Vir- 
ginia; and  in  April,  1612,  by  gain- 
ing possession  of  Pocahontas,  the 
daughter  of  the  Indian  chief 
Powhatan,  as  a  hostage,  not  only 
secured  the  return  of  English 
captives  held  by  Powhatan,  but 
also  brought  about  more  peace- 
ful relations  with  the  Indians. 
In  1613  he  destroyed  the  French 
settlements  of  Mount  Desert, 
Port  Royal,  and  St.  Croix,  in 
Nova  Scotia.  As  deputy-gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  (1617-19)  he 
was  charged  with  dishonesty  and 
usurpation  of  powers.  After 
leaving  Virginia,  he  commanded 
an  English  and  Dutch  squadron, 
which  inflicted  severe  damage 
upon  Spanish  merchantmen. 

Argand  Burner,  invented  by 
Argand  of  Geneva  about  1782. 


Argao 


351 


Argentine  Republic 


Used  in  oil  lamps,  the  wick  rises 
through  a  hollow  ring,  so  as  to 
admit  air  to  both  surfaces  of  the 
flame,  with  the  effect  of  greatly 
increasing  the  light  and  heat. 
Gas  burners  are  also  made  on 
this  principle,  the  gas  rising 
through  a  hollow  ring  perforated 
with  small  holes.  By  means  of 
a  chimney  the  flame  is  steadied, 
and  a  draught  created. 

Argao,  ar-ga'o,  town,  Philippine 
Islands,  on  the  east  coast  of  Cebu, 
on  the  main  highway;  35  miles 
southwest  of  Cebu.  Pop.  (1918) 
39,121. 

Argel,  ar'gel,  or  Arghel  (Syr- 
ian), a  name  given  in  Syria  and 
the  Levant  to  Solenostemma  argel 
(natural  order  Asclepiadaceae) ,  a 
plant  whose  leaves  are  used  in 
Egypt  for  the  adulteration  of 
senna  leaves,  from  which  they  are 
distinguishable  by  their  leathery 
texture,  downy  surface,  and  the 
symmetry  of  their  sides. 

Argelander,  ar'ge-lan-d^r, 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  August 
(1799-1875),  German  astrono- 
mer, was  born  in  Memel.  He 
was  the  pupil  and  assistant  of 
Bessel  (q.  v.)  at  Konigsberg,  and 
from  1823  to  1827  was  director 
of  the  Abo  Observatory,  which 
was  removed  to  Helsingfors 
about  1832.  In  1837  he  became 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Bonn, 
where  in  1843  he  published  an 
excellent  celestial  atlas,  Urano- 
metria  Nova.  In  continuation  of 
Bessel's  work,  he  determined  the 
position  of  22,000  stars,  described 
in  his  Astronomische  Beobach- 
tungen  zu  Bonn. 

Argemone,  ar-je-mo'ne,  a  ge- 
nus of  plants  belonging  to  the 
Papaveraceae,  of  which  there  are 
about  ten  species.  Among  the 
best  known  is  Argemone  mexi- 
cana,  commonly  called  'prickly 
poppy,'  found  in  the  Southern 
United  States,  and  in  Mexico. 
It  is  an  annual  herb  from  one  to 
two  feet  high,  with  orange  or 
lemon  colored  flowers,  and  its 
seeds  are  said  to  possess  emetic, 
narcotic,  and  cathartic  properties. 

Argensola,  ar-han-so'la,  Bar- 
TOLOMEO  Leonardo  (1562- 
1631),  Spanish  poet  and  his- 
torian, was  born  in  Barbastro,  in 
Aragon.  With  his  elder  brother 
Lupercio  (q.  v.)  he  was  the  lead- 
er of  the  so-called  Aragonese 
school  of  Spanish  literature.  He 
succeeded  Lupercio  as  annalist 
of  Aragon,  and  also  wrote  a  His- 
tory of  the  Conquest  of  the  Moluc- 
cas (1690).  The  poetical  works 
of  the  two  brothers,  who  were 
styled  'the  Horaces  of  Spain,' 
were  published  first  in  Saragossa 
in  1634.  Consult  Mir's  B.  L.  de 
Argensola. 

Argensola,  Lupercio  Leonar- 
do (1559-1613),  Spanish  poet 
and  historian,  brother  of  Bartol- 
omeo  (q.  v.).  His  genius  and 
his  poetical  and  historical  works, 
similar  to  those  of  his  brother, 


give  him  high  rank  in  Spanish 
literature.  He  was  secretary  to 
the  ex-Empress  Maria  of  Austria 
at  Madrid,  chronicler  of  Aragon, 
and  secretary  of  state  to  the 
viceroy  of  Naples.  He  wrote 
three  dramas,  Isabela,  Filis,  and 
Alejandra,  the  first  two  praised 
by  Cervantes  but  not  generally 
considered  as  praiseworthy.  He 
is  best  known  for  his  lyric  poems 
and  sonnets. 

Argensou,  ar-zhan-s6h'.  Marc 
Antoine  Rene  de  Voyer,  Mar- 
quis de  Paulmy  (1722-87), 
French  diplomat  and  author,  son 
of  Rene  Louis  (q.  v.),  was  envoy 
to  Poland,  Switzerland  and 
Venice.  He  edited  some  40  vol- 
umes of  Universal  Bibliography 
of  Romance,  which  included  some 
of  his  own  writings. 

Argenson,  Marc  Pierre  de 
Voyer,  Count  (1696-1764), 
French  statesman,  brother  of 
Rene  Louis  (q.  v.),  served  as 
minister  of  war  in  1742-57.  He 
was  greatly  interested  in  the 
army  for  whose  reorganization  he 
labored,  founding  the  Ecole 
Militaire  in  1751.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Voltaire  and  Diderot, 
who  dedicated  the  Encyclopedic 
to  him.  Having  incurred  the 
enmity  of  Madame  Pompadour 
he  was  exiled  but  on  her  death 
returned  to  Paris. 

Argenson,  Marc  Rene  de 
Voyer  (1652-1721),  French  pub- 
lic official,  became  chief  of  police 
in  Paris  in  1687  and  served  as 
president  of  the  council  of  fin- 
ance in  1718-20.  He  secretly 
cooperated  in  the  financial 
schemes  of  John  Law  (q.  v.),  but 
was  dismissed  in  his  favor,  1720. 

Argenson,  Marc  Rene  de 
Voyer  (1771-1842),  French  aris- 
tocrat, grandson  of  Marc  Pierre 
(q.  v.),  who  embraced  the  cause 
of  the  Revolution  and  served  for 
a  time  as  Lafayette's  aide-de- 
camp. He  represented  Strass- 
burg  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
and  vigorously  opposed  the  July 
monarchy. 

Argenson,  Rene  Louis  Voyer, 
Marquis  (1694-1757),  French 
statesman,  son  of  Marc  Rene, 
was  foreign  secretary  for  Louis 
XV.  in  1744-7.  He  devoted  his 
later  life  to  literature  and  is  the 
author  of  Considerations  sur  le 
gouvernement  de  la  France. 

Ar'gent,  in  heraldry  (q.  v.),  is 
the  metal  silver,  usually  repre- 
sented by  white. 

Argen'ta.  See  North  Little 
Rock. 

Argenta,  town,  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Emilia,  20  miles 
southeast  of  Ferrara.  Pop. 
20,000. 

Argentan,  ar-zhiih-tah',  town, 
France,  in  the  department  of 
Orne;  27  miles  by  rail  north  of 
Alengon.  It  contains  an  old 
castle  (fifteenth  century),  and 
has  manufactures  of  lace  (point 
d' Argentan),   linen,  and  gloves. 


The  historian  Mezeray  (1610) 
was  born  near  here.  Pop.  (1921) 
6,753. 

Argentera,  ar-jen-ta'ra,  PuN- 
TA  Dell',  the  highest  summit 
(10,794  ft.)  of  the  Maritime  Alps, 
southwest  of  Cuneo,  in  Piedmont. 

Argenteuil,ar-zhari-tu'y',town, 
France,  in  the  department  of 
Seine-et-Oise,  on  the  Seine;  8 
miles  northwest  of  Paris.  Its 
priory,  now  in  ruins,  was  turned 
into  a  nunnery,  of  which  the 
famous  Heloise  (see  Abelard) 
became  abbess.  Industries  in- 
clude market  gardening,  quarry- 
ing, wine  making  and  the  manu- 
facture of  watches  and  files. 
Pop.  (1921)  32,173. 

Argentiere,  ar-zhan-tyar',  CoL 
d',  an  easy  Alpine  pass  (6,545 
feet)  leading  from  Barcelonnette, 
in  the  French  valley  of  the  Ubaye 
(an  affluent  of  the  Durance),  to 
the  Italian  valley  of  the  Stura, 
and  so  to  Cuneo.  Napoleon 
made  a  carriage  road  across  it, 
but  from  remains  discovered  it  is 
evident  that  the  pass  was  known 
to  the  Romans,  though  it  only 
came  into  prominence  when 
crossed  by  Francis  i.  of  France 
and  his  army  in  1515.  Some  have 
supposed  that  it  was  Hannibal's 
pass,  but  this  was  probably  the 
Mont  Genevre. 

Argentina.  See  Bahia  Blanca. 

Argentine,  ar'jen-ten,  a  species 
of  smelt  frequenting  the  southern 
coast  waters  of  Europe  and 
seined  in  schools  together  with 
sardines  and  anchovies.  It  is 
remarkable  for  the  resplendent 
silvery  lustre  of  its  sides,  and  for 
the  abundance  of  nacre  about  the 
air  bladder,  which  is  used  in 
making  artificial  pearls.  Kindred 
species  are  found  in  North 
American  waters. 

Argentine,  former  city,  Kansas, 
was  annexed  to  Kansas  City, 
Kans.,  in  1910. 

Argentine  Republic,  one  of  the 
most  progressive  of  South  Amer- 
ican states,  and  the  second  in  size, 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Bolivia  and  Paraguay;  on  the 
east  by  Paraguay,  Brazil,  Uru- 
guay, and  the  Atlantic  Ocean; 
on  the  south  by  Chile  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean;  on  the  west  by 
the  Andes  Mountains.  It  lies 
between  lat.  22°  and  55°  s.,  and 
long.  53°  30'  and  70°  w.  Area, 
1,153,418  square  miles. 

Topography  and  Geology. — The 
northern  part  of  the  Republic 
slopes  very  gradually  from  the 
coast  northwest  to  the  Bolivian 
basin,  where  the  watershed  be- 
tween the  affluents  of  the  Para- 
guay River  and  the  headwaters 
of  the  Madeira  lies  only  800  or 
900  feet  above  sea  level.  At  a 
very  recent  geological  period  this 
country  was  the  basin  of  a  vast 
sea,  covering  about  600,000 
square  miles.  On  the  south  it 
seems  to  have  been  bounded  by 
the  Archaean  and  Palaeozoic  sier- 

VOL.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Argentine  Republic 


351  A 


Argentine  Republic 


ras  of  Tandil'  and  Ventana, 
stretching  across  the  province  of 
Buenos  Aires  from  Cape  Corri- 
entes.  On  the  west  the  Sierra  de 
Cordoba  rose  as  islands  above 
the  sea,  and  the  Salina  Grande 
was  a  fjord  opening  into  it. 

The  southern  extremity  of  the 
Republic,  Patagonia,  is  a  plateau 
of  Tertiary  sandstone,  interrupt- 
ed here  and  there  by  old  eruptive 
rocks  and  Archaean  schists,  which 
slopes  westward  to  the  watershed, 
where  Cretaceous  rocks  are  ex- 
posed. It  is  intersected  by  deep 
depressions,  many  of  them  drained 
by  the  existing  rivers  flowing  to 
the  Atlantic.  Along  the  water- 
shed— a  succession  of  elevations, 
6,000  to  7,000  feet  high — lies  a 
series  of  lakes,  some  of  which  now 
drain  to  the  Pacific;  but  occasion- 
ally, when  the  water  is  high,  send 
part  of  their  overflow  to  the 
Atlantic.  The  land  has  risen  even 
within  historic  times,  and  the 
lakes,  to  a  great  extent  excavated 
by  glacial  action,  are  drying  up. 

From  the  great  lake  Nahuel- 
huapi  (41°  s.  lat.)  to  34°  s.  lat. 
the  Andes  consist  of  a  single 
chain.  Farther  north  a  succes- 
sion of  sierras  lies  to  the  east  of 
the  main  chain,  the  chief  being 
the  Uspallata,  Huerta,  and  Fa- 
matima,  and  the  prolongation  of 
the  Cordillera  Real  of  Bolivia, 
with  summits  rising  to  19,000 
feet.  Near  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  this  region  are  found  the 
loftiest  peaks  of  the  main  Cordil- 
lera— e.g.,  Aconcagua  (in  which 
the  American  continent  culmi- 
nates at  a  height  of  23,080  feet), 
the  extinct  volcano  Tupungato, 
and  Maipu. 

The  largest  hydrographic  basin 
is  that  of  the  Parana  and  its 
tributaries.  Many  rivers  lose 
themselves  in  the  swamps  and 
sands  of  the  pampas.  Of  the 
rivers  of  Patagonia,  the  Negro  is 
the  most  important  for  naviga- 
tion. 

Several  lakes  are  scattered  over 
the  country;  the  finest  are  those 
in  the  west  of  Patagonia — the 
beautiful  Nahuel-huapi  (2,100 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  200 
square  miles  in  area),  the  Buenos 
Aires  or  Ayres  (75  miles  long  and 
558  feet  above  the  sea),  and 
others.  The  Republic  has  an 
Atlantic  seaboard  of  1,505  miles. 

Climate. — The  mean  tempera- 
ture in  the  central  part  of  the 
Republic  is  not  much  higher  than 
that  of  Southern  Europe,  and 
the  extremes  are  not  excessive. 
The  mean  temperature  at  Buenos 
Aires  (03°  F.)  is  nearly  the  same 
as  at  Cadiz,  vSpain,  In  the 
northern  and  midland  provinces 
it  is  higher — e.g.,  71°  at  Corri- 
entes,  and  07°  at  Tucuman, 
Mendoza,  near  the  Andes,  at  an 
elevation  of  2,500  feet,  has  a 
mean  temperature  of  only  61°. 
At  Rawson,  on  the  Chubut,  the 
mean  temperature  is  56°,  and  in 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Southern  Patagonia  the  climate 
is  cold.  The  rainfall — 34  inches 
at  Buenos  Aires  and  46  inches  at 
Rosario — diminishes  toward  the 
Andes,  being  only  13  inches  at 
Rioja  and  3  inches  at  San  Juan. 
The  prevailing  wind  is  the  south- 
east. The  pampero,  from  the 
southwest,  is  cold  and  invigor- 
ating, the  north  wind  relaxing 
and  unhealthy. 

Fauna. — The  fauna  is  rapidly 
vanishing.  The  puma  and  jag- 
uar are  still  found  in  the  less 
populated  districts  of  the  Chaco 
and  Patagonia.  The  viscacha  is 
scarce,  owing  to  a  campaign  of 
extermination;  and  armadillos, 
esteemed  a  delicate  dish,  have 
been  killed  in  large  numbers. 
The  huemul  (Cervus  chilensis), 
the  guanaco,  and  the  rhea,  or 
American  ostrich,  have  their 
habitat  on  the  Patagonian  pla- 
teaus. The  peccary  and  anta,  a 
species  of  tapir,  are  confined  to 
the  north.  The  Patagonian  hare, 
weighing  25  pounds,  and  a  weasel 
with  a  pouch  for  its  young,  are 
peculiar  to  the  country. 

Birds  are  more  numerous  than 
mammals.  They  include  the  con- 
dor of  the  Andes  and  other  birds 
of  prey,  humming-birds,  game 
birds,  and  a  large  variety  of 
water  fowl.  The  African  or 
plume-bearing  ostrich  has  been 
introduced,  and  the  export  of  the 
plumes  have  made  it  a  commer- 
cial success. 

Forestry. — There  are  thirty  or 
more  varieties  of  costly  woods 
now  being  worked  commercially. 
Some  of  the  most  extensive  for- 
ests are  in  Misiones,  El  Chaco, 
and  Tucuman.  Misiones  yields 
a  quantity  of  valuable  fibres,  and 
the  yerba  mate,  or  Paraguay  tea, 
as  well  as  excellent  timber  for 
building  and  cabinet  work  and 
dyewood.  The  acacia,  algarrobo 
lapacho,  button  tree,  cedar,  bay, 
and  other  black,  red,  and  white 
varieties,  are  plentiful. 

The  quebracho,  a  tanning  hard- 
wood, furnishes  an  important  in- 
dustry. Along  the  foot  of  the 
Andes  the  woods  consist  chiefly 
of  Winter's  bark,  Fitzroya  pata- 
gonica,  and  Libocedrus.  The 
value  of  forest  products  exported 
in  1925  was  $20,979,780. 

Mining. — The  Argentine  Re- 
public has  no  present  importance 
as  a  mining  country.  The 
principal  mineral  product  is  pe- 
troleum, the  output  of  which  in 
1925  was  642,090ccubic  metres. 
Gold,  silver,  copper,  salt,  anti- 
mony, wolfram,  and  other  min- 
erals occur,  but  the  deposits  are 
in  most  cases  too  far  from  the 
railways  to  be  profitably  worked. 

Agriculture, — The  country  is 
well  suited  for  agriculture,  which 
constitutes  the  principal  in- 
dustry. Wheat,  maize,  and  lin- 
seed— i.e.,  flaxseed — are  grown, 
especially  in  Buenos  Aires  and 
Santa  Fe,  as  well  as  at  the  Welsh 


colonies  on  the  Chubut.  Wine 
comes  principally  from  the  west- 
ern provinces — Mendoza,  San 
Juan,  La  Rioja,  and  Salta. 
Tucuman  produces  the  most 
sugar,  and  Corrientes  ranks  first 
as  a  tobacco  district.  Lucerne 
(alfalfa)  is  one  of  the  principal 
crops,  and  is  grown  in  almost  all 
the  provinces,  being  more  valu- 
able each  year.  In  Cordoba 
and  Santa  Fe  provinces  eight 
million  acres  are  given  up  to  this 
forage  crop.  Good  cotton  is 
raised  in  the  northern  provinces. 

The  area  of  the  Argentine  is 
about  099,278,300  acres,  of  which 
about  500,000,000  acres  are 
suitable  for  agriculture  and  stock 
raising.  West  of  Cordoba,  and 
in  Patagonia,  the  rainfall  is  often 
insufficient,  and  there  is  con- 
siderable risk  from  drought.  Of 
the  cultivable  area,  about  10,- 
000,000  acres  require  irrigation. 
The  provinces  of  Buenos  Aires, 
Cordoba,  Santa  Fe,  and  Entre 
Rios,  and  La  Pampa  Territory 
form  the  principal  agricultural 
belt. 

The  absence  of  small  navigable 
streams  and  good  roads  retarded 
the  opening  up  of  the  country; 
but  in  recent  years  the  railroads 
have  greatly  aided  land  develop- 
ment. In  1880  the  total  area  of 
land  under  cultivation  was  3,- 
705,560  acres;  in  1911  it  had 
risen  to  40,939,180  acres.  In 
1923-4  the  acreage  and  pro- 
duction of  the  four  leading 
agricultural  products  were  as 
follows:  wheat,  17,317,107  acres, 
0,723,284  tons;  corn,  8,503,600 
acres,  5,744,463  tons;  linseed, 
5,316,365  acres,  1,488,105  tons; 
oats,  2,779,437  acres,  1,182,356 
tons. 

The  area  under  sugar  is  about 
237,500  acres  and  the  quantity 
manufactured  in  1924  was  256,- 
904  metric  tons.  About  280,000 
acres  are  devoted  to  the  vine  and 
the  annual  production  is  about 
125,000,000  gallons.  Tobacco 
cultivation  covers  about  22,060 
acres  and  cotton  150,000  acres. 

Stock  Raising. — Since  the  six- 
teenth century  the  cattle  in- 
dustry has  flourished  on  the 
grassy  plains  of  Santa  Fe  and 
Buenos  Aires,  and  stock  raising, 
with  its  allied  meat  industry,  is 
second  only  in  importance  to 
agriculture.  The  national  census 
of  1922  showed  the  following 
data  as  to  domestic  animals  in 
the  Republic:  37,064,850  cattle, 
30,671,841  sheep,  and  1,430,638 
pigs. 

Extensive  frozen  meat  and 
dairying  industries  have  grown 
up  from  stock  raising;  while  the 
exports  of  chilled  and  frozen  meat 
have  largely  superseded  the 
export  of  live  vStock.  In  1925, 
about  750,000  tons  of  meat, 
valued  at  approximately  $374,- 
793,472,  were  exported.  Approx- 
imate values  for  the  chief  indi- 


Argentine  Republic 


351  B 


Argentine  Republic 


vidual  meat  exports  were:  frozen 
beef,  $46,128,542;  canned  meat 
$16,040,175;  chilled  beef,  $67,- 
747,832;  frozen  mutton,  $20,- 
757,433;  frozen  offal,  $4,316,628; 
jerked  beef,  $3,550,315;  frozen 
pigs,  $179,364. 

Transportation. — On  January 
1,  1926,  22,627  miles  of  rail^vay 
were  in  operation,  4,335  miles 
being  state  property.  The  prin- 
cipal lines  radiate  from  Buenos 
Aires,  north,  northwest,  south- 
west, and  west  to  Mendoza. 
From  Mendoza  a  line  crosses  the 
Andes  through  the  Uspallata 
Pass,  and  is  continued  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean  at  Valparaiso,  the 
capital  of  Chile  (see  Andes 
Tunnel  and  Railway)  .  Branch 
railways  connect  with  the  main 
lines.  Aviation  has  shown  rapid 
advance  and  there  are  air  routes 
from  Buenos  Aires  tJ  Salta, 
Corrientes,  Mendoza,  San  Juan 
and  other  cities,  and  a  tri-weekly 
air-mail  service  between  Buenos 
Aires  and  Montevideo. 

In  1924,  2,949  seagoing  vessels 
entered  Argentine  ports  (except 
Bahia  Blanca).  In  1922  there 
were  25,763  miles  of  telegraph 
lines  in  operation.  There  are 
twelve  wireless  telegraph  stations. 
In  1922  18,614,106  pesos  revenue 
was  derived  from  the  postal 
service,  and  7,143,353  pesos  from 
the  telegraph  service. 

Manufactures. — The  Argentine 
Republic  is  not  a  manufacturing 
country.  The  latest  industrial 
census  reported  48,779  factories, 
employing  410,201  persons,  and 
with  a  total  capital  of  1,787,662,- 
295  pesos.  The  chief  industrial 
establishments  are  sugar  fac- 
tories, wine  depots,  flour  mills, 
breweries,  and  meat-freezing  de- 
pots. Meat  refrigeration  is  the 
leading  industry,  with  flour 
milling  second.  In  1922  the 
wheat  flour  production  totalled 
930,569  tons.  Scarcity  of  do- 
mestic coal  and  other  fuels  handi- 
caps manufacture. 

Commerce. — In  1925  exports 
amounted  to  approximately 
$841,891,000,  and  imports  to 
$850,542,000.  In  the  same  year 
government  customs  and  port 
revenues  were  about  $140,000,- 
000.  The  chief  exports  are  hides 
and  skins,  wool,  meat,  and  other 
animal  products,  wheat,  corn, 
linseed,  and  quebracho.  The 
Republic  ranks  first  in  the  export 
of  linseed  and  frozen  meat,  second 
in  wheat  and  corn.  The  chief 
imports  are  textiles,  agricultural 
implements,  building  materials, 
foodstuffs,  iron  and  its  manu- 
factures, liquors,  glass,  coal, 
chemicals,  unbleached  cloth,  knit 
goods,  binder  twine,  wire,  oils, 
newsprint  paper,  and  lumber. 
For  the  year  1925  the  imports 
of  merchandise  from  the  United 
States  were  valued  at  $200,078,- 
747  and  the  exports  to  that 
country   at    $69,458,839.  The 


principal  items  of  importation 
from  the  United  States  are 
agricultural  machinery,  twine, 
oils,  vehicles  and  railway  mate- 
rial, chemicals,  electrical  supplies, 
and  manufactures  of  iron,  steel, 
and  wood.  The  chief  exports  are 
hides,  hair,  and  wool. 

Finance. — The  revenue  for 
1925  amounted  to  about  $270,- 
000,000  and  the  expenditures  to 
about  $260,000,000.  The  budget 
for  1925  was  fixed  at  approxi- 
mately 588,641,000  paper  dollars. 
The  standard  of  value  is  the  gold 
peso  or  dollar,  worth  96.5  cents 
American  money ;  but  the  money 
in  circulation  is  chiefly  paper. 
The  paper  peso,  convertible  by 
law,  is  worth  42.5  cents  American 
money.  On  Dec.  31,  1925,  the 
national  debt  was  1,673,647,300 
paper  pesos. 

Population. — According  to  an 
official  estimate  taken  in  1924, 
the  total  population  was  9,548,- 
093  or  more  than  double  what  it 
was  in  1895.  In  the  country  as  a 
whole  the  density  of  population 
is  8  inhabitants  to  the  square 
mile;  Tucuman  is  the  most 
densely  populated  province,  hav- 
ing 32  inhabitants  to  the  square 
mile.  Of  the  country's  popula- 
tion, about  25  per  cent,  are 
foreign.  The  following  table  shows 
the  population  by  provinces. 


French,  Turkish,  Austro-Hun- 
garian,  Brazilian,  Chilean,  Para- 
guayan, English,  German,  Boli- 
vian, and  Swiss. 

On  June  1,  1925  (official 
census),  Buenos  Aires,  the  capital 
city,  had  a  population  of  2,310,- 
441.  The  population  of  other 
leading  cities  was:  Rosario, 
265,000;  Cordoba,  156,000; 
Tucuman,  92,000;  La  Plata, 
151,000;  Santa  Fe,  60,000; 
Mendoza,  59,000;  Avellaneda, 
46,000;  Parana,  36,000;  Cor- 
rientes, 27,000. 

Religion. — No  state  religion 
exists,  and,  although  the  state 
supports  Roman  Catholicism, 
there  is  perfect  freedom  of 
conscience,  and  toleration  of  all 
other  creeds.  The  hierarchy  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
consists  of  the  archbishop  of 
Buenos  Aires  and  ten  suffragan 
bishops.  There  are  eight  semi- 
naries for  the  clergy.  Civil 
marriage  was  established  in  1888. 

Education. — An  admirable  sys- 
tem of  free,  secular,  and  com- 
pulsory education  has  been  in- 
troduced for  children  from  six  to 
fourteen  years  of  age.  In  1922 
there  were  9,940  primary  public 
schools  with  1,227,400  pupils  and 
40,169  teachers.  The  Federal 
Government  controls  secondary 
education,  and  for  it  maintains 


Federal  District  Provinces 
and  Territories. 


Federal  District 
Buenos  Aires  (the  Federal  Capital) 
Martin  Garcia  Island  

Provinces 

Buenos  Aires  

Santa  Fe  

Cordoba  

Entre  Rios  

Corrientes  

San  Luis  

Santiago  del  Estero  

Tucuman  

Mendoza  

San  Juan  

La  Rioja  

Catamarca  

Salta  

Jujuy  

Territories 

Misiones  

Formosa  

Chaco  

La  Pampa  

Neuquen  

Rio  Negro  

Chubut  

Santa  Cruz  

Tierra  del  Fuego  

Los  Andes  

Total  


Area: 
English 
sq.  miles. 


72 


117,777 

50,713 
66,912 
29,241 
33,535 
29,035 
55,385 
10,422 
56,502 
37,865 
37,839 
36,800 
48,302 
14,802 


11,511 
41,402 
52,741 
56,320 
40,530 
79,805 
93,427 
109,142 
8,299 
34,740 

1,153,119 


Population 
Jan.  1,  1924. 


1,811,745 


2,336,507 
1,122,927 
896,128 
530,927 
896,128 
137,674 
321,891 
380,482 
333,379 
140,838 
89,121 
114,553 
154,257 
80,023 


69,422 
24,136 
58,160 
142,023 
38,085 
52,440 
32,885 
12,581 
2,592 
2,929 

9,548,092 


Population 
Census  1914. 


1,575,814 
783 


2,066,165 
899,640 
735,472 
425,373 
347,055 
116,266 
261,678 
332,933 
277,535 
119,252 

79,754 
100,391 
140,927 

76,631 


53,563 
19,281 
46,274 
101,338 
28,866 
42,242 
23,065 
9,948 
2,504 
2,487 

7,885,237 


In  1925  immigrants  numbered 
125,365,  as  compared  to  160,127 
in  1924;  emigrants  numbered  but 
49,840,  as  against  75,562  in  1924, 
In  numbers,  the  foreign  popula- 
tion ranks  according  to  na- 
tionalities as  follows:  Italian, 
Spanish,    Russian,  Uruguayan, 


40  national  secondary  schools, 
84  normal  schools,  6  commercial 
schools,  one  secondary  girls' 
school,  3  industrial  schools, 
15  vocational  schools  and  several 
other  educational  institutions. 
The  total  registration  in  these 
schools  was  73,296,  with  6,366 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Argentine  Republic 


352 


Argillaceous  Bocks 


teachers.  Private  schools  num- 
bered 188,  with  9,345  pupils. 
For  higher  education  there  are 
the  universities  of  Buenos  Aires, 
Cordoba,  La  Plata,  Tucuman, 
and  the  University  of  the  Littoral. 

Army  and  Navy. — Service  in 
the  army,  or  national  militia,  is 
compulsory  for  all  citizens  from 
20  to  45  years  of  age.  The  army 
is  divided  into  three  grades — the 
active  army  or  first  line,  the  Na- 
tional Guard,  and  the  Territorial 
Guard.  The  first  ten  years  are 
served  in  the  active  army;  the 
second  ten  years  in  the  National 
Guard ;  and  the  last  five  years  in 
the  Territorial  Guard.  The  an- 
nual period  of  service  is  three 
months  for  those  training  in  the 
ranks. 

There  are  five  military  dis- 
tricts, each  of  which  contributes 
a  full  division  of  about  12,000 
men  to  the  active  army  when 
mobilization  is  ordered,  and  in 
addition  a  division  of  reserves, 
outside  of  the  National  and  Ter- 
ritorial Guards.  The  peace 
strength  of  the  army  is  about 
30,000  officers  and  men;  the 
reserve  is  300,000  men. 

In  1912  the  Argentine  navy 
was  augmented  by  two  of  the 
most  powerful  battleships  in  the 
world,  of  the  Dreadnought  type — 
the  Moreno  and  the  Rivadavia, 
each  of  27,600  tons  displacement, 
and  carrying  12  12-inch  guns. 
In  addition,  the  navy  has  4  ar- 
mored cruisers,  2  protected 
cruisers,  7  destroyers,  and  8  tor- 
pedo boats,  besides  training  and 
miscellaneous  vessels.  Naval 
instruction  is  provided  in  a 
naval  school,  a  school  of  mech- 
anics, an  artillery  school,  and  a 
school  for  torpedo  practice. 

Government. — The  government 
is  a  federal  republic,  with  Buenos 
Aires  (q.  v.)  as  the  capital.  The 
Federal  Assembly,  or  National 
Congress,  is  composed  of  two 
chambers — a  Senate  of  30  mem- 
bers, and  a  House  of  Deputies  of 
158  members.  The  Senate  is 
elected  by  the  city  of  Buenos 
Aires  and  by  the  legislatures  of 
the  14  provinces  (Buenos  Aires, 
Entre  Rios,  Corrientes,  Santa 
Fe,  Cordoba,  San  Luis,  Santiago 
del  Estero,  Tucuman,  Mendoza, 
San  Juan,  La  Rioja,  Catamarca, 
Salta,  and  Jujuy),  each  of  which 
manages  its  own  internal  affairs. 
The  House  of  Deputies  is  elected 
by  the  people,  one  deputy  for 
each  33,000  inhabitants.  A  dep- 
uty must  be  25  years  old  and  a 
citizen  of  four  years'  standing; 
a  senator  must  be  30  years  old 
and  a  citizen  of  six  years'  stand- 
ing. The  deputies  are  elected 
for  four  years;  one  half  of  the 
House  retiring  every  two  years. 
Every  three  years  one-third  of 
the  Senate  is  renewed.  The 
president  and  vice-president  are 
elected  for  terms  of  six  years. 
The  president,  elected  by  rep- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '27 


resentatives  of  the  14  provinces 
equal  to  double  the  number  of 
Senators  and  Deputies  com- 
bined, exercises  the  executive 
power;  while  the  law-making 
power  is  vested  in  the  National 
Congress.  The  president  is  com- 
mander-in-chief; appoints  to  all 
civil,  military,  and  judicial  of- 
fices; and  has  the  right  of  presen- 
tation to  bishoprics.  He  must  be 
a  Roman  Catholic,  an  Argentine 
by  birth,  and  cannot  be  re-elect- 
ed. He  appoints  a  ministry  of 
eight  members,  who  act  under 
his  orders;  but  he  is  responsible, 
with  the  ministry,  for  the  acts  of 
the  executive.  The  vice-presi- 
dent, elected  in  the  same  way 
and  at  the  same  time  as  the  presi- 
dent, is  chairman  of  the  Senate, 
but  has  no  other  political  power. 

The  provincial  governors  are 
elected  by  the  people  of  each 
province  for  a  term  varying  be- 
tween three  and  four  years,  and 
within  constitutional  limits  are 
independent  of  the  president. 
The  provinces  elect  their  own 
legislatures. 

The  sparsely  inhabited  parts 
of  the  country  are  divided  into 
10  gubernaciones  or  territories — 
Formosa,  El  Chaco,  Misiones, 
Los  Angeles,  and  Pampa,  north  of 
the  Colorado;  Neuquen,  Rio  Ne- 
gro, Chubut,  Santa  Cruz,  and 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  to  the  south. 
The  territories  are  administered 
by  governors  appointed  by  the 
president. 

The  capital  forms  a  Federal 
District  similar  to  the  District  of 
Columbia  of  the  United  States. 

History. — Juan  Diaz  de  Solis, 
a  Spaniard,  sailed  up  the  estuary 
of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  in  1516 
and  asserted  his  master's  sover- 
eignty over  the  surrounding 
country.  In  1535  the  site  of 
Buenos  Aires  was  occupied  by 
Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza;  but  no 
settlement  was  firmly  established 
until  after  1580,  when  Spanish 
rule  began  to  have  the  support 
of  other  towns  which  were  being 
founded.  The  settlements  con- 
tinued under  the  administration 
of  the  viceroy  of  Peru  until  1778, 
when  they  were  made  part  of  a 
new  viceroyalty,  of  which  Buenos 
Aires  was  the  chief  city. 

In  1806,  before  the  British  alli- 
ance with  Spain  against  Napo- 
leon, Buenos  Aires  was  captured 
by  English  troops;  but  they  were 
unable  to  hold  it.  In  1810  the 
general  South  American  revolt 
against  Spain  began;  and  in  1816 
was  founded  the  republic  of  the 
United  Provinces  of  the  Rio  de 
la  Plata.  From  the  turbulence 
of  the  next  twenty  years  there 
issued  the  dictatorship  of  Juan 
Manuel  de  Rosas,  from  1835  to 
1852.  After  his  defeat  by  the 
forces  of  a  coalition  a  new  con- 
stitution was  declared  in  1853. 

The  uprisings  and  revolutions 
of  the  next  two  decades  were 


typical  of  South  American  states; 
but  they  did  not  prevent  mate- 
rial prosperity.  In  1881  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic  acquired  by 
treaty  with  Chile  a  small  part  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  greater 
part  of  Patagonia. 

Between  1899  and  1902  bound- 
ary disputes  with  Chile  were  set- 
tled by  arbitration.  In  the  north, 
the  Puna  de  Atacama  was  di- 
vided with  Chile  in  1899,  so  that 
the  larger  and  more  valuable 
eastern  portion  fell  to  the  Argen- 
tine Republic.  South  of  41°  s. 
lat.  the  dispute  as  to  the  bound- 
ary with  Chile  was  submitted  to 
King  Edward  vii.  of  England  as 
arbitrator,  and  in  1902  he  deter- 
mined that  the  frontier  should 
coincide  for  the  most  part  with 
the  watershed. 

In  1910  Dr.  Roque  Saenz-Pefia 
was  elected  president.  In  that 
year  the  centennial  of  the  revo- 
lution of  May  25,  1810,  was  cele- 
brated by  four  international  ex- 
positions— land  transport,  agri- 
culture, fine  arts,  and  hygiene — 
held  at  Buenos  Aires. 

On  May  16,  1914,  the  U.  S. 
legation  at  Buenos  Aires  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  an  embassy; 
and  on  July  10,  1916,  the  Spanish 
legation  was  also  raised  to  that 
rank.  President  Hipolito  Irigo- 
yen  took  office  Oct.  12,  1916. 

During  the  Great  War  the 
Republic  maintained  a  policy  of 
neutrality.  In  1922  Dr.  Marco 
de  Alvear  entered  upon  a  six- 
year  term  as  president. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Child's 
Spanish  -  American  Republics; 
Turner's  Argentina  and  the  Ar- 
gentines; Pan-American  Union's 
Handbook  of  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic; Holdich's  The  Countries  of 
the  King's  Award;  Koebel's  Ar- 
gentina Past  and  Present  (1912); 
Bulletins  of  the  Pan-American 
Union. 

Ar'gentite,  or  Silver  Glance, 
a  gray  sulphide  of  silver  (q.v.) 
and  one  of  the  chief  sources  of 
the  metal. 

Argenton,  ar-zhah-ton',  town, 
France,  in  the  department  of 
Indre,  on  the  Creuse;  55  miles 
southeast  of  Chatellerault.  In- 
dustries include  boot  and  shoe 
factories,  and  tanneries.  Pop. 
(1921)  5,575. 

Arglle  Plastlque,  ar-zhel'pla- 
stek'  (French  'plastic  clay'),  a 
series  of  beds  of  clay  found  in  the 
Tertiary  basin  of  Paris,  belonging 
to  the  Lower  Eocene  and  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  pottery. 

Argllla'ceous  Bocks,  a  class  of 
sedimentary  rocks  in  which  clay 
is  an  important  constituent. 
Pure  clay  or  kaolinite  is  a  hy- 
drated  silicate  of  aluminum 
formed  by  the  decomposition  of 
other  materials,  chiefly  feldspars. 
Clay  usually  contains  certain 
other  ingredients,  such  as 
quartz,  mica,  hornblende,  and 
hematite.  Shale  is  a  hardened  or 


Argd 


353 


Argonaut 


consolidated  argillaceous  rock, 
while  slate  is  a  variety  that  has 
undergone  both  hardening  and 
deformation  by  which  new  cleav- 
age planes  are  developed. 

Ar'go,  the  largest  of  Ptolemy's 
fifteen  southern  constellations, 
lies  east  of  Canis  Major  and 
Columba.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  saw  in  it  the  ship  of 
Jason;  the  Hindus  venerated  it 
as  a  solar,  the  Egyptians  as  a 
lunar,  bark — the  last-named  peo- 
ple holding,  further,  that  by 
means  of  it  Isis  and  Osiris  had 
surveyed  the  Deluge ;  and  in  Eu- 
rope it  still  figured  as  the  ark  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  The 
unwieldy  size  of  the  asterism  led 
to  so  much  confusion  in  the  no- 
menclature of  its  component  stars 
that  Sir  John  Herschel  recom- 
mended its  partition  into  Carina, 
'the  keel;'  Puppis,  'the  poop;' 
Vela,  'the  sails;'  and  Malus.'the 
mast;'  and  the  arrangement  has 
become  prevalent  save  that,  for 
Malus,  Lacaille's  Pyxis, '  the  com- 
pass,' is  sometimes  substituted. 

One  of  the  structures  forming 
the  great  'Keyhole'  nebula 
(N.G.C.  3372),  so  called  from  the 
shape  of  one  of  its  character- 
istic dark  openings,  seems,  from 
a  comparison  of  Sir  John  Her- 
schel's  drawing  with  Sir  David 
Gill's  photograph,  to  have  lost 
since  1837,  nearly  all  its  light. 
Close  to  the  'Keyhole,'  the  ex- 
traordinary variable  rj  Carinae 
outshone  Canopus  in  1843,  then 
rapidly  declined,  and  is  now  sta- 
tionary at  7.5  magnitude.  It 
shows  the  spectrum  of  coupled 
dark  and  bright  rays  belonging 
to  most  temporary  stars.  A 
still  finer  spectral  display  is  made 
by  the  brilliant  Wolf-Rayet  star, 
7  Velorum,  some  of  the  constit- 
uent lines  in  which  have  been 
identified  through  Professor  Pick- 
ering's discovery  of  a  second  hy- 
drogen series,  represented  by  ab- 
sorption in  spectrographs  of  f 
Puppis.  The  lustrous  section  of 
the  Milky  Way  in  Argo  is  em- 
blazoned with  several  fine  clus- 
ters, notably  Messier  46,  which 
includes  the  annular  nebula 
N.G.C.  2438,  and  Messier  93, 
described  by  Smyth  as  'of  a 
starfish  shape.'  Both  are  situated 
in  Puppis. 

Ar'gol,  known  in  commerce 
as  Crude  Tartar,  is  an  impure 
bitartrate  of  potash  or  cream  of 
tartar,  occurring  as  a  hard  crys- 
talline deposit  in  the  vats  in 
which  wine  is  fermented,  and  in 
bottles  of  wine,  where  it  is  termed 
'crust.'  The  salt  is  present  in 
grape  juice,  but  being  insoluble 
in  alcohol  is  precipitated  as  fer- 
mentation proceeds.  Tartaric 
acid,  cream  of  tartar,  Rochelle 
salts,  and  tartar  emetic  are  pre- 
pared from  the  substance. 

Argoiis.    See  Arc.os. 

Ar'gon  (Gr.  'inactive'),  A  39.9, 
a  gas  existing  in  the  atmosphere 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  'U 


in  the  proportion  of  about  .8  per 
cent.,  the  presence  of  which  was 
first  suspected  by  Cavendish  in 
1785,  but  attracted  no  further  no- 
tice till  1895,  when  Lord  Ray- 
leigh  and  Sir  William  Ramsay  an- 
nounced its  discovery,  calling  it 
argon  on  account  of  its  chemical 
inactivity.  Lord  Rayleigh  found 
that  nitrogen  obtained  from  the 
air  always  gives  a  higher  den- 
sity than  nitrogen  prepared  from 
chemical  compounds,  and  Ram- 
say suggested  that  this  was  due  to 
the  presence  in  atmospheric  nitro- 
gen of  a  heavier  gas.    By  pass- 


other  element;  it  is  2^  times  as 
soluble  in  water  as  nitrogen 
and  has  approximately  the  same 
solubility  as  oxygen.  It  lique- 
fies at  —  186°  C,  and  solidifies 
at  —189.6°  C;  and  is  best  recog- 
nized by  the  characteristic  lines 
near  the  red  end  of  spectrum. 
The  best-known  method  of  ob- 
taining argon  on  a  large  scale 
is  from  liquid  oxygen.  Consult 
Ramsay's  Gases  of  the  Atmos- 
phere and  Position  of  Argon  and 
Helium  among  the  Elements. 

Ar'gonaut,  or  Paper  Sailor, 
a  cuttle  belonging  to  the  order 


\ 
I 


M  U  S  C  A 


The  Constellation  Argo, 


ing  atmospheric  nitrogen  through 
heated  tubes  which  contained 
metallic  magnesium,  the  nitro- 
gen was  fixed,  and  a  residual  gas 
was  obtained.  It  was  soon  dis- 
covered that  the  argon  thus  ob- 
tained was  not  itself  a  simple 
substance,  but  a  mixture  of  what 
is  now  known  as  pure  argon,  and 
other  constituents  in  much 
smaller  proportions.  Of  these 
helium  had  been  known  since 
1868  as  an  element  in  the  sun. 
The  others,  which  have  been 
named  neon,  krypton,  and 
xenon,  occur  in  very  minute 
quantities. 

Argon  is  nearly  one  and  a  half 
times  heavier  than  air;  it  cannot 
be  made  to  combine  with  any 


Octopoda  and  the  genus  Argo- 
nauta.  One  species  {A.  argo) 
lives  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
is  often  called  the  paper  nautilus, 
though  it  bears  no  relation  to 
the  true  nautilus  (q.  v.).  Its 
peculiarity  is  the  presence — in 
the  female  only — of  a  thin, 
translucent,  radiately  fluted  shell. 
This  serves  as  a  shelter  for  the 
animal,  which  is  held  in  place  by 
membranous  expansions  of  the 
two  dorsal  arms,  and  also  as  a 
receptacle  for  the  eggs.  The 
cuttle  has  the  appearance  of 
sailing  about  on  the  water;  hence 
its  name  and  the  many  fanciful 
legends  concerning  it.  The  male 
has  no  shell  and  is  much  smaller 
than  the  female. 


Argonauise 


353A 


Argonne 


Ar'gonaiitae,  or  Argonauts, 
according  to  Greek  legend,  a  band 
of  sailors  who  journeyed  to  Col- 
chis to  secure  the  golden  fleece. 
Their  story  is  alluded  to  in  the 
Odyssey,  and  is  related  by  Hesiod, 
and  among  later  writers,  with 
great  fulness  by  Apollonius  Rho- 
dius  and  Apollodorus.  The  le- 
gend runs  thus:  Pelias,  King  of 
lolchos,  having  ousted  his  half- 
brother  ^son,  wished  to  rid  him- 
self of  the  latter's  ;3on,  Jason, 
who  demanded  the  crown  which 
was  rightfully  hi  >.  /.ccordingly, 
with  wily  intent,  ii'elias  sug- 
gested that  Jason  should  prove 
his  courage  by  going  in  quest  of 
the  golden  fleece  which  hung  on 
an  oak  tree  in  the  grove  of  Ares, 
in  Colchis,  guarded  day  and 
night  by  a  fiery  dragon.  Jason 
gladly  agreed,  and  with  the  aid 
of  Hera,  Athena,  and  Argus 
built  for  the  quest  the  vessel 
Argo,  sometimes  represented  as 
the  first  ship  to  venture  on  the 
deep.  It  had  fifty  oars,  and  in 
its  crew  were  all  the  great  heroes 
of  the  day,  inclu4ing  Jason  him- 
self. Castor,  an(  Pollux,  Zetes 
and  Calais  (sons  <  i  Boreas),  Or- 
pheus, Hercules,  Tydeus,  The- 
seus, and  Nestor. 

The  expedition  left  the  shores 
of  Thessaly,  touched  at  the  island 
of  Lemnos,  where  dwelt  a  state  of 
women  ruled  by  Queen  Hypsi- 
pyle  (q.  v.);  stopped  at  Cyzicus 
in  Mysia,  where  Hercules  was 
left  behind  to  seek  for  his  friend 
and  follower  Hylas  (q.  v.); 
and  reached  Thrace,  where  Phin- 
eus  the  sage,  whom  the  adven- 
turers freed  from  the  Harpies 
(q.  v.),  instructed  them  how  they 
might  safely  pass  the  Symple- 
gades — rocks  which  clashed  to- 
gether at  the  entrance  to  the 
Euxine  Sea.  This  they  did  with 
only  slight  injury  to  the  ship  and 
arrived,  after  further  experiences, 
at  the  shores  of  Colchis.  Here 
King  JEetes  craftily  promised 
the  golden  fleece  to  Jason  if  he 
could  harness  to  the  plough  two 
fire-breathing  oxen  with  brazen 
feet,  and  sow  the  field  thus 
ploughed  with  dragon's  teeth, 
from  which  it  was  known  a 
crop  of  armed  men  would  spring, 
whom  he  must  slay.  Jason  con- 
sented, and  aided  by  Medea,  the 
king's  daughter,  to  whom  he  had 
plighted  his  troth,  performed  the 
task,  secured  the  fleece,  and 
sailed  away,  accompanied  by 
Medea  and  her  brother  Absyrtus. 
King  ^etes  pursued  them  but 
his  purpose  was  frustrated  by 
Medea,  who  killed  her  brother 
and  scattered  his  limbs  on  the 
waters  so  that  her  father  must 
interrupt  his  voyage  to  collect 
the  fragments  of  the  body  for 
burial. 

Concerning  the  return  voyage 
of  the  Argus  there  seems  to  be 
less  definite  legend.  According 
to  the  ante-Homeric  Argonautics, 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


the  adventurers  returned  home 
the  way  they  went,  i.e.,  by  the 
Black  Sea;  but  the  fame  of 
the  Odyssey  made  it  an  estab- 
lished belief  that  they  returned 
through  the  Mediterranean,  by 
the  route  the  famous  Ulysses 
pursued.  They  are  supposed 
to  have  come  at  length  to  the 
isle  of  Circe,  where  they  received 
the  rites  of  purification  for  the 
murder  of  Absyrtus,  and  thence 
to  the  isle  of  the  Sirens,  from 
whose  entrancing  strains  they 
were  rescued  by  Orpheus'  lyre. 
Passing  Scylla  and  Charybdis 
and  the  Wandering  Islands,  they 
then  reached  the  land  of  the 
Phaecians,  and  from  there  jour- 
neyed to  Syrtes  on  the  coast  of 
Libya,  to  Crete,  Anaphe  and 
^gina,  finally  arriving  at  lol- 
chos. 

The  story  of  the  Argonauts 
contains  a  number  of  incidents 
common  not  only  to  European 
but  to  savage  folklore;  variants 
have  been  collected  from  Sam- 
oyed,  Epirot,  Kafir,  Malagasy, 
Algonquin,  Gaelic,  Norse,  Rus- 
sian, Italian,  Japanese,  and 
Samoan  sources. 

For  the  later  story,  see  Jason, 
Medea,  and  Pelias.  Consult 
Euripides'  Medea;  Apollonius 
Rhodius'  Agonautica;  Kingsley's 
Heroes;  Keightley's  Mythology; 
Tatlock's  Greek  and  Roman  My- 
thology (1916). 

Argonauts  of  '49.  See  Forty- 
niners. 

Argonne,  a  wooded  region  and 
rocky  plateau,  departments  of 
Meuse  and  Ardennes,  France, 
extending  from  Grand  Pre  on 
the  north  to  Thiaucourt  on  the 
south. 

The  Argonne  has  a  notable  his- 
tory, having  served  as  a  battle- 
ground in  several  wars.  It  fig- 
ured prominently  in  the  Great 
War  (1914-19)  of  Europe  (q.  v.). 
An  account  of  the  principal  ac- 
tions follows: 

Early  Actions. — On  the  even- 
ing of  Sept.  5,  1914,  the  Ger- 
man armies  had  reached  the 
extreme  limits  of  their  sweeping 
advance  of  the  first  days  of  the 
European  War.  At  that  time 
the  Fourth  German  Army  of 
the  Imperial  Crown  Prince  had 
reached  the  position  where  its 
line  extended  over  the  Argonne 
from  St.  Menehould  to  south  of 
Verdun  and  was  opposed  in  its 
advance  by  Sarrail's  Third 
French  Army.  In  the  First  Bat- 
tle of  the  Marne,  the  army  of  the 
Crown  Prince  was  the  pivot  on 
which  the  German  line  swung. 
Here  Sarrail's  Third  Army  re- 
pulsed the  repeated  assaults  of 
the  Crown  Prince  from  Sept. 
6  to  Sept.  11.  The  next  day  the 
Crown  Prince  fell  back  to  a 
position  running  from  Clermont 
to  St.  Menehould,  where  he 
held  the  only  good  pass  of  the 
Argonne.     This  retirement  was 


made  to  conform  to  the  retire- 
ment along  the  whole  German 
line.  The  retreat  saved  Fort 
Troyon  which  had  been  bom- 
barded for  five  days  and  now 
was  Httle  more  than  a  heap  of 
dust  with  a  garrison  of  forty- 
five  men  and  four  effective  guns 
remaining. 

In  the  First  Battle  of  the 
Aisne  (see  Aisne,  Battles  of), 
the  Crown  Prince  on  Oct.  3, 
1914,  made  a  vigorous  assault 
upon  Sarrail's  centre  from  south 
of  Varennes  to  just  north  of 
Verdun.  At  the  same  time  he 
attempted  a  turning  movement 
through  the  woods  of  the  Ar- 
gonne against  St.  Menehould, 
for  which  German  guns  were 
brought  up  through  the  La 
Grurie  woods  to  the  forest  road 
from  Varennes  west  to  Vienne. 
The  next  day,  after  sharp  fight- 
ing, the  French  fell  upon  them 
and  drove  them  back  north  of 
Varennes,  capturing  that  town 
and  gaining  the  road  across  the 
Argonne,  which  gave  them  touch 
with  the  right  of  Langle's 
Fourth  French  Army.  This  vic- 
tory straightened  out  the  French 
front,  which  now  ran  from  Ver- 
dun due  west  to  north  of  Souain, 
and  then  along  the  Roman  road 
to  Rheims. 

During  December,  1914,  the 
Crown  Prince  was  very  active  in 
the  Argonne,  where  the  fighting 
was  confined  to  the  narrow  strip 
8  miles  wide  from  Varennes  to 
Vienne.  His  objective  was  to 
regain  the  pass  which  was  the 
connecting  link  between  Sarrail's 
and  Langle's  armies.  The  num- 
bers engaged  in  the  numerous 
attacks  were  small  and  gave 
many  chances  for  personal  en- 
terprise from  which  came  won- 
derful tales  of  chivalry  and  dar- 
ing. The  German  attacks  failed, 
while  the  French  gained  ground, 
pushing  their  trenches  forward 
into  La  Grurie  woods.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1915,  another  advance 
was  made  in  the  same  woods, 
where  more  than  a  mile  of  Ger- 
man trenches  were  captured 
by  the  Italian  regiment  under 
Lieutenant  Colonel  Garibaldi, 
whose  brother  Constantine  fell 
in  the  engagement.  The  wood- 
land war  now  relapsed  into  a 
genuine  stalemate. 

The  only  major  action  during 
the  midsummer  of  1915  was  the 
assault  of  the  Imperial  Crown 
Prince  in  the  Argonne.  For  al- 
most eight  months  his  small 
army  had  been  stationed  in  the 
Argonne  engaged  in  a  forest 
warfare  which  was  barren  of 
results.  The  French  held  the 
pass  between  the  little  towns  of 
Vienne  and  Varennes,  save  at 
its  eastern  end,  where  the  Ger- 
man lines  curved  south  and 
covered  Varennes  at  a  point  on 
the  Cleremont  road  south  of 
the  village  of  Bouveuilles.  The 


Argonne 


353B 


Argonne 


Crown  Prince  receiving  rein- 
forcements began  his  attack  on 
June  20,  and  heralded  it  with 
an  announcement  that  the 
French  had  been  using  inflam- 
matory bombs  southeast  of 
Varennes,  and  flooded  the  op- 
posing trenches  with  Hquid  fire. 
The  announcement  was  false, 
being  part  of  that  naive  plan 
by  which,  when  the  Germans 
intended  adopting  discreditable 
methods,  they  began  by  accusing 
their  opponents  of  them.  The 
same  thing  had  happened  pre- 
paratory to  the  attack  by  poi- 
soned gas  at  the  Second  Battle 
of  Ypres,  and  the  Allies  were  on 
the  alert.  Between  June  20  and 
July  2  four  attacks  were  deUv- 
ered  on  the  French  left  against 
the  angle  formed  by  the  French 
lines  and  the  Vienne-Binarville 
road.  Much  use  was  made  of 
asphyxiating  shells,  but  the  re- 
sult totalled  only  a  few  hun- 
dred yards  of  gain.  On  July  7 
the  Crown  Prince  changed  his 
plan  and  flung  his  main  strength 
against  the  French  right  from  a 
green  ride  cut  in  the  wood  called 
Haute  Chevauchee.  After  vio- 
lent artillery  bombardment,  two 
divisions  of  the  sixteenth  corps 
were  hurled  on  the  French  be- 
tween Fontaine  Madame  and 
the  highest  point  on  the  Haute 
Chevauchee,  a  hillock  known  as 
La  Fille  Morte.  This  position 
was  carried,  and  the  Germans 
advanced  their  centre  and  left 
nearly  a  mile.  July  14  the 
French  counter-attacked  at  the 
other  side  of  the  forest,  where 
they  gained  some  ground  both  in 
woods  of  La  Grurie  and  beyond 
it  to  the  west  towards  the  vil- 
lage of  Servon.  After  that  the 
fighting  languished.  The  Crown 
Prince  was  pushed  back  from 
the  Haute  Chevauchee  and  La 
Fille  Morte,  and  the  result  of  a 
month's  struggle  was  a  German 
gain  of  an  average  of  400  yards 
on  their  Argonne  front.  The 
casualties  on  both  sides  were 
about  equal. 

During  the  Champagne  Offen- 
sive of  the  French  in  Sept.,  1915, 
the  Crown  Prince  attempted  a 
diversion  in  the  Argonne.  On 
Sept.  27  his  army  advanced,  as 
in  July,  on  the  point  called  La 
Fille  Morte,  and  after  a  gas 
attack  delivered  five  separate 
assaults  on  Humbert's  left  wing. 
They  won  in  places  a  few  yards 
of  trenches  but  the  attack  was 
so  weak  that  not  a  single  man 
was  drawn  off  from  the  Cham- 
pagne armies  to  meet  it. 

Meuse-Argonne  Offensive.— 
In  the  final  offensive  planned  by 
Marshal  Foch  to  break  the  Ger- 
man defences  all  along  the  line 
from  the  Lorraine  to  the  sea,  the 
United  vStates  forces  held  the 
positions  between  the  Argonne 
and  the  Meuse  and  east  of  that 
river  facing  Briey.  The  object 
Vol.  L— Oct.  '19 


of  the  offensive  in  this  section 
according  to  the  report  of  Gen- 
eral Pershing  was  'to  draw  the 
best  German  division  to  our  front 
and  to  consume  them.'  The  goal 
of  the  American  attack,  which 
was  the  hinge  of  the  AUied  offen- 
sive, was  the  Sedan- Mezieres 
railroad,  the  main  line  of  supply 
for  the  German  forces  on  the 
major  part  of  the  Western  front, 
and  the  evacuation  of  the  Briey 
iron  fields.  The  American  right 
flank  was  protected  by  the 
Meuse,  while  the  left  embraced 
the  Argonne  forest  whose  ra- 
vines, hills,  and  elaborate  de- 
fences screened  by  dense  thick- 
ets had  been  considered  impreg- 
nable. The  Third  Corps  cov- 
ered the  right  from  the  Meuse  to 
Malancourt,  the  Fifth  Corps 
from  Malancourt  to  Vauquois, 
and  the  First  Corps  from  Va- 
quois  to  Vienne  le  Chateau. 

Briefl-y  the  Meuse-Argonne 
offensive  is  divided  into  three 
phases.  The  first  phase  started 
Sept.  25,  when  the  American 
army  quietly  took  the  places  of 
the  French,  who  thinly  held  the 
line  of  the  sector.  They  also 
opened  artillery  fire  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Meuse,  as  if  an  at- 
tack were  coming  in  that  quar- 
ter. Then  followed  an  artillery 
bombardment  of  the  German 
back  areas  everywhere  between 
the  Suippe  and  Verdun.  At 
5:.30  A.M.,  Oct.  26,  Pershing's 
army  crossed  the  parapets,  mas- 
tering all  the  first-line  defences. 
The  greatest  gains  at  this  point 
were  the  heights  of  Montfaucon. 
East  of  the  Meuse  a  division  of 
Americans  with  the  Second 
Colonial  French  Corps  gained 
an  advance  which  gave  further 
protection  to  the  right  flank  of 
the  main  body.  By  Oct.  4  the 
First  American  Army  had  ad- 
vanced over  seven  miles  through 
the  Hindenburg  and  Volker 
lines,  but  failed  to  clear  the 
whole  of  the  Argonne  Forest. 
They  were  now  in  the  open  and 
prepared  for  the  German  reac- 
tion. After  the  first  surprise 
the  Germans  launched  violent 
counter-attacks  supported  by 
heavy  bombardments  and  quan- 
tities of  gas.  Through  all  of 
this  action  the  Americans  re- 
tained the  offensive  and  seized 
strategical  points  in  preparation 
of  further  attacks. 

The  second  phase  of  the  of- 
fensive was  opened  with  a  re- 
nev/ed  attack  all  along  the  line 
on  Oct.  4.  This  phase  is  marked 
by  the  most  violent  attacks  and 
counter-attacks,  and  desperate 
stands  on  the  part  of  the  best 
German  divisions  that  had  been 
made  at  any  time  during  the  war. 
It  was  found  necessary  to  con- 
stitute a  second  American  army, 
and  on  Oct.  9  the  command  of 
the  First  Army  was  turned  over 
to  Lieut.-Gen.  Hunter  Liggett. 


The  command  of  the  Second 
Army,  whose  divisions  occupied 
a  sector  in  the  Woevre,  was 
given  to  Lieut.-Gen.  Robert  L. 
Buliard.  On  Oct.  10  the  Ger- 
mans were  cleared  out  of  the 
Argonne  Forest,  St.  Juvin  was 
taken  after  a  desperate  assault 
a  fev/  days  later,  and  Grand  Pre, 
an  important  German  strong- 
hold, was  taken  three  different 
times  —the  last  time  on  Oct.  26, 
caiising  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Germans  from  Belle  Joyeuse 
Farm,  which  had  changed  hands 
eleven  times  in  ten  days.  On 
Oct.  2S  the  American  16-inch 
naval  guns,  which  had  been  just 
brought  up,  opened  a  destruc- 
tive fire  on  the  Longuyon-Sedan- 
Mezieres  railroad.  During  this 
phase  the  First  Army  had  suc- 
ceeded in  breaking  through  the 
strong  Kriemhilde  Line,  which 
had  successfully  held  the  Ar- 
gonne positions  firm  in  German 
hands  for  four  years  and  was 
deemed  impregnable. 

A  notable  incident  of  this 
phase  was  the  advance  and 
rescue  of  the  so-called  'Lost 
Battalion.'  On  the  night  of 
Sept.  27,  a  battaUon  of  the  308th 
Infantry,  commanded  by  Major 
Whittlesey,  participated  in  an 
attack  on  a  German  position 
deep  in  the  forest,  three  miles 
northeast  of  Binarville.  By  a 
single  file  advance  they  gained 
their  objective;  but  at  dawn 
found  Germans  safely  entrenched 
in  front,  behind,  and  on  both 
sides  of  their  position.  Thus  sur- 
rounded, a  target  for  German 
artillery  and  machine  guns,  and 
without  food  during  the  last 
thirty-six  hours,  this  battalion 
held  out  against  the  enemy  for 
three  days.  Late  on  Monday, 
Sept.  30,  it  was  rescued  in  an 
attack  of  the  307th  Infantry  led 
by  Lieut.  Col.  Eugene  Hough- 
ton. 

The  last  phase  of  the  offen- 
sive began  Nov.  1  with  a  des- 
perate assault  of  Liggett's  First 
Army  against  the  Freya  line, 
40  kilometres  south  of  Sedan. 
The  line  was  crushed  every- 
where, Aincrevile,  Bayonville, 
Champigneuille  and  Thenorgues 
fell,  and  Buzancy,  an  important 
German  railhead,  was  taken 
by  storm.  The  German  resist- 
ance gave  way  before  the  re- 
peated attacks  of  the  First  Corps 
and  they  began  to  fall  back  so 
rapidly  that  their  retreat  bor- 
dered on  a  rout,  which  compelled 
thfe  American  infantry  to  follow 
in  motor  trucks  in  order  to  retain 
an  offensive  contact.  The  Third 
Corps  crossed  the  Meuse  on 
Nov.  5,  and  in  conjunction  with 
the  troops  on  that  side  attacked 
the  reinforced  German  resist- 
ance which  attempted  to  hold 
the  line  on  the  east  of  the  Meuse 
from  Sivry  to  the  north.  Here, 
after  desperate  fighting,  a  wide 


Argos 


354 


ArgyU 


salient  was  driven  into  the  Ger- 
man line  and  Stenay  was  cap- 
tured by  Nov.  11.  By  Nov.  4 
the  First  Corps  crushed  the 
German  stand  at  Chatillon-sur- 
Bar  and  the  Second  Division  of 
the  Fifth  Corps  boldly  took 
Beaumont.  On  the  left  the 
First  Corps  continued  the  ad- 
vance and  by  Nov.  6  took 
Raucourt  and  reached  the  out- 
skirts of  Mouzon  and  Sedan. 
The  next  day,  the  Meuse  was 
crossed  and  both  Corps  smashed 
into  the  German  lines  with 
success. 

In  six  days  the  First  Army 
had  rushed  through  to  Sedan 
clearing  all  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Meuse,  liberating  many 
towns  and  thousands  of  civilians, 
and  capturing  great  quantities 
of  war  material.  The  German 
armies  were  all  but  bottled  up, 
as  there  remained  only  their 
lines  of  communication  by  way 
of  Liege.  Plans  were  now  laid 
for  an  advance  between  the 
Meuse  and  the  Moselle  in  the 
direction  of  Longwy,  by  the 
First  Army,  while  at  the  same 
time,  the  Second  Army  was  to 
strike  the  iron  fields  of  Briey. 
Orders  of  attack  had  gone  out 
on  the  morning  of  Nov.  11 
when  hostilities  ceased    at  11 

A.M. 

Ar'gos,  Argolis,  Argia,  or 
Argolice,  district  and  town  of 
ancient  Greece.  The  district  lies 
around  the  Argolic  Gulf,  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  Arcadian 
Mountains,  on  the  south  by  La- 
conia,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
territories  of  Troezen  and  Epi- 
daurus.  In  early  days  it  became 
the  predominant  state  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  but  early  in  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  was  reduced 
by  Sparta  to  a  secondary  place. 
The  state,  however,  retained  its 
independence  until  the  Roman 
conquest  (146  B.C.) 

Argolis,  with  Corinth,  now 
forms  one  of  the  sixteen  nomar- 
chies  of  modern  Greece.  Area, 
1,442  square  miles.  Pop.  158,- 
000. 

The  town  Argos,  with  its  cit- 
adel Larissa,  lies  on  a  plain  west 
of  the  Inachus  River,  7  miles 
northwest  of  Nauplia.  It  was 
noted  for  the  worship  of  Hera 
(Juno),  whose  temple,  the  Herae- 
um,  lay  between  it  and  Mycenae. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Argostoli,  ar-gos-to'lo,  seaport, 
Ionian  Islands,  capital  of  Cepha- 
lonia,  famous  for  its  Sea  Mill§, 
which  are  driven  by  a  stream  of 
sea  water  pouring  with  great 
force  into  two  holes  in  the  rocky 
coast.    Pop.  14,000. 

Argot,  ar-go'.    See  Slang. 

Arguelles,  ar-gal'yas,  Augits- 
TIN  (1778-1844),  Spanish  states- 
man and  orator,  was  born  in 
Rivadisella  in  Asturias.  He  took 
part  in  the  War  of  Independence 
in  1808,  and  as  a  member  of  the 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


Cortes  assisted  in  producing 
the  liberal  constitution  of  1812. 
Upon  the  restoration  of  Ferdi- 
nand VII.,  he  was  arrested  and 
condemned  to  ten  years  in  the 
galleys.  He  was  released  during 
the  revolution  of  i82'0,  but  sub- 
sequently was  obliged  to  flee  to 
England,  where  he  remained 
until  the  amnesty  of  1832.  He 
afterward  became  a  leader  of 
the  Moderates,  and  guardian 
(1841)  to  Queen  Isabella.  His 
oratorical  powers  won  for  him 
the  name  of  the  Spanish  Cicero. 

Ar'giunent,  in  rhetoric  or 
logic,  is  a  reason  offered  for  or 
against  a  proposition,  opinion, 
etc.;  a  debate  or  disputation. 
Certain  types  of  argument  have 
received  special  names — e.g.  (1) 
the  argumenlum  a  fortiori,  an  ar- 
gument from  the  truth  of  a  more 
general  or  difficult  proposition 
to  the  truth  of  a  related  proposi- 
tion of  less  generality  or  difficulty; 
(2)  the  argumenlum  ad  hominem, 
an  argument  applied  to  the  par- 
ticular man  one  is  addressing, 
based  on  his  principles  or  con- 
duct, his  prepossessions  or  pre- 
judices; (3)  the  argumenlum  ad 
rem,  an  argument  drawn  from  the 
nature  of  the  subject-matter; 
(4)  the  argumenlum  ad  populum, 
an  argument  based  on  prevailing 
opinions  or  sentiments;  (5)  the 
argumenlum  ad  verecundiam,  an 
appeal  to  an  opponent's  unwill- 
ingness to  contradict  the  opin- 
ions of  eminent  authority;  (6)  the 
argumenlum  e  consensu  gentium, 
an  argument  from  the  general 
acceptance  of  a  proposition  to  its 
truth. 

Argument,  in  legal  procedure, 
is  the  address  to  the  jury  in 
which  the  counsel  sets  forth  the 
points  in  his  client's  case  which 
determine  its  outcome. 

Argun,  ar-gobn',  river,  Siberia, 
called  in  its  upper  course  the 
Kerulen,  joins  the  Shilka  to 
form  the  Amur.  It  rises  in  the 
Great  Kinghan  Mountains,  flows 
north,  and  drains  the  eastern 
part  of  Transbaikalia,  passing 
through  Nerchinsk,  and  forming 
the  frontier  between  Siberia  and 
China.    Length  1,100  miles. 

Ar'gus,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
giant  with  a  hundred  eyes,  only 
two  of  which  were  closed  at  one 
time.  Hera  set  him  to  watch  lo, 
whom  Zeus  has  changed  into  a 
heifer;  but  Hermes,  who  was  sent 
to  carry  her  off,  managed  to  sur- 
prise and  kill  Argus,  whereupon 
Hera  transferred  his  eyes  to  the 
tail  of  a  peacock,  her  favorite 
bird. 

Argus  Pheasant  (Phasianus 
argus),  a  genus  of  galUnaccous 
birds,  native  to  the  Indo-Malay- 
an  region.  The  plumage  of  the 
male  is  magnificent;  the  head  is 
dark  blue  with  a  black  crest,  and 
the  tail  has  twelve  feathers,  beau- 
tifully marked,  the  two  middle 
ones  being  much  elongated.  The 


secondary  wing  feathers  are  much 
longer  than  the  primary  and, 
like  the  tail  feathers  are  well 
covered  with  eye-like  markings, 
from  which  the  bird  derives  its 
name  (see  Argus).  Like  the 
peacock  it  erects  the  tail  into  a 
huge  fan,  and  struts  about  be- 
fore the  fem.ale.  The  latter  is  a 
plain  bird  of  mottled  buff  and 
black  and  without  the  eye-spots. 
The  male  attains  a  total  length 
of  six  feet,  about  fifty  inches  of 
which  is  in  the  tail. 

Argyll,  ar-gil',  Earls  and 
Dukes  of.  Archibald  Camp- 
Bell,  Fifth  Earl  (1530-73), 
was  a  great-great-grandson  of 
Colin,  lyord  Campbell,  created 
First  Earl  of  Argyll  in  1457.  He 
headed  the  Lords  of  the  Con- 
gregation in  their  successful 
efforts  to  thwart  the  poHcy  of 
the  queen  regent;  was  involved 
in  the  murder  of  Darnley;  and 
intrigued  to  deliver  Mary  from 
prison.  Under  the  regency  of 
Morton  he  was,  however,  made 
lord  chancellor. 

Archibald  (1598-1661)  after- 
ward Eighth  Earl  was  created 
marquis  in  1641.  This  earl  de- 
picted in  Scott's  Legend  of  Mon- 
trose, supported  the  Covenanters; 
and,  although,  in  1641,  he  was 
created  marquis,  he  nevertheless 
bore  arms  against  Charles  I.,  and 
in  1644  was  defeated  by  Mon- 
trose. He  took  up  the  royal 
cause  against  Cromwell  in  1651; 
but  at  the  restoration  he  was 
called  to  account  by  Charles  ii, 
for  submission  to  Cromwell's 
usurpation,  and  was  executed 
at  the  Cross  of  Edinburgh  in 
1661. 

The  fate  of  his  son  Archibald, 
Ninth  Earl  (d.  1685),  was 
equally  tragic.  His  support  of 
the  Highland  rising  in  favor  of 
Charles  ii.  in  1654  led  to  his 
condemnation;  but  he  was  re- 
leased in  1663,  and  restored  to 
his  estates  and  titles  as  earl.  He 
suppressed  the  risings  of  the  Cov- 
enanters in  1665  and  following 
years,  though  always  advising 
gentler  measures;  and  for  resist- 
ing the  Test  Act  of  1681  he  was 
found  guilty  of  treason.  Escap- 
ing from  prison,  he  went  over  to 
Holland,  whence  in  1685  he  re- 
turned to  Scotland,  and  associat- 
ed himself  with  the  Monmouth 
rebeUion,  when  he  was  taken 
prisoner  and  beheaded  at  Edin- 
burgh. 

The  restoration  by  William  of 
Orange  of  Archibald,  Tenth 
Earl  and  afterward  duke  (d. 
1703),  to  his  estates,  was  one  of 
the  causes  of  the  rising  in  the 
Highlands  under  Dundee  in 
1689.  Arg\ll  shares  with  Dal- 
rymple  the  responsibility  for 
the  massacre  of  Glencoe.  He 
was  created  duke  in  1701.  His 
eldest  son,  John,  Second  Duke 
(1678-1743),  was  created  a  peer 
of  England  for  his  services  in 


Argyllshire 

supporting  the  Union,  and  served 
under  Marlborough.  He  took  a 
leadinoj  part  in  promoting  the 
accession  of  George  I.;  was  ap- 

gointed  commander-in-chief  in 
Gotland,  and  led  the  Royalist 
troops  against  the  Jacobites  at 
Sherift'muir.  In  171S  he  was 
created  Duke  of  Greenwich.  He 
figures  in  The  Heart  of  Mid- 
lothian. George  Douglas,  eighth 
duke  (1823-1900),  second  son  of 
the  seventh  duke,  was  a  distin- 
guished orator  and  politician,  and 
an  able  writer  on  ecclesiastical 
matters,  on  geology,  and  on 
economics.  From  IS53  he  was  a 
member  of  most  Liberal  govern- 
ments, successively  Lord  Privy 
Seal,  Postmaster-general,  and  Sec- 
retary of  State  for  India;  but  in 
1881  he  resigned  oJilce  on  the 
question  of  tne  Irish  Land  Bill. 
Among  his  principal  works  are 
The  Reign  of  Lav)  (1866;  19th 
ed.  1890);  Primaval  Man  (1869): 
The  Unity  of  Nature  (1884;  2nd 
ed.  1888);  and  The  Philosophy  of 
Belief  (1894).  His  eldest  son,  John 
Douglas  Sutherland,  ninth  duke. 
Marquis  of  Lorne  (b.  1845),  mar- 
ried, in  1871,  Princess  Louise, 
daughter  of  Queen  Victoria. 
From  1878-83  he  was  governor- 
general  of  Canada.  He  wrote 
Canadian  Pictures  (1884);  Life 
of  Lord  Palmerston  (1892);  and 
a  popular  Life  of  Queen  Victoria 
(1901). 

Argyllshire,  a  maritime  co.  in 
the  w.  of  Scotland,  with  an  ex- 
treme length  from  N.  to  s.  of  115 
m.,  and  a  coast-line,  owing  to  its 
numerous  sea  lochs,  of  2,290  m. 
It  has  an  area  of  3,165  sq.  m.,  and 
is  very  mountainous.  The  chief 
town  is  Inveraray.  Sheep-raising, 
herring  fishing,  slate  (Balfachulish) 
and  granite  quarrying  (near  In- 
veraray), coal-mining  (near  Camp- 
beltown), and  whisky  distilling 
(Campbeltown  and  Islay)  are  the 
chief  industries.  Highland  cattle 
are  largely  ^  reared.  In  the  s. 
the  climate  is  mild,  but  in  the  N. 
it  is  severe,  the  snow  lying  on  the 
hills  for  months.  Argyll  and  the 
Islands  form  one  of  the  seven 
bishoprics  of  the  Scottish  Epis- 
copal Church.  Pop.  (1901)  73,642. 
See  Lord  A.  Campbell's  Records 
of  Argyll  (1885). 

Argyria,  a  bluish  gray  per- 
manent pigmentation  of  the  skin, 
caused  oy  the  internal  use  of 
compound.s  of  silver,  an{l  most 
pronounced  in  those  parts  exposed 
to  the  light.  It  is  due  to  silver 
particles  in  the  corium. 

Argyropulos,  Joannes  (1416- 
I486?),  humanist,  was  born  in 
Constantinople,  but  on  the  fall  of 
that  city  he  went  to  Rome  (1453), 
where  he  soon  became  a  renowned 
Greek  teacher,  passing  from  Rome 
to  Padua,  and  from  Padua  (on  the 
invitation  of  Cosimo  de'  Medici) 
to  Florence  (1456),  where  among 
his  pupils  were  Picro  and  Lo- 


a56 

renzo  de'  Medici.  In  1471  he 
moved  to  Rome,  where  he  died. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Poliziano 
and  Reuchlin.  His  principal 
works  were  translations  of  Aris- 
totle' s  treatises, with  commentaries. 

Aria  (It.),  a  rhythmical  air, 
song,  or  tune.  The  term  is  com- 
monly applied  to_  a  song  for  a 
single  voice  with  instrumental  or 
vocal  accompaniment,  and  intro- 
duced into  such  works  as  oratorios, 
operas,  and  cantatas.  Beethoven' s 
Ah  Perfido  and  Mendelssohn's 
Infelice  are  model  specimens. 

Ariadne,  daughter  of  Minos, 
king  of  Crete,  the  lover  and  helper 
of  Theseus,  to  whom  she  gave  the 
clue  of  thread  whereby  he  extri- 
cated himself  from  the  labyrinth 
after  slaying  the  Minotaur.  She 
left  Crete  as  Theseus' s  promised 
wife,  but,  according  to  Homer, 
was  killed  by  Artemis  in  Naxos. 
Another  legend  relates  her  deser- 
tion by  Theseus  and  her  succor 
by  Dionysus,  who  married  her, 
and  placed  her  among  the  stars. 
Her  name  is  attached  to  the  43rd 
asteroid. 

Arian  Controversy.  See  Arius. 

Ariano  di  Puglia,  tn.  and 
episc.  see,  prov.  Avellino,  Italy, 
stands  on  the  Apennines,  2,505  ft. 
above  sea-level,  24  m.  by  rail  E.  by 
N.  of  Benevento.  Sulphur  is  mined 
and  marble  quarried;  the  liqueur 
rosoglio  is  also  made.  Pop.  incl. 
comm.  (1901)  17,653. 

Arias  Montanus,  Benedictus 
(1527-98),  Spanish  theologian  and 
Orientalist,  member  of  the  Council 
of  Trent.  He  edited  the  Antwerp 
Polyglot  Bible  (1568-72);  wrote 
Jewish  Antiquities  (1503).  See 
Life  by  Loumyer  (1842),  and  An- 
tonio's Bihliotheca  Hispana  Nova. 

Aribert,  or  Heribert  (d.  1045), 
was  of  a  noble  Lombard  family, 
and  became  archbishop  of  Milan 
in  1018.  He  was  a  partisan  of 
the  Ghibelline  (Imperial)  party, 
and  invited  to  Italy  the  Emperor 
Conrad  ii.,  whom  'he  crowned  as 
king  of  Milan  in  1026. 

Arica,  a  roadstead  and  tn., 

grov.  of  Tacna,  Chile,  connected 
y  a  railway  (39  m.  long)  with 
Tacna.  Goods  are  landed  here 
for  Bolivia.  Forty_  per  cent,  of 
the  customs  is  paid  to  Bolivia. 
Some  guano,  salt,  copper,  silver 
and  sulphur  are  exported.  It  had 
formerly  30,000  inhabitants,  but 
has  suft'ered  repeatedly  from  earth- 
quakes, and  was  bombarded  by  the 
Chileansinl880.  Pop.  (1895)2,853. 

Arichat,  fishing  tn.  on  s.  side 
of  Madame  I.,  Nova  Scotia;  chief 
town  of  Richmond  co.;  has  a  fine 
harbor,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  bishop.  There  is  a  lead 
mine  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  (in- 
cluding W.  Arichat)  2,500. 

Ariege.  (1.)  Dep.,  S.  France,  on 
frontier  of  Spain  and  Andorra, 
with  the  main  ridge  of  the  Py- 
renees running  w.N.w.  (highest 
point    in   the    department,  Pic 


Arlosti 

d'Estats,  10,300  ft.)  as  the  s. 
limit.  It  lies  mainly  in  the  valley 
of  the  Ariege  and  its  tributaries, 
the^  W.  part  of  the  department 
draining  to  the  Garonne.  In  spite 
of  its  general  altitude  the  climate 
is  not  cold,  and  there  are  some 
delightful  summer  resorts.  The 
lower  plains  are  fertile — cereals, 
vegetables,  fruits,  and  vines  being 
grown — and  the  pasturage  of  the 
highlands  supports  great  flocks  of 
sheep  and  herds  of  cattle.  Refor- 
estation has  begun._  The  indus- 
tries are  wool-working  and  iron- 
mining.  Lead,  copper,  marble, 
coal  and  slate,  zinc,  and  man- 
ganese occur.  Area,  1,893  sq.  m. 
Cap.  Foix.    Pop.  (1901)  210,527. 

Ariel,  the  name  of  two  individ- 
uals in  the  English  Old  Testament 
(Ezra  8:16;  1  Chron.  11:22).  In 
Isa.  29:1,  2,  7,  Ariel  is  used  of 
Jerusalem.  It  may  mean  'lion  of 
God,'  or  'hearth  of  God;'  but 
Isaiah  probably  intends  by  par- 
onomasia to  pre'dict  that  Uriel  {i.e.., 
Urusalem  or  Jerusalem),  'God's 
enclosure,'  was  to  become  Arial, 
a  sacrificial  hearth — i.e.,  a  place 
of  slaughter.  See  Cheyne's  Isaiah. 
For  Shakespeare's  Ariel,  see  The 
Tern  pest. 

Aries,  a  zodiacal  constellation 
which  originally  marked  the  first 
sign  of  the  zodiac,  entered  by  the 
sun  at  the  vernal  equinox,  and 
denoted  by  the  symbol  r.  Ow- 
ing to  the  effects  of  precession, 
the  pas  age  of  the  sun  through 
Aries  has  been  shifted  forward 
from  April  16  to  May  13. 

Ariguanabo,  lake,  prov.  of 
Havana,  Cuba.  Its  area  is  c.  6 
sq.  m. 

Arilfara,  or  Arikaree  (horns)  a 
part  of  the  Caddoan  linguistic 
family  and  members  of  the  Paw- 
nee confederacy,  were  formerly 
associated  with  the  Skidi.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition  they  separ- 
ated, and  the  Arikara  migrated  to 
the  northward,  fighting  their  way 
through  the  Dakota  country  to 
the  vicinity  of  Fort  Berthold, 
North  Dakota,  where  their  de- 
scendants now  reside.  See  Maxi- 
milian's Travels  in  North  America 
(1843),  Hayden's  Ethnography 
and  Philology  of  the  Missouri 
Valley  (1862)  and  Coues,  New 
Light  on  the  Early  History  of  the 
Greater  Northwest  (1897). 

Ari manes.    See  Ahriman. 

Arimao,  or  San  Juan,  river, 
prov.  Santa  Clara,  Cuba. 

Ariminum,  the  ancient  name 
of  Rimini,  Italy. 

Arion  of  Methymna  in  Les- 
bos, lived  at  Corinth  about  625 
B.C.;  was  one  of  the  earlier  Greek 
lyric  poets,  and  developed  the 
clithyramb  or  choral  song  in  hon- 
or of  Dionysus.  The  one  ejctant 
fragment  attributed  to  him  is 
probably  a  forgery  (see  Bergk's 
Poetoe  Lyrici  Grceci,  new  ed.  1900). 

Ariosti,  Attilio  (c.  1660-1740), 
Italian  musician  and  composer. 


Arlosto 

Handel,  Bononcini,  and  Ariosti 
were  employed  together  to  pro- 
duce Italian  opera  in  England 
in  1720.  He  composed  fifteen 
operas,  of  which  the  most  popu- 
lar was  Coriolano.  He  has  been 
credited  with  the  invention  of 
the  viol  d'amore. 

Ariosto,  LuDOVico  (1474- 
1533),  Italian  poet,  was  born  at 
Reggio  in  Emilia.  In  1503,  after 
he  had  written  two  comedies.  La 
Cassaria  and  /  Suppositi,  and 
several  lyric  poems,  he  was  taken 
into  the  service  of  Cardinal  Ippo- 
lito  d'Este.  While  residing  in 
Ferrara,  Ariosto  wrote  his  great 
poem  Orlando  Furioso,  which  was 
published  in  1516  in  its  first  form, 
in  forty  cantos.  Quarrelling  with 
the  close-fisted  cardinal  in  1518, 
Ariosto  transferred  his  services 
to  Alfonso  of  Ferrara.  Soon  after 
the  2nd  edition  of  his  Orlando  ap- 
peared, in  1521,  the  duke  sent 
Ariosto  to  the  wild  province  of 
Garfagnana,  to  suppress  various 
robber  bands.  After  returning  to 
Ferrara  he  produced  three  new 
comedies — La  Lena,  II  Negro- 
mante,  and  La  Scolastica.  For 
some  years  he  labored  anew  at  the 
Orlando,  which  appeared  in  its 
final  form  in  1532,  in  forty-six 
cantos.  He  died  in  the  following 
year  and  was  buried  in  the  church 
of  San  Benedetto  at  Ferrara, 
where  a  splendid  tomb  of  marble 
was  erected  over  his  remains. 

The  Orlando  Furioso,  upon 
which  Ariosto' s  immortality  rests, 
is  one  of  the  great  poems  of  the 
world,  and  one  of  the  very  first 
epics  in  the  sphere  of  chivalry  and 
romance.  Taking  up  the  theme 
first  undertaken  by  Boiardo  in 
the  Orlando  Innamoralo,  Ariosto 
elaborated  it,  celebrating  the  ori- 
gin of  the  family  of  Este,  and  the 
loves  and  exploits  of  Ruggieri 
and  Bradamante.  The  second 
part  of  the  argument  deals  with 
the  wars  between  Charlemagne 
and  the  Saracens,  while  the  mad- 
ness and  recovery  of  Orlando 
form  the  third  argument  or  action 
of  the  poem.  A  good  new  edition 
of  the  Orlando  Furioso  was  issued 
by  Picciola  in  1885.  The  best- 
known  translation  into  English 
are  those  by  Harrington  (1591), 
Hoole  (1773-83),  and  Stewart 
Rose  (1823).  The  Satires  have 
been  translated  by  Markham 
(1608)  and  Crokcr  (1759).  See 
Life  prefixed  to  Cappelli's  Lcttere 
di  L.  Ariosto  (3rd  ed.  1887);  and 
Lije  by  G.  Campori  (3rd  cd.  1896), 

Ariovistus,  German  chief,  rc- 
auested  by  the  Sequani  to  help 
tnem  against  the  .^^^dui  by  whom 
they  were  hard  pressed.  PIc 
subdued  the  yEdui  and  seized 
territory  from  the  Sequani  as  his 
reward.  Sequani  and  ^xlui  now 
combined,  and  invoked  the  aid  of 
Ca;sar,  who  defeated  Ariovistus 
and  his  hordes  about  50  m.  from 
the  Rhine  (B.C.  58).  Ariovistus  es- 


356 

caped  across  the  river  in  a  small 
boat,  and  nothing  more  is  known 
of  him. 

Arispe,  tn.,  Sonora,  Mexico, 
on  the  Sonora  R.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood are  antiquities,  and  several 
mines.    Pop.  2,000. 

Arista,  Mariano  (1802-85), 
Mexican  general  and  statesman. 
In  the  war  with  the  U.  S.  in  1846 
he  was  defeated  by  General  Tay- 
lor at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de 
la  Palma.  He  was  war  minister 
under  Herrera  in  1848,  and  was 
elected  president  in  1851.  He  re- 
signed in  1853,  and  was  banished. 

Aristaeus,  a  Greek  deity,  ac- 
cording to  tradition  the  son  of 
Apollo  and  the  nymph  Cyrene. 
At  Thebes  he  learned  the  art  of 
healing  and  prophecy,  and  mar- 
ried Autonoe,  the  daughter  of 
Cadmus.  In  the  Theban  legend 
they  were  the  parents  of  Actason. 
He  was  worshipped  as  the  pro- 
tector of  vine  and  olive  planta- 
tions, hunters,  and  herdsmen. 

Aristagoras  OF  Miletus  (d. 
497  B.C.),  brother-in-law  of  His- 
tiaeus  the  despot,  who  left  him 
governor  of  the  town  while  he 
was  at  the  Persian  court.  In 
501  B.C.  Aristagoras  failed  to 
capture  Naxos  for  the  Persians, 
and,  fearing  punishment,  ini- 
tiated the  Ionian  revolt  against 
Persia.  Sparta  refused  aid;  but 
Athens  sent  ships  and  troops, 
with  which  he  burnt  Sardis, 
though  he  was  soon  driven  back 
to  the  coast.  The  Athenians  went 
home,  and  the  Persians  took  most 
of  the  Ionian  cities — Aristagoras 
fleeing  to  Thrace,  where  he  fell  in 
battle  against  the  Edonians. 

AristarchusoFSAMOS(^.c.280- 
264  B.C.),  ancient  Greek  astrono- 
mer, whose  one  surviving  work 
treats  of  the  distances  of  the  sun 
and  moon  from  the  earth.  He 
appears  to  have  believed  the  sun  to 
be  at  rest  and  the  earth  in  motion. 

Aristarchus  OF  Samothrace 
(c.  150  B.C.),  ancient  Greek  gram- 
marian and  critic,  was  educated 
at  Alexandria,  and  founded  a 
school  of  criticism  himself,  which 
flourished  there,  and  afterward 
at  Rome.  He  is  said  to  have  left 
Egypt  in  his  old  age,  as  Ptolemy 
Physcon,  the  reigning  monarch, 
treated  scholars  badly,  and  to 
have  retired  to  Cyprus,  where,  at 
the  age  of  seventy-two,  he  starved 
himself  to  death,  as  he  was  suf- 
fering from  an  incurable  dropsy. 
His  whole  life  was  devoted  to  the 
study  and  criticism  of  the  Greek 
poets,  and  especially  Homer.  It 
was  by  his  labors  that  the  text 
of  Homer,  as  we  possess  it,  with 
the  division  of  both  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  into  twenty-four  books, 
was  constituted,  though  later  cor- 
ruptions have  overlaid  his  edition 
to  some  extent.  His  aim  was  to 
restore  the  genuine  text:  verses 
which  he  considered  spurious  he 
marked  with  an  obelus,  and  those 


Arlstldes 

of  particular  beauty  with  an  aster- 
isk. None  of  his  writings  survive 
in  integrity.  See  Lehr's  De  Aris- 
tarchi  Studiis  Homericis  (3rd  ed. 
1882);  Ludwig's  Aristarchs  Ho- 
merische  Textkritik  (1885). 

Aristides  (fl.  360-330  B.C.), 
Greek  military  painter,  whose 
work,  The  Capture  of  a  City,  was 
taken  by  Alexander  the  Great 
to  Macedon;  while  A  Battle  with 
Persians,  containing  a  hundred 
figures,  was  purchased  by  Mnason 
of  Elatea;  and  a  portrait  of  Bac- 
chus was  bought  by  Attalus,  king 
of  Pergamus,  and  brought  to 
Rome  by  L.  Mummius. 

Aristides  OF  Athens  (c.  530- 
468  B.C.),  son  of  Lysimachus,  sur- 
named  'the  Just,'  was  a  leading 
Athenian  statesman  at  the  time 
of  the  Persian  wars  and  after- 
ward. In  490  B.C.  he  commanded 
his  tribe  at  Marathon;  the  next 
year  he  was  archon;  in  482  he  was 
ostracized — i.e.  banished  by  popu- 
lar vote — for  five  years,  as  a  result 
of  his  rivalry  with  Themistocles. 
Returning  in  480,  he  rendered  con- 
spicuous service  at  the  battle  of 
Salamis,  commanded  the  Athe- 
nian forces  at  Plataea  (479),  and 
drew  up  the  assessment  of  the 
confederate  states  which  joined 
Athens  in  the  Delian  League  (476). 
He  proposed,  or  supported,  the 
throwing  open  of  the  archonship 
to  all  Athenians  (c.  478).  He  died 
so  poor  that  his  funeral  expenses 
were  paid  by  the  state,  which  also 
portioned  his  daughters,  and  gave 
a  grant  of  land  to  his  son  Lysima- 
chus. As  compared  with  his  rival 
Themistocles,  nis  policy  was  lack- 
ing in  foresight  and  breadth. 
He  has  been  represented  as  an 
oligarchical  and  conservative  poli- 
tician, and  probably  favored 
friendship  with  Sparta.  See  Plu- 
tarch's Life  of  Aristides. 

Aristides,  Publius  ^lius, 
surnamed  Theodorus  (129  - 
189?),  Greek  rhetorician,  '  was 
born  at  Adriani  in  Mysia,  and 
studied  under  Herodcs  Atticus 
and  Polcmon  of  Pergamus.  After 
his  return  from  travels  in  Greece, 
Italy,  Egypt,  and  Asia,  he  was 
seized  (155)  with  an  illness  which 
lasted  for  seventeen  years,  and  is 
described  in  his  six  Sacred  Dis- 
courses, which  contain  descrip- 
tions of  visions,  dreams,  and 
cures.  His  account  of  these  cures 
has  excited  attention,  because  of 
their  similarity  to  the  effects  of 
hypnotism.  Removing  to  Smyr- 
na, he  became  a  favorite  of  the 
Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius;  and 
when  the  town  was  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  (178),  he  in- 
duced the  emperor  to  rebuild  it. 
He  died  at  Smyrna,  about  189. 
Fifty-five  of  his  orations  and  two 
treatises  of  rhetorical  and  tech- 
nical importance  are  still  extant. 
The  best  complete  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  of  Keil  (1898.  etc.^. 
See  Baumgart's  Aristeides  (1874). 


Arlstlppus 

Aristippus  OF  Cyrene  (r,  430- 
360  B.C.),  founder  of  the  Cyrenaic 
school  of  philosophy,  was  a  pupil 
of  Socrates,  lived  at  the  court  of 
Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Sicily, 
but  returned  to  Cyrene  in  his  old 
age.  He  was  the  first  of  Socrates' 
followers  to  take  pay  for  teach- 
ing; and  for  this  reason,  and 
because  of  his  philosophy  of 
pleasure,  he  was  attacked  by 
Plato  and  Xenophon.  Aristippus 
developed  the  utilitarianism  of 
Socrates  into  an  acknowledged 
hedonism:  the  pleasure  of  the 
moment  is  the  sole  end  of  action; 
pain  is  the^  greatest  evil;  knowl- 
edge also  is  purely  sensational; 
truth  exists  simply  in  relation  to 
each  individual,  and  universal 
truth  is  impossible.  Aristippus 
is  mentioned  by  Plato,  Xeno- 
phon, Aristotle,  and  Diogenes 
Laertius.  See  also  Zeller's  Soc- 
rates and  Socratic  Schools  (Eng. 
trans,  by  Reichel,  1877),  and 
Ueberweg's  History  of  Philos- 
ophy (Eng.  trans.,  1877). 

Aristizable  Island,  Queen 
Charlotte  Sound,  British  Colum- 
Dia,_  near  Princess  Royal  I.,  is  27 
■xi.  in  length. 

Aristobulus  (c.  150  B.C.), 
founder  of  the  Jewish-Alexan- 
drian philosophy.  He  endeavored 
to  show  that  the  Greek  poets  and 
philosophers  drew  their  matter 
trom  tne  sacred  books  of  the 
Jews.  See  Schiirer's  History  of 
the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of 
Christ  (1886-90). 

Aristobulus  I.  (d.  105  B.C.), 
high  priest  of  the  Jews,  a  son 
of  the  Maccabean  prince,  John 
Hyrcanos.  In  107  B.C.  he  was 
the  first  after  the  Babylonian 
captivity  to  assume  the  title  of 
king  in  Judaea.  He  conquered 
Ituraea,  and  attempted  to  prosely- 
tize the  inhabitants. — His  nephew, 
Aristobulus  ii.,  led  a  successful 
rebellion  of  the  Sadducees  against 
his  brother,  Hyrcanus  ii.,  in  69 
B.C.  He  was  captured  by  Pompey 
in  63  B.C.,  and  taken  to  Rome. 

Aristocracy  (Gr.  'rule  by  the 
best')  is  a  government  controlled 
by  the  nobility  or  privileged  class. 
See  Government. 

Aristodcmus,  hero  of  the  first 
Messenian  War  with  Sparta  (743- 
724  B.C.),  belongs  to  legend  rather 
than  history.  He  slew  his  daughter 
as  a  sacrifice  to  save  his  country- 
was  elected  king  in  731;  and  killed 
himself  on  his  daughter's  tomb. 

Aristol,  an  odorless,  amor- 
phous powder,  of  a  light-brown 
color,  used  instead  of  iodoform  in 
dressing  wounds.  It  is  prepared 
from  iodine  and  thymol,  is 
slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  but 
more  freely  so  in  water  and 
glycerin.  It  is  useful  as  a  cica- 
trizant  and  mild  antiseptic. 

Aristolochia,  a  genus  of  plants 
found  in  temperate  and  tropical 
countries,  except  Australia.  A 
European  species,  sometimes  cul- 


S57 

tivated,  is  A.  clematitis  (birth- 
wort).  The  corolla  forms  a 
trumpet-shaped  tube  similar  to 
the  spathe  of  the  arum,  which 
attracts  and  imprisons  insects 
until  fertilization  is  effected.  A, 
macrophylla  is  an  American  species 
known  as  Dutchman's  pipe,  from 
its  curved  purple-brown  corolla. 

A.  Serpentaria  (Virginian  snake- 
root),  having  an  S  shaped  corolla, 
is  one  of  the  plants  formerly  sup- 
posed to  be  a  cure  for  snake-bite. 

Aristomenes,  the  chief  figure 
on  the  Messenian  side  in  their 
second  war  with  Sparta  (685-668 

B.  C.);  elected  king  of  the  Mes- 
senians  in  684  B.C.;  resisted  the 
Spartans  in  the  mountain  fortress 
of  Ira  for  eleven  years,  and,  when 
the  fortress  was  captured,  retired 
(668)  to  Rhodes. 

Aristophanes  (c.  444-380  B.C.), 
the  greatest  comic  poet  of  Athens 
and  of  Greece.  His  father  Philip- 
pus  came  from  ^gina,  which  cast 
some  doubt  on  the  Athenian  citi- 
zenship of  Aristophanes;  and  the 
popular  statesman  Cleon  brought 
more  than  one  unsuccessful  action 
against  him  to  deprive  him  of 
civic  rights.  This  partly  accounts 
for  Aristophanes' s  extreme  bit- 
terness against  Cleon.  His  first 
play — the  Banqueters,  which  is 
lost — was  produced  for  him  by  a 
friend  (427  B.C.),  as  he  was  too 
young  to  compete.  Of  his  greater 
works,  the  Acharnians  appeared 
in  425,  the  Knights  in  424,  the 
Clouds  (probably)  in  423,  and  a 
revised  edition  in  422;  the  Birds 
in  414,  the  Frogs  in  405,  and  the 
Women  in  Parliament  in  392. 
His  last  play  seems  to  have  been 
acted  in  387  B.C.  Aristophanes 
was  by  far  the  greatest  poet  of 
the  old  Attic  comedy,  which  was 
distinguished  by  its  bold  and  out- 
spoken criticism  and  caricature 
of  public  men  by  name;  indeed, 
leading  men  were  often  made 
characters  in  hi^  comedies — as 
Nicias,  Cleon,  and  Demosthenes 
in  the  Knights,  Socrates  in  the 
Clouds,^  and  Euripides  in  the 
Acharnians.  It  is  this  personal 
criticism  which  gives  a  great  his- 
torical value  to  his  plays;  but  his 
excellence  as  a  comedian  depends 
more  truly  on  other  qualities — 
the  originality  of  his  plots,  the 
humor  of  the  situations,  the 
keenness  of  his  wit,  the  vigor, 
grace,  and  delicacy  of  his  lan- 
guage, the  smartness  of  his  dia- 
logue and  repartee,  and  the  per- 
fection of  his  lyrical  passages. 
Aristophanes  was  a  conservative, 
and  disliked  the  new  school  of 
philosophy,  education,  and  poetry 
represented  by  Socrates  and  Eu- 
ripides. The  Birds,  perhaps  his 
finest  play,  supposed  the  founda- 
tion of  a  *  Cloud-cuckoo-city,'  in 
ridicule  of  the  ambitious  aspira- 
tions of  his  day.  In  the  Women 
in  Parliament  he  caricatures 
Plato's  Republic^  which  contended 


Aristotle 

for  the  perfect  equality  of  the 
sexes.  The  Wasps  ridicules  the 
excessive  litigation  of  the  Athe^ 
nians.  As  a  comic  genius  he  was 
on  a  level  with  Shakespeare  and 
Moliere.  Editions:  text  alone, 
Blaydes  (1886);  with  notes,  the 
editions  of  separate  plays  by  Kock 
(German)  and  Merry  (1887-1901). 
Mitchell  has  translated  the  Achar- 
nians, Knights,  Clouds,  and  Wasps 
(1822);  Frere  the  same  without  the 
Wasps,  but  including  the  Frogs 
and  Peace  (1871);  B.  B.  Rogers 
various  plays  (1867-1902).  Ra- 
cine's comedy  Les  Plaideurs  is  an 
imitation  of  the  Wasps. 

Aristophanes  OF  Byzantium 
{c.  264  B.C.),  Greek  scholar  and 
critic,  pupil  of  Zenodotus  and 
Eratosthenes,  and  master  of  Aris- 
tarchus,  was  chief  librarian  of  the 
Great  Library  at  Alexandria.  He 
introduced  the  use  of  accents  in 
Greek.  Some  fragments  of  his 
works  remain  in  the  scholia  to 
various  poets,  and  some  plots  pre- 
fixed to  tragedies  and  comedies. 

Aristotle  is  rightly  called  by 
Dante  'the  master  of  them  that 
know*  {Inf.,  iv.  130);  for  he  first 
marked  out  the  path  all  science 
was  to  follow,  and  first  took  all 
knowledge  to  be  his  province,  al- 
though he  had  little  appreciation 
of  mathematical  ways  of  thinking. 
Aristotle  is  called  'the  Stagirite,' 
from  Stageira  (or  Stagiros),  in  Chal- 
cidice,  where  he  was  born  in  384 
B.C.  The  profession  of  medicine 
was  hereditary  in  his  family.  At 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  came  to 
Athens,  now '  the  school  of  Greece,' 
in  search  of  that  wider  culture  of 
which  Isocrates  was  then  the  great 
professor;  but  it  was  in  the  Acad- 
emy, the  school  of  Plato,  alone  that 
he  could  find  intellectual  satisfac- 
tion. Plato  was  then  about  sixty 
years  old.  Aristotle  always  speaks 
of  him  with  reverence,  though  he 
was  driven  to  reject  his  most  char- 
acteristic doctrine,  that  of  'ideas,* 
or  rather  'forms*  (see  Plato),  at 
least  in  its  original  shape. 

Aristotle  agreed  with  Plato  in 
holding  that  all  science  is  of  the 
'form,'  the  universal  element  in 
things;  but  he  would  not  draw 
the  inference,  so  natural  to  a 
mathematician  like  Plato,  that 
the  'forms'  alone  were  real,  and 
that  the  manifold  objects  of  sense 
only  existed  in  so  far  as  they 
'partook  of  them.  Still  less 
could  he  follow  him  in  his  later 
reduction  of  the  'forms'  to  'num- 
bers' or  mathematical  formulae. 
As  a  biologist,  he  was  most  in- 
terested in  those,  'forms'  which 
constitute  the  genera  and  species 
of  animals  and  are  reproduced  by 
generation,  and  these,  though  the 
true  object  of  science,  are  actual 
only  in  individuals.  There  is  a 
'form  of  man,'  because  'man  be- 
gets man;*  but  it  is  not  a  one 
'alongside  of  the  many,*  but  a 
one  which  is  true  'of  the  many.* 


Aristotle 


358 


Aristotle 


Aristotle  was  about  thirty-seven 
when  Plato  died  (347  B.C.).  He  is 
said  to  have  been  disappointed  at 
not  being  chosen  head  of  the  Acad- 
emy. It  was  natural  that  Plato's 
nephew,  Speusippus,  should  be 
preferred,  for  he  was  in  full  sym- 

Sathy  with  the  later  mathematical 
evelopment  of  Platonism,  which 
Aristotle  did  not  care  for  or  per- 
haps even  understand.  However 
that  may  be,  Aristotle  left  Athens 
in  company  with  Xenocrates,  who 
succeeded  Speusippus  later  on, 
and  the  two  found  a  patron  in 
Hcrmcias,  prince  of  Atarneus  in 
Mysia,  whose  niece,  Pythias,  Aris- 
totle married.  Before  long,  how- 
ever, he  was  invited  by  Philip  of 
Macedon  to  direct  the  education 
of  his  son  Alexander;  but  no 
trace  of  Aristotle's  influence  can 
be  discovered  in  the  career  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  The  fusion 
of  Greeks  and  Persians,  which 
was  Alexander's  ideal,  is  directly 
opposed  to  Aristotle's  doctrine  of 
a  'natural'  distinction  between 
the  _  free  Hellene  and^  the  '  bar- 
barian,* for  whom  it  is  better  to 
be  a  slave.  On  the  other  hand, 
Aristotle  never  saw  that  the 
foundation  of  a  military  empire 
by  his  brilliant  pupil  had  made 
his  favorite  city-state  an  anach- 
ronism. Each  had,  doubtless,  too 
original  a  mind  to  be  much  influ- 
enced by  the  other.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Alexander,  Aristotle 
returned  to  Athens  in  335  B.C. 
Isocrates  was  now  dead,  and 
Speusippus  had  been  succeeded  by 
Xenocrates,  so  the  way  was  clear 
for  him  to  found  a  school  of  his 
own  on  the  model  of  the  Academy. 

Like  Plato,  Aristotle  set  up  his 
school  in  a  'gymnasium'  outside 
the  town.  This  was  the  Lyceum, 
once  a  favorite  haunt  of  Socrates; 
and  the  school  itself  came  to  be 
known  as  the  Peripatos,  from  a 
covered  walk  (TrepiVaTo?)  in  which 
the  lectures  were^  given.  The 
term  'peripatetic'  is  later,  and  is 
due  to  a  confusion,  for  it  implies 
that  the  followers  of  Aristotle 
derived  their  name  from  some 
custom  of  walking  about  while 
teaching.  The  school  was  a 
society  with  a  regular  organiza- 
tion and  a  corporate  life.  Scien- 
tific work  wa5  done  in  common, 
and  its  results  were  embodied 
in  courses  of  lectures  (a^cpoao-ei?) 
whioh  were  constantly  revised  and 
kept  up  to  date  by  Aristotle  him- 
self. It  is  these  lectures  that 
have  come  down  to  us  as  the 
works  of  Aristotle.  But  we  also 
possess  numerous  fragments  of 
discourses  and  dialoj'ues  in  the 
manner  of  Plato  and  Isocrates; 
and  in  1891  a  whole  treatise  on 
the  Constitution  of  Athens,  dis- 
covered on  a  papyrus  roll  in 
Egypt,  was  publisned  for  the 
British  Museum  by  Mr,  Kenyon. 
Cicero  admired  the  style  of  the 
dialogues,  and  speaks  of  Aris- 


totle's 'golden  stream  of  lan- 
guage' (Acad.  Post.,  ii.  38,  119). 
It  is  very  important,  in  compar- 
ing Aristotle  with  Plato,  to  bear 
in  mind  that  we  possess  all  Plato's 
literary  works,  and  not  a  word 
of  his  lectures  in  the  Academy; 
while  we  have  only  Aristotle's 
lectures,  and  no  m.ore  than  scraps 
of  his  published  writings. 

The  death  of  Alexander  revived 
the  activity  of  the  nationalist  and 
democratic  party  at  Athens,  and 
Aristotle  was  threatened,  like 
Socrates  two  generations  earlier, 
with  a  prosecution  for  'impiety.' 
He  fled  to  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  and 
died  the  next  year  (322  B.C.). 

Aristotle's  most  original  crea- 
tion was  the  science  afterward 
called  Logic,  as  contained  in  the 
collection  of  treatises  to  which 
the  name  Organon  ('instrument') 
was  given  at  a  later  date.  The 
first  of  these,  the  Categories  (prob- 
ably post-Aristotelian),  gives  the 
forms  of  predication — substance, 
relation,  quality,  quantity,  etc. 
The  De  Interpretations  (nepl 
epMijvta?,  *on  the  expression  of 
thought  by  language')  deals  with 
affirmation,  negation,'  and  the 
like.  The  Prior  Analytics  treats 
of  the  syllogism,  with  its  moods 
and  figures;  while  the  Posterior 
Analytics  gives  the  theory  of 
demonstrative  science  based  on 
this.  The  term  'analytics*  is 
taken  from  mathematics,  and 
describes  the  scientific  process. 
Each  science  has  certain  'start- 
ing-points'    (apxai)    or  'princi- 

gles'  (principia),  which  cannot 
e  demonstrated  any  more  than 
the  individual  a.t  the  other  end 
of  the  scale.  Science  lies  between 
these  extremes,  and  analysis  con- 
sists in  discovering  the  inter- 
mediate steps,  or  'middle  terms.' 
It  therefore  finds  its  proper  ex- 
pression in  the  syllogism,  in  which 
a  conclusion  i.<=  shown  to  follow 
necessarily  from  two  premises, 
each  containing  the  middle  term, 
which  does  not  itself  appear  in 
the  conclusion.  As  'first  princi- 
ples* cannot  b?  known  in  this 
way,  our  knowledge  of  them  is 
'immediate'  or  'intuitive*  in  the 
sense  that  there  truth  is  appre- 
hended by  perception  alone.  It 
docs  not  follow,  however,  that 
they  are  easily  apprehended;  a 
long  process  of  'induction'  may 
be  required. 

In  the  middle  ages  this  logical 
system,  as  is  well  known,  domi- 
nated all  thought;  but  it  was  apt 
to  \)e  used  as  a  mere  device  for  de- 
veloping conclusions  from  'given' 
premises.  The  revolt  against 
Aristotelian  logic  was  really  a  re- 
volt against  this  misunderstand- 
ing; for  to  Aristotle  himself  no 
syllogism  was  scientific  unless  its 
premises  were  'true  and  more 
known  than  the  conclusion,*  and 
unless  they  expressed  'the  cause 
of  the  conclusion.'  Reasoning  of 


the  other  sort — that  based  upon 
premises  admitted  or  assumed — 
IS  necessary,  indeed,  in  rhetoric, 
and  in  subjects  which  do  not 
admit  of  scientific  accuracy-  and 
this  _  forms  the  subject  of  the 
Topics  (xon-oi,  loci  communes)  the 
last  book  of  which  deals  with 
fallacies,  and  is  known  by  the 
distinctive  title  of  the  Sophistici 
Elenchi.  The  'organon'  forms  a 
propcedeutic  to  all  science. 

Science  itself  was  divided  by 
Aristotle  into  theoretical  and 
practical.  The  objects  of  theo- 
retical science  are  either  un- 
moved, or  have  their  source  of 
motion  in  themselves;  and  it 
'  has  three  branches — mathematics, 
physics,  and  first  philosophy,  or 
theology.  The  first  of  these  Aris- 
totle left  practically  untouched. 
By  physics  (0uo-i(cr))  he  meant  the 
science  of  everything  that  has  its 
source  of  motion  or  efficient  cause 
in  itself,  including,  of  course, 
organic  life.  This  has  to  be 
studied  in  the  light  of  the  four 
causes — the  material,  the  efficient, 
the  formal,  and  the  final.  As, 
however,  the  final  cause  or  'end* 
of  a  thing  is  to  attain  its  form, 
and  as  it  is  the  form  appearing 
as  an  end  that  is  ultimately  tlie 
efficient  cause  of  the  process  from 
potentiality  (Sui'ajais)  to  actual- 
ity (ei^e'p-yeia),  the  four  may  be 
reduced  to  two — matter  (vAtj)  and 
form  (etSo?),  This  amounts  to  a 
theory  of  teleological  evolution. 
Matter  is  purely  negative;  it  only 
exists  potentially — i.e.  in  so  far  as 
it  is  capable  of  tecoming  actual 
through  form.  Tie  course  of  lec- 
tures specially  calico  the  Physics 
($u<rt(cr}  ctKpoaCTis )  deals  with  this 
process,  and  in  particular  with 
motion,  time,  space,  and  the  like; 
while  the  De  Generatione  et  Cor- 

ruptione  {nepl  yei'e'o-eios  Koi  <{>dopai) 

treats  of  coming  into  being  and 
ceasing  to  be.  The  De  Cmlo  (irepl 
ovpavov)  applies  the  theory  to  the 
structure  of  the  universe;  while 
the  Meteorologica  deals  with  par- 
ticular phenomena.  Coming  to 
organic  life,  the  De  Anima  (rrepl 
>//ux%)  explains  the  soul  or  vital 
principle  as  the  formal  cause  of 
a  body  potentially  living.  The 
Historia  Animal ium  contains  an 
astonishing  mass  of  observations 
made  chiefly  from  a  teleological 
point  of  view,  and  thus  prepares 
the  way  for  the  great  biological 
treatises  on  the  Parts  of  Animals, 
the  Locomotion  of  Animals ,  ana 
the  Generation  of  Animals. 

First  philosophy,  or  theology,  is 
said  to  be  the  science  of  'the  real 
as  real.'  It  is  represented  in  the 
Aristotelian  corpus  by  certain 
treatises  which  do  not  stand  in 
any  clear  order  of  connection,  and 
some  of  which  seem  to  be  un- 
finished. They  were  ^jlaced  after 
the  Physics,  and  from  this  fact 
rcceivea  the  title  TA  m^tA  tA 
«/)v<riKa — an  accident  to  which  we 


ARISTOTLE,  THE  'MASTER  OF  THEM  THAT  KNOW/ 

statue  in  the  Palazzo  Spada,  HoiU9. 


Aristotle 


360 


Arithmetic 


owe  the  name  Metaphysics.  It 
appears  that  Aristotle  never  fin- 
isned  this  part  of  his  system,  or 
harmonized  it  with  the  rest.  The 
source  of  all  motion  is  itself  un- 
moved, and  the  way  in  which,  it 
acts  can  only  be  expressed  by 
saying  that  it  'moves  as  an  object 
of  love.'  It  is  pure  actuality,  in 
which  there  is  nothing  merely 
potential.  It  is  pure  mind,  with 
no  object  but  itself;  it  is  thought, 
with  thought  as  its  object — pure 
self-consciousness,  with  nothing 
beyond.  It  is  God,  and  yet  it 
enters  somehow  into  man,  and 
can  only  be  described  in  the  lan- 
guage of  mj'sticism.  The  aspect 
of  reality,  which  Aristotle  had 
sought  to  ignore  by  his  rejection 
of  Plato's  'forms,'  forced  itself 
upon  him  here;  but  there  is 
much  uncertainty  as  to  the  real 
meaning  of  particular  doctrines. 

Practical  science  has  to  do  with 
things  that  have  their  source  of 
motion  in  us;  in  it  we  are  not 
merely  spectators,  but  actors.  Its 
'first  principle,'  then,  will  not  be 
a  statement  of  what  is,  but  a 
definition  of  something  that  is 
to  be,  of  an  end,  and  its  'middle 
terms'  will  be  the  means  of  realiz- 
ing that  end.  The  good  for  man 
was  called  'happiness'  (evSat- 
fioi/i'a)  in  the  Academy,  and  Aris- 
totle adopts  the  term.  He  pre- 
fers, however,  to  say  '  the  good 
life'  (to  iv(^r]v),  as  this  brings  out 
his  characteristic  doctrine  that  it 
is  an  activity,  not  a  mere  state  or 
condition,  as  the  Academy  taught. 
The  treatise  called  the  Nicoma- 
chean  Ethics  (perhaps  because  it 
was  edited  by  his  son  Nicoma- 
chus)  discusses  this  end,  and 
analyzes  the  means  of  its  realiza- 
tion. Happiness  is  an  activity, 
and  it  is  an  activity  in  accordance 
with  the  best  form  of  goodness. 
Goodness  is  of  two  kinds — intel- 
lectual goodness,  and  goodness  of 
character.  Goodness  of  character 
is  a  habit  of  feeling  and  acting 
in  a  mean  between  extremes — i.e. 
of  feeling  and  doing  neither  too 
much  nor  too  little,  but  just  what 
is  right;  and  this  is  shown  by  a 
detailed  description  of  the  vari- 
ous forms  of  goodness,  along  with 
the  forms  of  badness  arising  from 
deficiency  or  excess  in  each  case. 
But  the  mean  must  have  a  stand- 
ard to  fix  it;  for  it  is  not  merely 
quantitative,  as  we  might  sup- 
pose. This  is  found  in  practical 
wisdom  {<t>p6vr)ai<;),  the  wisdom  of 
the  lawgiver  who  has  in  his  soul 
the  'form'  of  goodness,  as  the 
doctor  has  that  of  health.  Now 
this  wisdom  belongs  to  intellect, 

■  not  to  character;  but  it  is  not  the 
highest  form  of  intellectual  good- 
ness. That  is  theoretical  wisdom 
{<To<\)ia),  which  has  to  do  with  the 
loftiest  things  in  the  world.  This, 

^  then,  is  the  highest  form  of  good- 
ncLS,  and  an  activity  according  to 
it  will  be  the  highest  happiness. 


It  cannot,  however,  exist  unless 
the  state  is  organized  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  it  possible.  This 
brings  us  to  the  Politics,  which 
teaches  us  how  the  state,  having 
once  come  into  being,  through  the 
family  and  the  village,  for  the  sake 
of  mere  life,  exists  for  the  sake  of 
the  good  life,  and  how  the  best  may 
be  made  of  it  in  all  circumstances. 

One  department  of  human  activ- 
ity is  production,  and  the  theory 
of  this  would  include  all  the  arts. 
The  highest  of  these  are  the 
arts  of  imitation  (/Lit>i7crts),  which 
arise  from  an  instinct  of  human 
nature.  The  fragment  called  the 
Poetics,  which  deals  with  tragedy, 
is  practically  all  that  remains 
under  this  head.  It  shows  that 
the  function  of  tragedy  is  that 
of  a  'purge'  (/ca0apa-ts)  in  medi- 
cine. The  emotions  of  pity  and 
fear  are  apt  to  accumulate  in  the 
mind,  and  to  produce  a  morbid 
condition.  Tragedy  v/orks  off 
these  feelings  on  a  noble  object  in 
which  we  have  no  mean  interest. 
The  technical  discussion  of  the 
structure  of  tragedy — the  'unities' 
and  the  like — has_  had  more  in- 
fluence upon  the  histcry  of  litera- 
ture and  criticism  than  the  main 
theory,  which  has  generally  been 
misunderstood.  It  is  convenient 
to  mention  the  Rhetoric  along 
with  the  Poetics,  though  Aristotle 
hardly  intended  it  to  occupy  this 

Elace  in  his  system.  It  is  a  ful- 
Iment  of  the  demand,  made  by 
Plato  in  the  Phcedrus,  that  the  art 
of  rhetoric  should  be  based  upon 
psychology  and  treated  in  a  philo- 
sophical spirit. 

Such,  in  bare  outline,  is  the  sys- 
tem of  Aristotle;  but  no  outlme 
can  give  any  suggestion  of  the 
enormous  mass  of  detailed  observa- 
tion upon  which  it  is  built  up,  and 
by  which  it  is  illustrated.  Aris- 
totle had  a  love  of  facts  for  their 
own  sake,  but  he  always  saw 
them  in  the  light  of  universal 
principles.  His  immediate  fol- 
lowers lost  themselves  in  detail, 
and  became  antiquarians  and  col- 
lectors of  scientific  curiosities. 
The  revived  Aristotelianism  of 
the  middle  ages  was  weak  on  the 
other  side.    The  leading  princi- 

Elcs  were  grasped  clearly  enough, 
ut  the  content  was  unscientific. 
The  true  heirs  of  Aristotle's  spirit 
are  the  scientific  men  of  our  clay. 

See  Zeller's  Aristotle  and  the 
Earlier  Peripatetics,  trans,  by 
Costelloe  and  Muirhead  (2  vols. 
1897).  The  chief  English  works 
are  Grote's  Aristotle  (2  vols.  1872) 
— deals  with  the  life  of  Aristotle 
— the  Organon,  De  Anima,  and 
Metaphysics;  G.  H.  Lewes' s  Aris- 
totle: a  Chapter  from  the  History 
of  Science  (1864) — deals  chiefly 
with  the  physics  and  biology. 
For  the  Ethics  and  Politics,  see 
the  essays  in  Sir  Alexander 
Grant's  edition  of  the  Nicomach- 
ean  Ethics  (4th  ed.  1884),  2  vols., 


and  the  introduction  to  New- 
man's edition  of  the  Politics  (4 
vols.  1887-1901).  For  the  Poetics, 
Butcher's  Aristotle's  Theory  of 
Poetry  and  Fine  Art  (3rd  ed.  1903); 
and  for  the  Rhetoric,  the  edition 
by  Cope  and  Sandys  (3  vols.  1877). 

Aristotle's  Lantern.  See  Sea- 
urchin. 

Aristoxenus  (c.  350  B.C.), 
Greek  philcsopher,  born  at  Tarcn- 
tum;  was  a  pupil  of  Aristotle. 
He  wrote  principally  on  music,  his 
chief  work  he'ing  Elements  of  Har- 
mony (ed.  with  German  trans, 
by  Marquard,  1869). 

Arithmetic  is  that  branch  of 
the  science  of  mathematics  which 
treats  of  the  properties  of  numbers 
and  of  the  operations  which  can 
be  performed  with  them.  The 
developm.ent  of  the  science  has 
had  close  relation  to  the  method 
used  to  express  numbers — the 
Greeks,  otherwise  clever  mathe- 
maticians, and  after  them  the 
Romans,  making  but  little  prog- 
ress, because  of  the  clumsy  modes 
of  notation  they  used.  The  Roman 
system  was  in  general  use  through- 
out Europe  until  the  end  of  the 
16th  century,  and  is  still  occasion- 
ally seen  in  dates,  numbering  of 
chapters  in  books,  on  clock  dials, 
etc.  The  symbols  now  in  use  were 
introduced  some  time  before  1,200 
A.D.,  from  the  Arabs,  who  derived 
them  from  the  Hindus,  to  whom 
also  is  to  be  ascribed  the  intro- 
duction of  the  symbol  0,  the  great- 
est step  ever  taken  in  the  history 
of  arithmetical  science,  and  one 
which  completely  escaped  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  Bv  the  use 
of  the  ten  symbols  it  has  been  pos- 
sible to  develop  the  decimal  system 
of  numeration  by  grouping  num- 
bers into  tens  and  giving  names 
to  the  groups  (tens,  hundreds, 
thousands,  etc.).  Of  this  decimal 
system, which  doubtless  arose  from 
the  fact  that  man  had  ten  fingers, 
traces  are  found  in  the  early  in- 
scriptions of  Babylonia  and  Egypt. 
Following  the  introduction  oi  the 
Arabic  system  about  1200  A.D., 
the  science  of  Arithmetic  advanced 
rapidly,  two  important  stages  be- 
ing marked  by  (1)  the  discovery 
of  the  double  rule  of  three  (com- 
pound proportion)  in  the  16th 
century,  and  (2)  the  invention  of 
logarithms  by  Napier  of  Merchis- 
ton  in  the  17th  century;  while 
a  fundamental  development  was 
effected  by  the  extension  of  nota- 
tion to  express  what  part  one 
quantity  is  of  another,  thus  intro- 
ducing the  study  of  fractions.  The 
elementary  operations  of  arith- 
metic are  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication  and  division.  The 
complete  investigation  of  arith- 
metical rules  and  of  the  proper- 
ties of  numbers  has  been  hin- 
dered by  the  prejudice  against  the 
employment  of  literal  symbols, 
which  have  been  considered  to 
belong  exclusively  to  the  domain 


Arithmetical  Machines 


361 


Arizona 


of  algebra.  See  Algebra; 
Mathematics;  Numbers. 
Consult  Brooks'  Philosophy  of 
Arithmetic;  Bertrand's  Traite 
d'Arithmetique;  Smith's  Teaching 
of  Elementary  Mathematics  and 
Rara  Mathematica  (1908) ;  Boole's 
Lectures  on  the  Logic  of  Arith- 
metic (1903);  Branford's  Study  of 
Mathematical  Education  (1908). 

Arithmetical  Machines.  See 
Calculating  Machines. 

Arithmetical  Series.  See 
Series. 

Ari  Thorgilsson,  a're  tor'gel- 
son  (1067-1148),  surnamed  'the 
Learned,'  or  'the  Wise,*  Ice- 
landic historian  and  genealogist, 
one  of  the  first  to  reduce  to  writ- 
ing, in  Roman  characters,  the 
traditional  tales  of  the  Norse- 
men. 

Arius,  a'ri-us  or  a-ie'us  (256— 
336),  an  Alexandrian  theologian, 
born  in  Libya.  After  having 
been  advanced  to  the  priest- 
hood, he  and  his  followers  were 
deposed  and  excommunicated  by 
a  council  of  Egyptian  bishops  at 
Alexandria  (321)  for  maintaining 
that  Jesus  Christ  is  not  of  the 
same  essence  as  God.  To  settle 
the  resulting  controversy,  the 
Emperor  Constdntine  called  the 
Council  of  Nicaea  (325),  which 
adopted  the  Nicene  Creed  sug- 
gested by  Athanasius,  affirming 
the  consubstantiality  of  the 
Father  and  Son.  Arius  and  two 
other  bishops  refused  to  sign  the 
creed,  and  were  exiled;  but 
Arius  was  recalled  about  three 
years  later,  largely  through  the 
influence  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea, 
and  Athanasius,  then  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  refusing  to  obey  the 
Emperor's  command  to  reinstate 
Arius,  was  himself  exiled  (336). 
Arius'  sudden  death  prevented 
the  performance  of  the  ceremony 
by  the  bishop  of  Constantinople. 

Arianism  maintained  that 
there  is  a  difference  in  essence  be- 
tween God  and  Jesus  Christ, 
which  makes  the  latter  second- 
ary; that  the  Son,  though  existent 
before  any  conceivable  time,  and 
creator  of  the  universe,  was  yet 
an  originated  being,  himself  cre- 
ated by  the  Father  out  of  noth- 
ing. This  doctrine  was  a  philos- 
ophy, an  outgrowth  of  the  specu- 
lations of  the  Neo-Platonists, 
Gnostics,  and  Origen.  From 
such  speculations  the  "West  in 
general  kept  itself  aloof,  holding 
to  the  coeternity  and  essential 
identity  of  the  Father  and  the 
Son.  The  Western  victory  in 
381  determined  both  the  ortho- 
dox doctrine  and  the  orthodox 
form  for  its  expression. 

The  period  in  which  Arianism 
was  a  vital  issue  extends  from  its 
temporary  defeat  at  the  Council 
of  Nicasa,  through  the  intervening 
years  of  supremacy  in  which  it 
was  supported  by  imperial  favor, 
to  its  final  overthrow  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  (381). 
The  controversy  centred  about 
Vol.  I.— March  '22 


three  words,  representing  as 
many  parties:  byLoovaiov,  of  the 
same  essence  (Nicenes) ;  erepo- 
ovaiov,  of  unlike  essence  (Arians) ; 
and  onoiova-Lov,  of  like  essence 
(Semi- Arians) .  The  Council  of 
Nicaea  represented  the  triumph 
of  the  first  party. 

The  succeeding  years,  after 
325,  however,  witnessed  a  reac- 
tion, which,  enlisting  both  Arians 
and  Semi-Arians  under  Eusebius 
of  Nicomedia,  reached  the  height 
of  its  power  during  the  reign  of 
Constantius  (337-361).  JuHan 
the  Apostate  (361-364),  himself  a 
pagan,  tolerated  all  Christian 
parties;  but  the  Arians  lost 
ground  through  internal  dissen- 
sions; and  the  extreme  Arian  po- 
sition taken  by  Valens  (364-378) 
drove  many  Semi-Arians  to 
Athanasius.  The  accession  of 
Theodosius  I.  put  an  end  to  Arian 
ascendency.  The  second  ecti- 
menical  council,  held  in  Con- 
stantinople in  381,  reaffirmed 
and  extended  the  Nicene  Creed. 

Arianism  during  its  brief  su- 
premacy made  converts  among 
the  German  nations,  where  it 
continued  until  the  sixth  century. 
In  the  early  eighteenth  century 
there  was  a  revival  of  the  doctrine 
in  England.  In  modern  times, 
however,  pure  Arianism  can 
hardly  be  said  to  exist,  what  was 
left  of  it  having  become  merged 
in  Unitarianism.  See  Athana- 
sius. 

Consult  Newman's  Arians  of 
the  Fourth  Century;  Stanley's 
Eastern  Church;  Gwatkin's  Arian 
Controversy;  Harnack's  History 
of  Dogma;  Bright's  Age  of  the 
Fathers  (1903);  'Arianism'  in 
Cambridge  Medicaval  History  (Vol. 
I,  1911). 

Arlzo'na,  a  State  on  the  south- 
west border  of  the  United  Statesf 
is  situated  between  the  parallels 
31°  20'  and  37°  N.,  and  between 
the  meridians  109°  2'  and  114° 
45'  w.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Utah,  on  the  east  by 
New  Mexico,  on  the  south  by 
Mexico,  and  on  the  west  by  Cali- 
fornia and  Nevada.  The  Colo- 
rado River  forms  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  western  boundary. 
The  total  area  is  113,956  square 
miles,  of  which  113,810  are  land. 

Topography.  —  The  northern 
part  of  Arizona  consists  chiefly  of 
tableland,  while  the  southern 
part  is  traversed  by  numerous 
mountain  ranges.  The  entire 
State,  however,  is  mountainous, 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  total 
area  having  an  altitude  of  3,000 
feet  or  over.  The  Sierra  Nevada 
and  Rocky  Mountains,  meeting 
in  the  north-central  part,  form 
the  southern  rim  of  the  Great  Ba- 
sin. Here  the  greatest  elevation 
in  the  State  is  reached — San 
Francisco  Mountain  (12,794  ft.). 
In  this  region  also  is  what  is 
known  as  the  '  Mogollon  Forest,' 
covering  an  area  of  about  10,000 
square  miles,   and  constituting 


one  of  the  largest  timber  areas 
in  the  United  States.  Lowlands 
occur  in  the  southwestern  part, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Yuma,  where 
the  surface  is  about  170  feet 
above  sea  level. 

The  Gila  River,  the  Salt  River, 
its  main  tributary,  and  their 
branches  rise  in  the  eastern 
mountains,  and  flow  across  Ari- 
zona to  join  the  Colorado  about 
125  miles  above  the  Gulf  of 
California. 

Climate  and  Soil.  — Arizona 
has  a  wide  diversity  of  climate, 
the  northern  part  being  subject 
to  heavy  snows,  while  in  the 
western  part  a  temperature  of 
130°  F.  has  been  recorded.  The 
mean  annual  temperature^  varies 
from  40°  in  the  north  to '69°  in 
the  south.  The  rainfall  also 
varies  greatly — from  2—5.5  inches 
in  the  lower  gulf  valley  to  25-30 
inches  in  the  mountains. 

The  soil  in  the  southern  part  is 
a  sandy  loam;  on  the  plateaus  it 
is  alkaline;  and  in  the  river  val- 
leys a  rich  alluvium.  The  great- 
est obstacle  to  agriculture  is  lack 
of  water,  and  irrigation  is  being 
increasingly  practised. 

Geology. — The  Archaean  era 
is  represented  by  widely  distrib- 
uted areas  of  gneiss  and  slates, 
and  the  Palseozoic  by  the  Tonto 
sandstone  and  extensive  carbon- 
iferous formations.  Consider- 
able deposits  of  red  sandstone 
and  shales,  probably  of  Triassic 
origin,  also  exist.  Discovery  of 
mammoth  remains  in  many 
places  indicates  that  some  of 
the  great  mammals  flourished  in 
Arizona  during  the  Pleistocene 
period. 

Mining.  — In  1919  Arizona 
ranked  twelfth  among  the  States, 
with  a  product  valued  at  $86,- 
950,055;  but  in  1921  the  total 
value  was  only  $25,000,000. 

Copper,  in  which  industry 
Arizona  ranked  first  in  1919,  is 
still  the  most  important  mineral; 
in  1919  the  output  was  valued  at 
$82,689,000;  in  1921  at  $20,265,- 
000.  Silver  was  valued  in  1920 
at  $5,965,404;  gold,  in  1921,  at 
$3,046,000;  lead,  in  1920,  at 
$1,167,981,  and  in  1921  at  $238,- 
000.  Gypsum,  manganese,  and 
sandstone  are  produced  in  small 
quantities. 

While  very  little  coal  is  mined 
in  Arizona,  coal  measures  exist 
at  several  points  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  State.  Oil  in 
small  quantity  is  reported  to  have 
been  struck  near  Holbrook.  For 
several  years  asbestos  has  been 
mined  commercially. 

Forestry. — Cottonwood,  syca- 
more, ash,  willow,  walnut,  iron- 
wood,  mesquite,  and  cherry  grow 
in  the  lowlands;  oak,  juniper, 
pifion,  cedar,  yellow  pine,  fir,  and 
spruce  on  the  plateaus  and 
mountain  sides.  Most  of  the 
wooded  land  is  in  forest  reserves. 
On  June  30,  1920,  the  total  area 
of  the  national  forests  was  11,- 


Arizona 


362 


Arizona 


367,632  acres,  comprised  partly 
as  follows:  Tonto  forest,  1,988,- 
806  acres;  Coconino,  1,771,971; 
Tusayan,  1,298,119;  Prescott, 
1,447,850;  Coronado,  1,304,888; 
Apache,  1,243.142.  The  State 
contains  approximately  20  billion 
feet  of  saw  timber,  with  a  value 
of  about  $40,000,000.  In  addi- 
tion, the  woodland  forests  con- 
tain 32,000,000  cords  of  pinon 
and  juniper  cord- wood,  with  an 
approximate  value  of  $8,000,000. 

Agriculture. — According  to  the 
Federal  Census  for  1920  there 
were  9,975  farms  in  Arizona, 
comprising  5,802,126  acres. 
Farm  property,  including  land, 
buildings,  machinery,  and  live 
stock,  was  valued  at  $233,592,- 
989 — an  increase  of  $158,469,- 
019  (210.9  per  cent.)  since  1910. 
Native-born  white  farmers  num- 
bered 8,262;  foreign-born  whites, 
1,067;  Indians,  537. 

Agriculture  is  largely  depend- 
ent upon  irrigation,  and  remark- 
able results  have  been  achieved 
since  the  completion  of  the  Salt 
River  project  (q.  v.),  which  was 
officially  turned  over  to  a  water 
users'  association  in  1917.  This 
project  includes  the  Roosevelt 
Dam  (q.  v.),  Granite  Reef  Dam, 
and  Joint  Head  Dam,  and  over 
800  miles  of  canals.  The  Yuma 
project  (q.  v.)  is  also  of  import- 
ance. In  1920  Arizona  had  under 
irrigation  467,565  acres,  with  an 
average  value  of  $53.40  per  acre, 
and  a  total  valuation  of  $33,498,- 
094.  The  estimated  cost  of  ex- 
isting enterprises  was  $34,6 1 5, 064 . 

The  foremost  agricultural 
product  of  the  State  in  value  is 
cotton,  this  crop  having  increased 
in  value  from  $730  in  1909  to 
$20,119,989  in  1919.  In  the  lat- 
ter year  106,283  acres  were  de- 
voted to  its  cultivation,  and 
59,351  bales  were  produced. 
According  to  the  Federal  Census 
the  acreage,  yield,  and  value  of 
the  other  principal  crops  in  1919 
were  as  follows:  hay  and  forage, 
197,498  acres,  494,686  tons, 
$10,658,211;  wheat,  37,131  acres, 
835,374  bushels,  $1,921,358;  ka- 
fir  and  milo,  33,608  acres,  849,- 
994  bushels,  $1,274,994;  barley, 
21,748  acres,  656,835  bushels, 
$952,415;  corn,  22,150  acres, 
446,208  bushels,  $870,105. 

The  fruit  industry  is  also  im- 
portant. The  total  crops  of 
peaches,  apples,  and  apricots  in 
1919  were,  respectively,  138,361 
bushels,  120,765  bushels,  and 
60,463  bushels. 

According  to  State  figures,  the 
yield  and  value  of  the  principal 
crops  in  1921  were  as  follows: 
cotton,  39,000  bales,  $5,868,000; 
tame  hay,  450,000  tons,  $5,850,- 
000;  kafir  and  milo,  1,200,000 
bushels,  $1,720,000;  wheat,  840,- 
000  bushels,  $1,050,000;  and 
corn,  1,015,000  bushels,  $1,- 
015,000. 

Stock  Raising. — In  1920  the 
numbers  and  value  of  the  farm 
Vol.  I.— March  '22  . 


animals  were:  cattle,  821,918, 
$35,500,759;  sheep.  881,914,  $7,- 
123,719;  horses,  136,167,  $5.- 
744,671;  mules,  11,992,  $1,415,- 
397;  swine,  49,599,  $885,590; 
goats,  161,124,  $816,793.  In 
1921  the  wool  produced  amount- 
ed to  about  3,000,000  pounds, 
with  a  value  of  about  $3,000,000. 
Poultry  numbered,  in  1920, 
517,312,  valued  at  $640,595. 

Manufactures. — According  to 
the  Federal  Census  of  Manufac- 
tures for  1919  Arizona  had  480 
manufacturimg  establishments, 
employing  10,347  persons  (8,528 
wage  earners)  during  the  year, 
and  expending  $15,126,607  in 
salaries  and  wages.  These  estab- 
lishments turned  out  products  to 
the  value  of  $120,769,112,  to 
produce  which  materials  costing 
$92,645,437  were  utilized.  The 
value  added  by  manufacture  was 
thus  $28,123,675.  In  1914  the 
value  of  products  was  $64,089,- 
510,  and  the  value  added  by 
manufacture,  $24,806,472. 

By  far  the  largest  industry  in 
the  State  is  the  smelting  and  re- 
fining of  copper,  with  a  product, 
in  1919,  valued  at  $94,184,000. 
Other  leading  industries,  with  the 
value  of  their  products  (1919), 
were:  railroad  shop  construction 
and  repairs,  $5,398,000;  flour- 
mill  and  grist-mill  products, 
$2,392,000;  lumber  and  timber 
products,  $2,315,000;  bread  and 
bakery  products,  $1,839,000; 
printing  and  publishing,  $1,715,- 
000;  oil,  cake,  and  cottonseed, 
$1,670,000;  manufactured  ice, 
$1,410,000;  slaughtering  and 
meat  packing,  $1,406,000. 

Transportation.  —  The  total 
railway  mileage  in  1920  was 
2,477.  The  Southern  Pacific  and 
the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa 
Fe  Railroads  traverse  Arizona 
from  east  to  west — the  former  in 
the  southern,  the  latter  in  the 
north -central  part.  The  Santa 
Fe,  Prescott,  and  Phoenix,  the 
Arizona  Eastern,  and  minor  lines 
occupy  the  middle  ground  and 
form  connections  north  and 
south. 

Finance. — On  July  1,  1920,  the 
State  treasury  showed  a  balance 
of  $2,651,019.55;  receipts  during 
the  succeeding  year  amounted  to 
$4,320,754,  and  disbursements  to 
$8,061,681.59.  leaving  a  balance, 
on  June  30,  1921,  of  $2,864,318.- 
04.  The  net  bonded  debt  on 
June  30,  1920,  was  $2,466,259.98, 
and  the  net  value  of  taxable 
property  in  1921,  $830,536,582. 

Banks.— On  June  30,  1920,  the 
national  banks  in  the  State  num- 
bered 21,  with  a  combined  cap- 
ital of  $1,775,000;  a  surplus  of 
$1,076,000;  circulation,  $1,077,- 
000;  deposits,  $23,731,000;  loans, 
$22,046,000;  and  total  assets  of 
$34,802,000.  The  State,  savings, 
and  private  banks,  and  loan  and 
trust  companies  numbered  67, 
with  a  combined  capital  of  $3,- 
736,000;   a  surplus  fund  of 


$2,233,000;  deposits,  $53,290,- 
000;  loans,  $40,924,000;  and 
aggregate  resources  and  liabili- 
ties, $65,237,000. 

Population.  —  According  to 
the  Federal  Census  of  1920  the 
population  of  Arizona  is  334,162. 
Of  this  total,  foreign-born  whites 
number  78,099;  Indians,  32,989; 
Negroes,  8,005;  Chinese,  1,137; 
Japanese,  550.  The  urban  popu- 
lation, in  towns  and  cities  of  at 
least  2,500  inhabitants,  comprises 
35.2  per  cent,  of  the  total.  The 
population  according  to  previous 
census  reports  has  been  as  fol- 
lows: 1870,  9,658;  1880,  40,440; 
1890,  88,243;  1900,  122,931; 
1910,  204,354. 

The  population  of  the  principal 
cities  in  1920  was:  Phoenix,  29,- 
053;  Tucson,  20,292;  Douglas, 
9,916;  Bisbee,  9.205;  Globe, 
7,044;  Miami,  6,689;  Nogales, 
5,199;  Prescott,  5,010. 

Education.  —  School  attend- 
ance is  compulsory  for  children 
between  the  ages  of  eight  and 
sixteen  for  the  full  time  that 
school  is  in  session.  For  the 
school  year  1920-21  the  total  en- 
rollment in  the  public  schools 
was  79,302  pupils,  with  2,452 
teachers;  $5,623,755.74  was  ex- 
pended for  education.  In  1920 
there  were  two  commercial 
schools,  one  nurses'  training 
school,  and  two  summer  schools, 
one  at  Bisbee,  in  connection  with 
the  University  of  Arizona,  and 
the  other  at  Flagstaff,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Northern  Arizona 
Normal.  Several  schools  for  the 
Indians  are  maintained  by  the 
Federal  Government  and  by 
missionary  societies.  There  are 
also  normal  schools  at  Tempe 
and  Flagstaff.  The  University  of 
Arizona  (q.  v.)  is  situated  at 
Tucson. 

Charities  and  Corrections. — 
The  supervision  of  charitable  and 
penal  institutions  is  vested  in  an 
ex-officio  Commission  of  State 
Institutions,  the  secretary  being 
appointed  by  the  governor. 
There  is  an  asylum  for  the  insane 
near  Phoenix,  a  State  prison  at 
Florence,  an  industrial  school  at 
Fort  Grant,  a  school  for  the  deaf 
in  connection  with  the  Univer- 
sity of  Arizona,  and  a  Pioneer's 
Home  at  Prescott. 

The  Legislature  of  1921 
enacted  a  Child  Welfare  Law 
creating  a  board  of  five  members 
appointed  by  the  Governor,  and 
appropriated  $30,000  for  the 
support  of  the  children  of  bona 
fide  residents  of  the  State,  who 
are  half  or  entirely  orphaned. 

Government.  —  The  present 
constitution  of  Arizona  was 
adopted  in  1910.  It  may  be 
amended  by  a  two-thirds  vote 
of  each  house,  or  on  the  initiative 
of  15  per  cent,  of  the  voters,  later 
ratified  by  a  majority  vote  of  the 
people.  The  usual  suffrage  re- 
quirements are  exacted.  Direct 
primaries  are  provided  for. 


Arizona 


363A 


Arkansas 


The  executive  officers  are  the 
Governor,  Secretary  of  State, 
Treasurer,  Auditor,  Adjutant- 
General,  and  Attorney-General — 
all  elected  for  two  years.  The 
governor's  veto  extends  to  all 
matters  of  legislation. 

The  legislature,  which  consists 
of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, meets  biennially. 
Members  of  both  houses  are 
elected  every  even  year.  The 
judiciary  includes  a  Supreme 
Court,  consisting  of  a  Chief 
Justice  and  two  associates,  and 
county  courts,  similar  to  the 
superiop  courts  of  many  Eastern 
States.  Recall  of  the  judiciary  is 
in  effect. 

Under  the  Reapportionment 
Act  of  1911,  Arizona  has  one 
Representative  in  the  National 
Congress.    Phoenix  is  the  capital. 

Recent  Legislation. — The  first 
legislature  of  the  State  of  Arizona 
met  in  1912.  Acts  were  passed 
making  effective  the  provisions 
of  the  constitution,  including  em- 
ployers' liability  and  workmen's 
compensation.  Important  legis- 
lative enactments  up  to  1921  are 
those  providing  for  the  recall  of 
the  judiciary;  establishing  a 
child-labor  law  and  an  eight- 
hour  day  for  miners;  providing 
for  the  indeterminate  sentence 
for  criminals;  forbidding  black- 
listing; setting  a  minimum  wage 
for  women;  prohibiting  sale,  re- 
ceipt, or  possession  of  wines  or 
liquors  in  Arizona;  establishing 
a  State  Bureau  of  Mines;  adopt- 
ing State  colors  and  a  State  flag; 
establishing  a  Legislative  Refer- 
ence Bureau  in  connection  with 
the  State  Library;  ratifying  the 
Federal  woman  suffrage  amend- 
ment; adopting  a  State  budget 
systent;  creating  boards  or 
commissions  to  control  highway 
construction,  soldier  settlement, 
child  welfare,  industrial  affairs, 
and  real  estate  dealings. 

History. — The  numerous  ruins 
which  are  scattered  about  the 
entire  State  indicate  that  Ari- 
zona was  once  the  home  of  a 
highly  civilized  race  some  time 
before  it  was  visited  by  Spanish 
explorers.  Fray  Marcos  de  Niza 
is  the  first  white  man  who  is 
known  to  have  entered  Arizona 
(1539),  although  it  is  possible 
that  Juan  de  la  Asuncion  pre- 
ceded him  by  one  year.  Jesuits 
established  missions  among  cer- 
tain of  the  Indian  tribes  in  the 
early  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, and  in  the  eighteenth  century 
Tucson  and  Tubac  were  founded. 

Arizona  originally  formed  a 
part  of  Mexico,  and  was  ceded 
to  the  United  States  along  with 
New  Mexico  on  Feb.  2,  1848. 
The  section  south  of  the  Gila 
River,  however,  did  not  become  a 
part  of  the  United  States,  until 
the  Gadsden  Purchase  of  1854. 
Arizona  was  separated  from  New 
Mexico  on  Feb.  24,  1863,  and 
received  a  territorial  government. 
Vol.  I.— March  '22 


The  capital  was  first  located  at 
Prescott;  was  removed  to  Tuc- 
son in  1867;  and  returned  to 
Prescott  in  1877.  Since  1889  it 
has  been  at  Phoenix. 

In  September,  1891,  a  con- 
vention was  held  in  Phoenix  at 
which  a  constitution  was  adopt- 
ed, and  a  bill  providing  for  tl^e 
admission  of  Arizona  to  the 
Union  was  presented  to  Con- 
gress. Although  passed  by  the 
House,  the  Senate  failed  to  act. 
In  1898  the  statehood  bill  was 
definitely  rejected;  but  three 
years  later  another  attempt  to 
secure  statehood  was  made.  A 
project  to  admit  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico  as  one  State  was 
voted  down  by  the  Arizona  elec- 
torate. The  Enabling  Act  of  1910 
prepared  the  way  for  independent 
statehood;  and  after  some  delay 
— due  to  the  provision  in  the 
new  constitution  for  the  recall  of 
judges,  which  was  eliminated  for 
the  time  being — Arizona  became 
a  State  (Feb.  14,  1912). 

In  April,  1912,  the  first  State 
Legislature  began  its  sessions 
(see  Recent  Legislation),  and  in 
November,  1912,  a  woman's 
suffrage  amendment  was  adopted. 
In  national  politics.  Arizona, 
since  it  became  a  Si^tate,  was 
Democratic  in  1912  and  1916 
and  Republican  in  1920. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Coz- 
zens'  Marvellous  Country;  Polk's 
Arizona  Gazetteer;  Hornaday's 
Camp  Fires  on  Desert  and  Lava 
(1908);  McClintock's  History  of 
Arizona  (3  vols.,  1915);  James' 
Arizona  the  Wonderland  (1917); 
Farish's  Official  History  of  Ari- 
zona (8  vols.,  1918);  Robinson's 
Story  of  Arizona  (1919). 

Arizona,  University  of,  a  non- 
sectarian,  co-educational  insti- 
tution at  Tucson,  opened  in  1891' 
under  the  Morrill  Act  of  1862, 
is  the  only  institution  of  college 
grade  in  the  State.  It  has  a 
College  of  Letters,  Arts,  and 
Sciences,  College  of  Agriculture, 
and  an  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  College  of  Mines  and 
Engineering,  College  of  Educa- 
tion, School  of  Law,  and  Univer- 
sity Extension  Department;  af- 
filiated with  it  are  a  United 
States  Mines  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, State  Bureau  of  Mines, 
State  Pure  Food  Laboratory,  and 
State  School  for  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb.  Until  June,  1913,  there 
was  also  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment. Military  drill  is  reqtiired 
in  the  first  two  years. 

There  is  a  museum  contain- 
ing a  large  and  varied  collection. 
The  State  chemical  and  bacterio- 
logical laboratory  and  Steward 
Astronomical  Observatory  are  at 
the  university.  For  recent  sta- 
tistics see  Table  of  American 
colleges  and  Universities  under 
the  heading  College. 

Ark  OF  Noah,  a  huge  vessel  of 
gopher  wood  (possibly  cypress), 
built  by  the  Patriarch  for  the 


purpose  of  preserving  the  race  of 
man  and  of  the  land  animals  • 
during  the  flood.  It  was  120 
years  in  building,  measured  300 
cubits  in  length,  50  in  breadth, 
and  30  in  height;  it  had  three 
stories  (see  Gen.  vi.  and  vii.). 
See  Deluge. 

Ark  OF  THE  Covenant,  also 
called  'Ark  of  Yahweh  of  Hosts,' 
'Ark  of  God,'  and  'Ark  of  the 
Testimony,'  was  a  chest  of  shit- 
tim  (acacia)  wood  overlaid  with 
gold,  containing  the  stone  tablets 
on  which  were  inscribed  the  Ten 
Commandments.  It  was  held  in 
the  highest  veneration  among  the 
ancient  Israelites.  The  Ark  was 
constructed  according  to  direc- 
tions given  to  Moses  (Exodus 
XXV.),  and  was  located  in  the 
most  holy  place  of  the  Taber- 
nacle. It  accompanied  the  Israel- 
ites in  their  march  through  the 
desert,  and  was  a  prominent 
factor  in  such  events  as  the  tak- 
ing of  Jericho.  It  was  subse- 
quently deposited  at  Shiloh, 
Ashdod  (the  Philistines  having 
captured  it),  Beth-shemesh,  and 
Kirjath-jearim,  whence  David 
had  it  conveyed  to  Jerusalem; 
and  again  it  occupied  the  most 
holy  place  in  Solomon's  Temple. 
What  ultimately  became  of  it  is 
unknown.  It  has  been  conjec- 
tured that  it  was  destroyed  with 
the  Temple  in  586  B.C. 

Arkadel'phia,  city,  county 
seat  of  Clark  county,  Arkansas, 
on  the  Ouachita  River,  and  on 
the  Missouri  Pacific  Railroad;  65 
miles  southwest  of  Little  Rock. 
It  contains  the  Ouachita  Baptist 
College  and  the  Henderson- 
Brown  College  (Methodist), 
founded  in  1886  and  1896,  re- 
spectively. It  has  flour  and 
lumber  mills  and  machine  vshops. 
Pop.  (1910)  2,745;  (1920)  3,311. 

Arkansas,  ar'kan-s6  (popu- 
larly known  as  the  'Bear  State'), 
one  of  the  South  Central  States 
of  the  United  States,  is  situated 
between  33°  and  36°  30'  N.  lat., 
and  between  89°  40'  and  94°  42' 
w.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Missouri;  on  the  south 
by  Louisiana;  on  the  west  by 
Oklahoma  and  Texas;  and  on 
the  east  by  Tennessee  and  Mis- 
sissippi, from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  Mississippi  River. 
Its  area  is  53,335  square  miles,  of 
which  810  miles  are  water  sur- 
face. 

Topography.  —  Th,e  northern 
and  central  western,  sections  are 
broken  by  mountains  and  foot- 
hills, the  mountains  being  part  of 
the  Ozark  uplift,  and  .ib^ving 
their  highest  peak  in  Magazine 
Movintain  (2,833  feet).  "From 
the  northeast  corner  to  the  south- 
west corner  runs  a  :belt  of  rolling 
country.  In  the  southeast  section 
and  along  the  easten\  .border  the 
land  is  low  and  level,  ahd  sttbject 
to  inundation  from  the  overflow- 
ing of  the  Mississippi  and  tribu- 
taries. The  State  has  some  3,000 


Arkansas 


364 


Arkansas 


miles  of  waterway,  afforded 
chiefly  by  the  Arkansas,  White, 
Ouaclaita,  Saline,  and  Bartholo- 
mew Rivers — the  first  of  which 
bisects  the  State  from  northwest 
to  southeast,  while  the  last  three 
drain  its  southern  section.  The 
White  River  enters  the  State 
from  Missouri,  flows  southeast, 
and  joins  the  Arkansas  near  its 
mouth. 

Climate  and  Soil— The  cli- 
mate is  generally  healthful 
throughout  the  State,  the  varia- 
tion in  mean  annual  temperature 
in  different  sections  being  only 
about  6°  F.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture for  spring  is  61°;  for  sum- 
mer, 79°;  for  auttimn,  62°;  for 
winter,  41.5°.  The  mean  aver- 
age rainfall  is  50.5  inches.  There 
is  little  snow,  no  extreme  cold, 
and  no  summer  drought. 
!•*  .-iThe  soil  of  the  uplands  is  gen- 
erally sandy;  of  the  lowlands, 
clayey.  The  lowlands  are  fertile, 
and  the  alluvial  bottoms  are 
remarkably  rich. 

Geology. — The  southern  por- 
tion of  the  State  is  of  Tertiary 
formation,  the  northern  of  Pa- 
laeozoic. The  oldest  rocks  are 
found  in  the  Ozark  region,  and 
belong  to  the  Lower  Silurian 
age.  They  comprise  sandstones, 
limestones,  and  other  building 
stones. 

Mining. — The  mineral  indus- 
try of  Arkansas  has  increased 
greatly  in  value  since  1919.  In 
that  vear  the  total  output  was 
valued  at  $8,404,537,  and  4,073 
persons  (3,630  wage  earners) 
were  employed  in  mining  enter- 
prises. In  1921  mineral  products 
reached  a  value  of  $100,000,000. 
this  increase  being  due  to  the 
discovery  of  petroleum  in  the 
vicinity  of  Eldorado.  The  pe- 
troleum output  in  1921,  accord- 
ing to  State  figures,  was  11,- 
672,484  barrels,  valued  at  $23.- 
344,960.  The  output  of  coal, 
formerly  the  principal  mineral 
product,  amounted  in  1919  to 
1,500,000  long  tons,  and  in  1920 
(estimated)  to  2,062,500  long 
tons.  Arkansas  produces  prac- 
tically all  of  the  bauxite  produced 
in  the  United  States  and  70  per 
cent,  of  the  world  supply,  with  an 
output  in  1921  of  500,000  long 
tpns;  also  three-fourths  of  the  oil- 
stones of  the  United  States;  and 
some  rock  phosphates,  graphite, 
and  antimony.  Slate  occurs  in 
several  sections,  and  there  are 
large  manganese  deposits.  The 
only  diamond  mine  in  America  is 
within  the  State.  Zinc  and  lead 
are  mined  in  the  northern  part, 
and  marble,  granite,  limestone, 
and  sandstone  are  qxiarried  for 
building  and  road-construction 
purposes.  There  are  two  natural 
gas  fields,  one  in  the  western  part 
of  the  State,  near  Fort  Smith, 
the  other  in  the  southern  part, 
at  Eldorado.  Mineral  springs 
are  frequent. 

Forestry. — Arkansas  has  a  for- 
Yot.  I.— March  '22 


est  area  of  about  40,000  square 
miles.  Oaks,  pines,  cottonwood, 
poplar,  catalpa,  red  cedar,  locust, 
ash,  elm,  sycamore,  maple,  hick- 
ory, beech,  walnut,  and  cypress 
are  among  the  125  varieties  of 
hard  and  soft  woods  found  in  the 
State.  There  are  two  fine  na- 
tional forests,  comprising  (1920) 
915,649  acres:  the  Arkansas  for- 
est, 633,277  acres,  and  the  Ozark 
forest,  282,372  acres. 

Fisheries.  —  The  fishing 
grounds  of  the  State  are  mainly 
the  Mississippi  River  and  its 
tributaries.  Buffalo  fish  and  cat- 
fish, mussel  shells,  pearls,  and 
slugs  are  the  principal  products. 

Agriculture. — Arkansas  is  pre- 
eminently an  agricultural  State. 
According  to  the  Federal  Census 
for  1920  it  had  232.604  farms, 
comprising  an  area  of  17,456,750 
acres — an  increase  of  40,675 
acres  since  1910.  The  value  of 
farm  property,  including  land, 
buildings,  machinery,  and  live 
stock,  was  $924,395,483 — an  in- 
crease of  $524,306,180  (131  per 
cent.)  in  the  decade.  Of  the 
farmers,  158,273  were  native 
whites  and  72,275  were  negroes. 

In  the  northern  division  the 
principal  products  are  the  cereals 
and  temperate-zone  growths;  in 
the  southern,  cotton,  sorghum 
cane,  and  other  typical  Southern 
crops  predominate.  Cotton  and 
corn  constitute  the  most  valu- 
able products. 

In  1919,  2,553,811  acres  were 
devoted  to  cotton,  with  a  pro- 
duction of  869,350  bales  valued 
at  $159,960,400;  and  2,292,119 
acres  to  corn,  producing  34,226,- 
935  bushels  valued  at  $61,608,- 
482. 

The  acreage,  yield,  and  value 
of  the  other  principal  crops  in 
1919  were  as  follows:  hay  and 
forage,  1,002,333  acres,  989,780 
tons,  $22,760,223;  rough  rice, 
143,211  acres,  6,797,126  bushels. 
$18,352,240;  sweet  potatoes  and 
yams,  39,019  acres,  3,959,870 
bushels,  $6,533,789;  white  po- 
tatoes, 28,528  acres,  2,092,277 
bushels,  $4,812,243;  wheat,  256,- 
211  acres,  2,051,405  bushels, 
$4,266,922;  oats,  173,317  acres, 
2,703,753  bushels,  $2,703,753; 
sorghum,  41,424  acres,  120,416 
tons,  $1,654,562. 

Fruits  and  nuts  are  also  of 
importance.  In  1919,  8,999 
acres  of  cantaloupes  were  har- 
vested, the  crop  being  valued  at 
$389,144;  the  strawberry  crop 
was  valued  at  $2,407,436  and  the 
peanut  crop  (21,962  acres)  at 
$725,388.  The  yield  and  value 
of  the  principal  orchard  fruits 
were  as  follows:  apples,  7,163,619 
bushels,  $10,745,448;  peaches, 
3,340,823  bushels,  $5,178,276; 
plums  and  prunes,  161,906  bush- 
els, $267,146. 

Stock  Raising. — According  to 
the  Federal  Census  for  1920  the 
value  of  domestic  animals,  poul- 
try, and  bees  was  $127,852,580— 


an  increase  of  $53,794,288  (72.6 
per  cent.)  since  1910.  Poultry 
was  valued  at  $6,143,635;  bees  at 
$336,408.  The  number  and  value 
of  the  principal  animals  on  farms 
were:  mules,  322,677,  $47,751,- 
655;  cattle,  1,072,966,  $35,023,- 
854;  horses,  251,926,  $24,151,061 ; 
swine,  1,378,091,  $12,809,913; 
sheep,  100,159,  $827,294. 

Manufactures. — A  r  k  a  n  s  a  s 
contains  large  deposits  of.  bi- 
tuminous and  semi-anthracite 
coal,  which  are  accessible  for  in- 
dustrial purposes;  while  its  ex- 
tensive timber  areas  provide 
abundant  material  for  the  lum- 
ber and  timber  industry,  which 
is  by  far  the  most  important 
branch  of  manufacture  in  the 
State. 

According  to  the  Federal  Cen- 
sus of  Manufactures  for  1919, 
Arkansas  had  3,123  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  employing 
59,132  persons  (49,954  wage 
earners)  during  the  year,  and 
expending  $56,515,000  in  salaries 
and  wages.  These  establish- 
ments turned  out  products  to  the 
value  of  $200,313,000,  to  produce 
which  materials  costing  $102,- 
813,000  were  utilized.  The  value 
added  by  manufacture  was  thus 
$97,500,000.  In  1914  the  value 
of  products  was  $83,941,000,  and 
the  value  added  by  manufacture, 
$39,034,000. 

Leading  industries,  with  the 
value  of  their  products  in  1914, 
were:  lumber  and  timber  prod- 
ucts, $43,115,000;  oil,  cotton- 
seed, and  cake,  $9,249,457;  flour- 
mill  and  grist-mill  products, 
$5,802,099;  cars  and  general 
shop  construction  and  repairs  by 
steam  railroads,  $4,971,093; 
printing  and  publishing,  $2,341,- 
989;  rice  cleaning  and  polishing, 
$1,837,478. 

Transportation.  —  The  total 
railway  mileage  on  Jan.  1,  1920, 
was  5,091.  The  railroad  facili- 
ties are  good  except  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  the 
north-central  and  west-central 
sections.  In  general,  the  prin- 
cipal railroads  traversing  the 
State  are  those  connecting  the 
Gulf  cities  on  the  south  with  the 
large  cities  of  the  North  Central 
States.  The  principal  lines  are 
the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain, 
and  vSouthern;  St.  Louis  South- 
western; St.  Louis  and  San 
Francisco;  Choctaw,  Oklahoma, 
and  Gulf;  and  St.  Louis  and 
North  Arkansas.  The  State  has 
a  number  of  navigable  rivers, 
which  have  been  important  fac- 
tors in  its  industrial  development. 

Finance. — On  April  1,  1918, 
the  State  treasury  showed  a  bal- 
ance of  $838,992;  receipts  dur- 
ing the  succeeding  year  amounted 
to  $6,346,282,  and  disbursements 
to  $6,035,773,  leaving  a  balance 
on  March  31,  1919,  of  $1,149,501. 
The  vState  debt  on  June  30,  1919, 
amounted  to  $2,266,410,  and  the 
assessed   valuation    of  taxable 


Arkansai 


365 


Arkansas  tllver 


property  in  1919  was  $553,- 
485,082. 

Banks. — On  June  3C,  1920,  the 
national  banks  in  the  State  num- 
bered 84,  with  a  combined  cap- 
ital of  $7,145,000;  a  surplus  of 
$3,368,000;  circulation,  S3, 917,- 
000;  deposits,  $60,313,000;  loans, 
$54,779,000;  and  total  assets, 
$85,623,000.  The  State,  savings, 
and  private  banks,  and  loan  and 
trust  companies  numbered  404, 
with  a  combined  capital  of 
$15,605,000;  a  surplus  fund  of 
$6,045,000;  deposits  of  $122,- 
782,000;  loans  of  $134,365,000; 
and  aggregate  resources  and 
liabilities  of  $  184, 147,000. 

Population. — According  to  the 
Federal  Census  for  1920,  the 
population  of  Arkansas  is  1,752,- 
201.  Of  this  total,  foreign-born 
whites  number  13,975;  Negroes, 
472,200;  Chinese,  113;  Indians, 
106.  The  urban  population,  in 
towns  and  cities  of  at  least  2,500 
inhabitants,  is  16.6  per  cent,  of 
the  total.  The  population  ac- 
cording to  previous  census  re- 
ports has  been  as  follows:  1830, 
30,388;  1840,  97,574;  1850, 
209,897;  1860,  435,450;  1870, 
484,471;  1880,  802,525;  1890, 
1,128,211;  1900,  1,311,564;  1910, 
1,574,449. 

The  population  of  the  principal 
cities  in  1920  was:  Little  Rock, 
65,142;  Fort  Smith,  28,870;  Pine 
Bluff,  19,280;  North  Little  Rock, 
14,048;  Hot  vSprings,  11,695; 
Tonesboro,  9,384;  Helena,  9,112; 
Texarkana,  8,257. 

Education. — Education  in  Ar- 
kansas is  under  the  general  su- 
pervision of  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction.  The  legisla- 
ture of  1917  passed  a  state- 
wide compulsory  school-attend- 
ance law,  requiring  attendance 
of  all  children,  between  the  ages 
of  seven  and  fifteen,  for  three- 
fourths  of  the  school  session. 
Aid  for  the  teaching  of  vocational 
agriculture,  manual  training,  and 
home  economics  was  also  pro- 
vided. Separate  schools  are 
maintained  for  white  and  tor 
colored  children.  During  the 
school  year  ending  June  30,  1921, 
the  total  enrollment  in  the 
schools  of  the  State  was  498,282, 
of  which  number  9,257  were  en- 
rolled in  private  schools;  11,769 
public-school  teachers  were  em- 
ployed. 

A  county  superintendency  and 
county  board  of  education  law 
was  enacted  in  1921,  providing 
for  better  school  conditions  in 
the  various  counties,  especially 
in  the  rural  districts. 

Institutions  for  higher  learning 
include  the  University  of  Ar- 
kansas (q.  v.),  at  Fayetteville : 
State  Normal  School,  at  Conway; 
State  agricultural  schools  at 
Magnolia,  Jonesboro,  Russell- 
ville,  and  Monticello;  Ouachita 
College  and  Henderson-Brown 
College,  at  Arkadelphia;  Ar- 
kansas College,  at  Batesville; 
Vol.  I.— March  '22 


Hendrix  College  and  Central 
College,  at  Conway;  Galloway 
College,  at  Searcy;  College  of 
the  Ozarks,  at  Clarksville;  and 
Crescent  College,  at  Eureka 
Springs. 

Charities  and  Corrections. — 
The  State  charitable  and  penal 
institutions  of  Arkansas  are  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  Com- 
mission of  Charities  and  Cor- 
rection. These  institutions  are 
the  Arkansas  State  Penitentiary, 
at  Little  Rock ;  Tucker  Penal 
Farm  (for  white  men) ,  at  Tucker ; 
Cummins  Penal  Farm  (for  col- 
ored men),  at  Cummins;  State 
Farm  for  Women,  at  Jackson- 
ville; Boys'  Industrial  School, 
at  Pine  Bluff;  Girls'  Industrial 
School,  at  Alexander;  State 
Hospital  for  Nervous  Diseases, 
at  Little  Rock;  State  School  for 
the  Blind  and  State  School  for 
the  Deaf,  both  at  Little  Rock; 
State  Tuberculosis  Sanitorium,  at 
Booneville. 

Government.  —  The  present 
constitution  of  Arkansas  dates 
from  1874.  A  majority  vote  in 
both  houses,  and  by  the  electors, 
is  necessary  for  an  amendment. 
Provision  has  been  made  for  the 
initiative  and  referendum.  Uni- 
versal suffrage  prevails,  with 
residence  requirement  and  the 
payment  of  a  poll  tax. 

The  chief  executive  officers  are 
the  Governor,  Secretary  of  State, 
Treasurer,  Auditor,  and  Attor- 
ney-General— all  elected  for  two 
years.  The  governor's  veto  may 
be  overcome  by  a  majority  vote 
of  each  house.  He  has  pardoning 
power  except  in  cases  of  treason 
and  impeachment. 

The  State  Legislature  consists 
of  a  Senate,  whose  members  are 
elected  every  iour  years,  and  a 
House  of  Representatives,  elected 
every  two  years.  Sessions  are 
biennial,  and  are  limited  to  sixty 
days. 

The  judiciary  consists  of  a 
Supreme  Court,  circuit  courts, 
county  and  probate  courts,  juve- 
nile courts,  justices  of  the  peace, 
and  such  other  courts  as  the 
General  Assembly  may  create. 
The  Supreme  Court  is  composed 
of  a  chief  justice  and  four  asso- 
ciates, elected  for  a  period  of 
eight  years. 

Under  the  Reapportionment 
Act  of  1911,  Arkansas  has  seven 
Representatives  in  the  National 
Congress.  Little  Rock  is  the 
State  capital. 

Recent  Legislation.  —  Impor- 
tant acts  are  the  Anti-Gam- 
bling and  Anti-Tipping  Acts 
(1913);  and  those  providing  for 
the  control  of  State  charitable 
institutions,  and  for  the  better 
protection  of  the  public  safety, 
and  for  the  right  of  the  jury  to 
render  a  verdict  of  life  imprison- 
ment in  the  State  penitentiary 
in  all  cases  in  which  the  punish- 
ment was  formerly  death  by  law 
(1915);   and  those  making  pro- 


vision for  the  erection,  equip- 
ment, and  maintenance  of  a  State 
hospital,  establishing  'bone-dry' 
regulations  throughout  the  State, 
entitling  women  to  vote  in  the 
primary  elections,  and  creating 
an  Arkansas  Illiteracy  Commis- 
sion (1917);  ratifying  the  Federal 
prohibition  and  woman  suf- 
frage amendments,  and  creating 
a  State  School  Commission  to 
study  educational  conditions  in 
the  State  (1919). 

History. — -The  State  takes  its 
name  from  the  Arkansas  Indians. 
The  first  white  man  to  enter  it 
was  De  Soto  in  1541.  The  first 
white  settlement  was  by  some  of 
Tonti's  men  in  1686.  Until  the 
Louisiana  Purchase,  Arkansas 
was  a  French  possession;  from 
1805  to  1812  it  formed  part  of 
Louisiana  Territory,  and  until 
1819  of  Missouri  Territory.  It 
was  then  organized  as  Arkansas 
Territory;  and  in  1836  it  became 
a  State. 

In  1828  the  first  steamboat  in 
Arkansas  navigated  the  Arkansas 
River.  Its  first  railway,  the 
Memphis  and  Little  Rock,  was 
begun  in  1854,  but  was  not 
finished  until  some  years  after  the 
Civil  War. 

Although  admitted  as  a  slave 
State,  paired  with  Michigan, 
there  were  many  Unionists  in 
Arkansas  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War;  but  an  ordinance  of 
secession  was  finally  adopted. 
The  State  was  readmitted  into 
the  Union  in  1868. 

In  1874  a  serious  strife  arose 
between  followers  of  two  rival 
claimants  to  the  governorship, 
and  the  Federal  Government  in- 
tervened. President  Grant  recog- 
nizing the  Republican  claimant. 
In  1874,  also,  a  new  constitution 
was  adopted. 

Since  1876  the  State  has  been 
consistently  Democratic  in  State 
and  national  politics. 

Bibliography.  —  Consult  Rey- 
nolds' Makers  of  Arkansas  His- 
tory; Polk's  Arkansas  Gazetteer; 
Monk's  History  of  Southern  Mis- 
souri and  Northern  Arkansas; 
Shinn's  History  of  Arkansas; 
Moore's  Antiquities  of  the  St. 
Francis,  White,  and  Black  Rivers 
— Arkansas  (1910). 

Arkansas  City,  city,  Cowley 
county,  Kansas,  on  the  Arkansas 
River,  and  on  the  Atchison,  To- 
peka,  and  Santa  F6  and  other 
railroads.  It  has  several  fac- 
tories and  a  good  trade,  being 
the  distributing  centre  for  the 
military  posts  and  cattle  ranches 
in  the  neighborhood  and  the 
centre  of  an  important  oil  region. 
Here  are  located  a  national  In- 
dian school  and  a  Manual  Train- 
ing College.  Pop.  (1910)  7,518; 
(1920)  11,253. 

Arkansas  River,  next  to  the 
Missouri  the  largest  affluent  of 
the  Mississippi,  rises  in  the  high 
mountains  in  Central  Colorado, 
which  it  traverses  through  can- 


Arkansas  Stond 


366 


Arm 


yons  to  the  plains,  near  Canon 
City.  Thence  it  flows  200  miles 
east  to  Kansas;  and  after  140 
miles  in  a  southeasterly  course 
bends  sharply  to  the  north, 
forming  the  Great  Bend;  then 
flows  southeast  across  Oklahoma 
and  Arkansas  to  the  Mississippi, 
275  miles  above  New  Orleans. 
Its  principal  branches  are  the 
Cimarron  and  Canadian  Rivers. 
In  Colorado  500,000  acres  on  the 
Arkansas  and  its  tributaries  are 
under  irrigation,  while  the  Gar- 
den City  project  of  the  Federal 
Government  will  irrigate  15,000 
acres  in  Kansas.  Its  drainage 
area  is  177,500  square  miles; 
total  length,  1,500  miles;  navi- 
gable for  650  miles.  It  varies  in 
width  from  150  feet  near  the 
mountains  to  about  a  mile  in  the 
sandy  regions. 

Arkansas  Stone.    See  NovAC- 

ULITE. 

Arkansas,   University  of,  a 

non-sectarian,  co-educational 
State  institution,  located  at 
Fayetteville,  Arkansas,  founded 
in  1871  and  supported  by  Federal 
and  State  aid.  It  includes  Col- 
leges of  Arts  and  Sciences,  En- 
gineering, Agriculture,  and  Edu- 
cation, and  an  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  and  maintains 
a  Medical  School  at  Little  Rock 
and  an  Agricultural,  Mechanical, 
and  Normal  School  for  negroes 
at  Pine  Bluff.  To  residents  of 
the  State  no  tuition  is  charged, 
except  in  the  Medical  School. 
Non-residents  are  charged  $10 
per  year.  For  recent  statistics 
see  Table  of  American  Colleges 
and  Universities  under  the  head- 
ing College. 

Arkliangelsk,  Russia.  See 
Archangel. 

Ark'low,  seaport,  county 
Wicklow,  Leinster  province,  Ire- 
land, 13  miles  southwest  of  Wick- 
low, on  the  Avoca  River,  in  a  dis- 
trict noted  for  its  scenery.  It 
has  a  town  hall  and  a  beautiful 
parish  church,  and  the  remains 
of  a  thirteenth-century  castle. 
There  are  large  explosives  fac- 
tories and  fishing  interests.  It  is 
a  shipping  point  for  copper  and 
lead  from  the  Avoca  Valley. 
Pop.  (1911)  5,042. 

Arko'na,  or  Arcona,  cape  on 
the  northeast  of  Riigen  Island, 
Baltic  Sea,  Germany.  A  light- 
house (1827)  stands  on  the  top 
of  the  chalk  cliffs  177  feet  high. 

Ark'wrigiit,  Sir  Richard 
(1732-92),  English  cotton-spin- 
ning inventor,  was  born  in  Pres- 
ton, Lancashire.  He  learned  the 
trade  of  barber,  and  became  a 
dealer  in  hair,  adding  to  his  prof- 
its by  the  invention  of  a  sviccess- 
ful  hair  dye.  His  residence  in  the 
midst  of  a  cotton-spinning  popu- 
lation led  him  to  take  an  inter- 
est in  cotton  manufacture,  and 
about  1767  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  invention  of  a  machine 
or  frame  for  carrying  out  all  the 
operations  of  spinning  at  one 
Vol.  I.— March  '22 


time,  and  by  one  application  of 
force.  In  1768  he  set  up  in  Pres- 
ton his  first  spinning  frame.  It 
consisted  principally  of  two  pairs 
of  rollers,  the  first  pair  moving 
slowly  in  contact,  passing  the 
sliver  to  a  second  pair,  which  re- 
volved with  greater  velocity,  and 
drevv  out  the  cotton  to  the  neces- 
sary degree  of  tenuity.  The 
sliver  was  then  attached  to  a 
spindle  and  fly,  whose  revolu- 
tions twisted  the  cotton  into  a 
thread,  and  at  the  same  time 
wound  it  on  a  bobbin.  By  in- 
creasing the  length  of  the  rollers 
and  number  of  spindles,  a  corre- 
sponding number  of  threads 
could  be  spun  and  wound  at 
once  by  the  same  motive  power. 
His  patent  was  obtained  in  1769, 
when  he  set  up  near  Hockley  his 
first  mill,  driven  by  horses.  In 
1771,  with  two  capitalists,  he 
built  a  mill  at  Cromford,  in 
Derbyshire,  the  motive  power  of 
which  was  derived  from  the 
Derwent;  and  in  1790  he  intro- 
duced the  steam  engine  into  his 
Nottingham  mills.  Arkwright's 
invention  met  with  intense  oppo- 
sition, one  of  his  factories  being 
destroyed  by  the  mob.  He 
amassed  a  large  fortune,  however, 
and  was  knighted  in  1786.  See 
Cotton. 

Arlberg,  arVherch,  Alpine  pass 
in  Austria  (5,912  ft.)  leading 
from  Feldkirch,  in  Vorarlberg 
(near  the  Rhine  Valley),  to  the 
Inn  Valley,  near  Landeck,  Tyrol. 
Between  the  fourteenth  and  the 
eighteenth  century  there  was 
only  a  mule  track  over  the  pass, 
which  was  used  chiefly  for  the 
transportation  of  salt  from  the 
Innsbruck  mines.  It  is  now 
traversed  by  a  carriage  road, 
while  beneath  it  a  railway  tunnel 
(6  m.  650  yds.  long)  was  pierced 
in  1880-83,  connecting  Vorarl- 
berg with  the  Tyrol.  The  Arl- 
berg railway  is  85  miles  long, 
and  reaches  an  altitude  of  4,300 
feet. 

Aries,  arl  (ancient  Arelale), 
town,  department  of  Bouches-du- 
Rhone,  on  the  Grand  Rhone 
River;  53  miles  northwest  of 
Marseilles.  It  has  a  trade  in 
corn,  oil,  wine,  and  fruits.  The 
industries  are  chiefly  silk  spin- 
ning, hat  making,  and  ship- 
building. 

The  ancient  town  was  known 
as  'Gallic  Rome,'  and  was  a 
favorite  residence  of  Constantine. 
Important  ecclesiastical  councils 
were  held  here:  in  314  the  Dona- 
tists  were  condemned;  in  353  the 
Arians  were  favored;  in  452  cer- 
tain disciplinary  canons  were 
adopted;  and  in  1234  the  perse- 
cution of  the  Albigenses  was  or- 
ganized. Aries  was  an  archi- 
episcopal  see  from  the  time  of 
Constantine  to  1801.  The  chief 
Roman  remains  are  the  amphi- 
theatre, which  accommodated 
26,000  persons;  the  theatre, 
where  the  Venus  of  Aries,  now 


in  the  Louvre,  was  discovered  in 
1651;  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Trophimus  (seventh  century) ; 
and  the  Roman  and  Christian 
burial  grounds,  now  partly  de- 
stroyed by  the  railroad.  Pop. 
(1911)  BO, 978. 

Ar'lington,  town,  Middlesex 
county,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
Mystic  River  and  the  Boston 
and  Maine  Railroad;  six  miles 
northwest  of  Boston.  It  is  chiefly 
a  residential  place,  but  there  are 
manufactures  of  pianoforte  cases, 
ice  tools,  timber,  and  leather, 
besides  market  gardens.  Ac- 
cording to  the  U.  S.  Census  of 
Manufacttires  of  1919  there  were 
27  industrial  establishments,  with 
228  wage  earners,  $1,502,000 
capital,  and  products  valued  at 
$1,006,000.  Arlington  was  found- 
ed as  Menotomy  village  (1635) 
and  became  a  part  of  Cambridge. 
It  was  incorporated  as  West  Cam- 
bridge in  1807,  the  present  name 
being  adopted  in  1867.  Pop. 
(1910)  11,187;    (1920)  18,665. 

Arlington,  town,  Tarrant 
county,  Texas,  on  the  Texas  and 
Pacific  Railroad;  midway  be- 
tween Dallas  and  Fort  Worth. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  State  Vocation- 
al College.  Pop.  (1910)  1,973; 
(1920)  5,180. 

Arlington,  district,  Arlington 
county,  Virginia,  opposite  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  the  home  at  one 
time  of  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee,  and 
the  site  of  a  beautiful  national 
cemetery.  Here  are  the  graves 
of  over  18,000  soldiers,  mostly  of 
the  Civil  War  period,  and  many 
of  them  unidentified.  The  Lee 
mansion,  a  fine  bit  of  colonial 
architecture,  is  still  preserved. 
Pop.  (1910)  5,850;   (1920)  8,547. 

Arlington,  Henry  Bennet, 
Earl  of  (1618-8.5),  English 
statesman,  joined  the  royal  army 
in  the  civil  war;  was  severely 
wounded  at  Andover;  was 
knighted  by  Charles  il.  at  Bruges 
in  1658;  and  was  sent  as  an  en- 
voy to  Spain.  He  became  prin- 
cipal secretary  of  state  in  1663, 
and  was  a  constant  opponent  of 
Clarendon.  He  was  created  Earl 
of  Arlington  in  1672.  He  is 
said  to  have  brought  about  the 
first  Dutch  war,  and  was  con- 
cerned in  the  Treaty  of  Dover; 
was  unsuccessfully  impeached  by 
the  Commons  in  1674;  sold  his 
secretaryship,  and  purchased  the 
office  of  Lord  Chamberlain, 
which  he  held  till  1681.  He  was 
one  of  the  group  of  statesmen 
from  the  initial  letters  of  whose 
names  the  word  'cabal'  (q.  v.) 
was  formed. 

Arlon,  ar'loh'  (Flemish  Aar- 
len;  ancient  Orolaunum),  cap- 
ital of  the  province  of  Luxem- 
bourg, Belgium;  17  miles  by  rail 
northwest  of  Luxemburg.  It  has 
woollen  and  iron  industries.  Here 
the  French  general,  Jourdan,  de- 
feated the  Austrians  in  1793. 
Pop.  (1910)  12,012. 

Arm.    The  upper  limb  may  be 


Arm 


367 


Armada 


divided  into  a  proximal  part  or 
shoulder,  a  distal  part  or  hand, 
and  an  intermediate  shaft  which 
consists  of  an  upper  arm  and  a 
forearm.  The  bones  are:  in  the 
shoulder,  the  clavicle  (collar 
bone)  and  the  scapula  (shoulder 
blade);  in  the  upper  arm,  th(: 
humerus;  in  the  forearm,  the 
radius  and  ulna;  in  the  hand,  thf 
carpal  and  metacarpal  bones  an(f 
the  phalanges.  The  smooth, 
round  'head'  of  the  humerus  ar« 
ticulates  with  the  glenoid  cavitj 
of  the  scapula,  forming  tht 
shoulder  joint — a  ball-and-socket 
joint.  At  the  lower  end  of  the 
humerus  are  two  articular  sur- 


'Ji»T!cTe 


Bones  of  the  Arm. 


faces  for  the  bones  of  the  forearm 
— the  outer  rounded  for  the  head 
of  the  radius,  the  inner  a  curved 
rim  for  the  ulna.  These  form 
the  elbow  joint — a  hinge  joint. 
At  their  lower  extremities  the 
radius  and  ulna  articulate  with 
the  carpus  to  form  the  wrist  joint 
— also  a  hinge  joint. 

The  arm  receives  its  blood 
supply  from  the  brachial  artery 
and  its  branches,  and  the  veins 
finally  unite  in  the  axillary  vein. 
The  nerves  pass  down  by  the  side 
of  the  brachial  artery,  then  are 
distributed  as  musculo-spiral, 
ulnar,  and  median. 

Fractures  and  Dislocations. — 
No  bone  except  the  radius  is  more 
frequently  broken  than  the  clav- 
icle, or  collar-bone.  This  is  due 
to  its  exposed  position,  and  to  its 
buttress-like  action  in  keeping 
out  the  point  of  the  shoulder. 
The  treatment  consists  in  cor- 
recting any  displacement,  and 
afterward  keeping  the  broken 
ends  apposed.  If  the  patient  can 
be  depended  on  to  lie  quiet,  it  is 
Vol.  I.— March,  '20 


enough  to  keep  him  in  bed  on 
his  back,  with  a  pillow  between 
his  shoulders;  if  he  is  to  go  about, 
bandages  must  be  applied  in 
such  a  way  that  the  shoulders 
are  braced  back,  the  elbow  sup- 
ported, and  the  upper  arm  kept 
fixed  to  the  side.  In  fractures 
of  the  neck  of  the  scapula  the 
arm  must  be  kept  to  the  side  and 
the  elbow  supported.  In  frac- 
tures of  the  humerus  a  pad  should 
be  placed  in  the  axilla,  the  arm 
bound  to  the  side,  and  the  hand 
supported  by  a  sling.  In  frac- 
tures at  the  elbow  joint  much 
care  is  needed  to  prevent,  by 
suitable  splints,  ankylosis  or 
deformity.  Fractures  of  the  ra- 
dius and  ulna  are  treated  with 
appropriate  splints.  The  lower 
end  of  the  radius  is  frequently 
broken,  constituting  what  is 
known  as  Colles'  fracture  (for 
diagnosis  and  treatment  see 
Colles' Fracture).  In  fracture 
of  the  metacarpal  bones  there 
is  generally  little  displacement; 
rest,  with  the  hand  fixed  in  an  ex- 
tended or  clenched  position,  will 
generally  effect  a  speedy  cure. 
For  the  phalanges  a  small  zinc 
splint  may  be  moulded  to  the 
front  of  the  finger.  In  disloca- 
tion of  the  shoulder,  reduction 
may  sometimes  be  made  by  trac- 
tion on  the  arm. 

Armada,  ar-ma'daor  ar-maMa, 
in  Spanish  'an  armed  force,'  more 
particularly  the  great  fleet  sent 
against  England  by  Spain  in 
1588.  In  1583  Philip  of  Spain 
had  been  urged  by  his  admiral, 
the  Marquis  de  Santa  Cruz,  to 
attempt  the  conquest  of  England. 
These  proposals  were  renewed  in 
1586,  in  consequence  of  the  sav- 
age raid  of  Drake  upon  the  Span- 
ish settlements  in  the  West 
Indies  and  elsewhere,  and  PhiHp, 
goaded  to  retaliation,  and  long- 
ing to  strike  a  blow  at  Protestant- 
ism in  revenge  for  the  murder  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  set  about 
the  preparation  of  a  huge  fleet 
for  the  adventure.  Following 
the  death  of  Santa  Cruz  in  Jan- 
uary, 1588,  the  command  of  the 
expedition  was  entrusted  to  the 
Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  a  man 
of  no  naval  experience.  He  was 
instructed  to  proceed  to  the 
Strait  of  Dover,  to  embark  from 
Flanders  a  large  army  which  lay 
there  under  the  Duke  of  Parma, 
and  to  effect  an  invasion  of 
England.  The  Spanish  fleet, 
called  La  Felicisima  Armada,  left 
Lisbon  on  May  20,  1588,  reached 
Corunna  after  a  stormy  voyage  on 
June  9,  and  again  set  sail  on 
July  12.  It  consisted  of  130 
ships,  many  of  which  were  very 
large,  with  30,000  men.  The 
whole  number  of  English  ships 
available  to  meet  it  was  about  70, 
of  which  number  only  30 — and 
several  of  these  small  ones — be- 
longed to  the  royal  navy.  The 
total  number  of  men  on  board 


was  about  9,000;  in  command 
were  the  lord  high  admiral.  Lord 
Howard  of  Effingham  (in  the 
Ark),  Sir  Francis  Drake  (in  the 
Revenge),  Sir  John  Hawkins  (in 
the  Victory)  and  other  famous 
captains,  including  Lord  Henry 
Seymour.  Lord  Thomas  Howard, 
the  Earl  of  Cumberland,  Lord 
Sheffield.  Sir  William  Winter.  Sir 
Martin  Frobisher,  Edward  and 
William  Fenner,  and  Richard 
Hawkins. 

The  greater  part  of  the  English 
fleet  was  at  Plymouth  when,  on 
July  19,  news  of  the  approach  of 
the  enemy  was  brought  thither 
by  Captain  Flemyng  of  the  Gol- 
den Hind.  Howard  warped  out. 
and  on  July  20  first  caught  sight 
of  the  Spaniards.  On  the  21st  he 
began  a  running  fight  with  them. 
This  was  continued  on  the  22nd, 


Medal  struck  to  Commemorate  the 
Defeat  of  the  Armada. 

A  more  general  but  indecisive 
engagement  took  place  off  Port- 
land on  the  23rd.  On  the  25th 
there  was  another  fierce  battle  off 
the  Isle  of  Wight.  On  the  27th 
the  Armada  entered  the  road- 
stead of  Calais,  by  which  time 
nearly  the  whole  English  fleet 
was  united.  On  the  night  of 
the  28th  Howard  sent  fire-ships 
among  his  enemies,  so  that  they, 
in  panic,  slipped  or  cut  their 
cables  and  made  off  in  confusion. 
They  were  followed,  and  so  badly 
mauled  off  Gravelines  on  the  29th 
that  they  never  afterward  s  formed 
a  coherent  body.  Most  of  them 
fled  north-about,  and  were  chased 
as  far  as  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
The  remains  of  the  Armada 
passed  between  the  Orkneys  and 
the  Shetlands,  and  then  rounded 
the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  suffer- 
ing even  more  from  the  elements 
than  from  the  English.  Of  its 
128  sail,  2  were  abandoned  to  the 
English,  3  were  wrecked  on  the 
French  coast  and  2  on  the 
coast  of  Flanders,  2  were  sunk  in 
action  off  Gravelines,  19  were 
known  to  have  been  wrecked  off 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  35 
others  never  returned  to  Spain. 
Thus  63  in  all  were  lost.  The 
effect  upon  the  prestige  of  the 
Elizabethan  navy  was  immence. 

Consult  Duro's  La  Armada 
Invencible;  Clowes'  The  Royal 
Navy  (6  vols.). 


Armadillo 


368 


Armenia 


Armadll'lo,  a  name  applied  to 
certain  tropical  American  ani- 
mals belonging  to  the  mamma- 
Han  order  Edentata,  character- 
ized especially  by  the  possession 
of  a  peculiar  armor,  consisting  of 
shields  on  head,  neck,  shoulders, 
and  rump,  and  of  movable  cross 
bands  of  plates  across  the  back. 
In  addition  to  the  protection  of 
these  bony  scutes,  the  animals 
are  armed  with  stong  claws  on 
the  fore  limbs,  by  means  of  which 
they  burrow  with  great  rapidity, 
especially  when  in  danger.  They 
are  nocturnal  in  habit,  and  feed 
on  insects,  worms,  fruits,  roots, 
and  sometimes  on  carrion. 

Armadillos  range  from  Mexico 
to  Patagonia,  and  are  prized  as 


The  Six-banded  Armadillo 
(Dasypus  sexcinclus) 


food  by  the  natives.  In  the 
caves  and  recent  deposits  of 
Argentina  and  Brazil  fossil  forms 
have  been  found,  some  of  them 
of  great  size  ,(see  Glyptodon). 
The  largest  existing  form  is  3 
feet  in  length,  exclusive  of  the 
tail;  the  smallest  measures  less 
than  a  foot.  Species  include  the 
Pichiciago  (Chlamydophorus 
truncalus).  about  5  inches  long 
(see  Chlamydophorus);  the 
Weasel-headed  or  Six-banded 
Armadillo  {Dasypus  sexcinclus) ; 
the  Peludo  or  Hairy  Armadillo 
(D.  villosus);  the  Pichey  or 
Pigmy  Armadillo  (D.  minulus); 
the  Broad-banded  Armadillo 
(Lysiurus  unicinclus) ;  the  Giant 
Armadillo  (Priodon  gigas),  the 
largest  living  member  of  the 
family;  the  Apar  (q.  v.)  or 
Three-banded  Armadillo;  and 
the  Peba  (Lalusia  novemcincla) . 

Armaged'don  or,  according  to 
the  Revised  Version,  'Har- 
Mac;edon,'  the  battlefield  of  the 
Apocalypse,  on  which  the  final 
struggle  between  good  and  evil 
is  to  be  fought  (Rev.  xvi.  16). 
The  name  is  probably  derived 
from  Megiddo  (q.  v.),  an  impor- 
tant Canaanite  fortress  in  Issa- 
char  (Josh.  xii.  21,  etc.),  placed 
by  most  writers  at  Lejjljn 
(Legio),  west  of  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon. 

Armagh,  ar-ma',  county,  prov- 
ince of  Ulster,  Ireland,  lies  be- 
tween Tyrone  and  Monaghan  on 
the  west  and  Down  on  the  east, 
with  Lough  Neagh  on  the  north 
and  Louth  on  the  south.  It  is 
about  '.M  miles  long,  21  miles 
wide,  and  has  an  area  of  312,772 
acres.  The  surface  is  wooded 
and  generally  hilly,  the  highest 
point  being  Slieve  G  u  1 1  i  o  n 
Vol.  I. — March,  '20 


(1,895  feet)  towards  the  south. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Upper  Bann,  the  Blackwater, 
and  the  Newry.  The  soil  is 
fertile  with  large  tracts  of  bog, 
Oats,  potatoes,  turnips,  wheat, 
and  flax  are  grown.  Linen 
weaving,  cotton  spinning,  and 
clay  working  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries.   Pop.  (1911)  120,291. 

Armagh,  cathedral  town,  Ire- 
land, capital  of  county  Armagh 
and  seat  of  the  Primate  of  all 
Ireland,  lies  33  miles  southwest  of 
Belfast.  Buildings  of  interest  are 
the,  Anglican  cathedral,  an  an- 
cient cruciform  structure  with  a 
lofty  tower  and  chime  of  bells, 
supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of 
the  fifth-century  Cathedral  of 
St.  Patrick  destroyed  by  the 
Danes  in  836;  the  modern  Rom.an 
Catholic  Cathedral  of  St.  Patrick 
dedicated  in  1873;  the  public 
library,  founded  in  1771,  con- 
taining 20,000  volumes;  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant 
Archbishops'  palaces;  the  City 
Hall;  St.  Patrick's  Seminary, 
and  a  celebrated  observatory. 
Emania  or  'Navan  Fort,'  two 
miles  west  of  Armagh,  is  of  archae- 
ological interest  as  the  site  of 
an  extremely  ancient  royal  resi- 
dence. There  are  marble  quar- 
ries a  short  distance  from  Ar- 
magh, and  the  town  is  celebrated 
for  its  production  of  brown  linens 
and  hoUand  for  window  shades. 
Armagh  was  the  Irish  metropolis 
from  495  to  the  ninth  century. 
It  was  almost  destroyed  in  1566 
by  Shane  O'Neill,  and  again  in 
1642  by  Phelim  O'Neill.  Pop. 
(1911)  7,356. 

Armagnac,  ar-ma-nyak',  for- 
mer name  of  a  district  of  South- 
ern France,  a  part  of  Gascony, 
now  largely  included  in  the  de- 
partment of  Gers.  It  is  espe- 
cially known  for  its  brandy — 
eau  d' Armagnac. 

Armand,  ar-man',  Charles 
Teffin,  Marquis  de  la  Rouarie 
(1756-93),  a  French  officer  who 
emigrated  to  the  United  States 
in  1777  and  entered  the  Conti- 
nental Army.  Two  years  later, 
as  colonel,  he  took  command  of 
the  Pulaski  Legion  (renamed 
'Armand's  Partisan  Corps'),  and 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general (1783).  After  the 
conclusion  of  peace,  he  returned 
to  France  and  fought  on  the 
royalist  side  in  the  French  Revo- 
lution. Consult  Ward's  Memoir, 
Pennsylvania  Magazine  of  His- 
tory and  Biography,  vol.  ii.  (1878). 

Armature.    See  Dynamo. 

Armed,  a  term  used  in  heraldry 
of  the  fiercer  animals,  and  of 
birds  of  prey,  when  their  natural 
weapons — teeth,  claws,  horns, 
etc. — are  blazoned  of  a  particular 
color  or  metal;  also  of  the  human 
figure,  or  parts  thereof,  when  in 
armor. 

Armed  Neutrality,  a  term 
applied   to   the   association  or 


league  of  Northern  European 
Powers — Russia,  Denmark,  Swe- 
den, with  Russia  as  controlling 
member — formed  in  1780,  to  en- 
force the  principles  that  neutral 
vessels  should  be  allowed  to  navi- 
gate from  port  to  port  of  belliger- 
ents and  along  their  coasts;  that 
enemy  goods  on  neutral  vessels, 
contraband  excepted,  should  not 
be  seized  by  belligerents;  that  a 
port  should  only  be  considered 
blockaded  if  the  blockading  belli- 
gerent had  stationed  vessels  there 
so  as  to  create  an  obvious  danger 
for  neutral  vesselsj  entering  the 
port.  In  1781  the  Netherlands, 
Prussia,  and  Austria  joined  the 
league;  in  1782  Portugal;  and 
in  1783  the  two  Sicilies.  France, 
Spain,  and  the  United  States 
accepted  the  principles  without 
formally  joining.  England,  how- 
ever, did  not  agree  and  some  of 
the  members  violated  the  prin- 
ciples in  subsequent  wars. 

A  second  Armed  Neutrality, 
including  Russia,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,  was  formed  in  1800 
following  England's  refusal  to 
concede  immunity  from  visit  and 
search  to  neutral  merchantmen 
under  convoy.  It  was  short- 
lived, owing  to  the  British  cap- 
ture of  the  Danish  fleet  and  the 
assassination  of  Czar  Paul  in 
1801.  The  questions  involved 
arose  again  in  1806  and  a  final 
settlement  was  not  reached  until 
1856  when,  by  the  Declaration 
of  Paris,  the  rule  'Free  ships, 
free  goods,'  was  incorporated  in 
International  Law.  ' 

During  the  Great  War  of 
Europe  (q.  v.)  the  term  'armed 
neutrality'  was  applied  to  that 
poHcy  in  accordance  with  which 
merchant  ships  of  neutral  coun- 
tries were  armed  for  the  carrying 
out  of  their  legitimate  and  peace- 
ful pursuits  on  the  seas. 

Consult  Wheaton's  Interna- 
tional Law  and  History  of  the  Law 
of  Nations;  Oppenheim's  Inter- 
national Law. 

Armenia,  ar-me'ni-a,  a  region 
of  Northeastern  Asia  Minor,  400 
to  500  miles  in  length  by  nearly 
the  same  breadth,  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Trebizond  and 
Transcaucasia,  on  the  south  by 
Kurdistan,  and  on  the  east  by 
the  Caspian  Sea.  Prior  to  terri- 
torial readjustments  following 
the  Great  War  of  Europe  (q.  v.), 
it  was  held  in  part  by  Turkey, 
in  part  by  Russia,  and  in  part  by 
Persia.  Turkish  Armenia,  with 
a  total  area  of  some  70,000  square 
miles,  included  the  vilayets  of 
Erzerum,  Mamuret-ul-Aziz,  Di- 
arbekr.  Bitlis,  and  Van;  Russian 
Armenia,  the  governments  of 
Erivan,  Yelisavetpol.  and  Tiflis. 
and  the  territory  of  Kars;  Per- 
sian Armenia,  part  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Azerbaijan.  The  erec- 
tion of  the  remnants  of  the  Ar- 
menian people  inhabiting  these 
areas  into  an  autonomous  nation 


Armenia 


369 


Armenia 


was  one  of  the  problems  facing 
the  Peace  Conference  of  1919. 

Armenia  is  for  the  most  part 
tableland,  with  an  average  ele- 
vation of  more  than  5,000  feet, 
traversed  from  east  to  west  by- 
numerous  mountain  ridges, 
which  reach  their  greatest  height 
in  the  twin  peaks  of  Ararat, 
16,969  and  12,840  feet  respective- 
ly (see  Ararat),  and  in  Alaghez 
(q.  v.),  13,  436  feet.  It  is  watered 
by  the  Euphrates  and  its  head- 
waters— the  Murad  Su  and  the 
Kara  Su — by  the  Tigris,  which 
has  its  sources  in  the  Armenian 
highlands,  by  the  Aras  and  the 
Kura,  emptying  into  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  by  the  Tchoruk,  which 
enters  the  Black  Sea  near  Batum. 
There  are  a  number  of  lakes — 
notably  the  two  large  salt  lakes 
of  Van  and  Urmia  (qq.  v)  and 
Lake  Gokcha. 

The  climate  is  varied.  There 
is  a  region  of  rains,  with  subtrop- 
ical climate,  embracing  the  val- 
ley of  the  Kura  from  Tiflis  to  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  the  valley  of  the 
Upper  Tigris;  a  region  of  perpet- 
ual snow,  which,  in  Ararat,  ex- 
cept on  the  northwest  side, 
starts  as  high  as  14,000  feet,  but 
elsewhere  descends  some  3,000 
feet  lower;  and  an  intermediate 
region  ranging  from  a  Southern 
to  a  Middle  European  climate. 
The  plateaus — volcanic,  dry,  and 
singularly  bare  of  wood — have 
long  and  inclement  winters  and 
short  summers  very  hot  during 
the  day,  but  always  cold  at 
night. 

The  mineral  resources  of  Ar- 
menia include  deposits  of  copper, 
silver,  lead,  and  iron,  and  hot 
mineral  springs.  The  soil  is  gen- 
erally fertile.  Much  the  richest 
belt  of  vegetation  is  the  broad 
valley  of  the  Aras;  but  the 
marshes  produced  by  the  many 
irrigating  channels  make  this  the 
most  unhealthf  ul  part  of  Armenia. 
There  are,  nevertheless,  rich 
vineyards  and  orchards,  fields  of 
cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  hemp,  and 
flax.  The  high  tablelands  are 
chiefly  pastoral,  thopgh  a  little 
corn  is  cultivated.  The  Arme- 
nians in  Armenia  follow  chiefly 
agricultural  and  pastoral  occu- 
pations. Carpets,  shawls,  rugs, 
and  similar  articles  are  woven, 
and  silk  and  wine  are  produced. 

People. — The  Armenians  are 
Caucasians,  rather  above  middle 
stature,  of  dark  complexion,  with 
black  straight  hair,  rather  large 
noses,  and  wide  foreheads.  Of 
quick  adaptive  intelligence  and 
an  enterprising  commercial  spirit, 
they  are  especially  well  suited 
to  trade,  and  have  long  consti- 
tuted an  important  element  in 
the  economic  strength  of  the 
Turkish  Empire,  Converted  to 
Christianity  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, the  Armenians  have  clung 
to  their  faith  in  the  midst  of  a 
hostile  people  and  in  the  face  of 
Vol.  L— March,  '20 


the  bitterest  persecution  (see 
Armenian  Church). 

Prior  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
Great  War  the  number  of  Ar- 
menians in  Turkish  Armenia 
was  estimated  at  about  650,000; 
in  the  rest  of  the  Turkish  empire, 
at  1,076,000;  in  European  Russia 
at  49,329;  in  the  Caucasus  at 
1,118,094;  in  Persia  at  about 
100,000.  The  Armenian  massa- 
cres of  1915-16  are  estimated  to 
have  reduced  the  Armenian  pop- 
ulation of  Turkey  by  some  1,200,- 
000.  (See  Armenian  Atroci- 
ties.) The  population  of  Ar- 
menia proper  includes,  besides 
Armenians,  Kurds,  Turks,  Geor- 
gians, Jews,  and  Gypsies. 

History.  Armenia,  like  Asia 
Minor  in  general,  has  never  really 
had  a  history  of  its  own,  its  for- 
tunes always  having  been  closely 
linked  with  those  of  the  greater 
empires  of  Media,  Persia,  Rome, 


defeated  by  Scipio  Africanus  in 
190  B.C.,  Zariadris  (Zadriates) 
and  Artaxias,  the  governors  in 
West  and  East  Armenia  respec- 
tively, asserted  their  independ- 
ence, and  founded  new  dynasties. 
Artaxias,  however,  whose  realm 
was  by  far  the  greater,  was  ulti- 
mately taken  prisoner  by  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes  iv.,  and  the 
country  again  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Seleucidae.  In  the  middle 
of  the  second  century  B.C.  the 
Parthian  Arsaces  VI.  (Mithri- 
dates  I.)  set  upon  the  Armenian 
throne  his  brother  Valarsaces 
(Wagharshag  i.),  who  became  the 
founder  of  one  of  the  greatest 
branches  of  the  Arsrcid  family. 
Under  his  great-grandson  Ti- 
granes  ll.  (90-55  B.C.),  Armenia 
attained  the  height  of  her  power; 
the  rival  district  of  West  Ar- 
menia was  annexed,  and  the  out- 
lying   smaller    states  became 


Armenia. 


Byzantium,  and  Turkey.  The 
country  is  called  Haykh  or  Hay- 
astan,  after  Hayk,  son  of  Thor- 
gom  (the  Septuagint  form  of 
Togarmah),  son  of  Japheth,  from 
whom  the  Armenians  claim 
descent;  and  the  legendary  ac- 
counts of  its  early  days,  as  re- 
lated by  the  native  historians, 
are  curiously  influenced  by  the 
Old  Testament  narrative.  In 
546  B.C.  Armenia  was  conquered 
by  Cyrus,  whose  schoolfellow, 
Tigranes  (q.  v.),  son  of  the  de- 
feated king  of  Armenia,  later 
overthrew  the  Median  empire 
and  restored  his  country's  inde- 
pendence. It  was  subdued  by 
Alexander  the  Great  in  328  B.C., 
and  during  the  succeeding  years, 
with  the  exception  of  a  short- 
lived independence  under  Ard- 
vates,  was  ruled  by  governors 
appointed  by  the  Seleucidae. 
When  Antiochus  the  Great  was 


vassals.  Through  his  connec- 
tion with  his  father-in-law,  Mi- 
thridates  the  Great,  king  of 
Pontus,  however,  Tigranes  found 
himself  involved  against  Rome 
in  the  campaigns  of  Lucullus 
(69  B.C.)  and  Pompey,  and  at  the 
conclusion  of  peace,  in  66  B.C., 
his  kingdom  was  reduced  to  its 
former  limits.  In  the  ensuing 
years  Armenia  suffered  from  the 
rival  schemes  of  Parthia  and 
Rome  to  gain  possession  of  the 
country.  In  114  a.d.  a  Roman 
army  under  Trajan  invaded  Asia 
Minor,  and  Armenia,  in  company 
with  other  states,  was  forced  to 
do  him  homage.  In  238  Chos- 
roes  the  Great  was  assassinated 
by  one  Anak,  at  the  instigation 
of  Persia,  and  the  royal  family, 
with  the  exception  of  one  son,  was 
entirely  exterminated. 

From  this  time  onwards  Ar- 
menia came  under  the  power  of 


Armenia 


870 


Armenia:  Language  and  Literature 


the  Sassanids.  Tiridates  III., 
son  of  Chosroes,  through  the 
help  of  Rome,  where  he  had 
been  educated,  ascended  the 
throne  in  259.  He  began  his 
reign  by  persecuting  the  Chris- 
tians; but  on  his  conversion,  by- 
Gregory  the  Illuminator  (accord- 
ing to  tradition,  a  descendant  of 
Anak),  he  used  his  energies  on 
their  behalf,  with  the  result  that 
Armenia  was  the  first  country 
to  make  Christianity  the  state 
religion,  and  Gregory  became 
known  as  the  historical  founder 
of  the  Armenian  Church  (q.  v.). 
This  new  policy  of  Tiridates, 
though  it  led  to  friendship  with 
Greece,  involved  the  country  in 
frequent  quarrels  with  Persia  and 
Rome;  and  finally,  in  387  a.d., 
the  eastern  portion  was  ceded  to 
Persia  (whence  it  received  the 
name  of  Persarmenia) ,  while 
Rome  annexed  the  western.  Ar- 
tases  (Artaxes)  iv.,  last  of  the 
Arsacid  dynasty,  was  removed  in 
429  through  the  machinations 
of  the  Armenian  nobles,  and  the 
country  was  taken  by  the  Per- 
sian king  Bahram  v. 

Shortly  after  the  invasion  of 
Heraclius  (624)  Armenia  gained 
her  first  experience  of  the  newly 
arisen  Mohammedan  power, 
whose  hordes  overran  the  land  in 
637,  and  until  885  held  it  in 
bondage.  Under  the  dynasty  of 
the  Pagratides  (Bagratides),  a 
family  claiming  descent  from  an 
exiled  Jewish  prince,  Armenia 
recovered  some  of  her  independ- 
ence; but  on  the  assassination  of 
Gagik,  in  1079,  the  country  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Byzantines 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  Sel- 
juk  Turks  on  the  other.  The 
Seljuk  Turks,  however,  had 
driven  out  a  number  of  the  in- 
habitants, who,  crossing  the  Eu- 
phrates, founded  settlements  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Amanus  and 
Taurus.  Here  a  dynasty  was 
founded  by  Rhupen  (Reuben), 
a  relative  of  Gagik,  which  not 
only  held  sway  over  Cappadocia 
and  Northern  Cilicia,  but  was 
eventually  able  to  extend  its 
borders  to  the  Mediterranean. 
This  kingdom  of  Lesser  Armenia 
became  the  last  stronghold  of 
Christianity  in  the  East,  and 
played  no  small  part  in  the  wars 
of  the  crusades.  The  kingdom 
allied  itself  with  the  invading 
Mongols  against  the  Egyptian 
Mamelukes;  but  when,  in  1305, 
the  former  adopted  Islam,  and 
the  crusaders  were  no  longer  a 
power  to  aid,  it  was  exposed  to 
the  vengeance  of  Egypt.  Its 
last  king,  Leon  (Levon)  vi.,  of 
the  house  of  Lusignan  (Cyprus), 
was  taken  prisoner  in  1375,  and 
ultimately  died  in  Paris  (1393). 
Lesser  Armenia  then  became  an 
Egyptian  province.  In  1472  the 
eastern  part  of  Armenia  came 
into  Persian  possession.  Fifty 
years  later  the  western  part  fell 
Vol.  I. — March,  '20 


into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  and 
in  1541  Lesser  Armenia  passed  to 
them. 

The  subsequent  history  of  Ar- 
menia is  that  of  devastation  by 
the  Mongols  and  the  hosts  of  Ti- 
mur,  and  of  a  long  contest  be- 
tween the  Ottoman  sultans  and 
Persia  for  the  possession  of  that 
ancient  kingdom.  At  length 
Russia  approached  from  the 
north,  welcomed  by  the  Arme- 
nians as  a  suzerain  preferable 
to  either  Turkey  or  Persia.  In 
1827  the  Tsar  wrested  from  Per- 
sia the  whole  of  the  upper  valley 
of  the  Araxes,  including  Ech- 
miadzin, and  at  the  close  of 
the  Russo-Turkish  war,  by  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878),  Ardahan 
and  Kars  were  ceded  to  Russia. 

By  the  same  treaty  Turkey 
undertook  to  carry  out  certain 
necessary  reforms  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Christians  {i.  e., 
the  Armenians)  and  other  sub- 
jects of  the  Porte.  Failure  to 
accomplish  this,  together  with 
the  anti- Armenian  policy  adopted 
by  Russia  following  the  assassi- 
nation of  Alexander  ll.  in  1881, 
served  to  strengthen  the  national 
aspirations  of  the  Armenians, 
and  the  year  1885  saw  the  begin- 
ning of  revolutionary  propaganda 
in  Turkish  Armenia.  Suppressed 
temporarily,  the  movement  re- 
appeared in  1893  and  led  to  the 
first  of  the  series  of  wholesale 
massacres  that  have  marked 
recent  Armenian  history.  In 
1909  massacres  of  gigantic  pro- 
portions again  occurred,  and 
during  the  Great  War  of  Europe 
(q.  V.)  thousands  of  Armenians 
were  killed  and  deported.  (See 
Armenian  Atrocities.) 

Following  the  close  of  the  War, 
the  adoption  by  the  Allied  powers 
of  a  general  policy  of  self-deter- 
mination for  all  peoples  assured 
the  erection  of  Armenia  into  an 
autonomous  nation  under  a  man- 
datory of  one  of  the  Entente 
powers,  to  be  responsible  for 
organization  of  the  new  govern- 
ment, and  for  the  protection  of 
life  and  property  during  the  or- 
ganization period.  The  terri- 
torial claims  of  the  new  nation 
include  Russian  Armenia,  Tur- 
kish Armenia,  and  Cilicia,  or 
Lesser  Armenia,  an  area  extend- 
ing from  the  Mediterranean  to 
the    Black  Sea. 

Bibliography.  Consult 
Lynch's  Armenia:  Travels  and 
Studies;  Price's  War  and  Revolu- 
tion in  Asiatic  Russia;  Gregor's 
History  of  Armenia;  Buxton's 
Travel  and  Politics  in  Armenia 
(1914);  Hodgett's  Round  about 
Armenia  (1916);  Williams'  Ar- 
menia Past  and  Present  (1916); 
Arshag  Mahdesian's  Armenia, 
Her  Culture  and  Aspirations 
(1917);  Gabrielian's  Armenia, 
a  Martyr  Nation  (1918). 

Armenia:  Language  and  Lit- 
erature.   The  Armenian  lan- 


guage belongs  to  the  Indo-Ger- 
manic  family  of  languages.  It 
was  frequently  assigned  in  the 
past  to  the  Iranian  branch,  but 
it  is  now  recognized  as  forming  a 
more  or  less  independent  branch 
of  its  own,  more  closely  akin  to 
the  European  than  to  the  Asiatic 
representatives.  The  language 
is  hard,  rough,  and  remarkably 
rich  in  consonants,  especially  in 
sibilants.  The  accent  is  on  the 
last  syllable.  Syntactically  it 
bears  a  close  resemblance  to 
classical  Greek. 

The  ancient  language  still  sur- 
vives in  the  church  and  litera- 
ture, but  in  popular  usage  has 
been  replaced  by  several  dialects, 
the  chief  being  the  Western  (Con- 
stantinople) and  the  Eastern 
(Tartary,  Persia,  India):  the 
latter  adheres  more  closely  to 
the  ancient  language. 

Armenian  literature  begins  with 
Mesrop  (439  a.d.)  ,  who  introduced, 
an  alphabet  of  thirty-six  charac-' 
ters,  to  which  two  more  werdi' 
added  in  the  twelfth  century.  It 
was  probably  reconstructed  and 
elaborated  from  several  sources, 
some  scholars  having  argued  in 
favor  of  a  Greek  origin,  while 
others  have  derived  it  from  the 
Aramaean,  through  the  Pehlevi, 
Previous  to  Mesrop,  at  all  events, 
the  Pehlevi,  Greek,  or  Syriac  al- 
phabet— perhaps  even  the  lan- 
guage— was  doubtless  in  use.  To 
Mesrop,  also,  and  to  Sahak(Isaac) 
Bartevatsi,  is  due  the  Armeniati 
version  of  the  Bible  which  was 
made  between  432  and  437.  It  is 
not  certain  whether  it  was  based 
upon  the  Syriac  or  the  Greek 
alone;  it  seems  to  contain  both 
elements,  and,  in  particular,  has 
been  carefully  revised  by  the 
help  of  the  Hexaplar  version  of 
the  latter.  The  best  edition 
i  s  that  by  Zohrab  (Venice, 
1805). 

Armenian  literature  is  largely 
theological,  and  contains  many 
translations  from  the  Greek  and 
Syriac,  chiefly  made  in  the  fifth 
x:entury.  In  a  number  of  cases 
works  have  fortunately  been  thus 
preserved  which  are  no  longer 
extant  in  their  native  langitage; 
among  these  are  the  first  part  of 
the 'Chronicle  of  Eusebius,  vari- 
ous writings  of  Philo,  etc.  His- 
torical works  are  numerous,  but, 
as  regards  their  early  history  of 
the  country,  contain  much  un- 
sound matter,  and  must  be  used 
with  caution.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  frequently  ofTer  important 
material  relating  to  the  several 
peoples  with  whom  Armenia  came 
into  contact  (Persians,  Byzan- 
tines, Turks,  and  Mongols),  and 
on  this  account  are  of  consider- 
able value.  Among  the  best- 
known  historians  are  Agathan- 
gelos,  secretary  to  Tiridates  the 
Great,  whose  work  was  continued 
by  Faustus  of  Byzantium;  Zenob, 
a  pupil  of  Gregory  the  Illumi- 


Armenian  Atrocities 


371 


Armenian  Cliurch 


nator;  Moses  of  Choren,  styled 
the  'Herodotus  of  Armenia,'  in 
whose  writings  are  embedded 
some  fragments  of  the  early  Ht- 
erature  previous  to  Mesrop's 
time.  In  the  seventh  century  the 
chief  names  are  John  the  Mami- 
kon,  Sebeos  (author  of  a  history 
of  the  wars  of  Herachus),  and 
Ghevond  (Leontius),  who  wrote 
a  history  of  the  Mohammedan 
invasions  of  661-788.  For  the 
tenth  century,  mention  may  be 
made  of  John  CathoUcus  and 
Thomas  Artsruni.  Among  the 
biographical  works,  the  best  are 
Korium's  Life  of  Mesrop  (Ger. 
by  Welte,  1841),  and  the  Life  of 
Nerses  the  Great,  by  Mesrop  tiie 
priest. 

Armenian  folk-lore  has  always 
been  rich  in  epic  and  legendary 
poems  of  very  ancient  date;  but 
the  introduction  of  Christianity 
in  particular,  if  it  did  not  lead  to 
their  suppression,  at  all  events 
afforded  no  encouragement  to 
their  preservation  in  writing.  Of 
the  sacred  poets,  the  best  known 
is  Nerses  Klaietsi,  called  Shnor- 
hali  (1102-73).  Among  the  more 
general  literature  are  the  fables  of 
Vartan  (ed.  Saint  Martin;  Paris, 
1825)  and  the  astronomical  and 
mathematical  works  of  Ananias 
of  Shirak  (7th  century). 

In  the  eighteenth  century  Ar- 
menian literature  received  a  note- 
worthy stimulus  by  the  erection 
of  printing  presses  at  Amster- 
dam, Moscow,  Smyrna,  Vienna, 
and  more  especially  by  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Armenian  Mekhi- 
tarist  monks  at  San  Lazarro, 
Venice.  Among  the  notable 
works  printed  by  this  community 
are  the  History  of  Armenia,  by 
Michael  Chamchian  (Eng.  by  J. 
Avdall;  Calcutta,  1827),  and  its 
Antiquities  and  Archceglogy,  by 
Lucas  Intshitshean  (1835).  For 
fuller  surveys  of  Arm^enian  bibli- 
ography, consult  the  related  works 
by  Neumann,  Somal,  Langlois, 
Patcanian,  and  Dulaurier. 

Armenian  Atrocities.  Within 
the  last  few  decades  the  juxta- 
position of  turbulent  and  bitterly 
hostile  Mohammedans  and  Ar- 
menians in  the  Turkish  empire, 
especially  in  Asia  Minor,  has  re- 
sulted in  the  continued  persecu- 
tion of  the  Armenians  and  in  at 
least  three  organized  attempts  to 
extirpate  them  as  a  people. 

Massacres  of  1894-6 —The  first 
wholesale  massacre  of  Armenian 
Christians  may  be  said  to  have 
had  its  beginnings  as  early 
as  1885,  when  a  revolutionary 
propaganda  on  the  Nihilist  plan 
commenced  to  gain  adherents 
among  the  Armenian  population 
of  Turkey.  This  was  easily  sup- 
pressed, but  reappeared  in  1893. 
The  Kurds,  the  national  police, 
were  then  charged  with  the  sup- 
pression of  the  movement  and 
proceeded  to  the  task  with  char- 
acteristic brutality.  Regular 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '19 


Turkish  troops  were  sent  to  their 
assistance,  and  in  August,  1894, 
there  was  a  terrible  slaughter  at 
Sassun,  which  roused  deep  indig- 
nation throughout  Europe  and 
America.  A  commission  of  in- 
quiry, accompanied  by  the  con- 
sular delegates  of  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Russia,  was  sent  to 
Armenia,  but  while  its  findings 
showed  that  there  was  no  justifi- 
cation for  the  barbarity  practised 
by  the  authorities,  the  massa- 
cres, nevertheless,  continued. 
The  powers  then  pressed  the  Sul- 
tan for  action  and,  after  numer- 
ous delays  and  counter-proposals, 
a  complicated  program  of  reform 
was  accepted  by  the  Porte  (1895). 
Meanwhile  disturbances  contin- 
ued, and  massacre  after  massacre 
took  place.  Entire  villages,  es- 
pecially in  the  provinces  of  Er- 
zerum  and  Trebizond,  were  deso- 
lated, and  plague  and  famine  at- 
tacked those  whom  the  sword 
had  spared.  In  August,  1896, 
Armenians  of  Constantinople 
seized  the  Ottoman  Bank  and  in 
retaliation  seven  or  eight  thou- 
sand were  massacred  by  a  Turk- 
ish mob,  instigated  by  the  gov- 
ernment. 

Massacres  of  1909.— In  April, 
1909,  a  terrible  massacre  broke 
out  in  the  district  of  Adana, 
and,  altogether,  30,000  Armenian 
Christians  were  slaughtered, 
6,500  in  Adana  city  alone.  The 
outbreak  began  in  the  Armenian 
bazaar  in  that  city,  whereupon 
the  redifs,  or  reserves,  were  called 
out,  and  the  worst  of  the  subse- 
quent killing  and  house-burning 
was  attributed  to  them.  Most  of 
the  foreign  property  was  de- 
stroyed, American  commercial 
and  missionary  interests  were 
ruined,  and  two  American  mis- 
sionaries, Daniel  M.  Rogers  and 
Henry  Maurer,  were  treacherous- 
ly killed.  The  condition  of  the 
survivors  was  pitiable,  35,000 
homeless  and  penniless  refugees 
being  left  to  wander  through  the 
villayet.  At  this  time  Mo- 
hammed V.  succeeded  Abdul 
Hamid  on  the  Turkish  throne, 
government  troops  were  sent  to 
the  afflicted  district,  and  the  sit- 
uation relieved.  In  December, 
1909,  twenty-six  Moslems  were 
executed  for  complicity  in  the 
April  massacres. 

AlrocHies  of  1915-16. — Having 
entered  the  Great  War  (1914- 
18)  as  an  ally  of  Germany,  in 
November,  1914,  the  Turkish 
government  proceeded  to  carry 
out  a  systematic  massacre  and 
deportation  of  Armenians  that 
exceeded  in  cruelty  and  extent 
even  the  massacre  of  1909.  Ac- 
cording to  evidence  collected  by 
Viscount  Bryce  and  laid  before 
the  British  Parliament  as  an  of- 
ficial paper,  the  atrocities  of 
1915-16  show  three  phases:  The 
first, the  unjustly  drastic  demands 
upon  the  Armenians  for  military 


supplies  and  service  in  the  fall  of 
1914;  the  second,  the  disarma- 
ment of  the  entire  civil  popula- 
tion early  in  1915,  accompanied 
in  many  instances  by  torture, 
open  violence,  and  massacre,  and 
the  drafting  out  of  the  army  of 
all  Armenians  for  non-combatant 
service;  the  third,  the  period  of 
massacre  and  deportations  be- 
ginning at  Zeitoun,  April  8,  1915, 
and  continuing  for  some  seven 
months.  In  general  the  male 
population  was  massacred,  while 
the  women  and  children  were 
sentenced  to  deportation.  Some 
were  packed  in  cattle  cars  and 
there  died  by  the  thousands  of 
hunger,  exposure,  and  disease; 
others  were  forced  to  march  for 
miles  under  the  guard  of  Turkish 
gendarmes,  subject  to  the  greed 
and  license  of  the  Moslem  peas- 
ants, the  Kurds,  and  mountain 
brigands.  Many  of  these  also 
died  of  hunger,  thirst,  and  ex- 
haustion, while  others  were  bru- 
tally murdered,  or  sold  into  Mos- 
lem harems.  The  point  of  desti- 
nation for  the  survivors  was  in 
general  Aleppo,  whence  they 
were  dispersed  throughout  the 
Southeastern   Desert   of  Syria. 

According  to  a  statistical  esti- 
mate made  by  the  American  Com- 
mittee for  Armenian  and  Syrian 
Relief,  the  number  of  Armen- 
ians within  the  Turkish  bor- 
ders in  January  1915  was  be- 
tween 1,600,000  and  2,000,000. 
Twelve  months  later  from  a  third 
to  a  half  of  that  number  had 
fallen  victim  to  deportation,  dis- 
ease, starvation,  and  massacre. 
A  later  estimate  (1917)  placed 
the  number  of  deported  and  mas- 
sacred at  1,200,000  and  the  num- 
ber of  dead  at  800,000. 

Consult  The  Treatment  of  Ar- 
menians in  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
IQ15-16  (Great  Britain  Foreign 
Office,  Miscellaneous  No.  31, 
1916). 

Armenian  Ctiurcli,  the  oldest 
of  all  national  churches,  owes  its 
foundation  traditionally  to  St. 
Bartholomew.  The  conversion 
of  the  Armenians  as  a  nation, 
however,  was  due  to  the  labors  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator,  who 
baptized  King  Tridates  in  301, 
was  consecrated  as  head  of  the 
Church  in  302,  and  for  a  quarter 
of  a  century  thereafter  devoted 
himself  to  its  organization.  With 
the  invention  of  an  Armenian 
alphabet  early  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, the  Bible  was  translated 
into  Armenian  and  a  liturgy  in 
the  native  tongue  was  prepared. 
In  the  ecclesiastical  controversy 
concerning  the  two-fold  nature  of 
Christ,  the  Armenian  Christians 
refused  to  accept  (491)  the  de- 
cisions of  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  (q.  v.).  They  were  accord- 
ingly condemned  as  Monophy- 
sites  (q.  v.)  and  constituted 
themselves  a  separate  church, 
taking  the  title  of  Gregorian  from 


Armentieres 


371  A 


Armlnius 


Gregory  himself.  In  1439,  how- 
ever, certain  foreign  members 
met  the  overtures  of  the  Pope  for 
reunion  in  so  tar  as  to  give  up  be- 
lief in  the  one  nature  of  Christ. 
There  were  thus  introduced  into 
the  church  two  sects — those  who 
adhered  to  the  traditional  beliefs, 
and  the  Roman  Catholics,  or 
Uniats  (q.  v.),  who  gave  up  the 
Monophysite  heresy. 

The  Armenian  church  proper 
differs  from  the  Church  of  Rome 
(see  Roman  Catholic  Church) 
in  its  belief  in  the  one  natuie  of 
Christ,  and  its  doctrine  that  the 
Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father 
alone;  in  its  denial  of  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  Bishop  of  Rome  (the 
Pope) ;  in  its  rejection  of  the  doc- 
trine of  purgatory  and  of  in- 
dulgences; and  in  its  lack  of  any 
word  equivalent  to  transubstan- 
tiation.  It  observes  seven  sacra- 
ments: Baptism  by  sprinkling 
and  dipping  three  times  each; 
chrism,  or  unction,  conjoined 
with  baptism;  penance;  com- 
munion, celebrated  with  pure 
wine  and  leavened  bread;  mat- 
rimony; anointing  of  the  sick; 
and  holy  orders.  Extreme  unc- 
tion is  administered  to  ecclesias- 
tics only.  The  head  of  the 
Church  is  the  Catholicos,  who 
resides  at  Etchmiadzin,  a  mon- 
astery near  Erivan,  in  Transcau- 
casia, and  to  whom  the  patriarchs 
of  Jerusalem  and  Constantinople 
are  subordinate.  See  Armenia; 
Armenian  Atrocities.  Consult 
Tozer's  The  Church  and  the  East- 
ern Empire. 

Armentieres,  ar-man-tyar', 
town,  department  Nord,  France, 
on  river  Lys;  10  miles  northwest 
of  Lille,  close  to  the  Belgian 
frontier.  It  manufactures  cloth, 
hemp,  and  table  linen.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  Germans  in  the 
early  days  of  the  Great  War  and 
retaken  in  the  great  Allied  ad- 
vance on  Oct.  3,  1918.  Pop. 
(1911)  28,625. 

Armes  Parlantes,  arm  par- 
lan't,  or  Rebus,  in  heraldry  the 
term  applied  to  such  armorial 
devices  as  pun  on  the  bearer's 
name  or  attributes,  as  a  bolt 
through  a  tun,  for  Bolton. 

Arm 'felt,  Gustaf  Mauritz 
(1757-1814),  Swedish  statesman, 
was  born  in  Finland.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Danish 
War  of  1788  and  the  Russian  War 
of  1788-90,  and  was  the  military 
representative  of  Gustavus  iii.  of 
Sweden  at  the  Congress  of 
Varala  (1790).  In  1792  he  was 
named  by  Gustavus,  who  had 
been  mortally  wounded  by  an 
assassin,  as  governor  of  Stock- 
holm during  the  regency  of 
Charles,  the  king's  brother. 
Shortly  afterward,  conscious  that 
his  influence  was  waning,  he  left 
Sweden  as  ambassador  to  Na- 
ples, where  he  entered  into  a 
conspiracy  for  the  overthrow  of 
the  regency.  His  plot  was  dis- 
VOL.  I.— Mar.  '19 


covered  and,  having  fled  to  Rus- 
sia, he  was  condemned  for  high 
treason.  He  was  restored  at  the 
accession  of  Gustavus  iv.  (1799), 
became  governor  of  Finland,  and 
in  1805-7  successfully  command- 
ed the  Swedish  troops  in  Pome- 
rania.  His  support  of  the  claims 
of  Gustavus  IV. 's  son  to  the 
throne  caused  his  arrest,  and  in 
1811  he  was  banished.  Thence- 
forth he  became  a  Russian  sub- 
ject, and  Alexander  i.  made  him 
governor-general  of  Finland 
1812-13.  He  encouraged  the 
Czar  to  resist  Napoleon  i.,  and 
drew  up  for  him  the  plan  of  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812.  Con- 
sult E.  Tegner's  Gustaf  Mauritz 
Armfelt  (2d  ed.);  Ingman's  G.  M. 
Armfelt. 

Armida,  ar-me'da,  in  Tasso's 
Jerusalem  Delivered,  an  enchant- 
ress, who  by  means  of  a  magical 
girdle  attempted  to  seduce  the 
crusaders  from  their  vows  to  de- 
Hver  Jerusalem  from  the  Sara- 
cens. Overcome  by  a  Christian 
talisman,  and  conquered  by  Ri- 
naldo,  she  turned  Christian, 
adopting  Rinaldo  as  her  knight. 

Armies.    See  Army. 

Ar 'miliary  Sphere,  an  instru- 
ment formed  by  a  combination  of 
several  rings,  showing  the  relative 
positions  of  the  imaginary  circles 
of  the  celestial  concave  to  which 
astronomers  refer  the  situations 
of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets. 
The  zodiac,  or  belt  of  the  sky  in 
which  the  movements  of  the 
greater  planets  take  place,  the 
equinoctial  circle,  the  tropics  of 
Cancer  and  Capricorn,  the  me- 
ridian and  horizon,  are  represent- 
ed, with  the  earth  as  centre.  The 
instrument,  by  whose  aid  astro- 
nomical problems  could  be  solved, 
has  been  superseded  by  the 
celestial  globe. 

Armin'ianism,  a  theological 
system  founded  by  Jacobus  Ar- 
minius  (q.  v.)  and  developed 
after  his  death  by  his  followers 
Johan  Wtenbogaert  (1557-1644) 
and  Simon  Episcopius  (1583- 
1643),  as  a  protest  against  the 
rigor  of  orthodox  Calvinism 
(q.  v.).  Its  principal  tenets  were 
formulated  in  a  Remonstrance 
drawn  up  in  1610  for  presenta- 
tion to  the  States  of  Holland. 
This  declares  that  election  is 
based  upon  divine  foreknowledge, 
denying  the  Calvinistic  doctrine 
of  absolute  predestination;  that 
the  atonement  is  universal,  that 
is,  that  Christ  died  for  all  and 
hot  merely  for  the  elect,  though 
only  believers  receive  the  bene- 
fits of  His  death;  that  divine 
grace  is  not  irresistible  but  may 
be  rejected;  that  there  is  no 
Scriptural  basis  for  holding 
that  the  regenerate  may  never 
fall  away  from  grace. 

The  Remonstrance  met  with  a 
strong  Counter-Remonstrance  put 
forth  by  the  Calvinists,  and  after 
several  fruitless  discussions,  the 


States  of  Holland,  in  January 
1614,  issued  an  edict  of  full  tolera- 
tion for  both  parties.  The  strife, 
however,  continued.  Maurice  of 
Orange  took  advantage  of  the 
passions  of  the  majority  to  crush 
his  opponents  of  the  republican 
party,  whose  leaders  were  ad- 
herents of  the  Arminian  doc- 
trines. Several  Arminians  were 
put  to  death,  and  several  others 
were  imprisoned  (Oldenbarne- 
veldt,  Grotius).  In  these  cir- 
cumstances, the  Synod  of  Dort 
was  held  (1618-19),  a  restate- 
ment of  Calvinistic  *  principles 
{The  Canons  of  the  Synod  of  Dort) 
was  issued,  Arminianism  was 
condemned,  and  three  hundred 
Arminians,  or  Remonstrants,  as 
they  were  called,  were  expelled 
from  office.  In  consequence  of 
this  decision,  the  defeated  party 
sought  shelter  abroad,  but  under 
Maurice's  successor  (1630)  they 
were  again  tolerated  in  Holland. 

As  the  church  in  Holland  be- 
came less  and  less  distinctively 
Calvinist,  the  separate  testimony 
of  the  Remonstrants  became  the 
less  necessary,  and  save  at  Rot- 
terdam and  Amsterdam  they  are 
now  few  in  numbers.  Wesley's 
movement  gave  the  name  at  least 
of  Arminianism  in  England  a 
new  lease  of  life,  and  a  modified 
Arminianism  is  associated  with 
the  Methodists,  as  distinct  from 
the  Calvinism  of  other  sects. 
Consult  Schaff 's  Creeds  of  Chris- 
tendom. 

Armin'ius  (18  B.  C.-19  a.  d.),  a 
famous  chief  of  the  German 
Cherusci,  served  in  the  German 
auxiliary  troops  with  the  Roman 
army.  When  Varus,  the  Roman 
governor,  aroused  the  German 
tribes  by  his  exactions,  Arminius 
secretly  raised  the  country 
against  him,  cut  off  his  outlying 
forces,  and  annihilated  his  main 
army  in  the  Teutoburger  Wald. 
The  disaster  caused  great  con- 
sternation at  Rome.  Tiberius 
led  a  force  to  the  Rhine,  which 
again  became  the  Roman  fron- 
tier. From  14  to  17  a.  d.  Ger- 
manicus  fought  with  varying 
success  against  Arminius,  but 
was  recalled  by  Tiberius  in  17. 
On  the  ground  of  seeking  abso- 
lute power  over  his  countrymen, 
Arminius  was  slain  by  his  rela- 
tives. Consult  Tacitus's  A  MMa/5; 
Merrivale's  Romans  under  the 
Empire. 

Arminius,  Jacobus  (1560- 
1609),  whose  proper  name  was 
Harmensen,  founder  of  Armin- 
ianism, was  born  in  Oudewater, 
Southern  Holland.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Leyden  and 
at  Geneva,  under  Beza  (q.  v.), 
visited  Italy,  and  in  1588  joined 
the  ministry  of  the  Reformed 
Church  at  Amsterdam  and  be- 
came a  leading  theologian  and 
preacher.  He  was  invited  (1589) 
to  refute  the  attack  of  Coornhert 
of  Haarlem  on  extreme  predesti- 


Armistice 


371  B 


Armistice 


narianism,  but  abandoned  the 
task,  convinced  of  the  untenable- 
ness  of  either  the  higher  or  lower 
predestination.  His  views  in- 
volved him  in  much  controversy, 
but  he  successfully  defended  his 
position  in  the  ecclesiastical 
courts,  and  in  1603  was  appoint- 
ed professor  of  theology  in  the 
University  of  Leyden,  the  great 
training  school  for  the  Dutch 
clergy.  His  colleague  Gomarus, 
his  principal  opponent,  traduced 
him  as  a  Papist,  a  Pelagian,  and 
a  'Coornherter,'  whereupon  he 
was  proscribed  by  the  clergy,  and 
his  students  were  subjected  to 
persecution,  although  the  States- 
general  reported  that  he  taught 
nothing  but  what  could  be  tol- 
erated and  his  position  at  the 
University  remained  secure. 
Prostrated  by  persecution,  he 
died  at  Leyden.  See  Arminian- 
ISM.  Consult  Arminius'  Works, 
translated  into  English  by  James 
Nichols  (1825-75);  Brandt's  Life 
of  Arminius  (Eng.  trans,  by 
Guthrie). 

Armistice,  ar'mis-tis,  a  general 
suspension  of  military  operations 
in  time  of  war  either  by  the 
whole  or  a  large  part  of  the  forces 
--  engaged.  Itis  within  the  power 
of  commanders  in  the  field  to 
bring  about  such  a  suspension  of 
operations  hy  agreement,  but  it 
is  more  often  the  result  of  'agree- 
ment by  the  governments  of  the 
nations  at  war  as  a  preliminary 
to  negotiations  for  a  peace  or 
from  some  high  political  or  re- 
ligious motive.  A  brief  cessation 
of  hostilities  between  combatants 
in  the  field  for  the  purpose  of 
burying  the  dead  or  other  cause 
due  to  local  conditions  does  not 
rise  to  the  dignity  of  an  armistice, 
and  is  known  as  a  'suspension  of 
arms.* 

One  of  the  most  notable  ar- 
mistices in  modern  history  was 
that  which  brought  to  a  close  the 
Franco-German  War  (q.  v.)  in 
1871  and  preceded  the  humiliat- 
_ing  peace  by  which  France  was 
forced  to  cede  Alsace-Lorraine, 
Metz,  and  Strassburg  to  Ger- 
many, and  to  pay,  in  addition,  a 
war  indemnity  of  $1,000,000,000. 
By  a  dramatic  coincidence  the 
building  in  Versailles  in  which 
French  representatives  requested 
this  armistice  was  the  very  one 
in  which  the  Interallied  War 
Council  framed  the  terms  of  the 
Great  Armistice  of  1918. 

Armistice  of  1918. — The  most 
stupendous  war  in  all  history 
came  to  an  end  with  the  signing 
of  an  armistice  between  Ger- 
many, the  Allied  powers,  and  the 
United  States,  on  Nov.  11,  1918. 
This  great  event  was  preceded  by 
the  unconditional  surrender  of 
Bulgaria  and  the  conclusion  of  an 
armistice  between  that  country 
and  the  Allies  at  Salonica,  on 
Sept.  29  (see  Bulgaria)  ;  by  the 
surrender  of  Turkey  and  the 
Vol.  L— Mar.  '19 


signing  of  an  armistice  by  Turk- 
ish and  Allied  representatives  at 
Mudros,  on  the  island  of  Lemnos, 
on  Oct.  31;  and  by  the  surrender 
of  Austria-Hungary  to  General 
Diaz,  the  Italian  commander, 
and  the  signing  of  an  armistice 
at  Italian  headquarters  on  Nov.  3. 

The  diplomatic  correspondence 
leading  to  the  conclusion  of  the 
armistice  dates  from  Oct.  6,  when 
the  German  government  ap- 
pealed to  President  Wilson  for 
an  immediate  armistice  and  the 
conclusion  of  peace  on  terms  pre- 
viously laid  down  by  the  Presi- 
dent in  his  public  utterances. 
Numerous  notes  were  inter- 
changed by  the  two  govern- 
ments, and  on  Nov.  5  the  German 
government  was  notified  by  the 
United  States  of  the  willingness 
of  the  Allies  to  arrange  an  ar- 
mistice on  the  principles  already 
laid  down  by  the  President,  the 
terms  to  be  obtained  from  Mar- 
shal Foch,  the  accredited  repre- 
sentative of  the  United  States 
and  the  Allied  powers.  The 
German  government  accordingly 
named  as  its  representatives 
Mathias  Erzberger,  Gen.  H,  K. 
A.  von  Winterfeld',  Count  Alfred 
von  Oberndorff,  Gen.  von  Griin- 
nel,  and  Naval  Captain  von 
Salow.  These  delegates  were  re- 
ceived by  Marshal  Foch  in  his 
special  train  at  Rethondes,  6 
miles  east  of  Compiegne,  on 
Nov.  8,  and  there  were  given  the 
terms  of  the  armistice  with  a 
formal  demand  that  they  be  ac- 
cepted or  refused  within  seventy- 
two  hours.  On  November  11,  at  5 
A.  M.  Paris  time  (midnight, 
Washington  time),  the  armistice 
was  signed  by  Marshal  Foch 
and  Vice-Admiral  Sir  Rosslyn 
Wemyss,  First  Lord  of  the  British 
Admiralty,  representing  the  Al- 
lies and  the  United  States,  and 
by  Mathias  Erzberger,  General 
von  Winterfeld,  Count  von 
Oberndorff,  and  Capt.  von  Salow 
representing  Germany. 

The  conditions  of  the  armistice 
were  formulated  by  the  Supreme 
War  Council  in  session  at  Ver- 
sailles in  October  and  November. 
As  finally  ^gned  they  included 
the  following  provisions: 

Western  Front. — 1.  Cessation 
of  operations  by  land  and  in  the 
air  six  hours  after  the  signature 
of  the  armistice. 

2.  Immediate  evacuation  of 
invaded  countries  —  Belgium, 
France,  Alsace-Lorraine,  Luxem- 
burg— to  be  completed  within 
fourteen  days  from  the  signature 
of  the  armistice. 

3.  Repatriation,  beginning  at 
once  and  to  be  completed  within 
fifteen  days,  of  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  countries  above  enumer- 
ated. 

4.  Surrender  in  good  condition 
by  the  German  armies  of  the  fol- 
lowing war  material:  Five  thou- 
sand guns  (2,500  heavy  and  2,500 


field),  25,000  machine  guns,  3,000 
minenwerfer,  1,700  airplanes. 

5.  Evacuation  by  the  German 
armies  of  the  countries  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  these 
countries  to  be  administered  by 
the  local  troops  of  occupation. 

6.  In  all  territories  evacuated 
by  the  enemy  there  shall  be  no 
evacuation  of  inhabitants;  no 
damage  or  harm  shall  be  done  to 
the  persons  or  property  of  the 
inhabitants. 

7.  Five  thousand  locomotives 
and  150,000  wagons  (freight  cars) 
in  good  working  order,  with  all 
necessary  spare  parts  and  fittings, 
shall  be  delivered  to  the  associ- 
ated powers,  and  there  shall  like- 
wise be  delivered  5,000  motor 
lorries  (trucks)  in  good  order, 
within  a  period  of  thirty-six  days. 

8.  The  German  command  shall 
be  responsible  for  revealing  with- 
in the  period  of  forty-eight  hours 
after  the  signing  of  the  armistice 
all  mines  or  delayed  action  fuses 
and  any  other  destructive  meas- 
ures on  territory  evacuated  by 
the  German  troops  and  shall  as- 
sist in  their  discovery  and  de- 
struction. 

9.  The  right  of  requisition 
shall  be  exercised  by  the  Allied 
and  United  States  armies  in  all 
occupied  territories.  The  up- 
keep of  the  troops  of  occupation 
in  the  Rhineland  (excluding  Al- 
sace-Lorraine) shall  be  charged  to 
the  German  Government. 

10.  The  immediate  repatria- 
tion, without  reciprocity,  of  all 
Allied  and  United  States  prison- 
ers of  war. 

11.  Sick  and  wounded  men 
who  cannot  be  removed  from 
evacuated  territory  will  be  cared 
for  by  German  personnel,  who 
will  be  left  on'the  spot  with  the 
medical  material  required. 

Eastern  Frontiers  of  Germany. 
— 12  and  13.  Evacuation  by 
German  troops  of  Russia,  and  of 
all  territories  formerly  belonging 
to  Austria-Hungary,  Roumania, 
Turkey,  and  Russia. 

14.  Cessation  by  German 
troops  from  all  requisitions  and 
seizures  and  any  other  under- 
taking with  a  view  to  obtaining 
supplies  intended  for  Germany  in 
Roumania  and  Russia. 

15.  Renunciation  of  the  trea- 
ties of  Bucharest  and  Brest- 
Litovsk  and  of  the  supplemen- 
tary treaties. 

16.  Free  access  for  the  AlHes 
to  the  territories  evacuated  by 
the  Germans  on  their  eastern 
frontier,  either  through  Danzig, 
or  by  the  Vistula,  in  order  to 
convey  supplies  to  the  popula- 
tions of  those  territories  and  for 
the  purpose  of  maintaining  order. 

East  Africa. — 17.  Evacuation 
of  all  German  forces  operating  in 
East  Africa  within  a  period  to  be 
fixed  by  the  Allies. 

General  Clauses. — 18.  Repatri- 
ation, without  reciprocity,  of  all 


Armistice 


3?2 


Armor 


interned  civilians,  including  per- 
sons under  trial  or  convicted,  be- 
longing to  the  Allied  or  associ- 
ated powers  other  than  those 
enumerated  in  Article  Three. 

19.  Financial  reparation  for 
damage  done;  immediate  resti- 
tution of  the  cash  deposit  in  the 
national  bank  of  Belgium,  and  in 
general  immediate  return  of  all 
documents,  specie,  stocks,  shares, 
paper  money,  together  with  plant 
for  the  issue  thereof,  touching 
public  or  private  interests  in  the 
invaded  countries;  restitution  of 
the  Russian  and  Roumanian  gold 
yielded  to  Germany  or  taken  by 
that  power. 

Naval  Conditions. — 20.  Imme- 
diate cessation  of  all  hostilities  at 
sea  and  definite  information  to  be 
given  as  to  the  location  and 
movements  of  all  German  ships. 

21.  All  naval  and  mercantile 
marine  prisoners  of  the  Allied  and 
associated  powers  in  German 
hands  to  be  returned  without 
reciprocity. 

22.  Surrender  to  the  Allies  and 
United  States  within  fourteen 
days  of  all  submarines  (including 
submarine  cruisers  and  all  mine- 
laying  submarines)  now  existing, 
with  their  complete  armament 
and  equipment. 

23.  German  surface  warships 
which  shall  be  designated  by  the 
Allies  and  the  United  States  shall 
be  immediately  disarmed  and 
thereafter  interned  in  neutral 
ports  or  in  default  of  them  in 
Allied  ports  to  be  designated  by 
the  Allies  and  the  United  States. 
The  following  warships  are  des- 
ignated: Six  battle  cruisers,  ten 
battleships,  eight  light  cruis- 
ers (including  two  mine  layers), 
fifty  destroyers  of  the  most  mod- 
ern types.  All  other  surface  war- 
ships (including  river  craft)  are 
to  be  concentrated  in  German 
naval  bases  to  be  designated  by 
the  Allies  and  the  United  States 
and  are  to  be  completely  dis- 
armed and  classed  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Allies  and  the 
United  States. 

24.  The  Allies  and  the  United 
States  of  America  shall  have  the 
right  to  sweep  up  all  mine  fields 
and  obstructions  laid  by  Ger- 
many outside  German  territorial 
waters,  and  the  positions  of  these 
are  to  be  indicated. 

25.  Freedom  of  access  to  and 
from  the  Baltic  to  be  given  to  the 
naval  and  mercantile  marines  of 
the  Allied  and  associated  powers. 

26.  The  existing  blockade  con- 
ditions set  up  by  the  Allied  and 
associated  powers  to  remain  un- 
changed. 

27.  All  naval  aircraft  are  to  be 
concentrated  and  immobilized  in 
German  bases  to  be  specified  by 
the  Allies  and  the  United  States. 

28.  In  evacuating  the  Belgian 
coast  and  ports  Germany  shall 
abandon  in  situ  and  in  fact  all 
port  and  river  navigation  mate- 

VOL.  I.— Mar.  '19 


riar,  all  merchant  ships,  tugs, 
lighters,  all  naval  aeronautic  ap- 
paratus, material  and  supplies, 
and  all  arms,  apparatus,  and 
supplies  of  every  kind. 

29.  All  Black  Sea  ports  are  to 
be  evacuated  by  Germany;  all 
Russian  war  vessels  of  all  descrip- 
tions seized  by  Germany  in  the 
Black  Sea  are  to  be  handed  over 
to  the  Allies  and  the  United 
States  of  America;  all  neutral 
merchant  vessels  seized  are  to  be 
released;  all  warlike  and  other 
materials  of  all  kinds  seized  in 
those  ports  are  to  be  returned  and 
German  materials  as  specified  in 
Clause  28  are  to  be  abandoned. 

30.  All  merchant  vessels  in 
German  hands  belonging  to  the 
Allied  and  associated  powers  to 
be  restored  without  reciprocity. 

31.  No  destruction  of  ships  or 
of  materials  to  be  permitted  be- 
fore evacuation,  surrender,  or 
restoration. 

32.  The  German  Government 
will  notify  the  neutral  Govern- 
ments of  the  world,  and  particu- 
larly the  Governments  of  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Hol- 
land, that  all  restrictions  placed 
on  the  trading  of  their  vessels  with 
the  Allied  and  associated  countries 
are  immediately  cancelled. 

33.  No  transfers  of  German 
merchant  shipping  of  any  de- 
scription to  any  neutral  flag  are 
to  take  place  after  signature  of 
the  armistice. 

The  duration  of  the  armistice 
was  for  thirty  days,  with  option 
to  extend.  Supervision  of  execu- 
tion of  its  terms  was  vested  in  an 
International  Armistice  Com- 
mission including  representatives 
of  the  United  States,  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  and  Germany. 

The  armistice  was  extended  on 
Dec.  12  to  Jan.  17,  1919,  and  on 
Jan.  13  to  Feb.  17,  subject  to 
the  following  conditions:  That 
Germany  surrender  to  the  Allies 
all  her  cargo  steamers  in  Ger- 
man or  Allied  ports  to  enable 
the  Allies  to  revictual  Germany 
and  adjacent  countries,  equitable 
remuneration  for  the  use  of  the 
ships  to  be  paid  to  Germany  and 
applied  as  payment  for  food- 
stuffs to  be  furnished  to  Germany; 
that  Germany  restore  all  manu- 
facturing machinery,  etc.,  taken 
from  invaded  regions  which  can 
be  identified  (including  some 
58,000  agricultural  machines) ; 
that  guarantees  be  furnished  re- 
garding the  removal  of  the  Reichs- 
bank's  gold  from  Berlin  in  view 
of  the  civil  strife  there.  On  Feb. 
16  the  armistice  was  extended 
indefinitely,  with  the  provision 
that  Germany  cease  hostilities 
against  the  Poles  and  complete  the 
disarmament  and  demobilization 
of  German  forces  under  regula- 
tions prescribed  by  the  millitary 
and  naval  advisers  of  the  Allies. 

See  Europe,  Great  War  of. 

Ar'mltage,  Edward  (1817-96), 


English  historical  and  mural 
painter,  was  born  in  London. 
He  was  a  pupil  (1836)  of  Paul 
Delaroche,  assisted  that  artist  in 
painting  the  celebrated  Hemi- 
cycle  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts, 
and  in  1843  and  following  years 
won  three  prizes  for  frescoes  for 
the  Houses  of  Parliament,  the 
subjects  being  The  Landing  of 
Ccesar  (1843),  The  Spirit  of  Re- 
ligion (1845),  and  The  Battle  of 
Meeanee  (1847).  A  visit  to  the 
Crimea  in  1855  led  to  his  paint- 
ing The  Guards  at  Inkermann  and 
A  Cavalry  Attack  at  Balaklava. 
He  became  professor  of  painting 
in  the  Royal  Academy  in  1875, 
and  in  1883  published  Lectures  on 
Painting. 

Armitage,  Thomas  (1819-96), 
American  Baptist  clergyman,  was 
born  at  Pontefract,  England.  He 
began  work  as  a  local  preacher  in 
1835,  and  three  years  later  came 
to  the  United  States,  where  he 
was  engaged  in  the  Methodist 
ministry  until  1848,  when  he  was 
received  into  the  Baptist  minis- 
try, and  accepted  a  call  from  the 
Fifth  Avenue  (the  Norfolk  Street) 
Baptist  Church,  of  New  York. 
He  held  this  pastorate  until  his 
retirement  in  1890.  Dr.  Armi- 
tage was  deeply  interested  in 
Bible  revision,  and  was  a  founder 
and  president  (1856-75)  of  the 
American  Bible  Union.  Entirely 
self-taught,  he  gained  a  high  rep- 
utation as  a  polished  and  scholar- 
ly pulpit  orator.  He  wrote  A 
History  of  the  Baptists  (1886). 

Armor,  strictly  speaking  gar- 
ments of  defence,  but,  as  gener- 
ally applied,  including  also  weap- 
ons. Axe-heads  of  many  differ- 
ent kinds  of  stone  and  of  a  great 
variety  of  shapes  and  sizes  are 
very  characteristic  implements  of 
the  earliest  period.  In  addition 
to  spear-heads  and  arrow-heads 
of  exquisitely  finished  workman- 
ship in  flint,  the  art  of  fabricating 
weapons  in  this  material  reached 
its  highest  point  in  the  knife- 
daggers,  especially  those  of  Scan- 
dinavian origin,  which  display  on 
their  edges  what  is  technically 
known  as  'ripple-flaking.' 

With  the  use  of  bronze  the  va- 
riety of  weapons  increased,  in  the 
form  of  axes,  daggers,  swords,  and 
shields.  The  earliest  form  of 
bronze  dagger  is  a  thin,  knife-like 
blade  about  six  inches  long,  broad 
at  the  hilt,  and  fastened  to  the 
handle  by  large  rivets  of  bronze. 
The  leaf-shaped  sword,  found  all 
over  Europe,  was  cast  with  the 
handle-plate  in  one  piece,  and 
was  without  a  guard.  Scandi- 
navian bronze  swords  are  longer 
than  British.  A  narrow  rapier- 
shaped  variety  occurs  frequently 
in  Ireland.  Spear-heads  of  bronze 
are  chiefly  leaf -shaped,  though 
barbed  examples  have  been  found. 
The  shields  of  the  Bronze  Age 
were  circular,  with  concentric 
ridges  and  rows  of  studs,  and  the 


Armor 

handle  was  fixed  beneath  the 
boss.  In  Central  Europe  the 
Early  Iron  Age  produced  swords 
of  iron  formed  in  exact  imitation 
of  the  leaf-shaped  sword  of  the 
previous  age. 

The  Heroic  Age  in  Greece  is 
characterized  by  a  bronze  sword, 
double-edged,  long  and  sharp, 
having  gold  or  silver  studs  set  in 
the  hilt  and  scabbard;  and  its 
defensive  armor  consisted  of  hel- 
met, cuirass,  greaves,  and  shield, 
all  of  bronze.  In  the  earliest 
Egyptian  period  the  archers  were 
provided  with  arrows  made  of  a 
reed  tipped  with  bronze.  Their 
swordsmen  carried  straight, 
double-edged  weapons  of  bronze, 
tapering  from  hilt  to  point.  Their 
shields  were  of  peculiar  form, 
round-headed  but  square  below, 
and  the  spears  used  at  this  time 
were  fitted  with  bronze  leaf- 
shaped  heads.  The  armor  of  the 
Etruscans  was,  in  the  main,  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  Greeks. 

About  the  first  century  B.C. 
the  Romans  used  two  varieties  of 
sword — the  short,  double-edged 
gladius,  and  the  long,  single- 
edged  spatha.  But  of  all  the 
weapons  carried  by  the  Romans 
the  most  characteristic  was  the 
pilum,  a  wooden  shaft  fitted  with 
a  stout- iron  head  resembling  the 
modern  pike.  It  could  either  be 
hurled,  javelin-wise,  or  used  like 
a  bayonet,  as  well  as  to  ward  off 
sword  strokes.  On  the  Trajan 
Column  there  are  shown  two 
varieties  of  shield — one  oblong, 
rectangular,  and  highly  convex; 
the  other  oval  and  flattened,  the 
latter  being  borne  by  knights. 
During  the  Merovingian  period 
(450-760  A.D.)  the  francisca  or 
battle-axe  was  the  characteristic 
weapon.  It  was  hurled  with  un- 
erring aim  at  an  antagonist. 
The  Prankish  angon  was  a  de- 
velopment of  the  Roman  pilum. 

Nearer  the  period  prior  to  the 
Norman  Conquest,  most  weapons 
were  of  iron,  consisting  of  broad- 
swords with  or  without  guards, 
and  the  curved  blade  called  in 
A.S.  seax,  with  sheaths  of  wood 
or  leather.  The  loneibow  became 
of  great  importance,  and  mace 
heads  of  iron  and  bronze  were 
much  in  vogue.  The  shield,  oval 
or  circular,  was  of  wood  covered 
with  leather,  and  had  a  high 
conical  boss.  Body  armor  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  the  hyrnie  (chain 
mail),  the  lorica,  and  crested 
helmets.  A  Norman  knight  was 
clad  in  hose  of  mail,  steel  knee 
caps,  a  byrnie,  gambeson,  and 
helmet,  and  bore  two  swords, 
dagger,  spear,  and  shield.  Arch- 
ery was  encouraged  in  England 
by  statute.  The  crossbow,  at  first 
prohibited  by  papal  decree,  came 
into  use  toward  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century.  With  the  thir- 
teenth century  archers  and  cross- 
bowmen    increased;     and  the 


373  Armorial  Bearings 


varieties  of  armor,  weapons,  and 
decorations  largely  multiplied,  in- 
cluding hoods  of  chain  mail, 
greaves  of  metal  or  of  cuir  bouilli, 
banded  armor,  the  dagger  or 
misericorde,  horse  caparisons,  and 
banners  of  display.  With  the 
advent   of   gunpowder  in  the 


thrust.  The  modern  rifle  and 
revolver  used  by  the  leading 
Powers  differ  only  in  points  of 
detail.  Of  ancient  and  mediaeval 
weapons  in  use  before  the  intro- 
duction of  gunpowder — such  as 
the  sword,  pike,  mace,  javelin, 
axe,  etc. — there  only  remain  the 


Specimens  of  the  Armor  and  Weapons  in  Use  Before  the  Invention 
of  Gunpowder. 

1.  Knight  with  lance,  early  sixteenth  century.   2.  Crossbow  with  windlass,  fifteenth 
century.    3.  Cromwellian  trooper.    4.  Lochaber  axe.   5.  Targe  or  shield, 
sword.   7.  Two-handed  claymore.   8.  Steel  pistol.   9.  Dirks. 


fourteenth  century,  the  use  of 
body  armor  naturally  decreased, 
chain-mail  hauberks  being  dis- 
continued. Leather  and  whale- 
bone were  much  used  in  addition 
to  metals  in  the  manufacture  of 
elbow  guards,  gauntlets,  knee 
pieces,  and  sollerets  (armed 
shoes) . 

Modern  arms  are  classed  as 
firearms,  and  those  wielded  at 
close    quarters  with  a  cut  or 


various  types  of  bayonet,  sword, 
and  lance. 

See  articles  on  the  weapons 
mentioned,  especially  Firearms; 
Rifle;  Revolver;  Bayonet; 
Sword.  Consult  Brett's  Ancient 
Arms  and  Armor;  Bartlett's 
Some  Weapons  of  War;  Ash- 
down's  Arms  and  Armor  (1909). 

Armored  Trains.  See  Trains, 
Armored. 

Arroo'rlal   Bearings,  the  ge- 


Armorlca 


374 


Armor  Plate 


neric  term  for  insignia  treated  of 
in  heraldry;  strictly,  those  borne 
on  the  shield.    See  Heraldry, 

Armor'ica,  a  division  of  pre- 
Roman  Gaul,  identified  with 
Brittany,  and  inhabited  by  the 
Armorici.  During  the  Roman 
occupation  it  comprised  the 
whole  of  the  country  north  of  the 
Loire.  After  the  German  in- 
vasion the  Tr actus  Armor icanus 
became  a  sort  of  federal  republic, 
until  annexed  to  the  French 
crown  by  Clovis  about-  500  a.d. 
See  Brittany. 

Armor,  Naval.  See  Armor 
Plate. 

Armor  Plate.  The  first  use  of 
iron  to  protect  the  sides  of  ships 
against  hostile  shot  was  made  by 
the  French  in  the  siege  of  Gib- 
raltar, in  1782.  The  vessels  were 
floating  batteries,  and  were  ar- 
mored with  heavy  iron  bars. 
They  caught  fire  and  burned,  so 
that  their  invulnerability  was 
not  adequately  tested.  The  first 
suggestion  to  apply  rrmor  to  a 
sea-going  vessel  seems  to  have 
been  made  in  1812  by  Col.  John 
Stevens  (q.  v.),  who  prepared 
plans  for  an  armored  steam  ves- 
sel for  harbor  defence.  In  1841 
his  son  Robert  L.  Stevens  pre- 
sented to  the  United  States  Navy 
Department  plans  for  an  iron- 
clad steamer  of  high  speed  in 
which  all  of  the  machinery,  in- 
cluding the  propellers,  was  to  be 
below  the  water  line.  The  pro- 
posal was  accepted,  and  an  Act 
of  Congress,  approved  April  14, 
1842,  authorized  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  to  'contract  for  the 
construction  of  a  war  steamer, 
shot  and  shell  proof,  to  be  built 
principally  of  iron,  upon  the  plan 
of  said  vStevens.'  The  aripor  ex- 
periments of  the  Stevens  broth- 
ers indicated  that  a  thickness  of 
4.5  inches  would  be  sufficient; 
but  just  as  they  were  about  to 
lay  down  the  ship,  Ericsson's 
wrought-iron  gun  showed  its 
ability  to  perforate  a  thicker 
target  than  this.  The  ship  was 
therefore  re-designed,  enlarged, 
and  armor  of  6.75  inches  was  al- 
lowed for.  This  and  other 
causes  delayed  the  laying  down 
of  Stevens'  vessel  until  1854,  two 
months  before  the  French  began 
work  on  their  floating  batteries. 
The  Stevens  ship  was  never  com- 
pleted because  Congress  refused 
the  necessary  money  to  carry  on 
the  work. 

In  1824  General  Paixhans 
brought  out  his  celebrated  shell 
gun  (explosive  shells  had  hith- 
erto been  used  only  in  mortars), 
and  in  a  report  to  the  French  gov- 
ernment predicted  that  the  use  of 
shells  would  force  the  building  of 
armored  vships.  In  1841  he  made 
definite  proposals  to  this  effect. 
His  plans  were  rejected,  but  they 
aroused  much  interest,  and  in 
1845  M.  Dupuy  de  Lome  sub- 


mitted plans  for  an  iron-hulled, 
armor-plated  frigate.  He  be- 
lieved that  by  substituting  iron 
for  wood  he  could  save  19  per 
cent,  of  the  displacement,  and 
this  would  be  sufficient  for  an 
armor  belt  8  feet  wide  and  6.5 
inches  thick.  De  Lome's  plans 
were  also  rejected,  because  it 
was  considered  that  he  over- 
estimated the  saving  in  the  use 
of  an  iron  hull;  because  he  had 
given  the  battery  no  protection; 


Solid  Iron  Plate  A  rmor  as  Ap plied 
to  the  French  Cruiser  'Gloire.' 


and  because  a  thickness  of  armor 
of  6.5  inches  would  not  render  the 
ship  invulnerable  to  existing  guns. 
In  1846,  plans  of  armored  float- 
ing batteries  for  coast  defence 
were  prepared  by  the  French 
navy  department,  but  were  laid 
aside.  Soon  after  the  outbreak 
of  the  Crimean  War  these  plans 
were  taken  up  and  reconsidered. 
Armor  experiments  were  insti- 
tuted at  Vincennes,  and  it  was 
found  that  a  solid  iron  plate  gave 


Present  Arrangement  of  Steel 
Armor. 


at  least  one-third  greater  resist- 
ance than  a  laminated  one;  that 
a  4.5-inch  solid  plate  was  invul- 
nerable to  a  68-pounder,  the 
heaviest  fortress  gun  of  the  day; 
that  solid  plates  of  4  inches  were 
broken  but  were  not  perforated 
by  32-pounder  solid  shot  or  hol- 
low shot  of  8  or  9  inches;  that  a 
backing  of  oak  or  other  firm  wood 
was  necessary  in  addition  to  the 
side  planking  of  a  ship;  and  that 


through  bolting  was  an  element 
of  much  danger.  Considerable 
knowledge  was  also  obtained  in 
regard  to  the  necessary  methods 
of  manufacture  of  armor,  and  to 
the  ductility  and  toughness  of 
the  metal  required.  Armor  of 
4.5  inches  was  selected,  and  sev- 
eral of  the  batteries  were  laid 
down  in  1854. 

In  September,  1854,  Ericsson 
submitted  to  the  French  emper- 
or plans  of  a  cupola  or  turret 
vessel  which  was  the  forerun- 
ner of  the  monitor.  These 
plans  were  rejected — which  is 
not  surprising,  as  Ericsson  pro- 
posed the  use  of  a  20-inch  steam 
gun.  On  Oct.  17,  1855,  three  of 
the  French  armored  batteries 
took  part  in  an  attack  upon  the 
Russian  forts  at  Kinburn,  which 
had  held  the  allied  fleet  at  bay 
for  many  months  and  inflicted 
much  damage  upon  the  vessels. 
The  batteries  took  up  a  position 
at  800  yards'  distance  from  the 
fortifications,  and  in  a  bombard- 
ment lasting  four  or  five  hours 
dismounted  nearly  half  the  en- 
emy's guns,  and  compelled  him 
to  surrender.  The  armor  of  the 
batteries  was  not  pierced,  and 
their  structures  were  uninjured. 

This  brilliant  success  decided 
the  question  of  armor;  and 
France  and  other  countries  be- 
gan almost  immediately  to  build 
sea-going  armor-plated  vessels. 
The  first  of  this  character  was  the 
French  armor-plated  frigate,  the 
Gloire,  which  had  the  hull  and 
machinery  of  a  screw  battleship 
of  the  old  type.  The  number  of 
guns  was  greatly  decreased  in 
the  original  plans,  and  still  fur- 
ther reduced  when  actually  in- 
stalled on  board,  but  were  indi- 
vidually much  more  powerful 
than  those  on  ships  of  older  type. 
The  Gloire  had  very  little  work 
done  on  her  until  1858,  but  the 
intervening  years  were  not  lost. 
Much  had  to  be  learned  about 
armor  manufacture,  and  means 
of  producing  it  had  to  be  devel- 
oped. The  quality  of  the  early 
plates  was  very  poor,  showing 
plainly  the  lack  of  knowledge  of 
and  facilities  for  working  heavy 
metal.  The  delay  in  getting  the 
armor  for  the  Gloire,  therefore, 
was  probably  more  than  com- 
pensated for  by  the  superior 
quality  obtained.  From  this 
time  onward  the  increasing  de- 
mand for  armor  changed  the  con- 
ditions materially;  improved  fur- 
naces, forges,  hammers,  rolls,  and 
other  machinery  were  installed, 
and  experience  and  experiment 
had  so  greatly  bettered  the  situ- 
ation that  by  1862  the  making 
of  homogeneous,  fibrous,  tough 
wrought-iron  plate  had  been 
brought  close  to  perfection. 

The  first  British  armor-clads, 
the  Warrior  and  Black  Prince, 
were  designed  in  1858,  laid  down 


Armor  Plate 


375 


Armor  Pit„te 


in  1859,  and  completed  in  1861- 
62.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Gloire, 
they  were  delayed  by  armor  ex- 
periments, and  the  plating  finally 
used  was  superior  in  design  and 
quality  to  that  of  the  French 
ship;  but  they  were  signally  de- 
fective in  the  method  of  applica- 
tion, which  protected  only  part 
of  the  water  line  and  battery,  and 
left  the  stern,  rudder,  and  steer- 
ing gear  exposed  to  destruction. 
The  reports  of  trials  of  the  'War- 
rior target,'  representing  a  sec- 
tion of  the  Warrior's  side,  and  of 
plates  mounted  in  other  ways, 
showed  that  a  certain  amount  of 
wooden  backing  was  necessary 
to  reduce  the  shock  of  impact  on 
the  framing  of  the  ship,  but  that 
so  far  as  perforation  was  con- 
cerned, most  experiments  indi- 
cated that  it  was  better  to  put  all 
the  weight  of  armor  and  backing 
into  the  plate. 

During  this  period  of  armor 
development  the  gunmakers  had 
not  been  idle.  As  the  improved 
defensive  power  of  ships  rendered 
existing  guns  almost  impotent, 
means  of  increasing  the  power  of 
ordnance  were  sought  in  every 
direction.  Rifled  guns  began  to 
be  used  before  the  Gloire  was 
completed;  and  they  were  devel- 
oped so  rapidly  that  she  was 
equipped  with  a  battery  of  muz- 
zle-loading rifles,  although  orig- 
inally planned  to  carry  smooth 
bores.  Rifled  guns  increased 
steadily  in  size  and  penetrating 
power,  but  the  thickness  and  re- 
sistance of  armor  kept  ahead 
during  the  period  from  1858  to 
1865.  From  the  latter  date  until 
1876  the  gun  kept  ahead,  al- 
though the  thickness  of  armor 
had  now  reached  24  inches,  and 
the  area  of  side  covered  by  it 
was  reduced  to  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  water-line  length. 

The  effort  to  keep  up  with  the 
gun  by  thicker  plating  and  re- 
duction of  area  was  a  vain  one, 
and  the  limit  of  the  carrying 
power  of  the  ship  was  eventually 
reached,  even  with  the  restricted 
amount  of  surface  protected.  An 
improvement  in  the  quality  of 
the  armor  was  apparently  the 
only  solution  of  the  problem,  and 
armor  makers  set  diligently  to 
work  to  discover  it.  Steel  plates 
of  various  kinds  were  tried;  also 
layers  of  iron  and  steel.  The 
latter  were  inferior  to  solid  plates, 
as  was  all  laminated  armor.  The 
United  States  was  compelled  at 
first  to  use  laminated  plating,  on 
account  of  the  lack  of  mill  equip- 
ment to  forge  or  roll  heavy  plates. 
The  sides,  turrets,  and  conning 
towers  of  the  monitors  were  built 
up  in  this  way,  and  not  only  had 
a  reduced  resistance  to  perfora- 
tion, but  the  numerous  bolts  re- 
quired to  hold  the  plates  in  shape 
and  position  were  as  great  a 
danger  to  the  personnel  as  the 
Vol.  I.— 28. 


shells  of  the  enemy;  for  every 
time  the  armor  was  struck,  bolt 
heads  and  fragments  of  bolts 
were  driven  about  the  conning 
tower  or  turret,  killing  and 
wounding  the  inmates.  In  some 
cases  thin  sheathing  was  placed 
over  the  bolt  heads. 

The  earlier  steel  plates  were 
unsatisfactory,  not  through  lack 
of  resistance  to  perforation,  but 
because  they  cracked  so  badly 
and  fell  off  the  backing.  Steel- 
faced  armor  in  which  the  face 
was  rivetted  to  the  back  was 
tried;  but  it  also  cracked  badly 
and  fell  off.  Despite  all  attempts 
to  displace  it,  wrought  iron  con- 
tinued in  favor  until  1876,  and 
reached  a  thickness  of  24  inches. 
In  1875  the  Italian  government 
called  for  test  plates  of  solid 
armor  22  inches  thick  from  all  the 
principal  armor  makers  of  the 
world.  John  Brown  &  Co.  sub- 
mitted two  solid  iron  plates; 
Cammell  &  Co.  one  solid  plate 
and  one  sandwich  (two  plates  with 
oak  between)  target;  Marrel  et 
Cie.  presented  the  same;  and 
Schneider  &  Co.  furnished  two 
solid  steel  plates.  The  trials  took 
place  at  Spezia  in  1876,  and  the 
result  was  overwhelmingly  in 
favor  of  the  steel  plates;  they 
cracked  more  than  the  iron,  but 
the  difference  in  penetration  was 
so  great  as  to  overshadow  the 
cracking.  As  a  result  of  the  Spe- 
zia tests,  wrought-iron  armor 
was  definitely  discarded. 

In  England,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent in  France  and  Italy,  the 
cracking  of  steel  armor  was  still 
regarded  with  apprehension;  and 
one  of  the  methods  whereby  it 
was  sought  to  preserve  .the  im- 
penetrability of  steel  armor,  as 
well  as  the  resistance  to  cracking 
of  the  wrought  iron,  was  to  weld 
a  steel  face  to  a  wrought-iron 
back.  The  result  was  called 
'compound'  armor,  and  its  devel- 
opment both  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, but  especially  in  the  latter, 
held  it  for  the  next  dozen  years 
on  a  par  with  steel.  There  were 
two  well-known  methods  of  mak- 
ing it,  and  they  were  about  equal 
as  regards  the  character  of  the 
product.  In  the  Wilson  process 
(Cammell  &  Co.)  molten  steel 
was  poured  on  a  white-hot  iron 
plate,  adding  about  a  third  to  its 
thickness.  When  sufficiently  cool 
this  plate  was  rolled  and  ham- 
mered, somewhat  reducing  its 
thickness,  but  improving  its  re- 
sisting qualities.  In  the  Ellis 
process  (Brown  &  Co.)  a  wrought- 
iron  plate  and  a  thin  hard  steel 
plate  were  separately  made, 
placed  in  a  furnace,  and  held 
apart  by  steel  bars.  When  all 
was  raised  to  a  welding  heat, 
molten  steel  was  poured  into  the 
space  between  the  plates,  welding 
them  together.  There  were  other 
systems  of  making  compound 


armor,  but  these  exemplify  the 
type  and  the  central  idea,  which 
was  to  combine  the  hardness  and 
resisting  powers  of  steel  with  the 
non-cracking  quality  of  homoge- 
neous, well-worked  wrought  iron. 
The  first  really  successful  com- 
pound plates  appeared  in  1877, 
and  compound  competed  there- 
after on  at  least  even  terms  with 
steel  until  1889,  when  Schneider  & 
Co.,  of  Creusot,  brought  out  their 
first  nickel-steel  plate.  Its  supe- 
riority was  not  universally  con- 
ceded until,  in  September,  1890, 
the  U.  S.  naval  authorities  pur- 
chased a  compound  plate  of 
Cammell  &  Co.  and  two  plates 
from  Schneider,  one  of  steel  and 
one  of  nickel  steel.  The  defeat  of 
the  compound  plate  by  both  ateel 
plates  was  so  decisive  and  con- 
vincing that  it  at  once  stopped 
the  making  of  compound  armor. 

The  results  of  this  trial  had 
hardly  become  accepted  by  the 
naval  world  when  another  one 
took  place  which  was  even  more 
revolutionary.  At  the  suggestion 
of  Captain  (afterward  Rear-Ad- 
miral) W.  M.  Folger,  who  was 
then  superintendent  of  the  naval 
gun  factory  at  Washington,  H.  A. 
Harvey,  a  manufacturer  of  high- 
grade  tool  steel,  undertook  the 
adaptation  of  his  process  for 
hardening  tools  to  the  hardening 
and  toughening  of  the  face  of  an 
armor  plate.  After  two  or  three 
years  of  experiment  the  first  large 
plate  was  tried  on  Feb.  14,  1891, 
The  plate  did  all  that  theory  had 
predicted  for  a  plate  which  was 
hard  on  its  face,  tough  through- 
out, and  soft  on  the  back.  Only 
the  best  class  of  projectiles  made 
any  impression  on  it — all  others 
were  broken  up  on  the  hard 
face;  and  as  regards  penetration, 
the  gain  in  resistance  over  all  pre- 
vious plates  was  much  more  than 
had  ever  been  gained  in  a  single 
step  before.  In  the  Harvey  proc- 
ess the  plate  is  placed  in  a 
furnace  with  the  surface  to  be 
hardened  uppermost;  this  surface 
is  covered  with  carbonaceous 
material,  then  a  layer  of  sand, 
and  then  fire  brick.  The  plate  is 
raised  to  about  the  temperature 
of  melting  cast  iron,  and  kept  so 
for  several  days  until  the  required 
additional  carbonization — usual- 
ly about  1  per  cent — is  effected. 
It  is  then  cooled  to  a  cherry  red, 
and  hardened  by  spraying  with 
water  or  by  immersion  in  run- 
ning water  (see  Harveyized 
Steel). 

The  next  improvement  was 
made  by  the  Carnegie  Company 
in  1895,  which  found  that  re- 
forging  of  plates  after  carboniz- 
ing considerably  improved  their 
quality.  Of  several  European 
armor  makers  who  endeavored  to 
improve  the  Harvey  process,  the 
most  successful  was  Krupp.  For 
cementation  he  uses  gas,  which  is 


Armor  Plate 

very  rich  in  carbon,  and  the  plate 
contains  some  chromium  as  well 
as  carbon  and  nickel.  Recent 
plates  of  various  makers  are  said 
to  contain  other  substances,  and 
to  give  higher  resistance  to  pene- 
tration than  the  Krupp  armor  of 
five  years  ago;  and  some  recent 
trials  confirm  these  claims.  Pro- 
jectiles are  now  very  generally 
fitted  with  soft  steel  caps,  which 
greatly  increase  the  penetrating 
power;  and  as  nearly  all  plates 


376 

ent  kinds  being  too  numerous  to 
describe  or  even  mention.  See 
Battleship;  Guns;  Projec- 
tiles; Fortification. 

Consult  Very's  Development  of 
Armor  for  Naval  Use  {Proceedings 
U.  S.  Naval  Institute,  vol.  ix., 
No.  25);  Brown's  Armor  and 
Its  Attack  by  Artillery;  Annual 
of  the  U.  S.  Office  of  Naval  Intel- 
ligence; Brassey's  Naval  Annual. 

Ar'mour,  Herman  Ossian 
(1837-1901),  American  merchant, 


Section  of  a  Recently  Designed  Battleship,  Showing  Side  Armor, 
Protective  Deck,  Internal  Armor,  Etc. 

a.  Upper  armor  deck,  2  inches  thick;  b,  protective  deck,  flat,  2  inches  thick;  c,  pro- 
tective deck,  slope,  3  inches  thick;  d,  lower  platform  deck,  1  inch  thick;  e,  main  armor 
belt,  16  inches  thick;  f,  double  bottom  space;  g,  armor  bulkhead,  1.5  inches  thick; 
h,  anti-torpedo  armor,  4  inches  thick;  i,  side  above  belt,  1  inch  thick;  k,  bottom  plating, 
^  inch  thick;  I,  inner  bottom  plating,  ^  inch  thick. 


are  tried  with  the  latest  type  of 
projectiles,  it  is  difficult  to  make 
a  satisfactory  comparison  with 
the  older  targets. 

The  necessity  for  protecting 
the  interior  of  battleships  against 
shell  fragments  and  torpedo  ex- 
plosions has  caused  a  large 
amount  of  'special  treatment' 
steel  to  be  used  in  them.  This  is 
from  0.5  inch  to  3  inches  thick. 
Toughness  and  rigidity  are  more 
sought  than  resistance  to  pene- 
tration. The  armoring  of  the 
hulls  of  ships  below  title  water 
line  as  a  protection  against  tor- 
pedoes will  doubtlcvss  bring  out  a 
new  type,  toughness  and  ductil- 
ity under  sudden  strain  being 
the  principal  characteristics. 
The  special  steels  and  special- 
treatment  steels  are  exceedingly 
varied  in  composition,  the  differ- 


brother  of  Philip  D.  Armour 
(q.v.),  was  born  in  Stockbridge, 
N.  Y.  From  1862  to  1865  he  was 
a  grain  commission  agent  at 
Chicago,  under  the  name  of 
H.  O.  Armour  &  Co.  -In  1865  he 
became  the  New  York  repre- 
sentative of  t'.ie  Milwaukee  pack- 
ing business  of  Armour,  Plankin- 
ton  &  Co.  In  1870  the  Milwau- 
kee business  was  transferred  to 
Chicago,  and  the  name  of  the  firm 
was  changed  to  Armour  &  Co., 
becoming  one  of  the  largest  meat 
and  provision  companies  in  the 
world. 

Armour,  Jonathan  Ogden 
(1863),  American  merchant,  was 
born  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  and 
studied  at  Yale  University.  He 
became  associated  with  his  father, 
Philip  D.  Armour  (q.v.),  in  the 
great  Chicago  packing  house  of 


,  Armstrong 

Armour  &  Co.u  and  on  the  death 
of  the  latter  succeeded  him  as 
president.  Later  he  became  a 
director  in  numerous  important 
corporations  and  banks.  He  has 
written  The  Packers  and  the 
People  (1906). 

Armour,  Philip  Danforth 
(1832-1901),  American  merchant 
and  philanthropist,  was  born  in 
Stockbridge,  N.  Y.  In  1863  he 
founded  the  firm  of  Armour, 
Flankinton  &  Co.,  pork  packers 
of  Milwaukee.  In  1870  the  busi- 
ness was  transferred  to  Chicago 
as  Armour  &  Co.,  and  developed 
with  great  rapidity.  At  his 
death  it  was  said  that  he  owned 
more  grain  elevators  than  any 
other  man,  and  had  50,000  em- 
ployees on  his  roll.  He  was  also 
noted  for  his  philanthropic  en- 
terprises-. The  Armour  Institute 
of  Technology  (q.v.)  and  the 
Armour  Mission  of  Chicago  were 
founded  and  endowed  by  him  to 
the  amount  of  .f2, 500,000. 

Armour  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, a  technical  school  found- 
ed in  1892  at  Chicago,  111.,  by 
Philip  D.  Armour  (q.v.),  to  give 
to  young  students  a  knowledge 
of  applied  science.  There  are 
departments  in  Mechanical,  Elec- 
trical, Chemical,  Civil,  Fire-Pro- 
tection Engineering,  Architec- 
ture, and  Industrial  Arts,  with 
evening  and  summer  courses 
in  addition  to  regular  semesters. 
Through  union  with  the  Art 
Institute  of  Chicago,  the  Armour 
Institute  of  Technology  main- 
tains a  department  of  architec- 
ture, known  as  the  Chicago 
School  of  Architecture.  The  fac- 
ulty consisted  in  1914  of  62  in- 
structors, with  1,372  students  in 
attendance.  The  library  con- 
tained over  27,000  volumes. 
There  are  productive  funds  of 
about  $2,000,000,  and  an  income 
of  $200,000. 

Armpit.    See  Axilla. 

Arms.  See  Armor;  Fire- 
arms; Bayonet;  Revolver; 
Rifle;  Sword;  Shooting. 

Arms,  Coat  of,  the  bearings  on 
an  individual  shield,  originally 
embroidered  on  the  surcoa/; 
hence  the  name.  See  Heraldry. 

Armstead,  Henry  Hugh 
(1828-1905),  English  sculptor, 
was  educated  at  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy, and  became  r.a.  in  1879. 
He  modelled  several  of  the  alle- 
gorical groups  on  the  south  and 
east  sides  of  the  base  of  the  Albert 
Memorial,  Kensingri-on  Gardens, 
London;  carved  oak  panels  in 
the  New  Palace,  Westminster, 
illustrating  the  history  of  King 
Arthur  and  Sir  Galahad;  and 
executed  many  portrait  busts  and 
statues,  as  that  of  Lord  John 
Thynne  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Armstrong,  David  Maitland 
(1836),  American  painter,  was 
born  in  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  and 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 


Armstrong 


377 


Army 


Hartford.     He  studied  law,  and 
practised  at  the  New  York  bar; 
^  then  took  up  art,  studying  in 
V  '  Paris  and  Rome,  and  for  four 
N  years  served  as  U.  S.  consul- 
'V  general  at  Rome,  Italy.    He  was 
V  director  of  the  American  Art  De- 
O^artment  at  the  Paris  Exposition 
of  1878,  receiving  the  decoration 
^  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.    He  is 
J  best  known  as  a  designer  and 
maker  of  stained  glass  windows, 
^and  has  executed  memorial  win- 
'^dows  for  numerous  churches  in 
(^New  York   City,  at  Biltmore, 
^  N.  C,  and  in  other  cities. 

Armstrong,  Edward  Cooke 
(1871),  American  educator,  was 
born  in  Winchester,  Va.  He  was 
graduated  from  Randolph-Macon 
College  (1890),  and  later  studied 
at  Johns  Hopkins  (ph.d.  1897), 
and  at  Paris  and  Berlin.  Since 
1897  he  has  been  professor  of  the 
French  language  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins, and  since  1910  chairman  of 
the  Romance  department. 

Armstrong,  John  (1725-95), 
American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Ireland.  In  1776  he  became  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary army,  resigning  in  1777 
to  join  the  Pennsylvania  militia, 
which  he  commanded  at  the 
Battle  of  the  Brandywine  and  at 
Germantown.  In  1778  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Continental  Congress  in 
1778-80  and  1787-8. 

Armstrong,  John  (1758-1843), 
American  soldier  and  diplomat, 
was  born  in  Carlisle,  Pa.  He 
entered  Princeton  University, 
but  left  before  graduating  to  join 
'  the  American  army  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary War.  He  was  succes- 
sively aide-de-camp  to  Generals 
Mercer  and  Gates,  with  the  rank 
of  major.  After  the  war  he 
served  as  secretary  of  vState  and 
attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania ; 
was  elected  to  Congress  (1787); 
and  removing  to  New  York,  rep- 
resented that  State  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  (1800-04).  From  1804 
to  1810  he  was  U.  S.  Minister  to 
France,  and  from  1806  to  1810 
U.  S.  Minister  to  Spain.  He  be- 
came Secretary  of  War  in  1813, 
but  resigned  in  1814  as  the  result 
of  the  ill-feeling  aroused  by  the 
capture  of  Washington  and  the 
failure  of  the  Canadian  expedi- 
tion. He  published  Notices  of  the 
War  of  i8i2  (1836),  and  Memcnrs 
of  Montgomery  and  Wayne  in 
Sparks'  American  Biographies. 
Armstrong,  Paul  (1869), 
J  American  playwright,  was  born 
I  in  Kidder,  Mo.,  and  was  educated 
at  Bay  City,  Mich.  From  1890 
/  <^  to  1895  he  was  a  licensed  master 
1-  on  the  Great  Lakes.  In  1896  he 
took  a  position  on  a  newspaper 
in  Buffalo,  and  was  with  the 
National  Republican  Committee 
during  the  Bryan-McKinley  cam- 
paign, writing  political  pamph- 


lets. In  1907  he  came  to  New 
York,  and  under  the  nom  de  plume 
of  'Right  Cross'  wrote  sporting 
articles  for  the  New  York  Even- 
ing Journal.  His  first  play.  Just 
a  Day  Dream,  was  produced  by 
the  Castle  Square  Stock  Com- 
pany, Boston,  in  1899.  He  has 
also  produced:  St.  Ann  (1902); 
The  Heir  to  the  Hoorah  (1904); 
Salomy  Jane  (1905);  The  Rene- 
gade (1906);  Blue  Grass  (1906); 
In  a  Blaze  of  Glory  (1906); 
Going  Some  (with  Rex  Beach, 
1907);  A  Romance  of  the  Under- 
world (1908);  Via  Wireless  (with 
Winchell  Smith,  1909);  Alias 
Jimmy  Valentine  (1909);  The 
Deep  Purple  (with  Wilson  Miz- 
ner,  1910);  The  Greyhound  (with 
Wilson  Mizner,  1911);  Escape 
(1912) ;  To  Save  One  Girl  (1912) ; 
A  Love  Story  of  the  Ages  (1912); 
Woman  Proposes  (1913);  The 
Bludgeon  (1914);  The  Heart  of 
a  Thief  (1914);  The  Vanity  of 
Man  (1914);  The  Bank's  Half 
Million  (1915). 

Armstrong,  Samuel  Chapman 
(1839-93),  American  educator 
and  soldier,  was  born  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  where  his 
father  was  a  missionary.  After 
graduating  from  Williams  Col- 
lege (1862)  he  entered  the  U.  S. 
Army,  and  in  1863-5  was  colonel 
of  the  Eighth  U.  S.  Regiment 
(colored),  retiring  at  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War  with  the  brevet 
rank  of  brigadier-general.  In 
1868  he  founded  and  became 
principal  of  the  Hampton  Nor- 
mal and  Agricultural  Institute. 
He  did  much  to  improve  the 
methods  in  use  for  educating  the 
negro  and  Indian  races  in  the 
United  States,  advocating  the 
development  of  manual  skill  as  a 
part  of  their  educational  training. 

Armstrong,  William  George, 
first  Baron  Armstrong  (1810- 
1900) ,  was  the  son  of  a  Newcastle 
merchant.  After  leaving  school 
he  studied  law,  but  after  a  few 
years  of  practice  forsook  it  for 
scientific  pursuits.  In  1845  he 
invented  the  hydraulic  crane, 
and  soon  afterward  the  hydrau- 
lic accumulator,  besides  making 
many  other  applications  of  hy- 
draulic power.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  immense  Elswick 
Engine  Works  and  Elswick  Ship- 
yards at  Newcastle  -  on  -  Tyne 
(q.v.).  He  wrote  Electric  Move- 
ment in  Air  and  Water  (1897). 

Army.  An  army,  in  its  broad- 
est sense,  signifies  a  body  of 
armed  and  trained  men  organized 
for  warfare.  Armies  may  be 
grouped  into  three  classes — 
National  Armies,  Regular  or  Per- 
manent or  Standing  Armies,  and 
Field  Armies.  A  national  army 
is  the  total  availal)le  force  of  men 
trained,  or  partially  trained,  in 
the  use  of  arms  which  a  nation 
can  call  upon  in  time  of  war.  A 
regular  army  is  that  portion  of 


the  national  army  actually  serv- 
ing with  the  colors.  Field  armies 
are  those  portions  of  the  national 
or  regular  army  which  are  en- 
gaged in  a  campaign. 

In  all  ages  the  maintenance  of 
a  force  of  armed  men  has  been  a 
paramount  factor  oi  national  ex- 
istence. A  large  and  well-or- 
ganized standing  army  is  usually 
the  main  element  in  the  compo- 
sition of  a  first-class  power — 
though  notable  exceptions  are 
furnished  by  the  United  States, 
whose  geographical  position  and 
foreign  policy  render  superfluous 
great  military  strength,  and 
Great  Britain,  whose  national 
defence  lies  primarily  in  her  navy. 
The  Continental  military  nations 
of  Europe  raise  their  armies  on 
the  principle  of  universal  mili- 
tary service,  comprising  com- 
pulsory enlistment,  short  service 
in  the  regular  army,  and  a  long 
period  in  the  reserve.  Conse- 
quently the  armies  of  the  chief 
Continental  powers  far  exceed 
those  of  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  who  follow  a 
system  of  voluntary  enlistment. 

Technically,  the  organization 
of  an  army  is  of  two  kinds,  tacti- 
cal and  administrative.  The 
former  enables  the  leader  of  an 
army  to  transmit  his  orders  to 
three  or  four  subordinate  com- 
manders, who  pass  them  on  to 
three  or  four  others  under  them, 
until,  through  a  regular  chain  of 
responsibility,  the  original  im- 
pulse is  communicated  to  the 
private  soldier  (see  Strategy 
AND  Tactics).  The  administra- 
tive organization,  in  a  similar 
manner,  divides  the  army  into 
groups  of  gradually  decreasing 
size,  so  that  the  men  may  be 
efficiently  paid,  fed,  clothed,  and 
armed.  The  present  article  will 
treat  of  the  constitution  and  es- 
tablishment of  armies,  and  indi- 
cate their  historical  development. 

Ancient  Armies.  —  The  mili- 
tary forces  of  the  earliest  times 
were  little  better  than  armed 
multitudes,  possessed  of  a  certain 
amount  of  rough  organization, 
but  unable  to  travel  great  dis- 
tances, or  carry  out  any  very 
serious  operations.  The  earliest 
regular  military  organization  is 
attributed  to  Rameses  ii.,  known 
to  history  also  as  Sesostris,  who 
ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt 
about  1300  B.C.  He  is  said  to 
have  divided  Egypt  into  thirty- 
six  military  provinces,  and  estab- 
lished a  sort  of  militia  or  warrior 
caste,  to  each  member  of  which 
he  allotted  lands  for  the  support 
of  himself  and  his  family.  His 
army  took  the  field  in  four  ter- 
ritorial divisions,  each  called 
after  the  name  of  a  god,  and  was 
supported  by  the  sea  power  of  a 
fleet.  With  this  army,  number- 
ing, according  to  tradition,  over 
half  a  million  men,  Rameses  con- 


Army 


378 


Army 


quered  and  laid  waste  all  the 
country  as  far  east  as  India. 
Chariots  and  horsemen  were  im- 
portant factors  in  the  Egyptian 
method  of  fighting;  but  victory 
depended  on  the  infantry,  which 
formed  the  bulk  of  the  army. 

Little  further  progress  was 
made  in  military  art  until  the 
Persian  empire  arose,  about  a 
thousand  years  later.  Its  soldiers 
introduced  the  mass  formation, 
with  cavalry  in  intervals  of 
squares;  but  the  most  important 
feature  of  the  Persian  organiza- 
tion was  the  establishment  of 
what  was  practically  a  stand- 
ing army,  divided  as  garrisons 
throughout  the  conquered  prov- 
inces, and  under  the  control  of 
military  governors  distinct  from 
the  satraps. 

In  Greece,  it  was  not  a  standing 
army,  but  a  national  militia,  sub- 
jected to  an  almost  continuous 
training  in  the  field,  that  gained 
Marathon,  Plataea,  and  Mycale. 
Every  freeman  was  bound  to  take 
up  arms  at  the  age  of  eighteen. 
For  the  first  ^wo  years  he  served 
at  home,  but  after  that,  until  he 
was  forty,  in  any  foreign  country 
where  the  state  was  at  war. 
Their  discipline  was  the  fruit  of 
a  highly  specialized  moral  and 
physical  education;  but  never- 
theless, judged  by  later  stand- 
ards, was  not  remarkable.  Or- 
ganization and  tactics  were 
closely  studied,  and  the  phalanx, 
the  basis  of  Greek  military 
formations,  was  successively  mod- 
ified and  improved  by  the  various 
states.  The  most  important 
element  in  the  army  was  infantry, 
which  was  divided  into  two  main 
branches,  the  hoplitai  and  psiloi. 
The  former  were  heavy  troops, 
and  in  action  were  arranged  in 
the  favorite  Greek  fighting  for- 
mation, the  phalanx — a  body  of 
4,000  men  drawn  up  in  lines 
from  eight  to  sixteen  deep  gener- 
ally, although  the  column  was 
fifty  deep  at  the  Battle  of  Leuc- 
tra  in  .371  B.C.  The  psiloi  were 
lightly  armed  troops,  who  carried 
out  the  skirmishing  duties  of  the 
army,  haraSvSed  the  enemy,  and 
hung  round  the  flanks  and  rear 
of  the  phalanx  with  the  cavalry 
in  time  of  battle.  Their  cavalry 
did  not  come  into  existence  until 
after  the  Persian  War,  and  was 
at  no  time  very  efficient.  The 
Thebans  introduced  the  column 
formation,  which,  being  deeper 
and  narrower  than  the  phalanx, 
was  intended  to  pierce  the  en- 
emy's line  at  some  one  point,  and 
throw  them  into  confusion. 

Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  established  in  Mace- 
donia the  world's  second  standing 
army;  and,  as  a  further  change, 
made  the  phalanx  deeper  and 
more  massive  than  it  had  been 
among  the  Lacedaemonians.  He 
brought  into  use  the  Macedonian 


pike,  a  formidable  weapon  24 
feet  in  length. 

The  Roman  armies  which  ruled 
the  world  from  about  the  third 
century  B.C.  to  the  eighth  cen- 
tury A.D.  were  probably  the 
finest,  comparatively,  that  have 
ever  existed,  rather  because  of 
their  perfect  discipline  and  organ- 
ization than  because  of  individual 
prowess,  which  had  previously 
been  the  main  features  of  hostile 
armies.  They  were  at  first 
formed  entirely  of  militia.  Every 
one  between  the  ages  of  seven- 
teen and  forty-six — except  the 
very  lowest  and  poorest  class — 
could  be  called  on  to  bear  arms 
in  the  service  of  the  state.  The 
new  soldier  went  through  a  very 
severe  course  of  drill  and  dis- 
cipline to  fit  him  alike  for  march- 
ing, fighting,  camping,  working, 
carrying,  and  other  active  duties. 
Consular  armies  were  raised 
every  year  for  some  expedition 
or  campaign,  at  the  end  of  which 
they  returned  home  and  were 
disbanded.  This  course  was 
found  impracticable  for  some 
armies  which  were  employed  in 
very  distant  lands,  and  so  they 
were  often  kept  under  arms  for 
several  years,  a  fact  that  event- 
ually led  to  the  formation  of  a 
standing  army  distinct  from  the 
militia,  by  which  it  was  aug- 
mented for  the  prosecution  of 
great  foreign  wars.  The  legion, 
which  was  the  chief  unit  of 
Roman  armies,  was  composed, 
on  service,  of  about  3,000  in- 
fantry and  a  squadron  of  cav- 
alry, and  was  lighter  and  more 
extended  in  formation  than  the 
Greek  phalanx.  It  was  conse- 
quently superior  in  mobility,  and 
better  adapted  for  offensive 
operations.  The  infantry  of  the 
legion  was  divided  into  four 
classes — hastati,  young  men  light- 
ly armed,  forming  the  first  line; 
principes,  heavily  armed  men  of 
great  strength,  forming  the  sec- 
ond line;  triarii,  the  oldest  men, 
heavily  armed  and  armored,  in 
the  third  line;  and  velites,  or 
light  troops,  corresponding  to 
the  Greek  psiloi.  The  first  three 
classes  were  each  divided  into 
ten  manipuli,  commanded  by 
centurions.  After  the  adoption 
of  standing  armies  the  legion 
was  increased  to  over  6,000  men, 
and  was  divided  into  ten  cohorts. 

Mediaeval  Armies. — With  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  power  all 
that  remained  of  scientific  war- 
fare was  lost  for  a  time.  The 
northern  invaders  made  little  use 
of  tactics,  but  relied  chiefly  on 
their  personal  bravery  and  on  the 
impetuosity  and  weight  of  their 
attack  in  column.  The  army, 
among  the  Franks  and  Germans, 
was  the  nation.  Every  freeman 
bore  arms  alike  as  a  duty  and  as 
a  privilege.  Kings  and  generals 
were  entrusted  in  time  of  war 


with  an  absolute  power,  which 
the  nation  resumed  with  the 
return  to  peace.  The  conquerors 
of  the  Roman  Empire  at  first 
recognized  no  superior  save  the 
community,  of  which  all  con- 
quests were  the  property.  What 
all  had  aided  to  acquire  all  de- 
manded equally  to  share.  Hence 
arose  a  division  of  the  conquered 
territory,  individual  chiefs  re- 
warding their  own  followers  with 
gifts  of  the  lands  they  had 
helped  to  conquer.  The  growth 
of  a  feeling  that  such  gifts  could 
be  revoked,  and  that  they  im- 
plied an  obligation  to  future 
service,  marks  the  beginning  of 
the  Feudal  period. 

About  the  ninth  century  the 
feudal  system  (see  Feudalism), 
a  form  of  which  prevailed  in 
Egypt  about  ISOO  B.C.,  and  which 
had  been  slowly  developing  for 
some  time  past,  finally  estab- 
lished itself  as  the  basis  of  Euro- 
pean army  organization.  It 
arose  originally  through  the 
young  men  of  a  nation  gathering 
round  the  nobles,  serving  under 
their  banners  in  war  time,  and 
garrisoning  their  castles  during 
peace.  Each  of  these  bands 
practically  formed  a  small  stand- 
ing army,  being  paid  for  their 
services  by  gifts  of  booty  or  land. 
The  profession  of  arms  came  to 
be  regarded  in  time  as  an  honora- 
ble and  profitable  calling,  and 
the  bands  grew  stronger  and  more 
numerous.  The  nobles  owed 
allegiance  to  the  king,  and  when 
the  latter  required  an  army  it 
was  formed  of  these  feudal  bands, 
supplemented  by  a  levy  of  militia 
from  the  free  men  of  the  nation. 

The  Crusades(q.v.)  first  showed 
the  advantage  of  co-operation  of 
this  kind,  although  the  different 
armies  participating  were  prac- 
tically independent  of  each  other. 
The  chief  branch  of  the  feudal 
armies  was  cavalry.  It  wac 
divided  into  two  classes — the 
knights  and  their  retainers,  the 
men-at-arms;  and  the  hobblers, 
or  light  horsemen.  Among  the 
former  the  horses  were  pro- 
tected by  armor.  The  riders 
were  armed  with  lance,  sword, 
and  mace,  and  were  covered 
from  head  to  foot  with  heavy 
armor,  which  rendered  them 
quite  helpless  when  unhorsed. 
Individual  skill  and  bravery 
counted  more  than  organization 
and  discipline,  the  decision  of  a 
battle  being  often  left  to  the 
result  of  a  combat  between  two 
knights.  The  foot  soldiers  were 
also  divided  into  two  classes 
—  archers,  with  bucklers  and 
steel  caps,  and  armed  with  long- 
bows, swords,  battle  axes,  and 
brown-bills;  and  the  light  in- 
fantry, with  iron  gloves  and 
long  knives.  The  iniantry 
branch  of  the  army  was  greatly 
neglected,  its  training  uncared 


Army 


379 


Army 


for,  and  its  fighting  power  re- 
garded with  contempt  by  the 
leaders  and  mounted  soldiers. 

The  events  which  led  to  the 
downfall  of  the  feudal  system 
were  as  follows:  (1)  The  success 
of  the  English  archers  against  the 
French  at  Crecy  in  1346,  at  Poi- 
tiers in  1356,  and  at  Agincourt 
in  1415,  England  having  prac- 
tically abandoned  the  feudal  sys- 
tem under  Edward  iii,  (2)  The 
victories  of  the  Swiss  infantry, 
which  was  armed  with  sword  and 
halberd,  wore  no  armor,  and 
fought  in  wedge-shaped  masses, 
at  Morgarten  (1315),  Sempach 
(1386),  Granson  (1476),  Morat 
(1476),  and  Nancy  (1477). 
(3)  The  introduction  of  standing 
armies,  chiefly  infantry,  and  at 
first  largely  composed  of  for- 
eign mercenaries,  but  later  as- 
suming more  of  a  national  char- 
acter. 

Modern  Armies. — The  Turkish 
Janissary  force,  the  earliest 
standing  army  in  Europe,  was 
fully  organized  in  1362;  but  the 
formation  of  standing  armies 
among  Western  powers,  which 
may  be  said  to  have  introduced 
the  modern  military  system, 
dates  from  the  establishment 
of  compagnies  d'ordonnance  by 
Charles  vii.  of  France  in  1445. 
The  superiority  of  such  a  force 
over  militia  gradually  forced  its 
adoption  on  the  surrounding 
states. 

The  rise  of  standing  armies  and 
the  development  of  the  use  of 
gunpowder  proceeded  contem- 
poraneously, but  it  was  long 
before  firearms  superseded  bows 
and  pikes.  Although  a  small  can- 
non was  used  at  Crecy  (1346),  the 
musket  did  not  become  the  recog- 
nized arm  of  the  foot  soldier  until 
over  two  hundred  years  later. 
During  this  period  every  im- 
provement in  firearms  gave  in- 
creased value  to  infantry,  and 
it  gradually  took  the  place  of 
cavalry  as  the  principal  arm. 

The  feudal  militia  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  was  followed  by  a  sys- 
tem of  voluntary  enlistment  in 
time  of  peace;  if  necessary,  the 
standing  army  was  increased  by 
compulsory  levies  in  time  of  war. 
Armies  were  raised  by  contract, 
the  king  paying  a  fixed  annual 
sum  for  this  purpose  to  certain  of 
his  nobles.  The  latter  com- 
manded the  regiments  which  they 
enlisted,  and  selected  captains 
who  usually  raised  and  com- 
manded the  companies  under  a 
further  contract  with  the  nobles. 
Regiments  were  at  first  very 
strong,  often  mustering  3,000 
men;  but  as  the  use  of  firearms 
increased,  a  more  open  fighting 
formation  was  adopted  to  avoid 
severe  loss.  The  old  company, 
500  or  600  strong,  became  there- 
by too  extended  for  efficient  con- 
trol by  its  captain,  and  was  re- 
duced in  number,  with  the  con- 


sequent reduction  in  strength  of 
the  regiment. 

Between  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  and  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  centuries  the  propor- 
tion of  musketeers  gradually  in- 
creased; the  pike  was  abandoned 
for  the  bayonet,  and  even  the 
cavalry  were  taught  to  rely  more 
on  their  fire  than  on  the  effect  of 
their  charge.  The  improvements 
in  weapons  naturally  affected  the 
tactical  formation.  During  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-48), 
Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Wallen- 
stein  adopted  opposite  modes  of 
dealing  with  masses  of  infantry: 
the  former  spread  them  out  to  a 
great  width,  only  six  ranks  in 
depth;  the  latter  adopted  a  nar- 
rower front,  with  a  depth  of 
twenty  to  thirty  ranks.  In  Louis 
XIV. 's  reign,  the  prolonged  wars 
introduced  the  larger  grouping 
into  brigades  and  divisions. 
Frederick  the  Great,  in  the  next 
century,  reduced  the  depth  of  his 
infantry  formation  to  three 
ranks,  and  introduced  a  most 
rigid  and  exact  systenj  of  tactics 
and  drill;  so  that  when  able  to 
manoeuvre  he  nearly  always  won 
his  battles.  But  when  the  result 
depended  on  bold  and  unexpected 
onslaughts  he  was  more  fre- 
quently a  loser  than  a  winner. 
He  also  greatly  improved  cavalry 
tactics,  and  restored  to  this  arm 
a  reliance  on  the  effect  of  a  rapio 
charge,  while  the  introduction  of 
horse  artillery  added  to  its  power. 

The  French  Revolution  effected 
almost  as  great  changes  in  the 
military  as  in  the  political  organ- 
ization of  Europe.  Hitherto 
armies  had  been  deprived  of 
mobility  on  the  march  by  the 
system  of  supply  magazines,  and 
were  hampered  in  battle  by  the 
method  of  line  tactics  and  a  mis- 
taken adherence  to  mere  ma- 
noeuvring. Napoleon  destroyed 
these  traditions,  and  devised  the 
policy  of  living  on  the  country 
and  aiming  at  the  direct  destruc- 
tion of  the  enemy's  army.  At 
the  same  time  a  great  change 
took  place  in  the  relation  of 
armies  to  the  state,  until  they 
consisted  no  longer  of  mercen- 
aries paid  out  of  the  proceeds  of 
their  victories,  but  of  annual 
contingents  of  the  native  popu- 
lation. As  early  as  1793  France 
had  almost  exhausted  her  supply 
of  voluntary  recruits,  and  com- 
pulsory requisition  was  intro- 
duced. In  1799  systematic 
conscription  was  made  the  sole 
law;  the  population  was  classified 
according  to  age;  every  citizen 
was  declared  liable  to  five  years' 
service;  and  all  between  the  ages 
of  twenty  and  twenty-five  were 
enrolled.  The  immense  advan- 
tage which  this  terrible  power 
gave  Napoleon  compelled  other 
nations  to  follow  the  example  of 
France  (see  Conscription). 

From  this  period  also  dates  the 


introduction  of  the  short  service 
'and  reserve'  system.  Restricted 
under  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit  (1807) 
to  43,000  men  with  the  colors, 
the  Prussian  strength  was  never- 
theless annually  added  to  by  Von 
Scharnhorst  (q.  v.),  who  first  de- 
veloped the  idea  of  sending  the 
trained  soldiers  back  to  their 
homes  at  the  end  of  a  limited 
period  of  service,  and  replacing 
them  with  fresh  recruits.  In 
spite  of  this  demonstration  of 
strength,  the  other  powers  did 
not  at  once  accept  the  Prussian 
model.  Finally,  the  successes  of 
the  Prussian  army  in  1866  and 
the  German  army  in  1870  led  to 
its  establishment  in  Austria, 
Southern  Germany,  Italy,  and 
France.  In  nearly  all  nations 
some  form  of  a  reserve  was  now 
built  up,  intended  to  augment 
the  standing  army,  or  first  fight- 
ing line,  from  a  peace  to  a  war 
strength,  and  consisting  of  two 
classes:  those  waiting  for  an  im- 
mediate call  to  arms  if  required, 
and  those  constituting  the  militia 
or  second  line  of  reserves — the 
entire  effective  military  power  of 
the  state.  A  typical  example 
was  the  army  of  the  German 
Empire  (see  Germany). 

The  principles  of  organization 
were  also  modified  in  the  large 
armies  which  took  the  field  in 
the  beginning  of  the  century. 
In  1792  mixed  divisions,  com- 
posed of  all  arms,  had  been  in- 
troduced, and  in  1804  Napoleon 
organized,  under  his  marshals, 
corps  d'armee,  each  in  itself  a 
complete  army.  The  Prussian 
model  was  generally  accepted  as 
the  best  type  of  army  corps,  and 
in  that  country  originated  the  ter- 
ritorial system  generally  adopted 
by  all  European  powers. 

Before  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War  in  1914,  the  immense 
armies  maintained  by  European 
countries  had  come  to  be  a  ter- 
rific drain  upon  their  respective 
nations.  Only  a  part  of  these 
huge  armies  actually  served  the 
year  round  with  the  colors,  but 
the  entire  force  turned  out  for 
instruction  for  a  considerable 
portion  of  each  year.  In  general, 
the  men  served  at  home  stations 
except  in  case  of  war  and  in  the 
case  of  countries  having  large 
colonial  possessions,  as  France, 
Germany,  and  Great  Britain. 
Of  the  regular  army  of  Great 
Britain,  only  about  one-half  was 
serving  on  the  home  stations  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland; 
while  an  army  of  76,000  regular 
European  troops  and  about  175,- 
000  native  troops,  officered  prin- 
cipally by  Europeans  was  main- 
tained in  India  alone.  Russia, 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy  also 
kept  large  armies  constantly  with 
the  colors. 

Some  idea  of  the  enormous 
cost  of  keeping  up  these  immense 
armies  of  modern  times  may  be 

Vol.  I. — Mar.  '26 


Army  380 

Available  Military  Man-Power  of  the  World 


(Revised  by  the  United  States  War  Department  as  of  Aug.  31,  1925) 


Country 

Active  Army 

Organized 
Reserves 

Unorganized 
Reserves 

Total 
Military 
Man-power 

In  Europe 

3,000 

TT 

Unknown 

122,000 

1  OK  AAA 

125,000 

30,000 

Not  perm'td. 

720,000 

750,000 

Belgium  (a)  

73,000 

388,300 

700,000 

1,161,300 

Bulgaria  

18,500 

11,500 

450,000 

700,000 

150,000 

1,510,000 

140,000 

1,800,000 

11,581 

125,000 

300,000 

436,000 

17,000 

76,000 

100,000 

193,000 

34,500 

115,000 

150,000 

CCA  AAA 

550,000 

France  (a)  

685,459 

5,280,000 

890,000 

0,855,459 

100,000 

Not  permit'd 

7,900,000 

n  AAA  AAA 

8,000,000 

(b)  152,0/0 

207,143 

99,000 

cr  f\o  A  AAA 

5,9^4,000 

(36,000  Air 

Force  incl.) 

71,849 

200,000 

160,000 

533,000 

35,000 

Not  permit'd 

735,000 

TrTA  AAA 

770,000 

Italy  (o)  

220,898 

3,947,912 

1,500,000 

5,680,220 

(11,410  Air 

Force  incl.) 

120,000 

2,000,000 

2,120,000 

Latvia  (o)  

17,900 

100,000 

225,000 

342,900 

Lithuania  (a)  

30,000 

60,000 

150,000 

240,000 

Metherlands  (a)  

30,000 

287,000 

540,000 

857,000 

24,422 

300,000 

75,000 

400,000 

211,130 

450,000 

475,000 

4,000,000 

23,821 

430,529 

455,550 

910,000 

225,000 

600,000 

975,000 

1,800,000 

562,967 

500,000 

4.500,000 

13,000,000 

233,200 

1,186,122 

500,000 

1,919,322 

26,000 

400,000 

274,000 

700,000 

170,000 

135,000 

297,000 

602,000 

In  \sia 

Unknown 

None 

Unknown 

502,000 

1,200,000 

None 

15,200,000 

India  

(d)  209,179 

66,481 

2,500,000 

210,000 

1,503,000 

461,000 

7,130,000 

25,000 

85,000 

840,000 

Turkey  

120,000 

225,000 

600,000 

In  Africa 

Abyssinia  

51,000 

None 

455,000 

500,000 

Egypt  and  Sudan  

22,535 

10,000 

700,000 

650 

2,500 

3,500 

200,000 

Union  of  South  Africa  

3,000 

168,275 

190,000 

In  America 

32,388 

324,000 

468,000 

820,000 

7,300 

30,000 

80,000 

117,300 

39,045 

233,000 

800,000 

1,072,000 

Canada  

3,598 

122,000 

1,100,000 

(h)  22,945 

177,000 

435,000 

634,950 

6,0i)0 

24,000 

270,000 

300,000 

(i)  500 

5,000 

(e)  35,000 

40,500 

(e)  11,830 

None 

209,000 

220,830 

5,420 

None 

(e)  90,000 

95,420 

6,000 

None 

125,000 

131,000 

(c)  3,314 

None 

(e)  20,000 

23,314 

3,00!) 

31,100 

17,354 

51,454 

Mexico  

71,667 

18,000 

1,118,000 

1,207,667 

Newfoundland 

None 

None 

32,000 

2,000 

None 

118,000 

120,000 

1,900 

23,000 

77,000 

101,900 

Peru  (a)  

7,500 

20,000 

79,000 

106,500 

3,929 

35,417 

100,000 

139,346 

if)  704 

None 

25,000 

25,704 

United  States  

(g)  138,236 

((/)  253,821 

11,607,943 

12,000,000 

10,000 

7,200 

149,500 

166,700 

.7,500 

3,500 

89,000 

100,000 

Oceania 

2,691 

31,000 

48,000 

600,000 

500 

44,047 

8,000 

160,000 

(a)  Military  service  compulsory,  (b)  British  Colonial  units  outside  of  India,  (c)  Gen- 
darmerie— no  active  army,  (d)  Includes  British  troops  in  India,  (f)  Estimated.  (/)  Na- 
tional Military  Police,  (g)  Figures  for  May  31,  1925.  (h)  Includes  4,339  Carabineros  or 
National  Military  Police,    (i)  There  is  no  active  array — National  Police. 

Vol.  I. — Mar.  '26 


Army  Aviation 

gained  from  the  following  pre- 
war annual  peace  expenditures 
for  military  purposes  of  the  lead- 
ing nations:  Russia,  $275,000,- 
000;  Germany,  .$250,000,000; 
France,  $195,000,000;  Great  Brit- 
ain, $145,000,000,  exclusive  of 
India;  United  States,  $160,000,- 
000;  Austria-Hungary,  $125,000,- 
000;  Italy,  $90,000,000;  Japan, 
$60,000,000. 

The  accompanying  table,  com- 
piled by  The  World  Almanac, 
and  revised  by  the  U.  S.  War 
Department,  shows  the  fighting 
strength  of  the  countries  of  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds  (Aug.  31, 
1925). 

See  Army  of  the  United 
States;  Army  in  the  Field; 
Militia;  Artillery;  Cavalry; 
Infantry;  Strategy  and  Tac- 
tics; Fortification;  Army  Avi- 
ation; Battles,  Famous;  Wars 
OF  History;  Military  Ace; 
Military  Education;  Milita- 
rism; Sanitation,  Military; 
also  the  section  Army  in  the 
articles  on  the  principal  nations. 
For  a  detailed  account  of  the 
war,  see  Europe,  Great  War  of. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Jer- 
ram's  Armies  of  the  World;  Ar- 
mies of  To-Day  (various  writers) ; 
Koppers'  Armies  of  Europe  (Eng. 
trans.);  Oman's  History  of  the 
Art  of  War:  Middle  A ge^;' Wil- 
kinson's The  Brain  of  an  Army; 
Stafs  of  Various  Armies  (issued 
by  the  Military  Information  Di- 
vision, U.  S.  War  Department); 
Maude's  Evolution  of  Modern 
Strategy,  and  War  and  the  World's 
Life  (1907). 

Army  Aeronautics.  See  Army 
Aviation, 

Army  and  Navy  Legion  of 
Valor,  U.  S.  A.  See  Medal  of 
Honor  Legion. 

Army  Aviation.  The  advan- 
tages of  observation  and  recon- 
naissance from  the  air  were  long 
ago  recognized,  and  observation 
balloons  were  used  sporadically 
in  the  American  Civil  War,  in 
the  Franco-Austrian  War,  and  in 
the  Franco-Prussian  War.  In  the 
Siege  of  Paris,  during  the  latter 
war,  balloons  played  an  impor- 
tant part  in  maintaining  com- 
munication between  the  city  and 
the  outside  world  and  as  obser- 
vation posts  by  the  French  in 
observing  the  disposition  of  the 
Germans  besieging  the  city.  In 
1879  the  British  inaugurated  a 
systematic  organization  for  their 
balloon  department,  which  has 
since  served  as  the  model  for  the 
aviation  services  of  the  other 
great  powers.  France  began 
shortly  before  this,  and  Germany 
about  five  years  after. 

Until  the  first  decade  of  the 
twentieth  century,  the  captive 
balloon  was  the  sole  reliance  of 
the  various  air  services,  and  each 
war  since  its  use  was  introduced 
has  emphasized  its  value.  In 
the  Second  Boer  War  in  South 


Army  Avfatioa 


381 


Army  Avfatfon 


Africa  the  value  of  the  captive 
balloon  in  reconnaissance  was 
strongly  brought  out  owing  to 
the  British  lack  of  accurate  maps 
of  the  theatre  of  war.  The  use 
made  of  balloons  at  that  time 
to  obtain  topographical  informa- 
tion for  the  correction  of  maps 
was  but  a  forerunner  of  the  work 
of  the  aeroplanes  along  similar 
lines  in  the  Great  War. 

Although  large  numbers  of 
captive  balloons  were  employed 
during  the  Great  War,  their  field 
of  utility  was  limited,  as  a  captive 
balloon  can  ascend  only  in  calm 
weather.  As  it  must  remain  sta- 
tionary, it  is  also  peculiarly  sus- 
ceptible to  attack  by  hostile 
aeroplanes  and  anti-aircraft  guns. 


and  must,  therefore,  be  kept  well 
back  from  the  front-line  trenches. 
Its  place  in  reconnaissance  was 
taken  by  the  fast-moving  scout 
aeroplane,  but  because  of  the 
facility  with  which  communica- 
tion can  be  maintained  with  the 
ground  it  remained  of  great  value 
for  observing  the  effect  of  artil- 
lery fire.    (See  Balloon.) 

Experiments  with  the  dirigible 
balloon  began  in  the  last  decade 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
foremost  experimenter  being 
Count  Von  Zeppelin  (q.  v.).  In 
1902  the  German  government 
began  to  take  an  interest  in  Zep- 
pelin's experiments  and  to  give 
him  substantial  encouragement. 
As  a  result  of  this  interest  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  Germany 
had  a  large  fleet  of  dirigibles  at 


her  disposal  and  a  large  manufac- 
turing plant  capable  of  turning 
out  a  new  Zeppelin  every  three 
weeks.  The  other  European 
powers  had  also  experimented 
with  dirigibles  but  not  to  the 
same  extent  as  had  the  Germans. 

Much  was  expected  of  the 
dirigibles,  but  the  practical  tests 
of  war  disclosed  many  disadvan- 
■  tages  and  weaknesses  of  the  type 
for  land  warfare,  while  the  de- 
velopment of  the  aeroplane  was 
so  rapid  that  it  crowded  out  the 
dirigible  from  many  of  the  func- 
tions which  its  advocates  ex- 
pected of  it. 

Coincident  with  the  experi- 
ments on  dirigible  balloons  were 
the  experiments  on  the  heavier- 


than-air  machines,  and  their 
value  in  a  military  sense  was  the 
guiding  factor  in  their  develop- 
ment. While  some  attention 
was  given  to  the  commercial  use 
of  aircraft,  this  was  secondary  in 
all  cases  to  military  considera- 
tions. In  every  great  country  in 
the  world  investigations  were 
carried  on  independently,  but  the 
United  States  witnessed  the  first 
successful  flight.  Other  nations, 
however,  with  an  eye  to  military 
advantage,  continued  the  experi- 
ments and  encouraged  the  air 
services,  while  in  the  United 
States  interest  lagged  until  the 
nation  entered  the  war. 

Prior  to  the  Great  War,  the 
powers  of  Europe  had  been  ex- 
perimenting with  the  aeroplane; 
but  none  had  witnessed  a  real 


test  of  it  in  war.  It  was  used  in 
the  Italo-Turkish  and  the  Balkan 
Wars  but  only  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent. No  extensive  air  opera- 
tions had  been  carried  out,  and 
such  use  as  had  been  made  was 
sporadic  and  without  definite 
plan  or  object  in  view.  But  the 
value  and  utility  of  the  aeroplane 
in  military  operations  were  dem- 
onstrated. 

The  French  gave  more  effort 
and  time  to  aeroplane  develop- 
ment than  any  other  European 
nation,  but  there  was  no  limita- 
tion as  to  type;  no  effort  at 
standardization  was  made,  and 
no  attempt  to  adopt  an  official 
type,  with  the  result  that,  while 
France  went  into  the  war  with  a 


i 


large  aeroplane  fleet  and  with 
large  numbers  of  trained  aviators 
available,  there  was  a  great 
diversity  of  types  of  machines, 
many  of  which  were  found  un- 
suitable when  subjected  to  the 
test  of  actual  warfare.  Shortly 
after  the  war  began,  the  French 
issued  an  order  limiting  their 
aeroplanes  to  certain  types.  The 
result  of  the  order  was  to  de- 
crease the  strength  of  their  air 
fleet  by  40  per  cent.,  and  for 
some  time  thereafter  hundreds  of 
trained  aviators  were  idle  be- 
cause they  could  get  no  machines. 
The  French  aeroplane  industry 
was  undeveloped,  and  machines 
to  take  the  places  of  those  elim- 
inated were  not  available  for 
some  time.  From  a  comfortable 
lead  in  the  air,  the  French  dropped 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Photo  Kddti  and  li Libert 

U.  S.  Fighting  Planes  (Navy)  in  Battle  Formation 


Army  Aviation 


382 


Army  Aviation 


to  inferiority  at  one  stroke,  and 
the  Germans  gained  a  superiority 
which  the  French  were  not  able 
to  dispute  with  them  for  eighteen 
months  after  war  was  declared. 

In  Germany  a  different  policy 
was  pursued.  The  principal 
early  efforts  of  the  Germans  in 
the  field  of  aviation  were  devoted 
to  the  dirigible,  although  aero- 
plane experimenters  were  not 
lacking.  The  German  govern- 
ment took  advantage  of  the  ex- 
periments of  the  French  and, 
realizing  the  advantage  of  uni- 
formity, adopted  standard  types 
and  standardized  the  parts  in 
order  that  quantity  production 
might  be  started  on  short  notice. 
In  anticipation  of  the  war  the 
government  arranged  with  cer- 


the  war,  little  official  encourage- 
ment was  given  to  aviation,  due 
to  lack  of  sufficient  appropria- 
tions by  Congress.  A  few  ma- 
chines were  maintained  for  train- 
ing purposes,  but  the  country's 
entrance  into  the  war  found  it 
with  but  a  small  number  of 
machines  suitable  for  war  pur- 
poses and  comparatively  few 
trained  aviators.  Soon  after  the 
outbreak  of  war  Congress  appro- 
priated hundreds  of  millions  of 
dollars  for  aviation;  American 
aeroplane  factories  were  largely 
increased  in  capacity,  and  a  large 
number  of  aviation  training 
schools  were  established  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  The  total 
personnel  of  the  Air  Service,  of- 
ficers, students,  and  enlisted  men. 


of  aeroplanes  and  engines  be- 
came an  absolute  necessity.  This 
can  be  obtained  only  by  stand- 
ardization, so  that  the  parts 
may  be  turned  out  in  a  large 
number  of  factories  each  of  which 
may  be  equipped  to  manufacture 
only  certain  parts.  Another  ten- 
dency in  the  use  of  aeroplanes 
was  their  employment  in  squad- 
rons and  in  masses,  which  de- 
manded machines  of  uniform 
type,  speed,  and  other  character- 
istics. 

The  detailed  organization  of 
the  air  services  of  the  powers,  as 
well  as  all  other  units,  in  time  of 
war,  is  kept  secret,  but  all  have 
well  developed  tactical  and  ad- 
ministrative organizations.  The 
administrative  and  flying  organi- 


Courtesy  of  the  Scientific  American 


Italian  hombing  Plane 


Caproni  triplane  carrying  three  men.  and  2,750  pounds  of  explosives,  besides  fuel  and  guns — a  total  of  4,400  pounds  of  useful  load. 
Note  the  man  standing  below  to  gain  an  idea  of  size  of  the  machine. 


tain  private  manufacturers  to 
turn  their  factories  over  to  the 
manufacture  of  aeroplane  parts 
upon  the  outbreak  of  hostilities. 
So  while  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war  the  German  aeroplane  fleet 
was  inferior  in  numbers  and  slow 
in  mobilizing,  yet  because  of  ad- 
vance arrangements  for  manu- 
facturing development  and  the 
necessity  of  the  French  to  stand- 
ardize after  war  began,  Germany 
soon  obtained  command  of  the  air. 

British  aviation  development 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  was 
behind  both  French  and  German. 
The  responsibility  for  its  devel- 
opment rested  with  two  depart- 
ments, and  the  principal  use  of 
the  aeroplane  was  as  an  adjunct 
to  the  fleet.  But  the  British 
aviators,  while  few  in  numbers 
compared  with  those  of  the  other 
powers,  were  skillful  and  well 
trained.  During  the  early  part 
of  the  war,  like  the  French,  they 
were  handicapped  by  lack  of 
standardization  and  by  lack  of 
advance  plans  for  quantity  pro- 
duction. 

In  the  United  States,  prior  to 


increased  from  1,200  at  the  out- 
break of  the  war  to  200,000  at 
its  close. 

In  1914  no  nation  except  Ger- 
many had  given  much  serious 
thought  or  study  to  the  standard- 
ization of  its  air  service,  or  care- 
ful and  detailed  investigation 
into  the  capacity,  life,  and  limita- 
tions of  the  various  types  of 
aeroplanes.  Such  data  as  were 
on  hand  were  based  upon  exhi- 
bition flights  in  time  of  peace. 
All  nations  had  considerable  the- 
oretical knowledge  of  the  value 
of  the  aeroplane,  but  it  required 
the  operations  of  actual  war  to 
show  not  only  the  necessity  for 
standardization  but  the  limita- 
tions of  the  various  machines. 
In  the  light  of  this  experience  the 
number  of  types  of  machine  in 
use  was  reduced  to  four  or  five 
for  each  nation,  each  type  being 
designed  for  certain  definite  and 
specified  duties.  The  life  of 
machines  in  active  vservice  was 
found  to  be  so  short,  and  the 
success  of  military  operations  to 
be  so  dependent  upon  control  of 
the  air,  that  quantity  production 


zations  are  usually  kept  separate. 
The  flying  organization  for  tacti- 
cal purposes  corresponds  to  the 
companies,  battalions,  regiments, 
and  brigades  of  the  troops.  These 
organizations  are  variously  called 
squadrons,  flights,  wings,  and 
groups.  Provisional  brigades 
may  be  organized  for  special 
service.  For  every  flyer,  the 
administrative  services  require 
five  or  six  men  on  the  ground  in 
supply,  repair,  record,  and  photo- 
graphic services. 

Scouting  operations  or  recon- 
naissances may  be  divided  into 
two  classes:  (1)  tactical  or  close, 
(2)  battle  and  strategical  or  dis- 
tant. Tactical  reconnaissance  is 
carried  out  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  fighting  lines, 
while  strategical  reconnaissance 
is  directed  at  objectives  well 
within  the  hostile  territory. 

For  tactical  reconnaissance  the 
aeroplane  must  fly  at  a  compara- 
tively low  altitude,  well  within 
the  range  of  the  anti-aircraft 
guns,  since  an  observer  must  be 
able  to  see  clearly  if  his  observa- 
tions are  to  be  of  any  value  to  his 


Vol.  I.— Mar.  '20 


Army  Aviation 


383 


Army  Enlistment 


commander  and  the  results  of  his 
observations  must  be  reported 
promptly.  To  be  reasonably 
safe  from  gun  fire  sucll  a  machine 
must  have  great  speed  and  must 
be  able  to  carry  out  the  operation 
without  interference  by  hostile 
aircraft.  As  a  swiftly  moving 
object  is  difficult  to  hit,  the  type 
adopted  for  such  work  is  a  small, 
speedy  craft  of  high  engine 
power.  To  assist  in  the  work  of 
observation  the  aid  of  the  camera 
has  been  invoked,  and  a  special 
camera  for  aerial  photography 
has  been  developed  (see  Pho- 
tography). 

For  strategical  reconnaissance 
long  distance  flights  are  neces- 
sary, and  speed  becomes  second- 
ary to  radius  of  action.  The 
country  and  lines  in  rear  of  the 
immediate  zone  of  operations  are 
not  apt  to  be  so  well  protected 
with  anti-aircraft  guns,  and 
therefore  the  aviator  when  flying 
low  is  not  in  such  great  danger 
as  when  flying  over  the  lines. 

Machines  engaged  in  scouting 
and  observing  should  be  able  to 
devote  themselves  chiefly  to 
these  objects.  Therefore  they 
are  sometimes  convoyed  by 
squadrons  of  fighting  craft,  the 
duty  of  which  is  to  protect  their 
own  machines  and  to  prevent 
enemy  craft  from  carrying  out 
similar  operations.  Fighting  ma- 
chines must  be  armed  and  ar- 
mored, they  must  have  speed, 
must  climb  rapidly,  and  ma- 
noeuvre easily.  As  a  rule,  they 
carry  one  man  who  both  drives 
and  fights  the  plane.  The  arma- 
ment consists  of  one  or  two  light 
machine  guns,  usually  so  mounted 
and  synchronized  as  to  fire  be- 
tween the  blades  of  the  propeller 
if  the  aeroplane  is  of  the  tractor 
type,  which  was  the  type  most 
generally  adopted  by  the  bellig- 
erents in  the  Great  War.  The 
armor  consists  of  light  steel 
plates  to  protect  the  engine  and 
the  fuel  tanks  from  rifle  bullets. 

The  observing  aeroplane  is 
usually  not  speedy,  and  is  some- 
times armored  to  protect  both 
the  men  and  the  engine  from 
hostile  fire,  as  the  observer  must 
fly  low;  it  is  capable  of  carrying 
two  men,  a  pilot  and  an  observer; 
and  is  equipped  with  wireless  to 
report  the  result  of  observations. 
The  duty  of  the  observers  is  to 
operate  in  connection  with  the 
artillery  and  report  the  results  of 
the  artillery  fire.  The  observers 
for  this  work  must  be  specially 
trained  and  capable  artillery  ofifi- 
cers,  since  they  must  distinguish 
the  shots  from  the  particular  bat- 
teries they  are  observing  for,  and 
also  must  be  able  to  pick  out  the 
target. 

Another  duty  that  falls  to  the 
aeroplane  during  an  attack  is 
that  of  observing  and  reporting 
the  progress  of  the  infantry. 
This  information  is  necessary  in 


order  that  the  commander  may 
know  how  the  attack  is  progress- 
ing and  also  that  the  artillery 
may  know  the  location  of  their 
own  infantry  and  thus  avoid 
firing  on  them.  Such  machines 
also  assist  the  infantry  by  flying 
low  and  actually  attacking  with 
their  machine  guns  the  hostile 
infantry  either  in  the  trenches  or 
drawn  up  in  close  formation  in 
reserve. 

Raiding  or  bombing  operations 
are  usually  carried  out  by  special 
type  machines,  the  former  by 
attack  planes  and  the  latter  by 
the  heavier  bombing  planes. 
Such  operations  are,  as  a  rule, 
aimed  at  some  depot,  airdrome, 
railway  centre,  or  munitions 
factory  more  or  less  distant  from 
the  zone  of  active  operations. 
Hence  great  radius  of  action  and 
carrying  power  are  the  desirable 
qualities  in  such  aeroplanes. 

See  Aeronautics;  Balloons; 
Europe,  Great  War  of;  Flying 
Machines;  Liberty  Motor; 
Zeppelin. 

Army  Chaplains.  See  Chap- 
lains. 

Army  Corps.  The  corps  is  the 
largest  peace  time  formation  in 
the  armies  of  Continental  na- 
tions. This  organization,  first 
adopted  by  Napoleon  in  1803, 
has,  with  certain  modifications, 
been  retained  in  all  large  armies. 
In  Prussia  the  territory  of  the 
kingdom  was  divided  into  army 
corps  districts,  and  the  corps 
commanders  were  not  only  the 
leaders  of  these  units  in  war,  but 
the  superintendents  of  their  re- 
cruiting, training,  and  equip- 
ment in  time  of  peace.  The  ad- 
vantage of  this  arrangement  was 
obvious,  and  after  the  Franco- 
German  War  of  1870  the  system 
of  territorial  localization  was 
adopted  by  all  continental  na- 
tions. 

The  German  army  corps  be- 
fore the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  may  be  taken  as  a  type. 
Its  component  parts  were  the 
general  staff,  2  infantry  divisions 
(to  which  cavalry  and  artillery 
were  attached),  1  battalion  of 
rifles,  1  telegraph  section,  1  corps 
bridge  train,  1  division  machine 
guns,  1  company  pioneers,  6  sup- 
ply columns,  7  supply  parks,  12 
ammunition  columns,  2  field 
bakery  columns,  12  field  hospitals, 
2  horse  depots;  or  a  total  of  41,- 
000  men,  1.3,000  horses,  144  guns, 
and  2,000  vehicles.  In  Great 
Britain  the  army  corps  had  never 
existed  prior  to  the  (Treat  War  as 
a  permanent  fighting  unit,  the 
largest  formation  being  the  divi- 
sion (see  Division). 

In  the  United  States  the  army 
corps  does  not  exist  in  time  of 
peace,  the  highest  administrative 
units  being  the  regiment  in  the 
infantry,  cavalry,  and  field  artil- 
lery, and  the  district  in  the  coast 
defence.    During  the  war  with 


Spain  the  men  mustered  into 
the  service  were  organized  into 
army  corps,  of  which  the  Fifth, 
commanded  by  General  vShafter, 
may  be  taken  as  an  example,  al- 
though below  the  average  in 
strength.  This  corps  contained, 
at  the  surrender  of  Santiago,  803 
officers  and  14,935  enlisted  men, 
divided  as  follows:  17  head- 
quarters and  staff,  11,730  infan- 
try, 3,248  cavalry,  478  artillery, 
165  engineers,  and  60  signal 
corps.    See  Army  in  the  Field. 

Army  Departments.  See  Ar- 
my OF  THE  United  States. 

Army  Education.  See  Mili- 
tary Education. 

Army  Enlistment.  In  the 
army  of  the  United  States  there 
is  no  compulsory  military  service, 
except  in  time  of  war,  and  all  en- 
listments are  voluntary.  Such 
men  as  desire  to  become  soldiers 
can  present  themselves  before 
any  authorized  recruiting  officer, 
and  if  they  meet  the  required 
conditions,  and  are  physically 
sound,  can  then  take  the  oath  of 
enlistment. 

Army  recruiting  is  conducted 
by  an  officer  properly  detailed 
and  authorized,  for  each  post, 
regiment,  or  detachment,  and  by 
special  officers  detailed  by  the 
War  Department  for  that  pur- 
pose. There  are  general  recruit- 
ing stations  in  the  leading  cities, 
at  which  applicants  are  exam- 
ined. If  found  qualified  for 
service,  they  •  are  accepted  and 
sent  to  their  units  (if  enlisted  for 
a  specified  station)  or  to  recruit- 
ing depots  for  final  disposition. 

Any  male  citizen  of  the  United 
States  or  person  who  has  legally 
declared  his  intention  to  become 
a  citizen,  if  above  the  age  of 
eighteen  and  under  the  age  of 
thirty-five  years,  able-bodied, 
and  free  from  disease,  of  good 
character  and  temperate  habits, 
may  be  accepted  for  enlistment. 
If  the  applicant  is  a  minor,  he 
must  have  the  written  consent  of 
his  parent  or  guardian.  His 
moral  character  is  looked  into, 
and  if  satisfactory  he  is  examined 
physically  and  mentally.  Both 
examinations  are  very  thorough. 
After  the  nature  of  the  service 
and  terms  of  enlistment  have 
been  fully  explained  to  the  appli- 
cant, he  is  required  to  declare 
under  oath  that  he  desires  to 
become  a  soldier,  and  that  he  is 
free  from  any  disqualification  to 
prevent  his  so  doing.  When  all 
is  done,  he  signs  the  following 
contract,  which  is  his  oath  of  en- 
listment, and  which  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  commissioned  officer 
of  the  army: 

Oath:  State  of  ,  county  of 

 ,  I,  ,  born  in  the  State  of 

 ,  and  now  aged    and 

 months,  do  hereby  acknowl- 
edge to  have  voluntarily  enlisted 

(or  re- enlisted)  this    day  of 

 ,  19 — ,  as  a  soldier  in  the  army 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Army  fn  the  Field  3^4 


Number  of  U.  S.  Troops  Engaged  in  Wars  of  the  United  States 


War 

Date 

Regulars 

Militia 
and  Volun- 
teers 

Total  * 

Casualties 

Revolution  

1775-1783 

130,711 

164,080 

309,781 

No  record 

Northwest  Indians  

1790-1795 

8,983 

1,332 

France  

1798-1800 

14,593 

Tripoli  

1801-1805 

t3,330 

Creek  Indians  

1813-1814 

' '  600 

i3,V81 

13,781 

Great  Britain  

1812-1815 

85,000 

471,622 

576,622 

5,877 
82 

1817-1818 

1,000 

6,911 

7,911 

Black  Hawk  Indians.  .  .  . 

1831-1832 

1,339 

5,126 

6,465 

65 

Cherokee  Indians  

1836-1837 

9,494 

9,494 

Creek  Indians  

1836-1837 

' '  935 

12,483 

13,418 

Florida  Indians  

1835-1843 

11,169 

29,953 

41,122 

' '  940 

Mexico  

1  8,lfl_1  Q  IS 

30  954 

73  776 

119  o'in 

17  "370 
11 ,616 

Apache,  Navajo,  and 

1849-1855 

1,500 

1,061 

2,501 

1856-1858 

3,687 

3,687 

Civil  Wart  

1861-1865 

2,772,408 

359,528 

1898 

§274,717 

1,688 

1898-1902 

60,000 

7,052 

1900 

5,000 

5,000 

209 

World  War  

1917-1921tt 

544,663 

61 6,779 

**4,051,606 

318,203 

*  Including  all  branches  of  the  service,  t  Naval  forces  engaged.  %  The  number  of  troops 
on  the  Confederate  side  was  about  750,000.  §  Troops  actually  engaged,  about  60,000. 
**  Includes  2,890,164  drafted  men;  does  not  include  Marines  serving  with  the  Army, 
tt  Active  hostilities  ceased  1918. 


of  the  United  States  of  America, 

for   the  period  of  years, 

under  the  conditions  prescribed 
by  law,  unless  sooner  discharged 
by  proper  authority;  and  do  also 
agree  to  accept  from  the  United 
vStates  such  bounty,  pay,  rations, 
and  clothing  as  are  or  may  be 
established  by  law.  And  I  do 
solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that 
I  will  bear  true  faith  and  alle- 
giance to  the  United  States  of 
America;  that  I  will  serve  them 
honestly  and  faithfully  against 
all  their  enemies  whomsoever; 
that  I  will  obey  the  orders  of  the 
President  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  orders  of  the  officers  ap- 
pointed over  me,  according  to 
the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War. 

Then  follow  the  signature  of 
the  applicant  and  the  seal,  cer- 
tificate, and  signature  of  the 
recruiting  officer.  \ 

Under  the  existing  regulations 
the  original  term  of  enlistment 
may  be  for  either  one  or  three 
years.  Subsequent  re-enlistments 
must  be  for  three  years.  For 
rates  of  pay,  see  Pay,  Army  and 
Navy. 

After  thirty  years'  service,  en- 
listed men  may  be  retired  with 
three-fourths  of  the  pay  of  their 
grade,  and  $15.75  per  month  ad- 
ditional in  lieu  of  clothing,  sub- 
sistence, quarters,  fuel,  and  light. 
Unmarried  soldiers  under  thirty 
years  of  age  of  not  less  than  two 
years'  service  may  compete  in 
examination  for  promotion  to 
second  lieutenant.  See  Com- 
missions, U.  S.  Army. 

Army  in  the  Field.  Regular 
or  permanent  or  standing  armies 
are  those  in  which  the  entire 
force  composing  the  army  has 
been  trained  and  organized  for 
war,  and  kept  by  the  nation  on  a 
paid  basis,  always  ready  for  war. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


National  armies  are  those  in 
which  the  entire  available  force 
are  the  trained  men  of  the  nation 
or  those  fit  to  bear  arms.  A 
regular  or  standing  army  may  be 
part  of  a  national  army.  A  field 
army,  more  generally  known  as  a 
field  force,  is  an  army  prepared  to 
take  the  field.  Thus,  the  regu- 
lar army  of  the  United  States, 
when  raised  to  a  war  footing,  be- 
comes a  field  force  or  field  army. 
An  army  engaged  in  an  active 
campaign  is  said  to  be  in  the 
field. 

The  strength  of  an  army  in  the 
field  depends  upon  variable  fac- 
tors— on  the  nature  of  the  coun- 
try in  which  it  is  to  operate,  on 
the  character  and  strength  of  the 
forces  of  the  enemy,  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  objective,  and  on  the 
population  and  wealth  of  the  na- 
tion to  which  it  belongs.  In  the 
Spanish-American  War,  General 
Shafter's  army  numbered  only 
about  16,000  men,  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  drew  out  700,000 
Russians  and  850,000  Japanese, 
while  the  Great  War  brought  out 
millions  of  men  from  all  the 
countries  engaged  (see  Europe, 
Great  War  of).  At  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War,  practically  all  the 
armies  on  both  sides  were  in  the 
field,  numbering  2,500,000  men 
on  the  side  of  the  north  and 
1,100,000  on  the  south,  the  great- 
est forces  that  had  been  engaged 
in  a  modern  war,  until  the  advent 
of  the  Great  War. 

The  term  field  army  (or  ar- 
mies) has  had  various  meanings, 
especially  in  the  United  States. 
At  times  it  has  meant  a  group  of 
divisions  and  at  others  a  group  of 
army  corps.  The  present  organ- 
ization includes  a  headquarters, 
a  body  of  auxiliary  troops  and 
trains,  called  army  troops,  and 


Army  tn  the  Field 

two  or  more  corps.  The  organ- 
ization of  military  forces  changes 
constantly  to  meet  changing  con- 
ditions, especially  in  the  case  of 
those  engaged  in  active  cam- 
paign in  time  of  war.  In  time  of 
peace  the  United  States  has  had 
no  organization  larger  than  the 
division. 

During  the  Civil  and  Spanish- 
American  Wars  an  army  con- 
sisted of  a  group  of  corps,  but 
between  the  close  of  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  and  the  passage  of 
the  Act  of  June  3,  1916,  a  field 
army  was  a  group  of  divisions  or 
what  in  other  times  and  in  Eu- 
rope was  called  a  corps.  By  the 
Act  of  June  3,  1916,  the  President 
was  authorized  to  organize  corps 
and  armies  in  time  of  war.  Dur- 
ing the  Great  War  each  corps 
consisted  of  two  or  more  divisions 
with  additional  artillery,  troops, 
engineers,  trains,  and  other  auxil- 
iary troops. 

In  the  United  States,  when 
war  has  been  declared  the  stand- 
ing army  is  at  once  filled  up  by 
voluntary  enlistment  or  draft,  or 
both,  to  its  war  strength.  By 
recent  law  the  President  has  the 
right  not  only  to  mobilize  the 
militia,  but  can  even  order  it 
outside  the  boundaries  of  the 
country.  According  to  the 
strength  of  the  opposing  power 
and  the  forces  likely  to  be  en- 
gaged, bodies  of  volunteers  or 
other  forces  are  called  for  and 
enlisted  for  several  years  or  for 
the  entire  war  or  resort  is  had  to 
the  draft  (see  Conscription). 
The  troops  are  then  concentrated 
at  advantageous  points,  supplies 
of  ordnance,  food,  clothing,  medi- 
cines, etc.,  are  collected,  and  the 
army  is  fully  equipped  and  put 
into  condition  to  take  the  field. 
To  do  all  this  requires  a  com- 
plete organization  previously 
formed,  so  that  when  the  time  for 
action  comes,  like  a  huge  ma- 
chine all  the  various  parts  act  in 
unison  (see  Mobilization). 

The  commander-in-chief  for 
the  army  in  the  field  having  been 
appointed,  he  takes  complete 
charge  of  operations.  As  a  rule, 
natural  strategic  positions  deter- 
mine the  theatre  of  operations, 
and  in  proximity  to  these  the 
commanding  general  determines 
the  base  of  operations  from  which 
he  will  work.  This  is  different 
from  the  base  of  supplies,  which 
is  usually  located  in  his  own 
country  or  in  one  that  is  friendly, 
and  known  as  the  zone  of  the 
interior.  At  the  base  of  opera- 
tions the  army  itself  is  gathered, 
with  such  supplies  as  it  needs  for 
immediate  use,  and  these  are 
constantly  renewed  from  the  base 
of  supplies. 

The  movement  across  the  seas 
of  any  large  body  of  troops,  with 
their  attendant  equipment  and 
stores,  necessitates  a  disem- 
barkation on  a  seashore,  and  a 


Army  In  the  Field 


S85 


Army  of  the  tJnlted  StatetS 


preliminary  collection  and  organ- 
ization of  materiel.  A  maritime 
base  is,  therefore,  a  necessity — 
as,  for  example,  Siboney  during 
the  Cuban  campaign,  Manila 
during  the  Philippine  insurrec- 
tion, Dalny  during  the  siege  of 
Port  Arthur  and  the  Manchurian 
campaign.  Cape  Town  and  Dur- 
ban during  the  British  wars  in 
South  Africa,  or  the  French  ports 
in  the  Great  War  (1914-19). 
When  the  theatre  of  war  is  far 
from  a  seaport,  the  base  is  neces- 
sarily inland — as,  for  example, 
Peshawar*  and  Kohat  during 
English  campaigns  in  Afghanis- 
tan, and  Harbin  for  the  Russian 
army  after  the  siege  of  Port 
Arthur  and  the  destruction  of 
their  navy.  The  selection  of  a 
base  in  a  friendly  country  has 
obvious  advantages,  as  it  gives 
time  for  preparations  before  the 
actual  arrival  of  the  troops.  It 
may  often  happen  that  the  situa- 
tion of  a  base  can  be  secured  only 
by  force,  as  in  the  case  of  Balak- 
lava  in  the  Crimean  War,  and 
Dalny  in  the  Japanese-Russian 
War;  or  by  stratagem,  as  in  the 
case  ot  Ismailia  in  the  Egyptian 
campaign. 

The  objective  of  the  army  may 
be  the  opposing  force  of  the  en- 
emy, or  his  capital,  or  some  main 
soxirce  of  his  supplies.  Whatever 
it  is,  the  army  must  make  a 
pathway  to  get  to  it.  This  path- 
way to  the  objective  is  called  the 
line  of  operations,  and  includes 
not  only  the  country  through 
which  the  army  moves,  but  all 
the  territory  contiguous  to  it 
whose  possession  is  necessary  to 
render  the  march  of  the  army 
secure  and  practicable.  The  line 
of  operations  may  or  may  not  be 
parallel  to  the  base,  according  to 
the  strength  of  the  forces  and 
the  topography  of  the  country. 
Deep  lines  of  operations  are  those 
which  advance  far  beyond  the 
base.  The  front  of  operations  in- 
cludes all  territory  occupied  to- 
ward the  enemy,  and  all  adjacent 
territory  that  must  be  observed 
to  render  it  secure  against  hostile 
advance.  The  front  becomes  a 
line  of  defence  when  the  army  is 
retreating  or  is  on  the  defensive. 
A  zone  of  operations  is  the  belt 
of  territory  controlled  by  the 
moving  columns  of  the  army, 
wherein  these  columns  can  move 
in  safety. 

As  an  army  moves  forward,  a 
line  of  communications  becomes 
necessary,  along  which  the  per- 
sonnel and  materiel  necessary  to 
maintain  the  army  in  fighting 
condition  are  forwarded,  and  by 
means  of  which  sick,  wounded, 
prisoners,  etc.,  are  removed  from 
the  theatre  of  actual  hostilities. 
The  provost  marshal  general's 
department  should  have  a  force 
sufficient  to  preserve  proper 
police  throughout  the  army,  and 
especially  along  the  line  of  com- 
VOL.  I.— March  '22 


munications.  The  length  of  this 
line  may  vary  from  a  few  miles, 
as  in  the  Crimean  War  and  the 
campaigns  against  Port  Arthur 
and  Santiago,  to  hundreds  of 
miles,  as  in  the  South  African 
campaign  of  1899-1902  and  the 
Russian  line  from  Moscow  to 
Harbin. 

The  line  consists  of  a  chain  of 
military  stations  connected  by  a 
route  traversed  by  rail,  road,  or 
river  transport,  or  a  combina- 
tion of  all  three.  With  an  un- 
friendly population,  or  a  vigilant 
and  active  enemy,  a  large  force 
is  necessary  to  guard  the  line. 
Each  station  or  depot  becomes  a 
defensive  fort;  blockhouses  pro- 
tect vulnerable  points,  such  as 
defiles  or  bridges;  and  flying  col- 
umns have  to  keep  the  enemy  at 
a  distance.  As  the  army  ad- 
vances, the  length  of  the  line  of 
communications  increases,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  organize  it  into 
sections.  Wherever  there  is  a 
break  in  bulk  in  the  conveyance 
of  stores,  a  depot  is  necessarily 
formed;  and  in  each  section  at 
im^portant  points  there  must  be 
hospitals,  rest  stations,  and  ac- 
cumulations of  commissariat  and 
ordnance  stores. 

The  usual  method  by  which  an 
army  is  supplied  is  an  adaptation 
of  the  magazine  and  requisition 
systems.  Arms,  ammunition,  ac- 
coutrements, clothing,  harness, 
tools,  and  stores  in  general  are 
forwarded  to  troops  from  the 
nearest  magazines;  but  ordinary 
transport,  and  as  much  as  possi- 
ble of  the  daily  food  for  men  and 
horses,  are  drawn  from  the  thea- 
tre of  war.  In  a  civilized  country 
the  inhabitants  may  be  forced  to 
supply  lodgings  as  well  as  food, 
and  requisitions  may  be  made  for 
staple  commodities.  As  a  gen- 
eral principle,  everything  is  paid 
for  in  cash  or  by  promissory 
notes,  and  the  forcible  taking  of 
supplies  is  limited  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. Purchase  in  the  open  mar- 
ket is  authorized  in  the  field;  and 
by  establishing  good  relations  be- 
tween the  natives  of  a  country 
and  the  army,  this  plan  often 
enables  supplies  to  be  obtained 
which  would  otherwise  be  con- 
cealed. 

Food  has  to  be  issued  daily, 
as  a  rule,  and  the  unexpended 
portion  of  a  ration  is  carried  on 
the  person.  In  addition,  each 
soldier  is  supplied  with  a  reserve 
or  emergency  ration  of  biscuit 
('hard  tack'),  pemmican,  pre- 
served meat,  concentrated  foods, 
etc.,  which  may  be  opened  only 
by  order  of  a  superior  office. 
(See  Rations.) 

A  general  transport  of  a  semi- 
military  character  is  worked  from 
the  base  of  operations  to  the  ad- 
vanced depot  in  rear  of  an  army, 
or  to  the  magazines  nearest  to  the 
troops  to  be  supplied.  The  labor, 
carts,  animals,  etc.,  are  mainly 


procured  from  the  country,  while 
the  supervision  is  of  a  military 
character,  and  drawn  from  the 
staff  of  the  line  of  communica- 
tions. From  these  depots  sup- 
plies are  sent  to  the  troops  daily 
by  trains  assigned  to  each  unit. 

Each  regiment  of  infantry,  cav- 
alry, and  field  artillery  has  its 
own  train,  these  regimental  trains 
being  combined  when  necessary 
to  facilitate  guarding  the  sup- 
plies. Under  suitable  conditions, 
troops  should  be  able  to  move  on 
emergency  for  two  or  three  days 
by  utilizing  the  resources  of  the 
country,  their  regimental  trans- 
port, and  their  reserve  rations. 
The  supply  columns  and  supply 
packs  of  the  division  carry  three 
to  four  days'  provision  for  ordi- 
nary use,  and  thus  extend  the 
area  in  which  troops  can  act. 
(See  Transportation,  Mili- 
tary.) 

Next  to  the  problem  of  provid- 
ing ammunition  and  supplies, 
that  of  a  proper  medical  and  sani- 
tary service  is  most  important. 
It  is  a  matter  of  history  that  far 
more  men  die  of  disease  during  a 
campaign  than  from  all  other 
causes  combined.  Four  complete 
field  hospitals  (q.  v.)  are  assigned 
to  each  division  of  a  U.  S.  army 
corps,  in  addition  to  regimental 
and  other  hospitals.  (See  Sani- 
tation, Military;  Hospitals, 
Military.) 

In  addition  to  the  collection 
and  distribution  of  supplies,  the 
staff  of  the  line  of  communica- 
tions has  to  utilize  and  often  cre- 
ate postal  and  telegraph  services. 
The  collection  and  dissemination 
of  information,  and  the  preven- 
tion of  information  from  reaching 
the  enemy,  is  a  task  for  the  ser- 
vice of  security  and  information; 
but  the  bulk  of  this  work,  and  the 
censorship  of  the  press,  will  be 
associated  with  the  main  centres 
that  lie  on  the  line  of  communica- 
tions. The  advantage  of  keeping 
up  communication  by  wireless, 
telegraph,  heliograph,  flying  ma- 
chines, and  other  means  along  the 
route  between  its  various  maga- 
zines and  depots  is  obvious,  and 
the  post  of  director  of  telegraphs 
in  a  campaign  is  an  important 
one.  (See  Signalling,  Mili- 
tary; Telegraph,  Military.) 

See  Army;  Army  of  the 
United  States;  Strategy  and 
Tactics;  Cavalry;  Infantry; 
Artillery;  Army  Aviation; 
Field  Equipment;  Reconnais- 
sance; Railways,  Military  Rail- 
ways; Europe,  Great  War  of. 

Army  of  the  United  States. 
Early  History. —  On  June  14, 
1775,  the  Continental  Congress, 
recognizing  the  necessity  for  a 
force  that  would  be  subject  to  its 
orders,  authorized  the  raising 
of  ten  companies  of  riflemen  to 
serve  for  a  period  of  one  year. 
The  following  day  it  took  into  its 
pay  all  of  the  troops  then  around 


Army  of  the  tJnited  States 


Army  of  the  TJnited  States' 


Boston,  created  the  office  of 
Commander-in-Chief  of  all  of  the 
forces  raised  or  to  be  raised  in 
the  defence  of  American  liberty, 
and  appointed  George  Washing- 
ton to  the  office.  The  small 
force  of  Colonial  troops  thus 
created  was  increased  from  time 
to  time  during  the  war,  forming 
the  backbone  of  the  Revolution- 
ary army,  composed  in  great  part 
of  militia  and  State  troops. 

In  1776  Congress  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  present  War 
Department  by  appointing  a 
Board  of  War  and  Ordnance  to 
take  charge  of  all  military  stores, 
superintend  the  raising,  equip- 
ping, and  despatching  of  land 
forces,  keep  a  register  of  the 
officers,  and  perform  other  func- 
tions. In  1781  this  board  was 
superseded  by  a  Secretary  of 
War. 

At  the  close  of  the  war  the 
militia  and  State  troops  were 
returned  to  their  homes,  and  the 
regular  troops  were  ordered  re- 
duced to  two  care-taking  detach- 
ments aggregating  less  than  one 
hundred  men  retained  for  the 
purpose  of  guarding  supplies. 
In  1785  a  regiment  of  seven  hun- 
dred riflemen  was  atithorized  for 
a  period  of  one  year  to  serve 
against  the  Indians,  and  in  1787 
authority  was  granted  to  con- 
tinue this  regiment  in  service. 
In  1790  a  regiment  of  1,216  men 
was  authorized,  with  Lieut. -Col. 
Josiah  Harmar  of  Pennsylvania 
in  command.  This  force  was  in- 
creased in  1792  to  two  regiments 
of  infantry  and  one  battalion  of 
artillery. 

For  the  next  hundred  years  the 
history  of  the  Regular  Army  is 
one  of  a  succession  of  small  in- 
creases to  meet  em.ergencies, 
with  corresponding  decreases  af- 
ter the  emergencies  had  passed. 
At  the  time  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  in  1898,  the 
Regular  Army  consisted  of  a 
force  of,  approximately,  25,000 
officers  and  men.  Between  the 
close  of  that  war  and  1916  the 
army  was  increased  from  time  to 
time  until  it  reached  a  strength 
of,  approximately,  100,000  of- 
ficers and  men,  composed  of 
regiments  and  smaller  units,  but 
no  provision  was  made  for  or- 
ganizing them  into  higher  com- 
mands or  for  increasing  their 
number  in  the  event  of  emer- 
gency. 

The  National  Defence  Act  of 
1916— By  the  act  of  June  3, 
1916,  known  as  the  National 
Defence  Act,  an  effort  was  made 
to  provide  more  adequately  for 
national  defence.  This  act  pro- 
vided for  the  establishing  of  the 
Army  of  the  United  States,  com- 
posed of  the  Regular  Army,  the 
Volunteer  Army,  the  Officers' 
Reserve  Corps,  the  Enlisted 
Reserve  Corps,  the  National 
Guard  while  in  the  service  of  the 
Vol.  I. — March  '22 


United  States,  and  such  other 
land  forces  as  were  then  or  might 
thereafter  be  authorized  by  law. 

Under  this  act  the  Regular 
Army  was  increased  from,  ap- 
proximately, 100,000  men  to 
about  208,000,  with  a  provision 
that  the  increase  should  be  ef- 
fected in  five  equal  increments, 
beginning  June  30,  1916.  The 
first  increment  had  been  added  to 
the  army  and  the  work  of  forming 
the  Officers'  Reserve  Corps  and 
the  Enlisted  Reserve  Corps  had 
been  begun  when  the  United 
States  entered  the  Great  War  in 
1917.  For  this  emergency  the 
four  remaining  increments  were 
at  once  added  to  the  army,  the 
National  Guard  was  called  into 
the  service  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  National  Army  was 
organized. 

The  National  Army. —  Realiz- 
ing the  necessity  for  a  larger 
force  than  could  be  raised 
through  volunteers.  Congress,  by 
an  act  of  May  18,  1917,  pro- 
vided for  raising  a  new  army 
through  conscription.  To  dis- 
tinguish this  new  force  from  the 
Regular  Army  and  the  National 
Guard,  it  was  at  first  known  as 
the  National  Army,  but  in  1918 
it  was  merged  by  executive  order 
with  the  Regular  Army  and  the 
National  Guard  into  the  Army  of 
the  United  States. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the 
act  of  May  18  (1917)  all  able- 
bodied  citizens  between  the  ages 
of  twenty-one  and  thirty  years, 
inclusive,  were  made  liable  to 
military  service.  The  President 
was  authorized  to  call  them  into 
service,  organize  them  into  com- 
panies, regiments,  brigades,  di- 
visions, corps,  and  armies,  and 
to  provide  the  necessary  officers 
for  such  units.  As  far  as  pos- 
sible, companies,  battalions,  and 
regiments  were  to  be  composed 
of  men  from  the  same  State  or 
locality,  while  officers  were  drawn 
from  the  Regular  Army,  the 
National  Guard,  the  Officers' 
Reserve  Corps,  or  civil  life. 

The  first  call  was  for  687,000 
men,  who  reported  for  service 
between  Sept.  5,  1917,  and  Feb. 
28,  1918.  These  men  were  or- 
ganized into  seventeen  divisions 
and  a  large  number  of  special 
and  technical  troops.  Included 
in  the  latter  were  engineer  troops 
of  various  types,  aviation  and 
signal  corps  units,  medical  and 
sanitary  units,  and  numerous 
other  auxiliary  troops  required 
for  operations  in  the  field.  The 
first  call  was  followed  by  others, 
until  the  total  force  engaged  in 
the  war  aggregated  more  than 
three  m.illion  men. 

Act  of  June  4,  2920.— Follow- 
ing the  armistice  (q.  v.)  and  the 
demobilization  of  the  war  army, 
reorganization  of  the  military 
forces  of  the  country  was  effected 
through  an  amendment  of  the 


National  Defence  Act  of  1916, 
passed  and  approved  as  the  Act 
of  June  4,  1920. 

Under  this  act  provision  is 
made  for  the  Army  of  the  United 
States,  to  consist  of  the  Regvilar 
Army,  the  National  Guard  while 
in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  Organized  Re- 
serves, including  the  Officers' 
Reserve  Corps  and  the  Enlisted 
Reserve  Corps. 

The  peace  strength  of  the 
Regiilar  Army  is  fixed  at  a  maxi- 
mum of  280,000  enlisted  men 
and,  approximately,  17,000  of- 
ficers. The  peace  strength  of  the 
National  Guard  is  fixed  at  not 
less  than  800  men  for  each  Sen- 
ator and  Representative  in  Con- 
gress, with  a  proviso  that  four 
years  be  allowed  in  which  to 
reach  this  minimum.  When  it  is 
reached,  the  strength  of  the 
National  Guard  will  be,  approx- 
imately, 425,000.  No  limit  is 
fixed  for  the  strength  of  either 
the  Officers'  Reserve  Corps  or 
the  Enlisted  Reserve  Corps. 

The  organization  of  this  force 
is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
President,  with  the  provision 
that  the  peace  establishment,  in- 
cluding the  Regular  Army,  the 
National  Guard,  and  the  Or- 
ganized Reserves,  shall  include 
all  of  those  divisions  and  other 
military  organizations  necessary 
to  form  a  basis  for  a  complete 
and  immediate  mobilization  for 
the  national  defence  in  the  event 
of  a  national  emergency  declared 
by  Congress,  and  with  the 
further  provision  that  the  army 
shall  at  all  times  be  organized  so 
far  as  practicable  into  brigades, 
divisions,  and  army  corps,  and 
whenever  the  President  may 
deem  it  expedient,  into  armies. 

The  Commander-in-Chief. — 
Under  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution  the  President  of  the 
United  States  is  the  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces  of  the  United  States.  In 
the  past  he  has  invariably  exer- 
cised this  office  through  the 
Secretaries  of  War  and  the  Navy 
and  through  military  and  naval 
commanders  in  the  field  and  at 
sea. 

With  the  establishment  of  the 
General  Staff  Corps  in  1903,  the 
office  of  the  Commanding  Gen- 
eral of  the  Army  was  abolished, 
and  the  President  has  since  exer- 
cised his  functions  through  the 
Secretary  of  War.  Following  the 
World  War,  Congress  created  the 
office  of  General  of  the  Armies, 
and,  in  recognition  of  his  services 
during  the  war.  Gen.  John  J. 
Pershing  (q.  v.)  was  appointed 
to  that  office,  which  is  to  con- 
tinue during  the  period  of  his 
life.  He  does  not  exercise  its 
functions  during  time  of  peace, 
but  occupies  the  position  of  Chief 
of  Staff,  with  the  provision  that 
he  may  assume  command  in  the 


Army  of  the  United  States 

field  in  the  event  of  emergency. 
In  time  of  war  the  President 
designates  the  general  officers  in 
command  of  the  various  armies 
in  the  field.  (See  President  of 
THE  United  States.) 

The  Secretary  of  PTar.— The 
Secretary  of  War  is  charged  with 
carrying  out  the  policy  of  the 
President  in  military  matters  and 
with  the  general  administration 
of  the  War  Department.  He 
acts  for  the  President,  and  under 
the  law  his  orders  have  the  force 
of  those  of  the  President. 

In  the  exercise  of  his  duties, 
the  Secretary  of  War  has  the  aid 
of  two  assistants,  the  Assistant 
Secretary  of  War  and  the  Chief 
of  Staff.  In  addition  to  such 
other  duties  as  may  be  assigned 
him  by  the  Secretary  of  War,  the 
Assistant  Secretary  of  War  is 
charged  with  the  supervision  of 
the  procurement  of  all  military 
supplies  and  other  business  of 
the  War  Department  pertaining 
thereto,  and  the  assii ranee  of 
adequate  provision  for  the  mo- 
bilization of  materiel  and  indus- 
trial organizations  essential  to 
wartime  needs.  Under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Secretary  of  War, 
the  chiefs  of  all  branches  charged 
with  proctirement  report  directly 
to  the  Assistant  Secretary.  (See 
War,  U.  S.  Department  of.) 

The  Chief  of  Staff  presides 
over  the  War  Department  Gen- 
eral Staff  and,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  President  and  of  the 
Secretary  of  War,  causes  to  be 
made  by  the  War  Department 
General  Staff  the  necessary  plans 
for  recruiting,  organizing,  sup- 
plying, equipping,  mobilizing, 
training,  and  demobilizing  the 
Army  of  the  United  States  and 
for  the  use  of  the  military  forces 
for  the  national  defence.  He 
transmits  all  such  plans  and 
recomm.endations  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  War,  and,  when  these 
have  been  approved  by  the 
Secretary,  acts  as  his  agent  in 
carrying  them  into  effect.  In 
general,  the  Chief  of  Staff  is  the 
principal  military  advisor  of  the 
Secretary  of  War  as  well  as  his 
chief  agent  in  the  execution  of 
orders.  In  addition,  the  Chief 
of  Staff  has  general  supervision 
over  the  administration,  train- 
ing, discipline,  and  operations  of 
the  army. 

The  Staff— The  Staff  of  the 
army  consists  of  those  corps  and 
departments  charged  with  the 
administration  and  maintenance 
of  the  army.  In  general,  this  in- 
cludes all  of  the  agencies  con- 
cerned in  sheltering,  clothing, 
feeding,  equipping,  paying,  trans- 
porting, and  caring  medically  for 
the  officers  and  men,  the  procur- 
ing and  manufacturing  of  sup- 
plies and  munitions,  the  keeping 
of  records,  and  the  transacting  of 
all  other  necessary  business. 

Primarily,  the  Staff  is  divided 
Vol.  I. — March  '22 


385B 

into  the  General  Staff  Corps  and 
the  various  Technical,  Supply, 
and  Administrative  Corps  and 
Departments. 

The  General  Staff  Corps  consists 
of  the  War  Department  General 
Staff,  and  the  General  Staff  with 
Troops. 

The  War  Department  General 
Staff  is  charged  with  the  prepara- 
tion of  plans  for  the  national  de- 
fence and  for  the  use  of  the 
military  forces  for  the  purpose, 
both  separately  and  in  conjtmc- 
tion  with  the  naval  forces,  and 
for  the  mobilization  of  the  man- 
hood of  the  nation  and  its  ma- 
terial resources  in  emergency. 
It  is  also  charged  with  investigat- 
ing and  reporting  upon  all  ques- 
tions affecting  the  efficiency  of 
the  Army  of  the  United  States 
and  its  state  of  preparation  for 
military  operations,  and  with 
rendering  professional  aid  and 
assistance  to  the  Secretarv  of 
War  and  the  Chief  of  Staff. 

The  General  Staff  with  Troops 
assists  Corps  Area,  Department, 
and  Division  Commanders  in 
supervising  and  co-ordinating 
the  administration,  training,  sup- 
ply, and  operations  of  the  troops. 
(See  General  Staff.) 

The  Adjutant  General's  Depart- 
ment keeps  all  records  of  the 
army,  carries  on  its  correspond- 
ence, publishes  orders  and  official 
books  and  manuals,  manages  the 
recruiting  service  and,  under 
regulations  prescribed  by  the 
Secretary  of  War,  is  charged 
with  the  operations  of  procuring, 
assigning,  promoting,  transfer- 
ring, retiring,  and  discharging  all 
officers  and  men  of  the  army. 
(See  Adjutant  General.) 

The  Inspector  General's  De- 
partment has  general  supervision 
over  all  that  pertains  to  the  ef- 
ficiency of  the  army;  the  condi- 
tion and  state  of  supplies  of  all 
kinds;  of  arms  and  equipment; 
of  the  expenditure  of  property 
and  money,  and  of  the  accounts 
of  all  disbursing  officers;  of 
the  condition,  discipline,  and  ef- 
ficiency of  the  troops,  and  with 
the  enforcement  of  all  orders  and 
regulations.  (See  Inspector 
General's  Department.) 

The  Judge  Advocate  General's 
Department  passes  upon  all  legal 
questions  and  transacts  all  other 
legal  business  'arising  in  the  War 
Department  at  large,  or  in  the 
administration  of  military  tri- 
bunals. (See  Judge  Advocate 
General's  Department.) 

The  Quartermaster  Corps,  es- 
tablished in  1912  by  the  con- 
solidation of  the  old  Quarter- 
master, Subsistence,  and  Pay 
Departments,  and  reorganized  in 
1920  by  the  addition  of  the  war- 
time Construction  and  Trans- 
portation Services  and  the  sub- 
traction of  the  Finance  Depart- 
ment, is  charged  with  the  pro- 
curement, storage,  and  issue  of 


Army  of  the  United  States 

all  supplies  for  the  army,  with 
the  exception  of  certain  technical 
materiel;  with  the  construction, 
repair,  and  maintenance  of  all 
building  and  utilities,  except  for- 
tifications; with  the  operation  of 
all  utilities;  with  the  acquisition 
and  disposition  of  all  real  estate 
for  the  army;  with  the  transpor- 
tation of  the  army  by  land  and 
sea,  including  the  transportation 
of  troops  and  supplies  by  me- 
chanical or  animal  means;  and 
with  the  furnishing  of  all  kinds 
of  transportation.  In  a  word, 
it  shelters,  feeds,  clothes,  and 
transports  tne  army.  (See  Quar- 
termaster Corps.) 

The  Aledical  Department  is 
charged  with  the  care  of  the  sick 
and  wounded  and  their  trans- 
portation from  the  battlefield  to 
hospitals;  with  the  preparation 
of  medical  histories  of  officers 
and  men;  the  sanitation  of  posts 
and  camps;  and,  in  general,  car- 
ries out  such  preventive  and 
curative  measures  as  will  main- 
tain the  health  of  the  troops  and 
relieve  them  of  all  care  of  the  sick 
and  wounded,  both  on  the  march 
and  on  the  field  of  battle. 

It  consists  of  the  Surgeon 
General,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  two  assistants  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general,  the 
Medical  Corps,  the  Dental  Corps, 
the  Veterinary  Corps,  the  Med- 
ical Administrative  Corps,  the 
Army  Nurse  Corps,  and  an  en- 
listed force  of  size  varjang  in 
proportion  to  that  of  the  army. 
(See  Medical  Department, 
U.  S.  Army.) 

The  Corps  of  Engineers  has 
both  line  and  staff  functions. 
As  line  troops,  it  furnishes  a 
regiment  of  combat  engineer 
troops  to  each  Infantry  Division 
as  well  as  other  combat  engineer 
units  for  corps  and  armies.  As 
a  supply  branch,  it  furnishes  the 
army  with  a  variety  of  engineer 
materials.  As  a  staff  corps,  it  is 
charged  with  the  building  of  all 
fortifications ;  the  building,  main- 
taining, and  operating  of  all 
roads  and  railroads  in  the  theater 
of  operations;  the  laying  out  of 
field  fortifications;  the  prepara- 
tion of  charts  and  maps;  and  the 
building  and  maintaining  of 
river  and  harbor  improvements. 
(See  Engineering,  Military.) 

The  Ordnance  Department  sup- 
plies the  army  with  all  types  of 
arms  and  ammunition,  as  well 
as  certain  other  kinds  of  equip- 
ment. It  also  has  charge  of  the 
arsenals  for  the  manufacture  and 
storage  of  such  supplies.  (See 
Ordnance  Department.) 

The  Signal  Corps  also  has  both 
line  and  staff  functions.  As 
line  troops,  it  furnishes  a  bat- 
talion to  each  Infantry  Division 
as  well  as  similar  ttnits  for  corps 
and  armies.  In  general,  it  col- 
lects and  transmits  military  in- 
formation,   installs,  maintains, 


Army'of  the  United  States 


385C 


Army  of  the  United  States 


and  operates  telephone,  tele- 
graph, and  wireless  systems  of 
communication,  develops  the 
pigeon  service,  and  conducts  the 
meteorological  service.  (See  Sig- 
nal Corps.) 

The  Air  Service,  while  primar- 
ily a  line  or  combatant  branch  of 
the  army,  is  charged  with  the 
development  of  all  agencies  for 
aerial  flight.  Originally,  it  be- 
gan as  a  subdivision  of  the  Signal 
Corps,  but  during  the  World 
War  became  a  provisional  sep- 
arate service.  By  the  act  of 
June  4,  1920,  it  was  established 
as  a  separate  service.  It  de- 
velops and  operates  aeroplanes 
of  all  types,  dirigibles  and  fixed 
balloons.  It  consists  of  a  Chief 
of  the  Air  Service,  with  the  rank 
of  major-general,  an  assistant 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  1,514  officers,  and  a 
force  of  enlisted  men  and  flying 
cadets  varying  with  the  strength 
of  the  army.  (See  Army  Avia- 
tion.) 

The  Finance  Department,  under 
the  authority  of  the  Secretary  of 
War,  is  charged  with  the  dis- 
bursement of  all  funds  for  the 
War  Department,  including  the 
pay  of  the  army  and  the  mileage 
for  officers  and  the  accounting 
therefor,  and  with  such  other 
fiscal  and  accounting  duties  as 
may  be  required  by  law.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  disbursement  of 
funds,  the  Finance  Department 
is  charged  with  the  audit  of  all 
property  accounts  for  the  army. 
It  consists  of  a  Chief  of  Finance, 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier-gen- 
eral, 141  officers,  and  900  en- 
listed men.  In  addition  to  his 
other  duties,  the  Chief  of  Finance 
has  been  designated  by  the 
Secretary  of  War  as  the  Budget 
Officer  for  the  War  Department. 

The  Chemical  Warfare  Service 
came  into  existence  as  a  pro- 
visional organization  during  the 
World  War  and  was  established 
by  Congress  in  the  act  of  June  4, 
1920.  It  is  charged  with  the 
investigation,  development,  man- 
ufacture, or  procurement,  and 
supply  to  the  army  of  all  smoke 
and  incendiary  materials,  all 
toxic  gases,  and  all  gas-defence 
appliances;  with  research,  de- 
sign, and  experimentation  con- 
nected with  chemical  warfare  and 
its  materials;  with  the  chemical 
projectile  filling  plants  and  prov- 
ing grounds;  v/ith  the  supervi- 
sion of  the  training  of  the  army 
in  chemical  warfare,  both  offen- 
sive and  defensive,  including  the 
necessary  schools  of  instruction; 
and  with  the  organization,  equip- 
ment, training,  and  operation  of 
special  gas  troops. 

It  consists  of  a  Chief  of  the 
Chemical  Warfare  Service,  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  100 
officers,  and  a  number  of  enlisted 
men.  (See  Chemistry:  Chem- 
ical Warfare.) 

Vol.  I. — March  '22 


The  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs 

has  general  supervision  over  the 
affairs  of  the  insular  possessions 
of  the  United  States,  particularly 
the  Philippines  and  Porto  Rico. 

The  Militia  Bureau  of  the 
War  Department  has  super- 
vision over  the  organizing,  equip- 
ping, training,  and  administering 
of  the  National  Guard  of  the 
United  States.  The  chief  of  the 
militia  bureau  has  the  rank  of 
major-general  and,  under  the  act 
of  June  4,  1920,  is  appointed  by 
the  President  from  a  list  of  former 
and  present  National  Guard 
officers  recommended  by  the 
governors  of  the  several  States 
and  Territories.  To  be  eligible 
for  this  appointment,  a  candidate 
must  hold  a  commission  in  the 
Officer's  Reserve  Corps,  must 
have  had  ten  years  or  more  of 
commissioned  service  in  the 
National  Guard,  five  of  which 
was  in  the  line,  and  must  have 
reached  at  least  the  grade  of 
major. 

The  Line  of  the  Regular  Army. 

— The  line  of  the  army  includes 
the  combatant  or  fighting 
branches,  such  as  Infantry, 
Cavalry,  Field  Artillery,  Coast 
Artillery,  Air  Service,  Signal 
Corps,  and  the  Corps  of  En- 
gineers. 

The  Coast  Artillery  is  occupied 
chiefly  with  the  fixed  defences 
along  the  seacoasts  and  is  or- 
ganized into  companies  and 
battalions  and  distributed  in  dis- 
tricts and  defences  according  to 
their  needs. 

Based  on  the  act  of  June  4, 
1920,  the  remaining  combatant 
branches  were  organized  into 
12  Infantry  Divisions,  2  Cavalry 
Divisions,  and  a  number  of  units 
for  use  in  the  organization  of 
corps  and  armies. 

Of  these  organizations,  3  In- 
fantry Divisions,  with  certain  ad- 
ditional units,  are  for  garrisons 
without  the  continental  limits  of 
the  United  States;  the  remaining 
divisions  and  units  constitute  an 
emergency  force  for  duty  within 
the  United  States. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the 
Appropriation  Act  for  the  fiscal 
year  1922,  the  strength  of  the 
Regular  Army  was  limited  to 
156,000  enlisted  m.en.  In  the  re- 
organization following  this  re- 
duction, 6  Infantry  Divisions, 
one  Cavalry  Division,  and  a 
number  of  corps  and  army  units 
were  placed  on  inactive  status, 
with  provision  for  their  rehabili- 
tation in  emergency.  At  present 
(1922)  there  remain  in  the 
United  States  3  Infantry  Di- 
visions, one  Cavalry  Division, 
and -a  small  number  of  corps  and 
army  units. 

The  National  Guard. — Under 
the  act  of  June  3,  1916,  the 
National  Guard  became  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  national 
defence.    The  act  provided  that 


the  National  Guard  should  con- 
sist of  200  men  for  each  Senator 
and  Representative  in  Congress, 
and  that  it  should  be  organized, 
uniformed,  and  equipped  sim- 
ilarly to  the  Regular  Army.  Pay 
was  provided  for  attendance  at 
drill,  and  a  large  number  of 
officers  and  enlisted  men  were 
authorized  for  duty  with  the 
National  Guard.  Members  of 
the  Guard  were  required  to  take 
a  dual  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
Federal  Government  and  to  the 
State. 

Under  the  act  of  June  4,  1920, 
the  number  of  men  in  the  Na- 
tional Guard  was  increased  to  800 
for  each  Senator  and  Representa- 
tive in  Congress  and  the  pro- 
visions with  regard  to  pay  for 
attendance  at  drills  and  for  the 
detail  of  officers  and  enlisted  men 
for  duty  with  the  Guard  were 
continued.  Based  on  this  act, 
the  National  Guard  of  the  coun- 
try has  been  reorganized  into 
18  Infantry  Divisions,  4  Cav- 
alry Divisions,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  corps  and  army  units. 
The  18  Infantry  Divisions  are 
distributed  equally  among  the 
9  Corps  Areas;  the  4  Cavalry 
Divisions  and  the  Corps  and 
Army  units  through  out  theUnited 
States  in  suitable  localities. 
These  divisions  and  their  units 
retain  the  historic  numbers  they 
bore  during  the  World  War. 

In  the  present  plans  for  na- 
tional defence,  the  National 
Guard,  with  the  Regular  Army, 
form  the  first  echelon  of  defence. 

For  a  full  account  of  the  his- 
tory and  present  status  of  the 
National  Guard,  see  Militia. 

The  Organized  Reserves. — 
In  the  present  plan  for  national 
defence  (1922)  27  Infantry  Divi- 
sions, 6  Cavalry  Divisions,  and  a 
large  nimiber  of  corps,  army  and 
general  headquarters  reserve 
units  have  been  allotted  to  the 
Organized  Reserves.  The  In- 
fantry Divisions  are  distributed 
equally  among  the  9  Corps 
Areas;  the  Cavalry  Divisions 
and  other  units  throughout  the 
United  States  in  suitable  lo- 
calities. 

The  divisions  and  units  are  at 
present  in  process  of  organiza- 
tion. The  purpose  is  to  organize 
them  in  skeleton,  each  subdivi- 
sion consisting  of  the  proper 
number  of  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers,  with  a  few 
only  of  the  more  important  en- 
listed men.  The  Organized  Re- 
serve constitutes  the  second 
echelon  of  defence,  to  be  called 
out  only  in  a  national  emergency 
involving  the  extreme  effort. 
In  such  an  emergency,  resort 
would  again  be  had  to  the  draft 
for  the  necessary  men,  and  in 
such  an  event,  the  units  of  the 
Organized  Reserves,  with  their 
cadres  of  trained  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers,  would  be 


Army  of  the  United  States 


386 


Army  Worm 


National  Guard  Strength  October  31,  1921. 
Aggregate  Strength. 


Recog- 
nized. 

Author- 
ized. 

xvecog- 
nized  in 
i  er  *^eni 

tnorizecl. 

1  574 

1  581 

yy 

2*920 

3  427 

so 

'fino 

8'± 

z,ouu 

81 

CQ 
8o 

2  632 

3  371 

78 

3  423 

4419 

77 

6703 

8  757 

77 

4  568 

6*304 

72 

11  653 

16*229 

72 

1 ,811 

70 

1  147 

1  621 

71 

7Bfl 
/  oU 

1  1  flQ 
1 ,  1U<} 

71 
/ 1 

17,693 

25,767 

69 

2,695 

3,899 

69 

3,799 

5,778 

66 

3,944 

6,014 

66 

7,979 

12,207 

65 

4,003 

6,181 

65 

7,093 

11,133 

64 

3,110 

5,041 

.62 

2,194 

3,546 

62 

3,196 

5,338 

60 

1,749 

2,932 

60 

2,286 

3,875 

59 

1,226 

2,100 

58 

1,355 

2,489 

54 

Porto  Rico .  .  . 
Connecticut.  . 

Arizona  

Oregon  

Arkansas  

Washington. . . 

Iowa  

Wisconsin  

Minnesota. . . . 
Pennsylvania . 
Rhode  Island . 

Vermont  

Delaware  

New  York . . . . 
Maryland .  .  . . 
New  Jersey . . . 

Missouri  

Ohio  

Indiana  

Massachusetts 
Oklahoma. . . . 

Georgia  

Michigan  

Maine  

Virginia  

Tennessee .... 
Florida  


Kansas 
Mississ 
North  Larol 

South  Carolina  

New  Mexico  

Illinois  

Colorado  

Alabama  

California  

Nebraska  

Hawaii  

Kentucky  

Utah  

Wyoming  

Louisiana  

District  of  C  clumbia 

Idaho  

North  Dakcta  

West  Virginia  

Texas  

New  Hampshire  

South  Dakota  

Montana  

Nevada  

Total  


nized. 


2,444 
1,109 
2,127 
1,415 
670 
5,947 
1,291 
1,779 
2,587 
1,333 
1,251 
1,653 
575 
308 
769 
406 
385 
361 
427 
1,581 
193 
131 
70 


132,221 


Author- 
ized. 


4,600 
2,082 
4,070 
2,709 
1,319 
11,971 
2,591 
3,744 
5,776 
3,043 
2,817 
4,081 
1,495 
895 
2,664 
1,381 
1,440 
1,667 
2,001 
7,781 
1,367 
1,430 
1,581 
179 

222,877 


ready  to  receive  and  train  these 
men  with  the  minimum  of  de- 
lay. 

Corps  Areas  and  Depart- 
ments.— For  purposes  of  ad- 
ministration, training,  and  tac- 
tical control,  the  continental 
area  of  the  United  States  is 
divided  on  a  basis  of  military 
population  into  9  Corps  Areas. 
In  addition  to  these,  there  are 
three  Departments,  embracing 
the  foreign  possessions.  Each 
Corps  Area  and  Department  is 
provided  with  a  suitable  head- 
quarters and  staff  and  exercises 
complete  control,  under  the  War 
Department,  over  all  military  ac- 
tivities within  the  Corps  Area  or 
Department. 

Geographically,  the  Areas  and 
Departments  are  as  follows: 

First  Corps  Area:  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut,  and  Rhode 
Island.  Headquarters:  Boston, 
Massachusetts. 

Second  Ccrrps  Area:  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  the 
Island  of  Porto  Rico.  Head- 
quarters: Governors  Island, 
New  York. 

Third  Corps  Area:  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  the  District  of 
Columbia  and  Virginia.  Head- 
quarters: Fort  Howard,  Mary- 
land. 

Fourth  Corps  Area:  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Geor- 
gia, Tennessee,  Florida,  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi,  and  Louisi- 
ana. Headquarters:  Fort 
McPherson,  Georgia. 
Vol.  I. — March  '22 


Fifth  Corps  Area:  West  Vir- 
ginia, Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Ken- 
tucky. Headquarters:  Fort  Ben- 
jamin Harrison,  Indiana. 

Sixth  Corps  Area:  Illinois, 
V/isconsin,  and  Michigan.  Head- 
quarters: Chicago,  Illinois. 

Seventh  Corps  Area:  Minnesota, 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota, 
Iowa,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Mis- 
souri, and  Arkansas.  Head- 
quarters: Fort  Crook,  Ne- 
braska. 

Eighth  Corps  Area:  Oklahoma, 
Colorado,  Texas,  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  Headquarters: 
Fort  Sam  Hoviston,  Texas. 

Ninth  Corps  Area:  California, 
Nevada,  Utah,  Oregon,  Idaho, 
Wyoming,  Washington.  and 
Montana.  Headquarters:  the 
Presidio  of  San  Francisco. 

The  Philippine  Department: 
Embracing  all  of  the  islands  of 
the  Philippine  archipelago.  Head- 
quarters: Manila,  P.  I. 

The  Hawaiian  Department: 
Embracing  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
and  their  dependencies.  Head- 
quarters:  Honolulu,  Hawaii. 

The  Panama  Canal  Depart- 
ment: Embracing  the  Panama 
Canal  Zone  and  its  defences. 
Headquarters:  Balboa  Heights, 
Panama  Canal  Zone. 

The  accompanying  illustration 
shows  at  a  glance  the  various 
corps  .«.reas  in  the  Continental 
United  "States. 

Army  Pay.    See  Pay. 

Army  Register,  U.  S.,  an  an- 
nual publication  issued  by  the 
War    Department,    which  con- 


tains a  record  of  the  officers  on 
the  active  list  of  the  U.  S.  Army, 
with  the  department,  arm  of  the 
service,  regiment,  corps,  and 
company,  and  other  personal  and 
military  data;  a  record  of  all 
officers  on  the  retired  list,  giving 
name,  rank,  date  of  rank,  highest 
brevet  rank,  date  and  cause  of 
retirement,  etc.;  a  list  of  aides- 
de-camp  to  general  officers,  the 
officers  on  duty  at  the  Military 
Academy,  and  the  most  distin- 
guished students  at  each  tmiver- 
sity  in  the  United  States  having 
a  military  department  conducted 
by  a  regular  army  officer.  This 
is  followed  by  a  list  of  officers  ar- 
ranged according  to  lineal  rank, 
and  according  to  relative  rank ;  a 
list  of  active  and  retired  officers 
on  whom  brevet  rank  has  been 
conferred,  stating  the  service  for 
which  brevetted;  and  a  list  of  all 
persons  who  have  received  the 
Congressional  medal  of  honor, 
and  of  those  to  whom  certificates 
of  merit  have  been  granted.  It 
also  contains  a  list  of  casualties 
during  the  year;  of  military  posts; 
a  table  giving  the  organization  of 
the  army;  a  complete  pay  table 
for  the  army;  a  statement  show- 
ing the  strength  of  the  organized 
militia  by  States.  Similar  pub- 
lications are  issued  by  other 
countries. 

Army  Schools.  See  Military 
Education. 

Army  War  College.  See  Mili- 
tary Education. 

Army  Worm,  the  caterpillar  of 
a  dark-colored,  night-flying,  de- 


Arnaboldi 


387 


Arnhem 


structive  moth  {Leucania  uni- 
puncla),  allied  to  the  cutworms, 
which  sometimes  does  much  dam- 
age in  the  United  States  to  grass, 
and  occasionally  to  Indian  corn. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the 
larva  of  the  Glass  Worm  (La- 
phynga  frugiperda) ,  and  in  Eu- 
rope to  the  grub  of  a  small  black 
fly  {Sciara  militaris). 

Arnaboldi,  ar-na-bol'de,  Ales- 
SANDRO  (1827-98),  Italian  poet, 
was  born  in  Milan.  He  was  sec- 
retary to  the  town  council  at 
Milan  until  1873.  In  1872  he 
published  a  volume  of  Versi, 
which  put  him  in  the  front  rank 
of  the  modern  poets  of  his  coun- 
try. In  1888  he  published  a  new 
collection,  Nuovi  Versi. 

Arnason,  ar'na-son,  Jon  (1819- 
88),  Icelandic  author  and  writer 
of  folk-tales,  was  born  at  Hof, 
and  died  at  Reykjavik,  where  he 
was  for  several  years  custodian  of 
the  Icelandic  National  Library. 
He  is  known  for  his  admirable 
collection  of  popular  Icelandic 
tales,  which  won  him  the  title  of 
the  'Grimm  of  Iceland.'  His 
collection  of  these  stories  was 
entitled  Popular  Legends  and 
Tales  of  Iceland  (1862-4). 

Arnaud,  ar-no',  Henri  (1641- 
1721),  Waldensian  clergyman 
and  patriot,  pastor  of  La  Tour  in 
Piedmont,  was  forced,  in  the  per- 
secution of  the  Vaudois  by  Victor 
Amadeus  of  Savoy,  to  retire  to 
Switzerland  in  1686.  In  1689  he 
led  the  'glorious  return  of  the 
Vaudois  to  their  valleys,'  in  spite 
of  the  attacks  of  the  French  and 
Savoyards.  The  Duke  of  Savoy 
granted  religious  liberty  to  the 
Vaudois;  but  on  his  reconciliation 
with  France  the  concession  was 
withdrawn,  and  the  Vaudois  had 
to  find  a  retreat  in  Wiirtemberg. 
Arnaud's  expedition  is  described 
in  his  Histoire  de  la  Glorieuse  Ren- 
tree  des  Vaudois  dans  leurs  Val- 
lees,  printed  in  1710,  with  a  dedi- 
cation to  QTieen  Anne. 

Arnaud,  J.  L.  de  Saint-.  See 
Saint-Arnaud. 

Arnauld,  Angelique  (1624- 
84),  distinguished  religieuse,  born 
in  Paris,  and  educated  by  her 
aunt,  Marie  Angelique  Arnauld. 
She  became  prioress  (1653)  and 
abbess  (1678)  of  Port-Royal,  and 
was  persecuted  by  the  Jesuits. 
She  was  principal  author  of  Me- 
moirs .  .  .  de  Port-Royal  (1742). 
See  Port-Royal  des  Champs. 

Arnauld,  Antoine  (1560- 
1619),  French  advocate,  born  in 
Paris.  He  became  procureur- 
general  in  1585.  He  is  remem- 
bered for  his  defence  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  against  the  Jes- 
uits, which  resulted  in  their  tem- 
porary banishment.  He  was  the 
father  of  'the  Great  Arnauld'  (see 
Arnauld,  Antoine),  and  had  six 
daughters  who  took  the  veil  at 
Port- Royal. 

Arnauld,  Antoine  (1612-94)^ 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '18 


French  theologian,  called  'the 
Great  Arnault,'  was  born  in 
Paris,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Sorbonne.  Retiring  to  Port- 
Royal  monastery,  he  became  the 
strenuous  adversary  of  the  Jesu- 
its. He  was  expelled  from  the  so- 
ciety of  the  Sorbonne  for  his 
support  of  the  Jansenists  (see 
Jansenism).  To  avoid  the  per- 
secutions of  the  Jesuits,  he  be- 
came an  exile  in  1679,  thereafter 
residing  in  Flanders  and  Holland. 
He  gave  assistance  to  Pascal 
(q.  V.)  with  his  Lettres  Ecrites  a 
un  Provincial  de  ses  Amis,  and  to 
Lancelot  with  his  Grammaire. 
He  was  a  devout  Catholic,  be- 
lieving in  'the  corruption  of  hu- 
man nature  and  the  depravity  of 
the  will,'  and  one  of  the  profound- 
est  metaphysicians  of  his  century. 
His  great  work,  the  Logique  de 
Port-Royal,  was  written  in  con- 
junction with  Nicole.  Consult 
Larriere's  Vie;  Sainte-Beuve's 
Port-Royal;  Varin's  Verite  sur  les 
Arnaulds. 

Arnauld,  Marie  Angelique 
(1591-1661),  sister  of  the  above, 
was  made  abbess  of  Port-Royal 
at  eleven,  ultimately  reformed 
the  convent  by  her  holy  example 
and  severe  discipline,  then  re- 
signed, but  returned  to  be  pri- 
oress under  her  sister  Agnes 
(1593-1671). 

Arnault,  ar-no',  Antoine  Vin- 
cent (1766-1834),  French  poet 
and  litterateur,  born  in  Paris.  He 
went  with  Napoleon  to  Italy,  be- 
came secretary  to  the  University 
of  Paris  on  his  return,  and  was 
elected  to  the  Academy  in  1799. 
He  was  exiled  by  the  Bourbons 
(1816-19),  but  afterward  re- 
turned to  France;  was  appointed 
(1833)  secretary  to  the  Academy. 
His  dramas,  of  which  the  best  are 
Blanche  et  Montcassin,  ou  les 
Venitiens  (1798),  and  Germanicus 
(1817),  show  the  worst  faults  of 
the  classicists.  He  is  better 
known  by  his  short  moral  poems. 
Fables  et  Poesies. 

Arnaut  of  Mareuil  (in  the 
diocese  of  Perigueux),  Provencal 
troubadour  (fi.  c.  1150-1200).  He 
frequented  the  court  of  Alazais 
(Adelaide),  the  wife  of  Roger  ii. 
(Taillefer),  Count  of  Beziers,  and 
there  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
service  of  the  countess,  whom 
he  celebrated  in  many  songs.  The 
audacity  shown  in  his  poems  at 
length  gave  offence  to  the  coun- 
tess, who  dismissed  him  from  her 
service.  Petrarch  calls  him  the 
less  famous  Arnaut  as  compared 
with  Daniel  Arnaut;  but  this  is 
not  the  verdict  of  modern  criti- 
cism. About  thirty  of  his  poems 
have  come  down  to  us.  The  three 
epistles  in  verse,  Saluts  d' Amour, 
which  he  addressed  to  his  lady, 
are  among  the  best  of  their  kind. 

Arnaut,  Daniel,  twelfth-cen- 
tury troubadour,  born  at  Ri- 
berac  (Dordogne),  France;  lived 


a  long  time  at  the  court  of  Rich- 
ard I.  of  England.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  sestina,  which  was 
imitated  by  Dante. 

Arndt,  arnt,  Ernst  Moritz 
(1769-1860),  German  poet  and 
patriot,  born  in  the  island  of 
Riigen.  After  travels  in  France 
and  Germany  he  became  profes- 
sor   of    history    at  Greifswald 

( 1805)  .  The  son  of  a  serf,  he  was 
instrumental    in    the  abolition 

(1806)  of  serfdom  by  his  work, 
Geschichte  der  Leibeigenschaft  in 
Pommern  (1803).  In  1818  he 
exchanged  his  professorship  of 
history  at  Greifswald  for  that 
at  Bonn,  from  which,  in  1820, 
he  was  suspended  for  twenty 
years  on  account  of  his  radical 
political  opinions.  He  wrote 
patriotic  poems  and  songs,  which 
include  Was  ist  des  Deutschen 
Vaterland?  Was  blasen  die  Trom- 
peten?  and  Der  Gott,  der  Eisen 
wachsen  Hess.  He  is  familiarly 
called  'Father  Arndt'  by  the  Ger- 
man people.  He  was  a  German 
chauvinist,  detesting  everything 
French. 

Arne,  arn,  Thomas  Augustine 
(1710-78),  English  m.usical  com- 
poser, was  born  in  London.  He 
gave  his  sister — celebrated  as 
Mrs.  Cibber,  the  tragic  actress — 
lessons  in  singing,  enabling  her  to 
appear  in  Lampe's  opera  Amelia 
(1732),  and  to  play  heroine  in 
Arne's  first  opera,  Rosamond, 
produced  in  1733.  He  was  the 
first  to  introduce — in  his  Judith 
(1773) — female  voices  into  ora- 
torio choruses.  Besides  oratorios 
and  operas,  he  composed  a  large 
number  of  glees,  catches,  and 
canons;  but  he  is  best  known  by 
his  musical  settings  of  such  songs 
as  Rule  Britannia  (the  finale  of 
The  Masque  of  Alfred,  1840), 
Where  the  Bee  Sucks,  Under  the 
Greenwood  Tree,  and  other  Shake- 
spearean songs. 

Arneth,  ar'net,  Alfred  Rit- 
TER  VON  (1819-97),  Austrian  his- 
torian and  statesman,  was  born 
in  Vienna.  He  vv^as  a  member  of 
the  German  Assembly  of  1848-9 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and 
after  1869  a  member  of  the  Aus- 
trian Upper  House.  His  princi- 
pal work  is  Die  Geschichte  Maria 
Theresias  (10  vols.,  1863-79). 
Among  other  works  are  Prinz 
Eugen  von  Savoy  en  (3  vols.,  1858- 
9),  and  the  Letters  of  Maria 
Theresa  and  Joseph  ii.,  in  12 
vols.  (1866-91). 

Arn 'hem  (ancient  Arenacum), 
town,  capital  of  province  Gcldcr- 
land,  Netherlands,  on  the  Lower 
Rhine;  35  miles  by  rail  east  of 
Utrecht.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
pleasant  towns  in  the  country. 
Among  its  buildings  are  the 
'Great  Church'  (fourteenth  cen- 
tury; restored  1895-1902),  with 
interesting  monuments,  and  the 
Town  Hall,  with  grotesque  carv- 
ings.   Sir  Philip  Sidney  died  in, 


Arnhein  Land 


388 


Arnold 


1586  at  Arnhem.  Paper,  furni- 
ture, glass,  printers'  type,  and 
scientific  instruments  are  manu- 
factured. Arnhem  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Hanseatic  League 
(q.  v.).  In  1672  it  was  taken 
by  the  French,  and  in  1813  was 
stormed  by  the  Prussians.  Pop. 
(1910)  64,019. 

Arnhem  Land,  the  most  north- 
erly part  of  the  North  Territory 
of  South  Australia,  between  the 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria  and  Anson 
Bay. 

Ar'nica,  the  dried  acrid  and 
aromatic  rootlets  and  rhizome  of 
the  Mountain  Arnica  (A.  mon- 
tana)  of  Middle  and  Southern 
Europe.  The  rhizome  is  peren- 
nial and  crooked,  the  stem  about 
2  feet  high,  simple  or  little 
branched,  with  few  leaves,  bear- 
ing on  the  summit  a  head  of 
flowers  of  a  dark  golden  yellow, 
often  2  inches  in  breadth.  The 
official  preparation  is  a  poisonous 
tincture  which,  diluted  with 
water,  serves  as  a  remedy  for 
bruises.  Internally  it  has  a  stim- 
ulating effect  on  the  alimentary 
canal,  but  is  seldom  prescribed. 
Its  efficacy  seems  due  to  the  al- 
cohol in  the  tincture.  Applied 
too  freely  to  the  skin,  it  may 
produce  erysipelas. 

Arnim,  ar-nim.  Countess  von 
(Mary  Antoinette  Beau- 
champ)  (1856),  English  author- 
ess, was  born  in  Sydney,  Aus- 
tralia. She  married  Count  Hen- 
ning  August  von  Arnim  (who 
died  in  1910),  and  in  1916  Earl 
Russell.  Her  first  published 
book,  Elizabeth  and  Her  German 
Garden,  published  anonymously 
in  1898,  won  immediate  success 
in  both  England  and  America, 
and  was  followed  by  a  number  of 
other  successful  novels:  The  Soli- 
tary Summer  (1899);  The  Bene- 
factress (1902) ;  The  Adventures  of 
Elizabeth  in  Riigen  (1904);  The 
Princess  Priscilla's  Fortnight 
(1906);  Frdulein  Schmidt  and 
Mr.  Anstruther  (1907);  The  Cara- 
vaners  (1909);  Priscilla  Runs 
Away  (1910);  The  Pastor's  Wife 
(1914). 

Arnim,  Bettina  (Elisabeth) 
VON  (1788-1859),  a  sister  of 
Clemens  Brentano,  and  wife  of 
Ludwig  Achim  von  Arnim,  was 
born  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
The  great  event  of  her  early  life 
was  her  enthusiastic  attachment 
to  Goethe,  whom  she  first  saw  in 
1807,  he  being  then  nearly  sixty. 
The  correspondence,  published 
under  the  title  of  Goethes  Brief- 
wechsel  mit  einem  Kinde  in  1835, 
and  translated  by  Bettina  into 
English  {Correspondence  of  Goe- 
the with  a  Child),  is  mainly 
fanciful.  She  also  published: 
Die  Giinderode  (1840);  Dies 
Buch  gehort  dem  Konige  (1843); 
Letters. 

Arnim,    Harry    Karl  Ed- 
uard.   Count  von  (1824-81), 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '18 


Prussian  diplomat,  was  born  in 
Pomerania.  In  1870  he  was  am- 
bassador at  Rome,  and  supported 
the  German  bishops  who  opposed 
infallibility  at  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil. In  1871  he  took  part  in  the 
negotiations  which  resulted  in  the 
Peace  of  Frankfort;  in  1872  he 
became  ambassador  at  Paris. 
Recalled,  owing  to  his  hostility  to 
Bismarck,  in  1874,  he  was  sent  to 
Constantinople.  Charged  with 
having  stolen  state  documents  in 
Paris,  he  was  sentenced  to  impris- 
onment, and  on  appeal  his  sen- 
tence was  increased ;  but  by  living 
in  exile  he  escaped  the  penalty. 
In  1875  he  published  a  violent 
pamphlet  against  Bismarck,  and 
was  prosecuted  for  high  treason 
and  libel  and  sentenced  to  five 
years'  penal  servitude.  He  died 
at  Nice. 

Arnim,  Johann  Georg  von 
(1581-1041),  general  of  the  Thir- 
ty Years'  War,  was  successively 
in  the  service  of  the  Swedes,  the 
Poles,  the  Emperor,  and  the  Sax- 
ons. He  besieged  Stralsund  un- 
der Wallenstein  (1628);  co-oper- 
ated with  Gustavus  Adolphus 
at  Breitenfeld  (1631);  occupied 
Prague  (1631);  carried  on  negoti- 
ations with  Wallenstein  (1633-4) ; 
defeated  the  imperialist  general 
Colloredo  at  Leignitz  (1634),  and 
captured  Zittau  and  Glogau ;  and 
in  1637  was  arrested  by  the 
Swedes  and  carried  to  Stockholm, 
but  contrived  to  escape  in  1638. 
Consult  Irmer's  Hans  Georg  von 
Arnim. 

Arnim,  Ludwig  Achim  (Joa- 
chim) VON  (1781-1831),  German 
poet,  born  in  Berlin.  In  1806  he 
met  his  lifelong  friend,  Clemens 
Brentano  (q.  v.),  in  Heidelberg; 
and  together  they  edited  (1806-8) 
many  old  German  songs  {Des 
Knaben  Wunderhorn) .  Arnim 
married  Brentano's  sister  Bet- 
tina (see  Arnim,  Bettina)  in 
1811.  His  first  novel  {Hollins 
Liebeleben,  1802)  was  an  imita- 
tion of  Goethe's  Wertherj  the 
second  (Ariel's  Offenbarungen, 
1804)  was  an  indifferent  specimen 
of  the  romantic  school.  His  best 
work  is  Die  Kronenwdchter  (1817), 
based  on  extensive  historical  re- 
search, and  representing  German 
life  in  the  renaissance  period. 
Arnim  also  wrote  some  unsuc- 
cessful plays.  An  edition  of  his 
works  in  22  vols,  was  published 
by  his  wife  in  1853-6. 

Ar'no  (ancient  Arnus),  river, 
Italy,  rises  at  an  altitude  of  over 
5,000  feet  in  the  Central  Apen- 
nines, 23  miles  northeast  of  Flor- 
ence. As  a  mountain  torrent  it 
flows  at  first  nearly  due  south  al- 
most to  Arezzo,  then  sweeps 
round  to  the  northwest,  and  flows 
back  nearly  parallel  to  its  former 
course  as  far  as  Pontassieve, 
where  it  turns  to  the  west,  and 
flowing  through  Florence  enters 
the  Mediterranean  7  miles  below 


Pisa.  Length,  140  miles.  Pisa 
stood  originally  on  the  seashore, 
but  the  Arno  and  Serchio  to- 
gether have  brought  down  so 
much  alluvium  that  the  sea 
has  been  thrust  back  four  and 
a  half  miles  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era.  The 
Arno  is  subject  to  destructive  in- 
undations. 

Arno'bius,  also  called  Afer, 
rhetorician  of  Sicca  in  Numidia?, 
wrote  about  295  a.d.  an  apology 
for  Christianity  {Adversus  Na- 
tiones,  lib.  vii.).  An  English 
translation  of  the  work  was 
published-in  1888  under  the  title 
The  Seven  Books  of  Arnobius 
Against  the  Heathen. 

Arnold,  town,  Nottingham- 
shire, England;  4  miles  northeast 
of  Nottingham.  Lace  and  ho- 
siery are  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1911)  11,147. 

Arnold  of  Brescia  (c.  1100- 
55),  Italian  monk,  studied  under 
Abelard  at  Paris.  For  an  attack 
on  the  worldliness  of  the  higher 
clergy  he  was  cited  by  the  bishop 
of  Brescia  before  the  second  Lat- 
eran  Council  (1139)  as  a  heretic, 
and  banished.  He  took  refuge 
with  Abelard,  but  his  preaching 
brought  upon  him  the  hostility  of 
St.  Bernard,  who  denounced  him. 
He  found  refuge  (1142)  in  Swit- 
zerland; but  in  1145  he  proceeded 
to  Rome,  and  endeavored  (1147) 
to  establish  a  republic.  In  1155, 
being  expelled  by  the  senate  of 
Rome  at  the  instigation  of  Pope 
Adrian  iv.,  he  fled  to  Campania, 
but  was  brought  to  Rome  and 
crucified.  His  body  was  burned 
and  the  ashes  cast  into  the 
Tiber. 

The  influence  of  Arnold  of  Bres- 
cia lived  after  him,  and  through 
his  sympathetic  insight  into  his 
country's  needs,  his  name  is  even 
yet  revered  and  loved  in  Italy, 
though  he  left  no  record  of  his 
doctrines  save  in  the  heart  of  the 
people.  His  eloquence  and  dis- 
interestedness are  acknowledged 
even  by  his  enemies,  who  are  also 
his  biographers,  and  who  have 
yet  placed  him  in  history  along- 
side Rienzi  and  Savonarola.  His 
life  is  the  subject  of  tragedies  by 
Bodmer  and  by  Nicolini.  Con- 
sult Lives  by  Giesebrecht,  Bonghi» 
and  Hausrath  (1892). 

Arnold  of  Winkelried.  See 
Winkelried. 

Arnold,  Abraham  Kerns 
(1837-1901),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Bedford,  Pa.,  and 
was  graduated  from  West  Point 
in  1859.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Civil  War,  being 
brevettcd  captain  and  major  for 
meritorious  services.  In  1898  he 
was  appointed  brigadier-general, 
and  during  the  Spanish-American 
War  saw  service  in  Cuba  as  com- 
mander of  a  division  in  the  Sev- 
enth Army  Corps. 

Arnold,  Benedict  (1741- 


1 


Arnold 

1801),  an  American  soldier, 
whose  services  are  thrown  into 
the  background  by  his  treason  to 
his  country,  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.  For  some  years  he  was 
a  druggist  and  bookseller  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  also  engaging  in 
the  West  India  trade.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution he  raised  a  militia  com- 
pany (of  which  he  became  cap- 
tain) for  service  against  the  Brit- 
ish. As  colonel  he  assisted  in 
the  capture  of  Ticonderoga  and 
Crown  Point  (May  10-12,  1775), 
which  had  been  undertaken  inde- 
pendently by  Ethan  Allen  and 
Inmself.  He  then  commanded 
the  disastrous  *  Kennebec  Expe- 
dition,' sent  out  from  Cambridge 
to  assist  in  the  capture  of  Canada, 
reaching  Quebec  after  manifold 
difficulties  and  being  wounded  in 
the  unsuccessful  attack,  under 
Mpntgomery,  on  that  city  (Dec. 
31,  1775).  On  Jan.  10,  1776,  he 
became  a  brigadier-general,  and 
on  Oct.  11,  1776,  commanded  the 
flotilla  of  small  vessels  which  was 
defeated  by  a  greatly  superior 
British  naval  force  near  Valcour 
Island  on  Lake  Champlain.  In 
Feb.,  1777,  he  was  deeply  af- 
fronted by  the  unjust  promotion 
over  his  head,  by  Congress,  of 
five  of  his  inferior  officers  to  be 
major-generals.  In  this  he  was 
the  victim  of  enmities  and  jeal- 
ousies, which  he  was  always 
arousing,  but  soon  afterward  his 
repulse  of  a  British  force  at 
Ridgefield,  Conn.,  compelled  rec- 
ognition, and  he  was  raised  in 
actual,  though  not  in  relative, 
rank,  being  made  a  major-general 
on  Feb.  17,  1777.  He  took  a 
conspicuous  part,  under  Gen. 
Gates,  in  the  first  and  second 
battles  of  Saratoga,  though  in  the 
second  (in  which  he  was  severely 
wounded),  having  quarrelled  with 
Gates,  he  was  nominally  without 
command.  He  was  afterward 
(1778-9)  in  command  in  Phila- 
delphia, after  the  evacuation  of 
that  city  by  the  British;  there,  as 
everywhere,  he  aroused  enmities, 
was  accused  of  disloyalty,  to 
which  charge  his  marriage  to 
Miss  Margaret  Shippen,  a  mem- 
ber of  a  loyalist  family,  lent  color, 
was  tried  by  court-martial  on 
charges  which  apparently  had 
little  basis,  and  was  found  guilty 
of  two  minor  offences,  for  which 
Washington,  directed  by  the 
court,  mildly  reprimanded  him 
(Jan.,  1780).  Filled  with  a  sense 
of  wrong  and  longing  for  revenge, 
he  entered  into  treasonable  nego- 
tiations with  the  British,  and,  ob- 
taining from  Washington  the 
command  of  the  important  forti- 
fication of  West  Point,  offered 
to  betray  it  into  the  hands  of 
Gen.  Henry  Clinton,  the  British 
commander,  then  in  New  York. 
The  loss  of  West  Point  would 
have  been  an  almost  irreparable 


389 

one  to  the  Americans,  but  the 
plot  was  discovered  through  the 
capture  (Sept.  23,  1780)  of  Major 
John  Andre  (q.v.),  who  had  been 
sent  by  Clinton  to  confer  with 
Arnold.  Arnold,  informed  of  the 
capture  by  a  guileless  subordinate, 
escaped  to  New  York,  received 
about  £6,800  as  an  indemnity  for 
property  lost,  and  as  brigadier- 
general  in  the  British  army  led 
a  pillaging  expedition  into  Vir- 
ginia and  commanded  the  British 
force  which  burned  New  London, 
Conn.  (Sept.,  1781),  after  hav- 
ing overpowered  the  garrison  of 
Fort  Griswold  (Groton),  and 
massacred  most  of  the  survi- 
vors. In  Dec,  1781,  he  went 
to  England,  where  he  lived  dur- 
ing most  of  the  time  until  his 
death,  being  everywhere  treated 
with  contempt,  and  being  in  his 
last  years  afflicted  with  melan- 
cholia. Four  of  his  sons  served 
in  the  British  army,  and  one  of 
thern,  James  Robertson  Arnold, 
attained  distinction  as  a  soldier. 
The  best  biography  is  by  I.  N. 
Arnold  (^880);  see  also  that  by 
Sparks  (1838),  Codman,  Arnold's 
Expedition  to  Quebec  (1901),  J. 
H.  Smith's  Arnold's  March  from 
Cambridge  to  Quebec  (1903),  and 
Abbott's  The  Crisis  of  the  Revo- 
lution (1899). 

Arnold,  Sir  Edwin  (1832- 
1904),  English  poet,  born  at 
Gravesend.  For  a  poem  on  The 
Feast  of  Belshazzar  he  gained  the 
Newdigate  prize  (1853).  He  was 
principal  of  the  Government  San- 
skrit College  at  Poona  (1856-61). 
After  his  return  to  England  he 
was  employed  on  the  editorial 
staff  of  the  Daily  Telegraph.  His 
works  include  Poems  (1853); 
Hero  and  Leander  (1874);  The 
Indian  Song  of  Songs  (1875); 
Light  of  Asia  (1879),  an  epic  on 
the  life  and  work  of  Buddha, 
which  has  gone  through  numerous 
editions;  Indian  Poetry  (1881); 
Pearls  of  the  Faith  (1883);  With 
Sa'di  in  the  Garden  (1888);  The 
Light  of  the  World  (1891);  Seas 
and  Lands  (1891);  and  Adzuma, 
a  lapanese  Tragedy  (1893). 

Arnold,  George  (1834-65), 
American  author  and  poet,  was 
born  in  New  York  City.  His  Mc- 
Arone  Papers  (1860,  et  seq.) 
were  published  in  Vanity  Fair. 
His  poems  were  edited  by  Will- 
iam Winter,  with  a  Memoir 
(1870,  1889). 

Arnold,  Hans  (pseudonym  of 
Babette  von  Bulow),  German 
author,  was  born  in  Warmbrunn 
in  1850.  Her  tales,  mostly  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  Novcllcn 
(1881-1903),  treat  mainly  of  the 
small  vexations  and  worries  of 
life.  Among  her  best  works  are 
Geburtstagsfrcudcn  (1884)  and 
Aprilwctter  (1893). 

Arnold,  Isaac  Newton  (1815- 
84),  American  legislator  and 
abolitionist,  was  born  at  Hart- 


Arnold 

wicL,  N.  Y.  He  was  intimate 
with  Abraham  Lincoln,  of  whom 
he  wrote  an  excellent  biography 
(1866),  and  also  wrote  a  good 
biography  of  Benedict  Arnold. 
He  was  a  Republican  representa- 
tive from  Illinois  to  the  37th  and 
38th  Congresses,  and  was  sixth 
auditor  of  the  U.  S.  Treasury  in 
1865-66. 

Arnold,  Lewis  G.  (1815-71), 
American  brigadier-general,  was 
born  in  N.  J.,  and  graduated  in 
1837  at  West  Point.  He  served 
throughout  the  Mexican  War, 
and  was  advanced  to  the  rank  of 
major.  He  also  had  a  highly 
honorable  record  in  the  Civil 
War,  particularly  in  the  defence 
of  Fort  Pickens.  As  brig.-general 
of  volunteers,  he  _  subsequently 
commanded  the  Union  forces  in 
Florida,  and  at  New  Orleans  and 
Algiers,  La. 

Arnold,  Matthew  (1822-88), 
poet,  critic,  and  educationist, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Thomas 
Arnold,  headmaster  of  Rugby. 
He  was  born  at  Laleham,  Middle- 
sex. In  1847  he  became  private 
secretary  to  Lord  Lansdowne, 
by  whom  he  was  appointed  in 
1851  to  a  lay  inspectorship  of 
schools.  On  three  occasions  he 
drew  up  valuable  reports  of  con- 
tinental systems  of  education. 
Two  of  them  have  been  reprinted 
as  The  Popular  Education  of 
France  (1861)  and  Schools  and 
Universities  on  the  Continent 
(1868).  Meanwhile  _  Arnold 
steadily  devoted  his  leisure  to 
literature,  and  achieved  a  two- 
fold reputation  as  poet  and  critic. 
From  1857  to  1867  he  was  regius 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford. 
His  home  was  for  a  time  in  Lon- 
don, then  at  Harrow,  and  finally, 
from  1873,  at  Cobham,  Surrey. 
In  1883,  and  again  in  1886,  he 
undertook  lecturing  tours  in 
America.  In  1885  he  resigned 
his  inspectorship.  He  died  sud- 
denly at  Liverpool. 

Matthew  Arnold's  literary  work 
presents  three  phases.  The  ten 
or  twelve  years  following  his'  Ox- 
ford career  were  mainly  devoted 
to  poetry.  Two  early  volumes — ■ 
The  Strayed  Reveller  (1849)  and 
Empcdoclcs  upon  Etna  (1852) — 
were  anonymously  issued  under 
the  initial  '  A.'  The  best  of  their 
contents  were  reprinted  in  the 
Poems  of  1853,  on  the  title-page 
of  which  the  author's  name  ap- 
peared, and  to  which  he  added 
such  masterpieces  as  Sohrab  and 
Rustum  (a  narrative  poem  in  the 
Homeric  vein)  and  The  Scholar 
Gipsy.  A  second  series  of  Poems 
appeared  in  1855,  Merope  (a 
tragedy  in  the  Greek  manner)  in 
1858,  and  New  Poems  in  1867. 

Hardly  less  remarkable  than  the 
Poems  of  1853  was  the  preface — 
dwelling  on  the  importance  of 
structure  and  unity  in  poetry — 
that  accompanied  them.  Although 


Arnold 


390 


Arnold 


the  monody  on  his  friend  Ar- 
thur Hugh  Clough,  printed  as 
Thyrsis  in  the  18G7  volume,  is 
one  of  his  finest  single  pieces,  and 
he  continued  to  write  poetry  at 
intervals  until  the  end  of  his  life. 


for  a  decade  from  1857  it  was  in 
literary  criticism  that  his  strong- 
est work  was  done.  The  Oxford 
lectures,  On  Translating  Homer 
(1861,  1862)  and  On  the  Study 
of  Celtic  Literature  (1867),  are 
models  of  sympathetic,  lucid,  and 
graceful  discussion  of  literary 
problems;  and  some  scattered 
studies  of  no  less  interest  were 
collected  as  Essays  in  Criticism 
in  1865.  Arnold  took  Sainte- 
Beuve  as  his  model,  and  aimed 
at  establishing  a  scientific  system 
of  criticism. 

Literary  criticism,  like  poetry, 
Arnold  never  wholly  dropped. 
But  his  educational  experience, 
and  a  constant  study  of  the  work- 
ings of  the  English  mind  when 
brought  into  contact  with  ideas, 
had  led  him  into  a  profound  dis- 
satisfaction with  the  current  ideals 
of  the  day.  Towards  the  end  of 
♦he  'sixties  it  became  evident  that 
the  goal  of  his  criticism  was  shift- 


ing from  letters  to  life.  There 
followed  a  period  of  active  battle, 
during  which,  with  a  serious  pur- 
pose beneath  a  mist  of  raillery, 
he  attacked  the  social  and  educa- 
tional prejudices  of  his  country- 


men in  Culture  and  Anarchy 
(1869),  their  political  prejudices 
in  Friendship's  Garland  (1871), 
their  religious  prejudices  in  a 
series  of  works  of  which  Litera- 
ture and  Dogma  (1873)  was  the 
most  startling  and  the  most  dis- 
puted. Arnold  had  the  gift  of 
crystallizing  his  views  in  memor- 
able phrases.  His  plea  for  'sweet- 
ness and  light,'  his  division  of 
English  society  into  *  Barbarians,' 
'  Philistines,'  and  *  Populace,' 
have  become  household  words. 
His  message  proved  no  incon- 
siderable factor  in  forming  the 
ideals  and  habits  of  thought  of  a 
younger  generation.  Stimulating 
as  his  critical  works  are,  it  is 
probably  by  his  poems  that  Ar- 
nold will  live  in  English  litera- 
ture. Other  works :  Higher 
Schools  and  Universities  in  Ger- 
many (1874);  God  and  the  Bible 
(1875);  Last  Essays  on  Church 
and  Religion  (1877);  Mixed  Es- 


says (1879);  Irish  Essays  (1882); 
Essays  in  Criticism,  2nd  series 
(1888).  Editions:  Burke's  Let- 
ters, Speeches,  etc.  (1881),  etc. 
Collected  Works :  Edition  for 
America  only  (1884).  Collected 
Poems,  in  2  vols.  (1869,  1877); 
3  vols.  (1885);  1  vol.  (1890). 
Selections :  Passages  from  the 
Prose  Writings  (1880);  Selected 
Poems  (1878);  and  recent  edi- 
tions since  the  partial  expiration  , 
of  copyright  by  W.  Sharp,'  R. 
Garnett,  H.  B.  Forman,  and  oth- 
ers. Biography :  Fitch's  Thomas 
and  Matthew  Arnold  (1897),  es- 
timating his  educational  influence; 
Robertson's  Modern  Humanists 
(1891),  his  social  influence;  and 
for  his  literary  achievements, 
Gates's  Three  Studies  in  Litera- 
ture (1899);  Woodberry's  Makers 
of  Literature  (1900)  and  Brown- 
ell's  Victorian  Prose  Masters 
(1902);  also  Letters  of  Matthew 
Arnold,  ed.  G.   W.  E.  Russell 

(1901)  .  Monographs,  by  A.  Gal- 
ton  (1897);  G.  White  (1898);  G. 
Saintsbury  (1899);  H.  W.  Paul 

(1902)  .  Bibliography,  by  T.  B. 
Smart  (1892). 

Arnold,  Richard  (1828-82), 
American  major  -  general,  was 
born  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  and 
graduated  at  West  Point  (1850). 
He  served  in  the  battles  of  Bull 
Run  (1861)  and  Savage's  Station, 
and  was  made  brigadier-general 
and  major-general  for  gallant  and 
meritorious  services  in  the  field, 
and  brevet  major-general  of  vol- 
unteers for  services  at  the  sieges 
of  Port  Hudson,  La.,  and  Fort 
Morgan,  Mobile  Harbor.  Ten 
years  later,  he  entered  the  regular 
army  of  the  U.  S.,  and  for  a  time 
was  assistant  inspector-general  in 
the  East. 

Arnold,  Samuel  (1740-1802), 
born  in  London;  composed  ora- 
torios, operas,  and  miscellaneous 
music.  He  is  best  known  as  the 
compiler  of  an  excellent  collec- 
tion of  music  by  English  com- 
posers, entitled  Cathedral  Music 
(1790). 

Arnold,  Samuel  Greene 
(1821-80),  American  historian, 
was  born  at  Providence,  R.  L, 
was  lieut.-governor  of  that  state 
in  1852  (when  he  was  the  only 
Whig  to  be  elected)  and  1861  and 
1862,  and  in  1862-63  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  U.  S.  Senate. .  In  1861 
he  served  on  the  Peace  Commis- 
sion. His  published  works  in- 
clude The  Spirit  of  Rhode  Island 
History  (1853),  and  a  valuable 
History  of  Rhode  Island  and  the 
Providence  Plantations  (1859). 

Arnold,  Thomas  (1795-1842), 
historian,  divine,  and  greatest  of 
English  schoolmasters,  was  born 
at  East  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight.  In 
1828  he  was  chosen  headmaster 
of  Rugby  School,  which  he  raised 
to  a  level  second  to  that  of  none 
in  England.  He  widened  the  con- 
ventional public  school  curricu- 


Matthew  Arnold. 


Arnold 


391 


Arnolfo  di  Camblo 


lum,  and  developed  the  'prefect' 
and  'fagging'  systems,  but  his 
secret  lay  less  in  any  system  than 
in  the  profound  religious  and 
moral  force  of  his  own  character, 
together  with  a  sense  of  justice 
which  inspired  respect.  He  had 
an  acute  insight  into  character. 


Thomas  Arnold  of  Rugby 


and  influenced  his  pupils  by 
stimulus,  moral  and  intellectual, 
without  subjecting  them  to  need- 
less rules,  so  that  the  'Rugby' 
type  of  men  obtained  the  repu- 
tation of  holding  an  unusually 
serious  and  ethical  view  of  life — 
though  perhaps  also  of  not  being 
wholly  free  from  priggishness. 
The  chief  difficulty  in  Arnold's 
way  was  the  prejudice  excited  in 
the  Tory  and  High  Church 
classes  of  society  by  his  liberal 
views  on  politics  and  religion. 
Although  a  contemporary  of 
Keble,  he  was  a  strong  opponent 
of  Tractarianism,  which  he 
attacked  with  an  intolerance  and 
a  controversial  vigor  equal  to  its 
own. 

By  1841  Arnold  had  conquered 
public  opinion,  at  least  as  to  the 
merits  of  his  methods  at  Rugby, 
and  in  that  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed regius  professor  of  his- 
tory at  Oxford.  His  contri- 
butions, under  the  influence  of 
Niebuhr  and  other  German 
writers,  to  a  more  scientific 
treatment  of  ancient  history  were 
not  inconsiderable.  While  at 
Laleham  he  had  written  articles 
on  Roman  history  for  the  Ency- 
clopedia Metropolilana,  and  at 
Rugby  he  undertook  an  edition 
of  Thucydides.  In  1832  he  had 
bought  Fox  How,  Ambleside,  as 
a  vacation  home,  and  there  he 
died  suddenly  on  June  12,  1842. 
Dr.  Arnold  married  in  1820  Mary 
Penrose,  daughter  of  the  rector 
of    Fledborough,  Nottingham- 


shire, and  to  them  were  born 
four  sons  of  whom  the  eldest  was 
Matthew  Arnold  (q.v.),  the 
poet,  and  the  second  Thomas 
Arnold  (q.v.). 

Arnold's  published  works  in- 
clude an  edition  of  Thucydides 
(1830-41);  History  of  Rome,  to 
the  Punic  Wars  (1838-43);  and 
Sermons  and  Miscellaneous 
Works,  the  last  collected  and 
edited  by  A.  P.  Stanley  in  1845. 

There  is  an  excellent  bi- 
ography of  Arnold  by  Dean 
Stanley  in  Arnold's  Life  and 
Correspondence.  Consult  also 
Sir  J.  Fitch's  Thomas  and  Mat- 
thew Arnold:  Their  Influence  on 
English  Education;  M.  Arnold's 
Rugby  Chapel  and  T.  Hughes' 
Tom  Brown  s  School  Days. 

Arnold,  ar'-nold,  Thomas 
(1823-1900),  second  son  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Arnold  (q.v.)  of  Rugby, 
and  younger  brother  of  Matthew 
Arnold  (q.v.),  was  born  at 
Laleham,  Middlesex.  He  was 
educated  at  Rugby  and  Oxford; 
went  to  New  Zealand  in  1847, 
and  in  1850  became  inspector  of 
,  schools  in  Tasmania.  Becoming 
a  convert  to  Roman  Catholicism 
and  an  associate  of  Cardinal 
Newman,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  English  literature  in 
the  Catholic  University,  Dublin 
(1856-62);  from  1862  until  1865 
he  was  classical  master  in 
Birmingham  Oratory  School; 
in  1882  was  appointed  professor 
of  English  literature  at  Uni- 
versity College,  Dublin.  Mrs. 
Humphry  Ward,  the  novelist, 
was  his  eldest  daughter.  Besides 
his  well-known  Manual  of  English 
Literature,  History  and  Criticism 
(1862;  7th  ed.  1897),  he  was 
the  author  of  Chaucer  to  Words- 
worth (1868;  2nd  ed.  1875); 
editions  of  English  classics  in- 
cluding Select  English  Works  of 
John  Wycliffe  (3  vols.  1869-71); 
Beowulf,  with  a  Translation 
(1876);  English  Poetry  and  Prose 
(1879;  new  ed.  1882);  and  Dry- 
den  :  an  Essay  of_  Dramatic  Poesy 
(1889).  He  published  also  an  au- 
tobiographical volume,  Passages 
in  a  Wandering  Life  (1900). 

Arnold,  Thomas  Kerchever 
(1800-53),  English  educational 
writer,  rector  of  Lyndon  in 
Rutlandshire,  was  born  in  Stam- 
ford, England.  In  1838  he  pub- 
lished a  Practical  Introduction  to 
Greek  Prose  Composition,  fol- 
lowed in  1839  by  a  similar  Intro- 
duction to  Latin  Prose  Composi- 
tion, both  of  which  have  been 
widely  used.  He  also  published, 
with  Rev.  J.  E.  Riddle,  an 
English-Latin  Lexicon  (1847). 

Arnold,  William  Rosen- 
ZWEIG  (1872-  ),  American 
scholar,  was  born  in  Beirut, 
Syria.  He  was  educated  at  Ohio 
Wesleyan  University  and  at 
Union  Theological  .Seminary  and 
in  1896  became  curator  of  the 
Department  of  Antiquities,  Met- 
ropolitan Museum  of  Art.  In 


1903-22  he  was  professor  of 
Hebrew  language  and  literature 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
and  in  1922  became  Hancock  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  and  other 
Oriental  languages  at  Harvard 
University.  He  is  a  Fellow  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences.  His  publications  in- 
clude Ancient  Babylonian  Temple 
Records  (1896),  The  Rhythms  of 
the  Ancient  Hebrews  (1908),  The 
Passover  Papyrus  from  Ele- 
phantine (1921). 

Arnold-Forster,  Right  Hon. 
Hugh  Oakeley  (1855-1909), 
English  public  official,  was  the 
son  of  William  Delafield  Arnold 
(a  brother  of  Matthew  Arnold), 
and  the  adopted  son  of  the 
Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Forster.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1879,  and 
entered  Parliament  as  member 
for  West  Belfast  in  1892,  sitting 
for  that  constituency  until  1906, 
when  he  was  elected  for  Croydon. 
He  was  parliamentary  secretary 
to  the  Admiralty  (1900-03),  and 
Secretary  for  War  (1903-06). 
He  is  the  author  of  several 
works,  including  The  Laws  of 
Everyday  Life;  Things  New  and 
Old;  A  History  of  England 
(1897);  Army  Letters  (1898); 
Our  Great  City  (1900);  In  a 
Conning  Tower;  A  Policy  and  a 
Vindication;  English  Socialism 
of  To-day  (1908);  Military  Needs 
and  Military  Policy  (1909). 

Arnold!,  ar-nol'-de,  Wilhelm 
(1798-1864),  bishop  of  Treves, 
was  born  at  Baden,  near  Treves. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  1825 
and  elected  bishop  in  1839. 
In  1844  he  drew  vast  crowds 
of  pilgrims  to  Treves  by  the 
exhibition  of  the  'holy-coat,' 
held  to  be  the  seamless  coat 
worn  by  Christ  at  His  crucifixion 
and  said  to  have  been  given  to 
Treves  by  St.  Helena.  Revolt 
against  the  exhibition  led  to  the 
formation,  under  the  leadership 
of  Johannes  Ronge,  of  German 
Catholicism  (see  German 
Catholics). 

Ar'noldson  (Fishof)  Sigrid 
(1861-  ),  Swedish  soprano 
opera  singer,  was  born  in  Stock- 
holm, and  became  a  favorite  at 
St.  Petersburg,  where  she  ap- 
peared regularly  in  Italian  opera. 
She  also  sang  in  London,  The 
Hague,  Amsterdam,  and  Mos- 
cow, and  in  1893-4  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New 
York.  Her  favorite  roles  are 
Mignon,  Rosina,  Carmen,  and 
Dinorah. 

Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  ar-nol'fo 
de  kiim'byo  (?  1232-1310),  Flo- 
rentine architect,  was  born  in 
Tuscany,  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Niccolo  Pisano.  The  church  of 
Santa  Croce  in  Florence  is  his 
work,  and  he  made  designs  for 
the  reconstruction,  in  1296,  of 
the  Cathedral  of  Florence,  which, 
however,  were  not  followed  in 
their  entirety. 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


Arnon 


391A 


Aromatic  Series 


Ar'non,  a  river  flowing  into 
the  Dead  Sea,  now  known  as  the 
Wady-el-Mojib.  For  a  great 
part  of  its  course  it  flows  through 
a  deep  trench,  with  rocky  and 
precipitous  banks,  which  rise  in 
places  to  a  height  of  1,700  feet. 
The  width  and  velocity  of  the 
current  vary  with  the  season  of 
the  year,  its  bed  .becoming 
almost  dry  in  July.  The  Arnon 
early  separated  the  territory 
of  the  Amorites  and  Moab 
(Nu.  xxi.  13),  and  later  that  of 
Moab  and  Reuben  (Deut.  iii.  16). 
It  is  about  thirteen  miles  long. 

Ar'not,  village,  Pennsylvania, 
in  Tioga  County,  is  situated  in  a 
coal-mining  district,  on  the 
Tioga  division  of  the  Erie  Rail- 
road; 4  miles  from  Blossburg. 
Pop.  (1920)  2,530. 

Arnot,  William  (1806-75), 
a  popular  Scottish  preacher  and 
author,  became  minister  of  a 
parish  in  1839.  He  left  the 
Established  Church  at  the  Dis- 
ruption in  1843,  becoming  a 
minister  of  a  Free  Church  in 
Glasgow.  He  published  Illus- 
trations of  the  Book  of  Proverbs, 
and  The  Parables  of  Our  Lord. 

Arnott,  Neil  (1788-1874), 
Scottish  physician,  was  born  at 
Arbroath,  Scotland,  the  son 
of  a  farmer.  From  Aberdeen 
Grammar  School  he  proceeded 
to  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  thence  to  St.  George's 
Hospital,  London.  He  made 
two  voyages  to  China  as  surgeon 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  from  1811  till 
1855  carried  on  an  extensive 
practice  in  lyondon.  In  1832  he 
invented  th(;  water-bed;  and  in 
1835  published  a  treatise  on 
Warming  and  Ventilating  (1834) 
in  which  he  described  the  'Arnott 
Stove'  and  'Arnott  Ventilator.' 
He  was  a  munificent  benefactor 
to  higher  education. 

Arnotto.    See  Annatto. 

Arn  prior,  arn-pri'er,  town, 
Ontario,  Renfrew  county,  on  the 
Madawaska  River,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Ottawa  River, 
and  on  the  Cr.nadian  Pacific  and 
Canadian  National  Railways; 
37  miles  northwest  of  Ottawa. 
It  is  situated  in  a  region  rich  in 
iron  and  marble.  There  are 
manufactures,  also,  of  office 
fixtures  and  furniture  and  of 
paper  felt.  Pop.  (1911)  4,405; 
(1921)  4,077. 

Arnsberg,  arns'berc/i,  town, 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  West- 
phalia, on  the  Ruhr  River;  50 
miles  by  rail  northeast  of  Bar- 
men, 44  miles  southeast  of 
Munster.  It  has  railway  work- 
shops and  paper  and  cellulose 
factories.  Arnsberg  was  formerly 
a  centre  of  the  famous  West- 
phalian  courts  of  justice  (Vehm- 
gerichte)  and  was  long  the  capital 
of  Westphalia.  Pop.  (1919) 
11,181. 

Arnstadt,  arn'stiit,  town,  cap- 
ital of  Thuringia,  on  the  Gera, 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


14  miles  south  of  Erfurt.  Fea- 
tures of  interest  are  the  Lieb- 
frauen-Kirche,  one  of  the  chief 
ecclesiastical  buildings  of  Thu- 
ringia, with  fine  sculptures,  and 
the  sixteenth  century  Rathaus. 
The  chief  industries  are  corn  and 
timber  markets,  brewing,  pottery 
making,  and  gardening.  In  the 
vicinity  are  saline  springs  and 
baths.     Pop.  (1919)  19,371. 

Arns'walde,  town,  Prussia,  in 
Pomerania,  41  miles  southeast  of 
Stettin.  It  has  a  14th  century 
Gothic  church  and  manufactures 
of  iron,  machinery,  matches,  and 
woollens.     Pop.  10,200. 

Arnuif.  See  Ernulphus. 

Aroa,  a-ro'a,  town,  Venezuela, 
in  the  state  of  Yaracuy,  on  the 
Aroa  River;  30  miles  from  the 
Gulf  of  Triste.  Important 
copper  mines  are  located  here. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Aroa,  river.  Northern  Vene- 
zuela, rises  in  the  sierra  and 
empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Triste 
after  a  course  of  80  miles. 

Aroideae.  See  Arace^;  Arum. 

Arolcszalias,  or'ok-sal-ash, 
town,  Hungary;  44  miles  north- 
east of  Budapest.  It  contains  a 
fine  Catholic  church  and  has 
trade  in  grain.  Pop.  12,100. 

Arolla,  a-rol'a,  a  group  of 
chalets  near  the  foot  of  the 
glacier  of  the  same  name  (the 
local  term  for  the  Pinus  cembra), 
at  the  head  of  the  southwest 
fork  of  the  Val  d'Herens,  Valais, 
Switzerland.  It  is  3%  to  4 
hours  by  mule  path  from  Evo- 
lena,  which  is  16  miles  by  car- 
riage road  from  Sion.  Arolla  is 
one  of  the  most  frequented 
of  all  Swiss  summer  resorts. 

Aroisen,  a'rol-sen,  town,  cap- 
ital of  the  republic  of  Waldeck, 
Germany,  is  situated  on  the  Aar; 
22  miles  northwest  of  Kassel. 
The  castle  contains  antiquities 
from  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii, 
a  good  library,  and  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  Spanish  arms.  Pop. 
(1919)  2,222. 

Aromat'ics,  a  class  of  medi- 
cines which  owe  their  properties 
to  the  essential  oils,  to  benzoic 
and  cinnamic  acids,  to  volatile 
productions  of  distillation,  or  to 
odorous  glandular  secretions. 
Among  the  plant  families  which 
yield  the  most  important  aro- 
matics  are  the  Labiatae,  Umbelli- 
ferae,  Lauraceae,  Myrtaceae,  Au- 
rantiaceae,  Coniferae,  Scitamineae, 
and  Orchideae.  In  some  cases 
the  aromatic  matter  is  diffused 
throughout  all  parts  of  the  plant, 
but  it  is  usually  condenvsed  in 
particular  organs  as  the  root,  in 
ginger  and  galanga;  the  bark, 
in  cinnamon,  canella,  and  cas- 
carilla;  the  flowers,  as  in  cloves; 
the  fruit,  as  in  anise  and  vanilla; 
the  wood,  as  in  sandal-wood  and 
aloes- wood;  the  leaves,  as  in 
most  of  the  l^abiatae  and  Umbel- 
liferae. 

Aromatics  may  be  arranged  in 
the    following    subclasses:  (1) 


Those  in  which  the  active 
principle  is  an  essential  oil,  as 
the  oil  of  thyme.  (2)  Those 
containing  camphor,  or  an  allied 
body.  (3)  Bitter  aromatics,  in 
which  there  is  a  mixture  of  a 
bitter  principle  and  an  essential 
oil,  as  chamomile.  (4)  Those  of 
which  musk  is  the  type,  as 
civet  and  ambergris;  and  certain 
plants  with  a  musk-like  odor, 
as  Malva  moschala,  Mimulus 
moschatus,  and  Hibiscus  abel- 
moschus.  (5)  Those  containing  a 
fragrant  resin,  as  benzoin,  which 
possess  stimulant  properties.  (6) 
Lastly,  those  which  are  artifi- 
cially produced  by  destructive 
distillation,  as  tar,  creosote, 
benzol,  etc. 

As  a  general  rule,  these  sub- 
stances act  as  diffusible  stimu- 
lants of  more  or  less  power,  and 
as  antispasmodics,  while  those 
in  which  a  bitter  principle  is 
present  act  as  vermifuges  and 
tonics. 

Aromatic  Series,  a  term 
applied  to  a  large  group  of 
organic  chemical  compounds, 
many  of  which  occur  in  balsams, 
essential  oils,  and  other  sub- 
stances having  an  aromatic  odor. 
It  was  originally  limited  to  the 
compounds  of  the  benzene  group, 
but  it  has  now  been  extended 
so  as  to  include  other  series 
homologous  with  them,  and 
ranging  round  the  group  of 
hydrocarbons,  CnHin—i-  The 
simplest  of  these  hydrocarbons  is 
Benzene,  CeHe.  Such  a  body 
is  an  unsaturated  one,  and  is 
capable  of  uniting  with  mona- 
tomic  elements  such  as  chlorine 
to  form  chlorides,  containing 
from  one  to  six  atoms  of  chlorine. 
To  account  for  this  Kekule  has 
devised  a  structural  formula  for 
benzene,  which  assists  one  in 
understanding  the  complex  re- 
lations of  the  aromatic  series; 
but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  such  formulae  do  not 
profess  to  represent  the  actual 
positions  of  the  atoms  in  the 
compound,  but  are  used  only 
as  convenient  standpoints  from 
which  to  regard  them. 

In  Kekule's  formula,  the 
double  lines,  uniting  the  atoms  of 
carbon,  indicate  that  each  of 
these  atoms  can  still  unite  with 


H 

Fig.  1 

an  atom  of  hydrogen.  From 
this    peculiar    construction  it 


Aromatic  Series 


391  B 


Arqua  Petrarca 


is  evident  that  the  compounds 
of  the  aromatic  series  must  have 
distinctive  properties,  and  the 
number  of  these  compounds  is 
very  large.  Thus,  referring  to 
chlorine,  we  see  that  we  may 
either  replace  hydrogen  by  chlorine 
or  add  chlorine  to  benzene,  the 
resulting  bodies  having  the  com- 
position CsCle  and  CeHeCle.when 
the  full  amount  of  chlorine  has 
been  taken  up.  So  also  oxygen 
may  enter  into  the  compound, 
giving  us  a  series  of  bodies  called 
phenols,  which  are  monatomic, 
diatomic,  or  tetratomic,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  atoms 
introduced.  The  phenols  corre- 
spond to  the  alcohols  of  the 
fatty  series  (see  Alcohols),  ordi- 
nary phenol  having  the  formula 
CeHsOH,  that  of  common  alcohol 
being  C2H6OH.  Hydrogen  may 
also  be  replaced  by  amidogen, 
NH2,  giving  rise  to  amines  (q.v.), 
the  best  known  of  which  is  phe- 
nylamine,  or  aniline,  C6H5NH2. 
The  nilro  compounds,  in  which 
hydrogen  is  replaced  by  the  group 
NO2,  include  nitro-benzene,  or 
artificial  oil  of  bitter  almonds 
(not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
true  oil),  the  formula  of  which  is 
CbHsNOj. 

The  benzene  nucleus  has  the 
peculiar  property,  not  found  in 
aliphatic  compounds,  of  forming 
three  di-substituted  products. 
There  are,  for  example,  three 
di-nitro  benzenes  designated  or- 
tho,  meta,  and  para.  If  the  two 
substituted  groups  are  connected 
to  adjacent  carbon  atoms,  the 
compound  is  called  ortho.  If  one 
carbon  atom  separates  the  two 
to  which  the  substituting  groups 
are  attached,  the  compound  is 
called  meta.  If  two  carbon 
atoms  separate  the  two  carrying 
the  added  groups,  the  compound 
is  called  para.  The  accompany- 
ing diagram  (Fig.  2)  illustrates 


H  (^) 


H  (3) 


Fig.  2 

this  point.  If  one  of  the  sub- 
stituting groups  is  in  the  position 
marked  1,  that  is  replacing  the 
hydrogen  atom  at  that  point, 
then  any  group  substituted  in 
positions  2  or  6  forms  an  ortho 
compound.  Similarly,  positions 
3  and  5  are  'meta  positions,'  and 
position  4  is  the  'para  position'  to 
1.  Similarly  there  are  four  tri- 
substituted  compounds  possible 
when  all  the  substituting  groups 
are  alike. 

The  hydrogen  atoms  in  ben- 
zene may  be  replaced  by  a  wide 
variety  of  atoms  or  radicals,  thus 


giving  rise  to  an  almost  in- 
definite number  of  possible  deriv- 
atives. 

The  other  well  known  members 
of  the  aromatic  series  are  deriva- 
tives of  naphthalene,  anthracene, 
etc.,  groups  formed  by  the  ap- 
parent union  of  two  or  more 
benzene  nuclei.  Thus  naphtha- 
lene has  the  structural  formula 
shown  in  Fig  3.  Naphthalene,  in 


(2) 


CHC8)  CHO) 
CHC5)  CH(4) 


Fig.  3 

distinction  from  benzene,  forms 
two  mono-substituted  products, 
called  alpha  and  beta.  The 
positions  1,  4,  5,  and  8  are  called 
alpha  positions,  and  2,  3,  6,  and 
7  are  called  beta  positions. 
There  are  ten  possible  di-sub- 
stituted naphthalenes  formed 
when  two  substituting  groups  are 
the  same. 

The  structural  formula  for 
anthracene  is  apparently  made 
up  of  three  benzene  nuclei  and  is 
ordinarily  represented  by  the 
formula  shown  in  Fig.  4.  An- 


CK 


CH 


CH 


H 

Fig.  4 


CH 


\ 

r 


thracene  is  easily  oxidized  to 
anthraquinone,  the  fundamental 
intermediate  for  many  im- 
portant dyestuffs,  and  forms  a 
number  of  substitution  products 
which  are  of  less  importance. 

See  Anthracene;  Benzene; 
Naphthalene;  also  Alizarin 
and  Coal-tar  Dyes. 

Aromatic  Spirits  of  Am- 
monia.  See  Sal  Volatile. 

Aromatic  Vinegar  is  gener- 
ally prepared  by  adding  the  oils 
of  cloves,  lavender,  rosemary, 
bergamot,  neroli,  and  cinnamon 
to  the  strongest  acetic  acid. 
It  is  a  pleasant  and  powerful 
perfume;  is  very  volatile,  and 
when  snuffed  up  by  the  nostrils, 
is  a  powerful  excitant,  being 
serviceable  in  fainting,  languor, 
headache,  and  nervous  debility. 
The  liquid  must  be  cautiously 
dealt  with,  as  it  is  very  corrosive. 

Arona,  ii-ro'na,  town.  North- 
ern Italy,  on  the  southwest 
shore  of  Lago  Maggiore;  23  miles 
northwest  of  Novara.  It  has 
textile  (silk  and  cotton)  and 
metal  works,  and  a  flourishing 
trade.  On  a  nearby  hill  stands  a 


colossal  statue  of  Cardinal  Bor- 
romeo  erected  in  1624.  Pop. 
(1921)  4,998. 

Aronia,  a  European  species  of 
the  Crataegus  (q.v.). 

Aroo  Islands.  See  Aru 
Islands. 

Aroostoolt,  a-robs'tuk,  river, 
rising  in  Piscataquis  county, 
Maine,  flowing  through  Aroos- 
took county,  and  joining  the 
St.  John  River  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, Canada.  Its  length  is 
about  120  miles,  and  its  banks 
are  heavily  timbered.  It  pos- 
sesses a  historical  interest  from 
its  connection  with  the  North- 
east Boundary  Dispute  (q.v.). 

Aroostoolc  Disturbances. 
See  Northeast  Boundary  Dis- 
pute. 

Aros,  African  tribe  inhabiting 
the  Cross  River  region,  north 
of  Old  Calabar.  A  British 
punitive  expedition  suppressed 
their  turbulent  and  slave  hunt- 
ing proclivities  in  1901-2. 

Arouet,  a-roo-a',  family  name 
of  Voltaire  (q.v.). 

Ar'pad  (d.  907),  the  national 
hero  of  Hungary,  under  whom 
the  Magyars  (q.v.)  first  gained 
a  footing  in  that  country,  about 
884.  Chosen  duke  on  his 
father's  death,  he  extended  his 
conquests  by  incessant  warfare 
with  the  Bulgarians,  Wallachians, 
and  Moravians.  The  Arpad 
dynasty  ruled  Hungary  as  dukes 
from  889  to  1000,  and  as  kings 
from  that  year  until  it  became 
extinct  in  the  male  line  with 
Andreas  iii.  in  1301. 

Arpad,  or  Arphad,  city  of 
Biblical  times.  Northern  Syria; 
13  miles  northwest  of  Aleppo. 
It  was  destroyed  after  a  three 
years'  siege  by  Tiglath-pileser 
III.  in  741  B.C.  (2  Kings  xviii.  34). 
It  is  now  a  ruin  called  Tell 
Erf  ad. 

Arpeggio,  ar-pej'6,  in  musical 
score  a  chord  of  which  the 
constituent  notes  are  sounded 
consecutively  from  below  up- 
wards, instead  of  simultaneously. 
The  sign  is  usually  an  upright 
wavy  line  placed  before  a  chord. 

Ar'pent,  an  old  French  land- 
measure  corresponding  to  the 
English  acre. 

Arpino,  iir-pe'no,  town,  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Caserta;  88 
miles  by  rail  (via  Roccasecca) 
southeast  of  Rome.  It  stands  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Volscian 
town  of  Arpinum,  still  in  part 
enclosed  by  cyclopean  walls, 
with  ancient  gates  and  towers. 
It  is  the  birthplace  of  Vipsanius 
Agrippa  (63  B.C.),  Caius  Marius 
(157  B.C.),  and  the  painter 
Giuseppe  Cesari  (c.  1568).  There 
are  manufactures  of  woollen, 
leather,  and  paper,  and  quarries 
of  marble.    Pop.  11,000. 

Arqua  Petrarca,  ar-kwii  piit- 
rar'ka,  village,  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Padua,  is  situated 
among  the  Euganean  Hills,  12 
miles  southwest  of  Padua.  It 

Vol.  I.— March  '27 


Arquebus 


391  C 


Arras,  Battles  of 


was  the  home  of  Petrarch 
(1370-74)  and  his  house  and 
tomb  are  still  shown.  Pop. 
1,500. 

Arquebus,  ar'kwe-bus  (more 
properly  Harquebus),  an  early- 
form  of  hand  firearm  used  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries; 
an   improvement   on   the  first 


Arquebus,  with  enlarged  View 
of  Lock 


simple  tube,  with  its  touch-hole 
and  hand-applied  match.  The 
arquebus  had  a  match-holder, 
which  fell  on  the  priming  pan 
when  the  trigger  was  pulled; 
and,  later,  other  improvements 
were  added.  Soldiers  armed 
with  the  weapon  were  designated 
arquebusiers. 

Arracacha,  ar-ra-ka'cha,  a 
plant  of  the  genus  Umbelliferce, 
with  tuberous  roots,  native  to 
the  tablelands  of  Northern  South 
America.  The  flowers  are  borne 
in  compound  umbels,  shading 
from  white  to  a  dark  purple. 
Arracacha  zanthoriza  is  much 
cultivated  in  the  Andes,  where 
its  tubers  are  boiled  and  used 
for  food  as  well  as  for  flavoring 
purposes,  the  flavor  being  similar 
to  that  of  the  carrot  or  parsnip. 
It  requires  a  great  deal  of  mois- 
ture and  an  even  temperature, 
and  in  deep  loose  soil  yields 
abundantly.  A  starch,  similar  to 
arrowroot,  is  obtained  by  wash- 
ing and  rasping  the  root.  A. 
dugessi  is  found  in  Central 
America. 

Arracan,   See  Arakan. 

Ar'rack,  ox  Rack,  an  Ori- 
ental name  applied  to  various 
distilled  liquors,  in  particular 
to  that  obtained  from  the  fer- 
mented juice  (toddy)  of  the 
cocoanut,  date,  and  other  palms. 
It  is  sometimes  made  also  from 
fermented  rice  and  from  a 
combination  of  rice  and  mo- 
lasses. It  is  usually  of  a  pale 
yellow  or  straw  color  and, 
when  pure,  is  clear  and  trans- 
parent, with  a  taste  resembUng 
that  of  sour  beer.  It  contains 
at  least  52  per  cent,  of  alcohol 
and  is  distinctly  heady.  Arrack 
is  made  in  Batavia,  Java, 
Ceylon,  Siam,  and  Goa,  that  of 
Ceylon  and  Goa  being  made 
from  palm  juice  alone.  Only 
small  quantities  are  exported, 
but  large  amounts  are  consumed 
in  India  and  the  East. 

Arragon.  See  Aragon. 

Arrah,  ar'ra,  town,  India,  in 
the  province  of  Bihar  and  Orissa, 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


in  Shahabad  district;  33  miles 
west  of  Patna.  During  the 
Mutiny  of  1857  it  was  gallantly 
held  for  eighty  days  by  fifty 
Sikhs  and  a  dozen  Englishmen 
against  a  force  of  10,000  mu- 
tineers.   Pop.  (1921)  40,769. 

Arraign' ment,  in  criminal 
procedure  the  act  of  summoning 
a  prisoner  to  the  bar  to  hear 
the  charge  contained  in  the 
indictment  or  information  filed 
against  him  and  to  plead  thereto. 
The  first  step  is  to  summon  him 
to  the  bar,  at  which,  being 
presumed  innocent,  he  is  entitled 
to  appear  free  and  unfettered 
unless  violence  on  his  part  is 
anticipated;  the  next  step  is  to 
read  to  him  the  indictment  so 
that  he  may  entirely  under- 
stand its  nature;  and  the  third 
step  is  to  ask  whether  or  not  he 
is  guilty.  If  he  makes  no  reply, 
a  jury  is  sworn  to  determine 
the  cause;  whether  it  be  dumb- 
ness or  malice  and  obstinacy. 
If  the  former  reason  is  decided 
on,  a  plea  of  'not  guilty'  is 
entered.  If  the  prisoner  pleads 
'guilty,'  nothing  further  is  done 
until  judgment;  if  he  pleads  'not 
guilty,'  that  plea  is  entered  for 
him  and  the  attorney-general 
replies  that  he  is  guilty,  thus 
making  the  issue.  In  cases  of 
felony  the  accused  must  appear 
for  arraignment  in  person;  in 
other  cases  appearance  by  at- 
torney is  sufficient. 

Arran,  ar'-an,  the  largest 
island  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde, 
Scotland,  forming  part  of  the 
county  of  Bute;  3  miles  east  of 
Kintyre,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  Kilbrennan  Sound. 
It  is  generally  oval  in  form,  20 
miles  long  (from  north  to  south), 
and  about  12  miles  broad,  with 
an  area  of  165  square  miles,  of 
which  about  one-seventh  is  culti- 
vated. The  low  platform  of  an 
ancient  sea  margin  follows  the 
coastline,  with  lofty  cliffs  on  the 
south  and  southwest.  The  north- 
ern parts  are  mountainous,  lofty 
granitic  peaks  and  narrow  glens 
affording  magnificent  scenery. 
Goatfell  ('hill  of  wind'),  the 
highest  point,  rises  to  2,866 
feet.  The  principal  villages  are 
Brodick,  a  seat  of  the  dukes  of 
Hamilton;  Lamlash,  with  a 
sheltered  bay  formed  by  Holy 
Island,  Whiting  Bay,  Corrie,  and 
Lochranza,  with  fishing  industry; 
Pirnmill;  and  Blackwaterfoot — 
all  favorite  summer  resorts. 
Lochranza  Castle,  dating  before 
1380,  and  Kildonan  Castle,  a 
royal  stronghold  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  are  noted  features. 
The  Norse  held  the  island  till 
the  thirteenth  century;  later 
(1306)  it  sheltered  Robert  Bruce. 
Pop.  (1921)  8,294. 

Arran  Islands,  Ireland.  See 
Aran. 

Arrange' mcnt,  in  music  the 
transcription  or  adaptation  of 
compositions  to  suit  other  instru- 


ments (or  voices)  than  those  for 
which  they  were  composed.  A 
common  kind  of  arrangement 
is  that  of  adapting  orchestral 
compositions  for  the  piano. 

Arras  (Nemetacum),  ar-ras', 
town,  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Pas-de-Calais, 
40  miles  by  rail  northeast  of 
Amiens.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
and  is  one  of  the  principal  grain 
markets  of  France,  with  soap,  oil, 
cast  iron,  salt,  sugar  refining, 
lace,  and  agricultural  implement 
industries.  The  Hotel  de  Ville,  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  with  a 
belfry  (240  feet),  and  the 
cathedral,  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  are  the  chief  architec- 
tural features.  Before  the  Roman 
invasion  Arras  was  the  capital 
of  the  Atrebates.  The  town 
was  destroyed  by  the  Vandals 
in  407  and  by  the  Normans  in 
880;  besieged  in  1414  and  1479; 
taken  in  1578  by  the  Prince  of 
Orange;  besieged  again  in  1640 
and  1654  by  Conde,  and  rescued 
by  Turenne.  Robespierre  was 
born  here.  Pop.  (1921)  24,835. 

During  the  Great  War  (see 
Europe,  Great  War  of).  Arras 
was  occupied  by  the  Germans 
Aug.  30,  1914,  but  was  shortly 
afterward  evacuated.  On  Oct. 
6-9  the  Germans  bombarded  the 
city.  Much  damage  was  done, 
and  part  of  the  beautiful  old 
Town  Hall  was  ruined,  but 
the  invaders  did  not  succeed  in 
entering  the  streets.  For  sub- 
sequent action  in  the  vicinity, 
see  Arras,  Battles  of. 

Arras,  Battles  of,  a  series  of 
battles  in  the  Great  War. 

First  Battle.— The  first  battle 
of  Arras  occurred  in  October 
1914.  The  Allied  battle  line  in 
the  north,  which  was  completed 
Oct.  19,  1914,  stretched  a  dis- 
tance of  80  miles  or  more  from 
Albert  to  the  sea.  There  were 
many  points  in  this  front  which 
offered  special  advantage  in 
attack.  The  first  of  these  points 
was  Arras,  a  centre  of  lines  con- 
verging from  West  Flanders  and 
Northeastern  France,  from  which 
lines  ran  down  the  Ancre  valley 
to  Amiens  and  the  basin  of  the 
Seine  to  Boulogne,  by  Doullens 
and  by  St.  Pol,  and  northward  to 
Lens  and  Bethune.  A  suc- 
cessful breach  here  would  have 
been  a  decisive  step  in  the 
German  drive  for  the  Channel 
ports. 

The  stroke  was  delivered  from 
Oct.  20  to  26,  1914,  the  fighting 
previous  to  that  date  having 
centred  chiefly  around  Maud'- 
huy's  left  centre,  west  of  Lens. 
Von  Buelow  resolved  to  cut  the 
Allied  line  in  two  at  its  most 
critical  point.  Accordingly  the 
main  strength  was  concentrated 
before  Arras  against  Maud'huy's 
centre,  the  movement  being 
effected  by  the  line  of  railway 
south  of  Lens,  which  con- 
nected, three  niles  east  of  Arras, 


Arras,  Battles  of 

with  the  main  line,  Arras- 
Douai— Lille. 

Maud'huy  had  no  such  as- 
sistance, and  reinforcements 
from  his  left  could  only  be 
brought  by  the  Lens— Arras  high- 
way. But  behind  Arras  itself, 
he  had  certain  advantages. 
The  line  to  St.  Pol  went  round 
to  the  west  of  the  city,  and  north, 
behind  the  French  positions, 
ran  the  line  to  Amiens  by  the 
Ancre  valley,  while  the  Doul- 
lens  line  provided  a  third  pas- 
sage for  the  coming  of  reserves. 
The  junction  of  the  lines  is  at 
Achicourt,  just  south  of  Arras, 
and  it  was  obligatory  on  Maud'- 
huy to  hold  this  point  at  any 
cost.  His  position  was,  there- 
fore, a  semicircle  north  and  east 
of  the  city,  with  each  flank  rest- 
ing on  the  slopes  of  a  shallow 
amphitheatre,  and  Achicourt 
securely  covered. 

The  chief  German  attack  was 
on  Oct.  24,  when  Von  Buelow 
pushed  up  to  within  gun  range 
of  the  city.  All  day  there  was 
desperate  fighting.  The  Ger- 
mans rate  this  struggle  as  one 
of  the  main  battles  of  the  war, 
and  there  is  little  doubt  that, 
but  for  Maud'huy's  stubborn 
stand,  the  gates  of  the  north 
would  have  been  unlocked.  The 
German  guns  came  near  enough 
to  bombard  the  city  a  second 
time,  and  for  the  next  week  shells 
rained  in  its  ancient  streets. 
The  Hotel  de  Ville,  one  of  the 
oldest  and  finest  buildings  in 
France,  suffered,  and  whole 
quarters  were  reduced  to  debris. 
But  the  destruction  of  Arras 
did  not  give  the  Germans  pos- 
session. All  attempts  to  break 
the  French  line  failed  and  by 
Oct.  26  Maud'huy  had  begun  to 
retaliate.  The  traditional  furia 
francese  has  never  been  seen  to 
better  advantage  than  in  the 
counter-attack  which  in  many 
places  pushed  the  Germans  out 
of  their  advance  trenches,  and 
restored  to  the  French  some  of 
the  little  villages  in  the  flats  of 
the  Scheldt.  Bit  by  bit  the 
circle  was  widened,  till  Arras 
was  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
German  howitzers,  and  the  in- 
habitants began  to  return  to 
their  ruined  dwellings.  By  the 
beginning  of  November  the  at- 
tack had  failed;  and  it  was  not 
likely  to  be  renewed,  for  some  of 
Von  Buelow' s  best  corps  were 
demanded  for  the  north,  where 
before  Ypres  was  being  fought 
the  longest,  bloodiest,  and  the 
most  desperate  combat  in  the 
history  of  British  arms  (see 
Ypres,  Battles  of). 

Second  Battle. — At  the  end 
of  the  first  week  of  April,  1917, 
the  German  armies  were  back 
in  the  new  Siegfried  Line,  se- 
cure in  defence,  if  deprived  of  a 
first-rate  chance  of  an  offensive. 
Everywhere  from  Arras  to  the 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


391  D 

Aisne  the  attack  of  the  enemy 
had  been  checked.  The  French 
were  involved  in  the  difficult 
country  of  the  St.  Gobain  Pla- 
teau. Rawlinson's  Fourth  Army 
had  halted  at  the  outskirts  of 
St.  Quentin;  Gough's  Fifth 
Army,  having  forced  the  out- 
lying positions  early  in  April, 
stood  in  front  of  the  main  de- 
fences in  the  upper  valleys  of 
the  Cojeul  and  the  Sensee.  In 
the  Arras  region  lay  Allenby's 
Third  Army,  and  beyond  it 
Home's  First  Army  before  Lens 
and  La  Bassee,  and  thence  to  the 
sea  Plumer's  Second  Army — all 
three  in  the  positions  which  they 
had  held  for  a  year  or  more. 
The  army  group  under  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria  (com- 
posed of  Von  Armin's  Fourth 
Army,  Otto  von  Buelow's  Sixth 
Army,  and  Von  der  Marwitz's 
Second  Army)  had  been  strength- 
ened in  men  and  in  material,  for 
some  60  divisions  lay  between 
the  coast  and  the  Osie.  To  meet 
the  Allied  artillery,  the  Ger- 
mans had  increased  the  range  of 
their  field  guns  by  some  2,000 
yards;  they  had  in  use  a  large 
number  of  long-range  naval 
guns,  and  in  their  5.9-inch  howit- 
zer they  had  a  heavy  weapon  of 
exceptional  value;  while  air 
work  had  also  vastly  improved. 
They  comforted  themselves  with 
the  reflection  that  the  Siegfried 
Line  gave  them  a  position 
stronger  than  that  which  they  had 
lost  on  the  Somme;  that  the  Al- 
lies, wearied  with  the  hectic 
business  of  pursuit,  were  not  yet 
in  a  position  to  launch  any  great 
attack;  and  that  ere  they  were 
ready  the  German  defences 
would  have  become  impregnable. 

The  eyes  of  the  Allied  Generals 
were  fixed  on  the  pivots,  espe- 
cially on  that  northern  one 
where,  at  the  hamlet  of  Tilloy- 
lez-Mofflaines,  the  Siegfried 
Line  branched  off  from  the  old 
front.  Between  that  point  and 
Lens  the  original  lines  were  very 
strong,  consisting  of  three  main 
systems,  each  constructed  on 
the  familiar  pattern  of  four  par- 
allel lines  of  trenches,  studded 
with  redoubts,  and  linked  up 
with  numerous  switches.  A 
special  and  very  powerful  switch 
line  ran  for  five  and  a  half  miles 
from  the  village  of  Feuchy  north- 
ward across  Scarpe  to  beyond 
Thelus,  and  so  constituted  what 
was  virtually  a  fourth  line  of  de- 
fence. The  whole  defensive  belt 
was  from  two  to  five  miles  deep; 
but  the  German  command  was 
not  content  with  it.  They  had 
designed  an  independent  line 
running  from  Drocourt,  south- 
east of  Lens,  to  the  Sicgfrierl 
Line  at  Queant,  which  should 
be  an  alternative  in  case  of  as- 
sault on  the  Arras  salient.  But 
at  the  beginning  of  April  this 
position,    which    later  became 


Arras,  Battles  of 

famous  as  the  Drocourt-Qu^ant 
line,  was  not  yet  completed.  It 
was  intended  as  a  protection  for 
Douai  and  St.  Quentin,  the  loss 
of  which  would  have  made  the 
whole  Siegfried  system  untenable. 

The  Arras  neighborhood  had 
seen  some  of  the  bloodiest  fight- 
ing of  the  war.  At  this  time  the 
British  line  from  Loos  south- 
ward lay  just  west  of  the  Double 
Grassier;  east  of  Souchez  and 
Neuville  St.  Vaast;  and  thence 
in  a  sharp  curve  eastward  to 
cover  Roclincourt.  The  Key  of 
all  this  region  was  Vimy  Ridge, 
which  dominated  the  British 
lines  on  the  Souchez  as  Messines 
Ridge  dominated  the  southern 
part  of  the  Ypres  salient.  The 
front  continued  across  the  Scarpe 
just  west  of  Blangy,  and  south 
of  the  Arras-Cambrai  road  came 
in  contact  with  the  Siegfried  Line 
from  Tilloy-lez-Moffiaines.  Ar- 
ras was  free  from  its  old  en- 
circlement on  the  south.  Here, 
where  the  Picardy  wolds  break 
down  into  the  flats  of  the  Scheldt, 
long  low  spurs  reach  out  to  the 
eastward,  separating  the  valleys 
of  the  Scarpe,  the  Cojeul  and 
the  Sensee.  Their  sides  are 
scored  with  smaller  valleys,  and 
on  their  crests  are  various  hil- 
locks— such  as  Telegraph  Hill, 
south  of  Tilloy  and  the  more 
considerable  heights  above 
Monchy-le-Preux.  It  is  a  pocket 
country — the  last  foothills  of 
the  uplands  of  Northern  France, 
and,  like  all  foothills,  a  strong 
position  for  any  defence. 

The  city  of  Arras,  though  sit- 
uated less  than  a  mile  inside 
the  British  lines,  had  for  two 
years  been  a  place  of  compara- 
tive peace.  At  the  beginning 
of  April,  1917,  however,  it  awoke 
to  an  amazing  change.  The  city 
made  a  difficult  base  for  a  great 
attack.  Yet  it  had  to  be  the 
route  of  advancing  infantry 
and  their  billeting  area  while  it 
was  a  mark  which  the  German 
guns  could  scarcely  miss.  To 
minimize  this  danger,  the  Allied 
generals  had  recourse  to  a  bold 
plan.  They  resolved  to  assemble 
their  armies  underground. 

After  the  fashion  of  the  old 
French  towns.  Arras  had  huge 
ancient  sewers  like  those  of 
Paris.  A  map  of  them  was  found 
and  the  underground  labyrinth 
was  explored  and  enlarged. 
Moreover,  the  town  had  grown 
over  the  quarries  from  which 
the  older  part  had  been  built, 
and  these  also  were  discovered. 
The  result  was  that  a  second  city 
was  created  below  the  first, 
where  three  divisions  could  be 
assembled  n  perfect  security. 
The  Germans  shelled  the  town 
intermittently,  but  there  was  no 
real  bombardment,  and  before 
Arras  could  be  methodically 
assailed  the  enemy  had  been 
pushed  many  miles  eastward. 


Arras,  Battles  of 


391  E 


Arras,  Battles  of 


The  British  front  of  attack 
was  slightly  over  twelve  miles 
long,  from  Givenchy-en-Gohelle 
in  the  north  to  a  point  just  short 
of  Croisilles  in  the  south.  Against 
Vimy  Ridge  lay  Byng's  Canadian 


constituents  the  army  of  assault 
was  largely  Scottish.  In  all, 
thirty-eight  battalions  of  Scots 
went  over  the  parapets — a  larger 
number  than  the  British  at 
Waterloo. 


ish  guns  woke  along  the  whole 
sector.  There  was  a  steady 
bombardment  of  all  the  Ger- 
man positions,  more  especially 
the  great  fortress  of  Vimy  Ridge. 
The  'preparation'  was  intense 


f  l\G.venchy  . 
^  r  >J  Gohelle 


jricourtj 

^Rouvroy^ 

^^^Drocourt 
Achevitle^f  ^Bois-Bernard 


Wiflerval 


Izel 


ARRAS; 


C/">  J  Vaf  Ba.lleul 

J^oclincourt^y        Ij,  Gavrelk 


Athies  l|F_ampoux_ 


Jlangy      FeuchyV  "^-Ofoe 

jlTilloy-lez-Mofflaines      '\,,„„/f,^  // 
V  '  \  //        ^  Monchy  le  Preux 

^Beaurains'      ^  ^ ^ 


Brebieres^ 


Fresnes 


CorDehem 


Bellonne 

Tortequenne  Estr^es 


Fichcux 


<  Ciuemappe 


Haucourt 


Etaini 


Saudemont 


'HenincI 


,1.  Marl.n  Chei^ 


Boisleux 
au  Mont 


ontaine-; 
lezCtoisilles 


Villers 
•lez-Cagnicourt^ 

''Hendecourt  "^^s^^ 

Xagnicourt 


Boyelles 


Croisilles^ 


iullecourt 

•2  3 


Miles 


General  Map  of  the  Lens- Arras  Front,  April,  1917^ 

Corps;  between  the  Canadians  In  the  third  week  of  March  a  until  Easter  Sunday,  April  8, 
and  the  Scarpe  Fergusson's  Sev-  systematic  cutting  of  the  Ger-  when  a  lull  seemed  to  fall  upon 
enteenth  Corps;  opposite  Arras  man  wire  entanglements  began,  the  British  front,  and  the  ear- 
Haldene's  Sixth  Corps;  and  and  the  heavy  artillery  shelled  splitting  din  of  the  week  past 
south  of  it,  astride  the  Cojeul,  their  back  areas  and  communi-  died  away  into  sporadic  bom- 
Snow's  Seventh  Corps.  In  its  cations.  About  April  4  the  Brit-  bardments.  The  attack  itself 
Vol.  L— Oct.  '19 


Arras,  Battles  of 


391  F 


Arras,  Battles  of 


began  next  day,  when,  at  5:30 
A.M.  (zero  hour),  the  British 
guns  broke  into  such  a  fire  as 
had  never  been  known  on  any 
battlefield.  The  men  went  over 
the  parapets  under  a  very  can- 
opy of  shrieking  steel.  Within 
forty  minutes  all  the  German 
first  positions  were  captured 
and  the  British  troops  were 
moving  steadily  against  the  sec- 
ond, while  their  barrage  crept 
relentlessly  before  them. 

The  first  stage  of  the  battle 
lasted  three  days  and  by  the 
evening  of  April  1 1 ,  it  was  found 
necessary  for  the  infantry  attack 
to  wait  on  the  advance  of  the 
guns,  the  British  troops  in  the 
meantime  devoting  themselves 
to  minor  operations  to  round 
off  their  gains. 

Thus  far  the  battle  was  a 
remarkable  success.  Air-craft 
artillery,  infantry,  and  tanks 
had  worked  in  perfect  combina- 
tion. The  British  had  broken 
through  all  of  the  German  de- 
fences on  a  twelve-mile  front; 
they  were  half-way  to  the  Dro- 
court-Queant  line,  and  had  car- 
ried two  miles  of  the  northern 
end  of  the  Siegfried  Line.  The 
exploits  of  each  corps  had  been 
magnificent.  The  Canadians  at 
Vimy  had  stormed  the  last  of 
the  great  German  observation 
points  south  of  the  Lys,  and 
taken  [over  4,000  prisoners. 
The  Seventeenth  Corps  had  won 
separate  fortresses  like  the  Hy- 
derabad Redoubt  and  had 
taken  between  three  and  four 
thousand  prisoners.  The  Sixth 
Corps  had  dealt  with  the  Harp 
and  the  Railway  Triangle,  and 
by  their  capture  were  responsible 
for  the  large  number  of  guns 
taken.  Altogether  in  three  days 
over  12,000  prisoners  and  150 
guns  were  captured,  the  guns 
being  speedily  turned  into  Brit- 
ish weapons. 

On  April  12  the  British  posi- 
tions were  improved,  the  second 
stage  of  the  battle  opened  with  a 
gain  of  1,000  yards  of  the  Sieg- 
fried Line  to  the  south,  and  the 
Germans  retired  to  their  third 
line  from  Gavrelle  northward. 
The  next  two  days  the  German 
retreat  was  hard  pressed,  and 
they  evacuated  all  positions  from 
Fampoux  to  just  south  of  Lens. 
On  April  15  their  resistance  stiff- 
ened, resulting  in  violent  attacks 
and  counter-attacks  until  the 
close  of  the  month,  the  most 
notable  of  which  was  a  German 
counter-attack  on  a  six-mile 
front  astride  the  Bapaume- 
Cambrai  road,  and  around 
Monchy  hill,  where  the  Third 
Bavarians,  advancing  in  five 
columns,  were  broken  up  by 
the  British  guns  with  a  loss  of 
4,000  men.  The  British  attack 
on  an  eight-mile  front  on  both 
banks  of  the  Scarpe  on  April 
23  resulted  in  gains  of  Gavrelle, 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


Roeux,  Gu^mappe,  and  Fon- 
taine-lez-Croisilles  at  great  cost 
of  men  to  both  sides.  The  at- 
tacks on  April  28  and  29  also  re- 
sulted in  British  gains  both  north 
and  south  of  the  Scarpe.  The 
Germans  fought  stubbornly  to 
hold  their  Douai  positions,  for 
the  British  were  by  this  time 
half-way  from  Arras  to  that 
city,  and  only  the  Drocourt- 
Queant   line   barred   the  way. 

Here  ended  the  Battle  of  Arras 
as  originally  planned.  That 
plan,  in  its  ultimate  objective, 
had  involved  the  destruction  of 
the  northern  pivot  of  the  Sieg- 
fried Line,  and  the  consequent 
reduction  of  the  whole  position. 
But  the  failure  of  the  French  at 
the  southern  pivot  made  this 
impossible  in  the  immediate 
future.  The  action  against  the 
Siegfried  pivots  was  Nivelle's 
conception,  accepted  by  the 
Allied  Governments,  and  once 
begun,  could  not  readily  be 
broken  off.  Haig  had,  there- 
fore, henceforth  to  work  with  a 
double  aim.  He  had  to  con- 
tinue his  efforts  in  the  Arras 
area,  partly  to  ease  the  pressure 
on  the  new  French  position  on 
the  Aisne,  partly  in  order  that 
when  the  time  came  for  the 
breaking  off  of  the  battle  in  this 
sector,  he  should  be  able  to  leave 
his  front  in  a  favorable  position 
for  future  operations.  Likewise, 
he  had  to  prepare  for  that  great 
assault  upon  the  German  right 
wing  in  Flanders,  which  had  long 
been  decided  upon  as  the  main 
British  enterprize  of  that  sum- 
mer. The  fighting  in  the  Arras 
area  for  the  next  month  or  more 
was,  therefore,  in  a  different  cat- 
egory from  that  of  April.  The 
initial  impetus  was  gone,  the 
main  strategical  end  had  not 
been  attained,  and,  as  during 
the  last  phase  of  the  Somme,  it 
became  an  affair  of  local  offen- 
sives and  limited  objectives. 
The  final  actions  ended  in  the 
first  days  of  June  with  slight 
gains  north  of  the  Scarpe. 

The  Battle  of  Arras  was  a 
limited  victory — that  is  to  say, 
it  attained  completely  its  imme- 
diate objectives;  but,  owing  to 
events  outside  the  control  of  the 
British  Command,  it  did  not 
produce  the  strategical  result 
upon  the  Western  front  as  a 
whole  which  was  its  ultimate 
design.  It  was,  therefore,  an 
action  on  the  Somme  model, 
a  stage  in  the  process  of  attri- 
tion, the  value  of  which  had 
to  be  measured  in  terms  of  its 
effects  upon  the  enemy's  morale 
and  by  the  efficiency  of  its  mil- 
itary machine.  In  a  month  the 
British  took  21,000  prisoners, 
257  guns  (of  which  98  were  of 
heavy  calibre),  227  trench  mor- 
tars, and  470  machine  guns. 

The  vital  fact  was  that  the 
German  plan  had  been  defeated. 


When  their  hasty  retreat  to  the 
Siegfried  Line  had  deprived 
them  of  the  chance  of  taking  the 
Allies  at  a  disadvantage,  the 
Germans  had  determined  to 
avoid  battle,  to  create  a  stale- 
mate on  the  West,  and  to  set 
their  hopes  of  victory  on  the 
success  of  their  submarine  cam- 
paign. The  first  day  of  Arras 
shattered  that  illusion.  They 
lost  Vimy  Ridge,  one  of  their 
most  cherished  observation  posts; 
they  lost  Bullecourt,  where  the 
Drocourt-Queant  or  Wotan  Line 
joined  the  main  Siegfried  posi- 
tion; they  lost  between  six  and 
seven  miles  of  the  cherished 
Siegfried  Line  itself.  The  de- 
fences of  which  they  boasted 
for  six  months  had  proved  no 
more  impregnable  than  Thiepval 
or  Quillemont. 

German  Drive  on  Arras, 
March  28,  iPiS.— During  the 
last  days  of  the  Second  Battle 
of  the  Somme,  the  Germans  made 
a  desperate  drive  for  Arras. 
The  front  of  assault  was  across 
the  valley  of  the  Scarpe  from 
the  neighborhood  of  Gavrelle 
as  far  south  as  Puisieux.  Von 
Below  had  three  fresh  divisions 
north  of  the  Scarpe,  besides  two 
in  hne;  against  Arras  he  had 
four  divisions;  while  southward 
towards  Serre  no  less  than  eleven 
divisions  were  disposed  for  the 
attack.  The  British  forces  north 
of  the  Scarpe  were  de  Lisle' s 
Thirteenth  Corps  on  the  right  of 
Home's  First  Army;  and  from 
Arras  to  Bulquoy  Ferg'usson's 
Seventeenth  Corps  and  Hal- 
dane ' s  Sixth  Corp s.  (See  Somme, 
Second  Battle  of). 

The  advance  was  made  after 
a  short  but  fierce  bombardment, 
and  was  met  by  the  British  guns 
under  perfect  conditions  by 
which,  before  the  zero  hour,  the 
enemy  mass  assembling  on 
Greenland  Hill  was  broken  up. 
Everywhere  the  Germans  at- 
tacked with  great  resolution,  in 
some  places  in  six  lines,  shoulder 
to  shoulder,  making  superb  tar- 
gets for  the  British  artillery. 
The  weight  of  the  shock  carried 
them  through  the  gaps  in  the 
outpost  line,  but  they  were 
firmly  held  long  before  they 
reached  the  battle  zone,  while 
the  outpost  garrisons  turned 
their  machine  guns  and  caught 
the  Germans  in  the  rear.  The 
attack  north  of  the  Scarpe  hav- 
ing been  repelled,  the  Germans 
began  a  new  bombardment  after 
midday,  and  late  in  the  after- 
noon launched  another  attack, 
but  with  no  better  results. 
South  of  the  Scarpe  all  attacks 
from  Boiry  to  Bucquoy  were 
beaten  off  except  on  the  extreme 
right,  south  of  Dcrmancourt, 
where  the  British  fell  back  to 
the  line  Mericourt-Sailly-le-Sac. 
Otto  von  Below's  great  effort 
was  a  complete  failure. 


Arrebo 


392 


Arrest 


Last  Battle,  Aug.  26-Sept.  12, 
1918.— The  Second  Battle  of  the 
Mame  (see  Marne,  Battles  of) 
restored  the  initiative  to  the  Al- 
lies. That  is  to  say,  they  had  now 
power  to  impose  their  will  upon 
the  Germans  to  the  extent  of  de- 
ciding the  form  and  the  time  of 
an  action.  The  Germans  had 
blundered  in  a  trying  hour,  and 
had  thus  given  Foch  the  chance 
for  a  coup  which  restored  to  him 
the  initiative.  He  had  now  in 
addition  a  final  superiority  in 
men  and  materials,  and,  more- 
ever,  had — -what  is  not  neces- 
sarily the  same  thing — this  su- 
periority translated  into  a  greater 
number  of  reserve  divisions. 
This  tactical  freedom  enabled 
him  to  ring  the  changes  over  the 
entire  battle  front.  The  Germans 
might  attack,  but  the  attack 
would  be  the  result  of  Allied  com- 
pulsion, and  so  foreseen  and  pre- 
pared for,  whereas  the  Allied  of- 
fensives would  come  of  their  own 
free  will.  Foch,  however,  was  not 
yet  ready  for  the  grand  climax, 
the  decisive  blow.  It  was  his 
business  to  wear  down  the  Ger- 
mans continuously  and  methodi- 
cally by  attacks  on  limited 
fronts,  aiming  at  strictly  limited 
objectives.  These  actions  for 
limited  objectives  were  the  last 
battles  of  the  Somme,  Aisne,  St. 
Mihiel  (qq.  v.),  and  Arras. 

Up  to  August  26,  1918,  the 
Allied  Armies  had  attacked  the 
Germans  across  and  south  of  the 
Somme  and  on  the  Aisne,  but  on 
that  day  Haig  struck  again,  this 
time  with  Home's  First  Army 
astride  the  Scarpe.  It  was  a 
preparation  for  the  next  great 
stage  of  the  British  advance. 
At  3  A.M.  Sir  Arthur  Currie,  with 
his  Canadians,  attacked  on  a 
five-mile  front.  Wancourt  and 
the  old  storm  centre  of  Monchy 
and  Gu6mappe,  were  taken,  and 
by  nightfall  the  advance  had 
reached  the  outskirts  of  Roeux, 
winning  as  much  in  a  day  as 
had  been  won  in  six  weeks  in 
the  same  area  during  the  Second 
Battle  of  Arras  in  1917.  Next 
day  the  advance  continued, 
and  Roeux  and  Gavrelle  fell; 
to  the  south  Horne  took  Green- 
land Hill,  while  Byng's  New 
Zealanders  entered  Bapaume. 
This  was  a  grave  matter  for 
Ludendorff,  for  he  saw  both 
his  line  and  his  reserves  shrink- 
ing with  a  perilous  speed.  He 
had  all  but  lost  the  Bapaume 
ridge  by  being  outflanked  and 
Horne,  on  the  Scarpe,  threat- 
ened to  turn  the  Siegfried  Line 
itself.  He  still  clung  to  the 
hope  of  an  intermediate  stand, 
to  enable  him  to  withdraw  in 
good  order  to  the  Siegfried 
Line,  when  the  weather  broke. 
His  scheme  was  to  take  position 
on  a  front  which  was  roughly  that 
of  the  Ailettc  and  the  Oise,  the 
upper  Somme  and  the  Tortille. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


On  August  30  Home  moved 
along  the  Arras- Cambrai  road, 
and  found  the  German  resist- 
ance stiffening.  Nevertheless, 
by  that  evening  the  Canadians 
were  in  Ecoust-St.  Mein  and 
Haucourt,  and  the  British  on 
their  left  had  taken  Eterpigny. 
Horne  was  then  in  close  touch 
with  the  famous  Drocourt- 
Queant  Switch,  which  had  been 
constructed  to  link  up  the  Sieg- 
fried Line  proper  with  the  old 
German  front  south  of  Lens 
after  the  battle  of  Arras  had 
destroyed  the  northern  Sieg- 
fried pivot.  Further  south  he 
reached  Bullecourt,  and  cap- 
tured Bancourt  and  Vaulx- 
Vraucourt.  The  next  day  vio- 
lent counter-assaults  against  the 
new  British  front  between  the 
Scarpe  and  the  Somme  were 
repelled  with  ease.  Luden- 
dorff's  intermediate  position  had 
gone,  and  he  was  once  more  a 
wanderer  struggling  to  find  a 
resting-place  short  of  the  main 
Siegfried  Line.  The  ceaseless 
pressure  of  the  Allies  delayed 
his  going  and  unless  he  found 
some  intermediate  defence,  he 
might  never  reach  that  line.  He 
hoped,  by  means  of  the  Canal 
du  Nord,  to  check  Byng,  while 
to  the  north  and  south,  his 
men  retired  before  Horne  and 
Rawlinson  behind  the  Dro- 
court  Queant  Switch  and  the 
main  Siegfried  front.  On  Sept. 
1  the  Australians  entered  Pe- 
ronne. 

On  Sept.  2  the  right  wing  of 
Home's  First  Army,  Currie's 
Canadian  Corps,  and  Fergus- 
son's  Seventeenth  Corps  of 
the  Third  Army,  attacked  at 
5  A.M.  astride  the  Arras-Cam- 
brai  road  against  the  Drocourt- 
Qu^ant  Switch.  It  was,  as  the 
Germans  well  knew,  the  key 
of  their  whole  front,  and  they 
had  no  less  than  eleven  divisions 
on  the  nine  miles,  between  the 
Sensee  and  Queant.  The  at- 
tack went  clean  through  all 
the  lines  of  one  of  the  strongest 
positions  in  the  West,  taking 
six  miles  of  the  Switch,  and  the 
villages  of  Etaing,  Dury  with  its 
important  Hill  of  Dury,  Vil- 
liers-les-Cagnicourt,  Cagnicourt, 
and  Noreuil,  and  netting  8,000 
prisoners. 

The  feat  was  one  of  the  great- 
est in  the  campaign,  and  it  made 
Ludendorff' s  plans  for  an  inter- 
mediate stand  impossible.  He 
had  no  time  for  counter-attacks 
but  hurried  his  troops  in  the 
south  behind  the  Canal  du 
Nord,  and,  in  place  of  the  old 
Switch,  put  his  trust  in  the  line 
of  water  and  marsh  in  the  Sen- 
see Valley  east  of  Etaing  which 
protected  Douai,  and  which 
was  continued  southward  from 
Marquion  by  the  Agache  River 
and  the  Canal  du  Nord.  By 
evening  of  Sept.  4,  the  British 


troops  were  on  the  Canal  bank, 
and  found  the  Germans  in- 
trenched on  the  east  side  every- 
where from  the  Scarpe  to  the 
Tortille.  The  next  day  Lens 
was  evacuated. 

For  a  week  following  the  Al- 
lied armies  were  occupied  only 
in  pressing  the  German  retreat. 
They  struck  no  great  blow,  for 
their  immediate  task  was  to 
secure  the  kind  of  front  upon 
which  to  launch  a  final  battle 
for  which  Foch  had  been  pre- 
paring since  July.  Douai  was 
covered  by  the  water  line,  Cam- 
brai and  St.  Quentin  by  the 
Siegfried  zone,  and  Laon  by 
the  difficulties  of  the  St.  Gobain 
massif.  The  whole  front  which 
Ludendorff  had  vainly  hoped 
to  establish  for  the  winter  in 
impenetrable  defences,  was  a 
thing  of  angles  and  patches, 
and  parts  of  it  as  fluid  as  wax 
under  a  flame.  On  Sept.  10,  he 
had  drawn  in  his  front  between 
the  Sensee  and  the  Oise,  and 
from  the  Scarpe  to  the  Aisne 
was  holding  a  straight  fine.  The 
result  of  this  was  to  shorten  his 
front  by  70  miles,  as  compared 
with  July  14,  which  meant  a 
saving  of  30  divisions.  In  front 
of  his  line  he  held  two  strong 
forward  positions  about  Havrin- 
court  and  Epehy,  which  Byng 
took  with  his  Fourth  and  Sixth 
Corps  on  Sept.  12.  Ludendorff 
finally  set  to  work  strengthening 
every  natural  defence,  such  as 
the  northern  pillar  on  the  Pass- 
chendaele  and  Wytschaete 
heights,  and  increased  by  inun- 
dation the  depth  of  the  water 
line.  He  also  prepared  positions 
well  to  his  rear,  and  evacuated 
the  civilian  population  of  Douai, 
Cambrai,  and  St.  Quentin.  The 
British  were  for  the  most  part  in 
and  beyond  the  front  lines  which 
they  held  prior  to  March  21. 

Between  March  and  May, 
1917.  the  British  had  forced  the 
Germans  back  to  the  Siegfried 
zone,  taking  in  the  process 
21,000  prisoners  and  257  guns. 
In  1918,  starting  from  a  front 
many  miles  further  west,  they 
had  performed  the  same  feat 
in  one  month,  and  had  70,000 
prisoners  and  700  guns  to  their 
credit. 

Arrebo,  ar're-b5,  Anders 
CllRlSTENSEN  (1587-1637).  Dan- 
ish poet,  was  born  in  ^ro.  He 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Trond- 
hjem  (1618).  but  was  deposed 
in  1622.  and  afterward  rein- 
stated as  preacher  of  Vor- 
dingborg.  He  was  styled  'the 
father  of  Danish  poetry'  for  his 
innovations  of  the  renaissance. 
He  published  Hexa'emeron  (1641- 
61).  a  description  of  the  six  days 
of  creation,  and  a  metrical  trans- 
ation  of  the  Psalms  of  David. 
Consult  Life  by  Rordam. 

Arrest.  The  act  of  taking  a 
person  into  custody  by  authority 


Arrest  of  Judgment 

of  law.  Arrest  was  formerly  ex- 
tensively employed  in  civil  cases, 
especially  as  a  creditor's  process 
for  compelling  the  payment  of 
debts,  but  its  use  for  this  purpose 
has  been  generally  done  away 
with  by  statute.  It  is  now  sel- 
dom employed  in  civil  cases  ex- 
cept where  a  debtor  is  fraudu- 
lently concealing  himself  or  his 
property  to  avoid  legal  process, 
and  even  in  such  cases  it  is  closely 
regulated  by  law.  Arrest  is  still, 
however,  the  ordinary  process  of 
apprehending  a  person  accused 
of  crime.  It  may  be  on  warrant 
or  without  warrant.  Any  justice 
may  issue  a  warrant  for  the  arrest 
of  any  person  for  any  offence 
upon  a  sworn  information  being 
laid  before  him.  Without  war- 
rant a  private  person  may,  by 
common  law,  arrest  any  one  com- 
mitting a  felony  in  his  presence, 
or  any  one  whom  he  reasonably 
suspects  of  committing  a  felony, 
if  a  felony  has  in  fact  been  com- 
mitted. He  may  not  arrest  for  a 
misdemeanor  except  under  special 
statutory  authority.  A  constable 
may  arrest  without  warrant  upon 
reasonable  suspicion  that  a  felony 
has  been  committed,  and  that  the 
person  he  arrests  is  guilty  of  it, 
even  though  no  felony  has  been 
committed,  and  whether  the 
grounds  of  his  suspicion  are  facts 
within  his  own  knowledge  or 
stated  to  him  by  another.  He  is 
not  generally  justified  in  arresting 
without  warrant  for  a  misde- 
meanor, but  he  may  do  so  if  a 
breach  of  the  peace  is  committed 
in  his  presence,  or  in  the  pres- 
ence of  some  one  who  gives  the 
prisoner  in  charge,  and  there  is 
danger  of  immediate  re- 
newal. 

Arrest  of  Judgment.  A  per- 
manent stay  of  judgment  on  a 
verdict  rendered  in  a  court  of  law 
by  reason  of  a  fatal  error  in  the 
proceedings  or  a  fatal  and  incur- 
able variance  between  the  allega- 
tions and  the  proof  or  between 
the  proof  and  the  verdict.  The 
procedure  is  summary,  on  motion 
and  order,  and  is  at  common  law 
final  and  conclusive,  though  by 
statute  an  action  in  which  judg- 
ment has  been  arrested  may  in 
a  proper  cavse  be  renewed.  This 
remedy  is  not  available  to  secure 
the  reopening  of  a  case  on  the 
ground  of  newly  discovered  evi- 
dence, nor  can  it  be  employed  in 
any  case  after  final  judgment  has 
been  rendered. 

Arretlum,  Italy.  See  Arezzo. 

Arrhenlus,  a-re'ni-us,  Svante 
(1859-  ),  Swedish  chemist, 
was  born  near  Upsala.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of 
Upsala  (PH.D.  1884),  and  became 
teacher  of  physics  at  Stockholm 
in  1891,  and  professor  in  1895. 
His  most  fruitful  work  has  been 
in  putting  the  dissociation  theory 
of  electrolysis  on  a  sound  ex- 
perimental basis.  He  received 
the  Davy  medal  in  1902,  was 


393 

elected  a  foreign  member  of  the 
British  Chemical  Society  in  1898, 
was  awarded  the  Nobel  Prize  in 
1903,  and  was  appointed  Director 
of  the  Physico-Chemical  De- 
partment of  the  Nobel  Institute 
in  1905.  In  1914  he  received  the 
Faraday  medal.  His  publications 
include  Electrochemistry,  trans- 
lated by  M'Crae  (1901);  Im- 
munochemistry  (1906);  Theories 
of  Chemistry  (1906) ;  Worlds  in  the 
Making  (1908);  Life  of  the 
Universe  (1909);  Quantitative 
Laws  in  Biological  Chemistry 
(1915);  The  Destinies  of  the 
Stars  (1918);  Chemistry  and 
Modern  Life  (1919). 

Arria.  See  P^tus. 

Arriaga,  ar're-a'ga,  Manoel 
Jose  de  (1842-1917),  Portu- 
guese statesman,  the  first  presi- 
dent of  the  Portuguese  republic, 
was  born  in  Horta,  in  the 
Azores.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Coimbra, 
studied  law,  and  entered  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  as  a 
Republican.  He  was  actively 
identified  with  the  movement 
which  overthrew  King  Manuel 
in  1911,  and  under  the  new  con- 
stitution became  president  of  the 
republic,  a  position  he  held  until 
1915,  when  he  was  succeeded 
by  Theophilo  Braga.  Arriaga 
was  distinguished  as  an  orator, 
poet,  and  writer  on  political 
economy. 

Arria'nus  or  Arrian  (c.  90- 
170  A.D.),  Greek  historian,  pupil 
and  friend  of  Epictetus,  was 
born  in  Nicomedia,  in  Bithynia. 
The  Emperor  Hadrian  appointed 
him  prefect  of  Cappadocia  and 
in  137  he  defeated  an  invading 
horde  of  Alani.  In  147  he  became 
Archon  Eponymos  in  Athens,  but 
during  his  latter  years  seems  to 
have  retired  from  public  life  and 
devoted  himself  to  writing. 

As  a  writer  he  strove  to  be  to 
Epictetus  what  Xenophon  had 
been  to  Socrates,  his  Discourses 
of  Epictetus  and  Enchiridion 
Epicteti  being  attempts  to  per- 
petuate verbatim  the  philos- 
opher's conversations  with  him- 
self and  others.  He  is  best 
known,  however,  for  his  Anab- 
asis of  Alexander  the  Great,  a 
graphic  and  trustworthy  ac- 
count, in  seven  volumes,  of  that 
ruler's  life  and  campaigns  in 
Asia.  Other  works  are  Cynegetica, 
a  treatise  on  hunting;  Tactics; 
The  Events  after  Alexander;  The 
Parthica;  The  Bithyniaca,  the 
three  last  named  of  which  have 
been  lost. 

Arrianus*  style  is  clear  and 
simple;  as  a  critical  historian  he 
deserves  great  credit  for  having 
made  use  of  authoritative  matter 
now  lost.  There  is  an  edition  of 
his  works  by  Diibner  and  Miiller 
(1846),  an  English  translation  of 
the  Anabasis  by  Chinnoch  (1893) 
and  of  the  philosophical  works  by 
Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson 
(1891). 


Arrowrock  Dam 

Arriaza  y  Superviela,  ar-e-a'- 
tha  e  soo-per-uya'la,  Juan 
Bautista  de  (1770-1837),  Span- 
ish poet,  was  born  in  Madrid. 
His  early  poems  are  erotic;  but 
his  Poestas  patrioticas,  pub- 
lished in  London  during  his  exile 
in  1810,  are  full  of  fire  and  elo- 
quence. On  the  return  of  King 
Ferdinand  after  the  war,  Arriaza 
became  a  court  poet. 

Arrondissement,  a-roh-des- 
man',  the  principal  civil  division 
of  the  department  in  France.  It 
is  divided  into  cantons,  and  each 
canton  into  communes.  Every 
arrondissement  is  governed  by  a 
sub-prefect  and  council. 

Arrow,  a  wooden  shaft  tipped 
with  stone,  metal,  or  bone,  and 
notched  and  feathered  at  the 
butt,  discharged  by  hand  from  a 
bow.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  objects  made  by  man, 
no  other  weapon  being  traced 
to  a  more  distant  or  simpler 
beginning. 

Prehistoric  flint  arrow-heads 
display  numerous  forms,  and 
range  in  length  from  half  an  inch 
to  three  inches.  The  Egyptians 
favored  a  chisel-like  arrow-head, 
while  those  of  early  Greece  were 
made  of  bronze.  In  America  flint 
triangular  arrow-heads,  notched 
at  the  base  so  that  they  could  be 
bound  to  the  shaft  with  sinew 
thread,  were  in  general  use  among 
the  Indians.  Occasionally  tips  of 
antlers  were  sharpened  and  the 
shaft  inserted  in  the  hollow  at  the 
base,  while  in  the  Great  Lakes 
region  similar  heads  were  made  of 
native  copper.  Barbed  arrows 
were  in  use  among  the  fishing 
tribes  of  the  North  Pacific  Coast 
and  in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon. 

In  all  parts  of  America  the 
shafts  were  of  willow,  cane,  or 
similar  material,  those  of  Mexico 
and  South  America  usually  of 
two  parts,  a  main  shaft  of  cane 
and  a  fore-shaft  of  hard  wood,  to 
which  the  head  was  fastened.  As 
a  rule,  three  feathers  were  sym- 
metrically arranged  on  the  butt 
of  the  shaft,  though  the  Eskimo 
and  Amazon  tribes  often  used  but 
two.  Shafts  with  knob-like  heads 
were  used  for  bringing  down 
birds  and  in  target  practice. 

The  tools  used  by  the  Indians 
in  arrow  making  were  flakers  for 
shaping  the  stone  heads;  straight- 
eners,  wrench-like  objects  of 
bone,  and  polishers  of  grooved 
sandstone  for  working  out  the 
shafts.    See  also  Archery. 

Arrowgrass,  two  small,  erect, 
grass-like  plants  of  the  genus 
Triglochin;  one  is  found  in  wet 
meadows,  and  the  other  in 
marshes  overflowed  by  the  tide. 

Arrowhead,  any  member  of 
the  genus  vSagittaria  (q.v.). 

Arrowrock  Dam,  the  chief 
engineering  feature  of  the  Boise 
Project,  Idaho.  It  is  located  in  a 
canon  of  the  Boise  River,  with  a 
granite  foundation  90  feet  below 
the  bed  of  the  stream.     It  is 

Vol.  I.— March  '27 


Arrowroot 


394 


Arsenic 


3,486  feet  high,  1,100  feet  long, 
and  contains  585,200  yards  of 
concrete.  The  dam  has  twenty 
outlets,  three  of  which  are  6  feet, 
and  the  rest  4  feet  4  inches,  in 
diameter.  These  outlets  are  ar- 
ranged in  sets  of  ten,  the  upper 
ten  110  feet  below  the  top  of  the 
dam,  the  lower  set,  90  feet 
below  the  upper.  There  are  five 
sluicing  outlets,  5  feet  in  diam- 
eter, each  controlled  by  a  sliding 
gate.  The  dam  was  completed 
in  1915  at  a  cost  of  nearly 
$4,500,000.  See  Boise  Project. 

Arrowroot,  an  edible  starch 
obtained  from  the  root  stock  of 
various  plants.  The  true  arrow- 
root comes  from  the  rhizomes  of 
Maranta  ariindinacea,  a  West 
Indian  plant  of  the  order  Maran- 
tacece.  These  are  dug  when  about 
a  year  old,  and  after  thorough 
cleaning  are  reduced  to  a  pulp, 
whence  a  milky  liquid  is  ob- 
tained. This  liquid  is  strained 
and  the  starch  allowed  to  settle 
as  an  insoluble  powder,  which  is 
dried  in  the  sun  or  in  drying 
houses.  It  is  a  light,  white, 
odorless  powder,  easily  digested, 
and  often  recommended  as  a 
food  for  invalids  and  children. 
It  is  used  also  in  making  cakes, 
biscuits,  jellies,  and  broths. 

Other  forms  of  arrowroot  are 
the  East  Indian,  obtained  from 
species  of  Curcuma;  Florida, 
from  species  of  Zamia;  English, 
from  potatoes  or  maize;  and 
Portland,  from  Arum  maculatum. 
Brazilian  arrowroot  is  obtained 
from  the  Cassava  (q.v.). 

Arrows  mith,  Aaron  (1750- 
1823),  English  geographer  and 
maker  of  maps,  all  of  great 
merit.  His  chief  maps  are  those 
of  the  World  (1790);  of  North 
America,  based  chiefly  on  the 
Mss.  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Co.;  of 
Scotland  (1807),  based  chiefly  on 
Military  Survey  of  Scotland, 
I745~55<  rnade  at  the  instance 
of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland;  and 
of  South  India. 

Arrows  mith,  John  (1790- 
1873),  British  cartographer,  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  (1830). 
Having  succeeded  to  the  map- 
publishing  business  founded  by 
his  uncle  Aaron,  he  published 
(1)  large  maps  and  charts — e.g., 
his  London  Atlas,  for  the  third 
edition  of  which  (1858)  10,000 
sheets  were  examined ;  (2)  smaller 
maps  (illustrative  of  expeditions) 
in  books  of  travel,  and  in  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society's 
journals;  (3)  after  1861,  improve- 
ments of  older  maps,  and  illustra- 
tions of  other  geographical  works. 

Arrow  Worms,  small,  trans- 
parent creatures  often  found  in 
enormous  numbers  at  the  surface 
of  the  sea.  The  common  genera 
are  vSagitta  and  Spadella. 

Arru  Islands.  See  Aru  Is- 
lands. 

ArsacCvS,  iir-sa'sez,  the  founder 
of   the   Parthian  empire.  He 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


raised  a  revolt  among  the  Par- 
thians  against  Antiochus  ii.  of 
Syria,  and  was  the  first  king  of 
Parthia,  about  250  B.C.,  reigning 
two  years.  His  name  was~  borne 
by  all  his  successors,  of  whom  the 
last  was  Arsaces  xxxi.  (Arta- 
banus  iv.),  whose  power  was 
overthrown  by  the  Persians  in 
226  A.D.  A  branch  of  the  dynasty 
ruled  over  Armenia  from  147  B.C. 

to  430  A.D. 

Ar'senal,  a  government  estab- 
lishment for  the  manufacture, 
repair,  storage,  and  issue  of  arms, 
ammunition,  and  munitions  of 
war  for  the  land  forces.  As  early 
as  1776  the  U.  S.  Government 
undertook  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder,  and  the  next  year 
Washington  selected  Springfield, 
Mass.,  as  the  site  of  the  first 
arsenal.  The  manufacture  of 
small  arms  begun  there  in  1787 
has  continued  to  the  present  day. 
Harper's  Ferry,  the  next  arsenal, 
was  built  in  1795,  and  others 
were  erected  at  various  times, 
until,  in  1900,  the  United  States 
had  seventeen  establishments  of 
the  kind,  several  of  which  have 
since  been  abandoned. 

The  greater  part  of  the  powder 
and  many  of  the  heavy  guns  used 
by  the  U.  S.  forces  are  now  made 
by  private  manufacturing  firms, 
but  arsenals  are  still  maintained 
as  follows:  Augusta,  Augusta, 
Ga.;  Benicia,  Benicia,  Cal.; 
Frankford,  Frankford,  Pa.;  Pica- 
tinny,  Dover,  N.  J.;  Raritan, 
Metuchen,  N.  J.;  Rock  Island, 
Rock  Island,  111.;  San  Antonio, 
San  Antonio,  Tex.;  Springfield 
Armory,  Springfield,  Mass.;  U.  S. 
Nitrate  Plant  No.  1,  Sheffield, 
Ala.;  U.  S.  Nitrate  Plant  No.  2, 
Muscle  Shoals,  Ala.;  Watertown, 
Watertown,  Mass.;  Watervliet, 
Watervliet,  N.  Y.;  Edgewood 
Arsenal,  Edgewood,  Md.  There 
are,  in  addition,  proving  grounds 
at  Aberdeen,  Md.,  Port  Clinton, 
Ohio,  and  Savanna,  111. 

In  Great  Britain  the  only  ar- 
senal prior  to  the  Great  War  was 
that  at  Woolwich,  but  during  the 
war  temporary  munition  works 
were  established  at  various  other 
points. 

In  Continental  Europe  the 
term  arsenal  has  been  applied  to 
the  great  naval  establishments, 
as  those  at  Brest,  Cherbourg,  and 
Toulon.  In  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  such  establish- 
ments are  known  as  navy  yards 
(q.v.).  See  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment. 

Ar'senlc  (As,  75.96),  a  semi- 
metallic  element  widely  distrib- 
uted in  nature.  It  rarely  occurs 
native,  but  usually  combined 
with  sulphur,  iron,  and  other 
elements,  as  in  realgar,  AS2S2, 
arsenical  iron,  and  particularly  as 
mispickel  or  arsenical  pyrites, 
FeSAs.  The  element  is  prepared 
by  heating  mispickel,  upon  which 
the  arsenic  sublimes,  and  ferrous 
sulphide  is  left. 


Arsenic  is  a  steel-gray,  brittle, 
crystalline  solid  that  sublimes 
when  heated,  being  deposited 
partly  in  crystals  and  partly  as  a 
black,  amorphous  solid.  It  tar- 
nishes in  air,  and  is  rapidly  oxi- 
dized if  heated  with  it,  giving  off 
a  garlic-like  odor,  and  forming 
arsenious  anhydride,  AS2O3.  It 
is  poisonous,  and  is  chiefly 
used  to  harden  and  improve  the 
sphericity  of  shot,  for  bro;izing, 
and  in  pyrotechny. 

Arsenic  forms  two  oxides, 
AS2O3  and  AS2O5,  both  of  which 
are  acid  anhydrides.  Arsenious 
anhydride,  or  white  arsenic, 
AS2O3,  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant compound  of  arsenic,  and  is 
obtained  by  roasting  arsenical 
pyrites  in  air  and  condensing  the 
fumes  in  large  chambers.  As 
many  metallic  ores  are  contam- 
inated with  arsenical  pyrites  and 
similar  compounds,  white  arsenic 
is  commonly  obtained  as  a  by- 
product in  their  preliminary 
preparation  by  roasting.  This  is 
notably  the  case  with  tin  ores. 
Arsenious  anhydride  is  a  white 
solid,  which  crystallizes,  as  a  rule, 
in  brilliant  octahedra,  but  if 
sublimed  under  pressure  it  is 
glassy  and  amorphous.  It  is  very 
volatile,  and  only  slightly  soluble 
in  water.  It  is  extremely  poison- 
ous; though,  if  taken  habitually, 
a  considerable  tolerance  may  be 
acquired.  Arsenic  anhydride, 
AS2O5,  is  more  acid  and  less 
poisonous  than  the  arsenious 
oxide,  from  which  it  is  obtained 
by  oxidation.  It  and  its  salts  are 
used  in  dyeing  calico  and  wall- 
paper printing.  The  use  of 
Scheele's  green  and  Schweinfurth 
green  in  the  printing  of  wall 
papers  has  led  to  cases  of  arseni- 
cal poisoning.  The  sulphides  of 
arsenic,  orpiment,  AS2S3,  and 
realgar,  AS2S2,  are  used  as  paints 
and  in  pyrotechny. 

Arsine,  or  arseniuretted  hydro- 
gen, AsHs,  is  evolved  as  an  in- 
tensely poisonous  gas  whenever 
hydrogen  is  set  free  in  the  pres- 
ence of  arsenic  or  its  compounds, 
being  decomposed  again  on  heat- 
ing. Its  formation  and  decom- 
position are  the  bavsis  of  Marsh's 
test  for  arsenic,  which  is  carried 
out  as  follows:  —  Hydrogen  is 
evolved  in  a  small  flask  fitted 
with  a  thistle  funnel,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  arsenic-free  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid  on  arsenic-free  zinc — 
the  gas,  after  filtration  through 
cotton-wool,  being  passed  through 
a  fine,  hard  glass  tube,  provided 
with  a  tip  slightly  turned  up  at 
the  end.  As  soon  as  the  hydro- 
gen burns  quietly  after  collection 
the  tube  is  heated;  and  if,  after 
the  lapse  of  a  sufficient  time,  no 
mirror  forms  on  it,  the  materials 
may  be  considered  pure.  A 
suitable  solution  of  the  substance 
susr)ected  to  contain  ansenic  is 
then  added  through  the  funnel, 
whereupon  the  formation  of  a 
mirror  shows  the  presence  of 


Arsenical  Poisoning 


395 


Art 


arsenic.  This  can  be  confirmed 
by  heating  the  mirror  with  air 
in  the  tube,  when,  if  of  arsenic, 
microscopic  octahedra  of  AS2O3 
will  be  formed.  Another  test  for 
arsenic  is  that  of  Reinsch.  It 
consists  in  heating  the  suspected 
liquid  with  pure  copper  foil  and 
hydrochloric  acid,  when  the  cop- 
per receives  a  gray  deposit,  which 
on  sublimation  yields  octahedra 
if  arsenic  is  present.  In  the 
Gutzeit  test  sheets  of  lead  ace- 
tate paper  are  exposed  to  the 
gas  evolved  in  the  Marsh  test 
apparatus,  and  the  amount  of 
arsenic  present  is  gauged  by  the 
extent  of  coloration  of  this  paper. 

The  largest  use  of  arsenic  at 
the  present  time  is  in  various 
insecticides,  as  the  arsenates  of 
calcium  and  lead  and  Paris  green. 
In  1925,  21,131  tons  of  arsenic 
tri-oxide,  or  white  arsenic,  were 
used  in  the  United  States  and  476 
tons  of  arsenic  sulphide,  or  orpi- 
ment.  The  estimated  amount  of 
white  arsenic  consumed  in  the 
United  States  for  agricultural 
purposes  during  1925  was  13,850 
tons.  The  greater  part  of  this 
was  used  in  fighting  the  cotton 
boll  weevil.   (See  Insecticides.) 

Medicinally  the  salts  of  arsenic 
are  used  as  tonics  and  alteratives 
in  anaemia,  chronic  malaria, 
asthma,  eczema,  and  other  skin 
affections.  Arsenic  preparations 
are  also  used  extensively  in  syph- 
ilis. (See  Salvarsan.) 

Arsenical  Poisoning.  Acute 
arsenic  poisoning  due  to  an  over- 
dose of  the  drug  is  characterized 
by  a  burning  feeling  in  the  ab- 
domen, violent  vomiting,  dryness 
of  the  mouth  and  intense  thirst, 
intestinal  irritation,  bloody  and 
offensive  evacuations,  rapid  and 
feeble  heart  action,  difficulty  in 
breathing,  great  agitation,  and 
collapse.  In  some  very  acute 
cases  coma  appears  suddenly, 
followed  by  death.  The  antidote 
is  hydrated  sesquioxid  of  iron, 
which  may  be  prepared  in  an 
emergency  by  adding  ammonia 
to  the  tincture  of  chlorid  of  iron 
and  washing  the  precipitate  with 
water.  This  should  be  followed 
by  castor  oil  and  draughts  of 
demulcent  drinks,  opium,  ex- 
ternal heat,  and  stimulants.  If 
there  is  a  tendency  to  suppression 
of  the  urine,  water  containing 
sweet  spirits  of  nitre  should  be 
♦  given  freely.  One  half-grain  of 
arsenic  may  produce  symptoms 
of  poisoning,  and  from  two  to 
four  grains  may  prove  fatal  to  an 
adult. 

Arsenical  poisoning  occurs  in 
industry  as  a  result  of  inhalation 
of  or  contact  with  the  dust  of 
arsenic  salts  and  the  inhalation 
of  arseniuretted  hydrogen  gas. 
Poisoning  due  to  arsenic  salts  was 
formerly  frequently  attributable 
to  contact  with  arsenical  pig- 
ments used  in  coloring  artificial 
flowers  and  wall  papers,  but  since 
the  introduction  of  anilin  colors. 


it  is  largely  confined  to  persons 
handling  insecticides,  as  Paris 
and  emerald  green.  It  is  charac- 
terized by  an  acneiform  or  ecze- 
matous  eruption — the  so-called 
'arsenic  pock.'  Poisoning  by 
arseniuretted  hydrogen  gas  oc- 
curs mainly  in  the  chemical  and 
metallic  industries. 

Arsenius,  ar-se'-ni-us,  sur- 
named  The  Saint  (c.  354-450), 
an  Egyptian  monk;  was  tutor  to 
Arcadius  and  Honorius,  sons  of 
Theodosius  the  Great.  He  is 
honored  in  the  Greek  Church  on 
May  8,  and  in  the  Latin  on  July  19. 

Arsenius,  surnamed  Antori- 
ANUS,  was  appointed  (1255) 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  by 
Theodorus  Laskaris  11.,  who  also 
made  him,  with  George  Muzalon, 
guardian  of  his  son,  John  iv. 
When  Michael  viii.  (Palacologus), 
who  had  deposed  and  blinded 
John  IV.,  demanded  absolution, 
Arsenius  refused  it,  and  excom- 
municated him.  Michael  there- 
upon deprived  Arsenius  of  his 
rank,  and  banished  him  (1267). 
He  died  in  1273. 

Arsenobenzol.  See  Salvar- 
san. 

Arsenopyrite.   See  Arsenic; 

MiSPICKEL 

Arsinoe,  ar-sin'o-e,  in  Greek 
legend,  a  daughter  of  Phegeus 
and  wife  of  Alcmseon  (q.v.).  Her 
brothers,  having  incurred  her 
displeasure  by  slaying  her  faith- 
less husband,  sought  revenge  by 
carrying  her  in  a  chest  to  Aga- 
penor  and  accusing  her  of  the 
crime.  She  was  put  to  death  but 
not  before  she  had  induced  the 
sons  of  Alcmaeon  to  kill  her 
brothers. 

Arsinoe,  in  Egyptian  history, 
the  name  of  several  women 
famous  among  the  Ptolemies. 
Among  them  were  (l)  the  mother 
of  Ptolemy  i.;  (2)  the  daughter 
of  Ptolemy  i.,  and  wife  succes- 
sively of  Lysimachus,  of  Ptolemy 
Ceraunus,  who  murdered  her 
sons  by  Lysimachus,  and  her  own 
brother,  Ptolemy  11.,  who  named 
many  cities  in  her  honor;  (3)  the 
daughter  of  Lysimachus  and 
Nicaea,  first  wife  of  Ptolemy  11., 
who  banished  her  to  Coptos  in 
order  to  marry  his  sister  Arsinoe; 
(4)  a  daughter  of  Ptolemy  xi., 
who  escaped  from  Caesar  and 
was  recognized  as  queen  by  the 
Alexandrians,  but  after  the  cap- 
ture of  that  city  was  carried  to 
Rome  and  led  in  triumph  through 
the  city.  Later  she  was  put  to 
death  by  Anthony  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Cleopatra. 

Arsis  and  Thesis  (Gr.  'eleva- 
tion' and  'depression').  In  pros- 
ody, arsis  signifies  the  strong  or 
primary  accent  in  a  word,  thesis 
the  weak  or  secondary  accent.  In 
music,  they  denote  respectively 
the  strong  and  the  weak  beat  in 
a  bar;  the  reverse  of  the  Greek 
usage,  as,  in  the  choric  dances, 
the  arsis,  or  upward  movement 
of  the  foot,  was  the  weaker. 


Ar'son.  The  act  of  unlawfully 
and  maliciously  setting  fire  to  a 
house,  barn,  or  other  building  of 
another.  It  is  not  arson  at  com- 
mon law  to  burn  standing  corn, 
stacked  hay,  timber,  or  other  per- 
sonal property  of  another,  nor  to 
burn  one's  own  house,  even 
though  the  object  thereof  be  to 
injure  or  defraud  another  person, 
as  a  mortgagee  or  insurer  of  the 
premises.  In  some  jurisdictions 
some  or  all  of  these  acts  have 
fallen  within  statutory  definitions 
of  arson,  and  in  all  jurisdictions 
the  intentional  infliction  of  injury 
upon  another  by  means  of  fire  is 
punishable  as  a  crime.  Arson 
was  long  dealt  with  in  our  legal 
system  as  a  capital  offence. 
Though  the  death  penalty  is  no 
longer  imposed,  it  is  still  regarded 
as  a  heinous  offence,  and  is  pun- 
ishable by  varying  periods  of 
imprisonment,  depending  upon 
the  nature  of  the  offence  and  the 
jurisdiction  in  which  it  is  com- 
mitted. Where  arson  results  in 
loss  of  life  it  comes  under  modern 
statutory  definitions  of  murder, 
and  is  punishable  as  such. 

Arsptaenamin,  or  Arsphena- 
MINE,  the  name  adopted  by  the 
U.  S.  Federal  Trade  Commission 
for  Salvarsan  (q.v.). 

Ars  Poetlca  (also  called  Epis- 
tle TO  THE  Pisos),  a  poetic  epis- 
tle by  the  Roman  poet  Horace 
(1st  century  b.c),  in  which  he 
tried  to  set  forth  the  laws  of 
poetic  composition.  Subsequent 
works,  written  with  a  similar 
view,  include  Vida's  Ars  Poetica 
(1527);  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  Apol- 
ogy for  Poetry  (1595);  Boileau's 
Art  Poetique  (1674) ;  Pope's  Essay 
on  Criticism  (1711);  Louis  Ra- 
cine's Reflexions  sur  la  Poesic 
(1752). 

Art  has  been  defined  as  'the 
manifestation  of  emotion  obtain- 
ing external  interpretation,  now 
by  expressive  arrangements  of 
line,  form,  or  color,  now  by  a 
series  of  gestures,  sounds  or 
words  governed  by  particular 
rhythmical  cadence'  (Veron). 
Each  of  these  different  modes  of 
expression  is  described  as  an  art. 

In  virtue  of  the  organs  through 
which  the  arts  severally  appeal 
to  the  mind,  they  are  usually 
grouped  as  (1)  'arts  of  the  eye,' 
including  architecture,  sculpture, 
and  painting,  with  the  minor 
arts  associated  with  them;  (2) 
'arts  of  the  ear' — literature  and 
music.  The  drama  and  the  music 
drama,  with  the  ancient  and 
symbolic  dance,  appealing  to 
both  sight  and  hearing,  may  be 
described  as  'composite.' 

Excluding  the  minor  arts,  the 
function  of  which  is  to  give  pleas- 
ure by  adorning  articles  of  use, 
all  the  arts  have  a  common  origin 
in  the  desire  to  reproduce  the 
feeling  awakened  in  the  artist  by 
the  contemplation  of  life  and 
nature.  But  each  art  is  better 
suited  to  the  presentation  of 


Vol.  I. — March  '27 


Art 


396 


Art 


certain  emotions  than  the  others, 
and  the  range  of  the  expressive 
power  of  each  is  determined  by 
the  limitations  of  its  medium. 

The  Fine  and  the  Decorative 
Arts. — Popular  usage  usually 
limits  the  term  'art'  to  architec- 
ture, sculpture,  and  painting, 
and  such  handicrafts  as  gold- 
smith's work,  enamelling,  pot- 
tery, and  wood-carving,  related 
to  them  by  skill  of  workmanship 
and  display  of  taste.  In  this 
sense  art  may  be  said  to  be  the 
materialized  expression  of  man's 
delight  in  beauty.  It  is  not  until 
something  has  been  added  to 
adorn  an  article  already  adapted 
for  its  purpose  that  art  can  be 
said  to  begin.  In  the  bone  and 
ivory  remains  found  in  prehis- 
toric cave  dwellings  in  France, 
the  representation  of  animal  and 
other  forms  points  to  a  desire  to 
record  observation,  or  simply  to 
make  objects  of  daily  use  more 
beautiful;  while  the  same  is  true 
of  the  curious  and  even  beautiful 
forms  and  decoration  of  the 
wooden  cups  and  vessels  which 
the  Challenger  expedition  found 
in  use  amongst  the  Admiralty 
Islanders,  at  that  time  in  the 
Stone  Age  state  of  civilization. 
Thus  the  two  tendencies — one 
decorative,  the  other  expressive 
— which  mark  all  developed  art 
are  found  even  in  its  beginnings. 
The  decorative  element  appeals 
to  the  senses  alone,  and  it  is  the 
essential,  if  not  the  sole,  charac- 
teristic of  the  applied  arts.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  expressive 
arts — architecture,  sculpture,  and 
painting — appeal  vividly  to  the 
senses,  and  through  the  senses  to 
the  intellect  and  the  imagination. 
At  the  same  time,  certain  of  the 
decorative  arts  approach  closely 
to  the  expressive;  and  in  some 
cases,  as  in  fine  decorative  sculp- 
tures and  mural  decoration,  in- 
cluding tapestry,  they  possess 
many  of  the  qualities  of  the 
latter.  As  a  rule,  decoration  has 
to  forego  something  of  expressive- 
ness to  conform  to  the  conditions 
of  its  own  highest  beaut}^  The 
expressive  arts  are  freer,  for  their 
aim  is  the  embodiment  of  the 
mental  and  emotional  impres- 
sions received  from  reality. 

Art  as  an  Expression  of  So- 
cial Conditions. — Architecture 
has  been  called  the  'mother  of  the 
arts,'  though  the  earliest  known 
efforts  in  art  partake,  as  we  have 
seen,  of  the  nature  of  sculpture. 
As  soon  as  men  commenced  to 
erect  huts  and  temples,  the  art 
of  architecture,  thus  originated, 
provided  a  groat  and  suggestive 
field  for  the  exercise  of  the  arts 
of  sculpture  and  painting.  At 
first,  and  for  centuries,  the  three 
arts  were  closely  related.  In 
Egypt  and  Babylonia,  in  which 
they  earliest  developed,  and  in 
Greece,  among  the  northern  peo- 
ples, who  evolved  Gothic  art,  and 
during    the    Renaissance,  they 


worked  together,  while  in  some 
cases  one  artist  is  known  to  have 
practised  all.  The  complete  sep- 
aration of  the  arts  which  exists 
to-day  is  comparatively  mod- 
ern. 

The  art  of  every  epoch  and  of 
every  great  school  is,  in  a  wide 
sense,  the  outcome  of  social  con- 
ditions, and  the  expression  of 
national  or  racial  aspirations. 
Thus,  reUgion  had  much  to  do 
with  shaping  the  course  of  the 
arts — in  Egypt  and  in  Greece 
originating  temple  and  tomb  ar- 
chitecture, sculpture,  and  paint- 
ing, and  even  supplying  dec- 
orative motives  for  the  lesser 
arts;  in  France  and  England, 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  produc- 
ing the  Gothic  cathedral  and 
objects  of  ecclesiastical  art  in 
metal  and  enamel,  ivory  and 
textiles.  But  if  the  most  impor- 
tant works  were  inspired  by  the 
religious  instinct,  desire  for  beau- 
ty expressed  itself  in  domestic 
and  warlike  furnishings  also. 
With  the  Renaissance  and  the 
Reformation  other  elements  came 
into  play.  Both  of  these  move- 
ments, although  they  took  such 
different  directions  north  and 
south  of  the  Alps,  originated  in 
a  revival  of  learning  and  a  re- 
newed interest  in  life:  the  Italians 
found  in  the  arts  and  mythologies 
of  the  classic  peoples  a  new  source 
of  artistic  impulse,  leading  on  to 
the  grafting  of  an  almost  pagan 
delight  in  sensuous  beauty  upon 
the  art  of  the  earlier  Christian 
artists;  the  northern  peoples,  cut 
off  from  their  religious  past  by 
a  renewed  religious  life,  left  the 
old  traditional  subjects  and 
turned  to  contemplate  the  world 
around  them.  So  realism,  in  its 
modern  sense,  arises  in  the  paint- 
ings of  the  17th  century  Dutch- 
men. But  as  if  to  reveal  how 
independent  of  environment  and 
tradition  artistic  genius  may  be, 
Velasquez  in  Catholic  Spain  is 
simultaneously  producing  those 
marvels  of  atmosphere  painting 
and  impressionistic  concentration 
which,  two  centuries  later,  were 
to  exert  a  profound  influence. 

Art  as  a  Personal  Expression. 
— All  works  of  art  are  more  or 
less  colored  by  the  individuality 
of  the  artist.  Even  among  the 
Greeks,  whose  sculpture  has  as 
a  general  ideal  the  perfect  beauty 
of  the  human  form,  the  masters 
are  distinguished  from  one  an- 
other by  individual  treatment  of 
common  motives,  and  Phidias 
and  Praxiteles  have  given  their 
names  to  epochs  of  sculpture. 
During  the  earlier  Renaissance, 
also,  although  the  principal  works 
of  art  were  wrought  for  the 
church,  and  deal  with  a  clearly- 
marked  range  of  subjects  in  a 
technique  common  to  all,  the 
individuality  of  the  artist  dis- 
plays itself  in  the  conception  of 
his  subject — be  it  a  Crucifixion, 
a  Holy  Family,  or  a  saintly  legend 


— and  in  his  preferences  in  types 
or  accessories,  form  or  color.  It 
is,  however,  in  the  painting  of 
the  matured  schools  of  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries  that  person- 
ality, combined  with  a  great  but 
flexible  technical  tradition,  first 
fully  asserts  itself.  And  it  is 
towards  greater  individual  free- 
dom that  art  has  since  tended  to 
move. 

As  painting  and  sculpture  deal 
with  facts  or  ideas  more  or  less 
familiar  to  all,  the  personal  ele- 
ment in  them  is  easily  recognized. 
Architecture,  however,  is  neces- 
sarily rather  a  collective  than  a 
personal  expression.  In  a  great 
building  it  is  the  religious,  social, 
or  governing  instincts  and  aspira- 
tions of  a  community,  rather  than 
the  personal  preferences  and  im- 
agination of  the  architect,  that 
are  expressed;  for  architectural 
form  is  clearly  determined  by 
utilitarian  ends.  At  the  same 
time,  considerable  play  is  per- 
mitted the  fancy  of  the  designer, 
particularly  in  variety  of  propor- 
tion, combination  of  material, 
and  decoration. 

Convention  and  Tradition. — 
Convention  exercises  a  great  in- 
fluence in  the  arts.  Indeed,  to 
practise  an  art  at  all,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  conform  to  its  conven- 
tions. Thus,  in  painting,  the 
artist  must  express  his  impres- 
sion of  the  visible  world,  or  his 
dreams  and  imaginings,  in  color 
and  form  (or  in  black  and  white, 
as  in  etching)  upon  a  flat  surface, 
in  terms  conformable  to  the  laws 
and  habit  of  vision,  at  the  same 
time  giving  due  consideration  to 
the  decorative  or  merely  pleasing 
aspect  of  the  result.  In  sculp- 
ture, again,  in  which  real  form  is 
imitated  in  its  three  dimensions, 
or  suggested  as  in  relief,  the 
nature  of  the  imitation  is  con- 
trolled and  determined  by  the 
material  characteristics  of  the 
medium — stone  or  marble,  bronze 
or  silver — which,  in  its  turn, 
should  be  so  used  as  to  bring  out 
its  inherent  beauty  as  that  is 
affected  by  mass  and  the  play  of 
light  upon  the  modelled  surfaces. 
Finally,  architecture  is  largely 
conditioned  by  the  use  to  which 
a  builaing  is  to  be  put,  by  the 
structural  possibilities  of  the 
building  materials  available,  and 
by  the  necessity  of  providing 
against  the  prevailing  weather. 

Tradition  also  influences  artis- 
tic form.  It  serves  to  preserve 
sound  technical  methods,  and 
transmits  from  one  generation  to 
another  the  experience  gained  in 
experiment  with  new  subjects  or 
new  processes.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, under  the  form  of  academ- 
icism, it  sets  up  an  arbitrary 
ideal  of  subject  and  style,  founded 
upon  past  achievements,  and 
tends  to  stereotype  and  conven- 
tionalize art.  Thus,  tradition 
may  become  the  enemy  of 
self-expression   and    of  experi- 


VoL.  I. — March  '27 


Art 


397 


Artery 


ment.  Tradition  and  belief  in 
personal  impressions  divide  the 
world  of  art  into  two  hostile 
camps.  But  while  academic  in- 
fluence still  controls  much  mod- 
ern art,  painting  and  (in  lesser 
degree)  sculpture  have  largely- 
freed  themselves  from  the 
shackles  of  tradition.  Today,  in 
every  capital  in  Europe,  there  is 
a  strong  body  of  'seceding'  art- 
ists; and  one  of  the  most  notable 
features  in  art  during  the  past 
century  has  been  an  ever-increas- 
ing disposition  to  regard  every 
kind  of  subject  as  possible  of 
treatment  in  one  or  other  of  the 
arts.  In  architecture,  however, 
tradition  remains  exceedingly 
powerful,  and  no  style  has  yet 
been  evolved  adequately  expres- 
sive of  contemporary  life. 

The  Function  of  Technique  in 
Art. — Some  critics  would  draw  a 
distinction  between  the  manner 
and  the  matter  of  art,  and  restrict 
the  use  of  the  word  'art'  to  the 
former.  In  reality,  however, 
these  two  elements  are  so  closely 
knit  that  to  separate  them,  ex- 
cept in  theory,  is  impossible.  In 
all  fully  developed  art  the  tech- 
nique, or  manner  of  expression,  is 
the  direct  outcome  of  the  spirit  in 
which  the  subject  is  conceived. 
Hence  it  is  only  in  academic  art 
that  a  definitely  formulated 
method  is  possible.  Naturally 
certain  methods  of  using,  let  us 
say,  oil-paint,  or  of  carving 
marble,  are  more  productive  of 
beauty  than  others;  and  if  it  is 
possible  to  combine  this  sensu- 
ous element  with  the  effects 
aimed  at.  it  should  be  done.  Art 
cannot  exist  without  technique, 
but  technique  does  not  exist  for 
itself;  and  if  a  man,  by  breaking 
through  the  tradition  of  the  past, 
can  express  himself  more  fully, 
he  is  justified  by  the  result. 
This  is  at  once  the  explanation 
and  justification  of  the  methods 
of  impressionist  painters,  and  of 
such  sculptors  as  Rodin  and 
Meunier.  Technique  has,  how- 
ever, a  fascination  and  legitimate 
charm  of  its  own  quite  apart 
from  its  expressive  power.  But 
these  appeal  to  the  artist  as 
craftsman,  and  to  the  connois- 
seur rather  than  to  the  general 
public.  Art  consists  of  a  com- 
bination of  fine  emotion  and  skil- 
ful expressive  technique.  The 
greatest  art  is  that  which  appeals 
with  the  greatest  force  to  both 
the  intellectual  and  the  aesthetic 
emotions. 

Of  the  many  books  treating  of 
the  origin  and  theory  of  the  arts, 
the  majority  deal  with  them 
either  as  a  branch  of  philosophy 
or  metaphysics,  or  as  so  much 
archaeology  or  history.  Among 
those  written  from  a  more  purely 
artistic  standpoint  are  the  fol- 
lowing: Ruskin's  Art  Culture; 
Loveridge's  Apprecialion  of  Art; 
Henri's  The  Art  Spirit  (1923); 


Mullen's  An  Approach  to  Art 
(1923);  Neuhaus'  The  Apprecia- 
tion of  Art  (1924);  Ruckstuhl's 
Great  Works  of  Art  and  What 
Makes  Them  Great  (1925) ;  Cortis- 
soz'  Personalities  in  Art  (1925); 
Cox's  Art  for  Amateurs  and  Stu- 
dents (1926);  Blackie's  The  ABC 
of  Art  (1927). 

Arta,  province  or  nomarchy  of 
Greece,  a  division  of  Thessaly; 
395  square  miles  in  area.  Pop. 
(1920)  56,053. 

Arta,  city,  Greece,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Arta,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Arta  River,  near  its 
mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  Arta,  at  the 
entrance  to  which  the  battle  of 
Actium  was  fought  (b.c.  31).  It 
has  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  and  a  large  trade 
in  wine  and  tobacco.  Near  it 
the  Turks  defeated  the  Greeks  in 
1822.     Pop.  (1920)  9,626. 

Artaxata,  ar-taks'a-ta,  city, 
ancient  capital  of  Armenia,  on 
the  Aras;  68  miles  from  Erivan. 
It  was  here  that  Hannibal  took 
refuge.  The  Romans  destroyed 
this  city  (a.d.  58),  and  after  re- 
building, it  was  sacked  by  •  the 
Persians  (a.d.  370).  Later  the 
patriarch  Joseph  presided  over 
its  council.  Its  ruins  are  now 
known  as  Ardashir. 

Artaxerxes,  ar-taks-urks'ez,  a 
name  borne  by  four  ancient  Per- 
sian kings.  Artaxerxes  i.,  sur- 
named  Longimanus,  was  a  son 
of  Xerxes,  who  reigned  from  464 
to  425  B.C.,  and  is  mentioned  in 
the  Book  of  Nehemiah.  Arta- 
xerxes II.,  surnamed  Mnemon, 
reigned  from  405  to  358  B.C. 
The  chief  events  of  his  reign  were 
the  defeat  of  Cyrus  and  his  10,- 
000  Greeks  at  Cunaxa  (401 
B.C.) ;  the  war  with  Archelaus, 
king  of  Sparta  (401-394);  the 
conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Antal- 
cidas  (387) ;  and  struggles  against 
his  rebellious  satraps — Evagoras 
of  Cyprus,  Ariobarzanes  of 
Phrygia,  and  Datames  of  Cappa- 
docia — and  wars  with  Egypt. 
Artaxerxes  hi.,  surnamed  Och- 
us,  reigned  from  358  to  338  B.C., 
and  revived  for  a  time  the  decay- 
ing power  of  his  dynasty;  with 
the  aid  of  Greece  he  reconquered 
Cyprus,  Egypt,  and  Phoenicia. 
Artaxerxes  iv.,  the  founder  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanidse, 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Par- 
thian empire,  reigned  from  226 
to  240  A.D.,  and  waged  war  with 
Alexander  Severus,  the  Roman 
Emperor. 

Artel,  ar-tyel',  the  Russian 
cooperative  organization  of  arti- 
sans or  skilled  workmen.  The 
organization  varies,  but  the  fun- 
damental principle  of  all  is  equal 
remuneration  and  equal  shares 
of  work. 

Arteiiiidonis,  iir-tem-i-dd'rus 
{c.  100  B.C.),  Greek  geographer, 
a  native  of  Ephesus,  who  made 
voyages  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  Red  Seas,  to  Iberia  and  Gaul, 


and  as  far  as  the  Southern  Ocean. 
His  work,  called  Periplus,  is  not 
extant,  but  some  fragments  have 
been  collected  in  Hudson's  Geo- 
graphi  Greed  Minores  (1826), 
vol.  i. 

Artemidorus,  surnamed  Dal- 
DIANUS,  from  Daldis,  a  town  in 
Lydia,  his  mother's  birthplace, 
was  also  a  native  of  Ephesus. 
He  Hved  in  Rome  from  about 
140—180  A.D.,  and  wrote  a  work 
on  dreams,  which  is  extant. 

Ar'temis,  called  Diana  by  the 
Romans,  one  of  the  chief  divini- 
ties of  the  Greeks,  and  twin  sister 
of  Apollo,  was  the  daughter  of 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Leto  (La- 
tona).  She  was  born  in  the 
island  of  Delos,  and  was  wor- 
shipped under  a  variety  of  as- 
pects. 

The  earliest  Greek  conceptions 
of  Artemis  regards  her  as  a  god- 
dess of  the  fields  and  wild  coun- 
try, unmarried  certainly,  but  not 
a  virgin  goddess;  indeed,  she  is 
closely  connected  with  child- 
birth, and  is  worshipped  particu- 
larly by  women.  The  Artemis 
or  Diana  of  Ephesus,  whose  wor- 
ship was  widely  extended  by 
colonists  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Black  Sea,  in  Sicily,  in  Massilia 
(Marseilles),  and  other  Greek- 
speaking  lands,  was  probably  a 
nature-goddess  of  the  Phrygians 
or  other  inhabitants  of  Asia 
Minor,  whose  worship  was  adopt- 
ed by  the  Greek  settlers.  A 
goddess  of  fertility  and  wild  life, 
her  image  represented  her  with 
many  breasts,  and  attended  by 
wild  animals. 

The  general  conception  of  Ar- 
temis in  Greek  literature,  begin- 
ning with  Homer,  is  that  of  the 
virgin  huntress,  in  close  associa- 
tion with  her  brother  Apollo. 
She  is  also  sometimes  confounded 
with  Hecate,  with  Selene,  or  the 
Moon,  and  with  Britomartis  (or 
Dictynna)  and  Eileithyia.  See 
also  DiAN.\. 

Artemisia,  ar-ti-mish'i-a, 
daughter  of  Lygdamis  and  queen 
of  Halicarnassus,  the  birthplace 
of  Herodotus,  who  tells  her  story. 
As  a  vassal  of  Xerxes,  she  accom- 
panied his  expedition  against 
Greece,  and  fought  at  the  battle 
of  Salamis.  Another  Artemisia 
was  the  daughter  of  Hecatomnus, 
and  sister,  wife,  and  successor  of 
the  Carian  prince  Mausolus,  who 
reigned  from  352-350  B.C.  She 
is  famous  as  the  builder  of  the 
mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus  to 
her  husband's  memory. 

Artemisia.    See  Wormwood. 

Artemus  Ward.  See  Browne, 
Charles  Farrar. 

Artery,  any  of  the  numerous 
blood-vessels  which  convey  blood 
from  the  lieart  to  the  various 
parts  of  the  body.  The  arterial 
system  is  similar  in  its  distribu- 
tion to  a  many-branching  tree,  of 
which  the  aorta,  arising  from  the 
left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  is  the 


Vol.  I. — Oct.  '29 


Artery 


398 


Artesian  Wells 


trunk.  The  main  arteries  usu- 
ally follow  comparatively  straight 
courses  and  are  fairly  well  pro- 
tected from  pressure  and  other 
dangers.  The  branches,  through 
an  elaborate  system  of  subdivi- 
sion, extend  to  every  part  of  the 
body  except  the  hair,  nails,  epi- 
dermis, cartilages,  and  cornea, 
endmg  in  minute  vessels  called 
arterioles,  which  in  turn  open 
into  the  capillaries  (q.v.).  In 
their  distribution  through  the 
body  both  the  large  and  small 
arteries  communicate  or  anas- 
tomose freely  with  one  another, 
with  the  result  that  when  any 
one  artery  becomes  obliterated. 


Diagram  showing  the  Principal 
Arteries 


1.  Heart.  2.  Arch  of  aorta.  3.  Left 
carotid.  4.  Right  carotid.  5.  Temporal 
[6.  Vena  cava].  7.  Thoracic  aorta.  8. 
Brachial.  9.  Intercostal.  10.  Radial.  11. 
Ulnar.  12.  Talmar  arch.  13  Renal.  14. 
Coehc  axis  and  mesenteric.  15.  Iliac. 
16.  Femoral.  17.  Tibial.  18.  Dorsalis  pedis. 

as  by  ligature,  a  collateral  cir- 
culation may  be  established, 
through  the  enlargement  of  these 
anastomotic  communications. 
Those  arteries  which  do  not  an- 
astomovse  with  other  airteries 
either  directly  or  through  their 
branches  are  known  as  'end  ar- 
teries' or  'terminal  arteries.' 

The  arterial  wall  is  composed 
of  three  coats — (1)  the  external 
coat,  or  tunica  advcnlilia,  an 
outer  fibrous  tunic;  (2)  the  mid- 
dle, or  tunica  media,  of  muscular, 
elastic  tissue;  and  (3)  the  inter- 
nal, or  tunica  intima,  lined  with 
endothelial  cells.  The  arteries 
are  capable  of  extension  and  dis- 
tention— a  property  of  great 
service  in  the  maintenance  of 
normal  blood  pressure  and  veloc- 


ity. The  loss  of  this  elasticity, 
occurring  during  degeneration  of 
the  arteries  from  disease  or  senile 
changes,  is  a  precursor  of  soften- 
ing and  final  rupture,  an  acci- 
dent which  usually  causes  death 
when  occurring  in  the  brain. 

Diseases  and  Injuries  of  the 
Arteries. — The  arteries  may  be 
the  seat  of  thrombus  formation  or 
of  embolism.  A  thrombus  is  a 
solid  mass  formed ,  in  situ  from 
the  constituents  of  the  blood, 
causing  complete  or  partial  oc- 
clusion of  the  vessel  (see  Throm- 
bosis). An  embolus  is  a  clot 
or  a  plug  carried  by  the  blood 
current  from  one  vessel  to  an- 
other distant  and  smaller  one, 
where  it  obstructs  the  circulation 
(see  Embolism). 

Injuries  to  the  arteries  include 
incisions  and  perforations  by 
sharp  instruments  or  by  gunshot 
wounds  and  contusions  and  lac- 
erations due  to  crushing  injuries, 
with  resulting  haemorrhage  and 
in  some  cases  thrombus  forma- 
tion and  gangrene  (see  Hemor- 
rhage). The  artery  may  also 
be  obliterated  by  ligature:  the 
middle  and  inner  coats  are  torn 
through;  the  blood  stagnates  and 
forms  a  thrombus;  inflammatory 
changes  ensue,  followed  by  gran- 
ulation, and  the  portion  of  the 
artery  involved  is  resolved  into 
cicatricial  connective  tissue. 

Acute  in/lamination  of  the  ar- 
teries or  arteritis  is  due  most  fre- 
quently to  the  extension  of  an 
adjacent  infection  and  may  re- 
sult in  thrombosis  or  in  actual 
erosion  producing  serious  haemor- 
rhage. Syphilitic  and  tubercu- 
lous arteritis  are  specific  types. 

Arteriosclerosis,  popularly 
known  as  hardening  of  the  ar- 
teries, is  one  of  the  almost  inevi- 
table accompaniments  of  advanc- 
ing age;  it  may  be  due  also  to 
toxic  or  infectious  causes,  and 
may  occur  in  association  with 
high  blood-pressure.  Factors 
which  have  been  held  to  play  a 
causative  role  are  excessive  pro- 
tein diet,  tobacco,  alcohol,  mus- 
cular over-exertion,  obesity,  and 
nervous  strain.  In  the  extrem- 
ities the  process  usually  begins  in 
the  media;  in  the  aorta  and  larger 
arteries  the  changes  occur  first  in 
the  intima;  in  the  smaller  vessels 
there  is  a  marked  generalized 
proliferation  of  the  intima  with 
fatty  and  necrotic  changes  in  the 
deeper  layers.  This  intimal  pro- 
liferation encroaches  upon  the 
lumen  of  the  artery  and  may  even 
obliterate  it.  a  condition  known 
as  endarteritis  obliterans.  The 
arteries  lose  their  elasticity  and  as 
a  result  of  constant  stretching 
without  the  ability  to  resume 
their  former  shape.  become 
lengthened,  tortuous,  and  dilated. 

Since,  generally  speaking,  ar- 
teriosclerotic lesions  cannot  be 
cured,  treatment  consists  of  the 


prevention  of  further  progress 
and  of  measures  which  will  en- 
able the  vessels  to  function  with 
maximum  efficiency.  These  in- 
clude dietary  regulation,  con- 
trolled exercise,  rest,  etc.  Among 
drugs,  sodium  or  potassium  io- 
dide holds  first  place. 

Thrombo- angiitis  obliterans, 
known  also  as  Buerger's  disease, 
is  a  condition  brought  about  by  a 
thrombosis  of  both  the  arteries 
and  veins  of  the  extremities.  It 
occurs  almost  exclusively  in  male 
Jews  and  in  severe  cases  is  accom- 
panied by  ulceration  and  gan- 
grene. 

An  aneurism  is  a  dilatation  of 
the  arterial  walls  forming  a  sac 
filled  with  blood.  It  may  be  due 
to  degeneration,  disease,  or  in- 
jury of  the  wall,  and  is  a  frequent 
accompaniment  of  arteriosclero- 
sis.   See  Aneurism. 

Artesian  Wells,  deep  borings 
into  the  earth  to  obtain  water. 
The  name  was  originally  applied 
to  flowing  wells  exclusively,  be- 
ing derived  from  the  French 
province  of  Artois  (mediaeval  L. 
Artesia),  where  the  oldest  known 
flowing  wells  were  sunk  in  1126. 
In  the  United  States  the  term 
has  come  to  be  applied  to  all 
wells  in  which  the  water  rises 
above  the  strata  in  which  it  is 
found.  The  conditions  neces- 
sary for  such  a  rise  are  a  pervious 
stratum  between  two  impervious 
strata,  the  pervious  stratum  be- 
ing exposed  to  moisture  at  some 
point  higher  than  that  at  which 
the  well  is  located.  The  ideal 
section  for  producing  artesian 
flow  is  shown  in  the  illustration 
below.  Such  wells  are  found  in 
places  all  over  the  world.  In  the 
United  States  they  are  largely 
used  for  city  water  supply  and 
in  the  arid  regions  for  irrigation. 

The  sections  of  the  United 
States  where  artesian  wells  have 
been  most  largely  developed  and 
used  for  irrigation  are  the  James 
River  Valley  in  South  Dakota, 
Southern  Texas,  Pecos  Valley  in 
New  Mexico  and  Texas,  and 
Southern  California.  Many  wells 
used  for  irrigation,  which  were 
formerly  flowing  wells,  have 
ceased  to  flow  but  it  is  probable 


Ideal  Section  for  Artesian  Flow 


that  additional  artesian  basins  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  irrigate 
large  areas  of  land  will  be  found 
in  the  United  States  following 
thorough  investigations  which 
have  been  undertaken  by  the 
Division  of  Hydrology  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey. 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


ARTESIAN  WELLS. 

1.  Cambridge  Downs  Bore.  North  Queensland.  9.  Artesian  Well  in  Southern  California.  3.  Moree  Bore,  New  South  Wales  (driith,  2.792 
feet ;  daily  flow,  M08,080  gallons ;  temperature,  115?  Fahr.).  4.  Charlotte  Plains  Bore,  Queensland.  6.  Artesian  Well,  Roswell,  New  Mex. 


Artesian  Wells 


400 


Arthur 


The  most  comprehensive  inves- 
tigation of  artesian  water  supply 
in  the  United  States  made  up  to 
the  present  time  was  that  carried 
on  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  under  its  '  Artesian 


periment  Stations,  Bulletin  119, 
Part  2. 

Artcvelde,  Jacob  van  (1285- 
1345),  Flemish  patriot,  was  a 
wealthy  brewer  of  Ghent,  who 
assisted    the    people    in  their 


after  defeating  the  Count  of 
Flanders  he  became  regent.  He 
was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Roose- 
beke  in  1382,  fighting  against  the 
forces  of  Charles  vi.  of  France. 
See  Kervyn  de  Lettenhove, 
Jacques  d'Artevelde  (1863);  Hut- 
ton,  James  and  Philip  van  Artc- 
velde (1882);  Ashley,  James  and 
Philip  van  Artcvelde  (1883);  also 
Sir  Henry  Taylor's  drama,  Philip 
van  Artcvelde  (1834);  and  Con- 
science's historical  novel,  /.  van 
Artcvelde  (1849). 

Arthritis.   See  Joints. 

Arthrophycus,  a  genus  of 
what  is  regarded  as  fossil  sea 
plants,  though  by  some  it  is 
claimed  that  they  show  annelid 
characters.  They  are  subangular 
or  rounded  and  show  transverse 
ridges  and  furrows,  and  appear 
to  branch.  This  genus  is  very 
characteristic  of  the  unper  Me- 
dina sandstone  and  shales. 

Arthropoda  (jointed  feet),  the 
name  of  a  series  of  invertebrate 
land  and  water  animals,  incKiding 
such  diverse  forms  as  crustaceans, 
insects,  and  arachnids.  Arthro- 
pods have  bilaterally  symmetrical, 
segmented  bodies,  some  of  the 
segments  bearing  jointed  append- 
ages; the  body  is  covered  by  a 
tough  cuticle  made  of  chitin;  the 
heart  lies  above  the  food  canal, 
and  the  nervous  system  below  it, 
except  for  the  dorsal  brain;  there 
is  no  distinct  body  cavity  between 
the  food  canal  and  the  body  wall. 
These  are  characteristic  of  the 
series;  but  in  regard  to  the  other 
organs  there  is  much  variation. 
The  chief  classes  of  Arthropoda 
are  as  follows: — (1.)  Crustacea, 
including  crabs,  lobsters,  and 
their  allies.  (2.)  Prototracheata, 
including  only  a  primitive  form 
known  as  Peripatus.  (3.)  Myria- 
poda:  the  millipedes  and  centi- 
pedes. (4.)  Insecta :  the  insects. 
(5.)  Arachnoidea:  spiders,  scor- 
pions, and  mites.  (6.)  Palaeo- 
straca:  the  living  king  crab  and 
the  extinct  trilobites  and  euryp- 
terids. 

Arthur,  a  famous  British  chief- 
tain who  distinguished  himself  in 
the  wars  with  the  Saxons  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  5th  and  com- 
mencement of  the  6th  centuries. 
Some  writers  suppose  that  there 
were  two  historic  chiefs  of  that 
name — one  mainly  active  in  the 
north,  the  other  in  the  southwest 
part  of  the  island.  We  may  ac- 
cept as  historical  the  fact  that 
Arthur  fought  a  scries  of  success- 
ful engagements  with  the  invaelers, 
ending  in  the  crushing  defeat  in- 
flicted upon  the  Saxons  at  Mount 
Badon  (according  to  Zimmer,  be- 
tween 495  and  501);  probably  he 
was  betrayed  by  his  wife,  and  met 
his  death  in  conflict  with  a  near 
kinsman. 

About  1135  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth wrote  his  IJistoria  Rcgum 
BritannicB,  based  upon  the  earlier 


Arthropoda. 

Insecta— 1.  Butterfly.  Prototrachkata— 2.  Peripatus.  Pal^eostraca— 3.  King 
or  Horseshou  Crab  ;  4.  Eurypterus  (fossil) ;  5.  Trilobif;e  (fossil).  Myriapoda— 0.  Gem  - 
pedc  ARACHNOiDKA— 7.  Scori)ion.  Crustacea— 8.  ilasked  Crab.  (King  Crab  one- 
twelfth  natural  aize  ;  all  others  two-thirds  nature.) 


and  Underflow  Investigation  and 
Irrigation  Inquiry,'  the  final  re- 
port being  Senate  Executive 
Document  No.  41,  52nd  Congress, 
First  Session.  See  also  5th  An- 
nual Report  U.  S.  Geological  Sur- 
vey, pp.  125-173;  Artesian  Wells 
as  a  Means  of  Water  Supply,  by 
Walter  Gibbons  Cox;  11th  An- 
nual Report,  U.  S.  Geol.  Sur- 
vey, Part  2,  pp.  59-294  ;  and 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Ex- 


?truggle  against  Louis,  Count  of 
Flanders.  He  was  chosen  com- 
mander of  the  forces,  and  in 
1335,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
English,  expelled  Louis  from 
Flanders.  After  having  been 
ruler  of  Flanders  for  nine  years, 
he  was  killed  in  a  street  disturb- 
ance at  Ghent. 

His  son  Philip  (c.  1340-82) 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
citizens  of  Ghent  in  1381,  and 


Arthur 

history  of  Nennius,  amplified  by 
popular  tradition.  Here  the  his- 
toric Arthur,  dux  bcllorum,  be- 
comes Arthur  the  king  of  Britain 
and  world-conqueror.  Geoffrey's 
work  was  translated  into  French 
verse,  about  1155,  by  Robert  Wace, 
who  himself  found  a  translator  in 
the  Anglo-Saxon  monk  Layamon, 
each  of  them  adding,  from  his 
own  knowledge  of  popular  tradi- 
tion, to  the  picture  drawn  by 
Geoffrey.  It  is  more  especially 
on  the  version  of  Wace  that  the 
popular  conception  of  Arthur  is 
founded.  Here  he  is  the  son  of 
Uther  Pendragon;  king  of  Brit- 
ain; conqueror  of  Scandinavia, 
Gaul,  and  Rome;  the  founder  of 
the  Round  Table,  and  the  centre 
of  a  brilliant  circle  of  heroes. 
Victim  of  the  joint  treachery  of 
his  wife  and  his  nephew  Modred, 
he  is  wounded  in  battle  with  the 
latter,  and  retires  to  Avalon  to 
be  healed  of  his  wounds. 

Mythical  Elements.  — _Many 
threads  meet  and  mingle  in  this 

Eerplexing  legend.  Alfred  Nutt 
as  pointed  out  the  resemblance 
between  the  popular  tales  of  Ar- 
thur and  a  very  wide-  ^pread  heroic 
and  pre-hisotric  tradition,  the 
forms  of  which  were  classified  by 
Von  der  Hagen  under  the  title  of 
The  Aryan  Expulsion  and  Return 
Formula.  Professor  Rhys  detects 
in  the  British  hero  a  certain  Mer- 
curius  Artaius,  worshipped  by  the 
Gauls  as  a  culture-god,  and  has 
dwelt  at  length  on  the  persistence 
in  the  story  of  certain  elements  of 
early  Celtic  myth.  It  is  probably 
in  his  character  of  culture-hero 
that  Arthur  is  represented  as  the 
slayer  of  monsters — e.g.  the  demon 
cat  of  Lausanne,  the  giant  of  Mont 
St.  Michel,  and  the  boar  Twrch 
Trwyth — while  the  prevalence  of 
certain  features  of  early  Irish  tra- 
dition in  tales  alike  of  Arthur  and 
his  knights  cannot  be  denied.  To 
later  mediaeval  writers  the  Arthu- 
rian story  was  largely  compounded 
of  fairy  elements.  After  his  last 
fight  his  body  was  magically  trans- 
ported to  the  isle  of  Avalon,  and 
its  wounds  healed.  Avalon  was  a 
land  of  fairy,  of  which  Arthur  was 
king  {Bataille  de  Loquifer)',  he  was 
heir  to  the  kingdom  of  Obcron 
[Huon  de  Bordeaux),  and  all 
places  haunted  by  fairies,  in  what- 
ever land  they  were  situated,  be- 
longed to  him,  and  were  under  his 
rule  {Brun  de  la  Montaigne). 

Arthurian  Romance. — It  is  now 
generally  recognized  that,  great 
as  was  the  influence  of  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth  and  his  transla- 
tor Wace,  Arthur  as  a  romantic 
(rather  than  historic  or  mythic) 
hero  was  known  before  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Historia,  and  that 
stories  connected  with  him  and 
his  knights  were  already  widely 
diffused.  Professor  Rajna  has 
shown  that  the  names  of  Arthur 
and  Gawain  were  known  in  Italy 


401 

by  the  end  of  the  11th  century. 

Modern  scholars  are  divided  in 
opinion  as  to  the  source  of  this 
romantic  tradition,  some  holding 
that  is  was  of  purely  continental 
growth,  the  work  of  the  Armori- 
can  Britons — their  insular  com- 
patriots knov/ing  only  the  historic 
dux  bellorum;  while  others  main- 
tain that  the  romantic  tradition 
was  common  to  both  sides  of  the 
Channel,  and  that  Anglo-Norman 
writers  played  an  important  part 
in  the  transmission  of  the  legend 
to  the  Continent.  It  is  certain 
that  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  12th  and  the  first  quarter  of 
the  13th  century  the  legends  con- 
nected with  Arthur  were  the 
most  popular  subject  for  literary 
treatment.  Round  the  figure  of 
the  British  king,  as  represented 
by  the  pseudo-chronicles,  gathered 
a  group  of  heroes,  many  of  whom 
had  already  an  independent  and 
popular  story  attached  to  their 
names.  Many  of  these  old  stories 
were  retold  with  a  view  to  bringing 
them  into  harmony  with  Arthu- 
rian tradition;  new  combinations 
and  developments  followed;  and 
the  resultant  body  of  literature, 
prose  and  verse,  the  work  of  ap- 
proximately some  seventy  years 
of  literary  activity,  is  what  was 
known  as  the  Arthurian  cycle. 
Many  of  the  stories  are  only  super- 
ficially connected  with  Arthur, 
and  all  have  been  remodelled 
at  least  six  centuries  later  than 
that  in  which  the  events  are 
supposed  to  occur.  The  ignor- 
ing of  this  elementary  fact  has 
been  the  main  cause  of  the  mis- 
taken popular  conceptions  con- 
cerning Arthur.  A  British  chief- 
tain of  the  5th  and  6th  centuries 
could  not  have  been  the  centre 
of  a  court  such  as  the  French 
romances  describe,  nor  could  his 
heroes  have  been  'knights'  in  any 
other  sense  save  that  in  which  the 
Roman  soldiers  were  such.  The 
main  body  of  Arthurian  romance 
is  in  French,  the  principal  writers 
being  Chretien  de  Troyes,  Robert 
de  Borron,  Walter  Map,  Raoul  de 
Houdenc — the  names  of  Helie  de 
Borron  and  Luces  de  Gast,  the 
ostensible  compilers  of  the  prose 
Tristan,  being  fictitious.  In  Ger- 
many the  leading  writers  were 
Hartmann  von  der  Aue,  Wolfram 
von  Eschenbach,  and  Gottfried 
von  Strassburg;  but  in  every  case 
their  work  is  wholly  or  in  part 
derived  from  a  French  source. 
This  was  also  most  probably  the 
case  in  England,  where,  previous 
to  Sir  Thomas  Malory's  15th  cen- 
tury compilation,  based  upon  the 
later  prose  romances,  Arthurian 
tradition  was  represented  by  a  few 
scattered  metrical  romances,  some 
of  which  had  certainly  French  or 
Anglo-Norman  originals,  while 
the  source  of  others  is  unknown. 
The  original  of  the  Welsh  talcs  is 
more  doubtful;  French  influence 


ArthuT 

is  undoubtedly  present,  but  it 
seems  highly  probable  that  the 
groundwork  of  the  stories  repre- 
sents genuine  insular  tradition. 
See,  for  history,  Nennius's  His- 
toria Britonum  (1838);  Zimmer's 
Nennius  Vindicatus  (1893);  Geof- 
frey of  Monmouth's  Historia 
Regum  BritannicB  (ed.  Schulz, 
1854) — translations  of  Nennius 
and  Geoffrey  are  included  in 
Bohn's  Library;  Wace*s  Li  Ro- 
mans de  Brut  (ed.  Leroux  de  Lincy, 
1836-8);  Layamon's  Brut  (ed.  Sir 
F.  Madden,  1847).  For  mythical 
elements,  Nutt's  Folklore  Record 
(vol.  iv.),  Aryan  Expulsion  and 
Return  Formula,  ^  and  (vol.  v.) 
Mahinogion  Studies;  Rhys' s  Ar- 
thurian Studies  (1891),  and  his 
Celtic  Heathendom,  1886  (Hibbert 
Lectures).  For  romance,  J.  L. 
Weston's  King  Arthur  and  his 
Knights  ('Popular  Studies  in 
Mythology,  Romance,  and  Folk- 
lore,' No.  4,  Nutt,  1899),  a  sum- 
mary of  the  various  branches  of 
Arthurian  romance,  with  full 
bibliography;  Ward's  Catalogue 
of  MS.  Romances  in  the  British 
Museum  (1883,  vol.  i.).  For  the 
sources  of  Arthurian  romance,  cf., 
for  the  arguments  in  favor  of 
Continental  origin,  Professor  Zim- 
mer  Gottinger  Gelehrte  Anzeigen 
(1890),  Nos.  12  and  20),  and  Zeit- 
schrift  fur  Franzdsische  Sprache 
(vol.  xiv.);  E.  Brucgger,  Zeitschrift 
filr  Franzdsische  Sprache  (vol.  xx.); 
Professor  Foerster,  Introduction 
to  vol.  iv.  of  his  edition  of  Chretien 
de  Troyes  (1884,  etc.).  On  the  other 
side,  Gaston  Paris,  Introduction  to 
Histoire  Litteraire  de  la  France 
(1888,  vol.  XXX.);  Ferd.  Lot,  Nou- 
velles  Etudes  sur  la  Provenance  du 
Cycle  Arthurien  (in  Romania,  vols, 
xxiv.  seq.);  J.  Loth,  Les  Nouvelles 
Theories  sur  POrigine  des  Romans 
Arthurien  (in  Revue  Ccltique,  vol. 
xiii.);  J.  L.  Weston,  The  Legend 
of  Sir  Lancelot  du  Lac  (Grimm 
Library,  vol.  xii.  ch.  v.,  1901), 
where  Professor  Focrster's  theo- 
ries are  examined.  Also  King 
Arthur  and  the  Round  Table 
(1897;  Newell's  trans,  of  Focrster's 
ed.  of  Chretien)  and,  for  the 
connection  with  Irish  literature. 
Brown's  Gawain:  A  Study  of  the 
Origins  of  Arthurian  Romance 
(1902). 

Arthur,  Duke  of  Connaught. 

Sec  Connaught. 

Arthur,  Prince  of  Brittany 
(1187-1203),  grandson  of  Henry 
II.  On  the  death  of  his  uncle, 
Richard  I.,  Arthur's  claim  as  son 
of  Geoffrey,  elder  brother  of  John, 
king  of  England,  was  upheld  by 
several  French  provinces,  and,  at 
first,  by  Philip  Augustus  of  France. 
John  captured  Arthur  in  1202,  and 
imprisoned  him  at  Falaise  and  at 
Rouen,  where  he  disappeared  in 
1203,  murdered,  it  is  said,  by  the 
hands  of  his  uncle.  See  Sbake- 
spcare's  King  John  and  Norgate's 
John  Lackland  (1902). 


Arthut 

Arthur,  Prince  (1486-1502), 
eldest  son  of  Henry  vii.  of  Eng- 
land, was  married  to  Catherine  of 
Aragon  at  the  age  of  fifteen;  died 
in  the  following  year. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan  (1830- 
86),  the  twenty-first  President  of 
the  U.  S.,  born  at  Fairfield,  Vt., 
Oct.  5,  1830.  His  father  was 
William  Arthur,  a  native  of  Ire- 
land, who  emigrated  to  America 
in  1814  and  was  a  teacher  and  a 
Baptist  minister  in  turn  at  various 
places  in  Vermont  and  Canada. 
The  son  graduated  at  Union  Col- 
lege, Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  in  1848, 
was  principal  of  an  academy  at 
North  Pownal,  Vt.  (1851-3),  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  N.  Y.  City 
in  1854,  and  as  a  member  of  the 
firm  of  Culver,  Parker  &  Arthur 
attained  considerable  prominence 
as  a  lawyer.  Strongly  opposed  to 
slavery,  he  took  part,  as  one  of  the 
counsel,  for  the  slaves  concerned, 
in  the  famous  Lemmon  Slave  Case 
tried  before  the  lower  courts  and 
finally  before  the  Court  of  Appeals 
of  N.  Y.  (1860).  He  joined  the 
Republican  Partv  soon  after  its 
organization,  and  during  the  first 
two  years  of  the  Civil  War  ren- 
dered valuable  services  and  gave 
evidence  of  very  unusual  ad- 
ministrative ability  as  inspector- 
general  and  quartermaster-general 
of  the  N.  Y.  state  troops.  In 
1863  he  resumed  the  practice  of 
the  law  in  N.  Y.  He  was  the 
collector  of  customs  for  the  port 
of  N.  Y.,  by  Pres.  Grant's  ap- 
pointment, from  1871  until  1878, 
when,  for  having  sanctioned 
the  continuance  of  the  'spoils 
system'  as  applied  to  his  ofiice,  he 
was  removed  by  Pres.  Hayes,  who 
had  undertaken  the  reform  of  the 
civil  service  of  the  U.  S.  His  re- 
moval further  increased  the  quar- 
rel in  New  York  between  the 
so-called  '  Stalwart,'  and  '  Half- 
breed'  factions  of  the  Republican 
Party;  Arthur  was  one  of  the 
Stalwart  leaders,  and,  on  the 
defeat  in  the  Republican  National 
Convention  (1880)  at  Chicago  of 
the  Stalwarts,  who  had  fought  for 
the  renomination  of  Pres.  Grant, 
Arthur  was  nominated  for  the  vice- 
presidency,  on  the  ticket  with 
Garfield,  as  a  concession  to  the 
defeated  faction.  He  was  elected, 
but  even  as  vice-president  he  did 
not  stand  aloof  from  the  faction- 
al quarrel,  supporting  Senators 
Conkling  and  Piatt,  Stalwart 
leaders,  in  their  contest  with  Pres. 
Garfield  over  the  disposition  of 
the  Federal  patronage  in  New 
York,  and  in  particular  over  the 
appointment  of  the  'Half-breed,' 
W.  H,  Robertson,  as  collector  of 
the  port  of  N.  Y.  Nevertheless, 
upon  succeeding  Garfield,  after 
the  latter's  assassination,  he 
ceased  to  be  a  partisan,  and  as 
President  (1881-5)  he  discharged 
his  duties  with  much  dignity  and 
efficiency.      His  administration 


402 

was  marked  by  the  passage  of  the 
Edmunds    Anti-Polygamy  Act 

(1882)  ,  of  an  Act  Restricting 
Chinese  Immigration  (1882),  of 
the  Pendleton  Civil  Service  Act 

(1883)  ,  and  of  a  Contract  Labor 
Act  (1885),  and  by  the  thorough- 
going exposure  of  the  'star- route' 
postal  frauds.  Arthur  was  de- 
feated for  a  renomination  in  1884, 
and  died  in  N.  Y.  on  Nov.  18, 
1886. 

Arthur,  Sir  George  (1784- 
1854),  British  statesman  and 
colonial  governor,  wa^  born  at 
Plymouth,  England.  He  was 
for  a  time  lieut. -governor  of  Brit- 
ish Honduras,  and  later  on  was  at 
the  head  of  the  government  of  the 

Eenal  colony  of  Van  Dieman's 
,and  (Tasmania).  In  1837,  dur- 
ing the  rebellion  in  Upper  Canada, 
he  was  appointed  Governor  of  that 
province,  as  successor  to  Sir 
Francis  Bond  Head.  He  ruled 
the  disturbed  province,  then  agi- 
tating, under  Wm.  Lyon  Mac- 
kenzie, for  responsible  govern- 
ment, with  a  firm  but  heavy  hand, 
having  little  sympathy  for  the  now 
accepted  theory  of  responsible 
government.  On  his  return  to 
England,  after  the  union  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada,  Sir  George 
was  appointed  Governor  of  the 
Presidency  of  Bombay. 

Arthur,  Joseph  Charles 
(1850),  American  botanist,  born 
at  Lowville,  N.  Y.,  and  educated 
at  Iowa  State  College,  at  Johns 
Hopkins,  Harvard,  and  Brown 
Universities.  He  was  botanist 
at  the  experimental  station  at 
Geneva,  N.  Y.  (1884-87),  when 
he  took  the  chair  of  pathology 
and  vegetable  physiology  at  Pur- 
due University,  and  became 
botanist  at  the  Indiana  Experi- 
mental Station.  His  published 
writings  include  the  following, 
in  association  with  others:  Hand- 
hook  of  Plant  Dissection  (1886), 
and  Living  Plants  and  thetr 
Properties  (1898). 

Arthur,  Julia  (1869),  Canadian 
actress,  whose  real  name  is  Ida 
Lewis,  born  in  Hamilton,  Ontario. 
After  playing  in  New  Ycrk  in 
The  Black  Masque,  and  in  other 
roles,  she  appeared  in  London  in 
Henry  Irving's  Company,  acting 
the  part  of  Rosamond  to  Irving's 
A  Becket.  She  has  also  starred 
in  the  United  States  with  Irving 
and  Miss  Terry,  and  has  played 
acceptably  such  Shakespearean 
parts  as  Rosalind. 

Arthur,  Timothy  Shay  (1 809- 
85),  American  novelist  and  story- 
writer,  was  born  at  Newburgh, 
N.  Y.  He  edited  (at  Baltimore) 
The  AthencBum,  and  afterward 
founded  at  Philadelphia,  in  1852 
Arthur's  Home  Magazine.  Of 
his  twenty -odd  bo<.ks,  perhaps  the 
most  popular  was  hi-^  Ten  Nights 
in  a  Bar-room  (1860);  others  are 
Good  Time  Coming  (1855);  Light 
on    Shadowed     Paths  (1863); 


Artichoke 

Married  and  Single  (1843);  and 
Seed-time  and  Harvest  (1851). 

Arthur,  William  (1819-1901), 
Irish  author,  Wesleyan  missionary 
and  for  a  time  president  of  the 
Methodist  College  at  Belfast,  was 
born  at  Kells,  Ireland,  and  edu- 
cated at  Hoxton  College,  London. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer,  his  best- 
known  works,  besides  an  account 
of  a  Mission  to  Mysore,  being 
The  Successful  Merchant  (a  Life 
of  Samuel  Budgett),  and  The 
Tongue  of  Fire ;  or.  The  True 
Pozver  of  Christianity  (1856  ; 
40th  ed.,  1885). 

Arthur's  Seat,  hill  (822  ft.), 
Holyrood  Park,  Edinburgh.  The 
internal  structure  of  the  hill  and 
its  detailed  h' story  have  given  rise 
to  much  discussion.  The  hill 
figures  in  Scott's  Heart  cj  Midlo- 
thian. 


Globe  Artichoke — Bracts. 


Artichoke,  two  different  plants 
of  the  order  Compositae — the 
globe  artichoke,  or  Cynara  scoly- 
mus,  and  the  Jerusalem  artichoke, 
or  Helianthus  tuber osus.  The  globe 
artichoke,  a  native  probably  of 
Southern  Asia,  is  grown  for  the 
sake  of  its  large  flower-heads,  the 
edible  parts  being  the  large  fleshy 
bracts  and  the  fleshy  axis  from 
which  they  grow.  In  the  second 
plant,  the  name  Jerusalem  is  a 
misnomer  for  the  Italian  gira- 
sole  (turning  to  the  sun),  from 
the  habit  of  the  plant,  which  be- 
longs to  the  same  genus  as  the 


Jerusalem  Artichoke — Tubers. 

sunflower.  Its  underground  stem- 
tubers  resemble  potato  tubers, 
their  value  as  a  food  depending 
upon  the  starch  they  contain.  The 
plant,  introduced  into  Europe 
from  N.  America  in  1616,  is  in- 


Article 


403 


Artificial  Limb 


digenous  to  the  upper  Mississippi 
and  parts  of  Canada.  It  was 
one  of  the  few  plants  cultivated 
by  the  American  Indians,  and 
is  now  grown  as  a  winter  vege- 
table, and  particularly  as  a  food 
for  live  stock.  Jerusalem  arti- 
chokes are  easy  of  cultivation 
and  succeed  on  any  well-drained 
land  with  but  slight  attention. 
They  are  planted  in  the  same 
way  as  potatoes  but  are  more 
prolific  and  more  easily  grown. 
Since  frost  does  not  harm  the 
tuber,  the  crop  may  be  left  in  the 
ground  all  winter  and  dug  in 
the  spring. 

Article,  in  grammar,  one  of  a 
class  of  limiting  words.  In 
English  there  are  two  articles — 
the,  definite  article,  and  a  or  an, 
indefinite  article.  Some  gram- 
marians include  the  articles 
among  the  adjectives.  See 
Parts  of  Speech. 

Articles  of  Association,  inlaw, 
a  written  agreement  setting  forth 
the  rights,  powers,  and  duties  of 
the  persons  concerned  in  a  joint 
enterprise.  In  England,  model 
articles  of  association  for  joint 
stock  companies  are  set  forth  in 
the  Companies  Act  of  1908,  and 
are  held  to  apply  to  all  such  com- 
panies registered  under  the  Com- 
panies Act,  unless  expressly  ex- 
cluded or  modified  by  articles 
made  by  the  company.  In  the 
United  States,  articles  of  asso- 
ciation, when  duly  executed  and 
filed,  have  the  effect  of  a  charter 
of  incorporation,  and  this  is  the 
usual  method  for  incorporating 
companies.  See  Charter;  Cor- 
poration. 

Articles  of  Confed'era'tion, 
The,  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
United  States  from  1781  to  1789, 
were  adopted  by  Congress  on 
Nov.  15,  1777,  but  did  not  go 
into  effect  until  ratified  by  the 
various  States.  All  the  States 
gave  their  adhesion  by  May, 
1779,  except  Maryland,  which 
for  important  reasons  did  not 
sign  until  March  1,  1781.  (See 
United  States,  History.) 

The  Articles  provided  for  a 
loose  confederation  of  the  various 
States,  in  which  the  central 
government  had  little  real  power. 
The  latter  could  not  levy  taxes 
nor  effectually  control  foreign 
commerce;  it  could  not  coerce 
any  individual  State  into  obedi- 
ence to  its  acts,  even  in  cases  in 
which  it  nominally  had  jurisdic- 
tion; and  it  could  not  enforce  its 
authority  by  arresting  and  pun- 
ishing individual  offenders.  Ad- 
ministrative, legislative,  and  ju- 
dicial affairs  of  the  Confedera- 
tion were  to  be  vested  in  a  gen- 
eral Congress,  a  single  chamber 
with  little  real  power,  in  which 
each  State  was  to  have  one  vote, 
and  was  to  be  represented  by  not 
less  than  two  nor  more  than 
seven  members,  none  of  whom 
was  to  serve  more  than  three 
Vol.  I.—Oct.  '21 


years  in  any  term  of  six  years.  In 
general,  the  central  government 
was  to  have  charge  of  foreign  rela- 
tions, with  the  exclusive  power  of 
declaring  and  waging  war;  was 
to  settle  disputes  between  the 
States  through  the  agency  of  a 
commission  or  court  appointed 
jointly  by  Congress  and  the  con- 
testants; and  was  to  have  the 
right  of  regulating  the  coinage, 
Indian  affairs,  and  the  postal 
service.  None  of  the  more  im- 
portant powers  of  Congress  could 
be  exercised  without  a  prior 
affirmative  vote  of  at  least  nine 
of  the  thirteen  States. 

After  the  Revolution  the  de- 
fects of  the  systerh  of  govern- 
ment provided  by  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  became  more 
and  more  apparent,  and  in  1789 
the  Articles  were  superseded  by 
the  present  Constitution  (see 
Constitution  of  the  United 
States)  .  The  text  of  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  may  be  found 
in  Macdonald's  Select  Documents 
of  United  States  History.  Con- 
sult McLaughlin's  The  Con^ 
federation  and  the  Constitution 
('American  Nation  Series'). 

Articles  of  Faitli,  a  su^nma- 
rized  statement  of  religious  be- 
lief. Important  articles  of  faith 
are  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the 
Nicene  Creed,  the  Athanasian 
Creed  (see  Creeds),  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  (q.  v.)  of  the  Church 
of  England,  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession, the  Westminster  Con- 
fession, and  the  Articles  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Articles  of  War,  ordinances 
for  the  government  of  troops, 
seamen,  and  camp  followers, 
providing  for  the  punishment  as 
crimes  of  acts  or  omissions  which 
in  civil  life  would  be  regarded  as 
mere  breaches  of  contract — e.g., 
desertion  or  disobedience  of 
orders.  The  Articles  of  War  in 
the  United  States  cover  generally 
the  same  ground  as  those  of 
England.  They  number  121, 
and  are  prescribed  by  Chapter 
II  of  the  Act  of  Congress  ap- 
proved June  4,  1920  (41  Stat. 
L.,  7'>9).  Every  officer  of  the 
U.  S,  Army  must  subscribe  to 
them  before  he  enters  upon  the 
duties  of  his  office,  and  fidelity  to 
them  is  a  part  of  the  oath  of  en- 
listment. By  Article  110,  cer- 
tain enumerated  articles  must 
be  read  and  explained  once  every 
six  months  to  the  soldiers  of 
every  garrison,  regiment,  or  com- 
pany in  the  service  of  the  United 
States.  Among  the  offences  which 
are  explicitly  mentioned  are  mu- 
tiny, desertion,  quarrels,  duelling, 
drunkenness,  and  sleeping  on 
duty.  War  offences  includemis- 
behavior  before  the  enemy;  at- 
tempt to  compel  the  commander 
to  surrender  to  the  enemy;  im- 
proper use  of  countersigns;  forc- 
ing a  safeguard;  neglect  to  secure 
enemy  public  property  for  the 


service  of  the  U.  S.  Government; 
dealing  in  captured  or  abandoned 
property;  relieving,  correspond- 
ing with,  or  aiding  the  enemy; 
acting  as  a  spy.  See  Military 
Law. 

The  United  States  Naval 
Articles  of  War  are  essentially 
the  same  as  those  governing  the 
army. 

Articles,  The  Six  (called  'the 
whip  with  six  thongs'),  in  Eng- 
lish history,  were  imposed  by 
Parliament  in  1539,  as  a  cor- 
rective to  the  reforming  zeal  of 
Protestants  after  the  breach 
with  Rome  (1529-36,  1539). 
These  articles  asserted  the  doc- 
trine of  transubstantiation,  de- 
clared communion  in  both  kinds 
not  to  be  necessary,  condemned 
the  marriage  of  priests,  en- 
joined the  continued  observance 
of  vows  of  chastity,  and  sanc- 
tioned private  masses  and  auric- 
ular confession.  Those  denying 
the  truth  of  transubstantiation 
were  to  be  burnt.  The  penalties 
for  non-compliance  with  the 
other  articles  were  forfeiture  of 
property  for  the  first  offence, 
death  for  the  second.  The 
statute  was  repealed  in  1547, 
after  Edward  vi.'s  accession. 

Articles,  Thirty-nine.  See 
Thirty-Nine  Articles. 

Artic^ila'ta  (Lat.  articulus,  'a 
joint'),  the  term  formerly  used 
to  include  animals,  such  as 
crustaceans  and  insects,  which 
bear  jointed  appendages.  See 
Annulata;  Arthropoda. 

Articulation.    See  Joints. 

Artificer,  ar-tif'i-s^r  (Latin 
artifex),  a  soldier  who  is  a  black- 
smith, mechanic,  carpenter,  har- 
nessmaker,  wheelwright,  machin- 
ist, etc.  In  the  United  States 
army  he  is  enlisted  as  a  private, 
and  appointed  artificer  by  the 
officer  commanding,  and  receives 
a  corporal's  pay. 

Artificial  Butter.  See  Oleo- 
margarine. 

Artificial  Flowers.  See  Flow- 
ers, Artificial. 

Artificial  Gems.  See  Gemsj 
Artificial. 

Artificial  Ice.  See  Refrig- 
eration. 

Artificial  Limb,  a  mechanical 
contrivance  taking  the  place  of 
an  absent  limb  in  rise  and  ap- 
pearance. In  the  Museum  of  the 
London  College  of  Surgeons  there 
is  an  artificial  leg  made  of  bronze, 
wood,  and  iron,  which  was  dis- 
covered in  1885  in  a  tomb  at 
Capua  along  with  other  relics 
dating  from  300  B.C.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, Baillif  of  Berlin  constructed 
a  hand  which  did  not  exceed  a 
pound  in  weight,  and  in  which 
the  fingers,  without  the  aid  of 
the  natural  hand,  not  only  exer- 
cised the  movements  of  flexion 
and  extension,  but  could  be 
closed  upon  and  retain  light 
objects,  such  as  a  hat,  and  even  a 


Af  tiflclal  Limb 


403  A 


Artillery 


pen.  Recent  years  have  seen 
great  advances  in  the  adaptation 
of  these  mechanical  contrivances 
to  varied  requirements. 

Up  to  the  period  of  the  Great 
War  (1914-19),  however,  the  in- 
vention and  manufacture  of  arti- 
ficial limbs  had  no  scientific  basis, 
and  improvements  were  made 
only  as  the  result  of  commercial 
competition.  Once  the  ampu- 
tation was  successfully  accom- 
plished, the  patient  was  left  to 
choose  his  own  artificial  limb  as 
suited  his  needs.  The  European 
conflict,  with  its  attendant  casu- 
alties, caused  a  tremendous  in- 
crease in  the  demand  for  artificial 
limbs,  and  the  governments  of 
the  various  belligerents  ap- 
pointed special  surgeons  to  study 
the  problem  and  work  out  the 
best  method  of  solution.  Won- 
derful results  have  thus  been 
achieved.  A  classification  of  the 
different  types  of  artificial  limbs, 
grouped  according  to  the  needs 
of  the  prospective  wearer,  has 
been  worked  out;  practical  lab- 
oratories for  the  study,  testing, 
manufacture,  and  fitting  of  these 
limbs  have  been  established;  and 
the  study  of  ^orthopaedic  prosthe- 
sis has  been  so  intensively  pur- 
sued that  the  improvements 
made  have  been  little  short  of 
marvellous. 

The  first  desideratum  in  an 
artificial  limb  is  lightness.  In 
other  respects,  however,  im- 
portant differences  exist  between 
what  is  desirable  in  an  artificial 
arm  and  in  an  artificial  leg.  In 
the  former,  mobility,  to  the  ex- 
treme limit  compatible  with 
control  over  its  movements,  is 
sought;  in  the  latter,  stability  is 
of  prime  importance. 

In  all  amputations  a  certain 
period  of  time  must  be  allowed 
for  the  shrinkage  of  the  stump 
before  the  adjustment  of  a 
permanent  artificial  limb.  Ab- 
solute immobility  of  the  part,, 
however,  is  not  always  desirable, 
and  for  this  reason,  as  well 
as  for  the  encouragement  of  the 
patient,  provisional  apparatus  is 
frequently  employed  before  the 
fitting  of  the  permanent  limb. 

Arms. — The  simplest  form  of 
artificial  arm,  after  amputation 
above  the  elbow,  consists  of  a 
leathern  sheath  accurately  fitted 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  stump. 
The  lower  end  of  the  sheath  is 
furnished  with  a  wooden  block 
and  metal  screw  plate,  to  which 
can  be  attached  a  fork  for  hold- 
ing meat,  a  knife  for  cutting 
food,  or  a  hook  for  carrying  a 
weight.  It  is  retained  in  posi- 
tion by  shoulder  and  breast 
straps.  In  the  Bigg  artificial 
hand,  voluntary  and  variable 
movement  is  given  to  the  thumb 
by  compressing  an  india-rubber 
ball  placed  under  the  armpit. 
The  Beaufort  arm  consists  of  a 
wooden  hand  attached  to  a 
Vol.  L— Oct.  '21 


leathern  socket  that  firmly  fits 
the  stump.  The  thumb  is  piv- 
oted on  a  pin  concealed  in  the 
ball  of  the  thumb,  and  is  firmly 
pressed  against  the  finger  tips  by 
a  strong  rubber  band  similarly 
concealed.  A  piece  of  whip- 
cord is  attached  to  the  back  of 
the  thumb,  whence  it  runs  up- 
ward to  the  shoulder  of  the 
wearer,  and  across  his  back  to 
the  opposite  shoulder.  By  draw- 
ing upon  and  relaxing  the  whip- 
cord the  grasp  of  the  thumb  is 
alternately  opened  and  closed. 

More  complicated  and  expen- 
sive apparatus  may  also  be  ob- 
tained, in  which  the  motions  of 
thumb,  fingers,  and  wrist  are 
imitated,  and  a  natural  softness 
given  to  the  hand  by  the  use  of 
rubber  or  gutta  percha.  With 
the  aid  of  these  artificial  hands, 
books,  papers,  and  other  articles 
may  be  held,  heavy  weights 
carried,  and  writing  with  a  pen 
or  pencil  achieved.  Dr.  Jules 
Amar  of  the  Paris  Institute  for 
Vocational  Re-education  has  de- 
vised a  hand  with  all  fingers,  as 
well  as  the  thumb,  jointed  at  the 
knuckles,  and  each  finger  sepa- 
rately movable.  A  series  of  belts 
and  straps  encircling  the  body, 
with  flexible  shafts  attached  to 
the  different  digits,  enables  the 
wearer,  by  means  of  different 
motions,  to  move  the  several 
members. 

Legs. — Artificial  legs,  having 
fewer  requirements  to  fill,  are 
usually  simpler  in  structure  than 
artificial  arms.  They  are  com- 
posed of  several  parts:  the  sock- 
et, which  holds  the  stump  and 
supports  the  body  weight;  the 
prosthetic  column,  which  corre- 
sponds to  and  replaces  the  miss- 
ing portion  of  the  limb;  a  system 
of  attachment  which  fastens  the 
apparatus  solidly  to  the  body; 
and  the  articulations  which  re- 
place the  missing  joints. 

The  simplest  form  of  artificial 
leg  is  the  '  bucket '  leg,  consisting 
of  a  hollow  wooden  or  leathern 
sheath  fitting  accurately  to  the 
contour  of  the  stump,  and  having 
a  peg  firmly  attached  to  its  lower 
end. 

The  French  have  devised  an 
artificial  leg,  known  as  the  'ortho- 
paedic leg,'  consisting  of  a  leather 
socket  braced  by  a  steel  frame, 
to  which  is  attached  a  leather 
prosthetic  column  with  a  mobile 
foot.  In  use  this  has  proved  less 
satisfactory  than  the  American 
type. 

The  essential  feature  of  the 
American  type  is  that  it  is  of 
wooden  construction,  with  no 
accessory  supports  of  leather  or 
steel  except  for  the  joint  mech- 
anism. It  has  a  rigid  socket 
sculptured  out  of  rough  wood, 
preferably  mountain  willow,  to 
fit  the  stump,  while  the  leg  piece, 
which  serves  for  the  transmission 
of  weight,  is  in  the  form  of  a 


double  truncated  cone,  the  base 
of  the  upper  cone  corresponding 
to  the  calf,  and  the  base  of  the 
lower  to  the  malleolar  region. 
Externally  the  shaft  conforms  to 
the  form  of  the  normal  leg;  the 
interior  is  hollowed  out  until  the 
wall  has  the  smallest  thickness 
compatible  with  strength.  In 
amputations  above  the  thigh  a 
knee  block  is  provided.  This 
is  joined  to  the  end  of  the  socket, 
by  means  of  glue  and  wooden 
keys  and  is  rounded  at  the  lower 
end  to  conform  to  the  shape  of 
the  normal  knee. 

Of  the  more  complicated  forms 
of  artificial  leg,  three  are  espe- 
cially popular:  the  Anglesey  leg, 
of  English  origin,  the  Palmer  leg, 
and  the  Bly  leg,  the  last  two  in- 
vented by  Americans.  Advan- 
tages of  the  Bly  leg  include  rota- 
tion and  lateral  action  of  the 
ankle  joint,  power  to  walk  with 
ease  on  any  surface,  a  self- 
acting  spring  in  the  knee  joint, 
urging  the  leg  forward  in  walking 
and  imparting  automatic  motion, 
and  a  mechanical  arrangement 
at  the  knee  joint  by  which  all 
shock  to  the  stump  is  avoided. 
The  Beaufort  leg  lengthens  the 
stride  that  can  be  safely  taken, 
and  reproduces  the  natural  gait, 
while  the  curved  sole  is  instru- 
mental in  increasing  stability. 
Equipped  with  an  improved  type 
of  artificial  leg,  the  wearer  can 
dance,  skate,  ride  a  bicycle, 
climb  ladders,  and  pursue  the 
active  life  of  a  mechanic  or  pub- 
lic servant. 

Artificial  Pearls.    See  Pearl. 

Artificial  Respiration.  See 
Resuscitation. 

Artificial  Silk.    See  Silk. 

Artificial  Stone.  See  Stone, 
Artificial. 

Artigas,  ar-te'gas,  the  most 
northerly  department  of  Uru- 
guay, bounded  on  the  west  by 
the  Uruguay  River,  on  the  north 
by  the  Cuarcim  River,  and  on 
the  south  by  Salto.  Pop.  30,- 
000.    Capital,  San  Eugenio. 

Artil'lery,  in  the  general  sense, 
includes  not  only  the  guns,  but 
also  the  mounts,  equipment, 
personnel,  and  transport  of  that 
branch  of  the  military  service 
which  is  charged  with  the  ser- 
vice of  the  guns  in  action.  The 
term  artillery  is  not  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  small  calibre 
cannon,  mortars,  etc.,  supplied 
to  the  infantry  and  used  by  them 
as  a  part  of  their  normal  equip- 
ment. Neither  are  guns  mount- 
ed on  ships  referred  to  as  artil- 
lery, thoiigh  the  weapons,  with 
minor  exceptions,  are  identical 
with  those  of  the  land  forces. 
Formerly  the  general  term  in- 
cluded the  theory  and  practice  of 
the  employment  of  cannon,  but 
of  recent  years  the  term  gunnery 
is  generally  used  to  designate  the 
science  or  principles  involved  in 
artillery  firing,    and  the  term 


Artillery 


403  B 


Arttllery 


artillery  is  restricted  in  meaning 
to  include  only  the  materiel  and 
the  personnel.  All  artillery  is 
grouped  in  two  general  classes 
viz.,  field  artillery  and  coast 
artillery.  Field  artillery  is  that 
which  accompanies  the  armies  in 
the  field,  and  coast  artillery,  or 
garrison  artillery,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  is  that  designed  for 
the  defence  of  the  coasts  against 
naval  attack. 

During  ancient  times,  the  large 
number  of  fortified  walled  cities 
encountered  in  military  opera- 
tions made  necessary  the  intro- 
duction of  engines  of  war  of 
greater  power  than  those  that 
could  be  transported  and  oper- 
ated by  the  individual  soldier. 
These  heavy  engines  of  war,  the 
precursors  of  artillery  as  we  now 
understand  the  term,  were  the 
ballista,  catapult  (qq.  v.),  and 
similar  engines  for  hurling  heavy 
darts  and  stones.  These  weap- 
ons were  heavy  and  cumbersome, 
difficult  to  transport,  slow  in 
operation,  and  consequently 
were  used  only  in  the  deliberate 
and  prolonged  attack  of  fortified 
places. 

There  is  no  authentic  record  as 
to  the  date  of  introduction  of 
cannon  into  Europe,  and  very 
little  is  written  about  mediaeval 
artillery.  In  fact,  until  the  mid- 
dle of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  artillery  jealously  guarded 
its  technical  principles  and  theo- 
ries of  fire,  and  the  arm  was  little 
understood  by  the  other  branches 
of  the  military  service. 

Cannon  were  introduced  into 
Europe  very  shortly  after  the 
discovery,  by  Schwartz,  in  1320, 
of  a  method  of  granulating  pow- 
der, and  it  is  said  that  Edward 
III.,  in  his  campaign  against  the 
Scots  in  1327,  used  what  were 
called  'Crakeys  of  War,'  but 
no  accurate  description  of  these 
weapons  has  been  found.  Frois- 
sart  states  that  at  the  siege  of 
Quesnoy  (1340)  the  French  were 
repulsed,  'their  horses  being 
frightened  by  weapons  which 
made  a  great  noise  and  shot 
pieces  of  iron*;  and  the  English 
apparently  used  cannon  at  the 
Battle  of  Crecy  (1346).  These 
first  cannon  were  of  small  cali- 
bre, low  power,  and  of  little 
efficiency.  From  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth  century  the  use 
of  cannon  rapidly  increased, 
with  a  corresponding  develop- 
ment in  their  construction,  and, 
more  particularly,  in  the  size 
and  weight  of  the  projectile. 
"With  its  improvement,  artillery 
soon  came  into  general  use  for 
the  defence  of  fortified  cities  and 
on  ships  of  war  where  weight 
and  the  consequent  lack  of 
mobility  were  not  of  vital  im- 
portance. 

In  1453,  over  one  hundred 
years  after  the  first  authentic 
record  of  the  use  of  cannon, 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '21 


Mohammed  ii.  used  a  battery  of 
monster  cannon  alongside  cata- 
pults and  other  ancient  engines 
of  war  at  the  siege  of  Consta.n- 
tinople.  Mohammed's  cannon 
is  interesting,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
the  first  of  which  we  have  an 
accurate  and  detailed  descrip- 
tion. It  was  cast  of  solid  brass, 
was  17  feet  long,  and  weighed 
18 K  tons.  The  projectiles 
thrown  were  stone  balls  25  inches 
in  diameter,  each  weighing  ap- 
proximately 600  lbs.  The  weap- 
on was  transported  on  a  train 
of  trucks  drawn  by  oxen,  and  its 
movement  was  slow  and  cumber- 
some. For  short  distances  it 
was  rolled  along  the  ground  by 
means  of  handspikes  inserted 
into  recesses  cast  in  the  circum- 
ference of  the  breech  and  muzzle 
ends  of  the  gun.  It  had  no  car- 
riage from  which  it  was  fired, ^ 
but  was  given  the  proper  direc- 
tion and  elevation  by  means  of 
blocks  and  wedges.  Recoil  was 
apparently  prevented  by  sinking 
the  breech  in  the  ground  or  plac- 
ing it  against  a  tree  or  other  im- 
movable object. 

The  earliest  cannon  were  made 
of  iron  bars  hooped  together  and 
reinforced  by  wrapping  rope, 
leather,  or  similar  material  about 
them.  Contrary  to  popular 
conception,  the  earliest  types  of 
cannon  were  breech  and  not 
muzzle  loaders.  The  breech 
mechanisms  were  crude  affairs 
and,  as  a  rule,  consisted  simply  of 
a  cylindrical  block  of  metal  in- 
serted in  the  breech  of  the  gun 
and  held  in  place  by  a  lug  or 
other  projection.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  the  early  at- 
tempts in  gun  construction  were 
in  many  respects  along  lines  and 
based  on  principles  followed  in 
the  manufacture  of  cannon  at 
the  present  time.  The  failure 
of  the  pioneers  in  this  field  of 
construction  was  due  not  to  the 
incorrectness  of  their  theories 
but  to  the  fact  that  the  mechani- 
cal arts  were  so  little  developed 
th?,t  metal  parts  of  the  required 
stiength  could  not  be  manu- 
facrnred  within  the  permissible 
weight,  nor  the  necessary  degree 
of  accuracy  in  various  essential 
parts  obtained.  Breech-loading 
cannon  failed  in  the  first  at- 
tempts because  the  escape  of  the 
gases  of  combustion  of  the  pow- 
der charge  could  not  be  pre- 
vented. This  serious  defect  was 
not  eliminated  successfully  until 
about  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  when  an  expand- 
ing mass  called  an  obturator, 
which  tightly  sealed  the  breech 
upon  discharge  of  the  gun,  was 
incorporated  in  the  breech  block. 
Obturation  is  obtained  in  the 
smaller  calibre  cannon  by  the 
expansion  of  the  thin  metallic 
cartridge  case  upon  discharge  of 
the  gun.  During  the  World 
War  the  use  of  metallic  cartridge 


cases  in  guns  of  large  calibre  was 
resorted  to  with  success,  and 
the  necessity  of  incorporating  an 
obturator  in  the  breech  mechan- 
isms of  these  guns  was  obviated. 
This  method  of  handling  the 
powder  charge  also  greatly  sim- 
plifies its  insertion  in  the  gun 
and  increases  the  accuracy  of  fire 
due  to  the  uniformity  of  loading. 

A  small  cannon  mounted  on  a 
cart  was  introduced  early  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  These  guns 
were  of  very  low  power  and  effi- 
ciency, but  on  account  of  their 
mobility  could  accompany  troops. 
About  1525,  when  small  arms 
had  attained  a  fairly  satisfactory 
degree  of  efficiency,  the  cart  gun 
became  obsolete,  and  artillery 
was  limited  to  guns  of  position 
and  the  heavier  and  less  mobile 
field  artillery.  However,  these 
small  cannon  assisted  materially 
in  the  French  successes  in  Italy. 

In  the  Thirty  Years'  War  great 
improvements  were  made  in 
artillery  through  the  genius  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  who  not 
only  improved  the  materiel  but 
gave  to  the  arm  greater  impor- 
tance and  value  by  changing  the 
method  of  its  employment.  The 
principles  enunciated  by  him 
remained,  with  but  slight  modi- 
fication, as  the  accepted  doctrine 
until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Gustavus  recognized 
that  the  efficiency  of  artillery 
depended  upon  its  mobility  and 
the  rapidity  and  accuracy  of  its 
fire.  He  therefore  made  use  of 
light  guns  which  could  be  laid 
and  fired  with  greater  facility 
than  guns  of  large  calibre  and 
which  possessed  the  required 
degree  of  mobility.  The  first  of 
these,  which  were  used  in  his 
Polish  wars,  were  made  of  light 
cylinders  of  copper,  strengthened 
by  iron  bands  and  coiled  rope 
and  covered  with  leather.  These 
were  later  replaced  by  4- 
pounders  weighing  650  pounds, 
and  drawn  by  a  single  pair  of 
horses.  (The  smaller  cannon 
are  often  referred  to  by  the 
weight  of  projectile  thrown,  but 
in  the  United  States  service  can- 
non are  usually  referred  to  by 
their  calibre.)  Two  of  these  4- 
pounders  were  attached  to  each 
hz  ttalion  of  infantry.  Gustavus 
changed  the  tactical  employ- 
ment of  the  arm  by  massing  the 
heavy  guns  in  strong  batteries  on 
the  wings  and  in  the  centre  of  his 
forces  instead  of  distributing 
them  at  equal  intervals  along  the 
front.  He  thus  centralized  con- 
trol of  the  guns  and  secured 
greater  concentration  of  fire  and 
resultant  effect.  To  increase 
the  rapidity  of  fire,  he  substi- 
tuted the  use  of  cartridges  for  the 
old  laborious  process  of  inserting 
powder  with  a  ladle. 

Between  the  wars  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus  and  those  of  Frederick 
the   Great,   few  changes  were 


ArtUlery 


404 


ArtUlery 


made  in  the  artillery.  The  arm 
at  this  time  included  a  multi- 
plicity of  calibres  and  was  cum- 
bersome both  in  organization 
and  materiel.  At  the  same  time 
its  influence  was  strongly  felt  in 
nearly  all  the  important  battles. 
Frederick  in  his  early  campaigns 
neglected  his  artillery,  but  these 
early  experiences  impressed  him 
with  its  value,  and  as  his  trained 
infantry  was  gradually  replaced 
by  raw  troops  due  to  the  casu- 
alties of  the  war,  he  increased 
the  proportion  of  guns  to  five 
per  thousand  of  the  other  arms. 
He  also  reduced  the  weight  of  the 
battalion  guns,  making  them 
more  mobile;  assembled  his 
heavy  guns  into  large  batteries  of 
position  at  the  centre  and  wings 
of  his  army;  and  in  1759  or- 
ganized horse  artillery — a  battery 
of  6-pounders  to  accompany  the 
cavalry.  The  Austrians  recog- 
nized the  value  of  the  artillery 
and  previous  to  the  Silesian  wars 
had  designated  an  officer  as  chief 
of  artillery  and  given  him  a 
general's  rank.  Consequently 
their  artillery  was  at  first  more 
efficient  than  that  of  the  Prus- 
sians. 

In  1765  Gribeauval,  sometimes 
called  the  father  of  modern  field 
artillery,  began  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  French  artillery.  He 
provided  separate  materiel  for 
field,  siege,  garrison,  and  coast 
service;  and  made  interchange- 
able all  parts  of  the  same  type  of 
gun  or  carriage.  The  guns  were 
made  shorter  and  lighter  and 
were  provided  with  stronger  but 
lighter  carriages.  The  powder 
charge  was  reduced  in  weight  to 
one-third  that  of  the  projectile. 
Tangent  sights,  elevating  screws, 
prolonges,  and  new  ammunition 
wagons  were  provided.  The 
field  guns  were  assigned  two  to 
each  infantry  battalion,  and  the 
remainder  to  three  reserves:  one 
each  for  the  right,  centre,  and 
left  of  the  army.  The  guns  of 
the  reserve  were  organized  into 
divisions,  each  of  eight  guns  of 
uniform  calibre.  The  cannon- 
eers were  organized  into  com- 
panies of  artillery  which  were 
assigned  one  to  each  infantry 
brigade  to  serve  the  battalion 
guns  and  one  to  each  'division' 
of  the  reserve. 

Artillery  played  a  prominent 
part  in  Napoleon's  operations 
and  he,  like  Frederick  the  Great, 
increased  the  proportion  of  ar- 
tillery to  the  other  arms  as  the 
quality  of  his  infantry  declined. 
He  also  made  many  improve- 
ments. The  guns  were  taken 
away  from  the  battalions  of 
infantry,  organized  into  batter- 
ies, and  assigned  to  infantry  di- 
visions. The  artillery  drivers 
were  given  military  organization. 
Napoleon  uniformly  held  a  large 
proportion  of  his  artillery  in  re- 
serve, and  for  fire  effect  resorted 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '21 


to  concentrations  from  large 
masses  of  guns. 

In  1793  the  organization  of  the 
British  artillery  was  similar  to 
that  of  the  French  of  that  date. 
In  1802  the  battalion  guns  were 
abolished  and  the  brigades  re- 
duced to  six  pieces — five  guns 
and  one  howitzer.  The  horses 
were  harnessed  in  pairs.  A 
company  of  foot  artillery  was 
converted  into  a  brigade  of  field 
artillery  by  the  assignment  to  it 
of  a  driver  troop.  In  1808 
shrapnel,  an  English  invention, 
was  adopted. 

Between  1814  and  the  Crimean 
War  the  artillery  of  all  nations 
was  improved.  As  a  result  of 
the  experiences  of  the  Crimea, 
the  armament  of  the  British 
artillery  was  as  follows:  'posi- 
tion artillery,'  18-pounder  guns 
and  8-inch  howitzers;  'heavy 
field  artillery,'  12-pounder  guns 
and  32-pounder  howitzers;  'field 
artillery,'  9-pounder  guns  and 
24-pounder  howitzers ;  '  horse 
artillery,'  6-pounder  guns  and 
12-pounder  howitzers;  'moun- 
tain artillery,'  3-pounder  guns 
and  4-inch  howitzers.  The  artil- 
lery organization  of  the  other 
powers  was  similar.  Napoleon 
nr.  was  the  first  to  equip  his 
batteries  with  guns  of  uniform 
calibre.  He  also  introduced  the 
bronze  12-pounder  'Napoleon' 
in  1852,  and  this  gun  was  later 
used  extensively  in  the  American 
Civil  War. 

Some  rifled  guns  were  tried  by 
the  British  at  the  siege  of  Sebas- 
topol  but  these  were  not  a  suc- 
cess. Prior  to  the  French-Aus- 
trian War  of  1859,  a  few  French 
batteries  had  been  equipped  with 
rifled  guns.  The  Austrians  were 
armed  with  smooth  bores  in  this 
war;  yet  in  spite  of  their  pre- 
ponderance in  the  number  of 
guns,  their  artillery  was  out- 
ranged by  the  French  rifled 
guns,  and  the  Austrians  were 
defeated. 

During  the  Civil  War  in  the 
United  States,  half  of  the  Federal 
artillery  was  equipped  with  3- 
inch  rifled  guns  and  half  with  1 2- 
pounder  Napoleons.  The  ex- 
treme ranges  of  these  two  guns 
were  about  2800  yards  and  1520 
yards.  The  artillery  of  the 
Federal  Army  had  six  guns  to 
the  battery  in  the  early  stages 
of  the  war;  later  this  number 
was  reduced  to  four.  As  a  rule, 
the  artillery  of  both  armies  was 
assigned  to  divisions,  a  reserve 
being  sometimes  retained. 

In  the  Austro- Prussian  War 
each  army  had  a  large  force  of 
artillery,  but  there  were  radical 
differences  in  the  organization 
and  assignment.  The  Prussians 
were  armed  with  breech-loading 
steel  cannon,  though  some  bat- 
teries still  retained  12-pounder 
smooth  bores.  Four  batteries 
were  assigned  to  each  infantry 


division;  others  were  retained 
either  as  a  general  reserve  or  as 
corps  artillery.  Each  battery 
consisted  of  four  guns.  The 
Austrian  guns  were  rifled  muzzle 
loaders  organized  into  batteries 
of  eight  guns  each.  One  battery 
was  attached  to  each  brigade  of 
infantry,  and  four  field  and  two 
horse  batteries  to  each  corps  as 
corps  reserve. 

In  the  Franco-German  War 
the  Prussians  abolished  their 
reserve  artillery  and  assigned  the 
artillery  as  divisional  and  corps 
artillery.  Four  field  batteries 
were  assigned  to  each  infantry 
division,  and  four  field  and  three 
horse  batteries  to  each  corps. 
The  guns  were  steel  breech  load- 
ers and  assigned  in  the  propor- 
tion of  3.7  guns  per  1000  rifles. 
The  French,  on  the  other  hand, 
still  retained  the  reserve  as  a 
part  of  their  artillery  organiza- 
tion, and  their  artillery,  conse- 
quently, was  used  less  aggres- 
sively. In  this  war  the  concen- 
tration of  fire  by  large  masses 
of  guns  was  brotight  to  maximum 
by  the  Prussians.  The  French 
guns  were  partly  muzzle-loading 
rifles  and  partly  12-pounder 
Napoleons. 

Following  the  introduction  of 
the  breech-loading  steel  cannon, 
few  changes  were  made  in  artil- 
lery until  the  latter  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  prin- 
ciple recognized  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  that  the  efficiency  of 
artillery  depended  upon  its 
mobility  and  the  rapidity  and 
accuracy  of  its  fire,  still  held, 
and  though  the  mobility  of  the 
artillery  was  considered  as  satis- 
factory at  this  time,  the  accu- 
racy and  rapidity  of  its  fire 
were  not.  All  field  guns  prior 
to  1900  were  mounted  on  the 
non-recoil  type  of  carriage,  and  it 
was  necessary  for  the  gunners  to 
relay  the  piece  for  each  shot  on 
account  of  the  displacement  of 
the  gun  and  carriage  due  to  re- 
coil. The  sights  at  this  time 
were  quite  elementary  affairs  in 
the  light  of  subsequent  develop- 
ments, and  the  accuracy  of  lay- 
ing attainable  with  the  telescopic 
sights  of  to-day  was  impossible 
then.  Another  factor  retarding 
the  rate  of  fire  was  the  dense 
smoke  from  the  powder  following 
each  discharge,  which  prevented 
the  gunners  from  seeing  the 
target  and  delayed  relaying 
the  piece.  This  difficulty  was 
eliminated  by  the  introduction  of 
smokeless  powder  in  1895. 

The  French,  in  more  recent 
times,  as  in  the  days  of  Gribeau- 
val, have  taken  the  lead  in  artil- 
lery matters,  and  to  them  is  due 
the  introduction  of  what  is 
known  as  the  rapid-fire  long-re- 
coil type  gun  (see  Field  Guns), 
the  '75'  Model  1897  of  World 
War  fame.  The  French  jeal- 
ously guarded  the  details  of  con- 


Battery  of  75  mm.  Guns  Prepared  for  Inspection. 


Copyright  by  Committee  on  Pia>lic  Information 

75  mm.  Gun  and  Caisson  in  Action 

UNITED  STATES  ARTILLERY  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  GREAT  WAR 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '21 


ArtUlery 


406 


ArtUlery 


struction  of  this  gun  and,  prior 
to  the  World  War,  Httle  was 
known  of  its  interior  mechanism 
or  method  of  construction.  The 
other  principal  powers  soon  fol- 
lowed the  lead  of  France  and 
adopted  a  long-recoil  type  gun 
for  their  artillery.  In  this  type 
of  gun  the  shock  of  discharge  is 
absorbed  by  the  recoil  mech- 
anism and,  aside  from  an  oc- 
casional slight  correction  in  the 
laying  of  the  gun,  it  is  not  nec- 
essary to  relay  after  each  shot  for 
the  same  target  and  the  rate  of 
fire  is  greatly  increased. 

Along  with  the  introduction  of 
the  long- recoil  type,  came  im- 
proved telescopic  sights,  range 
finders,  observation  telescopes, 
and  other  fire-control  instru- 
ments. The  improvements  in 
observation  instruments  en- 
abled artillery  commanders  to 
obtain  the  maximum  advantage 
at  the  longer  ranges,  and  the 
improved  sights  permitted  con- 
cealment of  the  guns  from  view 
of  the  enemy,  behind  an  inter- 
vening mask,  from  which  posi- 
tion they  could  fire  upon  desig- 
nated targets  with  the  same  de- 
gree of  accuracy  as  though  the 
targets  were  visible  to  the  gun- 
ners. Great  improvement  was 
also  made  in  ammunition  and 
fuses.  Fixed  ammunition,  in 
which  the  powder  charge  and 
projectile  are  assembled  as  a 
unit,  was  adopted  for  the  use  of 
field  artillery.  This  improvement 
permitted  the  entire  round  to  be 
inserted  in  the  breech  of  the  gun 
at  one  time,  obviated  ramming 
the  projectile,  and  thus  in- 
creased the  rapidity  of  fire.  In 
the  early  days  of  artillery  one 
round  every  half  hour  was  con- 
sidered as  a  very  satisfactory 
rate  of  fire.  To-day  field  guns 
of  the  '  75 '  type  may  be  fired  at 
the  rate  of  20  to  25  rounds  per 
minute.  Such  a  rate  may  be 
maintained,  however,  only  for  a 
very  brief  period,  as  the  gun  soon 
becomes  overheated  and  will 
be  destroyed  if  fire  is  continued 
at  such  a  rate.  Two  rounds  per 
gun  per  minute  is  the  normal  rate 
of  fire  for  light  field  guns  if  the 
fire  is  to.  be  continued  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time.  Higher 
rates  of  fire  than  this  will,  if 
maintained,  soon  destroy  the 
accuracy  of  the  weapon  due  to 
erosion.  All  of  the  above  im- 
provements in  materiel  increased 
the  accuracy  and  rapidity  of  fire. 

Great  advance  was  also  made 
•in  the  tactical  employment  of 
the  arm.  Concealment  of  the 
guns  from  observation  by  the 
enemy  has  become  an  absolute 
necessity  for  field  artillery,  due 
to  the  great  rapidity  and  ac- 
curacy of  its  fire.  The  truth  of 
an  axiom,  born  during  the  World 
War,  to  the  effect  that  '  a  battery 
seen  is  a  battery  lost'  was  re- 
peatedly demonstrated.  With 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '21 


the  advent  of  the  airplane  it  has 

become  necessary  to  conceal 
guns  from  aerial  as  well  as  ter- 
restrial observation.  It  has  be- 
come exceedingly  difficult  to 
manoeuvre  artillery  on  the  field 
of  battle,  and  belligerents  pos- 
sessing artillery  of  about  equal 
strength  can  seldom  move  guns 
unless  they  are  screened  from 
hostile  observation.  The  condi- 
tions of  position  warfare  which 
came  into  being  during  the 
World  War,  subsequent  to  the 
first  large  advances  of  the  Ger- 
mans, permitted  refinements  in 
the  calculation  of  firing  data  not 
previotisly  attempted  nor  ob- 
tainable during  warfare  of  move- 
ment, and  enabled  artillery  to 
open  an  accurate  and  destructive 
fire  practically  without  previous 
adjustment.  The  proportion  of 
guns  per  thousand  of  infantry 
reached  a  maximum  in  this  war, 
and  in  all  American  operations 
varied  from  18  to  23.  In  some 
operations,  however,  this  pro- 
portion was  greatly  exceeded, 
when  necessity  or  special  condi- 
tions demanded. 

As  a  result  of  experiments 
made  during  the  World  War,  it 
was  found  that  a  considerable 
increase  in  range  could  be  ob- 
tained by  a  change  in  the  form  of 
the  projectile,  which  reduced  the 
resistance  offered  by  the  air. 
During  this  war  the  Central 
Powers  first  made  use  of  guns 
and  howitzers  with  their  mobile 
forces  of  a  weight  and  calibre 
previously  considered  prohibi- 
tive with  field  forces.  These 
weapons  were  used  with  terrible 
effect  in  the  early  stages  of  the 
war  in  overcoming  the  resistance 
of  fortified  places  in  Belgium  and 
France.  Never  before  has  artil- 
lery played  such  a  prominent 
part  in  a  war  nor  has  it  ever  been 
used  to  such  an  extent.  Forests 
and  even  the  hills  were  in  certain 
localities  obliterated  by  the  fire 
of  artillery.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  war  and  even  much  later 
it  was  the  practice  to  precede 
every  attack  of  any  consequence 
by  artillery  preparation,  varying 
in  duration  from  a  few  hours  to 
several  days.  During  this  per- 
iod the  enemy  was  subjected  to  a 
severe  shelling  not  only  of  his 
front  lines  but  also  of  support 
positions,  assembly  points,  head- 
quarters, and  lines  of  communi- 
cation. During  the  latter  stages 
of  the  war  the  period  of  artillery 
preparation  was  shortened  and 
in  some  cases  omitted  entirely  in 
order  that  the  enemy  might  be 
taken  by  surprise. 

Railway  artillery,  for  shelling 
distant  bases  and  routes  of  com- 
munication, was  employed  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  the  war. 
Among  the  largest  of  the  railway 
guns  was  a  14-inch  naval  gun 
mounted  on  a  special  car,  hav- 
ing an  extreme  range  of  44,000 


yards  and  firing  a  projectile 
weighing  1,400  pounds.  The 
gun  with  which  the  Germans 
shelled  Paris  was  at  first  8.4 
inches  in  calibre,  but  was  later 
re-bored  to  9.6  when  it  became 
worn.  Its  range  was  approxi- 
mately 70  miles.  It  did  little 
material  damage  to  Paris,  but 
its  moral  effect  was  consider- 
able. Such  guns  as  these  dete- 
riorate rapidly  and  are  of  doubt- 
ful value.  The  anti-aircraft  ar- 
tillery used  during  the  war  was 
armed  with  guns  of  the  same  type 
as  those  used  in  the  field  artillery 
mounted  on  special  carriages  to 
permit  high-angled  fire. 

In  the  latter  stages  of  the  war 
artillery  played  an  important 
part  in  delivering  gas  attacks. 
When  gas  was  first  used  as  an 
offensive  weapon  by  the  Ger- 
mans it  was  released  from  con- 
tainers and  formed  a  cloud 
which  drifted  close  to  the  ground, 
and  the  success  of  the  attack  was 
dependent  upon  the  direction  of 
the  wind  and  other  atmospheric 
conditions.  Later,  shells  filled 
with  gas  in  liquid  form  were 
used  almost  exclusively  to  effect 
gas  concentrations  which  could 
be  put  down  at  any  desired  point, 
practically  without  consideration 
of  the  atmospheric  conditions. 
The  element  of  surprise  so  neces- 
sary to  a  successful  gas  attack 
was  thus  easily  attained. 

Much  effort  has  been  made  in 
recent  years  looking  to  the 
motorization  of  all  field  artillery, 
but  as  yet  no  motor  vehicle  has 
been  devised  that  is  altogether 
satisfactory  or  that  so  effectively 
meets  the  needs  of  the  arm  as  to 
eliminate  the  horse  as  the  prin- 
cipal motive  power  for  light  artil- 
lery. 

The  improvements  in  heavy 
guns  for  coast  and  naval  service 
have  kept  pace  with  the  lighter 
guns  of  the  land  service;  and, 
omitting  the  question  of  mobil- 
ity, which  does  not  apply  to 
guns  of  position,  the  tendency 
has  been,  and  still  is,  to  produce 
guns  of  greater  power,  longer 
range,  and  higher  rates  of  fire. 

According  to  the  terms  of  the 
Army  Reorganization  Act  of 
1920,  the  Field  Artillery  of  the 
U.  S.  Army  includes  one  chief 
(a  major  general),  1,900  lesser 
officers,  and  37,000  enlisted  men; 
the  Coast  Artillery  one  chief  (a 
major  general),  1,200  lesser 
officers,  and  30,000  enlisted  men. 

See  Coast  Artillery;  Field 
Artillery;  Gunnery;  Guns 
(Field  Guns  and  Siege,  Railway, 
and  Seacoast  Guns) ;  Army  of 
THE  United  States. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Berk- 
heimer's  Historical  Sketch  of  the 
U.  S.  Artillery;  Owen's  Modern 
Artillery;  Birnie's  Gunmaking  in 
the  United  States  (Journal  of  the 
U.  S.  Mihtary  Service  Institu- 
tion) ;  Lloyd  and  Hadcock's  Ar- 


Artillery  Company 


407 


Art  Students'  League 


tillery.  Its  Progress  and  Present 
Position;  Rouquerol's  Tactical 
Employment  of  Quick-Firing  Field 
Artillery  (1903);  Wagner's  Or- 
ganization and  Tactics  (1905); 
Bethell's  Modern  Artillery  in  the 
Field  (1911);  Spaulding's  Notes 
on  Field  Artillery  (1914). 

Artillery  Company,  Ancient 
and  Honorable.  In  1637  there 
was  formed  in  Massachusetts 
Bay  Colony  'the  MiUtary  Com- 
pany of  Boston,'  which  twenty 
years  later  became  the  'Artillery 
Company.'  The  company  was 
armed  with  brass  three-pounders, 
and  was  very  active  during  the 
Revolutionary  War,  utilizing  the 
training  in  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  gunnery  received  from 
the  British  Royal  Artillery  Com- 
pany, which  wintered  in  Boston 
in  1766.  The  company  has  never 
been  a  part  of  the  organized 
militia.  Its  functions  are  now 
mainly  social,  although  it  still 
preserves  its  military  organiza- 
tion, and  drills  are  held  regularly 
at  its  armory  in  Faneuil  Hall. 
Its  membership,  numbering  about 
700,  comprises  many  of  the 
leading  citizens  of  Boston  and 
officers  of  the  State  militia. 

Artillery  Company,  Honora- 
ble, an  ancient  military  organi- 
zation in  Great  Britain,  formed 
in  the  days  of  the  Tudors  in  1537. 
The  organization  is  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  city  of  London, 
and  is  permitted  to  parade  in  the 
streets  with  bayonets  fixed,  a 
privilege  granted  to  no  other 
troops  except  regulars.  The  of- 
ficers are  appointed  by  the 
crown.  The  organization  ren- 
dered excellent  service  in  the 
South  African  War,  sending  out 
an  active  company.  In  1903  it 
visited  the  United  States  as  the 
guests  of  the  Ancient  and  Honor- 
able Artillery  Company  of  Bos- 
ton. 

Artillery  Corps.  See  Army 
OF  THE  United  States. 

Artillery  Practice.  See  Tar- 
get Practice. 

Artillery  Schools.  See  Mili- 
tary Education. 

Artiodactyla,  ar-ti-o-dak'ti-la. 
The  great  mammalian  order 
Ungulata  (q.  v.)  is  usually  di- 
vided into  two  suborders,  the 
Perissodactyla,  the  'odd-toed'  or 
'solid-hoofed'  forms,  including 
the  horse,  tapir,  and  rhinoceros, 
and  the  Artiodactyla,  the  'even- 
toed'  or  'cloven-footed  'ungulates, 
such  as  the  sheep,  cow,  and  pig. 
The  artiodactyls  have  the  third 
and  fourth  toes  of  the  foot  almost 
equally  developed,  and  vso  shaped 
that,  while  each  is  unsymmetrical 
in  itself,  the  whole  foot  is  sym- 
metrical. The  femur  is  without 
the  third  trochanter,  conspic- 
uous in  the  horse,  and  the 
stomach  is  generally  complex. 

The  Artiodactyla  may  again 
be  divided  into  two  groups — the 
Non-Ruminantia  and  the  Rumi- 
VOL.  I.— 30. 


nantia.  The  former  have  usually 
more  than  one  pair  of  upper  in- 
cisors; the  metacarpal  and  meta- 
tarsal bones  remain  separate,  and 
there  are  no  horns;  the  stomach 
has  rarely  more  than  two  divi- 


12  3 


Comparison  of  Even-toed  Ungulate 

with  Odd-toed. 
1.  Pig  (artiodactyl) ;  2.  Horse;  and  3.  Rhi- 
noceros (perissodactyl) . 


sions.  The  Ruminantia  have 
never  more  than  one  pair  of  upper 
incisors,  the  stomach  has  at  few- 
est three,  and  usually  four 
divisions. 

The  sub-order  Artiodactyla 
contains:  (1)  Suina,  including 
hippopotamus,  pigs,  and  pec- 
caries; (2)  Tylopoda,  including 
camels  and  llamas  and  their 
allies;  (3)  Tragulina,  the  chev- 
rotains;  (4)  Pecora,  the  rumi- 
nants, including  deer,  giraffes, 
cattle,  and  sheep.  None  but 
artiodactyls  bear  upon  their 
heads  true  (sheathed)  horns,  or 
antlers. 

Artists,  Society  of  American. 

See  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign. 

Artocarpacese,  an  order  of 
plants  confined  to  the  tropics, 
allied  to  the  Urticaceae,  and  con- 
taining a  milky  juice.  The  best- 
known  species  are  the  Upas  Tree 
of  Java,  the  Bread  Fruit  Tree  of 
the  Pacific  Islands,  the  Cow 
Tree  of  South  America,  and 
others  producing  rubber  and 
beautifully  marked  woods. 

Artois,  ar-twa',  former  prov- 
ince of  France,  now  forming  the 
greater  part  of  the  department 
Pas-de-Calais.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  Arras,  its  capital. 
From  the  time  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  Artois  belonged  (863)  to 
Flanders;  was  French  from  1180 
to  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century;  became  then  a  Burgun- 
dian  and  afterward  (1493)  an 
Austrian  possession,  finally  re- 
verting to  the  French  (1659- 
1713). 

Arts.  The  term  'Arts,'  or 
'Liberal  Arts,'  as  technically 
applied  to  certain  studies,  came 
into  use  during  the  Middle  Ages; 
and  on  the  estal)lishment  of  uni- 
versities, the  term  'Faculty  of 
Arts'  denoted  those  who  devoted 
themselves  to  science  and  phi- 
losophy, as  distinguished  from  the 


faculty  of  theology,  and  after- 
ward of  medicine  and  law.  The 
number  of  'Arts'  embraced  in  the 
full  mediaeval  course  of  learning 
was  seven:  grammar,  dialect, 
rhetoric  (constituting  the  Triv- 
iu?n),  music,  arithmetic,  geom- 
etry, and  astronomy  (the  Quad- 
rivium).  See  Degree;  Uni- 
versity. 

Arts,  American  Federation  of, 
an  association  of  organizations 
and  individuals,  formed  at  a 
convention  held  in  Washington 
in  May.  1909.  The  objects  of 
the  Federation  are  to  unite  in 
closer  fellowship  all  who  are 
striving  for  the  development  of 
art  in  America,  either  through 
production  or  the  cultivation  of 
appreciation;  to  encourage  and 
foster  endeavor;  to  prevent,  as 
far  as  possible,  duplication  of 
effort;  and  to  furnish  a  channel 
through  which  public  opinion, 
instrumental  in  securing  better 
legislation,  may  find  expression. 
The  means  it  employs  include  ex- 
hibitions of  paintings  and  other 
works  of  art  of  high  standard 
sent  to  places  where  they  are  de- 
sired, and  the  furnishing  of  type- 
written lectures,  illustrated  by 
stereopticon  slides,  to  towns  re- 
mote from  art  centres.  The 
Federation  publishes  a  monthly 
illustrated  magazine.  Art  and 
Progress,  and  also  the  American 
Art  Annual,  a  comprehensive 
directory  of  art.  Annual  dues 
are  $10  per  delegate  for  chapters, 
$2  for  associate  membership,  and 
$10  for  active  |  members.  The 
Federation  maintains  at  Wash- 
ington a  general  bureau  of  infor- 
mation ;  and  holds  in  that  city,  an- 
nually, a  convention  at  which  top- 
ics of  interest  are  discussed.  It  is 
governed  by  a  Board  of  Directors, 
elected  at  the  annual  conven- 
tions, and  is  supported  by  the 
dues  of  chapters  and  associate 
members  and  by  voluntary  con- 
tributions. The  membership  in 
1914  included  over  200  chapters, 
scattered  throughout  the  United 
States,  besides  several  thousand 
individual  members.  President, 
Robert  W.  de  Forest;  Secretary, 
Miss  Leila  Mechlin,  1741  New 
York  Avenue,  Washington,  D.C. 

Art  Schools.  See  Schools  of 
Art. 

Art  Students'  League  of  New 
York,  a  well-known  school  of  art, 
founded  in  1875,  and  located  in 
the  American  Fine  Arts  Building, 
New  York  City.  The  League 
gives  instruction  in  drawing  and 
painting  from  life,  antique  draw- 
ing, portrait,  still  life,  and  min- 
iature painting,  composition,  il- 
lustration, modelling,  and  lec- 
tures on  anatomy,  construction, 
and  history  of  art.  The  League 
also  conducts  night  classes,  a 
summer  term,  and  a  summer 
school  of  landscape  painting  at 
Woodstock,  N.  Y.  Scholarship 
and  cash  prizes  are  awarded.  The 


Artvln 


408 


Arya 


annual  fees  range  from  $30  to 
$70,  and  there  are  no  entrance 
requirements.  The  League  is 
governed  by  a  board  elected  from 
among  the  membership.  In  1914 
the  membership  was  about  1,500, 
and  the  a\  erage  daily  attendance 
about  500.  Secretary,  Katherine 
Jenkins. 

Artvin,  art-ven',  town,  capital 
of  province  Kutais,  Russian  Ar- 
menia; 34  miles  southeast  of 
Batum.  It  exports  honey,  oil, 
and  wax.    Pop^  7,000. 

Aruba,  a-roo'ba,  or  Oruba, 
island,  Dutch  West  Indies;  35 
miles  east  of  Curagoa,  and  20 
miles  off  the  Venezuelan  coast. 
Area,  69  square  miles.  Pop.  9,500. 
See  CuRAgoA. 

Aru  Islands,  a'roo,  or  Arru 
Islands,  small  Dutch  archipel- 
ago. East  Indies,  80  miles  south 
of  Papua.  Coralline  in  forma- 
tion and  well  wooded,  the  group 
produces  trepang,  sago,  cocoa- 
nuts,  rice,  maize,  mother  of 
I>earl,  edible  swallows'  nests, 
betel  nuts,  sugar,  and  tobacco. 
The  birds  and  fauna  are  of  great 
interest.  Chief  town,  Dobbo. 
Area  of  group,  2,460  square 
miles.    Pop.  15,000. 

A'rum,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order 
Araceae  or  Aroideae.  This  order 
is  chiefly  tropical,  and  comprises 
herbaceous  plants,  some  of  which 
are  stemless;  shrubby  plants, 
some  of  which  are  arborescent; 
and  plants  which  climb  by  aerial 
roots,  clinging  to  the  trees  of 
tropical  forests.  The  leaves  are 
sheathing  at  the  base,  convolute 
in  bud,  usually  with  branching 
veins.  The  small  degenerate 
flowers  are  crowded  upon  the 
elongated  axis  or  spadix,  which 
is  generally  enclosed  by  a  large 
bract  or  spathe,  frequently  col- 
ored or  white.  The  male  flowers 
are  aggregated  at  the  upper  part 
of  the  spadix,  and  the  female 
flowers  toward  its  base. 

The  Arrow  Arum  (Peltandra) 
is  an  American  plant.  The  Calla 
(q.  V.)  or  Calla  Lily  (Calfa  palus- 
tris)  is  the  Bog  Arum  or  Water 
Arum.  The  only  British  species  is 
A .  maculatum,  Cuckoo-Pint,  Lords 
and  Ladies,  or  Wake-Robin, 
which  is  common  in  most  parts 
of  Europe.  It  produces  scarlet 
berries,  half  seeded,  about  the 
size  of  peas,  clustered  upon  the 
spadix.  The  root  has  a  burning, 
acrid  taste,  which,  however,  it 
loses  in  drying  or  boiling.  In  a 
fresh  state  it  is  a  drastic  pur- 
gative, too  violent  for  medicinal 
use;  and  both  root  and  leaves 
are  an  active  poison.  Yet  a 
nourishing  farina  is  prepared 
from  the  root,  after  the  acrid 
juice  has  been  removed,  known 
as  Portland  Sago  or  Portland 
Arrowroot. 

Ar'undel,  municipal  borough, 
West  SUvSsex,  England;  11  miles 
east  of  Chichester.    The  Castle, 


the  seat  of  the  Fitzalans,  earls 
of  Arundel,  from  1243  to  1580, 
and  since  then  of  the  Howards, 
comprises  a  circular  Norman 
keep,  100  feet  high,  and  a  modern 
Gothic  edifice,  and  is  now  a  mag- 
nificent pile  surrounded  by  a 
park  of  1,200  acres,  the  seat  of 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  Pop. 
(1911)  2,842. 

Arundel,  Earls  of,  a  British 
peerage  which  has  descended 
through  several  noble  families 
from  Roger  de  Montgomery,  a 
follower  of  the  Conqueror.  In 
1243  the  estate  passed  to  the 
Fitzalans  through  John,  a  de- 
scendant of  the  third  earl.  The 
chief  members  of  the  Fitzalan 
family  are: — (1)  Richard  Fitz- 
alan, first  Earl  of  Arundel 
(1267-1302),  who  was  the  first 
of  the  peerage  actually  summoned 
Earl  of  Arundel  by  writ  (1291). — 
(2)  Richard  Fitzalan,  third 
earl  (1346-97),  a  famous  admiral; 
was  involved  in  Gloucester's  fall, 
and  beheaded  in  1397. — (3) 
Henry  Fitzalan,  twelfth  earl 
(1511?-80),  was  one  of  the 
twelve  councillors  in  the  regency 
during  the  minority  of  Edward 
VI.  He  was  a  prominent  coun- 
cillor of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
also  a  suitor  for  her  hand.  He 
was  imprisoned  for  his  connec- 
tion with  the  Ridolfi  conspiracy. 
Through  failure  of  male  heirs, 
the  earldom  passed  to  Philip,  son 
of  the  fourth  Duke  of  Norfolk, 
in  right  of  his  mother,  Mary  Fitz- 
alan, and  has  since  continued  in 
the  line  of  the  Fitzalan  Howards, 
dukes  of  Norfolk.  (See  Howard.) 

Arundel,  Thomas  (1353-1414), 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  be- 
came bishop  of  Ely  when  twenty- 
one,  and  was  chancellor  five 
times  under  Richard  ii.  and  Hen- 
ry IV.  He  became  archbishop  of 
York  in  1388,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury in  1396;  was  banished 
for  complicity  in  the  conspiracy 
against  Richard  ii.  (1397);  and 
returned  with  Henry  iv.,  on 
whose  head  he  placed  the  crown, 
in  1399.  He  vigorously  perse- 
cuted the  Lollards. 

Arundel  Marbles,  the  collec- 
tion of  ancient  sculptures  formed 
by  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of 
Arundel,  in  1624-7,  and  pre- 
served in  the  Ashmolean  Muse- 
um (q.  V.)  at  Oxford.  They  in- 
clude the  celebrated  '  Parian 
Chronicle,'  a  slab  recording  the 
outlines  of  Greek  history  from 
1582  to  263  B.C.,  though  the  por- 
tion containing  the  last  ninety 
years  is  missing. 

Arundo.    See  Reed. 

Arus pices.    See  Haruspices. 

Aruwimi,  ii-rob-we'me,  a  sta- 
tion and  administrative  centre  of 
the  Belgian  C^ngo,  near  the 
junction  of  the  Aruwimi  River 
with  the  Congo. 

Aruwimi  River,  a  right-bank 
tributary  of  the  Congo  River 
(q.  v.),  rises  near  the  west  side  of 


Albert  Nyanza,  and  drains  the 
great  forest  region  between  the 
central  lakes  and  the  Congo. 
Navigation  is  possible  from  Baso- 
ko  to  Yambuya.  It  was  ex- 
plored for  100  miles  by  Stanley 
in  1883,  and  by  it  Stanley  ad- 
vanced to  the  relief  of  Emin 
Pasha  in  1887. 

Ar'vad,  a  famous  Phoenician 
town  (Gen.  x.  18,  etc.)  on  a  small 
island  north  of  Gebal,  called 
Arados  in  Greek  (now  Er-Ruad); 
also  known  as  Amrit  and  Mara- 
thos.  It  is  mentioned  on  monu- 
ments about  1500  B.C.,  when  the 
fleet  of  Arvad  assisted  the  Amor- 
ites  against  Egypt,  and  attacked 
Tyre.  Phoenician  remains,  in- 
cluding a  temple,  amphitheatre, 
and  tombs,  have  been  found  on 
the  island. 

Ar'val  Brethren  (Fr aires  Ar- 
vales) ,  a  kind  of  priestly  college  in 
ancient  Rome  who  in  the  end  of 
May  conducted  the  ambarvalia, 
or  progressions  round  the  plough- 
ed land,  chanting  as  they  went 
hymns  of  invocation  to  Dea  Dia, 
probably  Ceres,  or  to  the  Lares 
of  the  fields,  praying  that  they 
might  grant  them  a  rich  harvest. 
This  rite,  which  lasted  three 
days,  was  accompanied  by  danc- 
ing and  singing;  the  priests,  of 
whom  there  were  generally 
twelve,  holding  office  for  life, 
wore  chaplets  of  oak  leaves  and 
ears  of  corn;  honeycombs,  on 
which  wine  and  milk  were  poured, 
were  offered  to  the  goddess,  and 
sacrifices  of  animals  were  also 
made.  This  priesthood  was  of 
great  antiquity,  and  survived 
until  at  least  the  fourth  cen- 
tury A.D.  Consult  Frazer's  Golden 
Bough. 

Arverni,  a  Gallic  tribe  in  Aqui- 
tania.  In  early  days  they  were 
the  most  powerful  people  in 
Gaul,  and  under  Vercingetorix 
offered  a  stubborn  resistance  to 
Caesar  (52  B.C.),  but  were  sub- 
dued in  121  A.D.  by  the  Romans. 

Arvicola.    See  Vole. 

Ar'ya,  Aryan,  Aryanism.  Ar- 
ya  is  a  Sanskrit  word,  the  general 
connotation  of  which  is  nobility, 
historical  and  personal,  'belong- 
ing to  good  family'  {cf.  Latin 
gentilis),  in  opposition  to  anarya, 
'unworthy,'  'vile.'  In  the  Rig- 
Veda,  from  the  language  of  which 
classical  Sanskrit  was  derived  and 
formed,  it  was  used  as  the  na- 
tional designation  of  the  invading 
tribes  from  the  northwest.  Its 
original  meaning  was  probably 
'kinsman,'  as  one  of  the  same 
race,  and  having  the  same  religion. 
By  it  was  evinced  the  proud  con- 
sciousness of  superiority  and 
unity  or  community,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  aboriginal  inhabitants, 
who  were  called  Dasa  or  Dasyu, 
'fiends.'  When  ultimately  the 
Dasa  were  reduced,  their  name 
assumed  the  meaning  of  'slave,' 
and  they  were  incorporated  into 
the  Hindu  social  system  as  the 


Arya 

fourth  caste,  the  Sudra.  (See 
Caste.)  The  name  Arya  then 
assumed  its  meaning  as  in  San- 
skrit: instead  of  being  tribal  and 
national,  it  became  social  and 
ethical. 

But  the  more  ordinary  use  of 
the  term  Aryan  is  for  the  whole 
family,  which  is  also  -known  as 
Indo-Germanic  and  Indo-Euro- 
pean. This  use  of  it  was  intro- 
duced chiefly  by  Max  Miiller 
and  Pictet;  and  latterly,  when 
language  and  race  became  more 
strictly  discriminated ,  M  ax  M  iiller 
advocated  the  sole  use  of  the  term 
for  the  Indo-European  family  of 
languages.  Its  application,  how- 
ever, to  race  as  well  as  to  language 
has  been  long  established.  When 
it  was  seen  that  the  chief  lan- 
guages of  Europe  had  affinities 
with  the  ancient  languages  of 
India  and  Persia,  the  problem 
arose  of  their  historical  connec- 
tion, and  their  relation  to  the 
parent  speech;  and  out  of  this 
problem,  again,  arose  that  of  the 
original  home  of  the  parent  race 
of  the  peoples.  At  first,  on 
account  of  the  antiquity  of  the 
ancient  language  of  the  Hindus, 
those  of  Europe  were  derived  from 
India,  as  by  Friedrich  Schlegel 
(1808);  and  from  a  study  of  the 
Avesta,  Rhode  first  indicated  the 
highlands  of  Central  Asia,  about 
the  upper  basin  of  the  Amu  Daria, 
as  the  original  home.  By  the  com- 
parative study  of  words  and 
names  common  to  all  or  several  of 
the  languages  (linguistic  palaeon- 
tology), it  was  believed  possible 
to  locate  the  original  home  as 
indicated  by  the  primitive  civili- 
zation. And  by  the  work  of 
many  scholars  this  came  to 
be  regarded  as  somewhere  in 
Central  Asia,  from  the  Urals  to 
the  Hindu-Kush.  and  from  the 
Pamirs  to  Armenia.  Opposition 
to  this  view  was  first  made  by 
Omalius  d'Halloy  and  Latham, 
who  held  that  the  original  abode 
must  be  looked  for  in  Europe. 
Benfey  and  Schrader  decided  for 
the  southern  plains  of  Russia, 
Geiger  indicated  Central  and 
West  Germany,  Hirt  favored  the 
Baltic  plains,  and  Cuno  claimed 
the  whole  of  North  and  East 
Europe  from  the  Urals  to  the 
Atlantic.  Finally,  anthropo- 
logical evidence  was  adduced  by 
Posche  on  behalf  of  Eastern 
Europe,  and  by  Penka  on  behalf 
of  Scandinavia.  Europe  may  be 
said  to  have  gained  the  day;  but 
Asia  has  been,  nevertheless,  up- 
held by  scholars  such  as  Max 
Miiller,  Van  den  Gheyn,  Ujfalvy, 
Hehn,  and  Ihering. 

Thus  arose  the  problem  of  the 
Aryan  race  and  its  origin.  As  the 
population  of  Europe  consists  of 
two  fundamental  races,  one  of 
which  is  dolichocephalic  and  the 
other  brachycephalic,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  decide  which  is  to  be 
considered  the  Aryan.    But  the 


409 

dolichocephalic  race  comprises 
two  branches — a  brunette  in  the 
south  and  another  in  the  north. 
By  one  school  it  is  held  that  the 
Aryans  are  the  tall,  blond  doli- 
chocephalic race  which  is  best 
represented  by  the  people  of 
North  Germany  and  Scandinavia. 
It  is  held  by  another  school,  the 
Gallic,  that  the  brachycephalic 
race  is  the  original  Aryan. 

In  the  study  of  the  Aryan  prob- 
lem it  is  necessary  to  discrimi- 
nate between  language,  race,  and 
civilization  or  culture.  From  the 
comparative  study  of  the  Indo- 
European  languages,  several  ac- 
counts have  been  given  of  the 
primitive  Aryan  civilization,  no- 
tably by  Kuhn,  Pictet,  Max 
Miiller,  Ihering  (for  law  and 
custom),  and  Schrader  in  all  its 
aspects.  The  fascinating  idyll 
of  the  primitive  Aryan  of  Pictet 
and  Max  MuUer  has  been  dis- 
sipated by  more  exact  study. 
Its  civilization  was  much  inferior 
to  that  of  the  neolithic  people 
of  Europe.  According  to  this 
view,  the  classical  civilization 
of  Europe  is  of  Mediterranean 
origin,  but  Aryanized  in  speech. 
The  advocacy  of  the  opposite 
theory  is  termed  Aryanism — that 
Europe  owes  its  culture  and  civi- 
lization to  the  Aryan,  a  tall, blond 
dolichocephalic  race  represented 
by  the  modern  Germans,  Scandi- 
navians, and  English.  Consult 
Schrader' s  Prehistoric  Antiquities 
of  the  Aryan  Peoples  (trans,  by 
Jevons) ;  Sergi's  Mediterranean 
Races  (with  a  bibliography); 
Morris'  The  Aryan  Race:  its 
Origin  and  its  Achievements; 
Humphrey's  Mankind:  Racial 
Values  and  Racial  Prospects 
(1917);  Dutt's  The  Aryanization 
of  India  (1925);  Childe's  The 
Aryans:  a  Study  of  Indo-Euro- 
pean Origins  (1926). 

Arzamas,  ar-za-mas',  town, 
Russia,  in  Nijni  Novgorod  gov- 
ernment, 70  miles  southwest  of 
Nijni  Novgorod.  Commercially, 
it  is,  after  Nijni  Novgorod,  the 
chief  town  of  the  government 
and  has  tanneries,  oil  works,  and 
foundries.    Pop.  14,000. 

As,  the  Roman  libra,  or  pound, 
so  called  because  made  of  the 


Roman  As  {reduced) 


compound  metal  aes.  Eventually 
the  name  came  to  denote  a  coin, 
the  as,  which  weighed  half  an 
ounce. 

As,  in  northern  mythology. 
See  ^siR. 

Asa,  king  of  Judah  (c.  918-877 
B.C.),  son  and  successor  of  Abijah. 


Asaphus 

He  showed  great  energy  in  purg- 
ing his  kingdom  of  idolatry.  He 
defeated  Zerah,  a  Cushite  in- 
vader, and,  with  the  help  of 
Syria,  Baasha,  king  of  Israel. 
See  1  Kings  xv.  9-24;  2  Chron. 
xiv.-xvi. 

Asaba,  a-sa'ba,  town,  Nigeria, 
West  Africa,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Niger,  about  12  miles  north 
of  lat.  12°  s. 

Asafcetida,  as-a-fet'i-da  (Lat. 
'fetid  gum'),  a  gum  resin  from  the 
living  root  of  various  species  of 
Ferula,  found  chiefly  in  Tibet, 
Afghanistan,  Persia,  and  the 
Punjab.  The  fresh  oil  has  not 
an  unpleasant  smell,  but  when 
decomposed  it  gives  off  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen.  It  is  one  of  the 
aromatics,  differing  from  most  of 
them  in  its  disagreeable  charac- 
teristics. It  is  used  as  a  cathar- 
tic to  expel  flatulence,  and  as  a 
nerve  stimulant. 

Asakusa,  a-sa-koo'sa,  popular 
Buddhist  temple  to  the 'thousand- 
armed  Kwan-non,'  the  goddess 
of  mercy,  in  a  suburb  of  Tokyo, 
Japan. 

Asaky,  or  Asachi,  ^George 
(1788-1869),  Roumanian  author, 
one  of  the  leaders  in  the  regenera- 
tion of  his  country.  He  founded 
a  School  of  Engineering  in  Jassy 
(1813),  established  the  first 
Roumanian  theatre  (1817),  set  up 
the  first  press  for  printing  books 
in  the  Roumanian  language,  and 
founded,  and  edited  for  thirty 
years,  the  first  Roumanian  paper 
{Albina).  He  also  composed 
school  books,  translated  classical 
plays  from  German  and  French, 
and  wrote  a  volume  of  poetry. 

Asama-yama,  a-sa'ma-ya'ma, 
active  volcano  (doleritic  lava) ,  in 
the  province  of  Shinshu,  Japan, 
80  miles  northwest  of  Tokyo.  It 
is  the  largest  and  most  treacher- 
ous volcano  in  Japan,  rising  to  a 
height  of  8,260  feet  and  having  a 
crater  about  >^  mile  in  diameter. 
The  ascent,  usually  made  from 
Kutsukake,  is  comparatively 
easy.  In  1908,  1911,  and  1912 
more  or  less  serious  eruptions 
occurred  and  in  1783  a  violent 
one,  lasting  88  days,  spread  terror 
and  destruction  for  miles. 

Asaph,  a'saf,  chief  musician  in 
the  time  of  David  and  Solomon 
(1  Chron.  xvi.  5).  His  name  is 
prefixed  to  12  psalms  (Nos.  1.  and 
Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.),  and  he  seems 
to  have  been  regarded  as  the 
founder  or  ancestral  representa- 
tive of  a  guild  or  family  of  singers 
in  the  second  temple. 

Asaphus,  as'o-fus,  a  genus  of 
trilobites,  characterized  by  nearly 
equal  size  of  cephalic  shield  and 
pygidium;  a  glabella  contracted 
between  the  large  prominent 
eyes;  large  free  cheeks;  forked 
hypostoma  and  eight  thoracic 
segments.  It  is  found  abundantly 
in  the  Lower  Silurian  formation 
of  Europe  and  America.  With 
the  allied  genus,  Illaenus,  it  forms 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Asarum 


410 


Asbotb 


the  important  members  of  the 
family  Asapliidae  as  found  in 
America. 

Asarum,  as'a-rum,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  order  Aristolo- 
chiaceae.  They  are  low-growing 
perennial  herbs  with  purplish 
brown  flowers,  found  in  shady 
woods.  An  American  species, 
A.  canadense,  is  the  snake-root 
or  wild  ginger.  It  has  a  pair  of 
soft,  hairy,  heart-shaped  leaves 
and  a  brownish-purple  flower, 
which  grows  close  to  the  ground. 
The  long,  fleshy  rootstock  is  pleas- 
antly aromatic,  and  ginger-like 
in  flavor.  The  leaves  of  the 
European  species,  called  asara- 
bacca,  are  said  to  be  emetic, 
cathartic,  and  diuretic. 

Asben.    See  Air. 

Asbestos  (Gr.  eternal,  inde- 
structible), a  term  used  in 
mineralogy  to  designate  three 
minerals,  and  their  varieties, 
whose  genesis  is  still  undeter- 
mined, but  whose  fibrous,  crystal- 
line structure  and  the  special 
property  of  being  more  or  less 
acid  and  fire  proof  mark  them 
from  all  others. 

These  minerals  are,  (1)  Ser- 
pentine group  3  MgO  2  Si02- 
2  H2O)  or  hydrated  silicates  of 
magnesia;  (a)  picrolite,  (b)  chrys- 
otile,    or    serpentine  asbestos, 

(c)  talc;  (2)  Amphibole  or  horn- 
blende group  (R  SiOs),  anhy- 
drated,  and  usually  associated 
with  oxide  of  iron  and  manga- 
nese, sodium  and  potassium  also 
being  present;  (a)  tremolite, 
(b)  actinolite,  (c)  hornblende, 
or  Italian  asbestos  (Amphibole), 

(d)  crocidolite  (blue  or  African 
asbestos),  (e)  mountain  leather, 
wood  or  cork;  (3)  Anthophyllite 
(Mg.  Fe)  Si03,  a  silicate  of  mag- 
nesium and  iron. 

The  use  of  asbestos  can  be 
traced  back  to  the  Romans,  who 
named  it  amianthus,  considering 
it  a  vegetable  substance.  It  was 
probably  the  amphibole  asbestos 
found  in  the  Ural  and  Alps 
mountains,  whose  brittle  fibres 
they  wove  together  with  threads 
of  linen,  to  make  burial  cloth,  in 
which  to  wrap  their  dead,  in  order 
to  retain  the  ashes  when  the  body 
burnt  on  the  funeral  pyre, 
Plutarch  records  the  use  of 
asbestos  in  the  wicks  of  the 
Vestal  Virgins'  lamps,*and  Marco 
Polo  in  the  13th  century  noted 
the  use  of  amianthus  in  Siberia. 
All  knowledge  of  asbestos,  how- 
ever, was  buried  with  the  past, 
for  it  was  not  until  1868  when  it 
was  rediscovered  in'  the  Aostro 
Valley,  in  the  Italian  Alps,  that  it 
became  known  to  the  modern 
world.  Even  then  it  was  not 
until  1878  when  chrysotile  as- 
bestos was  discovered  in  large 
quantities  in  the  Thetford  and 
Coleraine  hills  near  Quebec, 
Canada,  that  any  real  progress 
was  made  in  the  industry.  Since 
then  its  exploitation  and  de- 
VoL.  I.— Oct.  "27 


velopment  has  been  rapid  and 
today  asbestos,  in  one  form  or 
another,  is  indispensable  in  the 
electrical  and  engineering  worlds, 
and  plays  an  important  part  in 
our  domestic  life. 

Commercially  the  asbestiform 
minerals  are  divided  into  three 
groups:  (1)  Chrysotile,  or  ser- 
pentine asbestos,  known  as  cross 
fibre:  (2)  Amphibole  asbestos  or 
slip  fibre  including  crocidolite, 
tremolite,  and  actinolite;  (3)  An- 
thophylHte,  or  mass  fibre. 

Chrysotile  is  found  in  serpentine 
where  it  occurs  in  veins  varying 
from  M  to  K  of  an  inch  in  width, 
seldom  wider.  The  fibres  run 
from  wall  to  wall  across  the  vein, 
and  are  easily  separated.  In 
color  they  are  green,  yellow  or 
black  and  have  a  silky  or  waxy 
lustre.  The  fibres  are  impervious 
to  acid  and  fire,  and  have  a  re- 
markable degree  of  elasticity, 
flexibility,  and  tensile  strength 
which  makes  them  adaptive  for 
spinning  and  weaving.  These 
quaUties  of  strength,  flexibility, 
and  elasticity  which  are  not 
possessed  by  amphibole  asbestos, 
place  chrysotile  first  in  value  and 
importance. 

Amphibole  asbestos,  or  slip 
fibre,  usually  occurs  in  courtlan- 
dite  or  pyroxenite,  sometimes  in 
schistose  rock,  in  slipping  planes. 
The  fibres  run  parallel  to  the 
direction  of  the  slipping  and  are 
2K  to  3  inches  long.  In  color 
they  are  white,  green,  brown,  or 
black,  of  vitreous  lustre,  and  are 
coarse  and  brittle,  and  not 
adapted  to  spinning  but  have 
excellent  fire  and  acid  resisting 
qualities. 

Anthrophyllite,  an  iron  magne- 
sium metosilicate,  differs  from 
chrysotile  and  amphibole  in  that 
it  never  occurs  in  veins  but 
composes  the  whole  mass  of  rock 
in  which  it  forms.  It  is  yellow, 
brown,  or  black  due  to  the  iron 
present,  the  fibres  pulverize 
easily  and  are  generally  radial. 
It  is  quarried  extensively  in  the 
United  States,  principally  in  the 
Gall  Mountains  in  Georgia. 

Chrysotile,  80  per  cent,  of 
which  comes  from  Canada,  where 
it  is  quarried  in  open  pits,  is  used 
in  the  making  of  yar  ns'and  fabrics, 
packing,  brake  linings,  and  in- 
sulating material.  Amphibole  is 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
but  the  commercial  varieties 
come  from  South  Africa,  Russia, 
United  States,  and  Italy.  It  is  used 
in  making  building  material,  fire- 
proofing,  paints,  cements  and 
domestic  articles,  and  combined 
with  chrysotile,  paper  and  mill 
board.  Recent  successful  experi- 
ments with  long-fibred  amphibole 
found  extensively  in  the  some- 
what inaccessible  Grand  Canyon 
of  Arizona,  whereby  the  brittle 
fibres  can  be  made  suitable  for 
spinning  and  weaving  will  make 
mining  in  this  region  practical, 


and  greatly  reduce  the  United 
States'  present  dependence  on 
foreign  sources  of  supply. 

Imports  into  the  United  States 
in  1926  were:  Africa,  553  tons, 
$117,471;  Canada,  14,635  tons, 
$493,449;  Belgium,  30  tons, 
$7,823;  Germany,  67  tons, 
$17,102;  United  Kingdom,  35 
tons,  $8,570. 

According  to  the  Census  of 
Manufactures  for  1925  asbestos 
products,  other  than  steam  pack- 
ing, or  pipe  and  boiler  covering, 
were  valued  at  $36,173,797,  made 
up  as  follows:  Brake  lining  and 
clutch  facing,  $8,059,947;  shingles 
and  roofing  material,  $5,795,636; 
table  mats  and  protectors,  $379,- 
719;  all  other  products,  $21,939,- 
495.  The  total  value  for  the 
industry  shows  a  decrease  of 
1.8  per  cent,  as  compared  with 
$36,820,444  for  1923,  the  last 
preceding  census  3'ear.  Of  the 
49  establishments  reporting  for 
1925,  5  were  located  in  Illinois, 
9  in  New  Jersey,  4  in  New  York, 
8  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  re- 
maining 23  in  twelve  other 
states. 

Asb-jornsen",  as-byurn'sen, 
PeterChristian  (1812-85),  Nor- 
wegian author  and  writer  of  folk- 
tales, was  born  in  Christiania. 
He  studied  medicine  for  a  time, 
was  a  tutor  in  various  Norwegian 
cities,  and  eventually  became  a 
practical  forester  and  naturalist 
as  well  as  a  writer.  In  1842  he 
and  his  friend  and  colleague,  J.  E. 
Moe,  published  the  first  part  of 
the  classic  Norske  Folkeevcnlyr 
(new  ed.  1896-9),  which  can  be 
placed  by  the  side  of  Grimm's 
Kinder — imd  Hausmdrchen  and 
which  had  great  influence  on  the 
development  of  Norwegian  liter- 
ature. A  second  collection  of 
folk-tales,  dealing  chiefly  with 
fairies,  appeared  from  1845  to 
1848,  under  the  title  Norske 
Huldreevenlyr  og  Folkesagn,  with 
a  literary  merit  even  higher  than 
the  Folkeeventyr.  A  third  col- 
lection of  the  tales  appeared  in 
1870.  Of  his  scientific  works  his 
account  of  his  Mediterranean 
expedition  (1849-50)  in  the 
corvette  Eagle  is  the  most  im- 
portant. Asbjornsen  is  the 
Norwegian  story-teller,  par  ex- 
cellence, though  he  wrote  in 
Danish. 

Asbotb,  osh'bot,  Alexander 
(Sandor)  (1811-1868),  Hun- 
garian-American soldier.  He 
fought  under  Kossuth  in  the 
Hungarian  revolution  of  1848-9, 
shared  that  patriot's  imprison- 
ment in  Turkey  (1849-51),  and 
in  the  latter  year  accompanied 
him  to  the  United  States,  of 
which  he  became  a  citizen. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War, 
he  enlisted  and  he  commanded 
divisions  under  Fremont  and 
Curtis.  In  1866  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  the  Argentine  Re- 
public. 


Asbury 


411 


AschaflTenburg 


Asbury,  Francis  (1745-1816), 
first  American  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
and  joint  founder  with  Thomas 
Coke  of  Methodism  in  the 
United  States,  was  born  in 
Handsworth,  Staffordshire,  Eng- 
land. He  early  came  under  the 
influence  of  the  Wesleys,  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  thirteen, 
was  a  local  preacher  at  sixteen, 
and  at  twenty-two  was  one  of 
John  Wesley's  chosen  lieutenants. 
He  went  to  Philadelphia  in  1771, 
as  missionary,  and  was  afterward 
appointed  general  assistant  over 
the  entire  American  organiza- 
tion. He  kept  up  his  work 
during  the  Revolution  and  when 
Thomas  Coke  was  set  apart 
as  superintendent  and  sent  to 
America  by  Wesley  (1784),  he 
consecrated  Asbury  joint  super- 
intendent (later  changed  to 
bishop),  with  himself,  of  the 
American  church.  Asbury  was  a 
most  fearless  and  successful 
evangelist  and  organizer  and  the 
great  development  of  Methodism 
in  the  United  States  was  largely 
due  to  his  untiring  efforts. 

Asbury  Park,  city,  New  Jersey, 
in  Monmouth  County,  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  on  the  New 
York  and  Long  Branch  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroads;  6  miles 
south  of  Long  Branch.  It  is  a 
well  known  watering-place,  and, 
together  with  the  adjoining  resort 
of  Ocean  Grove,  is  a  favorite 
place  for  religious  and  educa- 
tional meetings.  Pop.  (1910) 
10,150  (1920)  13,674. 

As'calon  or  Ashkelon,  one  of 
the  five  chief  Philistine  cities, 
now  in  ruins.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Mediterranean,  north  of 
Gaza  and  about  40  miles  south- 
west of  Jerusalem.  It  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  oldest  cities  in 
the  world,  and  according  to  the 
tablets  at  Tel  Amarna  was  a 
vassal  of  Amenhotep.  It  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines 
in  the  12th  century  B.C.,  later 
was  conquered  by  Alexander  and 
under  Ptolemaic  rule  became 
thoroughly  Hellenized.  The 
people  were  bitterly  opposed  to 
Christianity  but  the  city  was 
taken  by  the  Crusaders  in  1153, 
the  Christians  having  won  a 
signal  victory  near  the  town  some 
fifty  years  earlier  (1099).  It  was 
recaptured  by  Saladin  in  1187 
and  finally  destroyed  by  Bibars 
Bendukbar  in  1270.  Remains  of 
the  city  walls  and  some  temples 
are  still  standing. 

Asca'nlus,  the  son  of  ^Eneas 
and  Creusa,  who  as  a  boy  escaped 
with  his  father  after  the  fall  of 
Troy.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  war  against  the  Italians, 
and  after  the  death  of  .Eneas 
founded  the  town  of  Alba  Longa. 
He  is  also  called  lulus,  and  from 
him  the  Julian  clan  at  Rome 
claimed  descent. 

As'cariS)   a   genus   of  round 


worms  or  nematodes,  including 
some  important  intestinal  para- 
sites— e.g.  A.  lumbricoides,  of 
man;  A.  mystax,  of  cats,  and 
dogs;  and  A.  megalocephala,  of 
the  horse  and  related  animals. 
Other  species  have  been  found  in 
birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes.  They 
usually  infest  the  small  intestine 
and  may  be  expelled  by  means  of 
cathartics  and  vermifuges. 

Ascendant.  See  Astrology. 

Ascen'sion,  British  island  in 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  in  lat.  7° 
56'  S.,  long.  14°  24'  w.;  760  miles 
northwest  of  St.  Helena.  It  is 
about  34  square  miles  in  area, 
composed  of  extinct  volcanic 
cones.  In  the  southeast  is  Green 
Mountain  (2,820  feet),  which  is 
used  as  a  sanatorium.  The 
only  good  anchorage  is  at  George 
Town,  in  the  northwest.  Land 
crabs  and  turtles  are  plentiful 
and  phosphates  and  guano  are 
collected.  It  was  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  navigator,  Juan 
de  Nova,  on  Ascension  Day,  1501. 
It  is  used  as  a  coaling  and 
supply  station  by  Great  Britain, 
who  took  possession  of  it  in  1815. 

Ascension  Day,  or  Holy 
Thursday,  commemorates,  in 
most  of  the  Christian  churches, 
the  ascension  of  Christ  into 
heaven,  held  to  have  taken  place 
forty  days  after  the  resurrection, 
and  thus  placed  in  the  calendar 
forty  days  after  Easter. 

Ascension,  Right.  See  Right 
Ascension. 

Ascet'Icism,  as  used  by  ec- 
celsiastical  writers  from  the  3rd 
century  onwards,  means  the  con- 
tinual mortification  of  bodily  de- 
sires, even  of  such  as  are  lawful 
in  themselves,  in  order  to  attain 
purity  of  soul  and  more  perfect 
union  with  God.  But  though 
this  meaning  of  the  word  is  of 
Christian  origin,  the  principle 
of  asceticism  is  common  in  vary- 
ing degrees  to  most  religions.  It 
is  especially  prominent  when  the 
idea  prevails  that  earthly  life  is 
evil,  or  that  the  body  is  a  hin- 
drance to  the  soul  in  its  quest  of 
virtue.  Hence  in  Brahminism  we 
meet  with  an  elaborate  system  of 
meditation  and  penance,  by 
which  the  adept  attains  union 
with  the  divine,  and  acquires 
supernatural  powers  (see  Der- 
vishes and  Sati);  while  Bud- 
dhism regards  the  life  of  the 
monk  who  lives  in  poverty  and 
celibacy  as  the  means  of  escape 
from  transmigration  into  new 
forms  of  bodily  existence.  Even 
among  the  Greeks  there  are 
traces  from  early  times  of  this 
ascetic  view. 

After  the  Christian  era,  the 
Roman  Stoics,  and  later  still  the 
Neo-Pythagoreans  and  Neo-Pla- 
tonists,  pursued  ascetic  modes  of 
life.  The  Old  Testament,  with 
its  solitary  fast  {viz.  that  on  the 
Day  of  Atonement)  and  its 
exaltation    of    marriage,  gives 


scant  encouragement  to  asceti- 
cism. Still,  among  the  later 
Jews,  the  Pharisees  fasted  twice 
a  week;  the  Essenes,  as  a  rule, 
abstained  from  marriage,  and 
lived  in  community;  and  the 
praise  of  virginity  finds  frequent 
expression  in  the  works  of  Philo 
Judaeus.  It  was  from  the  influ- 
ence of  later  Greek  philosophy 
that  the  ascetic  life  gained  en- 
trance into  the  Christian  church. 
The  New  Testament  requires 
complete  self-surrender  to  the 
service  of  God  and  man,  but  pre- 
scribes no  rules  of  ascetic  dis- 
cipline. 

Early  in  the  2nd  century  a.d.. 
Christians  kept  stated  fast  days 
and  hours  of  prayer.  It  was 
thought  meritorious '  to  abstain 
from  marriage;  watching  through 
the  night,  endurance  of  cold, 
going  barefoot,  wearing  of  sack- 
cloth, and  other  kinds  of  mortifi- 
cation were  in  high  repute. 
Gradually  a  special  class  of  men 
and  women  arose,  known  as 
6.aK7}Tai  or  ascetics.  Such  per- 
sons were  at  first  bound  by  no 
vows,  and  continued  to  live  in  the 
family  circle.  But  towards  the 
close  of  the  3rd  century,  Hieracas 
of  Leontopolis,  a  disciple  of 
Origen,  gathered  round  him  a 
number  of  ascetics,  whom  he 
trained  to  study  and  mortifi- 
cation. He  even  regarded  the 
ascetic  life  as  the  distinguishing 
novelty  of  the  Christian  revela- 
tion. It  is  said  that  some  of 
these  ascetics  fled  into  the  desert 
during  the  Decian  persecution 
(250).  In  any  case,  the  Egyptian 
An;ony  (251-356  a.d.)  became 
the  father  of  monasticism,  which 
is  the  legitimate  outcome  of  the 
ascetic  life. 

The  ascetic  principle  is  still 
maintained  in  the  Roman  and 
Eastern  Churches,  though  from 
the  earliest  times  Roman  Catholic 
authorities  have  condemned  as 
heretical  the  belief  that  wine, 
flesh-meat,  marriage,  and  family 
life  are  intrinsically  evil.  The 
Reformation  was  unfriendly  to 
asceticism,  but  a  moderate  as- 
ceticism, represented  for  example, 
in  Jeremy  Taylor's  Holy  Living, 
has  found  favor  in  the  Anglican 
Church.  Consult  Morris'  Greek 
and  Roman  Ascetic  Tendencies 
(1912). 

Asch,  ash,  town,  Czechoslo- 
vakia, at  the  foot  of  the  Hain- 
berg;  13  miles  northwest  of  Eger. 
Industries  include  manufactures 
of  dress  stuffs,  stockings,  wire, 
and  lace.    Pop.  21,900. 

Aschaffenburg,  a-sha'f^n- 
hobrch,  town,  Bavaria,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Main,  23  miles 
southeast  of  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main.  The  castle  contains  a  val- 
uable library,  a  picture  gallery, 
and  a  collection  of  engravings. 
There  are  manufactures  of  colored 
paper,  papier-mache,  tobacco, 
and  glue.  Pop.  (1919)  32,199. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Ascham 


412 


Asepsis 


Ascham,  as'kcm,  Roger  (1515- 
68),  English  writer  and  scholar, 
one  of  the  earliest  masters  of 
English  prose,  was  born  in  Kirby 
Wiske,  near  Northallerton.  He 
entered  Cambridge  in  1530, 
in  1537  became  reader  in  Greek, 
and  in  1546  was  appointed  public 
orator  to  his  university.  In  1545 
he  published  Toxophilus,  a  trea- 
tise on  archery,  which  gained  him 
the  favor  of  Henry  viii.  and  the 
appointment  (1548)  of  tutor  to 
Princess  Elizabeth.  Three  years 
(1550-3)  spent  abroad  in  the  suite 
of  the  English  ambassador  at  the 
court  of  Charles  v.  led  to  the  pub- 
lication in  1553  of  his  Report  on 
the  Affairs  of  Germany.  Mean- 
time he  had  been  appointed  Latin 
secretary  to  Edward  vi.,  and  was 
continued  in  the  same  position 
under  Mary.  Under  Elizabeth 
he  was  secretary  and  tutor  un- 
til his  death.  In  1570  his  widow 
published  his  principal  work,  The 
Scholemaster ,  in  which  Ascham 
advocates  the  teaching  of  clas- 
sical languages  by  the  analysis  of 
choice  passages  rather  than  by  an 
elaborate  course  of  grammatical 
instruction;  he  also  shows  that 
gentleness  is  more  effective  than 
punishment  with  children. 

Ascherslaben,  ash-ers-la'ben, 
town,  Prussia,  in  Saxony,  pleas- 
antly situated  on  the  Eine, 
36  miles  northwest  of  Halle. 
Industries  include  manufactures 
of  woollens,  hardware,  tinware, 
sugar  and  linen,  breweries,  tan- 
neries, and  salt  works.  Pop. 
(1919)  27,550. 

Ascid'ians  (Ascidiacea) ,  an  or- 
der of  tunicates  or  sea-squirts, 
including  all  the  familiar  mem- 
bers of  that  class.  The  term 
is  also  used  in  a  more  restricted 
sense  for  tunicates  belonging  to 
the  genus  Ascidia  and  the  related 
genera.    See  Tunicata. 

Ascites,  a-si'tez,  an  accumula- 
tion of  fluid,  more  or  less  serous, 
in  the  peritoneal  cavity.  The 
swelling  is  not  inflammatory,  but 
dropsical;  and  ascites  is  not, 
properly  speaking,  a  disease,  but 
a  sign  of  one  of  several  diseases. 
Fluid  in  excess  in  the  peritoneal 
cavity  may  be  due  either  to  (1) 
lack  of  propelling  power — heart 
weakness;  (2)  obstruction  to 
circulation;  (3)  weakness  of  the 
tissues,  and  impairment  of  ab- 
sorption; (4)  changes  in  the  fluid 
itself;  or  (5)  mechanical  ob- 
struction to  the  portal  circulation, 
caused  by  liver  disease.  Ascites 
is  usually  slow  in  onset,  and 
is  diagnosed  chiefly  by  observ- 
ance of  the  abdomen  in  different 
positions,  by  palpation  and 
percussion,  or  by  the  discovery  of 
disease  likely  to  produce  it. 
The  treatment  consists  in  dealing 
with  the  cause,  medically  or  by 
surgical  operation,  and  in  pro- 
moting absorption  of  the  ascitic 
fluid  by  free  action  of  the  bowels, 
skin,  and  kidneys. 


Asclepiadacese,  as-kle-pi-a-da'- 
se-e,  an  order  of  plants  closely 
related  to  Apocynaceae,  or  Dog- 
banes. Many  are  characterized 
by  a  milky  juice  {latex),  which  in 
certain  cases  forms  an  acrid 
caoutchouc  of  small  value,  the 
best  known  species  occurring  in 
Penang.  They  are  most  abun- 
dant in  Africa,  but  many  are 
found  in  India  and  tropical 
America — the  cow  plant  of  Cey- 
lon, a  pitcher  plant  (Dischidia)  in 
the  Malay  Archipelago;  the 
fragrant  Stephanotis,  and  the 
ill-scented  species  of  Hoya  and 
Stapelia,  all  belong  to  the  order. 
The  milk  weeds  (Asclepias)  are 
common  in  the  United  States. 
In  most  of  the  genera  the  pollen 
forms  pollinia,  as  in  orchids. 
Many  of  the  plants  are  reputed  to 
have  medicinal  value  and  several 
yield  useful  fibres — e.g.  mudar. 

Asclepiades,  as-kle-pi'o-dez,  a 
Greek  poet  of  Samos  (fl.  280  B.C.), 
who  is  said  to  have  taught  Theoc- 
ritus. Thirty-nine  epigrams  in 
the  Greek  anthology  are  ascribed 
to  him. 

Asclepiades,  Greek  physician, 
a  native  of  Bithynia  who  lived  in 
the  first  century  B.C.  and  at- 
tained great  fame  in  Rome,  where 
he  founded  the  'methodical' 
school.  The  salient  features  of 
his  treatment  were  such  as  are 
approved  by  most  modern  physi- 
cians— viz.  a  generous  diet,  the 
use  of  alteratives,  open-air  ex- 
ercise, bathing,  and  in  general 
the  assistance  of  nature  by 
freeing  the  patient  from  mental 
or  nervous  strain. 

Asclepiadic,  as-kle-pi-ad'ic,  a 
metre  supposed  to  be  so-called 
because  of  its  connection  with  the 
poet  Asclepiades.  The  lesser 
asclepiad  consisted  of  a  spondee, 
two  choriambi,  and  an  iambus 

(__|_    ^^_|  |^_); 

as,  Maecenas  atavis  edite  regibus. 
The  greater  asclepiad  contained 

three  choriambi  (  |  —     ^  —  | 

as. 

Quis  post  vina  gravem  militiam  aut 
pauper  iem  ere  pat? 

Ascoli,  as'ko-le,  Graziadio 
IsAiA  (1829-1907),  Italian  philol- 
ogist, was  born  in  Gorz,  Austria. 
He  early  devoted  himself  to 
linguistic  study  and  from  1861 
to  1902  was  professor  at  the 
Academy  of  Milan,  where  he  was 
influential  in  promoting  the  study 
of  comparative  philology,  San- 
skrit, and  the  Romance  languages, 
and  was  a  leading  authority  on 
the  science  of  phonetics.  His 
chief  publication  is  Fonologia 
Comparata  del  Sanscrito,  del 
Greco,  e  del  Latino  (1870).  His 
most  noteworthy  contributions 
on  dialects  are  contained  in  the 
volumes  of  the  Milan  periodical 
Archivio  Glottologico  (1873-1912). 
His  Studii  Critici  (1861)  and 
Letter e  Glottologiche  (1886)  deal 
mostly  with  phonetics. 

Ascoli  Piceno,  pe-cha'no,  prov- 


ince, Italy,  in  the  Marches, 
sloping  northeast  from  the 
Central  Apennines  to  the  Adri- 
atic, with  the  Sibylline  Moun- 
tains (8,130  feet)  on  its  western 
border;  area  805  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1921)  265,164. 

Ascoli  Piceno,  city,  Italy,  capi- 
tal of  Ascoli  Piceno  province;  20 
miles  from  the  Adriatic  coast, 
and  73  miles  south  of  Ancona. 
It  represents  the  ancient  A  senium 
Pieenum,  chief  town  of  the 
Piceni,  which  played  a  leading 
part  in  the  Social  war,  and  in 
retaliation  was  burnt  (91  B.C.)  by 
the  Roman  consul  Pompeius 
Strabo.  Various  remains  of  the 
ancient  town — e.g.  a  bridge,  and 
portions  of  the  walls — still  sur- 
vive. The  ancient  cathedral  is 
alleged  to  have  been  built  by 
Constantine  the  Great,  on  the 
site  of  a  former  temple  of  Her- 
cules. Majolica,  glass,  paper, 
hats,  leather,  wax,  and  silk  are 
the  chief  manufactures.  Pop. 
(1921)  32,095. 

Ascoli  Satrjiano,^  sa-tre-a'no, 
town  and  episcopal  see,  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Foggia,  19  miles 
south  of  Foggia.  It  is  identified 
with  the  ancient  Asculum  Apu- 
lum,  where  Pyrrhus,  in  279  B.C., 
defeated  the  Romans.  Pop.  6,000. 

Ascomycetes,  as-ko-ml-se'tez, 
a  class  of  fungi  which  develop 
their  spores  in  membranous  sacs 
called  asci.  They  include  many 
species,  from  tiny  one-celled 
plants  to  large  and  sometimes 
beautiful  specimens.  Among 
the  better  known  varieties  are 
the  truffles,  the  Pezizales,  or  cup 
fungi,  some  of  which  are  edible, 
and  various  species  of  the 
genera  Morchella,  Gyromitra, 
and  Helvella.   See  Fungi. 

Asco'nius  Pedia'nus  (2  B.C.-83 
A.D.),  Roman  grammarian,  famed 
especially  for  his  commentary  on 
the  speeches  of  Cicero,  of  which 
valuable  fragments  are  extant. 

Ascot  or  Ascot  Heath,  a  famous 
race  course,  nearly  2  miles  long, 
in  Berkshire,  England,  6  miles 
southwest  of  Windsor.  The 
races,  instituted  in  1711,  are  held 
annually  in  June,  and  are  usually 
attended  by  royalty.  The  course 
was  altered  and  improved  in  1902. 
The  centre  of  the  race  course  is 
laid  out  as  golf  links. 

Ascot  Vale,  a  suburb  of  Mel- 
bourne, Victoria,  Australia,  situ- 
ated on  the  Saltwater  River. 

Asellio,  a-sel'yo,  Gasparo 
(1581-1626),  a  celebrated  Italian 
surgeon,  native  of  Cremona.  An 
early  advocate  of  vivisection, 
and  an  accomplished  anatomist 
(some  time  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Padua),  his  greatest  claim  to 
distinction  is  his  discovery  (1623) 
of  the  lacteals. 

Asep'sis,  the  neutral  condi- 
tion in  which  there  are  neither 
the  germs  of  putrefaction  nor 
any  active  antiseptic  agents:  e.g. 
water  boiled  for  half  an  hour  in 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Asexual 


413 


Ashburton  Treaty 


a  covered  vessel  is  aseptic,  con- 
taining no  living  germs  of  putre- 
faction, but  is  not  antiseptic  until 
an  antiseptic  has  been  added  to 
it.  The  term  aseptic  is  now  used 
to  express  a  condition  of  freedom 
from  all  bacteria — not  merely 
from  those  concerned  in  putre- 
faction. 

Asexual.  See  Sex;  Parthe- 
nogenesis; Reproduction. 

Asgard,  as'gard,  home  of  the 
Aesir,  in  Scandinavian  and  Teu- 
tonic mythology.    See  Aesir. 

AsgUl,  as'gil,  John  (1659- 
1738),  English  barrister  and 
pamphleteer,  expelled  in  170.3 
from  the  Irish  and  in  1707  from 
the  English  House  of  Commons 
on  account  of  the  blasphemous 
nature  of  his  book,  An  Argument, 
holding  that  men  may  be  trans- 
lated to  heaven  without  dying. 
He  attributed  death  to  the  power 
of  custom,  and  to  the  fear  of  dy- 
ing, rather  than  to  necessity. 
From  the  Fleet  prison,  where  he 
was  imprisoned  for  debt  (and 
where  he  died),  he  issued  numer- 
ous pamphlets.  Coleridge  (Table 
Talk)  declares  there  is  no  'genu- 
ine Saxon  English'  finer  than  As- 
gill's.  His  famous  pamphlet  An 
Argument  was  edited  by  Gregg 
in  1875. 

Ash  (Fraxinus),  a  genus  of 
trees  belonging  to  the  family 
Oleacese,  and  including  thirty 
species,  half  of  which  are  found 
in  all  except  the  coldest  sections 
of  the  New  World.  They  bear 
pinnately  compound  leaves,  small 
inconspicuous  flowers,  which  ap- 
pear in  dense  clusters  in  the 
spring,  sometimes  before  the 
leaves  are  out,  and  winged,  dart- 
shaped  seeds.  The  wood  is 
white,  tough,  and  elastic,  and  is 
valuable  in  cabinet  work,  for 
making  barrel  staves,  carriages, 
tools,  and  baskets,  and  for  fuel. 
Its  ashes  are  rich  in  potash  and 
make  excellent  fertilizer. 

The  most  important  American 
species  is  the  White  Ash  (F. 
Americana),  a  tall  stately  tree, 
75  to  125  feet  in  height,  with  a 
trunk  6  feet  in  diameter,  found 
from  Nova  Scotia  to  Florida  and 
west  to  Minnesota  and  Texas. 
Other  common  species  are  the 
Black  Ash  (F.  nigra),  usually 
growing  along  the  borders  of 
streams  and  in  swamps;  the  Red 
Ash  (F.  Pennsylvania),  a  small, 
spreading  tree  with  a  reddish 
bark  and  somewhat  inferior 
wood;  the  Green  Ash  (F.  lanceo- 
lata),  a  beautiful  shade  tree  with 
dark  lustrous  foliage;  and  the 
Oregon  Ash  (F.  Oregona),  also  a 
valuable  shade  tree,  found  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  European 
Ash  (F.  excelsior)  is  a  large  timber 
tree,  growing  in  Asia  as  well  as 
in  Europe.  It  is  exceedingly 
valuable  for  its  wood;  the  seeds 
are  used  as  a  food  for  pigs;  and 
the  ashes  make  good  fertilizer. 
The  Flowering  Ash  (F.  ornus)  of 
Southern  Europe  and  Asia  Minor 


yields  a  medicinal  wax  known  as 
manna  (q.  v.). 

Ashanti,  a-shan'te,  or  Ashan- 
tee,  a  district  of  the  Gold  Coast, 
lying  inland  behind  the  Prah 
River,  until  1896  a  native  king- 
dom of  West  Africa,  dating  from 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. It  is  an  undulating  region, 
clothed  with  dense  forest,  and 
traversed  by  wide,  swampy 
streams.  The  forest  products — 
timber,  vegetable  oils,  rubber, 
and  gum  copal — are  a  great  po- 
tential source  of  wealth.  Cocoa 
and  rubber  plantations  have 
been  formed,  and  the  practice  of 
agriculture  in  general  is  being 
extended.  Gold  is  the  principal 
mineral  product,  the  output  for 
1921  amounting  to  85,019  oz., 
valued  at  £361,360.  The  people 
are  one  of  the  most  important 
tribes  of  the  Tshi  group,  warlike, 
predatory,  and  formerly  notori- 
ous for  their  orgiastic  human 
sacrifices.  Owing  to  their  dep- 
redations on  the  Fanti  subjects  of 
Britain  in  the  coast  regions,  they 
were  punished  bv  military  expe- 
ditions in  1807-11;  in  1873-4, 
when  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  cap- 
tured and  burned  Kumassi;  in 
1895-6,  when  their  king,  Prem- 
peh,  was  exiled;  and  again  in 
1900,  after  which  Ashanti  was 
annexed  by  Great  Britain.  It 
now  constitutes  a  district  (North- 
ern Territories)  of  the  Gold 
Coast  Colony.  The  chief  town 
is  Kumassi,  with  20,000  inhabi- 
tants. The  population  of  Ash- 
anti is  estimated  at  about  407,000. 

Ash'bourne,  or  Ashborne, 
market  town,  England,  in  Derby- 
shire, on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Dove;  22  miles  southeast  of 
Buxton.  The  cruciform  church 
with  a  central  tower  dates  from 
1241,  and  has  a  beautiful  spire 
(212  ft.),  known  as  the  'Pride  of 
the  Peak.'  In  the  north  chancel 
is  Banks'  fine  sculpture  to  the 
memory  of  Penelope  Boothby, 
which  suggested  Chantry's  Sleep- 
ing Children  in  Lichfield  Cathe- 
dral.    Pop.  (1921)  4,147. 

Ashbourne,  Edward  Gibson, 
Baron  (1837-1913),  was  born  in 
Dublin.  He  became  m.p.  for 
Dublin  University  (1875),  at- 
torney-general for  Ireland  (1877- 
80),  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1885.  He  was  lord  chancellor 
of  Ireland  in  1885-92  and  again 
in  1895-1906.  His  name  is  as- 
sociated with  the  Act  of  1885  for 
facilitating  the  sale  of  Irish  hold- 
ings to  tenants. 

Ashburner,  Charles  Albert 
(1854-89),  American  geologist 
and  engineer,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania; was  employed  on  the  U.  S. 
Lighthouse  Survey;  was  assistant 
geologist  of  Pennsylvania  in 
187.5-79,  and  in  1880-87  was 
geologist  in  charge  of  the  anthra- 
cite coal  fields  of  that  State.  He 
was  subsequently  connected  with 


various  mining  and  engineering 
companies  in  Pittsburgh  and  else- 
where. His  work  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania coal  fields  was  exceed- 
ingly valuable.  He  published 
The  Anthracite  Coal  Beds  of  Penn- 
sylvania (1882),  The  Geology  of 
Natural  Gas  in  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York  (1885),  and  American 
Petroleum  (1888). 

Ashburnham,  John  (1603-71), 
confidential  agent  to  Charles  i. 
He  sat  in  the  Long  Parliament; 
assisted,  during  the  civil  war,  at 
the  treaty  of  Uxbridge  and  other 
peace  negotiations,  accompanied 
Charles  in  his  journey  to  the 
Scots  army,  and  arranged  his 
flight  from  Hampton  Court  to 
the  Isle  of  Wight.  During  the 
Commonwealth  he  was  impris- 
oned and  banished,  but  regained 
his  old  office  as  groom  of  the  bed- 
chamber at  the  restoration. 

Ash'burton,  market  town, 
England,  in  Devonshire,  on  the 
Yeo;  19  miles  southwest  of  Exe- 
ter. It  received  a  charter  in  the 
time  of  Edward  i.  (1239-1307)  as 
a  stannary  town,  for  the  weigh- 
ing and  stamping  of  tin  and  the 
holding  of  Tin  Parliaments.  It 
was  occupied  by  the  Royalists 
during  the  civil  war,  and  was 
taken  by  Fairfax  in  1646.  Pop. 
(1921)  2,362. 

Ashburton,  Alexander  Bar- 
ing, Baron  (1774-1848),  was  the 
head  of  the  British  banking  firm 
of  Baring  Brothers;  was  m.p.  for 
various  constituencies  (1806-35), 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1835.  As  special  commissioner 
to  Washington  (1842),  he  con- 
cluded the  Ashburton  Treaty 
(q.  v.). 

Ashburton,  John  Dunning, 
First  Baron  (1731-83),  English 
lawyer  and  politician,  was  born 
in  Ashburton.  Called  to  the  bar 
in  1756,  he  became  recorder  of 
Bristol  (1766),  and  was  subse- 
quently solicitor-general  (1767- 
70);  M.p.  for  Calne  (1768-82); 
chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lan- 
caster, and  a  privy  councillor. 
He  was  a  persuasive  orator,  and 
an  opponent  of  the  government's 
American  policy.  He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  in  1782. 

Ashburton  River,  Western 
Australia,  rises  in  the  mountains 
west  of  the  Great  Sandy  desert, 
and  after  a  northwesterly  course 
of  400  miles,  enters  the  Indian 
Ocean,  northeast  of  Exmouth. 

Ashburton  Treaty,  or  Web- 
ster-Ashburton  Treaty,  an  im- 
portant treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
negotiated  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
in  1842,  by  Daniel  Webster 
(q.  v.),  then  Secretary  of  State, 
on  behalf  of  the  United  States, 
and  Alexander  Baring,  Lord  Ash- 
burton (q.  v.),  on  behalf  of  Great 
Britain.  By  this  treaty  (Arts,  i 
and  ii)  the  boundary  between  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  was 
agreed  upon;  and  provision  was 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Ashby 


414 


Ashfleld 


also  made  (Art.  iii)  that  the  navi- 
gation of  the  St.  John  River 
should  be  free  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick; 
that  (Art.  iv)  'all  grants  of  land 
heretofore  made  by  either  party, 
within  the  limits  of  the  territory 
which  by  this  treaty  falls  within 
the  dominions  of  the  other  party, 
shall  be  held  valid,  ratified,  and 
confirmed  to  the  persons  in  pos- 
session under  such  grants,  to  the 
same  extent  as  if  such  territory 
had  by  this  treaty  fallen  within 
the  dominions  of  the  party  by 
whom  such  grants  were  made; 
that  (Art.  v)  the  United  States 
should  pay  to  Massachusetts  and 
Maine  $300,000  'in  equal  moieties 
on  account  of  their  assent  to  the 
line  of  boundary  described  in 
this  treaty;'  that  (Art.  viii)  each 
power  should  'maintain  on  the 
coast  of  Africa  a  sufficient  and 
adequate  squadron  ...  to  en- 
force, separately  and  respec- 
tively, the  laws,  rights,  and  obli- 
gations of  each  of  the  two  coun- 
tries for  the  suppression  of  the 
slave  trade,'  the  two  squadrons 
to  co-operate;  and  (Art.  x)  that, 
under  certain  conditions,  each 
power  should  'deliver  up  to  jus- 
tice all  persons  who,  being 
charged  with  the  crime  of  mur- 
der, or  assault  with  intent  to  com- 
mit murder,  or  piracy,  or  arson, 
or  robbery,  or  forgery,  or  the  ut- 
terance of  forged  paper,  com- 
mitted within  the  jurisdiction  of 
either,  shall  seek  an  asylum  or 
shall  be  found  within  the  terri- 
tories of  the  other.'  The  treaty 
was  negotiated  at  a  time  when 
relations  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  were 
strained  (see  Caroline  Affair; 
Creole  Case),  and  was  particu- 
larly important  in  that  it  settled 
the  long-standing  dispute  con- 
cerning the  northeast  boundary 
of  the  United  States,  which  had 
brought  the  two  powers  almost 
to  the  verge  of  hostilities.  (See 
Northeast  Boundary  Contro- 
versy.) Ratifications  were  ex- 
changed in  London  on  Oct.  13, 
1842,  and  the  treaty  was  pro- 
claimed on  Nov.  10.  The  text 
of  the  treaty  is  to  be  found  in 
Macdonald's  Select  Documents  of 
United  States  History,  1776-1861 
(1898),  the  diplomatic  corre- 
spondence concerning  it  in  the 
House  Executive  Document,  No. 
2,  of  the  27th  Congress. 

Ash'by,  Turner  (1828-62). 
American  Confederate  soldier, 
was  born  in  ROvSe  Bank.  Fauquier 
County,  Va.  He  became  a 
planter  and  was  a  supporter  of 
slavery,  though  not  of  secession. 
With  a  company  of  mounted 
men,  raised  by  himself,  he  par- 
ticipated in  the  recapture  of 
Harper's  Ferry  from  John 
Brown's  followers  (18.59).  He 
commanded  the  advance  guard 
in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  cam- 
paign under  General  Jackson, 
covering  his  retreat  before  Gen- 

VOL.  I.— Oct.  '23 


eral  Banks  with  much  skill  and 
gallantry.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general  in  1862, 
and  was  killed  at  Harrisonburg, 
Va.,  in  a  minor  engagement  two 
days  before  the  battle  of  Cross 
Keys. 

Ashby-de-Ia-Zouch,  ash'bi- 
de-la-zobch',  town,  England,  in 
Leicestershire;  21  miles  north- 
west of  Leicester.  Features  of 
interest  are  the  ruins  of  the  Cas- 
tle, built  about  1474,  and  famous 
as  the  scene  of  several  events  in 
Scott's  Ivanhoe,  and  the  church 
of  St.  Helen,  containing  the 
tombs  of  the  Earl  and  Countess 
of  Huntingdon.  There  are  col- 
lieries and  manufactures  of  hos- 
iery, hats,  and  leather.  Pop. 
(1921)  4,983. 

Ash'by-Ster'ry,  Joseph  (1860- 
1917),  English  artist,  journalist, 
and  critic,  was  born  in  London, 
He  at  first  painted  portraits  in 
oil  and  made  wood  drawings  for 
Punch  and  other  papers,  but 
soon  drifted  into  journalism  and 
became  widely  known  in  England 
as  the  writer  of  the  'Bystander' 
papers  in  the  London  Graphic. 
From  1891  to  1907  he  was  art 
critic  on  the  Daily  Graphic.  Be- 
sides many  interesting  sketches 
and  some  clever  verse,  he  pub- 
lished Nutshell  Novels  (1890), 
Lazy  Minstrel  (1892),  Naughty 
Girl  (1893),  A  Tale  of  the  Thames 
in  Verse  (1896),  Leaves  for  the 
Lazy  (1900),  The  River  Rhymer 
(1913). 

Ash'dod,  a  great  city  of  the 
Philistines  (Josh.  xi.  22),  not  far 
from  the  Mediterranean  coast; 
called  Azotus  in  the  Apocrypha 
and  New  Testament,  now  Isdud 
or  Esdud,  a  small  mud  village. 
It  was  for  long  a  thorn  in  the  side 
of  the  Israelites.  When  the 
Philistines  captured  the  ark,  they 
conveyed  it  to  Ashdod,  where 
stood  the  temple  of  Dagon.  The 
town  underwent  sieges  at  the 
hands  of  Sargon  and  Psam- 
metichus,  and  was  despoiled  by 
Judas  Maccabaeus,  as  also  by 
Jonathan,  his  brother. 

Ashdown  Park,  in  Berk- 
shire, England,  6  miles  north- 
west of  Lambourn.  Near  here 
was  fought  the  sanguinary  bat- 
tle {Mscandune  or  Assandune) 
in  which  Ethelred  and  Alfred  de- 
feated the  Danes  (871).  The 
associated  legend  plays  a  part 
in  Scott's  Kenilworth. 

Ashe,  John  (1720-81),  Ameri- 
can Revolutionary  soldier,  was 
born  in  Grovely,  N.  C.  He  was 
presiding  officer  (1762-5)  in  the 
Colonial  Assembly  and  in  1771 
took  part  in  suppressing  the 
Regulators  (q.  v.).  In  1775  he 
aided  in  the  capture  of  Fort 
Johnson,  and  equipped  at  his 
personal  expense  a  regiment  to 
defend  the  first  Provincial  Con- 
gress of  North  Carolina,  of  which 
he  was  a  member.  While  in 
command  of  a  force  vsent  to 
capture  Augusta,  he  was  defeated 


at  Brier  Creek  by  General  Pre- 
vost.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
when  the  British  captured  Wil- 
mington in  1781,  and  while  in 
prison  contracted  small-pox,  of 
which  he  died.  Asheville,  N.C., 
was  named  in  his  honor. 

Ashehoh,  a-zhe-ho',  Ajeho, 
or  Alchuku,  trading  town,  Man- 
churia, in  the  northern  part  of 
the  province  of  Kirin;  30  miles 
south  of  the  Sungari  River.  Pop. 
30,000. 

Asber,  Jacob's  eighth  son, 
whose  mother  was  Zilpah,  the 
handmaid  of  Leah.  Asher  was 
the  ancestor  of  the  tribe  of  the 
same  name,  whose  allotment  of 
land  extended  from  Dor  north- 
eastward to  Lebanon  (Josh.  xix. 
24-31). 

Ash'erah,  a  Hebrew  word  (pi. 
asherim;  asheroth),  translated 
'grove'  in  the  King  James  Ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  but  simply 
transliterated  in  the  Revised 
Version.  It  signifies  the  sacred 
pole  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Baby- 
lonians, the  symbol  of  fertility, 
representing  the  goddess  Asherah. 

Ashes,  the  mineral  residue  ob- 
tained by  the  combustion  of 
animal  and  vegetable  substances, 
and  consisting  of  the  fixed  salts 
contained  in  these  substances. 
In  plants  the  most  important  are 
salts  of  potash  (land  plants)  or 
soda  (sea  plants),  along  with  sil- 
ica and  lime.  Ashes  of  sea  plants 
contain  also  more  or  less  iodine. 
Ashes  of  animal  bodies  do  not 
differ  greatly  from  those  of  vege- 
tables. Bone  ashes  consist  es- 
sentially of  lime  united  with 
phosphoric  acid.  Ashes  are  eco- 
nomically useful  as  fertilizer  and 
as  an  insecticide. 

Asheville,  city,  North  Caro- 
lina, county  seat  of  Buncombe 
county,  at  the  junction  of  the 
French  Broad  and  Swannanoa 
Rivers,  on  the  Southern  Rail- 
road; 103  miles  northwest  of 
Charlotte.  It  is  picturesquely 
situated  at  an  elevation  of  2,350 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  one 
of  the  best  known  health  resorts 
in  the  United  States.  The  city 
has  many  fine  public  buildings, 
including  the  Post  Office,  Court 
House,  Federal  Government  Of- 
fices, Pack  Memorial  Library, 
and  the  City  Hall.  Its  educa- 
tional institutions  include  a  mil- 
itary school,  a  college  for  young 
ladies,  an  academy  of  fine  arts, 
and  a  school  of  forestry.  It  is 
situated  in  a  rich  mineral  and 
forest  region,  a  large  part  of 
which  is  well  fitted  for  dairy 
farming  and  fruit  and  vegetable 
culture.  Among  its  manufac- 
tures are  leather,  cotton  goods, 
and  wood- working  products.  Bilt- 
more,  the  country  seat  and  es- 
tate of  G.  W.  Vanderbilt,  is  near 
bv.  Pop.  (1900)  14,694;  (1910) 
18,762;  (1920)  28..504. 

Ashfleld,  town,  Australia,  in 
New  South  Wales,  5  miles  south 
of  Sydney.    Pop.  (1921)  33,636. 


Ashford 


415 


Ashmofean  Museum 


AsbTord,  market  town,  Eng- 
land, in  Kent,  near  the  Stour;  14 
miles  southwest  of  Canterbury. 
It  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
Southeastern  and  Chatham  Rail- 
way, and  has  breweries,  brick- 
works, tanneries,  and  manufac- 
tures of  agricultural  implements. 
Pop.  (1921)  14,355. 

Ash'hiirst,  John  (1839-1900), 
American  surgeon,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  where  for  some 
years  he  was  professor  of  clinical 
surgery  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  later  presi- 
dent of  the  Philadelphia  College 
of  Physicians.  In  1862-5  he 
was  assistant  surgeon  in  the  U. 
S.  Army.  Besides  editing  Erich- 
sen's  Science  and  Art  of  Surgery 
(1869)  and  the  International  En- 
cyclopedia of  Surgery  (1881-86), 
he  wrote  Injuries  of  the  Spine 
(1867)  and  Principles  and  Prac- 
tice of  Surgery  (1871). 

Asbikaga,  a-shi-ka'ga,  town, 
Japan,  on  Hondo  Island,  72  miles 
northwest  of  Tokyo.  An  image 
of  Confucius  is  the  only  relic  of 
an  ancient  academy  of  Chinese 
learning  which  once  existed  here. 
There  is  a  large  trade  in  cotton 
and  silk  goods^    Pop.  22,000. 

Asbio,  a-she'o,  town,  Japan, 
on  Hondo  Island,  12  miles  south- 
west of  Nikko.  It  is  the  site  of 
a  famous  copper  mine  covering 
an  area  of  over  2,000  acres  and 
producing  annually  over  30,000,- 
000  pounds  of  copper  ingots. 
Pop.  about  30,000. 

Ashkelon.    See  Ascalon. 

Ash'kenaz,  the  name  of  a  tribe 
descended  from  one  of  the  sons  of 
Gomer,  the  son  of  Japheth  (Gen. 
X.  3),  originally  inhabiting  the 
part  of  Asia  Minor  in  the  vicinity 
of  Armenia,  and  associated  with 
Ararat  and  Minni  (a  portion  of 
Armenia)  in  Jer.  li,  27.  It  has 
been  identified  with  certain 
tribes  of  Phrygia  and  Bithynia, 
with  the  Scandinavians  and  oth- 
ers, including  the  Polish  and 
German  Jews,  who  are,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  called  Ashkenazim,  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  Se- 
phardim,  or  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese Jews.  Assyriologists  con- 
nect the  name  with  a  people  who 
lived  near  Lake  Urumiyeh  and 
were  sought  as  allies  by  the  Man- 
nai  when  they  revolted  under 
Esarhaddbn. 

Asbland,  city,  Kentucky,  Boyd 
county,  on  the  Ashland  Coal  and 
Iron,  and  the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  Railroads;  about  140  miles 
southeast  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
It  has  extensive  manufactures, 
including  iron  and  steel  products, 
woollen  goods,  leather,  fire-brick, 
furniture,  nails,  and  lumber.  It 
is  situated  in  a  highly  productive 
oil  and  mineral  region.  Two 
fine  parks  adorn  the  town.  Pop. 
(1900)  6,800;  (1910)  8,088;  (1920) 
14,729. 

Asbland,  town,  Ohio,  county 
seat  of  Ashland  county,  on  the 
Erie,  and  the  Lorain,  Ashland 


and  Southern  Railroads;  about 
50  miles  southwest  of  Akron. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Ashland  College. 
There  are  trade  in  grain  and 
manufactures  of  agricultural  im- 
plements, rubber,  pumps,  medi- 
cines, and  stock  remedies.  Pop. 
(1910)  6,795;  (1920)  9,249. 

Asbland,  city,  Oregon,  Jack- 
son county,  on  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad;  185  miles  south 
of  Salem,  the  State  capital.  It 
is  in  a  rich  agricultural  and  min- 
eral region.  Fruit-growing  and 
dairying  are  important  interests, 
and  there  are  woollen,  flour,  and 
lumber  mills,  gold  mining,  and 
manufactures  of  granite  and 
sandstone.  It  is  becoming  known 
as  a  health  resort,  owing  to  the 
nearby  mineral  waters.  Pop. 
(1910)  5,020;  (1920)  4,283. 

Asbland,  borough,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Schuylkill  county,  on  the 
Philadelphia  and  Reading,  and 
the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroads;  119 
miles  northwest  of  Philadelphia. 
It  is  in  a  rich  anthracite  coal  min- 
ing district,  and  has  machine 
shops  and  foundries,  planing  mills, 
and  a  shirt  factory.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  Miners'  State  Hospital. 
Pop.  (1910)  6,855;  (1920)  6,666. 

Asbland,  town,  Virginia,  Han- 
over county,  on  the  Richmond, 
Fredericksburg  and  Potomac 
Railroad;  17  miles  north  of  Rich- 
mond. Randolph-Macon  Col- 
lege is  located  here,  and  within  a 
few  miles  is  the  birthplace  of 
Patrick  Henry  and  Henrv  Clay. 
Pop.  (1910)  1,324;  (1920)  1,299. 

Ashland,  city,  Wisconsin, 
county  seat  of  Ashland  county, 
on  Chequamegon  Bay,  an  arm 
of  Lake  vSuperior,  and  terminal 
of  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
neapolis and  Omaha,  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern,  the  Minne- 
apolis, St.  Paul  and  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  and  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railroads;  60  miles  southeast  of 
Duluth,  Minnesota.  Public  build- 
ings and  other  features  of  interest 
are  the  Post-Office,  Opera  House, 
Federal  Government  Offices, 
Public  Library,  High  School,  and 
seven  large  coal  and  iron  ore 
docks.  Northland  College  is 
located  here. 

Ashland  is  the  centre  of  a 
rapidly  developing  agricultural 
and  dairy  section.  Its  manu- 
facturing interests  include  iron 
and  steel  products,  pig  iron, 
lumber  and  flour  mills,  dairy 
products,  candy,  and  tobacco. 
Owing  to  its  position  on  the 
upper  lakes  it  is  a  shipping  port 
for  coal,  iron  ore,  and  lumber. 
Approximately  700.000  tons  of 
coal  pass  over  the  Ashland  docks 
annually,  supplying  territory  as 
far  west  as  the  Dakotas  and 
Montana.  Pop.  (1910)  11,594; 
(1920)  11,334. 

Asblar.    See  Masonry. 

Asb'ley,  borough,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Luzerne  county,  on  the 
Central  of  New  Jersey  Railroad, 
and  a  trolley  line;  3  miles  south 


of  Wilkes-Barre,  in  the  heart  of 
anthracite  coal-mining  field.  The 
machine  and  car  repair  shops 
for  the  Central  of  New  Jersey 
Railroad  are  located  here.  Pop. 
(1910)  5,601;  (1920)  6,520. 

A  s  b  1  e  y,  Anthony.  See 
Shaftesbury. 

Asbley,  Anthony  Evelyn 
Melbourne  (1836-1907),  fourth 
son  of  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury, 
was  secretary  to  Lord  Palmers- 
ton  (1858-65),  whose  life  he 
afterward  (1876)  wrote;  m.  p.  for 
Poole  (1874-80)  and  for  the  Isle 
of  Wight  (1880-5);  parliamen- 
tary secretary  to  the  Board  of 
Trade  (1880-2);  church  estates 
commissioner  (1880-5);  Under- 
Secretary  of  State  for  Colonies 
(1882-5);  Privy  Councillor 
(1891-1907). 

Asbley,  Sir  William  James 
(1860-  ),  English  economist, 
was  born  in  London.  He  held 
the  chair  of  political  economy 
at  Toronto  (1888-92),  and  that 
of  economic  history  at  Harvard 
(1892-1901);  became  professor 
of  commerce  in  the  University  of 
Birmingham  in  1901  and  vice- 
principal  in  1918;  was  member  of 
many  committees  and  commis- 
sions appointed  by  the  English 
government  during  and  since  the 
Great  War.  He  published  In- 
troductions to  English  Economic 
History  and  Theory  (1888-93); 
Surveys  Historic  and  Economic 
(1900);  Adjustment  of  Wages 
(1903) ;  The  Tariff  Problem  (1903) ; 
The  Rise  in  Prices  (1912);  Gold 
and  Prices  (1912);  Economic 
Organization  of  England  (1914). 
He  was  also  joint  author  of 
Report  of  Unionist  Social  Reform 
Committee  on  Industrial  Unrest 
(1914). 

Asb'mole,  Elias  (1617-92), 
English  antiquary,  founder  of 
the  Ashmolean  Museum  (q.  v.), 
at  Oxford,  was  born  in  Lichfield. 
He  became  a  solicitor  in  1638,  a 
Royalist  soldier  in  1642,  and  in 
1644  was  appointed  commis- 
sioner of  excise  at  Lichfield. 
Becoming  interested  in  alchemy 
and  astrology,  he  entered  Brasen- 
ose  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  their  study 
and  to  physics  and  mathematics. 
He  was  made  Windsor  herald  by 
Charles  ii.,  in  1660,  and  from 
that  time  engaged  in  antiquarian 
research.  In  1677  he  prcvsented 
his  collection  of  antiquities — in- 
cluding that  of  his  friend  Trades- 
cant — to  Oxford  University.  He 
wrote  Theatrum  Chemicum 
(1652);  Institution,  Laws,  and 
Ceremonies  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter  (1672);  The  Antiquities  of 
Berkshire  (1719).  Consult  his 
Diary  (1717). 

Asbino'lcan  Museum,  a  mu- 
seum of  antiquities  at  Oxford, 
England,  founded  in  1679  by 
Elias  Ashmole  (q.  v.);  and 
originally  housed  in  a  building 
designed  for  the  purpose  and 
executed  (1679-83)  by  Thomas 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Ashmun 


416 


Asia 


Wood  of  Oxford.  Among  its 
greatest  treasurers  are  the  Arun- 
del Marbles,  the  founder's  col- 
lection of  antiquarian  curiosities, 
and  the  Westwood  collection  of 
ivories.  Ashmole's  library  of 
heraldic,  genealogical,  and  as- 
trological works  (2,136  vol- 
umes including  850  Mss.)  was 
transferred  in  1858  to  the  Bodle- 
ian Library;  the  scientific  col- 
lections were  later  placed  in  the 
University  Museum,  and  the 
other  collections  removed  to  a 
new  Ashmole  Building. 

Ash'mun/  Jehudi  (1794- 
1828),  American  missionary, 
prominent  for  his  efforts  in  de- 
veloping the  negro  republic  of 
Liberia,  was  born  in  Champlain, 
N.  Y.  He  was  educated  in  the 
University  of  Vermont,  studied 
for  the  Congregational  ministry, 
and  became  professor  in  the 
Bangor  Theological  Seminary, 
Maine.  He  later  became  an 
Episcopalian  and  was  editor  of 
the  Theological  Repertory  (Wash- 
ington). Becoming  interested  in 
colonization,  he  was  appointed 
agent  of  the  American  Coloniza- 
tion Society,  and  in  1822  con- 
ducted a  party  of  negroes  to 
Liberia,  where  he  remained  for 
six  years,  displaying  great  valor 
and  remarkable  executive  ability. 

Ashokan  Reservoir.  See  Cat- 
skill  Aqueduct. 

Asliraf,  ash-riif,  or  Ashref, 
town,  Persia,  Mazanderan  prov- 
ince, near  the  southeast  corner 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  about  50 
miles  west  of  Astrabad.  It  was 
the  residence  of  Shab  Abbas  the 
Great  in  the  16th  century,  and 
remains  of  its  earlier  glory  are 
still  evident,  though  the  popula- 
tion, formerly  about  6,000  is  now 
insignificant.  There  is  trade  in 
silks  and  cottons. 

Asli'tabula,  city,  Ohio,  Ashta- 
bula county,  on  Lake  Erie,  and 
on  the  New  York  Central,  the 
New  York,  Chicago  and  St. 
Louis,  and  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroads;  55  miles  northeast  of 
Cleveland.  Its  excellent  harbor 
is  one  of  the  largest  ore-receiving 
ports  of  the  world,  as  well  as  a 
great  coal-shipping  port.  Man- 
ufactures include  ship-building, 
sheet  steel,  automobile  parts, 
tires,  agricultural  implements, 
machine  shops,  leather  goods, 
and  paper  boxes.  It  has  the 
City  Manager  form  of  govern- 
ment. Pop.  (1900)  12,949;  (1910) 
18,266;  (1920)  22,082. 

Ashtarotli.    See  Astarte. 

Asliterotti-Karnaitn,  a  chief 
city  of  Bashan  (Gen.  xiv.  5), 
noticed  on  monuments  1700- 
1500  B.  C.  It  is  probably  now 
the  ruin  Tell  Ashterah,  in  the 
Hauran. 

Asliton-in- Mali erfl eld,  or  Ash- 
TON-LE-WiLLOWS,  urban  district, 
Lancashire,  England,  4>2  miles 
south  of  Wigan.  It  manufac- 
tures locks  and  tools,  and  has 
collieries.    Pop.  (1921)  22,489. 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '23 


Asliton-under-Lyne,  parlia- 
mentary and  municipal  borough, 
Lancashire,  England,  6K  miles 
east  of  Manchester.  The  an- 
cient church  of  St.  Michael  was 
rebuilt  in  the  15th  century.  The 
public  buildings  include  a  tech- 
nical school,  school  of  art,  and  a 
free  library.  The  public  park 
was  mainly  the  gift  of  Earl  Stam- 
ford. Local  industries  are  cot- 
ton spinning  and  weaving,  silk 
spinning  and  dyeing,  and  the 
manufacture  of  hats,  machinery, 
and  beer.  There  are  extensive 
collieries  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
(1921)  43,333. 

Ashuapmouciiouan,  ash-wap'- 
moo-chwan',  river,  Canada,  in 
the  province  of  Quebec,  flowing 
from  a  point  near  Mistassini 
Lake,  in  a  southeasterly  direc- 
tion, for  about  170  miles  into 
Lake  St.  John.  It  is  the  outlet 
of  a  small  lake  of  the  same  name. 

Ashurada,  a-shdb-ra'da,  island 
and  Russian  naval  station  at  the 
southeastern  extremity  of  the 
Caspian,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Bay  of  Astrabad.  It  was  ac- 
quired under  Nicholas  i.,  and 
was  for  a  time  the  only  Russian 
possession  in  the  Eastern  Cas- 
pian districts.  It  is  now  over- 
shadowed by  Krasnovodsk. 

Ashwanip'i,  Hamilton,  or 
Grand  River,  Labrador,  flows 
from  Ashwanipi  Lake  into  Es- 
quimaux Bay  or  Hamilton  Inlet, 
after  a  course  of  several  hundred 
miles.  The  Grand  Falls  of  Lab- 
rador are  316  ft.  high. 

Asli  Wednesday  (Ger.  Ascher- 
miitwoch;  Fr.  Le  jour  des  cendres), 
the  first  day  of  Lent  in  the 
Western  Church,  said  to  derive 
its  name  from  the  custom  of 
sprinkling  ashes  on  the  heads  of 
penitents — a  ceremonial  that  re- 
ceived papal  sanction  in  1191, 
but  is  believed  to  be  much  older. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
ashes  obtained  by  burning  the 
palm  branches  blessed  on  Palm 
Sunday  of  the  preceding  year  are 
used  for  this  purpose.  In  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  the 
day  is  marked  by  a  special  serv- 
ice but  by  no  ceremonial. 

Asliworth,  Henry  (1879-1880), 
born  in  Bolton,  Lancashire,  was 
one  of  the  founders  and  leaders  of 
the  Anti-Corn  Law  League,  and 
the  author  of  Recollections  of 
Richard  Cobden  (1876;  2nd  ed., 
1881). 

Asia,  the  largest  of  the  conti- 
nents, so  extensive  that  when  the 
sun  at  the  equinoxes  is  rising  on  its 
western  extremity.  Cape  Baba, 
in  Asia  Minor  (26°  e.),  it  is  nearly 
setting  on  its  farthest  eastern 
shores.  Cape  Dezhneff  (170°  w.), 
6,000  miles  away.  For  some 
weeks  every  year  continual  night 
reigns  at  the  northernmost  point. 
Cape  Chelyuskin  (77>^°  n.); 
while  day  and  night  are  always 
nearly  equal  at  the  most  south- 
erly point.  Cape  Romania  (I'/a" 
n.),   5,400   miles   distant,  and 


within  90  miles  of  the  equator. 

The  main  feature  lines  are 
drawn  out,  on  the  whole  from 
west  to  east,  but  converge 
towards  the  west.  No  physical 
barrier  interrupts  their  passage 
westward  from  Asia  into  Europe, 
and  it  is  natural  to  expect  a  con- 
tinuity of  intercourse  as  well  as  of 
physical  features  between  the 
two  continents.  Nevertheless, 
the  Mediterranean  and  Black 
Seas  form  natural  physical  west- 
ern limits  to  the  continent;  as 
does  the  Red  Sea,  lying  between 
Asia  and  Africa,  which  are  con- 
nected by  the  isthmus  of  Suez, 
72  miles  wide.  The  modern 
Suez  Canal  may  here  be  taken  as 
the  boundary.  The  Ural  River 
and  Mountains  are  the  common 
conventional  boundaries  with 
Europe  north  of  the  Caspian. 
The  Manych  depression  and  the 
crest  of  the  Caucasus  are  both 
used  as  the  limits  of  Asia  between 
the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas. 
The  former  is  the  better.  The 
low  northern  coast,  with  great 
river  estuaries  in  the  west  and 
great  river  deltas  in  the  east, 
borders  the  Arctic  Ocean,  into 
which  the  Taimyr  peninsula  pro- 
jects, and  out  of  which  the  New 
Siberian  Islands  rise.  Bering 
Strait,  50  miles  wide,  separates 
Asia  from  America;  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  Aleutian  Islands 
are  reckoned  with  the  latter,  the 
Komandorski  Islands  with  the 
former.  The  east  coast  borders 
the  Pacific.  The  mainland  juts 
out  in  peninsulas  and  recurves  in 
great  gulfs,  bordered  on  the 
outer  side  by  a  series  of  volcanic 
islands,  which  form  a  fringe  to 
the  continent;  the  Japan  and 
Philippine  Islands  are  the  chief 
of  these.  Farther  south  the  Ma- 
lay Archipelago  links  Asia  to 
Australia,  and  presents  another 
boundary  problem.  The  vol- 
canic chain  can  be  traced  through 
the  Moluccas  and  Sunda  Islands, 
and  it  may  be  taken  as  the  limit. 
Three  great  peninsulas,  which 
have  some  analogies  with  those  of 
Southern  Europe,  project  south- 
wards. 

Within  these  limits  the  conti- 
nent has  an  area  of  over  17,000,- 
000  square  miles — roughly,  one- 
third  of  the  land  of  the  globe. 
The  coast-line  bounding  it  is 
some  44,000  miles  (three  times 
the  minimum  possible  periphery). 
The  peninsular  area  amounts 
to  17  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  a 
proportion  surpassed  only  in 
Europe.  Excluding  this  area, 
the  continent  is  a  compact  quad- 
rilateral, whose  centre  lies  over 
1,600  miles  from  any  sea. 

Physical  Divisions. — Over  one- 
fourth  of  the  area  lies  below  650 
ft.  (1.3  per  cent,  being  beneath 
the  level  of  the  sea),  and  one- 
seventh  is  over  6,600  ft.  The 
bulk  of  the  lowlands  is  in  the 
north,  and  the  highest  land  in 
the  centre.    The  continent  may 


Asia 


417 


Asia 


be  divided  into  four  great  natural 
regions:  (1)  The  Great  Lowlands, 
in  the  N.;  (2)  the  Great  Central 
Mountain  System;  (3)  the  East- 
ern Margin  of  Fringing  Basins 
and  Volcanic  Islands;  (4)  the 
South  and  South-west  Table- 
lands of  the  Deccan  and  Arabia. 

1.  The  Great  Lowlands  lie  n. 
of  a  line  drawn  from  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  to  the  s.  of  the  Caspian, 
whose  surface  lies  85  ft.  below 
sea-level.  There  are  three  well- 
marked  divisions:  (1)  The  Tura- 
nian lowlands,  separated  by  the 
Kirghiz  steppe  from  (2)  Western 


Lower  Ob  flow  northwards,  and 
into  the  same  depression  the  Ir- 
tish and  the  Ob  flow  from  the 

S.E. 

Eastern  Siberia  is  a  higher  and 
more  uneven  land  (composed 
largely  of  almost  horizontally 
bedded  Palceozoic  and  crystal- 
line rocks,  with  some  recent  vol- 
canic outcrops).  The  w.  part  is 
drained  by  the  Upper,  Middle, 
and  Lower  Tunguska  Rivers  to 
the  Yenisei.  The  Lena  flows 
through  the  central  region.  The 
E.  is  bounded  by  an  arc  of  moun- 
tains which  runs,  under  various 


West  of  Armenia  the  Caucasus 
and  Yaila  Mountains  (continued 
westwards  as  the  Balkans)  sweep 
round  the  Black  Sea  depression. 
The  plateau  of  Asia  Minor  to  the 
s.  is  separated  from  this  depres- 
sion by  the  Pontic  chain,  and 
bounded  on  the  s.  by  the  Taurus 
chain.  The  e.  and  w.  lines  of 
heights  which  characterize  the 
plateau  project  westwards  as  pen- 
insulas, and  the  intervening  hol- 
lows form  bays  in  the  ^gean 
Sea,  and  may  be  traced  westwards 
through  the  archipelago  to  Eu- 
rope.   Much  evidence  of  recent 


Siberia  beyond  the  Yenisei,  which 
rises  to  the  more  rugged  region  of 
(3)  Eastern  Siberia. 

Turan  (Western  or  Russian 
Turkestan)  forms  the  Aralo-Cas- 
pian  depression.  It  is  a  low, 
sand  -  covered  plain,  with  few 
heights,  except  the  Ust-Urt  pla- 
teau to  the  E.  of  the  Caspian, 
and  the  Kirghiz  steppe  to  the  n. 
Here  all  the  rivers  evaporate  or 
enter  lakes  without  an  outlet,  of 
which  the  chief  are  the  Caspian, 
Aral,  and  Balkhash.  The  Ural 
flows  to  the  first,  the  Amu  and 
Syr  (Oxus  and  Taxartes)  to  the 
second,  and  the  Ili  to  the  third. 

Western  Siberia  is  a  low,  flat, 
marshy  region,  lying  between 
the  Urals  and  the  main  stream 
of  the  Yenisei.  It  is  lowest  in 
the  w.,  where  the  Tobol  and  the 


names  (Verkhoyansk,  Stanovoi), 
from  the  Lena  delta  to  Cape 
Dezhneff.  The  n.  is  drained  by 
the  Indigirka  and  the  Kolyma. 

2.  The  Central  Mountain  Sys- 
tem.— The  central  mass  of  moun- 
tains and  plateaus  gradually  wid- 
ens from  w.  to  E.  At  two  points 
it  is  constricted,  and  the  northern 
and  southern  lowlands  come 
closely  together — (a)  in  Armenia 
(separating  the  Caspian  and 
Mesopotamia),  and  (b)  in  the 
Pamirs  (separating  Turan  and 
the  Indo-Gangetic  plain).  Be- 
tween these  mountain  nodes  are 
three  series  of  chains — northern, 
ccntral.  and  soutlirrn.  A  series  of 
depressions  lies  between  th"  north- 
ern and  central  sets  of  chains,  and 
a  serif  S  of  plat- aus  between  the 
central  and  southern  ones. 


volcanic  disturbances  exists — e.g., 
the  volcano  Arjish,  the  ancient 
Argccus  (14,000  ft),  surpassed 
by  the  twin-peaked  Ararat  in  Ar- 
menia (17,000  ft.). 

East  of  Armenia  lie  the  Turan 
depression  and  the  Iran  plateau, 
separated  by  the  Elburz,  Khoras- 
san,  and  Hindu-Kush  Mountains. 
The  N.  ranges  are  not  so  definite 
here,  but  may  be  traced  in  the  w. 
spurs  of  the  Tian^Shan  and  their 
probable  w.  continuation  in  the 
Mangishlak.  The  Iranian  plateau 
is  largely  composed  of  porous 
limestone,  producing  karst  land- 
scapes. On  the  whole  it  is  a  desert 
region,  and  only  a  few  of  the  riv- 
ers run  s.w.  to  the  sea.  On  all 
sides  it  is  bounded  by  narrow 
folded  ridges  and  furrows,  domi- 
nated by  a  massive,  chain  of  Cre- 


Asia 


418 


Asia 


taceous  peaks.  These  *  retaining 
mountain  walls '  may  be  called 
the  Zagros  chain  in  S.  W.  Persia, 
the  Mekran  chain  in  S.  Baluchi- 
stan, and  the  Khirthar  or  Hala 
and  Sulaiman  ranges  in  the  e., 


w.  by  parallel  streams  which  are 
forced  to  the  n.  by  the  Badakh- 
shan  plateau,  forming  the  Amu 
or  Oxus. 

The  Tian-Shan  forms  the  n. 
boundary  of  the  Pamir  plateau, 


Asia — Isotherms,  January  and  July. 


rising  in  terraces  above  the  plains 
of  the  Indus. 

The  Pamir  plateau  is  much 
loftier.  It  is  bordered  on  the  e. 
by  the  lofty  Sarikol  and  Muztagh- 
ata  ranges,  and  is  drained  to  the 


from  which  its  ranges  strike  both 
to  w.  and  to  E.  The  E.  extension 
is  by  far  the  more  important,  and 
bounds  the  depression  of  Eastern 
or  Chinese  Turkestan,  with  the 
great  Takla-makan  desert,  round 


whose  margin  flows  the  Tarim 
and  its  tributaries,  fed  by  the 
melting  snows  of  the  mountains, 
and  forming  rich  oases. 

The  Kwen-lun  runs  due  e.  from 
the  Pamirs;  has  the  E.  Turkes- 
tan depression  on  the  n.,  and  the 
Tibetan  plateau  on  the  s.  It  ex- 
tends for  40°  of  lat.  (nearly  2,300 
m.),  with  a  mean  level  higher 
than  that  of  any  other  mountain 
chain. 

The  Tibetan  plateau,  like  those 
of  Iran  and  the  Pamirs,  consists 
of  many  bare  west  to  east  parallel 
ranges  and  troughs.  Its  aver- 
age height  is  over  13,000  ft.  It 
is  bounded  by  lofty  mountains, 
and  most  of  the  passes  crossing 
them  are  over  15,000  ft.  hi<?h. 
The  Karakoram  range,  with  the 
greatest  glaciers  in  the  world 
(Biafo,  Baltoro,  and  Hispar),  and 
some  of  the  loftiest  peaks  (God- 
win-Austen, 28,280  ft.),  runs 
southeastwards  from  the  Pamirs, 
and  forms  its  western  end.  On 
the  s.  the  Himalayas,  with  even 
loftier  peaks  (Mount  Everest, 
29,000  ft.)  and  almost  as  lofty 
passes,  form  the  '  retaining  wall.' 

The  Himalayas  are  pierced  by 
the  gorges  of  the  Indus,  Sutlej, 
Ganges,  Gogra,  Gandak,  and 
Brahmaptitra,  which  are  said  to 
have  gradually  eroded  their  beds 
as  the  mountains  were  upraised, 
and  so  to  be  antecedent  to  the 
ranges  they  pierce.  The  Himala- 
yas, therefore,  do  not  form  the 
main  divide  between  the  rivers  of 
Tibet,  which  flow  into  inland 
lakes,  or  the  Irawadi,  Mekong,  or 
Yang-tse,  and  other  rivers,  which 
reach  the  sea  through  deep  longi- 
tudinal valleys. 

These  continuations  of  the 
folded  mountain  system  form  the 
main  lines  of  S.  E.  Asia.  The  w. 
chain  passes  by  the  Khasi  and 
Arakan  ranges  and  the  volcanic 
Andaman  and  Nicobar  Islands  to 
the  Malayan  volcanic  chain.  The 
Irawadi  basin  and  the  Andaman 
sea  lie  between  it  and  the  central 
chain  which  forms  the  Malay 
peninsula.  The  plains,  hills,  and 
gulf  of  Siam  lie  farther  to  the  e., 
and  the  E.  Annam  chain  forms 
the  coast  of  the  S.  China  Sea. 

All  these  mountains  from  Asia 
Minor  to  Malaysia  were  folded  in 
the  Tertiary  period,  and,  like  the 
Alps,  are  part  of  the  younger 
mid  -  world  mountain  _  system, 
whose  main  feature  lines  are 
due  to  crustal  movements,  where 
active  denudation  has,  as  yet,  af- 
fected only  the  superficial  feat- 
ures. 

The  other  mountains  of  Central 
Asia  are  of  much  older  date,  and 
resemble  the  highlands  of  Central 
Europe  (drained  by  the  Rhine 
and  Elbe)  rather  than  the  Alps. 
The  valleys  have  been  hollowed 
out  of  plateaus  characterized  by 
foldings  of  the  rock  layers  of 
ancient  date.   The  land,  however, 


Asia 


419 


Asia 


is  partly  shaped  by  fractures,  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  are  the 
deep  rifts  in  which  the  waters  of 
Lake  Baikal  have  accumulated  to 
a  depth. of  over  4,500  ft.,  so  that 
the  floor  of  the  rift  is  some  3,000 
ft.  below  sea-level,  while  the 
land  surrounding  the  lake  rises  to 
over  6,000  ft.  above  it.  These 
rifts  may  be  compared  with  those 
of  similar  origin  in  East  Africa, 
or  with  Glen  More  in  Scotland. 

Round  Lake  Baikal  the  high- 
lands can  be  grouped  in  four 
great  masses — the  Sayan  and  Al- 
tai in  the  s.w.,  and  the  W.  Trans- 
Baikalian  highlands  to  the  s.e. 
and  E.  South  of  these  lies  the 
plateau  of  Mongolia.  The  high- 
lands are  much  less  lofty  than  the 
younger  folded  mountains.  The 
Altai,  which  forms  the  loftiest 
highland  (Byelukha,  14,800  ft.), 
rises  n.  of  the  plain  of  Dzungaria. 
This  important  gap  in  the  Asiatic 
highlands  connects  the  Siberian 
lowland  with  the  plateau  of  Mon- 
golia, and  has  as  its  southern 
rampart  the  Tian-Shan.  The  Al- 
tai Mountains  have  great  glaciers 
in  the  upper  valleys,  and  are  clad 
with  forests  on  the  wetter  north- 
ern slopes.  They  contain  many 
minerals,  including  gold,  whence 
their  other  name,  the  Kin-Shan 
or  Gold  Mountains.  The  Sayan 
Mountains  are  of  similar  charac- 
ter, but  somewhat  lower.  The 
culminating  line  of  the  Trans- 
Baikal  plateaus  is  commonly 
known  as  the  Yablonoi  (Apple), 
and  more  recently  as  the  Mal- 
khan  Mountains.  It  does  not,  as 
was  formerly  supposed,  form  the 
main  divide  between  the  Arctic 
and  the  Pacific  river  basins,  al- 
though most  of  the  w.  plateau  is 
drained  to  Lake  Baikal,  and  the 
E.  one  to  the  Amur.  The  average 
elevation  of  these  plateaus  is  be- 
tween 4,000  and  5,000  ft,  the 
highest  point  (Sokhondo)  rising 
to  8,200  ft. 

The  Mongolian  plateau  aver- 
ages between  3,000  and  4,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  forms  a  stony 
steppe,  here  and  there  covered 
with  sand,  which  gives  it  its  na- 
tive name  of  Shamo  (Sand  Sea), 
or  Gobi,  which,  with  the  Takla- 
makan,  comprises  the  Han-hai, 
or  dried-up  sea  of  the  Chinese. 
The  E.  limit  of  this  region  is 
the  escarnment  of  the  so-called 
Khingan  Mountains  (6,000  ft.). 

3.  The  Eastern  Margin  of 
Asia. — From  Cape  Dezhneff  a 
series  of  escarpments  can  be 
traced  along  a  great  circle  beyond 
the  tropic  of  Cancer  in  the  e.  of 
Yunnan.  In  plan  they  are  J 
shaped,  a  series  of  scarps,  one  of 
which  is  parallel  to  the  meridian, 
the  other  parallel  to  the  lines  of 
latitude.  The  Stanovoi  Moun- 
tains form  the  most  N.  pair,  the 
Yablonoi  the  second,  the  Khingan 
the  third,  the  Tai-hang-Shan, 
forming  the  e.  and  s.  boundary 


of  Shan-si,  the  fourth,  the  eastern 
to  southern  limits  of  Ho-nan  the 
fifth,  of  Kwei-chow  the  sixth,  and 
of  Yiinnan  the  seventh.  This  zig- 
zag line  is  also  of  climatic  and 
economic  significance. 

A  somewhat  similar  succession 
of  N.  and  s,  alternating  with  e. 
and  w.  running  feature  lines  can 
be  traced  in  the  coast-line  and  in 
the  bordering  islands  and  penin- 
sulas of  the  extreme  e.  :  (1) 
Along  the  coast  there  is  the 
Stanovoi,  or  n.  and  w.  coasts  of 
the  Sea  of  Okhotsk;  (2)  the  Tun- 
gus  coast,  bordered  by  the  Si- 
khota-Alin  Mountains;  (3)  the 
Korea  coast,  which  can  be  traced 
to  the  Saddle  Islands  in  Hang- 
chow  Bay;  (4)  the  China  coast  s. 
of  Hang-chow  to  the  Red  River 
delta;  and  (5)  the  Annam  coast, 
to  the  Mekong  delta.  In  the  pen- 
insulas and  islands  there  are  :  (1) 
the  Aleutian  Islands,  continuing 
the  Alaskan  peninsula;  (2)  Kam- 
chatka, the  Kurile  Islands,  and 
W.  Yezo  (Hokkaido);  (3)  Sak- 
halin and  the  two  parts  of  the 
main  island  of  Japan,  Honshiu; 
(4)  Kiushiu  and  the  Lu-chu  Isl- 
ands; (5)  Formosa,  the  N.  of 
Luzon,  Palawan,  and  B9rneo.  In 
the  s.,  beyond  this  series  of  isl- 
ands, a  second  can  be  traced  (1) 
through  the  Bonin  and  Marianne 
Islands,  and  (2)  through  the  s. 
of  Luzon,  Mindanao,  and  the 
Moluccas. 

Between  these  feature  lines  lie 
great  depressions.  In  the  w.  there 
is  land  forming  the  Anadyr  basin, 
Manchuria,  the  N.  China  plain, 
and  the  S.  China  and  Tongking 
basins.  In  the  e.  they  are  cov- 
ered with  water,  and  form  the 
Bering,  Okhotsk,  Japan,  E. 
China,  and  S.  China  seas.  In  the 
extreme  s.  are  the  seas  between 
the  Marianne  Islands  and  the 
Philippines,  and  the  Sulu,  Cele- 
bes, and  Molucca  Seas.  Only  the 
Sea  of  Okhotsk  extends  from  the 
western  to  the  eastern  feature 
line  without  a  break,  and  the 
number  of  successive  hollows, 
each  eastern  one  deeper  than  its 
western  neighbor,  increases  in 
the  s.  The  s.  of  China  contains 
a  series  of  fracture  mountains 
striking  from  s.w.  to  n.e. 

Three  great  rivers  and  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  ones  rise  in  the 
plateaus  of  Asia,  and  break  across 
these  eastern  escarpments  to  the 
sea — the  Amur,  the  Hwang-ho, 
and  the  Yang-tse-kiang. 

The  fringing  islands  are  mainly 
volcanic,  and  form  part  of  the 
'  girdle  of  fire '  which  encircles 
the  Pacific  and  rises  above  the 
greatest  depths  of  the  ocean.  The 
volcanic  line  is  not  continued 
through  Palawan  and  Borneo,  but 
forms  a  great  arc  through  the 
Moluccas,  and  so  joins  the  line 
already  traced  by  the  Andaman 
and  Nicobar  Islands,  Sumatra, 
Java,  and  the  Lesser  Sunda  Isl- 


ands. Within  this  arc  are  the 
large  islands  of  Borneo  and 
Celebes. 

4.  The  S.  W.  Asiatic  Table- 
lands.— The  Deccan  and  Arabia 
are  geologically  a  continuation  of 
Africa.  The  former  resembles 
S.  Africa,  the  latter  N.  Africa, 
in  composition  and  structure.  In 
the  Deccan  crystalline  schists  and 
old  Paleozoic  rocks,  lying  hori- 
zontally, form  the  framework. 
Above  them  the  Gondwana  rocks 
— '  sub-aerially  formed  river  de- 
posits,' probably  dating  from  Car- 
boniferous to  Jurassic  times — lie 
in  the  e.,  and  resemble  similar 
rocks  in  S.  Africa.  The  w.  con- 
tains a  lava  outflow  of  recent 
origin,  the  hygroscopic  black  soil 
of  v/hich  is  excellent  for  cotton- 
growing.  This  outflow  may  be 
associated  with  the  fracturing 
which  shaped  the  w.  coast,  which 
rises  above  the  sea  in  a  succession 
of  terraces  known  as  the  W. 
Ghats  or  the  Sahyadri  Mountains. 
A  series  of  shallows  connects  the 
Deccan  with  the  island  of  Cey- 
lon, which  consists  of  a  low 
northern  plain  and  lofty  southern 
mountains. 

The  Arabian  table-land  is 
bounded  on  the  w.  by  the  great 
rift  valley  of  the  Red  Sea,  which 
is  prolonged  to  the  N.  in  the  Jor- 
dan and  the  Orontes  valley  be- 
tween Lebanon  and  Anti-Leba- 
non. The  floor  of  the  Dead  Sea 
lies  al?out  1,300  ft.  below  the 
Mediterranean.  The  northern 
part  of  Arabia  is  composed  of 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  lime- 
stone; recent  volcanic  outpourings 
pierce  the  Archaean  rocks  of  the 
west  and  centre;  Tertiary  lime- 
stone prevails  in  the  south;  while 
much  of  the  surface  of  the  south 
and  east  is  covered  with  sand. 

The  Mesopotamian  and  Indo- 
Gangetic  plains  are  formed  of 
alluvium  brought  down  by  the 
rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris  to 
the  former,  the  Indus.  Ganges, 
and  Brahmaputra  to  the  latter. 
These  rivers  all  form  great  deltas. 

Climate. — The  southern  chains 
of  the  Central  Mountain  system 
N.  of  the  tropic  form  the  climatic 
divide  between  the  n.  and  s.  of 
Asia,  between  the  regions  of  cold 
and  those  of  warm  winters,  be- 
tween the  regions  of  light  sum- 
mer rains  and  the  monsoon  lands, 
which,  except  in  N.  Arabia,  re- 
ceive heavy  summer  rains. 

In  winter  a  region  of  intense 
low  temperature  under  — 40° 
F.)  exists  in  N.  E.  Siberia,  with 
Verkhoyansk  as  its  centre;  and 
a  high-pressure  system  extends 
over  the  continent,  with  a  pres- 
sure of  over  30.5  in.  (reduced  to 
sea-level)  over  Mongolia.  The 
winds  blow  out  from  the  cold  con- 
tinent to  the  warmer  ocean,  and 
deposit  rain  only  on  lands  to  the 
windward  of  mountains  which 
deflect  the  air  currents  upwards 


Asia 


420 


Asia 


— e.g.,  in  W.  Japan,  in  E.  Annam 
and  Ceylon,  S.E.  India,  and  in 
the  western  mountain  regions, 
where  winter  storm  winds  pene- 
trate from  the  western  seas.  The 
outflowing  winds  are  cold,  and 
cause  cold  winter  seasons  even 
in  the  extreme  s.  of  China. 

In  summer  a  region  with  a 
mean  temperature  of  over  90°  f. 
(reduced  to  sea-level)  exists  in 
the  S.W.;  a  low-pressure  system 
extends  over  this  region,  with  a 
pressure  under  29.5  in.  (reduced 
to  sea-level).  Towards  the  low- 
pressure  axis,  which  is  continued 
diagonally  from  s.w.  to  n.e.,  the 
winds  blow  inwards  in  the  s.  and 


E.  from  over  warm  seas,  and  are 
consequently  laden  with  moisture, 
which  is  deposited  on  all  the 
southern  and  eastern  marginal 
lands,  and  is  carried  far  into  the 
interior.  Rain  also  falls  at  this 
season  most  abundantly  in  the  re- 
gions lying  to  the  n.  and  w.  of 
the  low-pressure  axis,  so  that  the 
greater  part  of  Asia  receives  most 
of  its  rain  in  summer.  The  lofty 
central  regions,  surrounded  by 
mountains,  are  arid,  for  the 
winds  blowing  over  these  barriers 
have  fohn  characteristics. 

Asia  may  be  divided  into  ten 
climatic  regions: — (1.)  The  re- 
gion fringing  the  Arctic  Circle, 
belonging  to  the  cold,  dry  north- 
ern  or  Arctic   climatic  region, 


where  the  average  temperature  of 
the  warmest  month  is  not  over 
50°  F.  (2.)  The  Siberian  con- 
tinental region,  n.  of  50°,  with  a 
July  temperature  of  50°  to  70° 
F.,  and  a  January  temperature 
under  0°  f.  The  rainfall  is  be- 
tween 10  and  12  in.  (3.)  The 
Siberian  coastal  plain,  with  a 
similar  summer  and  a  slightly 
higher  winter  temperature,  and 
a  heavier  rainfall.  (4.)  The  Tu- 
ranian region,  with  a  July  tem- 
perature between  75°  and  90°  f., 
a  January  temperature  between 
10°  and  40°  F.,  and  a  rainfall 
under  10  in.  (5.)  The  Mediter- 
ranean region,  with  cool  winters 


and  warm  summers,  and  rain 
during  the  winter  half-year.  _  (6.) 
The  mountain  region,  from  inner 
Asia  Minor  to  the  Khingan,  and 
from  the  Altai  to  the  crest  of  the 
Himalayas;  dry  everywhere,  with 
very  cold  winters,  especially  on 
the  lofty  plateaus,  and  warm  sum- 
mers, especially  in  the  depres- 
sions. Both  annual  and  daily 
ranges  of  temperature  are  very 
great.  The  rainfall  in  this  re- 
gion is  usually  less  than  10  in. 
(7.)  The  east  monsoon  region, 
including  China  and  Japan,  with 
a  uniform  July  temperature  of 
over  70°  in  Japan  and  over  80° 
F.  in  China,  but  with  a  January 
temperature  that  varies  from  60° 
F.  in  the  s.  to  below  freezing- 


pomt  in  the  n.  The  rain  falls 
in  summer,  and  also  in  winter  on 
the  w.  coast  of  Japan,  and  is  over 
40  in.  except  in  the  N.,  and  even 
80  in.  on  some  exposed  mountain 
slopes.  (8.)  The  south  monsoon 
region,  including  India  and  Far- 
ther India,  where  the  temperature 
is  never  lower  than  60°  f.,  and 
the  rain  falls  in  the  summer 
months,  except  in  the  s.e.  of  both 
peninsulas,  where  the  maximum 
is  in  winter.  (9.)  The  Indian 
desert  region,  which  differs  from 
the  rest  of  India  in  having  hardly 
any  rain.  (10.)  The  south-west- 
ern desert  region,  including  Ara- 
bia with  warm  winters  and  very 


hot  summers,  and  scarcely  any 
rain,  and  that  falling  in  winter, 
except  in  the  southern  mountains 
of  Arabia. 

Hydrography. — The  rivers  flow- 
ing to  the  Arctic  Ocean  are  ice- 
bound in  winter,  and,  as  their  up- 
per waters  thaw  before  the  lower, 
great  floods  occur  in  the  middle 
and  lower  basins  every  spring. 
The  rivers  rising  in  Tibet  are 
fullest  in  summer,  when  the  snow 
melts  and  the  rainfall  is  abun- 
dant, causing  heavy  floods.  The 
flood  waters  of  the  Yang-tse  flow 
into  the  Tung-ting  and  Po-yang 
lakes,  and  those  of  the  Mekong 
into  the  Tonle-sap.  which  act  as 
regulators,  and  prevent  disastrous 
floods.   The  rivers  of  the  Deccan 


Asia 


421 


Asia 


are  low  in  winter,  and  raging  tor- 
rents during  the  rains.  The  Meso- 
potamian  rivers  receive  winter 
rains,  and  much  melted  snow  in 
summer.  Most  of  the  lakes  have 
no  outlet,  and  are  salt  and  brack- 
ish. Lake  Baikal  is  drained  by 
the  Angara. 

Minerals. — The  mineral  wealth 
of  Asia  is  very  great.  The  older 
mountains,  like  the  Altai,  the 
Khingan,  and  the  Chinese  moun- 
tains, are  rich  in  many  kinds  of 
minerals.  The  gold-mining  in  the 
regions  N.  and  s.  of  the  Amur 
may  one  day  rival  that  of  the 
American  mountains  in  similar  ' 
latitudes  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Pacific.  The  precious  stones  of 
Ceylon,  Burma,  and  the  Yabbnoi 
are  famous.  The  coal  and  iron 
of  China  are  among  the  richest 
known,  and  have  scarcely  yet 
been  touched.  Petroleum  is  abun- 
dant in  Sumatra,  Burma,  and  the 
Caucasus. 

Vegetation.  —  The  vegetation 
areas  correspond  to  the  climatic 
ones.  The  tundras  are  found  N. 
of  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  in 
patches  as  far  s.  as  60°  n.  (See 
Tundra.)  The  cold  temperate 
forests  of  larch,  spruce,  fir,  and 
birch  lie  between  50°  and  60°  N. 
The  thin-stemmed  trees  are  cov- 
ered w-ith  lichens  and  dark-green 
mosses,  and  the  forest  is  strewn 
with  wreckage  of  storm  and  fire. 
The  Mediterranean  flora — plants 
with  thickened  leaves,  bulbous 
roots,  watery  fruits,  and  other 
provisions  for  enduring  a  hot, 
dry  summer — is  found  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Syria.  The  vine,  fig, 
orange,  citron,  and  pomegranate 
are  among  the  fruits;  the  cedar, 
Aleppo  pine,  cork,  and  evergreen 
oak  among  the  timber  trees.  The 
western  steppes  and  deserts  cover 
most  of  the  plateaus  of  Iran, 
Arabia,  and  the  heart  of  Asia 
Minor.  Pistachio  and  junipers 
are  characteristic  bushes  of  the 
less  arid  parts,  and  date-palms 
are  the  trees  of  the  oases.  Salt 
steppes  cover  much  of  Iran  and 
sand-dunes  Arabia,  whose  south- 
ern heights  are  a  savanna  region 
yielding  important  cultivated 
plants.  Wherever  water  is  found, 
vegetation  flourishes.  The  central 
steppe  and  desert,  the  relatively 
low-lying  Turan,  Tarim,  and  Gobi 
region,  have  grasses  and  compos- 
ites ir  the  more  favored  parts, 
willows  and  poplars  along  the 
strearn  courses,  and  tamarisks, 
artemisia,  lilies,  ranunculuses, 
crucifers,  poppies,  grasses,  and 
other  small-leafed  plants  in  the 
higher  areas.  The  saksaul  is  a 
characteristic  shrub.  Much  of 
this  region  is  covered  with  salt 
wastes  or  moving  sand-dunes. 
The  high  mountain  and  plateau 
regions  of  Tibet,  the  Pamirs,  and 
the  great  mountain  chains  are 
treeless.  In  N.  E.  Tibet  meadows 
arc  found  to  about  13.000  ft. 


Above  them  are  stony  deserts, 
with  a  few  saxifrages  and  pyre- 
thrums;  and  still  higher,  from 
14,500  ft.  on  an  average,  is  per- 
petuaj  snow.  In  the  Pamirs  the 
valleys  have  a  scanty  vegetation; 
stunted  trees  have  been  found  at 
23,000  ft.  The  s.  slopes  of  the 
Himalayas  have  deciduous  forests 
in  the  wet  east,  and  evergreens  in 
the  drier  west.  The  Amur  region 
is  a  rich  steppe  land,  with  many 
umbellifers  and  spiraeas  transi- 
tional between  the  desert  and  the 
woodlands  of  the  e.  coast — e.g., 
in  Sakhalin.  In  Japan  two  re- 
gions can  be  distinguished — the 
northern,  with  dense  temperate 
forests  of  deciduous  trees,  thick 
undergrowth,  and  innumerable 
lianas,  due  to  the  heat  and  moist- 
ure of  the  vegetation  period;  and 
the  southern,  where  evergreen 
trees  abound,  such  as  camphor, 
camellia,  magnolia  and  other  lau- 
rels, oaks,  etc.  Similar  vegeta- 
tion is  characteristic  of  Korea. 
The  savannas  of  Southern  and 
Eastern  Asia  are  found  in  the 
higher  and  drier  regions,  and 
produce  the  alang-alang  grass,  be- 
tween three  and  five  feet  high. 
The  wet  jungles  of  heavy  mon- 
soon rains  are  characteristic  of 
the  lower  flood  plains  of^  the  s. 
and  s.E.  peninsulas  and  islands. 
Areca-nut,  liquidambar,  borassus 
and  phoenix  palms,  pandanus,  and 
tree-ferns  are  common,  and,  at 
higher  levels,  bamboos.  In  the  e. 
of  the  s.E.  islands  the  vegetation 
is  more  Australian  in  character, 
and  eucalyptus  trees  predominate. 
The  great  central  mountain  sys- 
tem separates  markedly  different 
floras.  A  mixture  of  plants  takes 
place  and  a  region  of  mixed 
woods  exists  in  Korea  and  Amu- 
ria,  a  transition  between  the  Sino- 
Japanese  region  and  the  Siberian 
region,  corresponding  to  the  sim- 
ilar transition  region  in  West 
Central  Europe.  The  species  in 
Arabia  are  closely  related  to 
those  of  N.  Africa. 

Animals. — The  e.  to  w.  trend 
of  the  mountains  separates  Asia 
into  two  great  fauna!  realms,  the 
palaearctic  and  the  oriental,  with 
a  transition  region  in  the  e.  The 
N.  tundras  and  forests  are  the 
home  of  many  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals. _  The  seal,  walrus,  and  other 
aquatic  mammals  are  found  in 
Arctic  waters.  The  polar  bear, 
reindeer,  dog,  arctic  fox,  wolf, 
erminCj  lemming,  arctic  vole, 
musk  ox,  deer,  and  brown  bear 
are  among  the  characteristic 
mammals.  Some  tigers  and  Kam- 
chatkan  sheep  are  still  found  in 
the  E.  of  this  region.  Ptarmigan, 
snow  owl,  and  guillemot  are 
among  the  birds.  In  the  steppe 
lands  s.  of  the  forests  a  different 
fauna  exists.  The  horse,  ass.  and 
camel  are  among  the  animals  of 
this  region;  and  the  argali,  a 
large,  handsome  sheep,  lives  in 


the  mountains.  The  jerboa,  mar- 
mots, sorne  deer  and  gazelles,  and 
a  few  tigers  are  found.  The 
lofty  plateau  of  Tibet,  with  its 
severe  climate  and  scanty  vege- 
tation, deserves  to  be  reckoned 
as  a  special  region.  The  yak, 
wild  ass  (kulan),  Hodgson's  ar- 
gali, and  some  rodents  are  pe- 
culiar to  it.  The  Sino-Japanese 
region  is  a  transition  one  for 
animals  as  well  as  for  plants. 
Monkeys  are  found,  and  tigers 
exist  on  the  mainland.  Many 
deer,  some  of  which  exchange 
white-spotted  coats  for  brown 
winter  ones,  are  found.  The  sea- 
otter  occurs  round  the  coast.  The 
giant  salamander  is  peculiar  to 
Japan.  The  pheasant  and  silk- 
worm are  of  Chinese  origin. 

Races. — Asia  is  the  home  of 
the  Mongolians.  They  are  di- 
vided by  Keane  into  the  Northern 
Mongols,  found  throughout  the 
lowlands,  in  parts  of  Iran,  and 
Asia  Minor;  the  Southern  Mon- 
gols, in  China,  Tibet,  Indo-China, 
Formosa,  and  some  parts  of  Ma- 
laysia ;  and  the  Oceanic  Mon- 
gols in  Malaysia,  the  Philip- 
pines, Formosa,  and  the  Nicobar 
Islands.  In  W.  Asia  the  white 
man  predorninates,  mainly  the  cen- 
tral or  alpine  type,  with  round 
heads,  pale  or  swarthy  com- 
plexion, and  brown  eyes  and  hair. 
In  the  s.E.  are  numerous  oceanic 
negroes,  mainly  Negritos.  The 
Northern  Mongols,  or  Mongolo- 
Tartars,  or,  better,  Mongolo- 
Turki,  are  related  by  their  lan- 
guages, known  as  the  Finno- 
Tartar  or  Ural-Altaic  group.  They 
include  such  different  races  as 
the  Japanese  in  the  E.,  the  Mag- 
yars and  the  Finns  in  Europe, 
the  semi-nomadic  Mongols  and 
the  Khirgiz  and  Turkomans  of  the 
steppes,  the  agricultural  Turks  of 
the  Asia  Minor_  and  the  Balkan 
(European)  peninsulas  in  the  w.. 
and  the  Manchus  and  Koreans  in 
the  E.,  while  the  Northern  tribes 
are  nomadic  fishers  and  hunters, 
with  herds  of  reindeer.  The 
Southern  Mongols  are  darker 
than  the  Northern  ones,  and  their 
speech  differs  mainly  in  being 
monosyllabic.  They  include  such 
different  peoples  as  the  Tibetans, 
Gurkhas,  Burmese,  the  different 
tribes  of  the  mountains  between 
Tibet  and  Burma,  the  Lao  and 
other  tribes  of  N.  Siam,  the  An- 
namese,  the  Cochin-Chinese,  and 
the  Chinese  themselves.  The 
Oceanic  Mongols  are  less_  homol- 
ogous, _  and  are  mixed  with  Ne- 
gritos in^  many  regions.  They  are 
similar  in  size  and  of  the  same 
color  as  the  Southern  Mongols, 
but  their  cheek-bones  are  not  so 
prominent.  They  speak  languages 
of  the  group  known  as  the  Oce- 
anic or  Malay-Polynesian.  They 
may  be  divided  into  Proto-Malays 
and  Historic  Malays.  The  former 
are  found  in  Sumatra,  Java,  the 


Asia 


422 


Asia 


Sunda  Islands,  and  Celebes,  in  the  in  _  the  interior  are  fetish  wor- 

Dyaks  of  Borneo,  Tagals  and  Bi-  shippers. 

sayans  of  the  Philippines,  the  na-  In  the  Asia  Minor  and  Iranian 

tives  of  Formosa,  and  those  of  the  plateaus,  as  well  as  in  the  plains 


Nicobar  Islands.  The  Historic 
Malays  are  found  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  the  coast-lands  of 
Borneo  and  the  Moluccas,  in  the 
smaller  islands  to  the  s.  of  the 
peninsula,  in  Ternate  and  Am- 
boyna,  and  in  parts  of  the  Sulu 
archipelago.  Many  of  these  are 
Mohammedans,  but  the  peoples 


of  Hindustan,  numerous  peoples 
are  found  corresponding  to  the 
southern  or  Mediterranean-Eu- 
ropean type — e.g.,  some  Kurds, 
most  Persians,  Afghans,  Dards, 
Kafirs,  and  Hindus.  The  Ar- 
menians and  many  inhabitants  on 
the  northern  slopes  of  the  Hindu- 
Kush  are  of  the  central  or  moun- 


tain type  of  white  men.  In  the 
extreme  s.w.  the  white  type  is 
represented  by  the  Arabs.  The 
Negritos  are  found  in  the  Anda- 
man Is.  and  in  some  of  the  south- 
eastern islands,  and  to  them  be- 
long the  Aetas  of  the  Philippines. 
The  population  of  Asia  is  between 
800,000,000  and  900,000  000. 

Political  Divisions. — In  the  w. 
are  the  Turkish  empire,  Persia, 
and  Afghanistan;  in  the  e.  the 
Chinese  empire,  Korea,  Japan, 
and  Siam.  The  northern  low- 
lands belong  to  Russia;  the  Dec- 
can  and  the  land  around  it  form 
British  India,  Ceylon,  part  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  the  n.  of  Bor- 
neo, and  numerous  smaller  pos- 
sessions, such  as  Cyprus,  Aden, 
most  of  the  islands  in  the  N. 
Indian  Ocean  and  Hong-kong  are 
under  British  control.  The 
French  own  the  eastern  part  of 
Indo-China,  and  have  several 
small  colonies  in  India,  and  one  in 
China.  Portugal  possesses  three 
settlements  in  India,  Macao  in 
China,  and  the  eastern  half  of  the 
island  of  Timor.  The  Philippines 
belong  to  the  United  States.  The 
other  islands  of  S.  E.  Asia  belong 
to  the  Dutch.  In  1905  China 
leased  to  Japan  the  Liao-Tung 
Peninsula. 

Religion. — Asia  is  the  home  of 
the  great  religions  of  mankind. 
In  the  w.  Judaism,  then  Chris- 
tianity, then  Mohammedanism 
sprang  up  on  the  confines  of  the 
Arabian  desert.  Mohammedanism 
prevails  over  the  greater  part  of 
S.W.  Asia  and  is  the  faith  of 
many  millions  in  India.  It  is  also 
the  religion  of  the  majority  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula  and  many  of  the 
southeastern  islands.  In  India, 
Brahminism  and  its  offshoot.  Bud- 
dhism arose.  Brahminism  still 
prevails  in  India,  and  Buddhism 
throughout  the  Chinese  empire, 
Japan,  Indo-China,  and  Ceylon. 

Bibliography. — General :  A.  H. 
Keane,  Asia,  2  vols.  {Stanford's 
Compendium      of  Geography, 

1896)  ;  E.  Reclus,  Nouvelle  Geo- 
graphie  Universelle,  vols,  vi.-ix., 
xiv.  (or  Eng.  trans.) ;  W.  Sievers, 
Asien  (1894).  Physical:  P.  Kro- 
potkin,  *  The  Orography  of  Asia  * 
(Geog.  Jour.,  February-March, 
1904);  E.  Suess,  Das  Antlits  der 
Erde,  vol.  iii.  (or  Fr,  or  Eng. 
trans.).  Climate:  Buchan,  Bar- 
tholomew, and  Herbertson,  Atlas 
of  Meteorology  (1899);  J.  Hann, 
Klimatologie   (2nd  ed.,  3  vols., 

1897)  ;  A  J.  Wosikow,  Klimate 
der  Erde  (2  vols.  1887).  Vege- 
tation :  O.  Drude,  Die  Floren- 
reiche  der  Erde  (1884)  and  Atlas 
der  Pflanzenverbreitung;  A.  F. 
W.  Schimper,  Pflanzengeographie 
(1898;  Eng.  trans.  1903),  Ani- 
mals :  A.  R.  Wallace,  Distribution 
of  Animals  (2  vols.  1876);  Mar- 
shall, Atlas  der  Thierverbreitung. 
Man:  G.  Garland,  Atlas  d^r  Ajk 
thropogeographie. 


1 


2 


3 


ASIATIC  TYPES. 


1.  Samoyede.   2.  Chinese.   3.  Japanese.   4.  Afridi.   5.  Malay.   6.  Hindu.   7.  Arabs. 
Vol.  I.— March  '22 


Asia 


424 


Asia  Minor 


Asia,  Western,  a  general  term 
including  all  that  part  of  Asia 
wnich  lies  westward  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to 
the  Persian  Gulf,  including  Asi- 
atic Tvirkey,  Arabia,  and  the 
British  protectorate  of  Aden. 
It  is  watered  by  two  great  rivers, 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  which 
in  their  lower  course  enclose  the 
rich  alluvial  plain  of  Babylonia. 
On  the  east  the  Persian  Gulf  gives 
access  to  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
the  products  of  Arabia  and 
India;  to  the  west  the  Mediter- 
ranean brings  Asia  into  contact 
with  Egypt  and  Europe,  the 
peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  with 
its  thick  forests  and  fertile  val- 
leys, forming,  as  it  were,  a  bridge 
from  one  continent  to  the  other. 
With  the  exception  of  Southern 
Arabia,  Western  Asia  may  be 
said  to  belong  to  the  temperate 
zone,  but  geographical  differ- 
ences produce  within  this  zone  a 
great  variety  of  climate. 

The  races  of  men  represented 
within  the  region  are  similarly 
various,  though  the  prevailing 
type  is  the  Semitic.  The  primi- 
tive seat  of  the  Semitic  race  was 
probably  Northern  Arabia.  In 
Babylonia  the  Semites  were  pre- 
ceded by  the  Sumerians,  who 
spoke  an  agglutinative  language; 
their  precise  racial  affinities,  how- 
ever, have  not  yet  been  settled. 
Eastward  and  north v/ard, in  Elam 
and  Armenia,  were  other  races, 
also  non-Semitic.  The  race  which 
inhabited  Elam,  where  it  has  lett 
inscriptions  in  agglutinative  dia- 
lects, is,  like  the  Sumerian,  of 
uncertain  relationship;  but  the 
older  races  of  Armenia  were 
Caucasian  in  their  origin.  It 
was  not  until  the  7th  century 
B.C.  that  the  highlands  of  Ar- 
menia were  occupied  by  an  Indo- 
European  people.  These  latter 
came  from  the  northern  part  of 
Asia  Minor,  into  Avhich  they  had 
migrated  from  Europe,  the  south- 
ern portion  of  the  peninsula  being 
peopled  by  a  race  (or  races)  who 
were  probably  Caucasian.  The 
most  important  among  the  latter 
for  many  centuries  were  the  Hit- 
tites  (q.  v.),  whose  home  was  in 
Cappadocia  and  the  Taurus. 

Babylonian  civilization  was  a 
continuation  of  Semitic  and  Su- 
merian elements.  It  reflected 
the  mixed  charater  of  the  popn- 
lation  of  the  country,  and  had 
a  profound  effect  upon  the  rest 
of  Western  Asia.  Already,  in 
3800  B.C.,  Babylonian  armies 
made  their  way  to  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  bringing  with 
them  the  culture  of  Babylonia, 
which  included  its  script  and 
language,  religion  and  laws. 
Two  thousand  years  later  the 
cuneiform  characters  and  lan- 
guage of  the  Babylonians  had  be- 
come the  medium  of  literary  and 
diplomatic  intercourse  through- 
out Western  Asia;  Babylonian 
Vol.  I.—March  '22 


and  Assyrian  colonies  had  es- 
tablished themselves  even  in 
Cappadocia;  and  the  Egyptian 
Pharaohs  carried  on  their  for- 
eign correspondence  in  the  Bab- 
ylonian language  and  script. 

Before  the  10th  century  B.C. 
the  cuneiform  syllabary  had  been 
superseded  in  the  west  by  the  so- 
called  Phoenician  alphabet;  two 
centuries  later,  however,  it  made 
up  for  its  loss  of  ground  in  Syria 
by  penetrating  into  the  high- 
lands of  Armenia.  But  the 
simpler  Phoenician  alphabet  gen- 
erally supi-ilanted  it,  and  a  new 
eclectic  form  of  culture,  which 
may  be  termed  Phoenician,  took 
the  place  of  the  older  Babylo- 
nian. Meanwhile  a  religion  had 
arisen  in  Palestine  which  was  des- 
tined to  have  a  profound  effect 
upon  the  civilized  world,  and 
which  found  its  licerary  instru- 
ment in  the  Phoenician  alphabet. 
The  Jewish  exile  brought  it  tinder 
the  immediate  influence  of  Baby- 
lonian culture,  and  so  united  the 
two  streams  of  literary  thought 
which  were  fiov^ng  from  Pales- 
tine and  Bab^'lonia. 

The  empire  of  Asia  now  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean Persians,  whose  official  re- 
ligion was  Zoroastrianism,  and 
who  were  therefore  inclined  to 
look  with  favor  on  the  adherents 
of  a  monotheistic  form  of  faith. 
The  Greek  conquest  of  Asia, 
however,  brought  with  it  once 
more  a  revival  of  polytheism, 
this  time  in  an  artistic  form; 
but  the  tritimph  of  polytheism 
was  short-lived.  Judaism  made 
way  for  Christianity,  which  from 
Western  Asia,  spread  throughout 
the  world.  Henceforth  the  su- 
premacy of  Christianity  in  the 
civilized  East  was  disputed  only 
by  Mohammedanism,  itself  also 
of  Western  Asiatic  origin,  but 
unable  to  adapt  itself  to  the 
higher  culture  of  the  European 
peoples.  With  the  rise  and  de- 
cline of  Mohammedanism,  the  in- 
fluence of  Western  Asia  upon  the 
history  of  the  world  came  to  an 
end.  It  gave  to  us  our  religion, 
our  alphabet,  and  the  elements 
of  our  civilization;  it  was  the 
earliest  home  of  the  arts  and 
sciences,  of  organized  govern- 
ment and  legal  codes. 

Asia  Minor,  or  An.\tolia,  the 
name  applied  since  the  fifth 
century  B.C.  to  that  part  of 
Asia  which  extends  as  a  penin- 
sula between  the  Black  Sea  on 
the  north  and  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  on  the  south,  to  the  JEgean 
Sea  on  the  west,  forming  a  sort  of 
bridge  between  Europe  and  Asia. 
To  the  east  lie  Armenia  and 
Mesopotamia.  The  area  of 
the  region  is  199,272  square 
miles. 

Physically,  Asia  Minor  is  a 
plateau,  with  a  general  elevation 
of  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  sloping 
from  the  great  Taurus  range  in 


the  south  to  the  mountains  bor- 
dering on  the  Black  Sea  in  the 
north,  and  the  shores  of  the 
.^gean  Sea  on  the  west.  Nu-. 
merous  passes  through  the  Tau- 
rus and  Anti-Taurus  allow  com- 
munication with  the  eastern  por- 
tions of  the  Turkish  empire;  one 
of  which,  'the  Cicilian  Gates.' 
between  Bulgar  Dagh  and  Ala 
Dagh,  in  the  Taurus  range,  has 
been  of  great  historical  impor- 
tance. Transverse  ranges,  al- 
most at  right  angles  to  the 
flanking  ranges,  intersect  the 
plateau,  while  numerous  isolated 
peaks  rise  at  intervals.  The 
chief  summits  are  the  volcanic 
mountain  Arjish  Dagh  (12,650 
ft.;  anc.  Argaeus),  lying  to  the 
west  of  the  Anti-Taurus  range; 
Bulgar  Dagh  (11,400  ft.),  in  the 
Taurus  range;  Mount  Olympus. 
(6,500  ft.),  near  Brusa,  in  the 
northwest;  and  Mount  Ida 
(5,750  ft.),  which  overlooks  the 
plains  of  Troy,  towards  the 
Hellespont.  The  central  pla- 
teau, an  area  of  Tertiary  lacus- 
trine formation,  consists  of  sandy 
deserts,  salt  steppe  lands,  marsh- 
es, fertile  valleys,  and  numerous 
salt  lakes,  the  largest  being 
Tuzgol,  70  miles  northeast  of 
Konieh.  Between  the  western 
mountains  and  the  .^^^gean  Sea 
are  plains  and  valleys  of  great 
fertility.  The  Black  Sea  coast  is 
rocky  and  almost  unbroken;  the 
western  coast  is  deeply  indented 
and  is  fringed  with  numerous  is- 
lands ;  the  southern  coast  contains 
the  Gulfs  of  Adalia  and  Alexan- 
dretta.  The  rivers  draining  to 
the  Black  Seaarethe  Yeshillrmak 
(Iris) ,  the  Kizillrmak  (Halys,  over 
500  miles  long)  and  the  Sakaria 
(Sangarius).  The  Cydnus  flows 
into  the  Mediterranean,  while 
the  Scamander,  the  Caicus,  the 
Hermus.  and  the  Maeander 
empty  into  the  ^gean.  None  of 
these  streams  is  navigable,  and 
in  summer  and  fall  they  are 
almost  dry. 

The  climate  of  Asia  Minor  is 
greatly  diversified.  The  Medi- 
terranean and  .^gean  coasts  have 
mild  winters  and  temperate 
summers,  while  on  the  shores  of 
the  Black  Sea  the  winters  are 
severe,  with  much  snow  and 
rain,  and  the  summers  are  hot. 
The  valleys  along  the  flanks  of 
the  Taurus  Mountains  have  an 
almost  tropical  climate;  in  the 
interior  plateau  the  winters  are 
cold  and  the  summers  hot;  the 
valleys  along  the  western  shore 
are  mild  and  delightful.  In  the 
northern  and  western  parts  of  the 
peninsvila  the  soil  is  fertile,  rain- 
fall is  abundant  and  vegetation 
is  luxuriant.  Forests  of  oak,  fir, 
beech,  ash,  and  plane  still  clothe 
the  slopes  along  the  Black  Sea 
coast,  but  have  almost  disap- 
peared from  the  mountain  lands, 
which  were  once  densely  wooded. 

Wild  animals  include  the  wolf. 


Asia  Minor 


425 


Asia  Minor 


the  bear,  the  hysena,  the  lynx, 
and  the  wild  boar.  Camels  and 
asses  are  used  for  beasts  of  bur- 
den, horses  for  riding,  and  the 
btiifalo  for  farm  work.  The 
Angora  goat  is  bred  for  its  char- 
acteristic silky  hair.  Bees  are 
kept  in  great  numbers. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Asia 
Minor  is  abundant,  but  the  de- 
posits of  gold,  silver,  iron,  lead, 
antimony,  coal,  lignite,  and 
chrome  have  not  been  largely 
worked.  Coal  and  lignite  to  the 
extent  of  some  400,000  tons  are 
mined  annually  in  Brusa.  There 
is  a  small  production  of  anti- 
mony, and  Eskishehr  supplies 
some  150  tons  of  meerschaum 
yearly. 

Agriculture  occupies  most  of 
the  people,  although  it  is  in  a 


leum,  woollen  goods,  and  coal. 
A  large  part  of  the  trade  is  car- 
ried on  with  Great  Britain.  The 
chief  ports  are  Trebizond,  Sam- 
sun,  Sinope,  Smyrna,  Adalia,  and 
Mersina. 

The  roads  are  in  a  wretched 
condition,  and  internal  trade  is 
thus  greatly  hindered.  The  chief 
railways  are  the  Anatolian,  from 
Scutari,  on  the  Bosporus,  to  Es- 
kishehr, where  it  divides,  one 
branch  going  to  Angora  and  the 
other  to  Konieh;  the  Mudania- 
Brusa  (25  miles)  ;  the  Smyrna- 
Kassaba  (165  miles);  the  Aidin 
(320  miles) ;  the  Mersina- Adana 
(42  miles);  and  the  Bagdad, 
which  is  eventually  to  extend  the 
Anatolian  line  from  Konieh  to 
Adana,  Mosul,  Bagdad,  and 
Basra,   with  numerous  branch 


History. — Asia  Minor  has  long 
been  a  battle  ground  for  warring 
nations.  The  oldest  inhabitants 
of  which  there  is  any  accurate 
knowledge  were  the  non-Aryan 
Hittites  of  Biblical  history  and 
the  White  Syrians  of  Strabo. 
About  the  12th  century  B.C.  an 
Aryan  race  crossed  the  Hel- 
lespont and  took  possession  of  the 
country.  The  Phrygian  mon- 
archy, established  by  these  in- 
vaders, became  rich  and  power- 
ful, but  was  subdued  by  the 
Cimmerians,  who  were  in  turn 
conquered  by  the  Lydians.  Cy- 
rus, the  Persian,  about  546  B.C. 
overthrew  the  Lydian  kingdom. 
Roman  dominion  followed  that 
of  Persia  in  the  2d  century  B.C., 
to  be  in  turn  superseded  by 
Greek    or    Byzantine  control 


backward  state.  The  plateau 
yields  wheat,  and  many  of  the 
lower  valleys  produce  wheat  and 
barley,  while  the  lowlands  give 
good  crops  of  millet  and  rice. 
The  vine,  the  olive,  the  orange, 
the  lemon,  the  apple,  the  fig,  and 
the  pear  flourish;  and  rice,  cot- 
ton, opium,  and  madder  are 
largely  cultivated. 

Manufacturing  is  confined  to 
the  production  of  silks,  the  weav- 
ing of  rugs  and  carpets,  shawls, 
and  mohair  cloth,  and  to  the 
making  of  wine.  Fishing  is  car- 
ried on  in  the  ^gean  Sea.  The 
principal  exports  are  wheat,  cot- 
ton, dried  fruits  (figs  and  raisins), 
wine,  oil,  silk,  mohair,  carpets, 
tobacco,  valonia  (acorn-cups  for 
tanning),  meerschaum,  honey 
and  beeswax,  and  silver,  lead, 
and  antimony  ores.  Imports 
consist  chiefly  of  cotton  fabrics, 
metal  ware,  sugar,  coffee,  petro- 
VoL.  I— March  '22 


lines.  This  latter  road  has  been 
constructed  continuously  as  far 
as  Kara  Bunar  in  Cilicia  (see 
Bagdad  Railway). 

The  population  numbers  about 
10,000,000,  and  consists  of  the 
most  various  races.  The  dom- 
inant race  is  the  Osmanli  Turks, 
who  number  about  1,200,000, 
and  are  spread  over  the  whole 
country;  allied  to  these  are  the 
Turkomans  and  Yuruks,  speak- 
ing a  dialect  of  the  same  lan- 
guage. The  Greeks  and  Ar- 
menians are  the  most  progressive 
elements  in  the  population,  and 
control  most  of  the  trade. 

Administrativ-ely  the  country 
falls  into  eight  vilayets  or  gov- 
ernments, with  their  capitals  in 
Brusa,  Smyrna,  Konieh  (Ico- 
niura),  Adana,  Sivas,  Angora, 
Trebizond,  and  Kastamuni,  re- 
spectively; and  two  independent 
Sanjaks,  Ismid  and  Bigha. 


about  A.D.  395,  when  Asia  Minor 
became  a  part  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire.  The  Seljuks  were  the 
dominant  power  from  about  1063 
until  1350,  when  the  Ottoman 
Turks  began  to  make  themselves 
felt.  With  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople by  Mohammed  ii.,  in 
1453,  Asia  Minor  became  the 
land  of  the  Turk  and  has  so  re- 
mained up  to  the  present. 

At  the  close  of  the  Great  War 
(q.  V.)  a  peculiar  situation  arose 
as  the  result  of  the  growth  of  a 
nationalist  movement  which  cul- 
minated in  the  calling  of  a  Grand 
National  Assembly  at  Angora  in 
April,  ip20.  This  Assembly  de- 
clared itself  invested  with  all 
legislative  and  executive  power 
and  assumed  governmental  func- 
tions in  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor 
not  imder  foreign  occupancy,  re- 
fusing to  recognize  the  Treaty  of 
Sevres  (signed  at  the  close  of  the 


Asiatic  Association 


426 


Asparagus 


Great  War).  Up  to  February, 
1922,  no  progress  had  been  made 
towards  a  peaceful  solution  of 
this  problem  of  dual  government. 
Under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of 
Sevres,  which  has  not  yet  been 
ratified,  Smyrna,  with  a  surround- 
ing strip  of  territory,  is  to  be  ad- 
ministered by  Greece  under 
Turkish  sovereignty  for  five 
years,  after  which  it  may  annex 
itself  to  Greece  by  plebiscite. 

Consult  Ramsay's  Historical 
Geography  of  Asia  Minor;  Childs' 
Across    Asia    Minor    on  Foot 

(1917)  ;    Hawley's  Asia  Minor 

(1918)  . 

Asiatic  Association,  Amer- 
ican, a  society  organized  in  1898 
to  foster  the  trade  and  com- 
mercial interests  of  United  States 
citizens  in  China,  Japan,  the 
Philippines,  and  elsewhere  in  the 
East.  Its  purpose,  according  to 
the  constitution,  is  '  to  contribute 
to  a  satisfactory  adjustment  of 
the  relations  between  Asiatic 
countries  and  the  rest  of  the 
world  by  the  removal  of  sources 
of  misunderstanding  and  the 
dissipation  of  ignorant  preju- 
dices; and  to  co-operate  with  all 
other  agencies,  religious,  educa- 
tional, and  philanthropic,  de- 
signed to  remove  existing  ob- 
stacles to  the  peaceful  progress 
and  well  being  of  the  peoples  of 
these  countries.'  The  President 
(1922)  is  I.loyd  C.  Griscom, 
former  U.  S.  Minister  to  Japan, 
Turkey,  and  Persia. 

Asiatic  Societies,  organiza- 
tions for  the  study  of  Oriental 
religions,  langiiages,  history,  and 
antiquities.  The  oldest  Asiatic 
Society,  the  Dutch  Colonial,  was 
established  in  Java  in  1779,  and 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  in 
1784.  The  Royal  Asiatic  Society 
was  founded  in  London  in  1823, 
established  the  '  Oriental  Transla- 
tion Fund'  in  1828,  and  since 
1833  has  published  the  Journal  of 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  In 
1843  the  American  Oriental  So- 
ciety (q.  V.)  was  founded  at  Bos- 
ton. Its  Journal  has  appeared 
since  1850.  A  French  society 
was  formed  in  1821,  a  German  in 
1845,  and  an  Italian  in  1887. 
Tokyo  and  Peking  have  similar 
organizations. 

Asiatic  Turkey.   See  Turkey. 

Asinius.    See  Pollio. 

Aslcabad.    See  Askhabad. 

Aslcaion.    See  Ascalon. 

Aslce,  Robert  (d.  1537), 
English  insurrectionist,  led  the 
Yorkshire  Pilgrimage  of  Grace, 
an  insurrection  caused  by  the 
suppression  of  the  smaller  mon- 
asteries and  other  unpopular 
measures.  On  the  king's  sending 
promises  of  pardon,  the  rebels 
disbanded.  Aske,  however,  was 
executed  at  York. 

Aslcelof,  JoHAN  Kristoffer 
(1787-1848),  Swedish  publicist, 
first  made  himself  famous  as  an 
ardent  disciple  of  the  new  ro- 
VOL.  I. — March  '22 


mantic  school,  and  in  1802 
started  its  chief  literary  organ. 
Poly  fern,  which  gave  its  name  to 
the  party.  He  was  editor  of  the 
conservative  organ,  Svenska  Min- 
erva, from  1830  to  1848. 

Aslcew,  as'kit,  or  AscouGH, 
Anne  (1521-46),  English  Pro- 
testant martyr,  was  bom  in 
Lincolnshire.  She  was  tried  for 
heresy  before  the  lord  mayor, 
Bonner,  bishop  of  London,  and 
others  in  1545,  but  was  set  at 
liberty.  Again  accused  of  heresy, 
she  was  sent  to  the  Tower  and 
tortured;  but,  refusing  to  recant, 
was  burned  at  Smithfield.  Con- 
sult Bale's  two  Tracts  On  the 
Exa^nination  of  Anne  A^/sew  (1546 
and  1547);  Foxe's  Acts  and 
Monuments. 

Aslciiabad,  as'ka-bad',  or  As- 
KABAD,  town,  political  capital  of 
Transcaspian  Russian  Turkestan, 
is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
Kopet  Dagh,  in  the  oasis  of 
Atek,  on  the  Transcaspian  Rail- 
way, 830  feet  above  sea  level. 
Before  its  Russian  conquest  in 
1881  it  was  a  place  of  500  tents; 
now  it  is  an  important  mercan- 
tile and  political  centre.  Pop. 
41,700. 

Aslcja,  ask'ya  (Ice.,  'basket'), 
the  largest  volcano  in  Iceland, 
rises  out  of  the  vast  Odathahraun 
lava-desert,  near  the  centre  of  the 
island.  Its  vast  crater  is  over 
23  square  miles  in  area  and  about 
17  miles  in  circumference.  Al- 
most circular  in  shape,  it  lies  at  a 
depth  of  over  700  feet  within  a 
mountain  btiilt  up  by  a  distinctly 
marked  series  of  lava-flows,  round 
a  volcanic  vent,  to  a  height  of 
4,633  feet  above  the  sea.  Great 
volumes  of  steam  are  belched 
forth  from  numerous  rifts  and 
vents,  and  the  whole  surface  is  a 
chaos  of  rugged  lava-floods,  ex- 
cept in  the  southeast,  where 
there  is  a  hot-water  lake  5  miles 
in  circumference,  and  a  tract 
covered  with  pumice  ejected  in 
1875. 

Asmara,  town,  capital  of  the 
Italian  colony  of  Eritrea,  Africa; 
55  miles  southwest  of  Massowah, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by 
rail.  It  is  a  modern  town, 
strongly  fortified,  and  a  centre 
of  trade.  Gold  occurs  nearby. 
Pop.  14,711. 

Asmode'us,  probably  a  cor- 
ruption of  ^shma  Daeva,  an  evil 
genius  in  the  ancient  Persian  re- 
ligion. He  became  known  among 
the  Jews  through  the  story  of 
Tobit,  a  Jew  who  was  taken  cap- 
tive to  Nineveh,  and  the  scene  of 
whose  adventures  (in  which 
^shma  Dagva,  or  Asmodeus, 
figures  prominently)  is  laid  in 
Media  (see  Tobit,  Book  of). 
Asmodeus  is  frequently  encoun- 
tered in  mediaeval  literature,  and 
he  is  the  supernatural  cicerone  in 
Le  Sage's  Le  Diahle  Boiteux. 

Asmone'ans,  or  Hasmoneans, 
the  Greek  denomination  of  the 


first  members  of  the  Jewish  dy- 
nasty of  the  Maccabees.  See 
Maccabees. 

Asnieres,  as-ny^r',  town, 
France,  department  of  Seine. 
It  is  a  residential  subtirb  ot 
Paris,  two  miles  from  the  forti- 
fications, on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Seine.    Pop.  (1911)  42,583. 

Aso'ca  (Jonesia  asoca),  an 
Indian  tree  of  the  order  Legumi- 
nosae,  named  after  Sir  William 
Jones.  It  is  common  throughout 
India,  where  it  is  associated  with 
poetry  and  mythology,  and  is 
also  cultivated  in  Mauritius.  It 
bears  shining  pinnate  leaves  and 
red  and  orange  flowers. 

Aso'lca,  emperor  of  India  from 
B.C.  272-232,  third  ruler  of  the 
Maurya  dynasty,  styled  in  his 
own  edicts  'King  Priyadarsin' 
{Pali,  Piyadasi),  which  signifies 
'the  Humane,'  was  alike  notable 
as  a  great  monarch  and  as  a 
zealous  propagandist  of  Bud- 
dhism. Asoka's  empire  included 
all  the  Indian  peninsula  except 
the  small  portion  south  of  lat. 
12°,  and  extended  north  to  the 
Himalayas,  embracing  also  part 
of  Kashmir,  most  of  Afghanistan, 
and  the  whole  of  Baluchistan. 
Patuliputra  (modem  Patna)  was 
his  capital.  After  his  conquest 
of  the  east  coast  tribes  in  261 
B.C.,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
spread  of  the  Buddhist  religion 
and  culture. 

Asolo,  a  walled  town  in  the 
province  of  Treviso,  Italy;  18 
miles  northwest  of  Treviso.  It 
was  a  favorite  resort  of  Robert 
Browning,  and  possibly  the 
source  of  inspiration  for  parts  of 
Pippa  Passes  and  Sordello.  Pop. 
6,000. 

Asp  (Vipera  aspis),  a  poison- 
ous snake  of  the  family  Viperidas, 
about  two  feet  in  length,  exceed- 
ingly common  in  Italy  and  in 
the  wooded  elevated  regions  of 
Southern  Europe  generally.  It 
is  also  found  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
The  name  is  also  frequently  used 
in  a  loose  sense  to  indicate  a 
poisonous  serpent,  as  of  the 
serpent  by  means  of  which 
Cleopatra  of  Egypt  caused  her 
own,  death. 

Aspalathos,  Dalmatia.  See 
Spai.ato. 

Aspar'agine,  amido-succina- 
micacid,  NH2CO.CH2  CH  (NHj) 
CO. OH,  occurs  in  asparagus, 
peas,  and  many  other  plants.  It 
can  be  prepared  synthetically, 
and  forms  transparent,  colorless 
crystals,  which  are  soluble  in 
water. 

Asparagus,  Common  {Aspara- 
gus officinalis),  a  genus  of  the 
order  Liliaceae,  found  through- 
out Europe.  It  is  cultivated  in 
gardens  as  a  vegetable,  and  in 
spring  produces  from  its  peren- 
nial underground  stems  (rhi- 
zomes) numerous  fleshy,  aerial 
stems  bearing  small  scale-leaves. 


Asparagus-Beetle 


427 


Asphaltum 


which  are  eaten,  and  are  often 
blanched.  The  plant  flowers  in 
August,  and  produces  small  scar- 
let berries,  with  black  seeds,  fhe 
seed  of  asparagus  should  be  sown 
thinly  on  ground  that  has  been 
well  dug  but  not  matured,  any 
time  from  March  to  June.  The 
drills  should  be  about  a  foot 
apart  and  an  inch  deep.  When 
the  seeds  are  placed,  the  ground 
should  be  pressed  and  raked  over. 
The  plants  make  more  root  than 
top  the  first  year;  but  if  they  are 
kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  the 
ground  stjrred  often  between 
them,  they  will  grow  vigorously 
the  second  year,  and  be  fit  to 
plant  out  the  following  spring, 
Beds  of  asparagus  may  be  made 
as  late  as  September.  Established 
beds  of  asparagus  require  heavy 
manuring  every  spring. 

Asparagus-Beetle.  A  chryso- 
melid  beetle  (Crioceris  asparagi), 
the  most  important  of  the  insects 
that  attack  asparagus.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  brought  from 
Europe  about  1856.  The  beetle, 
which  is  blue-black  in  color,  with 
a  brick-red  thorax,  hatches  its 
eggs  in  the  spring,  and  the  issu- 
ing larvae  devour  the  tender  parts 
of  the  asparagus.  Other  beetles 
and  certain  caterpillars  also  at- 
tack asparagus;  and  rnethods  of 
prevention  are  given  in  Bulletin 
No.  10,  of  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

Asparagus  Stono,  certain  yel- 
lowish-green varieties  of  apatite. 

Aspasia.  (1.)  Of  Miletus,  the 
most  famous  of  Greek  courtesans. 
She  came  to  Athens,  and  Pericles 
lived  with  her  until  his  death. 
Though  an  Athenian  could  not 
legally  marry  an  alien,  their  son 
was  legitimized  by  a  decree  of  the 
people.  Aspasia  shared  to  the  full 
the  highest  culture  of  the  day; 
popular  gossip  gave  her  the  credit 
of  much  of  Pericles's  statesman- 
ship. When  she  was  prosecuted 
for  impiety,  only  his  personal 
influence  procured  her  acquittal. 
The  best  intellects  of  Athens, 
including  Socrates,  seem  to  have 
met  in  her  house.  After  the 
death  of  Pericles  she  was  con- 
nected with  Lysicles,  a  dema- 
gogue. See  Suidas's  Aspasia, 
Landor's  Pericles  and  Aspasia 
(1836),  and  Becq  de  Fouquieres's 
Aspasie  de  Milet  (1875).  (3.) 
The  younger,  a  Phocaean,  the  fa- 
vorite mistress  of  Cyrus  the 
younger.  After  his  death  she  be- 
came the  mistress  of  his  brother 
Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia,  who, 
when  his  son  Darius  fell  in  love 
with  her,  made  her  priestess  of  a 
ternple  in  Ecbatana,  in  which 
strict  celibacy  was  essential. 

Aspect  in  astronomy  refers 
to  the  relative  positions  of  two 
planets  as  seen  from  the  earth. 
Five  principal  aspects  were  orig- 
inally recognized,  but  only  two  are 
now  in  use — conjunction  and  op- 


position. A  planet  is  in  conjunc- 
tion when  it  is  seen  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  sun,  and  in  oppo- 
sition when  180°  away  from  the 
sun.  The  aspects  now  obsolete 
were:  the  sextile,  applied  to  two 
bodies  distant  60°  from  each 
other;  the  quartile  or  quadrate, 
when  they  were  90°  apart;  and 
the  trine,  when  they  were  120° 
distant. 

Aspen  (Populus  sp.),  certain 
trees  belonging  to  the  willow  fam- 
ily. Even  in  calm  weather  the 
leaves  tremble  in  upward  cur- 
rents of  air  which  are  not  strong 
enough  to  stir  those  of  other 
trees.  The  petiole  of  the  leaf,  at 
its  junction  with  the  blade,  is  flat- 
tened at  right  angles  to  the  plane 
of  the  blade,  and  is,  moreover, 
long  and  elastic.  The  Rocky 
Mountain  aspen,  noted  for  the 
golden  hue  of  its  autumnal  foli- 
age, is  Populus  tremuloides,  and 
is  found  elsewhere  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  a  slender  tree,  reach- 
ing a  maximum  height  of  100 
feet,  and  has  a  smooth,  light  green 
bark.  There  is  an  old  tradition 
in  Scotland  that  the  leaves  are 
never  at  rest  because  the  cross 
was  made  of  aspen  wood. 

Aspen,  city,  Col.,  co.  seat  of 
Pitkin  CO.,  on  the  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande  and  Colorado  Midland 
R.  Rs.,  30  miles  w,  of  Leadville. 
Valuable  silver  and  lead  mines 
in  the  neighborhood  make  for  its 
activities  in  trade.  Pop.  (1910) 
1,834. 

Asperges,  in  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church,  is  an  antiphone  taken 
from  the  Miserere,  and  sung  by 
the  choir  before  a  high  mass,  dur- 
ing which  the  priest  sprinkles 
holy  water  by  means  of  a  rod 
called  an  aspersorium  or  asper- 
gillus. 

Aspergillus,  a  genus  of  hypho- 
mycetous  fungi.    See  Mould. 

Asperula.   See  Woodruff. 

Asphaltum.  A  natural  mineral 
pitch  belonging  to  the  bitumens, 
and  therefore  allied  to  natural 
gas  and  petroleum.  Its  principal 
chemical  constituents  are  hydro- 
carbons, though  its  composition 
is  variable  and  has  never  been 
fully  explained.  Physically  it 
ranges  from  liquid  form,  known 
as  maltha,  to  the  dense  brittle 
variety  called  gilsonrte.  The 
solid  varieties  have  a  black  or 
brown  color,  a  splintery  fracture, 
and  burn  with  a  smoky  flame. 
They  range  from  1  to  1.3  in  spe- 
cific gravity  and  from  2  to  3  in 
hardness. 

Though  deposits  of  nearly  pure 
asphaltum  occur,  more  often  the 
mineral  is  admixed  with  earthy 
matter,  or  else  is  distributed 
through  the  pores  and  cavities  of 
rocks  such  as  limestone  and  sand- 
stone. In  the  latter  case  the  ma- 
terial is  known  commercially  as 
bituminous  limestone  or  bitu- 
minous  sandstone.     The  origin 


of  asphaltum  is  usually  attributed 
to  the  decomposition  of  vegetable 
matter,  involving  the  distillation 
of  the  hydrocarbon  elements, 
which  subsequently  condense  and 
accumulate  in  adjacent  rock  for- 
mations. In  some  cases  its  origin 
is  probably  connected  with  the 
distillation  of  petroleum,  a  theory 
which  finds  support  in  the  fact 
that  certain  oils  have  an  asphaltic 
base. 

Asphaltum  is  quite  widely  dis- 
tributed in  nature.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  deposits  occurs 
at  Pitch  Lake,  island  of  Trinidad, 
where  it  fills  a  basin  to  a  depth 
of  nearly  100  feet.  The  material 
is  solid  enough  to  support  a  horse 
and  wagon,  but  has  a  slow  motion 
which  closes  up  the  cavities  made 
by  excavation.  Large  quantities 
have  been  taken  from  this  local- 
ity. Similar  deposits  are  found 
at  San  Timolis,  Venezuela,  the 
product  of  which  is  known  com- 
mercially as  Bermudez  asphaltum. 
and  at  Tamaulipas  and  Moloacan, 
Mexico.  In  the  United  States 
most  of  the  asphaltum  is  obtained 
from  bituminous  sandstone  and 
limestone.  Large  deposits  are 
found  in  Santa  Barbara  co.,  Cali- 
fornia, in  the  Chickasaw  Na- 
tion, Indian  Territory,  in  central 
Kentucky,  and  in  Arkansas, 
Texas,  and  Utah.  Among  Eu- 
ropean occurrences,  the  most 
productive  are  those  at  Seyssel, 
France;  Val  de  Travers,  Switzer- 
land; Ragusa,  Italy;  and  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
In  early  times  the  supply  of  as- 
phaltum was  obtained  from  the 
Dead  Sea. 

The  principal  use  of  asphaltum 
is  in  the  construction  of  pave- 
ments. Asphaltic  limestone  or- 
dinarily requires  no  preparation 
for  this  purpose  beyond  crushing 
to  suitable  size,  but  other  forms 
are  subjected  to  a  refining  pro- 
cess. Trinidad  asphaltum  is  pu- 
rified by  heating  and  straining 
the  liquefied  material  through  a 
screen  which  removes  the  foreign 
materials.  Asphaltic  sandstone 
may  be  refined  by  heating  in  tanks 
partially  filled  with  water  or  a 
solution  of  salt,  from  the  surface 
of  which  the  lighter  asphaltum 
can  be  easily  removed.  Another 
process  consists  in  treating  the 
rock  with  some  solvent  such  as 
carbon  bisulphide  or  gasolene  and 
distilling  the  liquid  so  as  to  yield 
a  residue  of  pure  asphaltum.  Be- 
sides its  use  as  paving  material 
asphaltum  finds  application  in  the 
manufacture  of  paints,  varnishes, 
and  cement,  as  an  insulating  or 
water  proofing  material  and  for 
roofing  purposes.  See  Howard's 
Natural  Asphaltum  and  Its  Com- 
pounds .(Troy,  N.  Y.,  1894); 
also  articles  in  the  volumes  of 
The  Mineral  Resources,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  Washington, 
and  Report  on  Mines  and  Quar- 


Asphodel 


428 


Aspiratot 


ries  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census, 
Washington,  1905. 

Asphodel,  a  plant  of  the  order 
LiHaceae.  There  are  several  spe- 
cies, originating  chiefly  in  Medi- 
terranean countries.  A.  luteus, 
the  yellow,  and  A.  albus,  the 
white,  asphodels  are  cultivated  in 
gardcws.  the  former  having  a  tall, 
simple  stem,  surrounded  by 
sheathing  bases  of  narrow  leaves, 
and  with  a  mass  of  flowers  at  the 
top.  Medicinally  it  has  been  used 
as  a  substitute  for  sauill.  The 
asphodel,  being  sacred  to  Proser- 
pine, was  in  the  days  of  the  Ro- 
mans used  in  funeral  ceremonies. 
In  the  Odyssey,  Minos  sits  in 
judgment  in  the  asphodel  mead- 
ows. 

Asphodel,  Bog  [Narthecium 
ossifragiim),  also  called  '  Lanca- 


Bog  Asphodel. 
1,  Petal ;  2,  germen. 


shire  asphodel,'  is  a  small  plant 
of  the  order  Liliaceae,  whose 
blossom  gives  an  orange  tint  to 
many  peat  bogs  in  Europe  during 
July  and  August.  An  American 
genus,  Abama,  is  also  known  as 
bog  asphodel.  The  specific  name, 
meaning  '  bone-breaking,'  is  de- 
rived from  the  unfounded  belief 
that  when  sheep  eat  leaves  their 
bones  become  fragile. 

Asphyxia  is  compaonly  used  to 
denote  the  condition  following 
upon  total  deprivation  of  oxygen 
for  respiration,  from  whatever 
cause.  Drowning,  strangling,  ir- 
respirable  gases,  and  mechanical 
obstruction  of  any  kind  to  the  en- 
trance of  oxygen  to  the  lungs,  are 
common  examples.  The  creature 
deprived  of  oxygen  shows  discom- 
fort in  a  few  seconds  by  restless- 


ness. In  warm-blooded  animals 
a  few  seconds  more  under  such 
conditions  will  bring  about  exag- 
gerated respiratory  movements, 
quickly  followed  by  convulsions, 
the  effect  of  poisoned  blood  (un- 
oxygenated,  and  saturated  with 
carbonic  acid  gas)  upon  the  great 
nerve-centres.  Insensibility  and 
cessation  of  movement  now  rap- 
idly supervene,  and  death  is  pos- 
sible within  about  three  minutes 
from  the  beginning,  though  the 
time  will  vary  with  the  stren  th 
of  the  sufferer  and  with  the  man- 
ner of  asphyxiation.  Respiratory 
efforts  cease  before  the  heart  stops, 
which  it  ultimately  does  in  dias- 
tole. Recovery  is  possible  while 
the  heart  beats,  and  may  even  be 
hoped  for  a  little  later  still,  in 
some  cases,  if  the  heart's  work  be 
made  easier  by  bleeding.  Since 
both  respiratory  and  cardiac 
movement  may  be  present, 
though  undetected  by  the  un- 
trained, it  is  of  the  first  impor- 
tance that  help  to  the  asphyxi- 
ated should  be  given  at  once,  and 
all  efforts  continued  until  a  fully 
competent  person  can  take  the 
case  in  hand.  The  cause  of  as- 
phyxia must  be  removed,  fresh 
air  must  be  insured,  and  crowd- 
ing around  must  be  guarded 
against.  If  respiration  has  not 
ceased,  these  steps,  with  the  use 
of  smelling-salts  or  dashing  cold 
water  on  the  chest,  may  be 
enough.  But  no  time  should  be 
lost  before  proceeding  to  artificial 
respiration. 

Asphyxiants  are  substances 
which  cause  death  by  the  produc- 
tion of  asphyxia.  Examples  of 
these  are  carbonic  acid  gas,  coal 
gas,  marsh  gas,  and  acetylene. 
Sometimes  a  distinction  is  drawn 
between  simple  and  toxic  asphyx- 
iants, the  first  being  those  as- 
phyxiants which  are  not  in  them- 
selves poisonous,  but  cause  death 
purely  by  filling  the  lungs  to  the 
exclusion  of  respirable  air.  Hy- 
drogen and  nitrogen  may  be  taken 
as  examples.  Water  is  the  as- 
phyxiant in  drowning.  On  the 
other  hand,  chloroform,  chlorine, 
and  the  fumes  of  hydrocyanic 
(prussic)  acid  are  toxic  asphyxi- 
ants. Artillery  shells  have  some- 
times been  filled  with  asphyxiants 
and  hurled  against  an  enemy  ; 
but  their  use  was  condemned  by 
the  Hague  Peace  Conference  of 
1899.  The  Chinese  missile  known 
as  the  '  stink-pot '  seems  to  par- 
take of  the  same  character. 

Aspidistra,  a  Chinese  genus  of 
the  order  Liliacese,  no\y  much 
cultivated.  Three  species  are 
grown,  but  A.  lurida  is  the  one 
commonly  seen  in  rooms.  The 
branching  stems  are  entirely  un- 
derground: they  soon  fill  the  pot 
with  cord-like  roots,  and  send  up 
robust  leaves,  which  when  young 
appear  as  lengthened  conical 
growths  protected  by  scale-leaves. 


A  variety  shows  creamy  white 
streaks  or  bands  running  length- 
wise through  the  blade,  but  the 
whole  leaf  becomes  green  when 
the  soil  is  enriched.  Small  purple 
flowers  appear  in  early  summer, 
and  they  should  be  removed  if 
vigorous  foliage  is  desired.  The 
plant  is  popularly  known  as  *  par- 
lor palm.' 
Aspidium.  See  Male  Fern. 
Aspinwall.  See  Colon. 
Aspinvrall,  William  H.  (1807- 
75),  a  New  York  merchant  and 
shipowner  who  obtained  a  con- 
cession in  1850  to  construct  a  rail- 
way across  the  isthmus  of  Panama. 
It  was  completed  in  February, 
1855, andtheeastern terminus,  now 
called  Colon,  was  named  after 
him.  He  was  also  one  of  the  or- 
ganizers of  the  Pacific  Mail 
Steamship  Co. 

Aspirate  (Lat.  ad,  *to;'  spirare 
'  to  breathe  ').  in  phonetics,  is  the 
strong  breathing  of  a  letter,  ap- 
proximating the  guttural  sound. 
From  very  early  times  there  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  when  and  where  the 
aspirate  ought  to  be  used.  Ca- 
tullus {Ep.  Ixxxiii.)  ridicules  a 
contemporary  because  he  said 
'  /linsidias  '  and  '  //ionios  '  instead 
of  '  insidias  '  and  '  lonios.'  A 
similar  tendency  has  been  noticed 
in  Sanskrit  and  Greek.  In  Gaelic 
it  is  a  recognized  law  that  a 
euphonic  h  shall  be  intruded  be- 
tween the  final  vowel  of  one  word 
and  the  initial  vowel  of  another; 
thus,  *  na  /i-iasgan  '  (the  fishes). 
Systematic  aspiration,  in  certain 
connections,  is  indeed  a  notable 
characteristic  both  of  Gaelic  and 
Cymric.  The  habit  of  '  dropping 
the  h  '  when  (according  to  mod- 
ern usage)  it  ought  to  be  retained 
is  prevalent  in  the  English  lower 
class,  and  this  is  accompanied  by 
the  contrary  habit  of  prefixing  an 
h  where  it  is  not  wanted.  An 
Englishman  of  this  class,  there- 
fore, will  say  '  /lash  '  for  '  ash,' 
and  '  'ash  '  for  *  hash.'  Nowadays 
a  mark  of  inferior  breeding,  this 
heterodox  practice  was  once  or- 
thodox. In  the  13th  century,  eye, 
earl,  old,  and  English  were  writ- 
ten heie,  herle,  hold,  and  Hen- 
glishe:  while  in  recent  times  the 
use  of  '  an  '  before  many  words, 
such  as  hundred,  habit, and  house- 
hold, seems  to  indicate  that  the  /; 
was  almost,  if  not  altogether,  si- 
lent. In  the  English  of  the  culti- 
vated class  of  to-day  there  is  a 
tendency  to  restore  the  aspirate 
in  some  words  and  to  drop  it  in 
others.  See  The  Aspirate,  by  G. 
Hill  (1902). 

Aspirator,  an  apparatus  used 
to  draw  air  or  gases  through  pipes 
or  other  apparatus  connected  with 
it.  In  its  simplest  form  it  consists 
of  a  vessel  of  glass  or  metal  fitted 
with  inlet  and  outlet  cocks  at  thf 
top  and  bottom.  It  is  filled  with 
water,  and,  by  allowing  the  water 


Aspirin 


429 


Asqulth 


to  escape  through  the  lower  tap, 
air  or  any  gas  may  be  drawn 
through  the  upper  tap,  and,  if 
necessary,  through  a  series  of 
tubes  or  bottles.  The  filter-pump 
is  another  form  of  aspirator  much 
used  in  laboratories. 

The  name  is  also  given  to  a  sur- 
gical instrument,  introduced  by 
Dieulafoy  in  1869,  for  removing 
fluids  from  body  cavities,  as  in 
pleurisy,  ascites,  abscesses,  re- 
tention of  urine,  etc.  A  fine 
hollow  needle,  connected  by  a 
rubber  tube  with  a  syringe  or 
bottle,  from  which  the  air  is 
partially  exhausted,  is  passed 
through  the  skin;  and  the  fluid 
is  driven  into  the  bottle  by 
atmospheric  pressure. 

As'pirin,  the  trade  name  for 
acetyl  salicylic  acid,  C6H4OCO- 
CH3COOH.  It  is  said  to  be  valu- 
able in  the  treatment  of  neu- 
ralgia, rheumatism,  and  kindred 
ailments. 

Aspiroz,  as-pe'roth,  Manuel 
DE  (1836-1905),  Mexican  states- 
man and  diplomat,  was  born  in 
Puebla,  Mexico.  He  advanced 
to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel, 
while  serving  with  the  Mexican 
troops  in  resisting  the  French 
invasion,  was  appointed  fiscal 
in  the  council  of  war  which 
tried  Maximilian,  and  himself 
formulated  the  charges  upon 
which  the  Emperor  was  con- 
demned. He  afterward  served  in 
the  Mexican  Senate  as  assistant 
secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
affairs;  as  Mexican  consul  at 
San  Francisco  (1873-5);  and  as 
professor  of  law  in  the  College 
of  Puebla  (1883-90).  In  Janu- 
ary, 1899,  he  was  appointed 
Mexican  minister  to  the  United 
States,  his  rank  being  raised  to 
that  of  ambassador  two  months 
later. 

Asplenium.  See  Spleen  wort 
Fern. 

Aspromonte,  as-pro-mon'-ta, 
a  wooded  mountainous  district, 
in  the  extreme  south  of  Italy, 
rising  above  the  Strait  of 
Messina  to  6,425  feet  in  Mt. 
Montalto.  Here  Garibaldi  was 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
(1862). 

A.squith,  as'kwith,  Rt.  Hon. 
Herbert  Henry  (1852),  Eng- 
lish statesman,  was  born  at 
Morley  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire.  He  was  educated  at 
the  City  of  London  School,  and 
afterwards  oroceeded  to  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  In  1876  he 
was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's 
Inn,  where  his  marked  ability 
rapidly  brought  him  into  promi- 
nence (notably  during  the  Par- 
nell  Commission),  and  in  1890 
he  became  a  queen's  counsel. 
Of  strong  Liberal  proclivities, 
he  entered  the  House  of  Com- 
mons as  Member  for  East 
Fife  in  1886,  and  at  once  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Home 
Rule  debates.  In  1892  he  was 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


selected  by  Gladstone  to  move 
the  amendment  to  the  address 
which  resulted  in  the  fall  of  the 
Salisbury  government,  and  in 
the  succeeding  Liberal  govern- 
ment he  was  made  Home  Secre- 
tary. On  the  defeat  of  the 
Liberals  at  the  polls  in  1895 
he  returned  to  the  bar.  In  the 
serious  divisions  which  took 
place  in  the  Liberal  Party  over 
Imperialism  and  the  Sotith  Afri- 
can War,  Mr.  Asquith  followed 
Lord   Rosebery    as   a  Liberal 


debt,  despite  the  $500,000,000 
added  by  the  South  African 
War,  to  about  the  same  figure 
as  that  of  1889.  In  1908  on  Sir 
Henry  Campbell-Bannerman's 
resignation,  Mr.  Asquith  became 
Premier.  For  the  events  of  his 
premiership,  see  England-  His- 
tory. 

In  the  course  of  the  Great  War, 
early  in  1915,  dissatisfaction 
with  the  Government  was  ex- 
pressed, particularly  with  regard 
to  munitions,  and  it  was  con- 


r 


Wild  Asses. 

1.  Klang  or  kulan  of  Tibet.   2.  Abyssinian  ass.  3.  Onager. 


Leaguer,  but  he  exerted  his 
influence  on  behalf  of  party 
unity.  With  the  appearance  of 
Joseph  Chamberlain  as  tariff 
reformer,  he  found  congenial 
outlet  for  his  debating  powers  as 
the  recognized  champion  of 
Free  Trade. 

When  Sir  Henry  Campbell- 
Bannerman  formed  his  govern- 
ment in  1905,  Mr.  Asquith 
became  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, and  during  his  tenure 
of  this  office  reduced  the  national 


sidered  advisable  to  form  a 
coalition  administration,  includ- 
ing Unionist  and  Labor  members. 
Toward  the  end  of  1916,  in  order 
to  facilitate  business,  Mr.  Lloyd- 
George  proposed  that  the  con- 
duct of  the  war  should  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  a  War  Committee 
of  four  instead  of  seven  members, 
the  Prime  Minister,  in  considera- 
tion of  his  other  duties,  to  be 
excluded.  Mr.  Asquith  objected 
and  Mr.  Lloyd-George  suggested 
that  the  Prime  Minister  should 


Ass 


430 


Assassination 


attend  occasionally  in  a  consulta- 
tive capacity,  with  a  right  of 
veto  for  ultimate  reference  to  the 
Cabinet.  To  this  Mr.  Asquith 
demurred, whereupon  Mr.  Lloyd- 
George  resigned,  and,  as  the 
latter  had  the  support  of  the 
Unionist  members,  Mr.  As- 
quith, Sir  Edward  Grey,  and 
others  quitted  office. 

At  the  General  Election  in 
1918,  Mr.  Asquith  was  defeated 
in  East  Fife,  which  he  had 
represented  since  1886.  Politi- 
cians and  publicists  of  all  shades 
of  opinion  expressed  regret  at  the 
disappearance  from  the  parlia- 
mentary arena  of  a  statesman 
who,  during  a  long  career,  pre- 
served the  amenities  of  public 
life  and  maintained  at  a  high 
level  the  best  traditions  of  Brit- 
ish statesmanship. 

Ass,  a  name  given  to  a  group 
of  species  of  the  genus  Equus, 
includiufT  the  domestic  ass  (E. 
asinus),  or  donkey,  and  the 
wild  asses  of  Africa  and  Asia. 
The  ass  differs  from  the  horse 
in  its  long  ears,  the  absence  of 
long  hairs  at  the  base  of  the 
tail  and  of  'chestnuts'  on  the 
hind  legs;  it  resembles  the 
zebra  in  its  erect  mane  and 
well-marked  dorsal  stripe,  and 
its  tendency  to  stripes  on  the 
legs. 

The  domestic  ass,  which  is 
probably  identical  with  the 
African  wild  ass,  seems  to  have 
originated  in  Egypt,  where  it 
was  known  long  before  the 
horse.  When  treated  with  kind- 
ness, it  is  often  scarcely  inferior 
to  the  horse  in  usefulness,  and 
is  far  less  expensive  to  keep, 
being  less  liable  to  disease  and 
less  particular  as  to  diet. 

Of  the  Asiatic  wild  asses  there 
are  three  varieties — the  kiang 
(kulan),  the  onager,  and  the 
Syrian  wild  ass.  The  first  is  the 
largest  and  is  of  a  reddish  tinge 
with  a  black  stripe  from  mane  to 
tail.  There  are  apparently  two 
species  of  African  wild  ass, 
which  differ  from  their  Asiatic 
cousins  in  their  longer  ears  and 
shorter  manes.  Their  tails  are 
more  scantily  haired,  and  they 
are  of  a  bluish  rather  than  a 
red  tinge. 

From  time  immemorial  the 
ass  and  the  horse  have  been 
crossed  together,  the  hybrid  off- 
spring being  known  as  mules  or 
hinnies,  according  as  the  male 
parent  is  an  ass  or  a  horse. 

Assai  Palm,  a-si'  (Euterpe), 
a  tree  of  tropical  America,  much 
cultivated  for  its  pulpy  fruit, 
assai,  from  which  is  prepared  a 
thick  creamy  beverage,  tasting 
like  a  fresh  nut  kernel.  The 
common  assai  (E.  edulis)  grows 
in  swamps,  flooded  by  tides, 
and  is  remarkable  for  its  slender 
trunk. 

Assam,    a-sam',  province  of 
British  India,  lies  at  the  north- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  '19 


eastern  corner  of  the  peninsula 
of  India,  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Bhutan  and  Tibet,  on  the 
east  by  Burma,  on  the  south 
by  Burma  'and  Bengal,  and  on 
the  west  by  Bengal.  Its  total 
area  is  estimated  at  61,471 
square  miles,  of  which  53,015  is 
British  territory,  the  remainder 
comprising  the  native  state  of 
Manipur  (q.  v.). 

Physical  Features.  —  Assam 
is  crossed  from  east  to  west  by 
the  Brahmaputra,  which  is 
joined  in  its  course  by  numerous 
tributaries;  mountain  ranges 
mark  the  boundaries  of  the 
province,  and  groups  of  hills  are 
scattered  over  the  surface.  The 
climate  is  generally  hot,  ener- 
vating and  malarious,  while  the 
Assam  hills  have  the  heaviest 
rainfall  in  the  world,  normally 
450  inches.  Earthquakes  are  of 
frequent  occurrence. 

The  soil  is  fertile  and  yields 
an  abundance  -t^f  tea,  rice,  and 
mustard-seed.  Forests  cover 
22,368  square  miles.  Over  700 
varieties  of  orchids  are  found, 
and  palms,  bamboos,  and  teak 
trees  flourish.  Fish  abound  in 
the  rivers  and  furnish  a  large 
portion  of  the  native  food. 
Mineral  products  include  coal, 
petroleum,  iron,  gold,  manga- 
nese, limestone,  and  mica. 

Industry  and  Trade. — Tea- 
raising  is  the  great  commercial 
industry  of  Assam,  Rice  is  culti- 
vated on  a  large  scale,  but 
chiefly  for  local  consumption. 
Manufacturing  consists  princi- 
pally of  handicrafts,  as  cotton 
weaving,  ivory  and  wood  carv- 
ing, and  jewelry  making. 

The  Brahmaputra  river  carries 
fleets  of  steamers  employed  in 
export  and  import  trade,  and 
the  Assam-Bengal  Railway  trav- 
erses the  province.  Exports 
include  rice,  tea,  silk,  rubber, 
ivory,  cotton,  and  gold. 

Peoples. — The  population  of 
Assam  in  1911  was  6,713,635 — 
3,637,828  of  whom  were  Hindus, 
and  1,886,578  Mohammedans, 
the  remainder  being  divided 
among  the  Jains,  Christians, 
and  other  religious  sects.  The 
bulk  of  the  people  are  Ahoms, 
an  offshoot  of  the  Shans  (q.  v.) 
of  Northern  Burma. 

The  government  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  Chief  Commissioner,  with 
headquarters  at  Shillong. 

History. — Practically  nothing 
authentic  is  known  of  Assam 
prior  to  the  thirteenth  century, 
when  the  Ahoms  migrated  there 
and  founded  the  Ahom  dynasty, 
which  remained  in  power  until 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  1822  the  Burmese 
invaded  the  country.  Two 
years  later  (1824),  during  the 
first  Burmese  War,  Assam  was 
conquered  by  the  British,  and 
in  1826,  by  the  treaty  of  Yau- 
dabu,  it  was  ceded  to  the  British 


Government.  In  1832  Cachar 
was  annexed,  and  by  1838  the 
whole  of  Upper  Assam  was 
placed  under  British  adminis- 
tration. In  1842  Matak  and 
Sadiya  were  incorporated  in  Brit- 
ish territory. 

The  inconvenience  of  govern- 
ing Assam  as  a  part  of  the 
province  of  Bengal  led  in  1874 
to  its  erection  into  a  Chief 
Commissionership.  In  1905  As- 
sam and  Eastern  Bengal  were 
united  to  form  a  new  province, 
and  in  1912  Assam  became  once 
more  a  separate  province. 

Bibliography. — Consult  E.  A. 
Gait's  History  of  Assam;  L.  W. 
Shakespear's  History  of  Upper 
Assam,  Upper  Burma,  and  the 
Northeastern  Frontier  (1914). 

Assandune.    See  Ashdown. 

Assassination,  as-as'-i-na'- 
shun,  a  term  sometimes  applied 
to  any  murder,  but  usually 
restricted  to  the  killing  of  some 
prominent  person  from  fanatical 
or  political  or  religious  motives. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the 
most famous  assassinations  in 
history: — Philip  of  Macedon, 
336  B.C.;  Julius  Caesar,  March 
15,  44  B.C.;  Thomas  a  Becket, 
Dec.  29,  1170  A.D.;  Albert  I., 
emperor  of  Germany,  May  1, 
1308;  James  I.  (Scotland),  Feb. 
21,  1437;  Alessandro  de'  Medici, 
Jan.  5,  1537;  Cardinal  Beaton, 
May  29,  1546;  David  Rizzio, 
March  0,  1566;  Lord  Darnley, 
,Feb.  10 J  1567;  James,  Earl  of 
IVIiirray.'  Regent  of  Scotland, 
Jan.  23,  1570;  William  of 
Orange,  July  10,  1584;  Henry 

III.  of  France,  by  Jacques 
Clement,  Aug.  2,  1589;  Henry 

IV.  of  France,  by  Ravaillac, 
May  14,  1610;  Villiers,  Duke 
of  Buckingham,  by  Lieut.  Felton, 
Aug.  23,  1628;  Wallenstein,  by 
Butler,  Leslie,  and  Gordon, 
Feb.  25,  1634;  Archbishop 
Sharp,  May  3,  1679;  Gustavus 
III.  of  Sweden,  March  16, 
1792;  Marat,  by  Charlotte  Cor- 
day,  July  13,  1793;  General 
Kleber,  June  14,  1800;  Tsar 
Paul,  March  24,  1801;  Spencer 
Perceval,  English  premier,  by 
BelHngham,  May  11,  1812; 
Kotzebue,  German  dramatist, 
March  23,  1819;  the  Duke 
de  Berry,  Feb.  13-14  1820; 
Capo  d'Istria,  president  of  the 
Greek  republic,  Oct.  9,  1831; 
Abraham  Lincoln,  by  Booth, 
April  14-15,  1865;  Michael 
Obrenovitch,  prince  of  Servia, 
June  10,  1868;  Marshal  Prim, 
Spain,  Dec.  28,  1870;  Earl 
of  Mayo,  viceroy  of  India, 
Feb.  8,  1872;  Tsar  Alexander 
II.,  March  13,  1881;  President 
Garfield, by  Guiteau,July  2-Sept. 
19,  18S1;  Lord  Frederick  Caven- 
dish and  Mr.  Burke,May  6,  1882; 
President  Carnot,  France,  by 
Caserio  {anarchist) , June  24,1894; 
Stefan  Stambulov,  Bulgarian 
statesman,  July  15,  1895;  Nasr- 


Assassins 


431 


Assaying 


ed-Din,  Shah  of  Persia,  May  1, 
1896;  Empress  Elizabeth  of  Aus- 
tria, by  Luccheni  {anarchist), 
Sept.  10,  1898;  King  Humbert  of 
Italy,  by  Bresci  {anarchist),  July 
28,  1900;  President  McKinley,  by 
Czolsgosz  {anarchist),  Sept.  6, 
1901 ;  King  Alexander  and  Queen 
Draga,  of  Servia,  June  11,  1903; 
Grand  Duke  Sergius,  Feb.  17, 
1 905;  King  Carlos  i.  and  Prince 
Luiz,  of  Portugal,  Feb.  1,  1908; 
Prince  Ito,  of  Japan,  Oct.  26, 1909. 

Assassins,  a  fanatical  sect 
which  flourished  in  Persia  and 
Syria  from  the  11th  to  the  13th 
century.  It  was  founded  by  Has- 
san-ibn-Sabbah,  who  seized,  in 
1090,  the  fortress  of  Alamut  in 
Persia,  where  he  established  his 
society,  consisting  cf  a  supreme 
ruler,  the  Sheikh  el-Jebel,  or 
'Old  Man  of  the  Mountain'  of 
European  historians,  besides  three 
grand  priors,  priors,  re-fiks  or  as- 
sociates, and  the  fedavis,  the  as- 
sassins proper,  who,  when  selected 
for  the  commission  of  a  murder, 
were  first  intoxicated  with  hashish 
(hemp),  the  origin  of  the  name 
assassin,  from  hashishin  (hemp- 
eaters).  This  society  soon  made 
its  power  felt,  and  the  reign  of 
its  rulers,  during  and  after  Has- 
san's death  in  1124,  was  marked 
by  a  long  series  of  assassinations 
of  famous  men.  The  last  of  their 
rulers  was  Rukhn  ed-Din,  who 
murdered  his  father,  Mohammed 
III.,  in  1255.  In  1266  their  power 
in  Persia  was  completely  broken 
by  the  Mongols  under  Hulaku, 
12,000  of  the  Assassins  being  mas- 
sacred. A  Syrian  section,  which 
had  asserted  its  political  independ- 
ence in  1169,  was  subjugated  by 
the  Mameluk  Sultan  Bibars  in 
1270-3.  The  crusading  chiefs 
Raymond  of  Tripoli  and  Conrad 
of  Montserrat  both  fell  under 
their  daggers.  Certain  analogies 
of  their  doctrine  still  exist  among 
the  Druses  and  the  small  Syrian 
race  Ansarii.  See  Von  Hammer- 
Purgstall,  Geschichte  der  Assas- 
sinen  (1818);  F.  Walpole,  The 
Ansayrii,  or  Assassins  (1851); 
Guyard,  Fragments  relatifs  a  la 
Doctrine  des  Ismacliens  (1874), 
and  Un  Grand  Maitre  des  Assas- 
sins au  Temps  de  Saladin  (1877). 

Assateague  Island  is  off  coast 
of  Accomac  co.,  Va.,  s.  of  Assa- 
teague Bay.    It  has  a  light-house. 

Assault.  An  offer  of  personal 
violence  to  another.  Thus,  to 
threaten  to  strike  a  person  within 
striking  distance,  or  to  shake  one's 
fist  in  his  face,  or  to  present  a  gun 
at  him  when  within  range,  to  pull 
a  rosette  off  his  coat,  or  to  incite  a 
dog  to  attack  him,  or  to  attempt 
to  kiss  a  woman,  or  to  do  any 
act  accompanied  by  circumstances 
which  denote  both  intention  and 
ability  at  the  time  to  molest  or 
do  violence  to  the  person,  is  an 
assault.    If  a  blow  is  struck  or 


violence  actually  used,  it  is  a 
battery;  but  the  word  assault  is 
frequently  used  in  the  sense  of  a 
battery.  Verbal  abuse  does  not 
amount  to  an  assault.  A  person 
actually  struck  is  justified  in  strik- 
ing back  in  self-defence,  but  not 
in  revenge.  His  retaliation  must, 
therefore,  not  be  greater  than  is 
necessary  to  put  an  end  to  the 
assault.  A  person  assaulted  may 
either  bring  an  action  for  dam- 
ages, or  prosecute  the  assailant 
criminally,  or  both.  For  the  pur- 
poses of  criminal  proceedings,  as- 
saults may  be  divided  into  (1) 
common  assaults,  and  (2)  aggra- 
vated assaults.  Illustrations  of 
the  latter  are  assaults  causing 
actual  bodily  harm;  indecent  as- 
saults ;  maHcious  wounding  ; 
wounding  or  shooting  at  a  person 
with  intent  to  maim,  disfigure,  or 
disable,  or  to  resist  apprehension; 
assaults  with  intent  to  rob,  or  to 
commit  any  felony;  attempting 
to  choke,  suffocate,  or  strangle,  or 
to  render  any  person  insensible, 
with  intent  to  commit  an  indict- 
able offence;  poisoning  so  as  to 
endanger  life,  or  with  intent  to 
injure;  using  or  sending  explo- 
sives with  intent  to  injure,  and 
the  like.  These  are  indictable 
offences  and  are  usually  punisha- 
ble by  imprisonment  at  hard  labor. 

Assaye  {Asdi),  vil., Haidarabad 
(Deccan),  India,  46  m.  n.e.  of 
Aurungabad.  Here  the  British 
under  Wellesley  defeated  the 
Mahrattas(Sept.  23,  1803). 

Assaying.  The  term  'assay- 
ing' in  its  widest  sense,  comprises 
that  section  of  analytical  chemis- 
try which  has  for  its  object  the 
estimation  of  the  value  of  ores 
and  metallic  products.  In  gen- 
eral, two  classes  of  methods  are 
followed:  one,  the  'dry'  or  'fire' 
assay,  and  the  other  the  'wet'  or 
more  strictly  scientific  methods 
of  gravimetric  and  volumetric 
analysis,  the  latter  including  col- 
orimetric  determinations.  The 
chemical  reactions  in  the  dry 
assay  are  accomplished  by  the 
aid  of  high  temperatures  ob- 
tained in  a  furnace,  while  in  the 
wet  assay  these  reactions  take 

Elace  in  cold,  or  only  slightly 
eated  solutions.  In  its  limited 
sense  the  term  assaying  is  re- 
stricted to  the  determination  of 
the  precious  metals  in  coins, 
jewelry,  silver  and  gold  plate 
and  other  commercial  alloys. 
The  standard  assays  to  determine 
the  purity  of  these  alloys  are 
made  at  the  Goldsmith's  Hall, 
Great  Britain,  and  at  the  various 
government  mints  and  assay 
offices  in  the  United  States  and 
other  countries. 

It  is  impossible  to  present  in  a 
limited  space  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  all  methods  of  chemical 
analysis.  The  reactions  vary  in 
each  class  of  work  and  frequently 
the  manipulation  differs  according 


to  the  individual  practice  of  the 
assayer  or  chemist.  The  follow- 
ing examples  of  assaying  are 
selected  to  illustrate  the  principal 
methods  of  determination. 

The  first  step  in  assaying  an  ore 
or  furnace  product  is  to  select,  by 
hand  or  machine,  a  proper  repre- 
sentative sample.  Various  meth- 
ods of  sampling  ore  are  used,  the 
simplest,  called  'quartering,'  con- 
sists in  taking  every  tenth  shovel- 
ful of  ore  as  it  is  discharged  from 
the  ore  cars  until  about  10  tons 
have  been  obtained.  This  is  shov- 
elled into  a  conical  heap,  which  is 
then  flattened  out  into  a  circular 
cake  and  divided  diametrically 
into  quarters.  Two  opposite 
quarters  are  taken  for  a  second 
conical  heap,  which  is  likewise 
flattened  and  quartered,  and  the 
operation  repeated  until  the 
sample  has  been  reduced  to  a  few 
pounds.  This  small  quantity  is 
then  ground  until  it  will  pass 
through  a  very  fine  sieve,  and 
constitutes  the  final  sample  for 
assay.  Solid  metallic  products 
are  drilled  or  punched,  the  drill- 
ings or  punchings  forming  the 
sample.  Molten  products  are 
sampled  by  ladling  out  a  small 
portion  of  the  fluid  material. 

Dry  or  Fire  Assay  Methods. 
— Copper. — The  determination  pi 
copper  by  the  fire  assay  is  unsatis- 
factory for  the  reason  that  the  re- 
sults are  only  approximate.  How- 
ever, it  may  still  be  of  value  to 
prospectors  who  are  in  outlying 
districts,  far  from  laboratories  or 
assay  offices. 

The  fire  assay  method  is  modified 
according  to  the  character  of  the 
ore.  If  an  impure  sulphide,  the  ore 
is  first  roasted  to  remove  sulphur, 
arsenic,  etc.;  it  is  then  mixed  with 
a  reducing  agent,  charcoal  or 
other  carbonaceous  material,  and 
a  flux,  borax-glass,  the  mixture 
placed  in  a  suitably  lined  crucible, 
and  submitted  to  the  heat  of  a 
furnace,  whereby  the  copper 
compounds  become  reduced,  and 
the  metal  collected  in  the  form  of 
a  button  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible,  while  the  flux  combines 
with  the  gangue  of  the  ore  and 
forms  a  fluid  slag.  When  cold,  the 
button  is  detached  from  the  brittle 
slag  and  refined  in  a  muffle  furnace 
by  placing  it  on  a  clay  dish  with 
an  equal  weight  of  borax-glass  and 
a  little  pure  lead  and  heating  it 
until  fumes  cease  to  form.  The 
refined  button  is  then  weighed. 

Lead. — The  fire  assay  for  lead 
ores,  though  not  accurate,  is  used 
for  the  determination  of  lead  by 
ore-purchasers  on  account  of  the 
rapidity  and  ease  of  the  operation; 
as  a  rule  the  results  are  too  low. 
In  the  Western  United  States  the 
general  practice  is  to  charge  in  a 
clay  crucible  5  grams  of  pulver- 
ized ore,  15  to  20  grams. of  lead 
flux  (one  or  two  nails  or  pieces  of 


Assaying 

iron  wire  if  the  ore  is  a  sulphide  or 
is  'base'),  place  the  cruciole  in  a 
mufiae  and  heat  from  15  to  20 
minutes.  The  resultant  metallic 
button  is  weighed,  from  which  the 
percentage  of  metal  in  the  original 
ore  is  calculated. 

Silver. — The  fire  assay  for 
silver  in  bullion,  coin  or  plate  is 
made  hy  wrapping  a  half-gram 
sample  in  from  5  to  10  grams  of 

Eure  sheet  lead,  placing  on  a 
one-ash  cupel,  and  heating  in  a 
muffle  until  the  base  metals  have 
been  oxidized  and  absorbed, 
leaving  a  small  button  of  silver, 
which  is  detached,  cleaned,  and 
weighed.  Silver  ores  and  other 
compounds  are  assayed  by  mixing 
from  15  to  30  grams  each  of  ore, 
litharge,  and  sodium  carbonate 
(depending  on  the  character  of  the 
material),  and  2  grams  of  argols; 
fusing  the  mixture  in  a  clay  cruci- 
ble until  all  action  ceases.  If  sul- 
phides be  present,  a  little  metaUic 
iron,  or  nitre,  must  be  added.  The 
molten  contents  of  the  crucible  are 
poured  into  a  mould  ;  when  cold, 
the  lead  button,  containing  all  the 
silver,  is  detached  from  the  slag, 
cleaned,  cupelled,  and  the  remain- 
ing button  of  silver  weighed. 

Gold. — The  fire  assay  for  gold 
bullion,  coin  or  plate  is  made  the 
same  as  for  silver,  except  that 
twice  as  large  quantities  are  gen- 
erally used.  After  fusion,  the  re- 
sultant lead  button  is  cupelled, 
and  the  remaining  gold  is  cleaned 
and  weighed.  Any  base  metal 
present  in  the  bullion  must  first  be 
removed  by  sporification.  If  sil- 
ver be  present,  the  button  of  gold 
and  silver,  after  the  removal  of  the 
lead  by  cupellation,  must  be  made 
to  contain  two  and  a  half  times  as 
much  silver  as  gold;  the  silver  is 
then  readily  dissolved  by  nitric 
acid,  leaving  the  gold  unaltered, 
which  is  ignited  and  weighed. 

Tin. — The  fire  assay  for  tin  is 
made  by  taking  5  grams  of  the  ore, 
1  gram  of  charcoal,  15  grams  of 
sodium  carbonate,  and  flour,  and 
1  gram  of  borax-glass;  cover  with 
a  layer  of  salt;  fuse  in  a  clay 
crucible  for  an  hour  or  more; 
when  cold,  the  metallic  buttons  of 
tin  are  detached  from  the  slag  and 
weighed.  Or  the  ore  may  be  re- 
duced in  a  clay  crucible  with 
about  ^  five  times  its  weight  of 
potassium  cyanide  which  will 
yield  the  tin  in  a  metallic  button. 
The  fire  assay  for  tin  is  not  closely 
accurate. 

Antimony. — Stibnite,  antimony 
sulphide,  the  chief  ore  of  anti- 
mony, is  reduced  by  metallic  iron 
in  a  crucible;  or  it  may  be  reduced 
by  fusing  with  an  excess  of  potas- 
sium cyanide  Owing  to  loss  of 
metal  by  volatilization,  the  results 
are  always  too  low,  and  gravi- 
metric methods  are  preferably 
used. 

Mercury. — The  fire  assay  of 


432 

cinn9,bar,  mercury  sulphide,  the 
chief  ore  of  mercury,  is  made 
hy  heating  1  or  2  grams  of  ore 
mixed  with  iron  filings  in  a  porce- 
lain crucible,  the  distilled  mercury 
being  condensed  on  a  weighed 
gold  plate  or  spiral  with  which  it 
forms  an  amalgam.  From  the 
increase  of  weight,  the  quantity 
of  mercury  in  the  original  ore  is 
estimated. 

Wet  or  Solution  Assays. — 
Iron.— The.  percentage  of  iron  in 
ores  is  generally  estimated  by  a 
volumetric  method,  and  in  alloys 
by  a  gravimetric  method.  There 
are  two  chief  volumetric  methods: 
— (1)  the  permanganate  method 
and  (2)  the  bichromate  method. 

(1)  The  Permanganate  Method  is 
based  on  the  fact  that  the  purple 
color  of  a  solution  of  potassium 
permanganate  will  be  decolorized 
as  long  as  any  ferrous  salt  remains 
undccomposed;  but  the  instant 
the  latter  is  all  oxidized  to  the 
ferric  form,  the  addition  of  a 
single  drop  of  permanganate  will 
impart  a  pink  tint  to  the  solution. 
A  standard  solution  of  perman- 
ganate is  prepared  by  standardiz- 
ing it  against  a  known  weight  of 
iron  dissolved  in  hydrochloric 
acid.  In  making  the  assay,  from 
1  to  2  grams  of  iron  ore,  crushed 
very  fine,  is  dissolved  in  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  as  the  iron,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  is  in  the  ferric 
form  it  is  reduced  to  the  required 
ferrous  form  by  means  of  metallic 
zinc  or  sodium  sulphite.  The 
standard  solution  of  permangan- 
ate is  then  added  until  the  pink 
color  of  the  solution  becomes  per- 
manent. From  the  number  of 
cubic    centimeters    of  standard 

ermanganate  solution  used  can 
e  calculated  the  amount  of  iron 
present  in  the  original  sample. 

(2)  The  Bichromate  Method  re- 
quires  a   standard   solution  of 

otassium  bichromate  which  has 
een  standardized  against  a 
known  weight  of  iron  dissolved  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  using  potas- 
sium ferricyanide  as  an  indicator 
for  the 'end'  reaction.  The  pro- 
cedure is  similar  to  that  of  the  per- 
manganate method,  the  dissolved 
ore  is  reduced  by  metallic  zinc  or 
sodium  sulphite,  and  from  the 
quantity  of  solution  required  for 
complete  oxidation  the  percen- 
tage of  iron  can  be  calculated. 

In  alloys  iron  is  generally  deter- 
mined by  dissolving  the  alloy  in 
acid,  precipitating  by  means  of 
ammonium  hydrate;  wash,  dry, 
and  ignite  the  precipitate;  and 
weigh  as  ferric  oxide,  from  which 
is  computed  the  percentage  of  iron 
in  the  sample.  The  presence  of 
manganese,  chromium,_or  alumin- 
ium interferes  with  this  method. 

Copper. — (l)The  Potassium  Cy- 
anide Method. — In  ores  and  prod- 
ucts free  from  manganese,  nickel, 
cobalt,  silver,  mercury  and  zinc, 


Assaying 

copper  may  be  determined  by  th« 
potassium  cyanide  volumetric 
method.  The  reaction  is  based 
on  the  fact  that  potassium  cyanide 
will  decolorize  a  blue  ammoniated 
solution  of  copper.  A  standard 
solution  of  potassium  cyanide  is 
standardized  against  a  known 
weight  of  copper  dissolved  in 
nitnc  acid.  To  make  the  assay, 
1  gram  of  ore  is  dissolved  in  7  c.c. 
of  nitric  and  5  c.c.  of  sulphuric 
acid.  The  solution  is  cooled,  re- 
duced by  metallic  zinc,  the  re- 
maining zinc  is  dissolved  by 
sulphuric  acid,  and  ammonia  is 
added  until  a  permanent  blue 
color  is  imparted  to  the  solution, 
the  standard  solution  is  run  in, 
and  from  the  quantity  required  to 
decolorize,  the  percentage  of  cop- 
per in  the  sample  is  calculated. 
Should  much  iron  be  present,  it  is 
first  precipitated  by  ammonia  and 
filtered  off: 

(2)  The  Sodium  Thio-Sulphate 
'Hypo-Sulphite')  Process  is  used 
or  alloys  free  from  large  quanti- 
ties of  lead  and  iron.  This  pro- 
cess is  based  on  the  reaction  be- 
tween iodine  and  thio  sulphuric 
acid,  the  completion  being  deter- 
mined by  the  bleaching  effect  that 
is  produced  upon  a  solution  of 
starch  that  is  added  during  the 
operation.  A  standard  solution  of 
sodium  thio-sulphate  is  standard- 
ized against  a  known  quantity  of 
copper  dissolved  in  nitric  acid, 
the  end  reaction  being  shown  by  a 
few  drops  of  starch  solution  acting 
as  an  indicator. 

(3)  The  Colorimetric  Method.— 
Copper  in  slags  and  products  con- 
taining less  than  2  per  cent,  of  the 
metal  may  be  approximately  esti- 
mated by  comparing  the  color  of  a 
known  weight  in  a  solution  with  a 
series  of  copper  solutions  con- 
taining 0.01,  0.02,  etc.,  per  cent,  of 
copper,  kept  for  comparison. 
This  method  yields  only  approxi- 
mate results,  but  can  be  quickly 
done. 

(4)  The  Electrolytic  Method. 
• — (Gravimetric)  Copper  in  ores, 
alloys  and  in  other  products  may 
be  accurately  determined  by  dis- 
solving from  half  to  3  grams  of  the 
sample  in  nitric  acid,  evaporating 
almost  to  dryness,  adding  1  c.c. 
sulphuric  acid,  and  diluting  with 
water  to  200  c.c.  in  a  beaker  in 
which  are  placed  a  platinum  wire 
anode  and  a  platinum  sheet 
cathode  connected  with  a  current 
of  electricity.  The  increased 
weight  of  the  cathode  after  the 
test  gives  the  amount  of  copper 
present. 

Lead. — (1)  The  Gravimetric 
Method  is  used  for  the  determi- 
nation of^  lead  in  alloys  and  for 
analyses  in  which  very  accurate 
results  are  required.  By  this 
method  the  lead  is  precipitated  as 
lead  sulphate  containing  68.3  per 
cent,  of  the  metal.   On  account  of 


Assaying 


433 


Assets 


the  great  care  and  long  time  re- 
quired, the  gravimetric  method 
has  been  largely  replaced  by  volu- 
metric ones. 

(2)  The  Volumetric  Method  is 
used,  for  rapid  and  fairly  accu- 
rate results;  the  lead  is  deter- 
mined by  using  a  standard  solu- 
tion of  potassium  ferro-cyanide,  or 
of  potassium  permanganate,  or  of 
ammonium  molybdate  properly 
standardized  ^  against  solutions 
containing  given  quantities  of 
lead. 

Silver —iX)  The  Volumetric 
(Gay-Lussac)  Method  is  based  on 
the  affinity  of  silver  for  chlorine, 
by  which  an  insoluble  chloride  is 
precipitated.  A  standard  normal 
solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
pure  sodium  chloride  (salt)  in 
water  so  that  100  cubic  centi- 
metres will  precipitate  exactly 
1  gram  of  silver,  a  'deci-normal' 
solution  also  is  prepared  by  dilut- 
ing a  given  quantity  of  the  normal 
solution  to  one  tenth  strength. 
Half  a  gram  of  the  alloy  or  bullion 
is  dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  50  c.c. 
of  the  normal  solution  run  in,  and 
the  liquid  well  shaken;  when  the 
solution  is  practically  clear,  add 
the  deci-normal  solution  until  the 
silver  ceases  to  yield  a  precipitate. 
The  amounts  of  normal  and  deci- 
normal  solutions  added,  having 
definite  and  known  values,  indi- 
cate the  amount  of  silver  in  the 
alloy. 

(2)  The  Volhard  Volumetric 
Method. — In  the  absence  of  cop- 
per, silver  may  be  estimated  volu- 
metrically  bv  means  of  a  standard 
solution  of  potassium  sulpho- 
cyanide,  using  ferric  ammonium 
sulphate  as  an  indicator. 

Tin. — Fuse  1  gram  of  ore  with 
3  grams  each  of  _  sulphur  and 
sodium  carbonate  in  a  porcelain 
crucible,  cool,  dissolve  in  water, 
precipitate  stannic  sulphide  by 
sulphuric  acid  and  ignite  to  stannic 
oxide,  from  the  weight  of  which 
the  percentage  of  metal  in  the 
original  sample  is  calculated. 

Zinc. — (1)  The  Gravimetric 
Method  is  a  tedious  and  lengthy 
method  in  which  the  zinc  is  pre- 
cipitated as  zinc  sulphide  and 
later  transformed  into  zinc  oxide 
containing  80.26  per  cent,  of  zinc, 
or  into  ammonium  zinc  phosphate 
containing  36.49  per  cent,  of  zinc: 
from  the  weight  of  these  salts  the 
percentage  of  zinc  in  the  original 
ore  is  calculated. 

(2)  The  Volumetric  (Von 
Schultz  and  Low)  Method  is 
rapid  and  fairly  accurate.  In  this 
method  a  standard  solution  of 
potassium  ferrocyanide  is  used,  of 
which  1  c.c.  is  equal  to  0.01  gram 
of  zinc.  The  method  is  carried  on 
in  a  manner  similar  to  the  volu- 
metric methods  for  other  metals. 

Antimony. — The  percentage  of 
antimony  in  an  ore  or  allov  is  de- 
termined gravimctrically  by  pre- 
cipitation from  the  acid  solutioa 


as  antimony  sulphide  which  is 
converted  into  antimony  tetroxide, 
Sb204,  from  the  weight  of  which 
the  quantity  of  antimony  origi- 
nally present  in  the  ore  or  alloy  is 
calculated.  A  second  gravimetric 
method,  which  is  more  rapid  but 
less  accurate,  precipitates  me- 
tallic^ antimony  from  a  hydro- 
chloric acid  solution  by  means  of 
metallic  tin. 

Sulphur. — Many  methods  are 
used  for  the  determination  of  sul- 
phur, depending  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  sample.  Of  these 
methods  the  following  are  of  im- 

f)ortance:  (1)  Organic  compounds: 
use  with  caustic  alkali,  dissolve 
mass  in  water,  oxidize  the  sul- 
phide to  sulphate,  add  ^  barium 
chloride  whicli  forms  barium  sul- 
phate, wash  dry,  ignite  and  weigh, 
and  from  the  weight  of  the  barium 
sulphate  thus  obtained  calculate 
the  quantity  of  sulphur  present 
in  the  original  sample.  (2)  Coal: 
mix  3  grams  of  coal  with  6  grams 
of  pure  lime,  and  heat  strongly 
in  a  porcelain  crucible  for  an  hour. 
Digest  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
filter,  and  add  barium  chloride 
to  the  filtrate  to  precipitate  barium 
sulphate.  (3)  Furnace  products: 
oxidize  3  grams  of  the  sample 
with  4  grams  of  potassium  chlor- 
ate and  7  c.c.  of  nitric  acid,  evap- 
orate acid,  dilute,  add  sodium  car- 
bonate, boil,  filter,  dissolve  the 
precipitate  in  hydrochlorate  acid, 
add  oarium  chloride  and  weigh 

Erecipitate  of  barium  sulphate  as 
efore. 

See  Crookes's  Select  Methods  of 
Chemical  Analysis  (3rd  ed.  1894); 
Sutton's  Volumetric  Analysis  (8th 
ed.  1900);  Furman's  Manual  of 
Practical  Assaying  (1903);  Rhead 
and  Sexton's  Assaying  and  Metal- 
lurgical Analysis  (1902);  Berrin- 
ger's  Textbook  of  Assaying  (1902); 
Rickett's  Notes  on  Assaying 
(1893);  Lodge,  Notes  on  Assaying 
(1905). 

Assegai,  the  Zulu  spear,  of 
which  there  are  two  varieties — 
the  long  javelin,  or  throwing- 
spear;  and  the  shorter  'stabbing' 
assegai,  for  use  at  close  quarters. 

Assembly.  See  General  As- 
sembly. 

Assembly,  National.  See 
France — History. 

Assembly,  Unlawful.  An  as- 
sembly of  three  or  more  persons 
with  intent  to  commit  a  crime,  or 
with  intent  to  carry  out  in  com- 
mon any  purpose,  lawful  or  un- 
lawful, which  is  likely  to  lead  to  a 
breach  of  the  peace.  An  unlaw- 
ful assembly  may  be  dispersed  by 
force,  and  all  parties  to  it  are 
guilty  of  a  common  law  misde- 
meanor punishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonment.    See  Riot. 

Assembly  of  Divines  at  West- 
minster.   See  Westminster. 

Asser,  John  (d.  909?),  bishop 
of  Sherborne,  was  reader  to  King 
Alfred  from  about  885.    He  is 


author  of  De  Rebus  Gestis  Mlfredi 
Magni,  first  published  in  1572. 
Best  edition  by  Wise  (1722). 

Assessment.  See  Taxation; 
Rating. 

Assessors.  Pers'ons  associated 
with  a  court  for  the  purposes  of 
consultation  and  advice.  The 
practice  of  employing  assessors 
in^  the  administration  of  justice 
originated  with  the  Roman  law 
and  is  still  extensively  employed 
in  the  judicial  systems  of  Europe 
and  America.  The  English  Judi- 
cature Act  of  1873  authorizes  the 
judges  of  the  High  Court  of  Jus- 
tice to  employ  them  in  their  dis- 
cretion, and  they  are  regularly 
employed  in  certain  classes  of 
cases  by  the  House  of  Lords  and 
the  Judicial  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council.  In  the  United 
States  many  of  the  minor  courts, 
as  county  courts  in  certain  states, 
sit  with  assessors,  and  American 
consuls  acting  in  a  judicial  capac- 
ity in  foreign  lands  regularly  em- 
ploy them.  The  function  of  an 
assessor  is  limited  to  the  giving  of 
advice.  He  does  not  participate 
in  the  judgment.  The  term  asses- 
sor is  also  employed  in  the  United 
States  to  describe  officers  charged 
with  the  duty  of  appraising  or 
assessing  property  for  purposes 
of  taxation. 

Assets.  Property  of  a  decedent 
or  an  insolvent  debtor  which  is 
available  for  distribution  among 
creditors.  Formerly  in  adrninis- 
tering  assets,  'specialty'  creditors, 
or  those  whose  debts  arose  by 
virtue  of  a  bond  or  other  instru- 
ment under  seal,^  were  entitled  to 
payment  in  priority  to  simple  con- 
tract creditors;  but  now  both 
classes  of  debts  are  payable  pari 
passu  out  of  the  assets.  In  dis- 
tributing assets  of  a  deceased  per- 
son, funeral  and  .estamentary  ex- 
penses are  always  payable  before 
anything  else;  then  the  order  of 
payment  out  of  'legal'  assets  is 
generally  as  follows:  (1)  Obliga- 
tions due  to  the  State;  (2)  recorded 
judgments  against  the  deceased; 
(3)  specialty  and  simple  contract 
debts,  and  unregistered  judgments 
against  the  deceased;  (4)  volun- 
tary_  obligations.  The  courts  of 
equity  have  never  recognized  the 
validity  of  these  preferences,  and 
accordingly  'equitable  assets' — i.e. 
property  which  can  be  reached 
only^  by  chancery  process — are 
distributed  equally  to  all  creditors 
irrespective  of  the  nature  of  their 
claims.  The  right  of  an  executor 
to  prefer  one  creditor  to  another, 
and  to  retain  a  debt  due  to  himself 
in  preference  to  other  creditors  of 
equal  degrees,  exists  only  with  re- 
gard to  legal  assets. 

In  applying  assets  in  payment 
of  debts,  the  rule  is  that  the  gen- 
eral personal  estate  is  to  be  first 
exhausted,  then  the  real  estate; 
and  if  both  these  are  insuflScient, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  the  pa- 


Asslento 


434 


Assizes 


cies,  and  to  property  appointed 
under  a  general  power  of  appoint- 
ment. 

If  assets  are  distributed  before 
the  debts  are  paid,  creditors  may 
follow  them  into  the  hands  of  the 
persons  who  have  taken  them. 
As  to  administration  of  assets  of 
a  bankrupt  or  deceased  insolvent, 
see  Bankruptcy. 

Assiento  (Span,  'treaty'),  a 
contract  made  between  Spain  and 
other  powers,  by  which  the  mo- 
nopoly of  importing  slaves  into 
Spanish  America  was  conferred 
upon  the  latter.  It  was  first  held 
by  a  Flemish  company  from  1517; 
then  by  the  Genoese,  from  1580; 
by  the  French  Guinea  Company, 
from  1702;  but  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  (1713)  gave  it  to  Great 
Britain,  along  with  the  right  of 
sending  yearly  a  ship  carrying  500 
tons  merchandise  to  the  Spanish 
colonies  —  a  privilege  exercised 
for  twenty-six  years  by  the  South 
Sea  Company.  Great  Britain  re- 
linquished that  right  in  1750  for 
;^100,000  and  certain  other  con- 
cessions. 

Assignation.  See  Assignment. 

Assignats.  During  the  period 
immediately  preceding  the  French 
Revolution,  tne  National  Assem- 
bly declared  the  church  lands  to 
be  national  property,  and  offered 
them  for  sale  to  the  various  munici- 
palities throughout  the  country; 
accepting,  in  lieu  of  cash  payment, 
paper  notes  or  bonds  of  equivalent 
value,  consequently  styled  assig- 
nats.  Later-^  assignats  were  issued 
against  the  property  of  the  emigres 
and  the  crown.  But  the  simplicity 
of  the  system  led  to  a  continued 
issue  of  assignats  (to  a  total  face 
value  of  45,500  milHon  livres), 
which  ultimately  became  so  de- 

f predated  as  to  be  almost  value- 
ess.  Assignats  were  in  circulation 
in  France  from  1790  to  1796,  being 
exchangeable  in  the  latter  year  for 
mandats,  which  were  called  in  in 
1797,  at  the  value  of  jtjW  of  the 
original  assignats. 


Assigmt  or  Note  of  the  French 
Republic  (1793). 


Assignment.  In  the  most  gen- 
eral sense  a  transfer  of  any  species 
of  property,  real  or  personal,  by 
any  mode  of  conveyance.  Thus 
•un  ployed  the  term  is  nearly  iden- 


tical in  meaning  with  conveyance 
or  alienation.  In  practice,  how- 
ever, the  two  latter  terms  have 
generally  been  confined  to  the 
transfer  of  real  property,  while  as- 
signment is  commonly  used  to 
denote  the  transfer  of  personal 
property  and  more  particularly 
of  incorporeal  rights  m  personal 
property,  such  as  stocks,  bonds, 
notes  and  bills  of  exchange,  debts 
and  other  choses  in  action.  In 
this  more  restricted  sense  an  as- 
signment is  usually  effected  by  a 
written  transfer.  ^  The  common 
law  imposed  restrictions  upon  the 
transfer  of  interests  of  this  char- 
acter, deeming  them  contrarj^  to 
public  policy  as  promoting  litiga- 
tion. They  are  now,  however, 
generally  permitted  by  statute. 
In  equity  tney  were  always  recog- 
nized. See  Chose  in  Action. 
The  term  is  used  in  the  more  gen- 
eral sense  noted  above  in  the  ex- 
pression assignment  jar  the  bene-fit 
of  creditors,  which  denotes  a  con- 
veyance by  an  insolvent  debtor  of 
all  his  property,  real  and  personal, 
to  trustees  for  distribution  among 
his  creditors.  See  Insolvency. 
The  Scotch  equivalent  for  assign- 
ment is  ASSL^NATTON. 

Assimilation,  the  process  by 
which  organisms  take  up  and 
transform  foreign  substances  into 
their  own  tissues,  as  in  digestion 
and  respiration. 

Assiniboia,  formerly  one  of  the 
N.  W.  Territories  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  situated  between  the 
49th  and  52d  parallels  of  N.  lat., 
with  an  area  of  90,340  sq.  m.,  but 
now  included  in  the  provs.  of 
Alberta  and  Saskatchewan.  See 
Alberta  and  Saskatchewan. 

Assiniboin,  Mount,  in  the 
Canadian  Rocky  Mountain  sys- 
tem, about  20  m.  s.  of  Banff,  a 
station  on  the  C.  P.  Ry.,  and  near 
the  boundary  between  the  prov- 
ince of  Alberta  and  British  Co- 
lumbia. The  first  to  ascend  it 
was  James  Outram,  in  1901. 

Assiniboine  ('River  of  the 
Stony  Sioux'),  a  river  of  Brit.  N. 
America,  rising  in  s.e.  of  Sas- 
katchewan prov.,  flows  S.E. 
through  the  former  territory  of 
Assiniboia,  +o  which  it  gave  its 
name,  then  through  a  large  part  of 
Manitoba  to  the  Red  R.,  wnich  it 
joins  at  Winnipeg,  after  a  course 
of  about  four  hundred  or  five 
hundred  miles. 

Assiniboines  ('stone  boilers'), 
a  division  of  the  Sioux  Indians 
that  separated  from  the  Dakotas  a 
short  time  before  the  discovery  of 
North  America.  They  formerly 
ranged  from  Minnesota  to  Mon- 
tana and  over  the  adjacent  parts 
of  Canada,  living  in  tents  and 
hunting  the  buifalo  like  other 
Plains  Indians.  At  present  they 
are  found  on  several  small  reser- 
vations in  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  See  Maximilian,  Travels 
in  North  America  (1843);  Coues, 


New  Light  on  the  Early  HiHory 
oj  the  Greater  Northwest  (1897). 

Assisi  (the  ancient  Asisium\ 
tn.  and  episc.  see,  prov.  Perugia, 
Italy,  15  m.  by  rail  S.E.  of  Peru- 
gia, the  birthplace  (1182)  of  St. 
Francis  Bernardone,  founder  of 
the  Franciscan  order  (1209)-  his 
bones  (since  about  1822)  have  been 
interred  in  a  crypt  underneath 
the  double  church  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan order.  These  two  edifices, 
both  built  between  1228  and  1253, 
stand  one  above  the  other,  and  are 
adorned  with  frescoes  by  Giotto, 
Cimabue,  Memmi,  and.  others. 
Below  the  town  the  grandiose 
church  of  Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli 
is  built  (1569)  over  the  oratory  of 
St.  Francis.  Here  were  born  the 
Latin  poet  Propertius  (middle  of 
1st  century  B.C.)  and  the  Italian 
poet  Metastasio  (1698).  Pop. 
(1901)  17,240.  See  Cruikshank's 
The  Umbrian  Towns  (1901). 

Assisi,  St.  Francis  of.  See 
Francis. 

Assistanc  e.  Writ  of.  A 
chancery  process  in  England  and 
the  United  States  directing  the 
sheriff  or  other  proper  officer  to 
enforce  an  order  or  decree  award- 
ing to  the  petitioner  the  possession 
of  lands.  It  was  a  perversion  of 
this  writ  which  was  employed  by 
the  Crown  officers  in  the  contro- 
versies leading  to  the  revolution 
of  the  American  colonies  against 
Great  Britain  to  enforce  the  Acts 
of  Trade  and  other  restrictions 
upon  the  trade  of  the  colonies. 
These  writs,  the  legality  of  which 
was  furiously  contested  by  the 
colonists,  empowered  and  directed 
all  officers  of  the  customs  or  other 
Crown  officers  to  forcibly  enter  any 
building  suspected  of  harboring 
dutiable  goods,  which  had  not 
paid  the  customs  revenue,  to  take 
possession  of  the  same,  and  to 
levy  upon  them  in  the  interests  of 
the  Crown  and  in  accordance 
with  the  then  Acts  of  Trade. 

Assiut,  AssiouT  or  Siut.  (1.) 
Province  (mudirieh)  of  Upper 
Egypt;  area,  840  sq.  m.;  pop. 
782,720,  30,000  of  them  being 
nomads.  (3.)  Capital  of  above 
prov.,  between  1.  bk.  of  Nile  and 
Bahr  Yusuf;  27°  10'  n.  lat.  It  is 
the  site  of  a  Nile  barrage  and 
lock.  There  is  a  Presbyterian 
mission  here.   Pop.  ( 1897)  42,078. 

Assize  of  Clarendon  ,(1166). 
Henry  ll.'s  first  measure  of  judicial 
reform,  remarkable  by  its  insti- 
tution, in  criminal  trials,  of  the 
germ  of  the  jury  system — the 
justices  and  local  sheriffs  trying 
accused  persons  by  grand  juries 
of  the  county.  With  the  Assize  of 
Northampton  (1176)  it  was  effectu- 
al in  removing  the  administrative 
machinery  from  the  power  of  the 
barons.  See  Stubbs's  Select  Char- 
ters, 140-146  (8th  ed.  1895). 

Assizes.  The  sittings  of  a  cir- 
cuit court — i.e.  of  a  court  which 
moves  about  from  place  to  place 


Associate  Church  of  North  America  435 


Assuan 


to  try  causes.  The  term  is  also 
used  in  England  of  the  entire 
round  or  circuit  of  such  a  court,  or 
of  its  sittings  in  a  certain  coun- 
ty or  judicial  district.  In  the 
United  States  the  term  'circuit'  is 
usuallj^  employed  in  this  sense. 
Thus  in  England  the  Judges  of 
the  King's  Bench  Division  of  the 
High  Court  'hold  assizes,'  and  the 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States  'go  on  circuit.' 

Associate  Church  of  North 
America.    See  Presbyterians. 

Associated  Press.  See  Press 
Associations. 

Associate  Reformed  Synod 
of  the  South.  See  Presbyte- 
rians. 

Association   Football.  See 

Football. 

Association    of    Ideas,  the 

manner  in  which,  pr  principle  ac- 
cording to  which,  ideas  or  images 
succeed  each  other  in  the  mind 
when  their  succession  is  not  inter- 
rupted from  without,  or  deter- 
mined by  logical  thinking.  By 
Hume  and  Hartley  the  concep- 
tion was  given  a  fundamental 
importance  in  psychological  and 
philosophical  theory,  and  their 
general  view  has  been  maintained 
since  their  time  by  a  line  of 
thinkers  to  which  the  name  of 
the  Associatiohist  School  has 
been  given,  and  of  which  the 
most  prominent  later  representa- 
tives have  been  the  Mills  and  Pro- 
fessor Bain.  This  is  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  the  English  School. 
The  philosophical  application  of 
the  conception  has  all  along  been 
a  matter  of  dispute,  while  within 
recent  years  the  purely  psycho- 
logical significance  and  range  of 
the  conception  have  also  been  the 
subject  of  much  critical  discussion. 
Various  laws  of  association  have 
been  formulated  from  the  time  of 
Aristotle  onwards,  but  the  two 
most  generally  accepted  are  those 
of  Contiguity  (ideas  that  have 
once  been  presented  together  tend 
to  suggest  each  other)  and  Simi- 
larity (ideas  presented  at  different 
times,  but  resembling  each  other, 
tend  to  suggest  each  other).  It  is 
a  disputed  question  whether  one 
of  these  two'^laws  is  more  funda- 
mental than  the  other,  and,  if  so, 
which.  Those  who  hold  contiguity 
to  be  more  fundamental,  argue 
that  the  explicit  consciousness  of 
similarit}'  involves  comparison — 
i.e.  already  implies  the  presence 
of  both  similars  before  the  mind. 
So  that,  if  we  represent  the  similar 
ideas  by  XY  and  XZ  (resembling 
each  other  in  respect  of  the  com- 
mon element  X),  the  really  opera- 
tive principle  of  revival  is  the 
contiguous  association  of  the  com- 
mon X,  now  present  in  XY,  with 
Z,  its  former  associate  in  XZ;  and 
the  consciousness  of  the  sindlarity 
cf  XY  and  XZ  can  only  exist 
when  XZ  has  thus  been  reinstated 
alongside  of  XY.    Put  since  X/^ 


is  not,  to  begin  with,  before  the 
mind,  but  exists  only  as  a  memory 
trace  or  residuum,  the  above  anal- 
ysis implies  a  process,  not  in  con- 
sciousness, by  which  the  present 
^  operates  the  trace  or  residuum 
.T  in  the  residual  whole  x^.  This 
process  is  called  by  Ward  'as- 
similation'; and  he^  points  out 
that  sucb^  a  process  is  implied  in 
all   association,    contiguous  and 
similar  alike.    For  in  every  case 
the  present  idea  can  operate  only 
through  the  corresponding  mem- 
ory trace,  apart  from  which  it 
would  be  a  new  idea,  and  awaken 
no  memories  at  all.    And  it  is  a 
process  distinct  from  that  of  asso- 
ciation, because  X  and  x  are  not, 
as  X  and  Z  are,  distinct  ideas 
before  the  mind.  Thus  contiguity 
remains  the  only  law  of  associa- 
tion proper,  but  implies  the  action 
of  a  prior  law  of  mental  process 
— prior,  because  assimilation  is 
implied  in  perception  as  well  as 
in  "memory.    From  this  point  of 
view,  a  lower  limit  has  been  as- 
signed to  the  action  of  associa- 
tion, which  cannot  come  into  play 
until  after  a  considerable  develop- 
ment of  perception,  since  traces 
of  impression  serve  at  first  only 
for  the  perceptual  recognition  of 
objects  \\  ithout  constituting  a  dis- 
tinct memory  of  them.    From  the 
other  or  higher  side,  it  has  been 
shown  that  the  action  of  mere 
association  is  continually  being 
modified  by  the  thinking  process 
whose  material  it  supplies.  See 
Stout's^  nalyt  ic  Psyc  hoLogy  (1896), 
vol.  ii.  bk.  ii.  ch.  5  and  6.  For 
a  general  view  of  the  place  of 
association   in   mental  life,  see 
Psychology.    For  more  special 
criticism  of  the  psychological  doc- 
trine of  association,  see  James, 
Principles  of  Psychology  (1893); 
Kiilpe's   Outlines   of  Psychology 
(trans.),  sec.  27-33   (1859);  and 
articles  in  Mind,  July,  1893,  and 
Oct.,  1894,  by  Ward.     For  the 
philosophical  doctrine  of  associa- 
tionism,  see  Hume  and  Mill. 

Assolant,  Jean  Baptiste  A. 
(1827-86),  French  novelist  and 
journalist,  born  at  Aubusson.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Ecole  Nor- 
male  and  afterward  taught  history 
in  several  schools,  but  is  best 
known  in  the  country  as  the  writer 
of  a  series  of  clever  sketches  en- 
titled Scenes de  lavie des Etats-U nis 

(1858)  ,  published  originally  in  the 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  and 
based  upon  his  observations  dur- 
ing a  visit  to  the  U.  S.  in  1852. 
From  this  work  he  charged  Sar- 
dou  with  plagiarism,  in  the  play 
he  brought  out,  entitled  L'Oncle 
Sam,  but  Sardou  was  acquitted  of 
the  charge  by  a  commission  of 
authors.  As3olant's  other  work 
includes  several  novels,  Brancas 

(1859)  ,  Marcomir  (1873),  Gabriclle 
de  Chenevert,  and  Pendragon 
(1881). 

Assonance,  a  kind  of  imper- 


fect rhyme  consisting  in  the  re- 
currence of  the  same  vowel  sounds. 
It  differs  from  rhyme  proper  in 
paying  no  regard  to  the  accom- 
panying consonants.  (See  Rhyme.) 
Pain  and  care,  waver  and  fairest, 
are  examples  of  perfect  assonants. 
The  oldest  romances  of  the  French 
trouveres  are  generally  assonantal, 
one  vowel  sound  being  often  car- 
ried through  the  whole  composi- 
tion; but  French  poets  early  re- 
jected assonance  and  restricted 
themselves  to  rhyme.  Neverthe- 
less, some  of  the  younger  contem- 
porary French  poets,  in  their  at- 
tempt to  widen  the  range  of  their 
lyric  poetry,  have  recently  essayed 
the  reintroduction  of  assonance. 
In  Spain  it  has  more  than  held  its 
own  against  the  more  highly  de- 
veloped forms  of  rhyme  imported 
from_  Italy,  and  has  retained  its 
position  in  the  romance  (or  ballad) 
metres,  in  the  dramas  of  Calderon 
and  Lope  de  Vega,  in  popular 
songs,  and  in  lyric  poetry  gener- 
ally.   Its  most  striking  develop- 
ment, however,  is  to  be  found  in 
Celtic  poetry,  which  compensates 
for  its  almost  total  absence  of  per- 
fect rhyme  by  the  establishment 
of  a  highly  artificial  and  intricate 
system^  of  assonantal  harmonies, 
which  includes  not  only  the  usual 
terminal  correspondence  of  one 
line  with  another,  but  also  a  fur- 
ther assonance  between  the  ter- 
minal word  of  one  line  and  a 
medial  word  in  the  line  following, 
together  with  the  regular  employ- 
ment of  internal  'chiming'  within 
the  bounds  of  the  line  itself.  As- 
sonance is  only  suitable  to  lan- 
guages in  which  the  vowel  sounds 
predominate  over  the  consonants. 
Hence,  while  rejected  in  English, 
it  is  tolerated  in  Scottish  poetry. 

Assuan,  or  Aswan,  a  town  of 
Upper  Egypt,  at  the  first  cataract 
of  the  Nile,  near  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Syene;  lat.  24°  5'  N.  It 
is  on  the  Nile  railway.  Pop. 
about  12,000.  Here  is  a  barrage 
or  dam,  the  largest  work  of  the 
kind  in  the  world,  built  by  the 
Egyptian  government  after  the 
design  of  Mr.  W.  Willcocks,  at  a 
cost  of  $24,000,000.  The  dam, 
which  is  2,187  yards  long,  is  de- 
signed to  form  a  reservoir  regu- 
lating the  flow  of  the  Nile.  ^  It  is 
built  of  solid  masonry,  weighing 
a  million  tons,  with  a  sloping  but- 
tress throughout  its  length,  and 
having  ISO  under-sluices,  which 
when  opened  will  allow  free  pas- 
sage to  the  early  floods — the  later 
annual  inundation  being,  of  course, 
conserved.  At  its  present  level 
the  dam  will  hold  up  no  less  than 
35  milliards  of  cubic  feet  of  water; 
but  it  is  intcndc'd  (by  adding  to 
its  present  hei,';ht)  that  it  shall 
be  capable  of  impounding  double 
that  volume  of  water,  thereby,  it 
is  estimated,  providing  for  the 
irrigation  of  600,000  acres  of  su- 


Assumpsit 


436 


Assyria 


gar-cane  and  cotton  land.  Navi- 
gation 13  provided  for  by  a  'ladder' 
of  four  locks.  The  dam  was  com- 
pleted on  July  31,  1902,  and  for- 
mally opened  by  the  Duke  of  Con- 
naught  in  December.  In  1907  the 
Council  of  Ministers  sanctioned 
the  project  for  raising  the  height 
of  the  dam  so  that  the  water  level 
will  be  23  ft.  higher,  the  water 
storage  increased  two  and  a  half 
times,  and  about  950,000  addi- 
tional acres  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion. See  The  Nile  Reservoir  Dam 
at  Assudn,  by  W.  Willcocks  (1901). 

Assumpsit.  An  old  form  of 
action,  now  obsolete  or  abolished 
by  statute.  It  was  founded  on  an 
engagement  to  do  or  refrain  from 


Oriental  and  Roman  Catholic 
Churches,  but  ignored  by  Protes- 
tants, which  commemorates  the 
ascent  of  the  Virgin  Mary  into 
heaven.  The  belief  in  this  mira- 
cle cannot  be  traced  before  the 
6th  century. 

Assur,  AsuR,  or  Asshur,  the 
ancient  national'god  of  Assyria. 

Assurance,  Legal.  A  techni- 
cal term  of  English  law  for  a  con- 
veyance_  of  land.  It  is  most  com- 
prehensive in  meaning,  including 
any  act  in  the  law,  or  instrument, 
by  which  an  estate  in  land  may  be 
created,  extinguished,  enlarged, 
merged,  defeated,  transferred,  or 
released.  Assurances  may  be  di- 
vided, in  respect  of  the  source  of 


of  the  country,  which,  in  its  turn, 
was  so  called  after  the  god  Assur, 
the  patron  divinity  of  the  land. 

Assyria  proper  was  that  tract 
of  country  to  the  east  of  Mesopo- 
tamia having  as  its  E.  boundary 
the  modern  Kurdistan.  Its  s. 
boundary  was  Babylonia,  often 
called  Kar-Dunias  in  the  inscrip- 
tions. On  its  N.  border  it  had  the 
land  of  Armenia,  called  Urartu 
(Ararat)  and  mdt  Afannda  (the  land 
of  the  Vannites)  in  the  inscrip- 
tions. Its  w.  boundary  embraced 
a  certain  portion  of  the  country 
on  the  W,  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
and  therefore  encroached  slightly 
on  Mesopotamia  proper.  The 
country  was  exceedingly  fertile, 


The  Nile  Reservoir  and  Dam,  Assuan. 


doing  a  certain  act  and  is  the 
foundation  of  the  modern  action 
for  breach  of  contract.  Special 
assumpsit  was  the  form  of  the 
action  which  was  available  for 
breach  of  the  ordinary  bilateral 
contract.  See  Contract.  Gen- 
eral assumpsit,  known  also  as  in- 
debitatus assumpsit,  was  a  more 
comprehensive  remedy,  including 
the  old  action  of  debt  and  a  large 
variety  of  obligations  not  resting 
on  agreement  at  all,  but  created  by 
statute  or  otherwise  imposed  by 
law.  The  class  of  obligations 
known  as  quasi  contracts  belong  in 
this  category.  See  Quasi  Con- 
tract. 

Assumption,  capital  of  Para- 
guay.   See  Asuncion. 

Assumption  of  tlie  Virgin 
(Aug.  15),  a  day  observed  by  the 


their  validity,  into  (a)  common  law 
assurances — e.g.  feoffments,  ex- 
changes, releases;  (b)  customary 
assurances — e.g.  assurances  of 
copyhold;  (c)  statutory  assurances 
— e.g.  conveyances  by  deed  under 
modern  statutes.  The  term  is  not 
in  common  use  in  the  United  States. 

Assurance,  Life.  See  Insur- 
ance. 

Assur-bani-pal.  See  Assyria 
and  Sardanapalus. 

Assyria.  This  name  is  derived, 
to  all  appearance,  from  the  native 
Assur  or  Asur,  a  word  which  was 
borrowed  by  the  Hebrews  under 
the  form  of  Asshur,  and  which 
is  frequently  pronounced,  in  the 
East,  Athur,  the  ancient  Aramaic 
form.  The  name  Assur,  standing 
for  Assyria,  is  derived  from  that 
of  the  city  Assur,  the  old  capital 


with  excellent  clay  for  brickmak- 
ing  and  pottery  (including  tablets), 
and  also  good  building  stone,  in 
the  possession  of  which  it  had  the 
advantage  oyer  Babylonia. 

The  ancient  capital,  Assur,  now 
called  Kalaat  Shergat,  about  60  m. 
below  Mosul,  was  the  residence  of 
the  early  kings  and  viceroys;  but 
the  place  was  seemingly  abandoned 
as  the  capital  about  1300  B.C., 
and  Nineveh  substituted.  Nine- 
veh is  now  represented  by  the 
mounds  of  Kuyunjik  and  Nebi 
Yunus,  opposite  Mosul. 

Another  important  city  was 
Calah,  the  Kalakh  of  the  inscrip- 
tions, about  12  m.  s.  of  Nineveh. 
It  is  now  represented  by  the 
mounds  known  as  Nimrud.  The 
city  of  Rcsen  probably  lay  in  the 
same  neighborhood,  and  has  been 


Assyria 


437 


Assyria 


identified  with  the  modern  Sela- 
miyah.  A  city  Res-eni  (which  is 
the  same  name)  is  mentioned  by 
Sennacherib,  but  seems  to  have 
been  situated  to  the  north  of  Nin- 
eveh. Another  important  city 
was  Arbela,  the  modern  Ervil, 
near  the  mountains  on  the  east. 
It  was  an  important  centre  of 
Assyrian  worship,  the  patron  god- 
dess of  the  city  being  Istar. 

The  date  when  the  colonists 
from  Babylonia  established  them- 
selves in  Assyria  is  doubtful,  but 
it  is  generally  regarded  as  having 
taken  place  about  2500  B.C.,  when 
the  amalgamation  of  the  Semitic 
and  the  non-Semitic  elements  of 
the  population  had  already  been 
accomplished.  A  slight  differ- 
ence in  the  racial  type  of  the 
Babylonians  and  the  Assyrians 
suggests  that  the  latter  absorbed, 
in  course  of  time,  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  who 


a  temple,  or  rebuilt  the  temple  of 
the  god  Asur  (Assu^^,  in  the  city 
of  that  name,  for  the  preservation 
of  his  life. 

According  to  the  oldest  tradi- 
tions of  the  Assyrians,  the  mon- 
archy was  founded  by  a  king 
named  Bel-kapkapu,  but  there  is 
no  information  as  to  his  age  or 
deeds.  It  is  the  name  of  Assur- 
bel-nisi-su  (about  1480  B.C.)  which, 
in  the  documents  at  present  at  our 
disposition,  first  comes  before  us 
in  connection  with  history  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  word.  He  was  a 
contemporary  of  the  Babylonian 
king  Kara-indas;  and  during  his 
reign,  and  that  of  Puzur-Assur, 
contemporary  of  the  Babylonian 
king  Burna-burias,  and  Assur- 
nadin-ahe,  about  1420  B.C.,  agree-'' 
ments  or  treaties  were  made  be- 
tween the  two  nations  with  regard 
to  their  common  boundaries.  His 
son,  Assur-uballit,  states  that  his 


hood  of  Diarbekir,  and  is  stated 
by  King  Assur-nasir-apli  (885  B.C.) 
to  have  been  the  founder  of  Calah. 
His  son  was  Tukulti-Ninip  i.,  who 
signalized  his  reign  by  an  expedi- 
tion to  the  Sebbeneh-Su,  where  he 
had  an  image  of  himself  carved 
on  the  rock.  To  all  appearance, 
this  king  ruled  also  over  Baby- 
lonia. About  1210  B.C.  Assyria 
and  Babylonia  again  came  into 
conflict,  the  latter  country  evi- 
dently having  the  advantage. 
The  energy  of  Ninip-apil-Esarra, 
however,  shortly  before  the  year 
1200  B.C.,  gave  victory  to  the 
Assyrians,  though  it  was  not 
until  the  time  of  his  son,  Assur- 
dan  I.,  that  a  satisfactory  treaty 
was  made  with  the  Babylonians, 
whose  king,  Zagaga-sum-iddina, 
saw  several  of  his  cities  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  Assyrians. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Mutakkil- 
Nusku,  concerning  whom  but  little 


Assyrian  Sculpture — Siege  of  a  City  by  Assur-nasir-apli  {about  880  B.C.). 


possibly  had  some  relationship 
with  tne  Armenians.  On  enter- 
ing Assyria,  the  migrants  brought 
with  them  the  civilization,  the 
manners,  the  customs,  the  religion, 
and  the  literature  of  the_ Babylo- 
nians, with  whom  they  originated, 
and  it  is  largely  owing  to  them 
that  that  literature  has  been  pre- 
served. 

The  earliest  rulers  of  Assyria, 
like  those  of  Babylonia,  were 
called  patesi,  or,  in  the  Semitic 
idiom,  issaku,  rendered  'priest- 
kings'  or  'viceroys.'  Of  these 
rulers,  the  most  ancient  known 
seems  to  have  been  Isme-Dagan, 
who  ruled  about  1850  B.C.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Samsi-Addu  i., 
who  built  a  temple  at  Assur  to  the 
gods  Anu  and  Addu.  Other  ru- 
lers of  later  date  were  Igur-kap- 
kapu  and  Samsi-Addu  ii.,  who 
rebuilt  the  great  national  temple 
to  Assur  at  the  same  place.  A 
brick  in  the  British  Museum  gives 
us  the  names  of  Hallu,  and  Irisum, 
his  son,  who  seems  to  have  built 


father  received  from  the  king  of 
Egypt  a  present  of  twenty  talents 
of  gold.  To  all  appearance,  Kara- 
indas  of  Babylonia  had  married  a 
daughter  of  Assur-uballit,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Assur-nadin-ahe,  and  the 
issue  of  the  marriage  was  Kadas- 
man-Murus,  who  was  killed  by 
some  disaffected  Kassites.  The 
Assyrian  king  avenged  his  son-in- 
law  by  invading  Babylonia,  and 
deposing  and  putting  to  death  his 
murderer,  at  the  same  time  setting 
Kuri-galzu  on  the  throne.  (See 
Babylonia.)  The  relations  of 
Assur-uballit's  successors  —  Bel- 
nirari,  Pudi-ilu,  and  Addu-nirari  I. 
(about  1345  B.C.) — were  not  so 
peaceful,  and  portions  of  the  north 
of  Babylonia  were  annexed  to 
Assyria. 

The  son  of  Addu-nirari  I.,  Shal- 
maneser  I.,  came  to  the  throne 
about  1330  B.C.,  and  was  regarded 
by  the  Assyrians  as  one  of  the  more 
renowned  of  their  kings.  He  seems 
to  have  extended  the  boundaries  of 
th?  empire  as  far  as  the  neighbor- 


is  known.  The  son  of  the  latter, 
Assur-res-isi  (c.  1140  B.C.),  how- 
ever, again  raised  the  name  cf  the 
Assyrian  empire,  overthrowing 
the  Ahlamites,  Lulumitcs,  and 
Kutites,  and  defeating  Nebuchad- 
nezzar I.  of  Babylonia  when  he  at- 
tempted to  take  possession  of  the 
borderlands  between  the  two  coun- 
tries. Still  more  renowned  than 
Assur-res-isi  was  his  son,  Tiglath- 
pileser  I.  (c.  1120  B.C.),  whose  long 
and  complete  inscriptions  from 
the  ruins  of  the  temple  at  Assur 
speak  of  his  nvimerous  expeditions 
against  the  Moschians  (Mesech), 
Kummuha  or  Commagene,  Hatte 
(the  land  of  the  Hittites),  Musri, 
on  the  north  of  Assyria,  and  other 
places — altogether  forty-two  lands 
and  their  princes  'from  beyond 
the  lower  Zab  to  the  other  side  of 
the  Euphrates,  the  Hittites,  and 
the  upper  western  sea.'  He  also 
fought  against  Marduk-nadin-ahe 
of  Babylonia,  and  captured  many 
of  his  cities,  including  Babylon, 
Sippar,  and  Opis.    His  son  was 


Assyria 


438 


Assyria 


Assur-b^l-kala,  who  espoused  the 
daughter  of  the  Babylonian  king 
Addu- abla  -  iddina  (about  1180 
B.C.);  after  which  there  is  a  great 
gap  in  the  history  of  the  country. 

Isolated  names  only  occur  in  this 
gap,  until  we  come  to  Tiglath- 
pileser  ll.,  after  whom  the  series 
of  rulers  is  unbroken  to  the  end 
of  the  monarchy.  This  king  was 
succeeded  by  Assur-dan  ii.  about 
930  B.C.  The  son  and  successor 
of  the  latter,  Addu-nirari  ii.  (911), 
warred  against  Samas-mudammiq, 
king  of  Babylon,  and  his  succes- 
sor, Nabu-sum-iskun,  with  success; 
and  when  peace  was  concluded,  it 
was  sealed  by  the  marriage  of  the 
daughters  of  the  two  kings  by  each 
other  respectively. 


the  Tornadotos;  Suhu  (the  Shu- 
ites),  far  to  the  south-east;  and 
Carchemish,  on  the  west.  Not- 
withstanding his  great  military 
activity,  he  was  also  a  great 
builder. 

His  son,  Shalmaneser  ii.  (860 
B.C.),  followed  in  his  father's  foot- 
steps. After  a  military  visit  to 
Babylonia,  in  which  he  took  the 
side  of  Marduk-sum-iddina  against 
his  brother,  who  laid  claim  to 
the  throne,  he  turned  his  chief 
attention  to  the  west  of  Assyria, 
where  he  came  into  conflict  with 
Hazael  of  Damascus,  as  well  as 
his  murderer,  Addu-'idri  (Bcn- 
hadad),  Ahab  of  Israel,  and  other 
kings  of  the  west,  the  principal 
occasion  being  at  the  battle  of 


rodotus.  Shalmaneser  iii.  (782) 
warred  in  Armenia,  Damascus, 
and  Hadra^  h.  His  successor  was 
Assur-dan  ill.  (772),  whose  reign 
was  an  unlortunate  one,  distin- 
guished by  many  rebellions  against 
the  power  of  Assyria,  and  pesti- 
lence. An  eclipse  of  the  sun  is 
recorded  for  the  year  763  B.C. 

With  Tiglath-pileser  ill.,  his 
successor  (745),  a  new  dynasty  be- 
gins. He  is  noted  as  the  king  of 
Assyria  who  went  farther  west 
than  most  of  his  predecessors,  and 
as  having  deposed  Azariah,  replac- 
ing him,  seemingly,  by  Eni-ilu. 
He  is  the  Pul  of  2  Kings  15:19, 
that  being  his  name  in  the  Baby- 
lonian canon.  Later  on  he  re- 
ceived tribute  from  Ahaz  of  Judah, 


Whether  on  account  of  this  mar- 
riage or  not  is  not  known,  but  the 
son  and  successor  of  Addu-nirari, 
Tukulti-Ninip  ii.  (890  B.C.),  made 
himself  master  of  Babylonia,  and 
ruled  over  the  country  until  his 
death  in  a  rebellion,  in  which  his 
son  and  successor,  Assur-nasir- 
apli,  took  part.  By  this,  his  first 
recorded  act,  is  the  character  of 
Assur-nasir-apli  revealed.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  cruellest 
of  a  race  not  renowned  for  mercy, 
and  carried  fire  and  sword  on  every 
side.  In  his  lengthy  and  tedious 
record  he  states  that  he  conquered 
the  region  of  the  Urumia  lake 
(884  B.C.),  Huluh,  Kummuha 
(Commagcne),  and  the  region  of 
the  Khabur.  In  succeeding  cam- 
paigns he  marched  to  the  region 
of  the  Scbbcnch-Su;  on  the  cast  to 
the  districts  of  the  Radanu  and 


Qarqar(854B.c.).  He  also  received 
tribute  from  Tyre,  Sidon,  Gebal, 
and  Jehu,  'son  of  Omri.'  As  his 
eldest  son  rebelled  against  him, 
the  throne  was  inherited  by  Samsi- 
Addu  II.,  a  younger  son,  and, 
like  his  father,  a  great  warrior, 
who,  besides  his  conquests  on  the 
west,  carried  his  arms  into  Media. 
He  also  attacked  Babylonia,  and 
brought  away  great  booty. 

The  reign  of  Addu-nirari  .ill. 
(811),  son  of  Samsi-Addu,  brinps 
with  it  the  same  story  of  conquest: 
Tyre,  Sidon,  Israel,  Damascus, 
Edom,  Arpad,  etc.,  felt  the  force 
of  his  arms.  Babylon,  Umlias,  and 
places  on  the  south-east  were  also 
overrun.  It  is  noteworthy  that 
the  wife  of  this  king  was  called 
Sammuramat — -regarded  as  the 
same  name,  though  not  the  same 
person,  as  the  Semiramis  of  He- 


Mitinti  of  Askalon,  and  others. 
In  his  inscriptions  he  relates  how 
the  people  of  Israel  killed  their 
king,  and  that  he  thereupon  set 
Hoshea  on  the  throne  over  them, 
and  exacted  tribute.  Pie  is  re- 
nowned also  as  the  conqueror  of 
Chinziros  of  Babylonia,  whose 
empire  he  annexed  to  Assyria. 
(See  Babylonia.)  He  was  suc- 
ceeded (727)  by  Shalmaneser  iv., 
the  Ululaa  (Elulaius)  of  the  Baby- 
lonian canon,  a  king  whose  five 
years'  reign  was  distinguished  by 
great  attempts  and  but  little  suc- 
cess. He  failed  to  capture  the  city 
of  Tyre,  and  besieged  Samaria, 
but  died  before  the  _  place  was 
taken.  To  Sargon,  his  successor 
(722),  fell  the  honor  of  receiving 
the  city's  submission.  Sargon  then 
led  his  forces  against  Hamath, Car- 
chemish, and  Ashdod,  and  on  each 


A.ssyria 


439 


Assyria 


occasion  the  nations  around  felt 
the  force  of  his  arms.  These  cam- 
paigns were  followed  by  his  long 
struggle  with  Merodach-baladan 
of  Babylon,  ending  in  the  conquest 
of  the  country  in  709  B.C.,  though 
operations  against  Merodach- 
baladan  and  his  supporters  still 
continued.  Mesech,  Commagene, 
Cyprus,  Armenia,  and  numerous 
other  countries  felt  the  force  of 
his  armSj  and  sent  tribute.  Sargon 
is  renowned  as  the  builder  of  the 
great  palace  at  Diir-Sargina,  now 
called  Khorsabad.  He  was,  to  all 
appearance,  assassinated  in  the 
year  705  B.C.,  and  Sennacherib,  his 
eldest  son,  mounted  the  throne. 

The  connection  of  Sennacherib 
with  Babylonia  will  be  found 
under  that  article.  As  related  in 
the  Old  Testament,  Sennacherib 
was  assassinated  by  his  sons 
whilst  worshipping  in  the  temple 


empire,  Esarhaddon  died  in  669 
B.C.,  when  on  his  way  to  Egypt 
for  the  third  time,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Assurbani-apli  (the 
great  and  noble  Asnapper)  in 
Assyria,  and  Samassum-ukin  Sa- 
osduchinos)  in  Babylonia. 

The  reign  of  Assur-bani-apli 
saw  the  culmination  of  Assyrian 
power,  and  also  the  beginning  of 
Its  decline.  A  great  rebellion  in 
Egypt  was  put  down;  but  the 
success  was  snort-lived,  for  Psam- 
meticus  put  an  end  to  Assyrian 
overlordship  for  ever.  After  re- 
ceiving the  tribute  of  the  kings  of 
the  west — Manasseh  of  Judah  and 
his  contemporaries — the  Assyrian 
ruler  had  to  turn  his  attention  to 
the  east,  where  the  Elamites  were 
stirring  up  the  Aramean  tribes 
against  Assyria.  The  result  was  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Te-umman, 
king  of  that  country. 


Babylonians,  whom  they  closely 
resembled,  the  Assyrians  added 
to  their  love  of  art,  letters,  and 
capacity  to  rule  a  great  power  of 
organization  and  warlike  energy. 
Inheriting  all  the  literature  of  tne 
ancient  Babylonians,  both  Semitic 
and  non-Semitic,  their  liking  for 
that  literature  surpassed,  il  any- 
thing (especially  from  the  time 
of  Sargon  onwards),  that  of  the 
people  of  the  country  v/here  it 
originated.  Babylonian  history 
was  likewise  a  study  to  which 
Assyrian  scribes  paid  attention, 
the  more  especially,  apparently, 
with  regard  to  those  periods  when 
the  two  nations  came  into  con- 
tact for  the  rectification  of  their 
boundaries,  etc.  Babylonian  laws, 
too,  seem  to  have  been  their  study 
only  less  than  it  was  the  study  of 
the  Babylonians  themselves.  Like 
the  Babylonians,  they  were  excel- 


Assyrian  Sculpture — Assur-bani-apli  in  his  Chariot,  hunting  Lions. 


of  Nisroch  (Assur),  or,  according 
to  the  Babylonian  chronicle,  by 
one  of  his  sons,  who  was  leader  of 
a  revolt  against  him.  The  mur- 
derers fled  to  Armenia,  whither, 
to  all  appearance,  their  younger 
brother,  Esarhaddon,  pursued 
them,  and  defeated  their  adhe- 
rents, afterward  mounting  the 
Assyrian  throne  (680  B.C.). 

The  new  ruler  was  also  a  suc- 
cessful one,  adding  prudence  and 
mildness  to  warlike  zeal.  He 
fought  against  Abdimilkutti,  king 
of  Sidon,  whose  head,  together 
with  that  of  the  king  of  Sanduarri, 
was  brought  to  Nineveh.  It  was 
probably  about  this  time  that 
Manasseh  was  taken  with  'hooks' 
(or  fetters)  and  brought  to  Baby- 
lon (2  Chron.  33:11).  Egypt  was 
likewise  attacked,  and  made  prac- 
tically an  Assyrian  province. 
Esarhaddon  also  defeated,  in  Cap- 
padocia,  Teuspa  the  Kimmcrian, 
the  first  leader  of  those  h9rdes 
which  were,  later  on,  to  join  in 
the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian 
Vol.  I.— 32. 


Of  Assur-bani-apli' s  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Assur-etil-ilani  (-ukinni), 
nothing  is  known,  except  that  he 
claimed  to  rule  over  Babylonia, 
and  began  to  build  a  palace  at 
Calah.  He  was  followed  by  Sin- 
sarra-iskun,  the  Saracos  of  Syn- 
cellus,  under  whom  the  Assyrian 
empire  saw  its  downfall.  It  would 
seem  that  either  he  or  his  prede- 
cessor, foreseeing  impending  dis- 
aster from  the  Medes,  raised  two 
armies,  one  of  which  he  sent  to 
Babylonia  under  Nabopolassar, 
with  orders  to  hold  the  district  of 
Babylonia  against  the  enemy. 
Nabopolassar,  however,  turned  his 
arms  against  his  royal  master,  and 
advanced  with  the  allied  forces 
against  Nineveh,  where,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  breech  made  in  the 
walls  by  the  Tigris  undermining 
them,  the  city  was  taken,  and 
Sin-sarra-iskun,  seeing  that  all  was 
lost,  set  fire  to  his  palace,  and 
perished  in  the  flames. 

Thus  ended  the  great  Assyrian 
empire.  Of  the  same  race  with  the 


lent  agriculturists  and  equally 
good  builders,  and  though  they 
imitated  their  teachers  by  a  large 
employment  of  brick,  for  the  in- 
terior decorations  of  their  palaces 
they  used  alabaster,  which  enabled 
them  to  produce  bas-reliefs  which 
were  real  works  of  art,  and  are 
even  now  the  wonder  of  the  be- 
holder. Boastful  as  they  were 
bold,  they  were  fond  of  the  com- 
position of  long  inscriptions,  and 
the  frequent  writing  of  reports  to 
the  king. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable 
characteristics  of  the  Assyrians 
was  that  aptitude  which  brought 
about  their  success  in  war.  In 
all  _  probability  this  was  due  to 
their  superior  mobility,  and  also 
to  the  perfection  of  their  de- 
fences and  their  engines  of  at- 
tack. In  the  sieges  which  they 
carried  on,  they  constructed  enor- 
mous towers  on  wheels,  which  were 
pushed  up  specially-constructed 
causeways,  approaching  so  close 
to  the  walls  that  battering-rams 


Astarte 

worked  from  within  the  towers 
could  be  brought  into  play.  To 
this  must  be  added  their  skilfully- 
made  chin-mail  and  scale  armor, 
which,  with  their  enormous  wicker 
shields,  enabled  their  soldiers  to 
fight  to  the  greatest  advantage. 
Indeed,  it  is  not  impossible  that 
they  were  the  masters  and  teachers 
of  the  ancient  world  in  the  art  of 
war. 

The  religion  of  the  Assyrians 
was  practically  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Babylonians,  the  chief  dif- 
ference being  that  they  gave  their 
national  god,  Assur,  the  highest 
place  in  the  pantheon.  To  all  in- 
tents and  purposes  he  replaced 
the  god  Merodach,  who  was  also 
worshipped  by  the  Assyrians,  and 
with  whom  he  seems  to  have  been 
identified.  See  Hommel's  Ge- 
schichte  Bahyloniens  und  Assyriens 
(1885);  Miirdter-Delitzsch's  simi- 
lar title  (1891);  George  Smith's 
Assyria,  S.P.C.K.;  A.  H.  Sayce's 
Assyria:  its  Princes,  Priests,  and 
People,  R.T.S.  (1885);  Maspero's 
(ed.  by  Sayce)  The  Dawn  of  Civi- 
lization (1896),  and  The  Struggle  of 
the  Nations  (1897);  J.F.M'Curdy's 
History,  Prophecy,  and  the  Monu- 
ments (1894  and  1896);  T.  G. 
Pinches'  The  O.  T.  in  the  Light  of 
the  Records  and  Legends  of  Assyria 
and  Babylonia  (1902);  and  for 
translations,  The  Records  of  the 
Past,  1st  series,  ed.  by  S.  Birch, 
vols,  i.,  iii.,  v.,  vii.,  ix.,  xi.,  1873, 
etc.;  2nd  series,  ed.  by  A.  H. 
Sayce,  vols,  i.-vi.,  1888-92;  and 
from  time  to  time  in  the  Proc.  of 
the  Soc.  oj  Bib.  Arch.,  and  Jour, 
of  the  R.A.S.,  etc.  Compare  also 
Babylonia  and  Cuneiform. 

Astarte,  the  Syrian  Venus,  is 
identical  with  *Ashtaroth  the 
abomination  of  the  Zidonians'  (2 
Kings  23:13),  and  with  the  Ishtar 
of  Assyria,  besides  having  affini- 
ties with  other  classic  deities.  The 
licentious  worship  of  the  devotees 
of  Astarte  in  her  temples  in  Tyre 
and  Sidon  rendered  the  names  of 
these  cities,  in  the  utterances  of 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  synonymous 
with  all  that  was  wicked.  There 
was  a  temple  in  her  honor  at 
Memphis  as  early  as  the  period 
of  the  19th  Egyptian  dynasty, 
about  which  time  it  is  supposed 
that  the  cult  of  Astarte  was 
brought  into  Egypt  from  Assyria. 

Astatic  Needle.  See  Galva- 
nometer. 

Astatki  is  the  residue  from  the 
distillation  of  Russian  petroleum. 
It  is  largely  used  for  fuel  in  the 
neighborhood  of  its  production 
(Baku),  and  in  the  Caucasus  and 
Caspian  regions. 

Aster,  a  genus  of  compositae. 
which  is  chiefly  American,  ana 
comprises  at  least  250  species,  and 
many  varieties.    Thcv  are  mostly 

Eercnnial  herbs,  of  branching 
abit,  with  flowers,  both  tubular 
and  radiate,  generally  corymbose 
or  paniculate.    They  are  often 


440 

very  showy,  with  a  wide  range  of 
white,  pink,  blue,  and  purple 
shades.  The  asters,  or  starworts, 
are  a  hardv  crowd,  often  flourish- 
ing in  sandy,  dry  soil.  When  cul- 
tivated, as  they  often  are,  in 
Europe,  under  the  name  of 
'Michaelmas  daisies  '  they  in- 
crease in  height  and  brilliancy, 
and  the  various  species  bloom 
through  the  fall  months,  in  suc- 
cession, quite  up  to  frost.  Some 
of  the  commoner  eastern  species 
are  A.  divaricatus,  found  in  dry 
woods,  with  flexuous  stems,  rather 
loose  white  flower  heads,  and 
broad  leaves,  A.  macro phyllus, 
conspicuous  for  its  large,  broad, 
basal  leaves,  forming  colonies, 
and  its  tall  stem  (3  ft.),  topped 
with  large  lavender  flowers;  A. 
Nov(B-Angli(B  which  grows  to  8 
ft.  in  height,  has  a  much-branched, 
broad  head  of  purple,  many- 
rayed  flowers,  an  inch  or  two 
across.  The  stout,  rough  stem  is 
almost  concealed  by  the  clasping, 
auriculate  bases  of  the  lanceolate 
leaves.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
striking  and  handsome  of  the 
genus,  although  common  in  fields 
and  swamps.  A.  ericoides  is  a 
bushy  aster,  only  3  ft.  high,  with 
many  slender  branches,  covered 
with  linear  leaves,  and  numerous, 
delicate,  small,  white  flowers.  It 
is  common  in  dry  soil. 


Aster  NovcB-Anglics. 


Aster,  China  {CalHstephus 
hortensis),  a  species  of  Compo- 
sitae,  native  of  China  and  Japan; 
first  cultivated  in  France  at  the 
end  of  the  18th  century.  There 
are  now  many  varieties  in  size 
and  color,  but  all  are  annuals. 

Asterabad.  See  Astrabad. 

Asteroids,  small  planets  circu- 
lating between  Mars  and  Jupiter, 
and  thus  named  by  Sir  William 
Herschel  in  1802.  They  seem  to 
replace  a  single  large  planet,  con- 
jecturally  located,  before  they 
were  found,  in  the  wide  interval 


Asterophyllites 

occupied  by  them,  and  collect- 
ively represent  a  term  in  the  series 
of  planetary  distances  designated 
as  Bode's  Law.'  The  first  aster- 
oid (see  Ceres)  was  discovered  on 
Jan.  1,  1801;  and  on  Jan.  1,  1903, 
the  known  members  of  the  family 
nurnbered  about  540.  Their  de- 
tection has  been  accelerated  by 
the  use,  now  almost  exclusive,  of 
the  photographic  method  iatro- 
duced  by  Dr.  Max  Wolf  in  1892. 
Its  principle  is  that  a  sensibly 
moving  object  leaves  a  trail  in- 
stead of  a  dot  on  a  plate  exposed 
in  a  telescope  following  the  diurnal 
movement  of  the  stars.  Through 
the  availability  of  this  rapid  and 
easy  process,  fifty  new  asteroids, 
down  to  the  fourteenth  stellar 
magnitude,  were  registered  in 
1902.  These  bodies  differ  greatly 
in  size.  The  largest  has  a  diam- 
eter of  nearly  five  hundred,  the 
smallest  of  probably  less  than 
twenty  miles,  and  there  may  be 
multitudes  beyond  the  range  of 
perception,  constructed  on  the 
modest  scale  of  shooting-stars. 
None  can  possess  appreciaole  at- 
niospheres;  yet  their  markedly 
diverse  albedoes  suggest  unex- 
pected varieties  in  physical  con- 
stitution. Their  joint  mass  is 
almost  certainly  much  smaller 
than  that  of  the  moon,  but  cannot 
be  estimated  with  any  approach 
to  precision.  The  zone  tenanted 
by  the  asteroids  is  fully  200  mil- 
lions of  miles  in  width,  the  mean 
distance  of  Adalberta,  the  near- 
est to  the  sun — except  Eros — 
being  194  million,  that  of  Thule, 
the  most  remote,  400  million 
miles,  while  their  respective  pe- 
riods are  three  years  plus  three 
days  and  nine  years  minus  one 
month.  The  distribution  of  these 
540  interlacing  ellipses  presents 
some  significant  features.  They 
are  most  crowded  near  the  place 
where,  by  Bode's  Law,  the  missing 
planet  should  have  revolved — i.e. 
at  2.8  times  the  earth's  mean  dis- 
tance from  the  sun — but  there  are 
conspicuous  gaps  in  their  scatter- 
ing, and  the  occurrence  of  these 
just  where  a  commensurability 
of  periods  with  that  of  Jupiter 
would  have  come  in,  attests  the 
powerful  influence  of  the  great 
planet  over  the  localization  of  his 
pygmy  neighbors.  See  authorities 
cited  under  Astronomy. 

Asterophyllites  (for  which 
the  synonym  Calamocladies  is 
used  by  some  botanists)  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  foliage  of  cer- 
tain fossil  Ecjuisetacca;,  such  as 
calamites,  which  flourished  prin- 
cipally in  the  Carboniferous 
epoch.  The  branches  are  long 
and  slender,  and  bear  at  their 
numerous  nodes  whorls  of  little 
linear  or  lanceolate  leaves,  each 
with  a  midrib  down  the  centre. 
As  preserved  they  are  usually 
flattened  out,  and  have  a  stellate 
appearance.     In  some  cases  the 


Asthenopia 


441 


Astor 


bases  of  the  leaves  were  fused  to 
form  a  continuous  sheath.  In 
Annularia  the  leaflets  were  un- 
equal, and  lay  in  one  plane,  which 
was  oblique  to  the  axis  of  the 
branch. 

As'theno'pia,  weakness  of  the 
organs  of  sight,  due  to  such 
causes  as  strain  of  the  ciliary 
muscle  (accommodative  asthe- 
nopia), weakness  of  the  external 
ocular  muscles  (muscular  asthe- 
nopia), general  nervous  disease 
(nervous  asthenopia),  and  irreg- 
ular astigmatism  produced  by 
pressure  of  the  lids  on  the  cornea 
(tarsal  asthenopia) .  It  is  accom- 
panied by  pain,  headache,  and 
impaired  vision. 

Asthma,  a  respiratory  disease 
spasmodic  and  recurrent  in  char- 
acter, marked  by  great  tempo- 
rary difficulty  of  breathing,  due 
to  spasm  of  the  bronchioles,  de- 
veloping as  a  result  of  exposure 
to  a  foreign  protein  to  which  the 
individual  is  sensitized.  These 
proteins  are  of  various  origin  and 
include  (1)  animal  emanations, 
giving  rise  to  the  ordinary  cat, 
horse,  dog,  and  chicken  feather 
asthma;  (2)  food  proteins,  not- 
ably wheat,  corn,  rye,  rice,  egg, 
potato,  milk,  fish,  lobster,  beef, 
chicken,  and  others;  (3)  pollens, 
especially  timothy  and  ragweed; 
(4)  bacterial  proteins.  Some  pa- 
tients are  sensitive  to  a  large 
number  of  these  substances, 
while  others  react  only  to  a  few 
or  to  but  one.  The  majority  of 
cases  occur  in  the  early  years  of 
life  and  heredity  is  believed  to 
play  a  role.  Nasal  disturbances, 
focal  infections,  and  acute  res- 
piratory diseases  may  be  con- 
tributing causes. 

The  asthmatic  attack  rarely 
follows  immediately  upon  expo- 
sure to  the  exciting  cause,  though 
this  sometimes  occurs.  Premoni- 
tory symptoms — varying  with 
the  individual,  but  constant  in 
recurrent  attacks — may  be  ob- 
served— malaise,  cough,  coryza, 
etc.  The  attack  itself  is  char- 
acterized by  a  feeling  of  intense 
suffocation  and  marked  dyspnea. 
The  patient  fights  for  breath, 
with  slow,  loud,  convulsive  res- 
piratory efforts,  in  which  every 
muscle  of  the  body  seems  to  be 
strained. 

The  paroxysms  are  frequently 
nocturnal  in  character,  and  the 
duration  varies  from  a  few  min- 
utes to  several  hours.  The  fre- 
quency of  recurrence  is  also  ex- 
tremely variable.  The  nature  of 
the  attack  is  such  as  to  make  the 
diagnosis  comparatively  simple. 
The  important  thing,  however,  is 
to  determine  the  exciting  cause. 
For  this  purpose,  a  careful  his- 
tory of  the  case  is  most  useful; 
this  may  be  supplemented  by 
cutaneous  tests,  in  which  minute 
quantities  of  the  suspected  sub- 
stances are  injected  beneath  the 
skin,  and  the  reaction  observed. 
Treatment.  —  Drug  treatment 


has  proved  of  little  value  in 
asthma.  As  far  as  possible  the 
sufferer  should  avoid  contact 
with  the  proteins  producing  the 
attacks.  If  food  proteins  are  re- 
sponsible these  should  be  with- 
drawn as  far  as  possible  from  the 
dietary.  Desensitization  by  in- 
oculation of  minute  doses  of  the 
offending  protein  have  been  es- 
pecially successful  in  cases  due  to 
pollens  and  animal  emanations, 
but  the  results  are  rarely  perma- 
nent. Bacterial  vaccines  are  used 
in  cases  due  to  bacterial  proteins. 

The  treatment  of  the  attack 
calls  for  some  agent  which  will 
relax  the  spasm  of  the  bronchi- 
oles. The  most  useful  of  such 
agents  is  epinephrin  (extract  of 
the  suprarenal  gland).  Other 
drugs  which  have  proved  useful 
are  atropin,  benzyl  benzoate, 
papaverin,  and  urethan.  Mor- 
phin,  chloroform  and  ether  have 
been  employed,  but  the  dangers 
attendant  upon  their  use  render 
them  usually  undesirable. 

There  are  numerous  asthma 
powders  and  cigarettes  on  the 
market.  These  contain  the  leaves 
of  stramonium,  belladonna,  lo- 
belia or  hyoscyamus,  mixed  with 
potassium  nitrate  to  assist  in 
combustion.  Many  patients  ob- 
tain marked  relief  by  burning 
these  powders  during  an  attack. 

Consult  J.  L.  Miller's  chapter 
on  Bronchial  Asthma  in  Vol.  Ill 
of  Nelson's  Loose  Leaf  Living 
Medicine. 

Asti,  as'te,  town  and  episcopal 
see,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Ales- 
sandria, 22  miles  southwest  of 
Alessandria.  Notable  buildings 
are  the  Gothic  cathedral,  erected 
in  1348,  the  baptistery  of  San 
Giovanni,  and  the  house  in  which 
Vittorio  Alfieri  the  poet  was  born, 
now  housing  an  Alfieri  museum. 
There  is  also  a  statue  of  the  poet, 
erected  in  1862.  Asti  is  famous 
for  its  wine  and  its  gardening,  and 
manufactures  silk  and  matches. 
Pop.  42,000. 

Astigmatism,  a  defect  of  vi- 
sion in  which  the  rays  of  light 
proceeding  from  a  point  do  not 
reach  the  retina  as  a  point,  but  as 
an  area  or  spot.  It  means  that 
one  set  of  rays  passing  through  a 
certain  axis  of  the  cornea  and  lens 
is  not  focused  on  their  axial  area 
of  the  retina.  One  set  of  rays  is 
focused  ahead  (myopia)  or  be- 
hind (hypermetropia).  The 
wearing  of  corrective  glasses  is 
essential. 

Astil'be,  a  perennial  herb  of 
the  saxifrage  family.  It  has 
beautiful  dark  green  foliage  and 
small  white,  pink,  or  purplish 
flowers,  growing  in  dense  spikes. 
A.  japonica,  a  native  of  Japan,  A. 
astilboides,  and  A.  decandra  are 
common  species  easily  grown. 

Astle,  a's'l,  Thomas  (1735- 
1803).  English  bibliophile,  author 
of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of 
Writing  (1784;  new  ed.  1876),  a 
work  of  importance,  for  its  ex- 


planations of  mediaeval  hand- 
writing. Other  works  by  the 
same  writer  are  The  Will  of  Henry 
VII.  and  An  Account  of  the  Seals 
of  the  Kings,  Royal  Boroughs,  and 
Magnates  of  Scotland  (1792).  The 
valuable  mss.  of  his  collection  are 
now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Astolf.    See  Aistulf. 

As'ton,  or  Aston  Manor,  a 
suburb  of  Birmingham,  England, 
in  Warwickshire.  Its  chief  at- 
traction is  the  Hall  (now  con- 
taining a  museum,  winter  garden, 
and  aquarium),  which  sheltered 
Charles  I.  before  the  battle  of 
Edgehill.    Pop.  (1921)  76,804. 

Aston,  William  George 
(1841-1911),  Irish  philologist, 
was  born  near  Londonderry,  Ire- 
land, and  was  graduated  from 
Belfast  University  with  honors  in 
modern  languages.  He  filled 
minor  positions  as  interpreter  and 
secretary  in  the  British  diplomat- 
ic service  in  Japan  from  1864  un- 
til 1884,  when  he  was  made  con- 
sul-general for  Korea.  In  1886 
he  became  Japanese  secretary  of 
legation  at  Tokyo,  a  position 
from  which  he  retired  in  1890. 
Besides  many  papers  for  learned 
societies,  he  published  grammars 
both  of  the  spoken  and  of  the 
written  languages  of  Japan,  a 
translation  of  Nihongi:  Chronicles 
of  Japan  from  the  Earliest  Times 
to  A.D.  697  (1896),  A  History  of 
Japanese  Literature  (1899),  and 
Shinto  (1905). 

Astor,  John  Jacob  (1763- 
1848),  American  merchant, 
founder  of  the  American  Fur 
Company,  was  born  in  Waldorf, 
near  Heidelberg,  Germany.  He 
went  to  the  United  States  in  1783 
and  invested  his  small  means  in 
furs,  eventually  establishing  a 
chain  of  trading  stations  from  the 
Great  Lakes  to  the  Pacific,  and 
founding  the  town  of  Astoria  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River 
(1811).  He  prospered  exceed- 
ingly, and  at  his  death  left  a  leg- 
acy of  $350,000  to  found  a  public 
library  in  New  York  City  (see 
Astor  Library);  the  remainder 
of  his  wealth,  consisting  largely  of 
real  property  in  New  York,  esti- 
mated at  $30,000,000,  went  to 
his  son,  William  Backhouse 
(1792-1875),  who  at  different 
times  added  $550,000  to  his 
father's  library  bequest. 

Astor,  John  Jacob  (1864- 
1912),  great-grandson  of  John 
Jacob  Astor  (q.v.)  by  the  junior 
branch,  was  born  in  Rhinebeck- 
on-Hudson,  N.  Y.,  and  was  grad- 
uated (1888)  from  Harvard.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War  he  was  made  a 
lieutenant  colonel  of  volunteers 
and  equipped  a  mountain  battery 
which  served  effectively  in  the 
Philippines.  He  invented  several 
useful  mechanical  appliances,  and 
published  A  Journey  in  Other 
Worlds:  A  Romance  of  the  Future 
(1894).  He  was  drowned  in  the 
Titanic  disaster  (q.v.). 


Vol.  I. — March  '29 


Astor 


441 A 


Astrocaryum 


Astor,  Nancy  Witcher  Lang- 
HORNE,  Viscountess  (1879- 
)  the  first  woman  member  of 
the  British  House  of  Commons, 
was  born  in  Virginia.  She  was 
married  to  Robert  Gould  Shaw 
of  Boston  in  1897,  and  was  di- 
vorced from  him  in  1903,  becom- 
ing the  wife  of  Lord  Astor  in 
1906.  Upon  her  husband's  in- 
heriting his  father's  title  he  was 
transferred  from  the  House  of 
Commons  to  the  House  of  Lords 
and  Lady  Astor  made  a  spirited 
campaign  for  his  seat  in  the 
Commons  as  member  from  Ply- 
mouth. She  was  elected  in  1919, 
becoming  the  first  woman  to  ob- 
tain a  seat  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. She  has  been  reelected  at 
every  General  Election  since  then 
and  enjoys  great  popularity  and 
has  real  influence.  Lady  Astor 
is  a  good  speaker  and  is  actively 
interested  in  all  women's  ques- 
tions and  the  cause  of  temperance 
reform.  In  1928,  on  one  of  her 
frequent  visits  to  the  United 
States,  she  received  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  William  and  Mary 
College.  She  is  the  author  of  My 
Two  Countries  (1923). 

Astor,  William  Waldorf 
(1848-1919),  great-grandson  of 
John  Jacob  Astor  (q.v.),  was 
born  in  New  York  City.  He 
studied  law  and  in  1877  was  a 
member  of  the  New  York  Assem- 
bly and  in  1879  of  the  New  York 
Senate.  He  was  United  States 
minister  to  Italy  (1882-5),  and 
there  gathered  material  for  his 
novels — Valentino  (1885)  and 
Sforza,  a  Story  of  Milan  (1889). 
He  settled  in  England  in  1891, 
became  proprietor  of  the  Pall 
Mall  Gazette,  Budget,  and  Maga- 
zine, and  in  1893  bought  the 
Duke  of  Westminster's  Cliveden 
estate.  He  was  naturalized  as  a 
British  subject  in  1899,  and  in 
1916  was  created  Viscount  of 
Hever  Castle. 

Astoreth.    See  Astarte. 

Astor'ga,  town,  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Leon,  on  a  spur  of  the 
Manzanal  chain;  32  miles  south- 
west of  Leon.  Notable  features 
are  the  seventeenth  century  town 
hall,  the  Cathedral  dating  from 
the  fifteenth  century,  the  bishop's 
palace  and  Priests'  Seminary. 
Astorga  is  the  Roman  Asturica 
Augusta.  It  was  destroyed  by 
the  Goths  and  the  Arabs  and  in 
1810  offered  heroic  resistance  to 
the  F"rench.    Pop.  (1920)  6,312. 

Astorga,  Baron  Emanuele  d' 
(1681-1736),  Italian  musician, 
was  born  in  Palermo.  His  best- 
known  compositions  are  a  Stabat 
Mater  for  four  voices;  an  opera, 
Dafne;  and  cantatas  entitled 
Quando  Penso  and  Torna  Aprile. 
Few  details  of  his  life  are 
known. 

Asto'ria,  city,  Oregon,  county 
seat  of  Clatsop  County,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  River, 
on  the  Spokane,  Portland,  and 
Seattle  Railroad;  100  miles  north- 

VOL.  I. — March  '29 


west  of  Portland.  It  has  a  large 
lumber  industry  and  salmon  can- 
neries, and  is  a  shipping  point  for 
flour  and  grain.  Founded  by 
J.  J.  Astor  in  1811,  it  was  in  its 
early  history  noted  for  fur  trade. 
Pop.  (1910),  9,559;  (1920)  14,027. 

Astor  Library.  See  New 
York  Public  Library. 

Astor  Place  Riot,  a  serious 
disturbance  which  took  place  in 
New  York  City  on  the  evening  of 
May  10,  1849,  at  the  Astor  Place 
Opera  House.  The  English  actor 
William  C.  Macready  (q.v.)  had 
been  announced  to  play  Macbeth, 
but  a  number  of  partisans  of  the 
American  actor  Edwin  Forrest 
(q.v.),  reinforced  by  a  mob  of 
anti-English  sympathizers,  made 
a  violent  attack  on  the  opera 
house,  and  were  prevailing  over 
the  police  when  the  Seventh  Reg- 
iment was  called  out.  A  conflict 
ensued  in  which  34  rioters  were 
killed  and  about  150  members  of 
the  regiment  wounded.  Two 
days  later  Macready  left  quietly 
for  Boston,  whence  he  sailed  for 
England. 

Astrabad,  as-tra-bad',  or  As- 
terbad,  town,  Persia,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Astrabad; 
about  20  miles  from  Bender-Guz 
on  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  a  dilap- 
idated but  picturesque  town  sur- 
rounded by  a  mud  wall  flanked 
with  round  towers.  The  streets 
are  paved  with  stone,  and  there 
are  ruins  of  the  governor's  palace, 
built  in  1791,  and  several  small 
public  buildings  and  colleges. 
Soap  boiling  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  gunpowder  are  the  chief 
industries.  Rice,  grain,  salt,  silk, 
caviare,  and  carpets  are  sent  by 
caravan  to  Afghanistan  and  to 
Russia.    Pop.  about  9,000. 

Astrsea,  as-tre'a,  in  Greek 
mythology  the  goddess  of  justice, 
daughter  of  Zeus  and  Themis,  or 
of  Aristaeus  and  Eos  (Aurora) ,  and 
the  last  of  the  celestials  to  leave 
the  earth  during  the  Iron  Age. 

The  name  Astrcca  was  often 
applied  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  to 
whom  Sir  John  Davies  (?1560- 
1626)  addressed  his  Hymns  of 
Astrcea,  a  series  of  twenty-six 
acrostics  making  the  words 
'Elisabetha  Regina.' 

As'tragal,  a  small  moulding, 
usually  applied  to  the  bars  in 
windows  which  carry  the  glass. 

Astragalus,  as-trag'a-lus,  one 
of  the  bones  forming  the  ankle- 
joint.    See  Ankle;  Foot. 

Astragalus,  a  large  genus 
(about  1 ,000  species)  of  plants,  of 
the  order  Papilionacea?,  found  in 
almost  every  country  except  Aus- 
tralia, and  commonly  known  as 
Milk  Vetches  or  Rattle  Weeds. 
Many  are  spiny,  the  stump  of 
the  leaf  adhering  to  the  stem  and 
assuming  a  sharp  point.  The 
leaves  are  generally  pinnate,  and 
the  variously  colored  flowers  are 
borne  in  spikes  or  racemes.  Cer- 
tain species,  as  A.  gummifer,  a 
native  of  Asia  Minor  and  Persia, 


are  the  source  of  gum  tragacanth 
(q.v.).  Two  American  species, 
A.  crassicarpus  and  A.  Mexican- 
us,  the  ground  plums,  have  edi- 
ble, fleshy  fruits,  but  the  western 
species,  in  particular,  as  A.  hypo- 
glottis,  the  Purple  Milk  Vetch, 
and  A.  adsurgens,  are  most  useful 
as  forage  plants.  Some  species 
such  as  A.  drummondi,  are  sus- 
pected of  being  poisonous  to 
stock,  one,  A.  mollissimus,  is  the 
poisonous  Purple  Loco,  Woolly 
Loco  Weed,  or  Crazy  Weed  (see 
Loco  Weed). 

Astrakhan,  as'tra-kan',  gov- 
ernment, Russia,  in  the  south- 
eastern part,  with  an  area  of 
91,042  square  miles.  The  sur- 
face is  mainly,  level,  treeless 
steppe;  but  the  Ergheni  Hills, 
along  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga, 
reach  heights  of  500  feet.  Fish- 
ing and  salt  extracting  are  the 
main  industries.  The  wool,  soap, 
and  caviare  of  Astrakhan  are 
famous.    Pop.  (1922)  387,143. 

Astrakhan,  city,  Russia,  capi- 
tal of  Astrakhan  government,  is 
built  on  an  island  in  the  Volga 
delta,  40  miles  from  its.  main 
mouth.  Notable  features  are  the 
Kremlin,  the  Greek  Cathedral, 
the  Bazaar,  the  Duma,  the 
Church  of  the  Assumption,  and 
the  Governor's  House.  Fishing 
is  the  chief  industry,  and  there 
are  soap  and  candle  works,  tan- 
neries, distilleries,  and  breweries. 
The  city  is  an  important  port  on 
the  Volga,  and  has  a  large  trade. 
Fish,  wood,  caviare,  petroleum, 
cotton  goods,  sugar,  and  manu- 
factured articles  are  exported, 
while  cotton,  fruit,  rice,  silk, 
and  leather,  are  imported.  Pop. 
(1922)  239,681. 

Astrakhan  Fur,  also  known 
as  Karakul,  a  black  or  gray  fur 
prepared  from  the  pelts  of  Bok- 
hara lambs. 

As'tral  Body,  a  term  used  by 
Theosophists  to  designate  the 
higher  and  invisible  part  of  man's 
physical   nature.     See  Theos- 

OPHY. 

Astrin'gents,  drugs  which 
contract  tissues,  chiefly  by  coagu- 
lating albumin.  When  applied 
in  the  form  of  lotions  or  oint- 
ments, they  reduce  the  conges- 
tion of  mucous  membranes,  and 
thus  assist  in  the  healing  of 
wounds  and  ulcers;  when  taken 
internally,  they  are  useful  in  cases 
of  haemorrhage  or  diarrhcra.  Ni- 
trate of  silver,  tannic  and  gallic 
acids,  lead  acetate,  zinc  sulphate, 
alum,  and  dilute  mineral  arids  are 
the  principal  astringents. 

Astrocaryum,  as-tro-kar'i- 
um,  a  genus  of  palms  native  to 
tropical  America.  Thirty  or 
more  species  are  known,  many  of 
which  bear  edible  fruit,  with  a 
melon-like  flavor.  A.  murumuru, 
whose  fruit  is  particularly  desir- 
able, grows  to  about  10  or  12  feet 
in  height,  and  is  found  largely 
about  Para  and  on  the  Amazon. 
From  the  leaves  of  a  taller  vari- 


Astrolabe 


441  B 


Astrology 


ety,  known  as  the  Tucum  palm, 
the  natives  obtain  a  fine,  strong 
fibre  of  which  they  make  cordage 
for  bowstrings  and  fishing  nets. 
Cattle  and  swine  feed  on  the  truit 
and  seeds  of  various  other  species. 

Astrolabe,  as'tro-lab,  an  ar- 
rangement of  rings  representing 


Ancient  Moorish  Astrolabe 


the  equator,  prime  meridian, 
ecliptic,  etc.,  which  was  used  by 
astronomers  in  the  middle  ages. 
An  instrument  used  by  mariners 
in  the  age  of  the  great  discoveries 
for  ascertaining  the  altitude  of 
the  sun  was  also  called  an  astro- 
labe. It  consisted  of  a  gradu- 
ated disc  with  an  alidade  pivoted 
on  the  centre. 

Astrol'ogy,  the  science  whereby 
celestial  phenomena  are  inter- 
preted for  the  direction  of  mun- 
dane affairs.  Astrology  and 
astronomy  were  long  regarded  as 
a  single  science,  but  eventually 
a  distinction  was  made  and  as- 
trology was  restricted  to  the 
sphere  of  foretelling  the  future. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  sciences 
known  to  man.  Careful  and  ex- 
tensive research  has  ascertained 
that  after  reigning  supreme  in 
Babylon  it  spread  to  Syria  and 
Egypt,  Phoenicia  and  Persia, 
China  and  India.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  era  it 
flourished  in  Greece  and  Rome; 
in  the  latter  city  especially,  as- 
trologers, or  'soothsayers'  as  they 
were  called,  occupied  a  prominent 
position  in  society  and  were  con- 
sulted on  many  important  ques- 
tions. The  Arabs  of  the  desert 
were  firm  believers  in  astrology, 
and  the  teachings  of  Mohammed 
in  regard  to  predestination  ac- 
cord well  with  astrological  pre- 
dictions. In  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  the  astro- 
nomical discoveries  of  Coperni- 
cus, Galileo  and  Kepler  tended 
to  discredit  the  science  of  astrol- 
ogy and  since  that  time  its  inhu- 
ence  has  greatly  declined. 

Astrology  proceeds  from  the 
assumption  that  a  careful  study 
of  the  stars  may  serve  to  guide 
man  through  life.  The  astrolo- 
ger's judgment  is  founded  on  the 


configuration  of  the  heavens  at  a 
given  moment,  and  depends 
principally  on  the  seven  planets 
(Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  Sun, 
Venus,  Mercury,   Moon),  their 


'aspects,'  or  the  angles  between 
them  (conjunction,  opposition, 
trine  or  120°,  quartile  or  90°,  sex- 
tile  or  60°),  and  their  positions 
among  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac  and  the  twelve  'houses'  of 
heaven.  Bach  planet  has  one  or 
two  signs  of  the  zodiac  ascribed 
to  him  for  his  'mansion,'  and  may 
be  further  'fortified'  by  'exalta- 
tion,' 'term,'  'triplicity,'  or  'face'; 
or  he  may  be  weakened  in  his 


'detriment'  or  'fall,'  or  should  he 
be  'retrograde,'  'combust,'  or 
'peregrine.'  Among  the  planets, 
Jupiter  and  Venus  are  generally 
benefic,  Saturn  and  Mars  malefic. 


Of  the  aspects,  sextile  is  good, 
opposition  and  quartile  evil;  con- 
junction is  neutral.  The  twelve 
houses  are  equal  divisions  of  the 
sky,  six  above  the  horizon  and 
six  below;  and  all  save  circum- 
polar  stars  necessarily  pass  once 
through  each  house  every  twenty- 
four  hours. 

The  first  house,  or  'the  ascen- 
dant,' is  that  immediately  below 
the  eastern  horizon,  so  that  the 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


V  JupKct 
Ij  Saturo 
IJ{  Herschel 
/L  Retrograd* 


Goethe's  Horoscope 
(Described  and  interpreted  according  to  the  principles  of  Astrology) 

The  17th  degree  of  the  celestial  sign  Scorpio  was  rising  upon  the  cusp  of  the 
ascendant  at  the  time  of  Goethe's  birth.  The  18th  degree  of  Sagittarius  was  upon 
the  cusp  of  the  2nd,  the  25th  degree  of  Capricorn  upon  the  3rd.  and  the  sign  Aqua- 
rius was  also  'intercepted'  in  the  3rd  house;  4  degs.  56  min.  of  the  sign  Pisces  was 
upon  the  cusp  of  the  4th,  the  6th  degree  of  Aries  on  the  cusp  of  the  5th.  and  the 
29th  degree  of  the  same  sign  on  the  cusp  of  the  6th;  the  17th  degree  of  Scorpio 
was  upon  the  cusp  of  the  7th,  the  18th  degree  of  Gemini  upon  the  8th,  the  25th 
degree  of  Cancer  upon  the  9th,  while  Leo  was  'intercepted'  in  the  9th;  4  degs. 
56  min.  of  Virgo  was  upon  the  meridian;  the  6th  degree  of  Libra  was  upon  the 
11th,  and  the  29th  degree  of  the  same  sign  upon  the  cusp  of  the  12th. 

Saturn,  the  planet  of  profundity,  had  just  risen  upon  the  ascendant  in  the  sign 
Scorpio;  the  Sun  and  Venus  were  culminating  in  the  sign  Virgo;  Mercuvy  was 
placed  in  the  sign  Leo  in  the  9th  house,  affecting  his  philosophy  or  religion;  the 
Moon  and  Jupiter  were  in  a  nadir  in  the  sign  Pisces,  affecting  the  environment 
and  denoting  the  satisfactory  condition  at  the  close  of  life.  The  planet  Uranus 
(metaphysics)  was  placed  in  the  3rd  house  in  Aquarius,  governing  the  intellect; 
while  Mars,  the  planet  of  force,  was  in  the  2nd  house,  influencing  finance. 

Three  planets  occupied  earthy  and  watery  signs  respectively,  and  one  each  the 
fiery  and  airy  signs  in  the  above  map,  while  four  planets  were  in  common  or  mu- 
table signs,  three  in  fixed  and  one  in  cardinal,  and  no  less  than  five  planets  were 
angular.  It  is  from  the  planetary  positions  and  aspects  which  they  form  to  each 
other  that  the  astrologer  draws  his  judgment — favorable  aspects,  as  the  trines 
and  sextiles  are  termed,  denoting  a  favorable  career,  while  the  oppositions  and 
squares  give  indifferent  success  and  many  obstacles  to  overcome. 

At  the  moment  of  Goethe's  birth  the  ponderous  planet  Saturn  had  just  risen 
in  the  15th  degree  of  the  ascendant.  The  luminaries  and  the  benefic  planets  were 
angular;  thus  five  planets  occupied  the  angles  of  the  Nativity.  Goethe's  first 
love  was  at  fifteen  years  of  age,  when  the  Moon  had  progressed  in  his  horoscope 
to  the  conjunction  "of  the  love  planet  Venus.  It  is  said  that  from  youth  Goethe 
was  never  without  a  passion — a  fact  that  is  clearly  demonstrated  by  the  angular 
position  of  Venus  and  the  trine  aspect  of  the  Sun  to  the  planet  Mars.  Goethe's 
love  of  the  mystical  is  fully  borne  out  by  the  rising  of  the  weird  planet  Saturn 
in  the  mystical  sign  Scorpio,  and  his  literary  ability  by  Mercury  in  the  9th  house 
in  the  sign  Leo,  a  dramatic  and  poetic  sign.  He  was  a  student  of  Lavater  and 
also  deeply  interested  in  all  .scientific  research  work;  but  underlying  all  his  studies 
there  is  to  be  seen  that  deeply  metaphysical  vein  which  his  nativity  so  plainly 
denotes. 


Astronomical  Society,  American 


442 


Astronomy 


stars  in  it  are  on  the  point  of 
rising.  The  second  follows  imme- 
diately after;  and  so  on  to  the 
sixth  house,  which  contains  the 
stars  immediately  below  the  west- 
ern horizon.  The  seventh  house 
is  the  first  above  the  horizon,  and 
contains  the  stars  about  to  set; 
the  eighth  and  ninth  lie  above  it; 
and  the  tenth,  in  the  'mid-heaven,' 
contains  the  stars  approaching 
culmination;  while  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth,  containing  stars  re- 
cently risen,  lie  between  the  mid- 
heaven  and  the  ascendant. 

The  astrologer's  first  care  is  to 
draw  a  figure  of  the  heavens,  vis- 
ible and  invisible,  divided  into 
twelve  houses,  and  to  mark  on  it 
the  zodiacal  signs  and  the  planets 
at  their  proper  places.  This  is 
called  'casting  the  horoscope,'  or 
the  'nativity'  if  it  refers  to  the 
birth  of  a  child.  He  next  ob- 
serves which  sign  is  rising,  and 
takes  the  planet  whose  mansion 
it  is  for  the  'lord  of  the  ascendant,' 
or  the  querent's  significator. 
Then,  if  a  significator  is  wanted 
for  the  quesited,  or  person  in- 
quired about,  he  looks  to  the  sign 
in  the  proper  house.  Thus,  the 
lord  of  the  seventh  would  stand 
for  the  querent's  wife,  the  lord  of 
the  fourth  for  his  father,  etc. 
When  all  the  evidence  ha?  been 
carefully  weighed,  judgment  may 
be  given. 

Consult  Ptolemy's  Tetrabiblos; 
Lilly's  Christian  Astrology  (1647) ; 
Sibley's  Astrology  (1789);  Cu- 
mont's  Astrology  and  Religion 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans; 
Leo's  Practical  Astrology;  Hein- 
del's  Simplified  Scientific  Astrolo- 
ogy;  Craig's  Stars  of  Destiny 
(1916). 

Astronomical  Society,  Ameri- 
can, a  society  organized  in  1898 
for  the  advancement  of  astron- 
omy, astrophysics,  and  related 
branches  of  physics.  The  mem- 
bership of  about  400  is  confined 
to  persons  capable  of  preparing 
an  acceptable  paper  on  some 
astronomical,  astrophysical,  or 
kindred  subject. 

Astron'omy,  the  science  of  the 
celestial  bodies,  first  took  definite 
shape  in  Babylonia,  where,  in  the 
third  millennium  B.C.,  the  sphere 
began  to  be  measured,  the  zodiac 
was  delimited  and  divided,  and 
many  of  the  constellations  were 
named.  It  developed  into  a  co- 
herent vscience  only  through  the 
formative  influence  of  Greek  gen- 
ius. The  Greeks  received  a 
considerable  amount  of  astro- 
nomical knowledge  and  observa- 
tional material  from  the  Babylo- 
nians and  Egyptians,  but  few 
general  principles  had  been  de- 
duced. 

The  theory  of  homocentric 
spheres,  invented  by  Eudoxus  of 
Cnidus  (406-350  B.C.)  and  elab- 
orated by  Aristotle,  represented  a 
memorable  effort  to  grapple  with 
the  problem  of  celestial  move- 
ments; but  the  line  of  great  as- 


tronomers started  with  Hippar- 
chus  (about  140  B.C.),  whose 
adoption  of  the  epicycles  and  ec- 
centrics of  Appolonius  decided 
the  plan  of  the  great  edifice 
raised  by  Claudius  Ptolemaeus 
three  hundred  years  later.  Even 
Copernicus  did  not  attempt  its 
subversion.  He  changed  the 
point  of  view,  but  not  the  prin- 
ciple of  interpretation.  Ptol- 
emy's Almagest,  though  under- 
mined, stood  erect  until  brought 
to  the  ground  by  the  impact  of 
Kepler's  discoveries. 

The  Copernican  system,  inter- 
preting the  daily  motion  of  the 
sun,  planets,  and  stars  from  east 
to  west  as  an  apparent  motion 
produced  by  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  about  an  axis,  and  substi- 
tuting the  sun  for  the  earth  as 
the  centre  of  planetary  motion, 
was  much  simpler  than  the  Ptole- 
maic and  represented  equally 
well  the  motions  of  the  planets. 
It  soon  became  evident,  however, 
that  a  really  stringent  and  deci- 
sive test  between  the  two  theories 
could  not  be  applied  until  obser- 
vations of  greater  accuracy  and 
in  greater  abundance  were  avail- 
able. This  was  realized  and,  to 
to  the  best  of  his  ability,  supplied 
by  Tycho  Brahe  (1546-1601). 
Through  the  plain  sights — for  the 
telescope  had  not  yet  been  in- 
vented—placed far  apart  on  his 
great  mural  quadrant,  he  was 
able  greatly  to  increase  the  ac- 
curacy of  aiming  at  the  heavenly 
bodies  and  thus  measuring  their 
positions.  He  was  fortunate, 
also,  in  securing  Kepler  as  his 
assistant. 

Wren,  Hooke,  and  Halley  all 
divined  the  law  of  gravitation  but 
failed  to  apply  it  as  the  main- 
spring of  the  planetary  machine. 
Newton  came  to  the  rescue;  and 
his  continental  successors,  Euler, 
D'Alembert,  Lagrange,  and  La- 
place, using  the  flexible  methods 
of  analysis,  needed  a  full  century 
to  complete  in  its  details  the 
colossal  work  he  had  reared  on  a 
massive  bavse.  Laplace's  Meca- 
nique  Celeste  (1799-1805)  was  the 
complement  to  Newton's  Prin- 
cipia  (1687),  and  presented  as- 
tronomy under  the  aspect  of  a 
solved  mechanical  problem. 

Meanwhile,  descriptive  or  tele- 
scopic astronomy,  initiated  by 
Galileo  (1564-1642),  was  assum- 
ing predominant  importance 
through  the  labors  of  William 
Herschel  (1738-1822).  Atten- 
tion had  until  then  been  concen- 
trated on  the  solar  system — stars 
and  nebulae  being  regarded  inci- 
dentally. Herschel  originated 
their  systematic  study,  prescrib- 
ing some  of  the  leading  methods 
of  modern  astronomy. 

Astromelry. — A  tyr)ical  2()th- 
ccntury  observatory  combines 
astrophysics  and  astrometry.  In- 
vestigations into  the  nature  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  proceed  side 
by  side  with  determinations  of 


their  positions  and  movements. 
For  the  latter  purpose  the  transit 
circle  is  essential.  It  consists  of 
a  telescope  movable  in  the  plane 
of  the  meridian,  attached  with  a 
large  graduated  circle  to  a  rigid 
horizontal  axis.  The  culmination 
of  a  star  is  fixed  by  noting  the 
successive  instants  of  its  transits 
across  a  set  of  vertical  spider- 
lines,  an  electric  chronograph 
serving  as  the  recorder,  while  the 
corresponding  declination  is  read 
off  on  the  perpendicular  circle. 
Fifty  or  sixty  such  complete  ob- 
servations constitute  a  good 
night's  work,  and  the  material 
accumulated  serves,  when  reduced 
and  corrected,  for  the  construc- 
tion of  star  catalogues,  and  for 
the  improvement  of  solar,  lunar, 
and  planetary  tables.  The  obser- 
vation of  star  transits  determines 
the  correct  local  time  and  the 
error  of  the  clock.  Comparison, 
by  means  of  telegraph,  transpor- 
tation of  chronometers,  or  radio, 
with  the  local  time  of  another 
place,  gives  the  difference  of  lon- 
gitude. Radio  broadcasting  of 
time  signals  has  made  it  possible 
for  many  observatories  to  discon- 
tinue their  own  time  service. 

Extra-meridional  determina- 
tions of  position  on  the  sphere 
are  made  with  the  prime  vertical, 
and  the  altitude  and  azimuth 
instruments;  and  the  zenith  tele- 
scope is  used  primarily  for  meas- 
uring star  declinations,  seconda- 
rily for  investigating  variations  of 
latitude  and  the  constant  of  ab- 
erration. 

The  relative  situations  of  ad- 
jacent objects  in  the  sky  can  be 
accurately  ascertained  by  means 
of  an  equatorial  and  micrometer. 
A  telescope  is  said  to  be  equa- 
torially  mounted  when  it  follows, 
actuated  by  clockwork,  the  diur- 
nal revolution  of  the  heavens. 
One  of  a  pair  of  crossed  axes, 
directed  towards  the  pole,  carries 
the  'hour  circle';  the  other,  at 
right  angles  to  it,  supports  the 
telescope  and  'dechnation  circle.' 
Any  object  with  known  co-ordi- 
nates can  then,  by  setting  the 
circles,  be  readily  brought  into 
the  field  of  view;  to  keep  it  there, 
it  is  necessary  only  to  start  a 
driving-clock,  by  which  uniform 
rotation,  once  in  twenty-four 
hours,  is  imparted  to  the  polar 
axis.  In  the  'Coude'  form  of 
equatorial,  adopted  at  Paris,  a 
revolving  plane  mirror  reflects 
the  objects  to  be  observed  into 
the  polar  axis  of  the  telescope, 
which  itself  remains  stationary. 

Micrometers  are  of  two  prin- 
cipal types.  In  the  first,  fine 
wires  are  moved  by  delicate 
screws  until  they  bisect  the  ob- 
jects to  be  determined.  This 
gives  their  distance  apart;  and 
the  angle  made  with  the  meridian 
by  the  line  joining  them  is  learned 
by  rotating  the  apparatus  until 
the  threads  run  parallel  to  that 
direction,  and  then  reading  the 


Vol,  I.— Oct.  '24 


Astronomy 


443 


Astronomy 


'position  circle.'  Measures  of 
double  stars  are  always  thus  exe- 
cuted. In  finding  the  position  ot 
a  comet  the  micrometer  is  usually 
set  in  two  positions:  with  the 
wires  parallel  and  perpendicular, 
respectively,  to  the  direction  of 
the  diurnal  motion.  The  distance 
of  the  comet  from  two  or  more 
nearby  stars  is  measured  in  these 
two  co-ordinates.  The  helio- 
meter  gives  better  results  in  the 
measurement  of  very  small  an- 
gular distances  such  as  stellar 
parallax — the  slight  shift  in  posi- 
tion of  a  star  as  the  earth  moves 
from  one  side  of  its  orbit  to  the 
other. 

A  heliometer  is  an  equatorial 
with  a  divided  object-glass;  as  the 
segments  slide  apart,  the  image 
of  each  star  or  planet  is  dupli- 
cated, and  the  amount  of  dis- 
placement needed  to  produce  co- 
incidence between  the  opposite 
members  of  the  pair  of  objects 
to  be  measured  gives  their  an- 
gular distance  on  the  sphere. 

A  profound  change  has  been 
brought  about  in  the  scope,  no 
less  than  in  the  methods,  of  as- 
trometry  by  the  adoption  of  the 
camera  as  an  instrument  of  pre- 
cision. Plans  were  made  at  the 
Paris  Astronomical  Congress  in 
1887  to  photograph  the  entire  sky 
on  plates  each  covering  four 
square  degrees,  eighteen  obser- 
vatories co-operating  in  the  work. 
The  positions  and  magnitudes  of 
all  stars  above  the  twelfth  mag- 
nitude were  to  be  measured  and 
compiled  in  the  Aslrographic 
Catalogue,  and  charts  reproduced 
from  the  plates.  The  catalogue  is 
likely  to  embrace  some  4,000,000 
stars;  and  the  chart  will  secure 
the  identification  of  perhaps  30,- 
000,000.  Rapid  progress  was 
made  at  the  start,  especially  by 
the  more  numerous  northern  ob- 
servatories, but  serious  delay 
was  caused  by  the  failure  of  several 
of  the  co-operating  observatories 
to  carry  out  their  parts  of  the 
programme  and  the  necessity  of 
transferring  the  responsibility  for 
such  zones,  at  a  late  date,  to 
other  observatories.  The  refer- 
ence stars  of  the  Aslrographic 
Catalogue,  whose  positions  are 
measured  with  the  meridian  circle, 
will  be  used  for  a  similar  purpose 
in  the  remeasurement  of  the  stars 
of  the  Kalalog  der  astronomischen 
Gesellshafl  on  large  plate  glass 
negatives  to  be  taken  at  the  Yale 
Observatory  with  a  wide-angle 
doublet.  The  vision  of  E.  C. 
Pickering  (q.  v.)  in  inaugurating, 
toward  the  close  of  the  last  cen- 
tury', a  programme  of  systemati- 
cally and  repeatedly  photograph- 
ing the  entire  sky  on  small  scale 
plates  has  produced  an  enormous 
storehouse  of  astronomical  infor- 
mation. Such  plates  give  much 
of  the  life  histories  of  nova.',  and 
the  character  of  light  variation  of 
many  stars.  Their  value  for  the 
detection  and   measurement  of 


the  minute  proper  motion  of  stars 
continually  increases  with  the 
lengthening  of  the  interval  since 
the  exposure  of  the  earliest  plates. 
The  photographic  determination 
of  stellar  parallaxes  has  super- 
seded the  use  of  the  heliometer 
for  this  purpose.  Stellar  parallax 
is  one  of   the  smallest  angles 


Mainly  photographic,  too,  was 
the  remarkable  solar  parallax 
campaign  of  1900-1,  when  com- 
bined determinations  of  the  minor 
planet  Eros  were  made  at  58 
observatories.  Detected  in  1898 
by  its  motion-trail  on  a  negative 
strewn  with  the  round  images  of 
fixed  stars,  Eros  proved  to  be  the 


Astronomical  Instruments 


which  the  astronomer  attempts 
to  measure,  and  the  utmost  care 
and  precaution  against  the  many 
possible  sources  of  error  must  be 
taken  in  the  exposure  of  the 
plates.  The  distance  of  a  great 
number  of  stars  is  vital  to  inves- 
tigation of  the  distribution  of  the 
stars  and  the  plan  of  the  universe. 
Many  observatories  are  devoting 
to  stellar  parallax  a  large  part  of 
their  observing  programme. 


one  known  asteroid  circulating 
nearer  to  the  earth  than  Mars. 

A  photographic  method  of  de- 
termining the  moon's  position 
from  day  to  day  has  been  devel- 
oped and  has  furnished  material 
for  the  improvement  of  the  lunar 
tables. 

Astrophysics. — The  character- 
istic astrophysical  instrument  is 
the  spectroscope,  or  rather  the 
spectrograph;  for  the  spectra  of 

I.— Oct.  '21 


Astronomy 


Astronomy 


the  heavenly  bodies  are  now  ordi- 
narily recorded  photographically. 
(See  Spectrum.)  By  means  of 
spectroscopic  investigations,  the 
heavenly  bodies  have  been  assim- 
ilated chemically,  as  they  were 
physically  by  the  discovery  of 
gravitation,  to  our  common 
earth. 

The  spectrum  of  a  single  star 
is  photographed  with  a  slit  spec- 
troscope, the  length  of  the  spec- 
trum ribbon  depending  on  the 
number  of  prisms  used.  The 
spectra  of  an  entire  field  of  stars 
can  be  photographed  on  one 
plate,  if  a  large  prism  is  placed  in 
front  of  the  object  glass.  Stellar 
spectra  are  classified,  mainly,  ac- 
cording to  the  intensity  of  the 
dark  absorption  lines  of  the  vari- 
ous elements.  The  main  types 
of  the  Harvard  classification, 
now  accepted  internationally,  are 
designated  o  b  a  f  G  K  M,  and 
these  have  been  decimally  sub- 
divided to  give  a  linear  sequence 
of  line  intensity. 

Many  of  the  properties  of  stars 
are  related  to  their  spectra.  The 
classification  by  Miss  Cannon  of 
the  spectra  of  over  200,000  of  the 
brighter  stars,  and  their  publica- 
tion in  the  Henry  Draper  Cata- 
logue, adds  immeasurably  to  the 
power  of  investigation  in  other 
lines.  It  has  been  convincingly 
shown  that  spectral  type  is 
mainly  a  function  of  tempera- 
ture. The  hotter  the  star,  the 
farther  toward  the  violet  end  of 
the  spectrum  lies  the  maximum 
intensity  of  radiation.  The  tem- 
peratures range  from  over  20,- 
000°  c.  for  the  o-  and  B-  type 
stars  to  about  3,000°  c.  for  the 
M-type  stars.  These  low-tem- 
perature stars  are  distinctly  red- 
dish. Since  the  ordinary  photo- 
graphic plate  is  more  sensitive 
than  the  eye  to  light  of  short 
wave  length,  spectral  type  is 
closely  related  to,  and  runs  paral- 
lel witli  'color  index,'  which  is 
the  difference  between  the  bright- 
ness of  a  star  measured  photo- 
graphically and  its  brightness 
measured  visually. 

Much  interest  has  been  shown 
in  recent  years  in  the  order  of 
evolution  of  the  stars.  That  they 
are  gradually  changing  from  one 
type  to  another  we  cannot  doubt. 
They  radiate  vast  quantities  of 
heat  and  light  into  space.  But 
this  change  is  exceedingly  slow. 
The  geologic  records  convince  us 
that  the  amount  of  heat  received 
by  the  earth  from  the  sun  has  not 
materially  changed  in  hundreds 
of  millions  of  years.  Various 
lines  of  evidence  converge  to 
show  that  there  are  two  widely 
different  kinds  of  low-tempera- 
ture stars.  There  are  'giant' 
M  stars  of  very  low  density  and 
'dwarf  M  stars  of  high  density. 
P'arther  up  the  temperature  scale 
the  two  types  persist,  but  with 
ever  decreasing  separation.  Other 
evidence,  also,  converges  to  the 


belief  that  the  stars  go  through 
parts  of  the  stellar  sequence 
twice:  beginning  their  visibility 
as  M-type  stars,  travelling  up  the 
sequence  as  they  condense  and 
become  hotter,  turning  at  the 
point  where  they  reach  a  density 
for  which  the  pure  gas  laws  no 
longer  hold,  running  down  the 
sequence  again  with  loss  of  heat 
and  increase  of  density.  Only 
the  most  massive  stars  reach  the 
B-type.  The  sun  is  in  type  G  on 
the  down  grade. 

The  detection  of  large  errors 
in  Rowland's  wave-lengths  led  to 
a  decision  by  the  International 
Union  for  co-operation  in  Solar 
Research  to  redetermine,  with 
the  greatest  care,  the  wave- 
lengths of  a  large  number  of 
spectral  lines,  which  might  serve 
as  standards  for  spectroscopic  in- 
vestigations. The  determination 
of  such  standards,  which  in- 
volves a  great  deal  of  v/ork,  is 
being  carried  forward  under  the 
supervision  of  a  committee  of  the 
International  Astronomical 
Union. 

By  the  application  of  'Dop- 
pler's  principle,'  the  spectroscope 
has  been  made  available  for  de- 
termining the  radial  movements 
of  celestial  objects,  and  in  this 
novel  research  astrometry  and 
astrophysics  find  common  ground. 
The  direct  use  of  the  telescope 
supplies  only  the  component  of 
velocity  at  right  angles  to  the 
visual  line;  the  other  remained 
undeterminable  until  Sir  William 
Huggins,  in  1868,  succeeded  in 
measuring  the  line-displacements 
in  stellar  spectra  depending  upon 
the  approach  or  recession  of  the 
stars  themselves.  The  effect  is 
similar  to  that  of  motion  upon 
sound,  exemplified  by  the  rise  and 
fall  in  pitch  of  a  steam-whistle  as 
a  train  dashes  past  a  stationary 
auditor.  The  method  has  af- 
forded valuable  information  re- 
garding the  sun's  rotation,  cy- 
clonic velocities  in  prominences, 
and  the  constitution  of  Saturn's 
rings;  and  it  obtained  a  vast  in- 
crease of  refinement  through " 
Vogel's  substitution,  in  1887,  of 
photographic  for  visual  measure- 
ments oi  motion-shifts.  Re- 
markable discoveries  have  re- 
sulted   from    these  researches. 

Spiral  nebulae  are  found  to  be 
moving  very  rapidly.  Velocities 
as  high  as  1000  kilometers  per 
second  have  been  measured. 
Double  stars,  revolving  too  close 
together  for  telescopic  separation, 
disclose  their  nature  through  the 
evidence  of  rapid  periodic  motion 
legible  in  their  spectra.  'Spec- 
troscopic binaries'  are  very  nu- 
merous; many  hundreds  are  al- 
ready known,  and  the  list  contin- 
ually lengthens.  Professor  Camp- 
bell estimates  that  one  star  in  five 
or  six  is  double.  Spectroscopic 
binaries  are  held  to  be  in  the 
most  primitive  stage  of  double 
star  development:  their  members 


sometimes  revolve  almost  in  con- 
tact, but  will,  according  to  Dar- 
win, gradually  withdraw  from 
one  another  under  the  influence 
of  tidal  friction.  A  certain  pro- 
portion, moreover,  are  subject  to 
eclipses,  because  circulating  in  a 
plane  that  passes  approximately 
through  the  earth.  Over  two 
hundred  eclipsing  systems  have 
been  recognized. 

The  duplicity  of  Algol,  the  first 
of  this  type  discovered,  was  long 
suspected  from  the  regularity  of 
its  light  variation  and  the  satis- 
factory manner  in  which  the  light 
curve  could  be  represented  by 
the  eclipse  theory.  Many  eclips- 
ing variables  have  now  been 
shown  to  be  spectroscopic  bina- 
ries, and  several  stars,  discovered 
first  as  spectroscopic  binaries, 
have  been  found,  on  careful 
watching,  to  show  light  variation 
characteristic  of  eclipse.  Their 
common  nature  is  beyond  doubt. 
One  component  of  these  close 
doubles  is  often  much  fainter 
than  the  other.  Often  the  spec- 
tral lines  of  the  brighter  compo- 
nent alone  can  be  seen  on  the 
plate. 

The  study  of  double  stars — 
visual,  spectroscopic,  and  eclips- 
ing— is  especially  valuable  be- 
cause of  the  information  acquired 
concerning  masses,  luminosities, 
densities,  etc.,  information  which 
aids  greatly  in  the  study  of  stellar 
evolution. 

Systematic  determinations  of 
stellar  radial  movements,  while 
yielding  valuable  by-products  in 
the  detection  of  individual  stellar 
systems,  are  mainly  designed  for 
the  promotion  of  knowledge  re- 
garding the  mechanism  of  the 
sidereal  universe.  Supplemented 
by  equally  systematic  determina- 
tions of  distance,  proper  motion, 
spectral  type  and  brightness, 
they  have  detected  and  deter- 
mined the  direction  of  the  sun's 
way  through  space,  bringing  with 
it  a  new  and  powerful  method  of 
estimating  the  distance  of  a  star 
from  the  parallactic  displacement 
caused  by  the  sun's  motion;  they 
have  identified  isolated  stars  as 
members  of  a  group  having  a 
common  motion  through  space; 
they  have  outlined  in  form  and 
size  the  galactic  system  of  stars 
and  the  local  cluster  surround- 
ing the  sun;  they  have  drawn 
a  picture  of  the  stars  moving 
in  two  great  streams  in  oppo- 
site directions  and  intermingling 
as  they  move. 

Becoming  impatient  at  the 
slowness  with  which  coherent 
material  useful  for  statistical 
studies  accumulates  by  random 
observation,  Kapteyn  laid  his 
plan  of  'selected  areas,'  whereby 
as  many  stars  as  possible,  in  a 
large  number  of  small  areas  all 
over  the  sky,  are  to  be  observed 
in  all  the  ways  known  to  science. 
Complete  information  concern- 
ing the  stars  in  these  sample  areas 


V  M,.  I.— Oct.  '21 


Astronomy 


445 


Astronomy 


may  safely  be  used  for  conclu- 
sions regarding  the  entire  visible 
universe. 

The  'double-slit'  method,  sug- 
gested by  Janssen  in  1869,  was, 
in  1891,  successfully  applied  by 
Hale  and  Deslandres  to  the  pho- 
tography of  solar  prominences 
and  faculse.  The  power  which  it 
gives  of  isolating  any  given  qual- 
ity of  light  supplied  the  means  of 
turning  to  account  for  their  por- 
trayal the  singular  vividness,  in 
those  objects,  of  the  rays  of  cal- 
cium and  hydrogen.  Professor 
Hale  devised  a  special  instrument 
known  as  the  spectroheliograph 
(q.  v.),  for  the  purposes  of  this 
novel  kind  of  photography.  The 
slit  of  a  spectroscope  is  driven 
slowly  across  the  focal  image  of 
the  sun's  disk.  A  second  slit  is 
set  to  allow  the  passage  of  the 
light  in  a  single  line  of  the  spec- 
trum to  the  photographic  plate 
immediately  behind,  and  is  given 
a  motion  corresponding  to  that  of 
the  first  slit.  A  photograph  of  the 
entire  sun's  disk  is  secured  in 
the  light  of  the  element  selected. 
Use  is  made  of  the  lines,  notably 
of  calcium  and  hydrogen,  which 
are  'reversed'  over  certain  regions 
of  the  solar  disk.  The  bright 
Hnes  originate  in  incandescent 
matter  at  a  high  level,  and  are 
superimposed  upon  the  dark  ab- 
sorption lines  of  the  lower  atmos- 
phere. The  photographs  picture 
the  'fiocculi'  and  prominences  in 
the  sun's  upper  atmosphere  in 
beautiful  detail. 

Other  instruments  in  astro- 
physical  use  are  heliostats,  for 
throwing  the  light  of  a  moving 
object  into  a  fixed  telescope;  bo- 
lometers, for  exploring  the  invi- 
sible heat  spectrum;  concave 
gratings,  by  which  rays  are  simul- 
taneously concentrated  and  an- 
alyzed; galvanometers,  interfer- 
ometers, photometers,  and  com- 
parators. With  the  bolometer 
and  pyrheliometer.  Abbot  has 
measured,  with  high  accuracy, 
the  'solar  constant' — the  amount 
of  radiation  from  the  sun  falling 
upon  unit  area  in  unit  time  at  the 
distance  of  the  earth.  The  rapid 
variation  of  the  solar  constant, 
amounting  to  several  per  cent., 
discovered  by  Abbot  in  the  course 
of  his  measurements,  is  being 
used  experimentally  in  weather 
forecasting. 

General  interest  was  aroused 
by  the  success  met  with  at  the 
Mount  Wilson  Solar  Observatory 
in  adapting  the  interferometer  to 
the  measurement  of  the  angular 
diameters  of  stars  and  the  start- 
ling result  of  the  measurement  of 
Betelgeuze.  A  great  increase  in 
the  effective  separation  of  the 
two  slits  was  accomplished  by 
feeding  the  OO-inch  mirror  from 
two  small  mirrors,  movable  along 
a  20-foot  steel  girder  mounted  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  telescope 
tube.  Observing  Betelgeuze,  it 
was  found  possible  to  make  the 


fringes  disappear  by  moving  the 
mirrors  10  feet  apart.  This  sep- 
aration corresponds  to  an  angular 
diameter  of  0.047",  and  a  linear 
diameter  300  times  that  of  the 
sun.  Now  Eddington  has  shown 
that  the  radiation  pressure  of  a 
star  five  times  as  massive  as  the 
sun  should  nearly  counteract 
gravitation,  and  that,  with  a 
greater  mass,  the  star  would  be 
unstable.  Observational  data 
combine  with  this  theoretical  ar- 
gument to  indicate  that  the  stars 
do  not  differ  greatly  in  mass. 
Betelgeuze  is,  therefore,  one  of 
the  'giants'  of  very  low  density. 
There  are  very  few  stars  whose 
angular  diameters  are  large 
enough  to  be  measured  directly 
by  the  complete  disappearance 
of  the  fringes,  even  with  the  20- 
foot  interferometer.  Michelson, 
however,  has  devised  a  method  of 
measuring  the  degree  of  visibility 
of  the  fringes  at  any  given  setting 
of  the  mirrors,  and  thus  deter- 
mining how  near  to  disappear- 
ance they  are  at  this  setting. 
This  device  will  greatly  extend 
the  usefulness  of  the  instrument. 
The  interferometer  can  be  used 
for  the  measurement  of  close 
double  stars  and  is  being  adapted 
to  this  purpose  at  several  obser- 
vatories. 

Photometric  researches  have 
been  extensively  prosecuted,  both 
visually  and  photographically. 
Under  the  direction  of  E.  C. 
Pickering,  and  largely  by  his  own 
observing,  a  great  programme  of 
observing  all  the  brighter  stars 
was  carried  out  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity Observatory,  and  at  its 
southern  station  in  Peru,  with  the 
result  that  the  relative  lustre  of 
all  the  stars  in  the  sky  down  to 
and  even  below  the  seventh  mag- 
nitude is  now  very  exactly  known. 
The  equalization  of  the  compared 
images  was  effected,  at  both  es- 
tablishments, by  means  of  a  po- 
larizing apparatus. 

Many  kinds  of  photometers 
utilizing  the  possibilities  of  equal- 
ization of  two  light  sources  by 
alteration  of  distance,  by  polari- 
zation, by  the  absorption  of  a 
wedge,  have  been  devised  and  ex- 
tensively used,  chiefly  in  the  study 
of  variable  stars.  After  a  great 
deal  of  painstaking  investigation 
of  sources  of  error,  and  the  effects 
of  length  of  exposure,  mode  of 
development,  etc.,  photographic 
photometry  now  rests  on  a  solid 
foundation.  The  devices  em- 
ployed for  deriving  the  photo- 
tographic  effect  produced  by  a 
star  include  the  measurement  of 
the  diameter  of  the  focal  image; 
the  degree  of  blackening  in  an 
out-of-focus  image;  the  effect 
upon  a  thermopile  of  light  passing 
through  the  stellar  image.  The 
photographic  effect  is  varied  by 
a  measurable  amount  by  the  use 
of  diaphragms,  sectors,  and  ob- 
jective gratings.  A  sequence  of 
stars  near  the  north  pole  has  been 


determined  with  the  greatest  care, 
and  other  sequences  have  been 
measured  in  other  parts  of  the 
sky,  for  comparison  with  fields 
being  measured. 

The  photographic  system  of 
magnitudes  has  been  tied  to  the 
visual  through  the  accepted  rule 
that  'photographic  magnitudes 
coincide  with  visual  magnitudes 
for  stars  having  spectra  of  class 
Ao  between  the  magnitudes  5.5 
and  6.5,  and  are  fainter  than  the 
visual  magnitudes  by  1.00  magni- 
tude for  stars  having  spectra  of 
class  Ko  between  the  same  limits. ' 
The  selenium  cell  has  been  used 
with  success  in  the  observation 
of  variable  stars,  but  has  now 
been  replaced  by  the  more  sensi- 
tive photo-electric  cell.  These 
instruments  eliminate  the  esti- 
mation of  brightness  by  the  im- 
perfect human  eye,  and  make, 
therefore,  for  greater  accuracy. 
The  photoelectric  cell  has  been 
adapted  recently  to  the  measure- 
ment of  the  distribution  of  energy 
in  stellar  spectra.  The  instru- 
ment records,  photographically, 
in  a  wavy  line,  the  varying 
transparency  of  the  plate  as  a 
slit  travels  over  the  spectrum. 

Portrait  lenses  of  short  focus 
are  used  for  photographing  the 
Milky  Way  and  finding  the  ut- 
most extension  of  diffused  nebu- 
losity. So  called  'doublets'  and 
'triplets'  have  been  designed, 
which  have  a  small  ratio  of  focal 
length  to  aperture,  and  which 
photograph  very  faint  objects 
over  a  large  area  of  the  sky  with 
good  definition  to  the  edge  of  the 
plate.  Lenses,  on  the  other  hand, 
of  great  focal  length  are  used  in 
eclipse  photography  to  record  the 
details  of  structure  in  the  sun's 
corona,  and  for  the  direct  scrut- 
iny of  the  lunar  surface.  In  the 
portraiture  of  nebulae,  reflectors 
are  found,  in  general,  to  give 
better  results  than  refractors; 
and  their  natural  achromatism 
recommends  them  for  employ- 
ment in  certain  branches  of  . 
sidereal  spectroscopy.  Refrac- 
tors do  not,  like  reflectors,  lend 
themselves  indifferently  to  visual 
and  photographic  use;  and  so 
greatly  has  the  latter  come  to 
preponderate,  that  large  object- 
glasses  are  frequently,  by  correc- 
tion for  the  actinic  rays,  rendered 
unserviceable  to  the  eye. 

Telescopes  built  primarily  for 
visual  use  are  adapted  to  photo- 
graphy by  the  substitution,  for 
one  of  the  lenses  of  the  object 
glass,  of  a  special  lens  which 
gathers  the  actinic  rays  to  a 
focus;  or  by  the  use  of  a  color 
screen  which  prevents  the  visual 
rays  from  passing  through  to  the 
plate.  A  photographic  telescope 
may  be  adapted  to  visual  pur- 
poses in  similar  manner.  The 
development  of  the  technique  of 
treating  plates  to  make  them 
sensitive  to  special  regions  of  the 
spectrum  has  been  of  great  as- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Astronomy 


446 


Astronomy 


sistance  to  astronomical  photog- 
raphy. A  plate  of  peculiar  im- 
portance is  manufactured,  which 
has  a  sensitiveness  very  closely 
identical  to  that  of  the  eye,  and 
which  is  extensively  used  for 
obtaining  photographically  the 
visual  brightness  of  a  star. 

Present  Status. — At  the  open- 
ing of  the  19th  century  astron- 
omy seemed  almost  a  completed 
science.  Now,  problems  are 
numerous  and  insistent.  A  few 
out  of  the  multitude  may  be 
specified.  Taking  first  those  that 
relate  to  the  earth,  we  encounter 
Dr.  Johnstone  Stoney's  theory, 
still  sub  judice,  of  the  selective 
dissipation  of  planetary  at- 
mospheres. Their  composition, 
if  it  be  true,  depends  upon  the 
mass  of  the  globes  they  encom- 
pass; and  the  earth,  though  capa- 
ble of  holding  oxygen  and  nitro- 
gen, was  helpless  to  control  the 
swifter  velocities  of  hydrogen 
molecules,  and  may  also  have 
been  obliged  to  surrender  a 
primitive  helium  envelope.  An- 
other question  of  profound  in- 
terest relates  to  the  nature  of  the 
solar  influence  upon  terrestrial 
magnetism.  Sun-spots,  aurorae, 
and  magnetic  disturbances  obey 
an  identical  period.  What  is  the 
common  cause  that  determines 
their  cyclical  vicissitudes? 

The  rigidity  of  the  earth  is 
being  studied  through  the  ryth- 
mic oscillation  of  the  axis  of 
rotation,  first  detected  by  Chand- 
ler in  a  variation  of  latitude  of 
places  on  the  earth;  the  tides 
produced  in  the  crust  of  the  earth 
by  the  moon  and  sun;  the  waves 
which  originate  in  an  earthquake 
and  record  themselves  on  seismo- 
graphs at  great  distances  (see 
Earthquakes). 

The  sun  itself  presents  a  crowd 
of  pending  problems.  Its  pe- 
culiar mode  of  rotation;  the 
nature  of  sunspots,  the  motion  of 
material  in  and  about  them  and 
the  attendant  magnetic  peculiari- 
ties; the  pressures  prevailing  at 
different  levels;  the  sources  of 
maintenance  of  the  sun's  heat; 
the  constitution  of  the  photo- 
spheric  cloud-shell,  its  relations 
to  the  faculai  which  rise  from  it, 
and  to  the  surmounting  vaporous 
strata;  the  nature  of  promi- 
nences; the  alternations  of  coro- 
nal types;  the  affinities  of  the 
zodiacal  light — all  these  problems 
are  being  vigorously  attacked. 
As  knowledge  of  the  dependence 
of  the  presence,  intensity,  and 
position  of  lines  of  the  vsolar  and 
stellar  spectra  upon  temperature, 
pressure,  ionization,  magnetic 
and  electric  conditions  widens, 
more  and  more  astronomical  in- 
vestigation is  transferred  to  the 
laboratory,  where  thcvse  factors 
can  be  controlled  and  their 
effects  measured.  As  an  element 
is  subjected  to  the  increasing  ex- 
citation of  an  electxic  furnace, 
an  arc,  and  a  spark,  the  spectral 


lines  increase  or  decrease  in 
intensity  and  new  lines  appear. 
The  entirely  new  field  opened  up 
in  the  investigation  of  the  struc- 
ture of  an  atom,  and  the  condi- 
tions under  which  it  emits  or 
absorbs  light  of  certain  wave- 
lengths, is  leading,  at  an  astound- 
ing rate,  to  an  understanding, 
through  their  spectra,  of  condi- 
tions prevailing  in  the  heavenly 
bodies.  The  theory  of  relativity 
requiring,  for  its  substantiation, 
the  observational  proof  of  a  slight 
change  in  direction  of  light  from 
a  star  passing  close  by  the  sun, 
and  of  a  small  shift  in  the  lines  of 
the  solar  spectrum,  has  given 
fresh  impetus  to  the  observation 
of  solar  eclipses  and  to  the  care- 
ful study  of  the  individual  factors 
which  determine  the  position  of  a 
spectral  line.  Both  these  proofs 
have  been  recently  furnished. 
The  third  proof  required  by 
Einstein,  an  advance  of  the  peri- 
helion of  Mercury,  has  existed  for 
many  years  as  an  outstanding 
problem. 

The  origin  of  meteors,  and  the 
part  played  by  them  in  the 
scheme  of  things,  are  still  largely 
enigmatical.  The  mystery  of 
non-gaseous  nebulae — mostly  spi- 
ral in  form — is  rapidly  giving  way 
before  the  measurement  of  their 
velocities,  of  the  motion  of  mate- 
rial spirally  outward  along  the 
arms,  of  the  distribution  of  their 
intrinsic  luminosity,  of  their  loca- 
tion with  respect  to  the  galaxy, 
and  mathematical  researches 
concerning  possible  modes  of 
development  into  their  present 
form.  Every  star  cluster  em- 
bodies a  formidable  dynamical 
problem,  but  much  has  been 
learned  concerning  their  dimen- 
sions and  distances  and  the  types 
of  stars  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. The  announcement  of  the 
sudden  apparition  of  a  new  star 
is  followed,  immediately,  by  a 
spirited  campaign  to  record  its 
life  history,  as  shown  in  change 
of  brightness  and  of  the  character 
of  its  spectrum.  New  theories  of 
the  cause  of  'novae'  are  con- 
stantly advanced.  A  great  band 
of  amateur  astronomers  adds, 
without  interruption,  to  the  mass 
of  information  concerning  long- 
period  variables,  collecting  the 
material  which  will  solve  the 
problem  of  intrinsic  variation  of 
a  star's  brightness.  The  general 
outline  of  the  evolutionary  his- 
tory of  the  stars  cannot  long 
remain  in  doubt  before  the  com- 
bined efforts  of  astronomers, 
physicists  and  chemists,  and 
mathematicians. 

The  formidable  topic  of  sidereal 
construction  can  be  discussed 
with  increasing  profit  as  the  col- 
lection of  observational  data  goes 
on  with  reference  to  the  distances 
of  the  stars,  their  proper  move- 
ments, the  translation  among 
them  of  the  sun,  their  distribu- 
tion in  space,  the  structure  of  the 


Milky  Way,  the  relations  of 
nebulae  and  clusters  to  that  great 
annulus. 

To  meet  the  need  of  being  able 
to  express  the  enormous  distances 
of  many  of  the  stars  and  clusters 
in  figures  of  convenient  size,  a 
new  unit  of  measurement  has 
been  quite  generally  adopted. 
This  unit  is  the  distance  at  which 
a  star's  parallax  (see  Par.\llax) 
would  be  one  second  of  arc.  It  is 
known  as  the  parsec,  and  is  the 
equivalent  of  3.26  'light-years'  or 
of  206,000  times  the  earth's  dis- 
tance from  the  sun.  The  further 
need  has  arisen  of  a  means  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  intrinsic  bright- 
ness of  a  star  from  the  apparent 
brightness,  which  latter  depends 
on  the  distance  of  the  star.  At 
the  suggestion  of  Kapteyn,  the 
magnitude  a  star  would  have,  if 
situated  at  a  distance  of  10  par- 
sees,  is  known  as  its  absolute 
magnitude.  The  detection  of  the 
dependence  of  the  intensities  of 
certain  lines  of  stellar  spectra  on 
absolute  magnitude  has  led  to  the 
new  and  powerful  method  of 
measuring  the  distances  of  great 
numbers  of  stars  far  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  trigonometric  meth- 
od, by  th^ir  'spectroscopic  paral- 
laxes.' 

Astronomical  enterprises  tend 
more  and  more  to  assume  an  in- 
ternational character.  England 
commands  both  hemispheres 
through  the  activity  of  the  sister 
establishments  at  Greenwich  and 
the  Cape.  The  organization  cen- 
tred at  Harvard  University  has 
been  extended  from  pole  to  pole 
by  the  foundation  of  a  post  at 
Arequipa. 

An  expedition  was  sent  to 
South  America  a  few  years  ago 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Car- 
negie Institution  to  observe,  with 
the  meridian  circle,  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  brighter  southern  stars. 
Large  telescopes  are  being  sent  to 
South  Africa  by  the  universities 
of  Yale  and  Michigan,  the  one 
to  be  used  in  the  measurement  of 
parallaxes  of  southern  stars,  the 
other  in  the  measurement  of 
southern  double  stars.  The  In- 
ternational Astronomical  Union 
has  been  formed  and,  through 
its  committees,  is  co-ordinating 
the  efforts  of  astronomers,  issuing 
reports  of  progress  and  suggest- 
ing needs  for  further  research  in 
all  the  various  phases  of  astro- 
nomical activity.  In  1820  and 
1863  respectively  the  London  and 
German  Astronomical  Societies 
were  founded.  The  wants,  how- 
ever, of  a  more  general  public  are 
provided  for  by  such  organiza- 
tions as  the  British  Astronomical 
Association,  the  Societe  Astro- 
nomique  de  France,  the  Urania- 
Gesellschaft  in  Berlin,  the  Rus- 
sian Astronomical  Society,  the 
Astronomical  Societies  of  the 
Pacific  and  of  Canada,  the  Ameri- 
can Astronomical  Society,  the 
American  Association  of  Variable 


Vol.  I. —Oct.  '24 


Astronomy 


447 


Astyages 


Star  Observers,  and  many  others. 
The  Societa  degH  Spettroscopisti 
ItaHani  is  more  special  in  its 
aims.  Most  of  these  bodies  issue 
journals  or  memoirs,  and  many 
observatories  issue  publications 
containing  observations  and  re- 
sults of  research.  News  of  dis- 
coveries is  flashed  round  the 
globe  from  the  Observatory  of 
Copenhagen.  Numerous  periodi- 
cals, besides,  are  devoted  to  the 
interests  of  the  science,  such  as 
the  Astronomische  Nachrichten, 
Sirius,  Himmel  und  Erde,  the 
Bulletin  astronomique,  the  Obser- 
vatory, Popular  Astronomy,  the 
Astrophysical  Journal,  Monthly 
Notices  ot  the  Royal  Astronomi- 
cal Society,  and  the  Astronomical 
Journal.  The  reader  is  referred 
also  to  the  articles  on  astronomi- 
cal subjects  elsewhere  in  this 
book,  some  of  which  are  listed 
below,  and  to  works  cited  in  the 
appended  bibliography. 
Asteroids  Moon 
Cluster  Multiple  Stars 

Comet  Nebula 
Constellation  Observatory 
Double  Stars  Orbit 
Earth  Orion 
Eclipse  Perihelion 
Equinox  Planet 
Falling  Stars  Pleiades 
Fixed  Stars  Satellites 
Geodynamics  Saturn 
Leo  Siderostat 
Leonid  Meteors         Solar  System 
Libra  Spectroheliograph 
Magnetism  Spectrum 
Mars  Stars 
Mercury  Sun 
Meridian,  Celestial  Telescope 
Meteors  Variable  Stars 

Milky  Way  Venus 

Bibliography.  —  Historical 
Works:  Grant's  History  of  Physi- 
cal Astronomy,  a  standard  au- 
thority; Sir  George  Cornewall 
Lewis'  Astronomy  of  the  Ancients; 
Berry's  Short  History  and  Gierke's 
Popular  History  of  Astronomy 
during  the  19th  Century;  Mad- 
ler's  Geschichte  der  Himmelskunde; 
Wolf's  Geschichte  der  Astronomie. 

Handbooks  for  Practical  Use: 
Chauvenet's  Manual  of  Spherical 
and  Practical  Astronomy  (2  vols.) ; 
Loomis'  Introduction  to  Practical 
Astronomy;  Wolf's  Handbuch  der 
Astronomie  (2  vols.);  W.  W. 
Campbell's  Elements  of  Practical 
Astronomy;  Ambronn's  Handbuch 
der  astronomischen  Instrumenten- 
kunde  (2  vols.). 

Text-books  for  Students:  Barlow 
and  Bryan's  Elementary  Mathe- 
matical Astronomy  (.3d  ed.,  1923) 
is  serviceable  and  compact;  while 
Young's  Elementary  Astronomy, 
Manual  of  Astronomy,  and  Gen- 
eral Astronomy  form  an  admir- 
able series  of  graduated  difficulty. 
Among  the  newer  books  are 
Moulton's  Introduction  to  As- 
tronomy; Newcomb's  Compen- 
dium of  Spherical  Astronomy; 
Moulton's  Celestial  Mechanics 
(2nd  ed.  1914);  Newcomb-Engel- 
mann's  Popular e  Astronomie  ((ith 
ed.  1921);  Jones'  General  As- 
tronomy    (1922);  Plassmann's 


Handbuch  fiir  Freunde  der  As- 
tronomie und  Kosmischen  Physik 
(1922);  Louis  Bell's  The  Tele- 
scope (1922). 

Books  for  General  Reading:  Sir 
Robert  Hall's  Story  of  the 
Heavens,  frequently  reissued,  is 
of  deserved  popularity;  Professor 
Turner's  Modern  Astronomy  ap- 
peals to  a  higher  class  of  readers. 
Other  works,  variously  meritori- 
ous, are:  Newcomb's  Reminis- 
cences of  an  Astronomer;  Concise 
Astronomy,  by  A.  M.  Gierke,  A. 
Fowler,  and  J.  E.  Gore;  H.  A. 
Howe's  Elements  of  Descriptive 
Astronomy;  Stars  and  Telescopes 
and  A  New  Astronomy  by  David 
P.  Todd;  Star  Lore  of  All  Ages,  by 
William  T.  Olcott;  Astronomy  in 
a  Nutshell  by  Garrett  P.  Serviss; 
Hale's  New  Heavens  (1922);  The 
Splendour  of  the  Heavens  (1923), 
an  authoritative  popular  work, 
fully  illustrated,  written  by  mem- 
bers of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society;  Nordmann's  The  King- 
dom 'of  the  Heavens  (1923); 
Gregory's  Vault  of  Heaven  (2nd 
ed.,  rewritten,  1923). 

Books  for  Amatetir  Telescopists: 
The  first  place  is  due  to  Webb's 
Celestial  Objects  for  Common  Tele- 
scopes (6th  ed.  "in  2  vols.  1917). 
Admiral  Smyth's  Cycle  of  Celes- 
tial Objects,  revised  by  G.  F. 
Chambers  in  1881,  is  brilliant, 
but  less  accurate.  Consult  also 
Mary  E.  Byrd's  Laboratory  Man- 
ual of  Astronomy;  Astronomy  with 
an  Opera  Glass  and  Pleasures  of 
the  Telescope  by  Garrett  P.  Ser- 
viss; Olcott's  Field-Book  of  the 
Stars  and  In  Starland  with  a 
Three-Inch  Telescope;  Kelvin  Mc- 
Kready's  A  Beginner's  Star- 
Book. 

Particular  stress  is  laid  upon 
spectroscopic  results  in  A.  M. 
Gierke's  Problems  in  Astrophysics; 
and  Scheiner's  Astronomical  Spec- 
troscopy (Frost's  trans.)  supplies 
a  solid  groundwork  for  the  study 
of  the  newer  methods.  Kayser's 
authoritative  Handbuch  der  Spec- 
troscopic (2  vols.),  Scheiner's 
Photographic  der  Gestirne,  M  til- 
ler's Photometric  der  Gestirne,  and 
Photography  as  a  Scientific  Instru- 
ment (1923),  the  last  a  collective 
work  by  various  authors,  are  of 
great  technical  importance.  Val- 
entiner's  H  andworterbuch  der 
Astronomie  is  a  high-class  work 
of  reference;  while  G.  H.  Darwin's 
The  Tides  and  Kindred  Phe- 
nomena in  the  Solar  System  is 
both  popular  and  profound. 
Finally,  children  and  beginners 
should  read  Miss  Giberne's  Sun, 
Moon,  and  Stars  and  Radiant 
Suns;  vSir  R.  Ball's  Primer  of  As- 
tronomy, and  Star  Land,  and  Ol- 
cott's The  Book  of  the  Stars  for 
Young  People. 

As'trophel  (Gr.  'star-lover'), 
the  name  under  which  Sir  Philip 
Sidney  addressed  his  sonnets  to 
Stella  ('star')  or  Penelope  Dev- 
ereux.  Spenser's  Astrophel  cele- 
brates the  death  ot  Sir  Philip. 


Astruc,  as-triik',  Jean  (1684- 
1766),  French  physician  and 
theologian,  was  born  in  Langue- 
doc.  After  studying  medicine  at 
Montpellier,  he  was  appointed 
(1710)  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Toulouse,  and  then  (1716)  at 
Montpellier;  finally  he  settled 
(1717)  in  Paris,  where  he  became 
professor  of  medicine  and  con- 
sulting physician  to  Louis  xv. 
European  fame  was  gained  by 
the  publication  of  his  medical 
researches,  especially  in  venereal 
diseases,  De  Morbis  Venereis 
(1736).  To  Biblical  critics  he  is 
specially  interesting  as  the  anony- 
mous author  of  Conjectures  (in 
French,  published  in  1753,  pro- 
fessedly at  Brussels,  but  really 
at  Paris)  regarding  the  original 
(Jahvistic  and  Elohistic)  docu- 
ments used  by  Moses,  in  compil- 
ing the  Book  of  Genesis. 

Astrup,  as'trup,  Eivind  (1870- 
96),  Norwegian  arctic  explorer, 
was  born  in  Christiania.  Having 
gone  to  America  in  1891,  he 
joined  Commander  Peary  in 
expeditions  to  Greenland  and 
Melville  Bay,  during  which  he 
made  the  original  survey  of  the 
northern  and  northeastern  shores 
of  Melville  Bay.  He  perished  in 
a  snowshoe  expedition,  which  set 
out  from  Norway  in  1895,  his 
body  being  recovered  (Jan.  21, 
1896)  at  Lille  Elvedalen.  He 
wrote  With  Peary  near  the  Pole 
(1895). 

Astu'ra,  an  ancient  town  of 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Rome, 
on  a  promontory  of  the  Medi- 
terranean coast,  9  miles  east  of 
Antium  (now  Anzio).  Here 
Cicero  had  a  villa,  where  after 
the  death  of  his  daughter,  he 
spent  many  unhappy  days;  here 
the  Emperor  Tiberius  contracted 
his  fatal  illness;  and  here  the 
last  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  Con- 
radin,  was,  in  1268,  betrayed  into 
the  hands  of  his  enemies  by 
Frangipani,  the  lord  of  the  town. 
In  requital  of  this  treachery  the 
Sicilians  burned  the  town  in 
1286.  _ 

Asturias,  as-too'ri-as,  former 
principality.  Northern  Spain, 
now  forming  the  province  of 
Oviedo  (q.  v.).  It  is  Alpine  in 
character  and  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  regions  of  Spain. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  carefully 
cultivated  and  produces  abund- 
ant crops,  chief  of  wiiich  are 
fruits,  vines,  figs,  and  nuts.  Iron, 
lead,  coal,  peat,  and  medicinal 
springs  occur,  and  there  are 
excellent  fisheries.  Since  1388 
the  heir  to  the  thrones  of  Leon, 
Castile,  and  vSpain  has  borne  the 
title  of  Prince  of  Asturias.  See 
Spain. 

Astyages,  as-tl'a-jez,  son  of 
Cya.xares,  was  the  last  king  of 
Media,  reigning  from  585  to  550 
B.C.,  when  he  was  conquered  and 
dethroned  by  Cyrus.  For  the 
legend  which  makes  Cyrus  his 
grandson,  see  Cyrus. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Astyanax 


448 


Atbara 


Asty'anax,  in  Greek  legend  the 
son  of  Hector  and  Andromache 
(qq.  v.). 

Asul'kan,  glacier,  British  Co- 
lumbia, Selkirk  range,  near 
Glacier  Station  on  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railroad.  A  good  trail 
leads  from  the  town  to  the 
glacier,  along  which  are  splendid 
views  from  the  Asulkan  Pass, 
over  7,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Asuncion,  a-sobn-the-on',  city, 
capital  of  Paraguay,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Paraguay  River; 
1,100  miles  north  of  Buenos 
Aires,  with  which  it  has  steam- 
boat and  rail  connection.  It  is  a 
fine  modern  city,  with  regular 
streets;  notable  buildings  are  the 
Government  House,  Cathedral, 
Lopez'  palace,  now  occupied  by 
the  Bank  of  Paraguay,  and  the 
National  College.  Ascuncion  is 
an  important  trade  centre  and 
has  distilleries,  breweries,  mills, 
foundries,  shipyards  and  manu- 
factures of  sugar,  furniture,  soap, 
leather,  quebracho  extract,  essen- 
tial oils,  and  tobacco.  It  was 
founded  on  the  day  of  the  As- 
sumption of  the  Virgin  (Aug.  15, 
1536).    Pop.  (1920  est.)  99,836. 

Asy'lum,  Right  of.  See  Ex- 
tra-Territoriality. 

Asylums  for  the  Insane,  insti- 
tutions for  the  care  and  treat- 
ment of  those  of  unsound  mind. 
The  first  asylum  of  which  his- 
torical mention  is  made  is  one 
said  to  have  been  erected  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  fifth  century, 
by  the  monks  of  Jerusalem;  and 
in  the  succeeding  centuries, 
monasteries  and  convents  alone 
made  any  provision  for  the  care 
of  the  insane.  Spain  seems  to 
have  taken  the  lead  among 
European  countries  in  providing 
for  this  ciass,  but  the  treatment 
adopted  there,  as  elsewhere,  was 
brutal  and  cruel,  with  the  result 
that  many  who  were  not  origi- 
nally beyond  hope  of  recovery 
became  permanently  deranged. 
The  first  hospital  for  the  insane 
in  England  was  Bethlem,  more 
popularly  known  as  Bedlam, 
which  in  1547  was  converted  by 
Henry  viii.  from  a  monastic 
institution  into  a  public  asy- 
lum. 

In  the  United  States  the  first 
hopsital  treatment  of  the  insane 
was  undertaken  in  Philadelphia, 
in  1750,  when  a  small  hospital  in 
which  the  patients  were  to  be 
treated  as  'sick  persons'  was 
established.  The  first  State 
asylum  was  erected  in  1773  in 
Williamsburg,  Va.,  and  Mary- 
land, Massachusetts  and  New 
York  soon  followed  with  State 
or  State-aided  institutions.  From 
1830  to  1850  great  advances  in 
methods  of  caring  for  the  insane 
were  made  throughout  the  Uni- 
ted States;  the  latter  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  vv^itnessed  a 
slight  decline  in  progress,  but 
the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  brought  a  new  and  more 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


intelligent  interest  in  the  subject, 
which  has  manifested  itself  in 
the  establishment  of  excellent  in- 
stitutions in  practically  all  the 
States. 

In  all  civilized  countries  to-day, 
insane  persons  are  regarded  as  ill 
persons.  The  old  asylums, with 
jail-like  architecture  within  and 
without,  have  been  supplanted  by 
comfortable  buildings,  in  which 
classification  is  possible.  Re- 
straint has  largely  been  aban- 
doned; the  physiological  problems 
of  faulty  nutrition  have  been 
studied;  and  if  the  cases  cannot 
be  cured,  at  least  as  much  is  made 
of  the  life  of  the  patient  as  is  pos- 
sible in  view  of  his  mental  and 
moral  limitations. 

In  many  States  strict  super- 
vision is  exercised  by  commis- 
sions in  lunacy,  created  by  the 
legislatures  and  armed  with 
plenary  powers.  Safeguards  are 
thrown  around  the  afflicted  to 
prevent  evils  and  insure  the 
commitment  of  only  the  indubi- 
tably insane  Separate  provision 
is  generally  made  for  the  criminal 
insane. 

Asymptotes,  as'im-tots  (Gr. 
'not  coinciding')  are  lines  which 
continually  approach  a  curve, 
but  which,  though  they  and  their 
curve  were  infinitely  continued, 
would  never  meet,  and  may  be 
conceived  as  tangents  to  their 
curves  at  an  infinite  distance. 
They  may  be  rectilinear  or  curvi- 
linear. See  Curve. 

Asyndeton,  a-sin'de-ton  (Gr. 
'not  bound  together'),  a  figure  of 
speech  consisting  in  the  omission 
of  the  usual  connectives,  as  in  the 
famous  Veni,  vidi,  vici,  'I  came,  I 
saw,  I  conquered.' 

Atabopo,  South  American  riv- 
er, a  tributary  of  the  Orinoco 
(q.  v.). 

Atacama,  a'ta-ka'ma,  a  desert 
region  of  Chile,  embracing  por- 
tions of  the  provinces  of  Atacama 
and  Antofagasta,  with  an  area  of 
about  77,000  square  miles.  The 
wealth  of  this  region  consists  in 
deposits  of  silver,  copper,  and 
nitrate,  the  latter  having  been 
recently  developed,  so  that  they 
now  furnish  over  two-thirds  of 
the  entire  exports  of  the  country. 
The  province  of  Atacama  has  an 
area  of  30,720  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  with  high 
plateaus  and  deep  ravines.  The 
chief  river  is  the  Copiapo. 
Wheat,  maize,  fruits,  and  alfalfa 
are  grown  in  the  valleys.  Pop. 
(1920)  48,413. 

Atacamite,  a-tak'a-mit,  the 
native  hydrous  oxychloride  of 
copper,  a  not  uncommon  mineral 
in  veins  of  copper  ores,  and  usu- 
ally a  decomposition  product.  It 
is  green  or  dark  green,  soft 
(hardness  =  3),  with  a  vitreous 
lustre,  and  crystallizes  in  the 
orthorhombic  system.  When  a 
fragment  is  heated  before  the 
blowpipe  it  colors  the  flame  corn- 
flower blue  (chloride  of  copper). 


Atahualpa  (d.  1533),  a-ta- 
wal'pa,  a  son  of  Huayna  Capac, 
the  great  Inca  emperor  of  Peru. 
On  his  father's  death  (1525), 
Atahualpa  brought  battle  against 
his  brother  Huascar  (q.  v.),  with 
whom  he  was  to  share  the  king- 
dom, imprisoned  him,  and  as- 
sumed entire  control,  strengthen- 
ing his  position  by  the  assassina- 
tion of  his  enemies.  To  the 
demands  of  the  Spanish  leader, 
Pizarro,  that  he  should  accept 
Christianity  and  become  the 
vassal  of  Charles  v.,  Atahualpa 
returned  a  direct  refusal;  where- 
upon the  Spaniards  seized  him 
and  massacred  hundreds  of  his 
unsuspecting  followers.  On  Aug. 
29,  1533,  he  was  executed,  after 
a  mock  trial.  Consult  Prescott's 
Conquest  of  Peru. 

At'alan'ta,  a  heroine  of  Greek 
mythology,  concerning  whom 
tradition  has  two  legends.  The 
Arcadian  Atalanta  is  said  to  have 
been  the  daughter  of  lasus  and 
Clymene.  Her  father,  disap- 
pointed because  of  her  sex. 
exposed  her  on  the  Parthenian 
(virgin)  hill;  she  was  suckled  by 
a  she-bear,  and  grew  to  maiden- 
hood famous  for  her  prowess  in 
the  chase.  The  swiftest  of 
mortals,  she  made  it  a  condition 
that  each  of  her  suitors  should 
compete  with  her  in  a  foot-race, 
but  was  defeated  by  Milanion, 
who,  as  he  ran,  dropped,  one  after 
another,  three  golden  apples, 
which  she  stopped  to  rescue.  She 
and  her  husband  were  turned  into 
lions  for  having  defiled  with  their 
embraces  a  sacred  grove  of  Zeus. 

The  Boeotian  Atalanta  was  a 
daughter  of  Schoeneus.  She 
married  Hippomenes  and  figures 
in  much  the  same  stories  as  the 
Arcadian  Atalanta,  but  in  her 
case  the  sacred  grove  profaned 
was  the  temple  of  Cybele.  It 
seems  certain  that  in  both  cases, 
Atalanta  is  only  another  form  of 
Artemis. 

For  the  story  of  Atalanta  con- 
sult Ovid's  Metamorphoses 
(bk.  x.). 

Ataman.    See  Hetman. 

Ataulf  (d.  415?),  at'olf.  king  of 
the  Visigoths;  succeeded  his 
brother-in-law,  Alaric  i.  (411), 
and  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
great  West  Gothic  kingdom.  He 
conquered  Aquitaine,  and  mar- 
ried a  sister  of  Honorius.  He 
was  assassinated  at  Barcelona. 

At'avism,  the  inheritance  from 
a  more  or  less  remote  ancestor 
of  any  bodily  or  mental  quality 
which  has  failed  to  show  itself 
in  intervening  generations.  In 
sociological  writings  the  term  is 
commonly  employed  by  Lom- 
broso  and  other  criminologists  of 
the  Italian  and  French  schools  to 
denote  reversion  to  a  more  primi- 
tive type,  as  an  explanation  of 
criminal  instincts  and  other 
pathological  aberrances.  See 
Heredity. 

Atbara,  tributary  of  the  Nile, 


Atchafalaya  Bayou 


449 


Athanaslus 


has  its  source  in  the  mountains 
northwest  of  Lake  Tsana  in  Abys- 
sinia. It  follows  a  northwesterly- 
course  for  some  800  miles  through 
Southern  Nubia  and  enters  the 
Nile  at  El  Damer.  Its  chief 
tributaries  are  the  Mareb  and 
the  Setit  (Takaze).  The  average 
width  of  the  river  is  450  yards 
and  in  the  rainy  season,  June  to 
September,  it  is  from  25  to  30 
feet  deep.  At  this  time  it  is  a 
raging  torrent,  its  waters  thick 
with  soil,  masses  of  wood,  and 
bamboo.  During  the  remainder 
of  the  year  it  is  practically  dry. 
In  1898  a  band  of  Dervishes 
under  Mahmoud  was  defeated 
at  the  Atbara  by  Kitchener's 
troops. 

Atchafalaya  Bayou,  ach-a-fa- 
ll'a  bl'ob,  river,  Louisiana,  rises 
near  the  junction  of  the  Red 
and  the  Mississippi  Rivers.  It 
receives  the  flow  of  the  former, 
and  of  the  latter  when  it  is  in 
flood.  It  enters  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  through  Atchafalaya 
Bay,  150  miles  west  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  225 
miles  long,  and  is  navigable  for 
steamboats. 

Atchln,  or  Atcheen.  See 
Atjeh. 

Atchison,  ach'i-sun,  city,  Kan- 
sas, county  seat  of  Atchison 
county,  on  the  Missouri  River, 
and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe,  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton and  Quincy,  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  and  the 
Missouri  Pacific  Railroads;  50 
miles  northwest  of  Kansas  City. 
It  has  several  educational  and 
philanthropic  institutions,  in- 
cluding St.  Benedict's  College 
(Roman  Catholic),  Mt.  St. 
Scholastica,  Maur  Hill,  a  public 
library,  and  a  State  orphans' 
home.  As  a  river  port  and  a 
converging  point  for  several 
railroads,  the  city  is  an  impor- 
tant distributing  centre  for  the 
agricultural  products  of  the  sur- 
rounding region.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  flour  and  milling  centres 
of  the  Middle  West,  and  has 
large  rock  quarries  and  a  sand 
plant.  An  extensive  wholesale 
trade  is  carried  on  in  groceries, 
drugs,  hardware,  and  other  mer- 
chandise. Manufacturing  in- 
terests include  railroad  and 
machine  shops,  cooperage  plants, 
foundries,  grain  and  seed  eleva- 
tors, flour  and  lumber  mills, 
furniture  factories,  and  wire 
products  plants.  Atchison  was 
settled  in  1854  and  named  in 
honor  of  David  R.  Atchison 
(q.v.).  Pop.  (1900)  15.722; 
(1910)    16,429;   (1920)  12,630. 

Atchison,  David  Rice  (1807- 
86),  American  lawyer  and  legis- 
lator, was  born  in  Frogtown, 
Ky.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  Missouri  (1830),  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  that 
State  in  1834  and  1838,  and  in 
1843  was  appointed  U.  S.  Senator 


to  succeed  L.  F.  Linn,  being 
twice  re-elected.  He  was  a 
member  of  several  important 
committees,  was  president  pro 
tern,  of  the  Senate  during  several 
sessions,  and  by  virtue  of  that 
office  was  President  of  the 
United  States  on  Sunday,  March 
4,  1849,  as  General  Taylor, 
president-elect,  was  not  sworn 
in  until  March  5.  Atchison  was 
strongly  pro-slavery  in  his  sym- 
pathies and  was  an  active  sup- 
porter of  that  side  during  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  controversy. 

Ate,  a'te,  an  ancient  Greek 
divinity,  daughter  of  Eris  (Strife) 
according  to  Hesiod,  and  of 
Zeus  according  to  Homer.  By 
the  tragic  poets,  particularly 
^schylus,  she  is  regarded  as  the 
power  which  avenges  sin  on  its 
doers,  and  so  becomes  almost 
identical  with  Nemesis  (Ven- 
geance) and  Erinnys  (the  Fury). 

Atef  Crown,  a  symbolic  head- 
dress worn  by  Egyptian  deities, 
consisting  of  the  tall  white  cap  of 
Upper  Egypt,  flanked  with  two 
plumes,  and  bearing  the  solar 
disc  and  uraeus  (serpent  emblem) 
in  front. 

Ateles,  See  Spider  Monkey. 

At'ella'nse  Fab'ulae,  so  called 
from  Atella,  a  town  of  Campania, 
where  they  are  said  to  have 
originated,  known  also  as  Ludi 
Osci  ('Oscan  plays'),  are  a  kind 
of  unpolished  popular  drama 
which  was  performed  in  Roman 
theatres,  in  the  Oscan  dialect. 
The  most  popular  characters, 
Maccus  and  Bucco,  were  prob- 
ably prototypes  of  the  modern 
harlequin. 

A  tem'po,  or  A  tempo  prima, 
in  musical  score,  denotes  a  return 
to  the  original  time  after  any 
acceleration  or  retardation.  A 
tempo  giusto  means  'in  iust, 
marked,  or  proper  time.' 

Ath,  at,  or  Aath.  town,  Bel- 
gium, in  the  province  of  Hai- 
nault,  on  the  Dendre  River;  100 
miles  east  of  Tournai.  Features 
of  interest  are  the  Tour  du  Bur- 
bant,  a  relic  of  a  15th  century 
castle,  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and 
the  Church  of  St.  Julien  with  a 
fine  15th-century  tower.  There 
are  lime  kilns  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  (1920)  10,672. 

Athabasca,  ath'a-bas'ka,  for- 
merly a  district  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  now  included  in  the 
provinces  of  Alberta  and  Saskat- 
chewan (qq.v.). 

Athabasca  Lake,  a  large  lake 
lying  partly  in  Alberta  and 
partly  in  Saskatchewan,  Canada. 
It  is  about  200  miles  long  and 
from  5  to  35  miles  broad,  with  an 
area  of  2,850  square  miles.  The 
shores  are  rocky.  The  lake  is  fed 
chiefly  by  the  Athabasca  River 
(q.v.).   Slave  River  is  its  outlet. 

Athabasca  River,  or  La 
Biche,  'Red  Deer  or  Elk  River,' 
Canada,  rises  in  Alberta,  east 
of  Mt.  Hooker,  and  for  60  miles 


follows  a  northeasterly  course 
through  mountainous  and  heavi- 
ly wooded  country.  At  Atha- 
basca Landing,  an  important 
Hudson  Bay  Station,  the  river 
turns  northward,  becoming  navi- 
gable, as  far  as  Grand  Rapids 
(166  miles),  for  stern- wheel 
steamers  drawing  2^  to  3  feet. 
From  this  point  to  Fort  M' Mur- 
ray, 85  miles  to  the  north,  there 
is  a  drop  of  360  feet,  and  naviga- 
tion is  impeded  by  rapids  and 
falls.  From  Fort  M' Murray  the 
river  is  again  navigable  to  its 
mouth  in  Lake  Athabasca,  a 
distance  of  200  miles.  Its  total 
length  is  about  750  miles. 

Athaliah,  ath-a-ll'a.  Old 
Testament  character,  daughter 
of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  married 
Jehoram,  king  of  Judah.  On  the 
death  of  her  son  Ahaziah,  she 
caused  all  the  royal  male  children 
to  be  put  to  death — Joash  alone 
escaping  —  and  usurped  the 
throne,  which  she  occupied  for 
six  years  (841-836  B.C.).  At  the 
expiration  of  this  period  Joash 
was  made  king,  and  Athaliah 
was  slain  (2  Kings  xi.;  2  Chron. 
xxii.-xxiii.).  Handel  and  Men- 
delssohn have  treated  the  sub- 
iect  musically,  and  Racine's 
drama  Athalie  is  founded  on  the 
story. 

Ath'amas,  in  classical  myth- 
ology, son  of  ^olus  and  En- 
arete,  married  the  goddess  Neph- 
ele,  but  secretly  loved  Ino, 
daughter  of  Cadmus,  and  by  her 
had  two  sons,  Learchus  and 
Melicertes.  Discovering  his 
faithlessness,  Nephele  returned 
in  anger  to  heaven,  and  de- 
manded his  sacrifice,  whereupon 
Athamas  became  mad  and  killed 
Learchus.  Ino  and  Melicertes, 
to  escape  a  like  fate,  threw  them- 
selves into  the  sea,  and  Athamas 
fled  from  Boeotia,  to  settle  in 
Athamania. 

Athan'aric  (d.  381).  king  of 
the  Visigoths,  waged  war  against 
the  Emperor  Valens,  but  was  de- 
feated (369).  In  374  the  Gothic 
empire  was  invaded  by  the 
Huns,  and  the  Goths  were  al- 
lowed by  Valens  to  settle  in 
Moesia.  Athanaric,  however,  de- 
fended himself  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Dacia,  but  was  forced 
to  seek  protection  with  Theo- 
dosius  (380)  at  Constantinople. 

Athanasian  Creed,  ath  -  a  - 
na'zhi-an,  one  of  the  three  so- 
called  ecumenical  creeds  of  Cath- 
olic Christendom.  Serious  ob- 
jection has  been  made  to  its  so- 
called  damnatory  clauses,  and  it 
is  not  used  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  America, 
in  the  Churches  of  Puritan  origin, 
or  the  Methodist  Church.  See 
Creeds. 

Athanaslus,  ath  -  a  -  na'zhi-us 
(c.  293-373),  one  of  the  early 
Church  fathers,  was  born  in 
Alexandria.  He  devoted  himself 
to  a  clerical  life,  served  as  a 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Athapascans 


450 


Athenaeum 


reader,  and  was  a  deacon  at  the 
time  of  the  outbreak  of  the 
Arian  controversy.  In  325  he 
was  with  Bishop  Alexander  at 
the  Council  of  Nicaea,  at  which 
318  bishops  were  assembled  to 
deal  with  questions  which  had 
arisen  over  the  teaching  of  Arius, 
already  locally  condemned  by 
councils  at  Alexandria  in  315  and 
319.  While  there  he  displayed 
something  of  those  unusual 
powers  of  mind  and  determina- 
tion which  afterward  established 
him  as  champion  of  the  orthodox 
faith.  When  he  returned  to 
Alexandria  he  was  elected  bishop 
by  acclamation,  succeeding  Alex- 
ander, who  died  four  months 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  coun- 
cil. 

In  defiance  of  the  imperial 
command,  he  refused  to  admit 
Arius  to  communion,  and,  though 
for  the  moment  successful,  he 
was  eventually  banished  to 
Treves.  After  the  death  of 
Constantine.  he  returned  in 
triumph  to  Alexandria  (337),  but 
was  again  banished,  by  Con- 
stantius.  and  sought  refuge  at 
Rome.  The  Council  of  Sardica 
endorsed  the  decision  of  a  pro- 
vincial council  at  Rome  in  favor 
of  Athanasius,  and  in  346  he  was 
again  in  his  episcopal  seat  at 
Alexandria.  In  the  meanwhile 
Arianism  had  spread  under  the 
patronage  of  Constantius,  and  in 
356  Athanasius  was  a  third  time 
driven  into  exile.  He  returned 
under  Julian  in  361,  but  was  soon 
involved  in  a  struggle  with  the 
pagan  party,  and  again  fled.  In 
363  he  was  restored,  only  to  be 
driven  out  by  Valens  four  years 
later.  The  popular  voice,  in  this 
case,  restored  him,  and  he  re- 
mained undisturbed  till  his  death 
in  372.  The  theological  dispute 
was  by  this  time  virtually  ended 
and  the  final  verdict  in  favor  of 
Nicene  orthodoxy  came  at  the 
council  of  Constantinople  in  381. 

The  writings  of  Athanasius 
include  Defense  of  the  Nicene 
Creed  (351);  Defense  of  Dionysius 
(355);  Apology  to  Constantius 
(357) ;  History  of  the  Arians  for 
Monks  (358);  Book  to  the  Anti- 
ochians (362)  ;Letler  to  the  Africans 
(369);  and  many  other  letters 
and  sermons. 

Consult  Robertson's  The  Life 
and  Theology  of  Athanasius,  in 
Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers; 
Farrar's  Lives  of  the  Fathers 
(vol.  1);  Fisher's  History  of 
Christian  Doctrine;  Taylor's  Ath- 
anasian  Creed  in  the  Twentieth 
Century. 

Athapas'cans,  or  Atha- 
bascans (Tinne),  a  linguistic 
family  of  North  American  In- 
dians, including  many  tribes  of 
Northern  Canada  and  Alaska, 
and  others  scattered  along  the 
Pacific  Coast  and  in  the  South- 
western United  States,  notably 
the  Navahos  and  Apaches(qq.v.). 


They  tend  to  adopt  the  manners 
and  .customs  of  neighboring 
peoples  and  can  scarcely  be  said 
to  have  a  distinctive  culture. 
Consult  Hodge's  Handbook  of 
American  Indians. 

A'theism,  in  its  narrowest 
sense,  a  disbelief  in  or  denial  of 
the  existence  of  God,  in  contra- 
distinction to  Agnosticism  (q.v.), 
which  merely  disclaims  knowl- 
edge of  Him.  The  word  has 
often  been  loosely  employed  as  a 
term  of  opprobrium  to  designate 
any  one  taking  a  stand  against 
current  theological  doctrine.  The 
early  Christians,  for  example, 
were  called  atheists  because  they 
denied  the  existence  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  gods.  Practical 
atheism  has  flourished  more  or 
less  in  every  highly  developed 
civilization.  India  and  China  in 
their  systems  of  Buddhism  and 
Janism  are  atheistic.  The 
materialism  of  classical  antiquity 
found  expression  in  the  Atomists, 
Democritus,  Epicurus,  and  Lu- 
cretius, and  the  unbelief  of  the 
eighteenth  century  is  embodied 
in  the  teaching  of  La  Mettrie, 
D'Holbach,  Diderot  and  Vogt. 
In  the  nineteenth  century  ma- 
terialism allied  itself  with  ad- 
vancing scientific  theory  and  the 
increasing  social  unrest  and  athe- 
ism found  expression  in  such 
systems  as  Positivism.  Comte 
and  Haekel  have  advanced  sys- 
tems of  thought  atheistic  in  es- 
sence since  they  attempt  to 
explain  the  universe  without 
reference  to  any  Divine  Being. 

Atheling.     See  ^theling. 

Athelney,  ath'el-ni,  village 
and  parish,  England,  in  Somer- 
setshire; 9  miles  northeast  of 
Taunton.  The  marshy  district 
to  the  north,  known  as  Athelney 
Isle,  is  famous  in  history  as  the 
place  of  Alfred's  retreat  (879)  be- 
fore the  Danish  onslaught.  The 
'Alfred  jewel,'  now  in  the  Ash- 
molean  Museum,  Oxford,  was 
discovered  in  1693  at  Newton 
Park,  in  the  vicinity. 

Ath'elstan  (895-940),  king  of 
the  English,  was  a  son  of  Edward 
the  Elder,  and  grandson  of  Al- 
fred the  Great.  On  the  death  of 
his  father  in  925,  he  was  chosen 
king  by  the  Mercians  and  West 
Saxons  and  was  crowned  at  King- 
ston-on  Thames.  He  attained  a 
position  of  great  power  and  dig- 
nity, obtaining  many  victories 
over  the  Welsh  of  Devonshire, 
Cornwall,  and  Wales  proper,  and 
defeating  the  Northumbrian 
Danes  and  their  northern  and 
Irish  allies  at  the  battle  of 
Brunanburh  (937). 

Athe'na,  or  Athene,  also 
Pallas  Athene,  or  Pallas,  one 
of  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  divin- 
ities, was  the  daughter  of  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  and  Metis  (Counsel). 
The  legend  is  that  she  sprang, 
full-armed,  from  the  head  of 
Zeus,    because,    having  been 


warned  that  any  child  born  of 
Metis  would  overthrow  its  father, 
he  had  enticed  Metis  to  trans- 
form herself  into  a  fly  and  had 
then  swallowed  her.  This  par- 
entage indicates  the  character  of 
the  goddess — a  combination  of 
might  and  wisdom. 

Although  the  worship  of  Athe- 
na was  common  throughout 
Greece,  she  was  reverenced  with 
the  deepest  devotion  at  Athens, 
where  she  was  worshipped  as 
Athena  Polias,  the  protector  of 
the  city.  She  is  described  as  the 
patroness  of  agriculture,  city  life, 
war  {i.e.,  civilized  warfare  as  op- 
posed to  the  lust  of  battle,  per- 
sonified by  Ares),  and  the 
industrial  crafts.  The  arts  of 
weaving  and  spinning  were  espe- 
cially attributed  to  her  teaching, 
and  as  the  goddess  of  public  law 
and  political  virtue  she  greatly 
influenced  the  Greek  mind.  She 
was  said  to  have  taught  mankind 
the  use  of  the  plough;  but  her 
chief  boon  was  the  creation  of  the 
olive  tree.  To  her  ^schylus  at- 
tributed the  establishment  of  the 
court  of  the  Areopagus.  In  the 
myths,  we  find  that  in  the  war 
with  the  giants  Athena  buried 
Enceladus  under  Sicily;  in  the 
Trojan  war  she  favored  the 
Greeks,  and  especially  protected 
Achilles,  Diomedes,  and  Odys- 
seus. 

Athena  is  represented  in  an- 
cient art  with  a  somewhat  mascu- 
line figure,  and  a  serious  counte- 
nance. She  is  always  clothed  or 
draped  and  generally  wears  the 
helmet,  the  aegis,  and  a  shield 
with  the  Gorgon's  head.  Phidias 
made  three  famous  statues  of  her 
— one  of  ivory,  ornamented  with 
gold,  30  feet  in  height,  which 
stood  in  the  Parthenon;  a  second, 
still  larger,  of  bronze,  which  stood 
on  the  Acropolis;  the  third,  a 
small  bronze  statue,  called  the 
Lemnian,  because  it  was  dedi- 
cated by  the  Lemnians  at 
Athens.  Athena  is  also  known 
under  the  title  Hippia,  as  the 
tamer  of  horses,  and  as  Nike,  the 
goddess  of  victory.  The  Romans 
identified  the  Etruscan  goddess 
Minerva  with  Athena. 

Athenaeum,  ath-e-ne'um,  the 
temple  of  Pallas,  at  Athens, 
where  poets  and  philosophers 
met  to  read  their  works.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  a  school 
founded  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian, 
at  Rome,  on  the  Capitoline  Hill, 
which  appears  to  have  main- 
tained its  reputation  until  the 
5th  century  a.d. 

Athenaeum,  The,  an  English 
weekly  journal  of  literature, 
music,  science,  and  the  fine  arts, 
first  published  on  Jan.  2,  1828,  by 
J.  Silk  Buckingham,  and  merged 
on  Feb.  19,  1921,  with  The  Na- 
tion. It  counted  among  its  editors 
and  contributors  many  of  the 
most  distinguished  English  men 
of  letters. 


Vol.  J.— Oct,  '26 


Athenaeum  Club 


451 


Athens 


Athenaeum  Club,  a  London 
club,  instituted  in  1824  by  J.  W. 
Croker,  Sir  T.  Lawrence,  Sir 
Humphry  Davy,  and  others,  for 
the  association  of  persons  of 
scientific,  literary,  and  artistic  at- 
tainments, liberal  patrons  of 
learning,  and  those  attaining  dis- 
tinction in  public  service.  It  has 
1,300  ordinary  members,  includ- 
ing those  holding  prominent  offi- 
cial positions,  elected  by  the 
committee,  which  has  further  the 
power  of  electing  annually  not 
more  than  nine  persons  of  emi- 
nence in  science,  literature,  or  the 
arts,  or  for  public  services.  Con- 
sult Waugh's  Athenoeum  Club 
and  Its  Associations;  Ward's 
History  of  the  Athenceum  (1926). 

Athenaeus,  ath-e-ne'us  (c. 
230  A.D.),  a  native  of  Naucratis, 
in  Egypt,  a  man  of  great  learn- 
ing, known  to-day  only  by  his 
Deipnosophistce,  or  Banquet  of  the 
Learned.  The  work  is  clumsily 
arranged,  but  is  of  great  interest, 
owing  to  its  illustration  of  ancient 
manners,  its  collection  of  curious 
facts,  and,  above  all,  its  quota- 
tions from  some  800  authors,  of 
whose  works  these  fragments 
are  in  many  cases  the  sole  ex- 
amples extant.  Important 
editions  are  those  by  Schweig- 
hauser  (1801-7),  W.  Dindorf 
(1827),  and  Kaibel  (1887-90). 
An  English  translation,  by  Yonge, 
appears  in  Bohn's  Classical 
Library. 

Athenagoras,  ath-e-nag'6-ras, 
an  Athenian  philosopher  and 
Christian  apologist.  In  his  apol- 
ogy, Legatio  pro  Christianis  (177), 
he  refutes  the  accusations  of 
atheism,  cannibalism,  and  licen- 
tiousness brought  against  the 
Christians,  and  attacks  pagan 
institutions.  The  best  edition  of 
his  works  is  in  Von  Otto's  Corpus 
Apologetarum  Christianorum  Sce- 
culi  II.  Consult,  also,  the  English 
translation  in  Roberts  and  Don- 
aldson's Ante-Nicene  Christian 
Library. 

Ath'ens,  city,  capital  of  Greece, 
is  situated  in  lat.  37°  58'  n. 
and  long.  23°  43'  E.,  in  the 
plain  of  Attica,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  north  and  northwest  by 
Mount  Parnes,  on  the  northeast 
and  east  by  Mount  Pentelicus 
and  Mount  Hymettus,  and  on  the 
south  and  west  by  the  Saronic 
Gulf;  about  4  miles  from  the  har- 
bor of  Piraeus.  The  city  and  its 
surroundings  occupy  a  group  of 
low  hills,  in  the  centre  of  the 
plain,  chief  of  which  is  the 
Acropolis,  the  site  of  ancient 
Athens,  some  300  feet  above  the 
town.  Below,  to  the  west,  is  the 
rocky  hill  of  the  Areopagus,  while 
still  farther  west  are  the  Hill  of 
the  Muses,  the  Pnyx,  and  the 
Hill  of  the  Nymphs.  Northeast 
of  the  Acropolis  rises  the  abrupt 
slope  of  Mount  Lycabettus. 

Modern  Athens — known  as  the 
Neapolis — lies    wholly    to  the 


north,  between  the  Acropolis  and 
Mount  Lycabettus.  It  is  an  at- 
tractive city  with  fine  buildings, 
good  shops,  and  paved  streets. 
The  principal  thoroughfare  is  the 
Rue  du  Stade,  which  connects  the 
Place  de  la  Constitution,  the 
centre  of  traffic,  with  the  Place 
de  la  Concorde.  On  this  street 
and  the  Boulevarde  de  I'Uni- 
versite,  which  runs  parallel  to  it, 
are  the  chief  shops  and  the  most 
important  public  buildings.  The 
business  quarters  of  the  city  are 
in  the  western  part,  the  chief 
streets  in  this  section  being  the 
Rue  d'Hermes,  the  Rue  d'Ath- 
ena,  and  the  Rue  d'Eola. 

Important  buildings  in  modern 
Athens  are  the  Parliament  build- 


ing; Academy  of  Science;  Uni- 
versity; Library;  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute; National  Archaeological 
Museum,  containing  a  fine  col- 
lection of  antiquities;  the  Royal 
Palace,  erected  in  1834,  with  its 
beautiful  gardens;  the  Anglican 
Church,  and  the  Zappeion,  an 
exhibition  building  for  Greek  in- 
dustries and  manufactures 
erected  in  1888.  Of  interest,  also, 
are  the  schools  of  archaeology, 
established  by  different  countries 
for  the  study  of  Greek  antiqui- 
ties. These  include  the  British 
School,  founded  in  1886,  with 
headquarters  near  the  Royal 
Palace;  the  American  School  of 
Classical  Studies,  founded  in 
1882,  perhaps  the  most  important 
of  these  institutions;  the  French 
School  of  Archaeology,  founded 
in  1846;  and  the  German  Arch- 
aeological Institute,  founded  in 
1874.  In  1922  Dr.  Joannes  Gen- 
nadius,  for  forty  years  Greek 
minister  to  London,  presented  a 
library  of  great  value  to  the 
American  School  on  condition 


that  it  be  suitably  housed.  The 
Greek  government  gave  a  site, 
and  the  Carnegie  Corporation 
supplied  the  sum  of  $250,000 
for  the  erection  of  a  white  marble 
structure  of  classic  lines  and  pro- 
portions. The  new  building, 
known  as  the  Gennadeion,  was 
dedicated  in  April,  1926.  The 
central  authority  for  all  anti- 
quarian research  in  Greece  is  the 
Greek  Archaeological  Society. 
This  body  carries  on  excavations, 
publishes  annual  reports  and 
monographs,  and  undertakes  the 
preservation  of  ancient  monu- 
ments. Athens  is  also  the  seat 
of  a  Greek  metropolitan. 

Commercial  and  manufactur- 
ing interests  are  few,  though 


Athens  is  of  importance  finan- 
cially. Industrial  activity  centres 
in  Piraeus,  its  seaport.  Local  in- 
dustries include  the  production  of 
olive  oil,  rugs,  and  silk.  Pop. 
(1907)   175,000;  (1920)  292.991. 

Ancient  Athens  was  undoubt- 
edly situated  on  the  Acropolis 
and  probably  extended  below  it 
to  the  south  and  west.  Excava- 
tions have  disclosed  remains  of  a 
massive  wall  surrounding  the 
Acropolis  and  also  portions  of  a 
wall  enclosing  the  town  below. 
This  lower  wall  was  pierced  by 
nine  gates,  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  was  the  Dipylon,  which 
formed  the  principal  entrance  to 
the  city.  Just  without  it  was  a 
great  cemetery,  in  which  many 
important  excavations  have  been 
made. 

The  dominating  feature  of 
ancient  Athens  was  the  Acrop- 
olis, the  earliest  seat  of  the 
Athenian  kings,  later  devoted 
solely  to  the  gods.  The  ancient 
temples  and  shrines  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  Persians  in  480-79 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Photo  from  Paul  M.  Hinkuouse 


The  Academy  of  Science,  Athens,  Erected  for  the  Accommodation  of 
Greek  and  Foreign  Scholars. 
The  building  is  built  of  Pentelic  marble,  in  classic  Grecian  style,  with  Ionic  colonnades. 
The  group  in  the  pediment  represents  the  birth  of  Athena.   Statues  of  Athena  and  Apollo 
surmount  the  lofty  Ionic  columns  in  front. 


Athens 


452 


Athens 


B.C.,  but  under  Themistocles, 
Cimon,  and  Pericles,  the  Acrop- 
olis was  reconstructed,  and  the 
ruins  now  standing  are  among  the 
most  magnificent  in  the  world. 
On  the  west  side  is  the  Beule 
gate,  the  sole  entrance  to  the 
Acropolis,  leading  to  the  Popy- 
laea,  a  magnificent  gateway  con- 
sisting of  three  parts,  an  outer, 
central,  and  inner  portico, 
adorned  with  Doric  columns. 
Just  outside  the  Popylaea,  on  a 
lofty  platform,  is  the  Temple  of 
Nike  Apteros — the  'Wingless 
Victory' — built  entirely  of  mar- 
ble, probably  about  425  B.C. 
Surmounting  the  Acropolis  are 
the  ruins  of  the  Parthenon  (q.v.), 
the  chief  glory  of  ancient  Athens. 


leading  from  the  Odeum  to  the 
theatre  of  Dionysus. 

Southeast  of  the  Acropolis 
was  the  Arch  of  Hadrian,  an 
isolated  gateway  adorned  by 
columns,  leading  to  the  temple 
of  the  Olympian  Zeus.  This 
great  temple,  begun  by  Pisistra- 
tus,  contained  a  huge  statue  of 
Zeus  and  one  of  Hadrian,  in 
whose  reign  (a.d.  117-138)  it 
was  completed.  Of  its  splendid 
columns,  only  sixteen  remain, 
measuring  56  ft.  7  in.  in  height 
and  5  ft.  7  in.  in  diameter  (at  the 
base).  Near  the  Olympieum, 
across  the  almost  dry  bed  of  the 
River  Ilissus,  was  the  Stadium, 
the  scene  of  the  Panathenaic 
games.  This  imposing  structure. 


sure  of  which  was  the  shrine  of 
the  Eumenides;  a  little  to  the 
west  are  the  ruins  of  a  Christian 
church  dedicated  to  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite.  On  the  slope  of 
the  Areopagus  was  a  large  in- 
closure  containing  wine  vats  and 
temples;  in  the  valley  between 
the  Areopagus  and  the  Pnyx  was 
an  ancient  street  which  led  from 
the  Acropolis  to  the  ancient 
Agora,  or  market  place,  where 
extensive  excavations  have  been 
agreed  upon  by  the  Greek 
government  and  the  American 
School  of  Classical  Studies  in 
Athens. 

North  of  the  Acropolis  and 
west  of  the  market  place  stands 
the  Theseum  (or  Hephaesteum), 


Plan  of  Ancient  Athens 


North  of  the  Parthenon  is  the 
Erechtheum  (q.v.),  which  was 
devoted  to  the  worship  of  Erec- 
theus  and  of  Athena  Polias,  and 
before  the  east  fagade  are  the 
remains  of  a  small  round  temple 
to  Roma  and  Augustus.  Front- 
ing the  northeastern  corner  is  a 
relic  of  the  great  sacrificial  altar 
of  Athena.  At  the  base  of  the 
Acropolis  are  the  ruins  of  the 
Odeum  of  Herodes  Atticus,  an 
ancient  theatre,  which  later 
served  as  a  sort  of  outwork  of 
defence  for  the  Acropolis.  Here, 
also,  are  the  theatre  of  Dionysus 
(for  illustration  see  Theatre), 
once  the  centre  of  Greek  dra- 
matic art,  partly  excavated  in  the 
solid  rock  of  the  hill;  the  Askle- 
peion,  a  temple  and  altar  erected 
to  Asklepios  (^sculapius) ;  and 
the  Stoa  Eumenia,  a  colonnade 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


originally  erected  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury B.C.,  has  been  recently  re- 
stored, and  here  in  1896  and  1906 
the  Olympic  Games  (q.v.)  were 
held.  The  circular  building 
known  as  the  Monument  of 
Lysikrates  stood  near  the  Arch  of 
Hadrian.  It  is  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation,  consisting  of  a  base 
of  Piraeic  stone  surmounted  by  a 
circular  structure  of  Pentelic 
marble  adorned  with  a  sculp- 
tured frieze. 

Below  the  Acropolis,  to  the 
west,  is  the  rocky  plateau  known 
as  the  Areopagus  or  Hill  of  Mars. 
Here  the  ancient  court  of  Athen- 
ian citizens  held  its  sittings,  and 
here,  it  is  assumed,  St.  Paul  de- 
livered his  famous  speech  (Acts 
xvii.).  At  the  northeastern  cor- 
ner of  the  base  of  the  Areopagus 
is  a  mass  of  huge  rocks,  in  a  fis- 


the  best  preserved  ruin  in  Greece. 
It  is  an  imposing  temple  of  Pen- 
telic marble  in  Doric  style,  and 
has  been  variously  assigned  to 
Theseus,  Hercules,  and  He- 
phaestus. In  the  middle  ages  it 
was  converted  into  a  church 
dedicated  to  St.  George.  East 
and  north  of  the  Theseum  was 
the  Ceramicus,  surrounded  by 
many  imposing  structures,  as  the 
King's  Stoa,  the  Senate  house, 
and  Metroon,  as  well  as  statues 
of  the  poets  and  orators  of 
Greece.  West  and  southwest  of 
the  Acropolis  and  the  Areopagus 
rise  "the  Hill  of  the  Observatory 
or  Hill  of  the  Nymphs,  crowned 
by  the  observatory  erected  in 
1842,  the  Hill  of  the  Pnyx,  sur- 
mounted by  a  huge  terrace  or 
platform,  where  it  is  believed 
that  the  Athenians  held  their 


Photos  from  Paul  M.  Ilinklwiise  ,„.tt,^,vt.~  .^^^t-,->x- 

A  1  HENS.  GRRhC  P. 

1.  Entrance  to  the  Stadium,  scene  of  the  Panathenian  Games,  with  the  Acropolis  in  the  right  back- 
ground and  the  Hill  of  Philopappos  on  the  left.  2.  The  Zappeion,  an  exhibition  buildmg  for  Greek 
industries  and  manufactures.  3.  Ruins  of  the  Ancient  Agora  (Market  Place),  with  the  Tower  of  the 
Winds  to  the  extreme  left.  The  eight  sides  of  the  tower  are  turned  to  the  different  pomts  of  the  com- 
pass, and  are  adorned  with  reliefs  representing  the  various  winds.  The  building  is  26  feet  in  diameter 
and  42  feet  in  height,  and  was  built  in  the  first  century  B.C. 


Vol.  I. — Page  453. 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Athens 


454 


Atherton 


political  assemblies,  and  the  Hill 
of  Philopappos  or  Hill  of  the 
Muses,  on  the  crest  of  which  is  a 
monument  erected  in  memory  of 
Julius  Antiochus  Philopappos. 

History. — The  site  of  Athens 
was  probably  occupied  in  the  far 
distant  past  by  the  Pelasgians, 
who  were  expelled  bj'-  immigrant 
lonians,  though  the  Athenians 
always  proudly  considered  them- 
selves autochthonous,  or  sprung 
from  the  soil.  They  regarded 
Cecrops  as  the  founder  of  the 
town,  but  Theseus  is  generally 
held  to  have  established  the  city 
in  the  year  1259  B.C.  It  was 
ruled  by  kings  until  the  death  of 
Kodros,  when  kings  were  re- 
placed by  archons,  about  1058- 
752  B.C.,  at  first  elected  for  life, 
but  later  for  ten,  and  eventually 
for  but  one  year.  In  the  7th 
century  the  supremacy  of  the 
nobles,  Eupatridae,  became  great- 
ly weakened,  and  in  594  the 
revision  of  the  constitution  by 
Solon  (q.v.)  gave  a  share  of 
power  to  wealth  apart  from 
birth,  opened  the  highest  offices 
to  all  free  citizens,  and  estab- 
lished choice  of  Judges  by  lot. 
For  further  details  of  Solon's  re- 
forms and  for  the  subsequent 
history  of  Athens  up  to  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War,  see  Greece. 

The  Peloponnesian  War  (432- 
404),  though  it  ended  in  terms 
humiliating  to  Athens  and  de- 
prived her  of  much  of  her 
political  power,  did  not  greatly 
affect  her  cultural  supremacy, 
which  remained  unchallenged 
for  centuries.  The  Gothic  raid 
of  258  A.D.  and  consequent  re- 
fortification,  the  spoliation  of  the 
temples  by  Constantine  (330), 
and  the  invasion  of  Alaric  (396) 
are  landmarks  of  decline,  and  the 
suppression  of  the  schools  of  law 
and  philosophy  by  Justinian 
(529)  completed  the  transforma- 
tion. The  Acropolis  became  a 
Byzantine  fortress;  the  Parthe- 
non was  consecrated  to  St. 
Sophia,  and  the  Theseum  to  St. 
George;  and  many  churches — 
e.g.,  the  Capnicarea  (founded 
444,  actual  buildings  9th  cen- 
tury). St.  Theodore  (1049),  and 
the  old  cathedral  (13th  century) 
— sprang  up  in  the  lower  town. 

The  Latin  conquest  of  1204 
brought  a  disastrous  siege  and 
established  a  Prankish  dukedom. 
After  passing  from  one  adven- 
turer to  another  (Otho  de  la 
Roche,  1204;  Walter  de  Brienne, 
1308;  the  Grand  Company,  1311; 
Manfred  of  Sicily,  1326;  the 
Florentine  Nerio  Acciajuoli, 
1386).  the  duchy  fell  under  the 
protectorate  of  Venice  in  1394. 
Freed  by  Duke  Antonio  in  1403, 
it  came  under  Ottoman  suze- 
rainty in  1435,  and  was  annexed 
by  Mohammed  ii.  in  1458. 
Under  the  Prankish  dukes  Ath- 
ens regained  prosperity  and 
culture,  but  since  it  lay  off  the 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


pilgrim  routes,  was  little  known 
in  the  west.  John  of  Basing- 
stoke, however,  had  studied 
there  in  1202,  and  in  1436-47 
Cyriac  of  Ancona  made  invalu- 
able sketches  of  the  ruined  monu- 
ments. 

Under  Turkish  rule  the  Greek 
Church  was  at  first  reinstated, 
but  the  Parthenon  and  other 
buildings  were  soon  converted  to 
Moslem  uses.  The  best  pre- 
served Turkish  building  is  the 
18th-century  mosque  adjoining 
the  governor's  palace.  The  in- 
troduction of  artillery  and  the 
Venetian  raid  of  1466  brought 
fresh  fortifications  and  more 
destruction.  The  Propylaea  was 
blown  up  in  1636,  and  the  Par- 
thenon in  1687.  The  Nike 
Temple  (reconstructed  in  1836) 
was  demolished  in  1686,  and 
thenceforward  destruction  was 
rapid.  At  the  Greek  revolt  of 
1822  Athens  was  at  once  seized 
by  the  insurgents,  but  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Turks  in  1827.  In 
1833  the  Turkish  troops  evacu- 
ated the  citadel,  and  in  1835 
Athens  became  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Greece. 

Bibliography — Consult  Stuart 
and  Revett's  Antiquities  of  Ath- 
ens (revised  ed.,  4  vols.);  Leake's 
Topography  of  Athens  (2  vols.); 
Harrison  and  Verrall's  Myth- 
ology and  Monuments  of  Ancient 
Athens;  Curtius'  Stadtgeschichte 
von  Athen;  Penrose's  Principles 
of  Athenian  Architecture;  Beul's 
Acropolis  d"  Athenes;  Gardener's 
Aticient  Athens;  Butler's  The 
Story  of  Athens;  Ferguson's 
Hellenistic  Athens  (1913);  Whit- 
ing's Athens  the  Violet-crowned 
(1913);  Weller's  Athens  and  Its 
Monuments  (1913);  Tucker's  Life 
in  Ancient  Athens  (1914);  Pow- 
ers' The  Hill  of  Athena  (1924). 

Athens,  city,  Alabama,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Limestone  county, 
on  the  Louisville  and  Nashville 
Railroad;  98  miles  north  of 
Birmingham.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Athens  College,  Trinity  College 
(colored),  and  of  a  State  agri- 
cultural school.  It  is  situated  in 
a  timber  and  cotton  growing 
district,  and  has  cotton  and 
planing  mills  and  an  ice  plant. 
Pop.  (1910)  1,715;  (1920)  3,323. 

Athens,  city,  Georgia,  a 
county  seat  of  Clarke  county,  on 
the  Oconee  River,  and  on  the 
Central  of  Georgia,  the  Gains- 
ville  Midland,  the  Georgia,  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line,  and  the 
Southern  Railroads;  73  miles 
northeast  of  Atlanta.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  University  of  Georgia 
(q.v.),  the  State  College  of 
Agriculture,  a  State  normal 
school  for  girls,  and  the  Lucy 
Cobb  Boarding  School.  Of 
special  interest  is  the  'tree  that 
owns  itself,'  a  tree  to  which  Col. 
William  H.  Jackson  made  a 
deed  of  several  square  feet  of 
land.    The  city  is  an  important 


cotton  market  and  manufactures 
cotton  and  fertilizers.  Pop. 
(1900)  10,245;  (1910)  14,913; 
(1920)  16,748. 

Athens,  city,  Ohio,  county 
seat  of  Athens  county,  on  the 
Hocking  River,  and  on  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the  Hocking 
Valley,  and  the  New  York 
Central  Railroads;  76  miles 
southeast  of  Columbus.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Ohio  University  (q.v.) 
and  has  a  State  hospital  for  the 
insane  and  a  Carnegie  library. 
Industries  include  coal  mining 
and  the  manufacture  of  stoves 
and  bricks.  Pop.  (1910)  5,463; 
(1920)  6,418. 

Athens,  borough,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Bradford  county,  on  the 
Susquehanna  and  Chemung  Riv- 
ers, and  on  the  Lehigh  Valley 
Railroad;  75  miles  northwest  of 
Wilkes-Barre.  Cigars,  furniture, 
overalls,  pneumatic  tools,  and 
flour  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1910)  3,796;  (1920)  4,384. 

Athens,  city,  Tennessee, 
county  seat  of  McMinn  county, 
on  the  Louisville  and  Nashville, 
and  the  Southern  Railroads;  55 
miles  northeast  of  Chattanooga. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Tennessee  Wes- 
leyan  College  (formerly  the  U.  S. 
Grant  University)  and  has  lum- 
ber, cotton,  and  woollen  mills. 
Pop.  (1910)  2,264;  (1920)  2,580. 

Athens,  town,  Texas,  county 
seat  of  Henderson  county,  on  the 
Southern  Pacific,  and  the  St. 
Louis  Southwestern  Railroads; 
70  miles  southwest  of  Dallas. 
The  region  produces  cotton, 
fruit,  timber,  and  coal.  Brick, 
pottery,  and  tile  are  manu- 
factured. Pop.  (1910)  2,261; 
(1920)  3,176. 

Atheroma,  ath-e-ro'ma,  a 
soft,  yellow,  cheesy  material 
replacing  normal  tissues  in  the 
walls  of  arteries,  weakening 
them  and  lessening  their  elas- 
ticity. It  may  give  rise  to  aneur- 
isms or  cause  embolism.  Ather- 
roma  of  the  cerebral  arteries 
is  a  common  cause  of  cerebral 
degeneration.  Treatment  is 
mainly   palliative.  . 

Ath'erstone,  market  town, 
England,  in  Warwickshire;  8 
miles  southeast  of  Tamworth, 
About  5  miles  to  the  northeast 
lies  the  battlefield  of  Bosworth. 
Pop.  (1921)  20,849. 

Ath'erton,  or  Chowbent, 
town,  England,  in  Lancashire; 
5  miles  southwest  of  Bolton.  It 
has  large  cotton  mills  and  col- 
lieries.   Pop.  (1921)  19,863. 

Atherton,  Charles  Gordon 
(1804-53),  American  politician, 
was  born  in  Amherst,  N.  H.,  and 
was  graduated  from  Harvard 
(1822).  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1837-43,  and  of  the 
U.  S.  Senate  in  1843-9  and 
1852-3.  In  1838  he  gained 
notoriety  by  moving  the  'Ather- 
ton Gag  Resolution,'  which 
proposed    that     'all  petitions 


Atherton 


455 


Atjeh 


relating  to  slavery  or  to  its  aboli- 
tion be  laid  on  the  table  without 
debate.'  The  resolution  was 
carried  by  a  majority  of  forty- 
two,  but  it  was  ultimately  re- 
scinded in  1844.  See  Gag 
Rules. 

Ath'erton,  Gertrude  Frank- 
lin (nie  Horn)  (1857-  ),  Amer- 
ican novelist,  was  born  in  Sa 
Francisco,  and  was  educated  in 
Benicia,  Cal.,  and  Lexington, 
Ky.  Her  works  include:  The 
Doomswoman  (1892);  Patience 
Sparhawk  and  Her  Times  (1897); 
Transplanted  (1898);  The  Cali- 
fornians  (1898);  Daughter  of  the 
Vine  (1899);  Senator  North 
(1900);  Aristocrats  (1901);  The 
Splendid  Idle  Forties  (1902); 
The  Conqueror  (1902);  Rulers  of 
Kings  (1904);  The  Bell  in  the 
Fog  (1905);  The  Travelling 
Thirds  (1905);  Rezanov  (1906); 
Ancestors  (1907) ;  Tower  of  Ivory 
(1910);  Julia  France  and  Her 
Times  (1912);  Perch  of  the  Devil 
(1914);  California  —  an  Inti- 
mate History  (1914);  Before  the 
Gringo  Came  (1915);  The  Living 
Present  (1917) ;  The  White  Morn- 
ing (1918);  The  Avalanche 
(1919);  Sisters-in-Law  (1921). 
She  also  edited  A  Few  of  Hamil- 
ton's Letters  (1903).  Mrs.  Ather- 
ton has  passed  much  time  in 
England  and  on  the  Continent. 

Atherton  Resolutions.  See 
Gag  Rules. 

Athlet'ics,  a  term  used  in  a 
broad  sense  to  cover  all  games 
or  sports  depending  in  whole  or 
in  part  upon  feats  of  physical 
strength  or  skill.  It  is  fre- 
quently applied  to  field  sports  as 
distinguished  from  indoor  gym- 
nastics. 

Athletic  sports  were  practised 
in  various  forms  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  were  brought  to  a 
high  standard  of  development  by 
the  ancient  Greeks.  In  Great 
Britain  they  have  been  cultivated 
since  Celtic  times,  different  vari- 
eties of  sports  being  in  favor  at 
different  periods.  Athletic  sports 
in  the  modern  sense  were  insti- 
tuted by  the  Royal  Military  Col- 
lege at  Sandhurst  in  1849;  in 
1866  the  Amateur  Athletic  Club 
held  the  first  of  a  series  of  cham- 
pionship meetings,  continued 
from  1880  by  the  Amateur  Ath- 
letic Association,  which  is  the 
chief  British  authority  in  athletic 
sports. 

In  the  United  States  the  pop- 
ularity of  athletic  sports  dates 
from  the  years  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  Civil  War.  The  Na- 
tional Association  of  Amateur 
Athletes  of  America  was  organ- 
ized in  1879,  and  the  Amateur 
Athletic  Union,  which  now  con- 
trols amateur  athletes  through- 
out the  country,  was  organized 
in  1888.  In  connection  with 
the  subject  of  Athletics,  see 
the  following  headings  in  this 
work: 

Vol.  I— Oct.  '21 


Amateur 
Baseball 
Basketball 
Bowling 
Boxing 
Canoe 
Cricket 
Curling 
encing 
'ootball 
olf 

*f'Gymnastics 
/4tt^ce  Hockey 

'^ce  Yachting 
La  Crosse 
Lawn  Tennis 


Ol3Tnpic  Games 

Physical  Training 

Polo 

Rowing 

Skating 

Ski 

Snowshoe 
Swimming 
Tennis  ^ 
Toboganning 
Track    and  Field 

Athletics 
Walking 
Water  Polo 
Wrestling 
Yacht. 


Athlone,  ath-lon',  town, 
county  Westmeath,  Ireland,  on 
both  banks  of  the  Shannon;  17 
miles  southeast  of  Roscommon. 
It  is  a  strong  military  position, 
and  formerly  had  extensive  for- 
tifications and  barracks.  The 
town  is  an  agricultural  centre; 
woollen  goods  are  manufactured; 
and  there  is  a  salmon  fishery. 
Pop.  (1911)  9,631. 

Athlone,   Godart    de  Gin- 

KELL,     FIRST     EaRL     OF  (1630" 

1703),  English  military  com- 
mander, was  born  in  Utrecht, 
and  followed  William  of  Orange 
to  England  in  1688.  His  cap- 
ture of  Ballymore,  Athlone,  and 
Limerick  won  for  him  the  thanks 
of  the  House  of  Commons  and 
the  earldom  of  Athlone.  In  the 
wars  of  William  lil.  with  France, 
Ginkell  distinguished  himself  at 
the  recapture  of  Namur  and  in 
the  surprise  of  Givet.  In  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
(1702)  he  served  under  Marl- 
borough, with  whom,  however,  he 
was  continually  at  variance. 

Atholj  ath'ol,  town,  Worcester 
county,  Massachusetts,  on  Mil- 
ler's River,  and  on  the  Boston 
and  Albany,  and  the  Fitchburg 
Railroads;  25  mileS  northwest  of 
Worcester.  Boots  and  shoes, 
mechanical  tools,  furniture, 
toys,  silk,  and  artificial  leather 
are  manufactured.  Pop.  (1910) 
8,536;   (1920)  9,792. 

A  t h o r ,  a'thor.  Ay  t h o r  , 
Hether,  or  Hathor,  an  Egyp- 
tian goddess,  daughter  of  Ra,  in 
whom  the  Greeks  recognized 
their  Aphrodite.  The  cow  was 
her  symbol. 

Athos,  ath'os,  a  mountainous 
peninsula  which  projects  from 
the  south  coast  of  Macedonia  in- 
to the  ^gean  Sea.  Its  circum- 
navigation was  so  much  dreaded 
by  ancient  mariners  that  Xerxes, 
when  invading  Greece  in  480 
B.C.,  cut  a  canal  (traces  of  which 
are  still  visible)  through  the 
isthmus  which  joins  it  with  the 
mainland.  Here,  in  492  B.C., 
the  Persian  fleet  under  Mardon- 
ius  was  completely  wrecked.  In 
ancient  days  the  peninsula  con- 
tained several  prosperous  towns. 
At  the  present  time  it  is  covered 
with  a  score  of  monasteries,  be- 
longing to  the  Orthodox  Greek 
Church,  the  monks  forming  a 
kind  of  repubhc,  though  under 


Turkish  suzerainty.  The  first 
Christian  monasteries  were  built 
here  in  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries. 

Athrep'sia,  the  wasting  of  in- 
fants due  to  malnutrition.  The 
child  is  constantly  uneasy,  and 
in  the  early  stages  its  cries  are 
piercing  and  almost  incessant. 
It  suffers  from  hunger,  flatu- 
lence, colic,  and  other  discom- 
forts of  the  alimentary  tract, 
with  frequent  diarrhoea  and 
rashes.  In  the  later  stages  the 
face  is  characteristically  sharp- 
featured  and  pinched,  the  body 
is  cold,  the  temperature  maybe 
much  below  normal,  and  the 
likelihood  of  intercurrent  disease 
is  correspondingly  great. 

Treatment  consists  in  correct- 
ing faults  in  the  diet.  See 
Diet  and  Dietetics. 

Athyroid'ism,  deficiency  of 
the  secretion  of  the  thyroid 
gland  (q.  v.). 

Atitlan,  a-te-tlan',  or  San- 
TIGO  DE  Atitlan,  town,  de- 
partment of  Solola,  Guatemala. 
It  is  on  the  south  side  of  Lake 
Atitlan,  and  has  cotton  mills  and 
mineral  springs.     Pop.  10,000. 

Atitlan,  Lake,  department  of 
Solola,  Guatemala,  4,700  feet 
above  the  sea,  64  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, of  great  depth,  and 
with  no  visible  outlet.  The  in- 
active volcano  of  Atitlan  is  situ- 
ated at  the  southern  end  of  the 
lake,  rising  to  a  height  of  over 
11,000  feet. 

At'jeh,  Atchin,  or  Achin, 
a-chen',  residency  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  in  Northern  Suma- 
tra, with  an  area  of  about  20,500 
square  miles.  The  surface  is 
mountainous,  the  country  being 
traversed  about  midway  from 
northwest  to  southeast  by  a 
mountain  chain  culminating  at 
the  extreme  north  in  Gold  Moun- 
tain, at  the  base  of  which  lies 
Kota  Radja,  or  Achin,  the  cap- 
ital. The  soil  is  light  and  fertile, 
producing  rice,  cotton,  tobacco, 
tropical  fruits,  and  pepper. 
Horses  and  cattle  are  raised,  and 
gold  is  abundant.  The  inhab- 
itants are  engaged  in  agriculture, 
silk  manufacture,  fishing,  and 
the  fashioning  of  weapons  of  gold 
and  iron  and  of  filigree  work. 
Rice,  pepper,  rattan,  bamboo, 
camphor  and  betel-nuts  are  ex- 
ported. 

The  population,  estimated  at 
about  709,000,  consists  chiefly 
of  Atchinese,  whose  ethnological 
relations  are  not  conclusively 
established.  They  are  shorter 
and  darker  than  the  other  Su- 
matrans  and  are  more  active  and 
industrious,  though  cruel,  treach- 
erous and  of  a  low  type  of  mor- 
ality. They  are  said  to  be 
Malays  at  root  but  have  prob- 
ably a  strain  of  Arab  blood. 
They  are  Mohammedans. 

As  early  as  1509  the  Portu- 
guese tried  to  enter  into  relations 


Atka 


456 


Atlantic  Cable 


with  the  Sultan  of  Atjeh,  and  a 
century  later  the  Dutch  estab- 
lished a  factory  there.  They 
were  expelled,  however,  in  1616 
and  the  kingdom  remained  hos- 
tile throughout  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries.  In 
1819  the  English  made  a  treaty 
with  the  Atchinese  whereby  all 
other  people  should  be  excluded 
from  residence  there,  and  when 
British  settlements  in  Sumatra 
were  ceded  to  the  Dutch,  in 
1824,  it  was  stipulated  that 
Atjeh  should  be  unmolested. 
In  1873,  this  stipulation  having 
been  withdrawn  by  the  Hague 
Tribunal,  the  Dutch  sent  an 
expedition  against  Atjeh,  and, 
after  a  campaign  of  about 
forty  years,  costly  in  both  lives 
and  money,  Atjeh  was  placed 
under  the  authority  of  a  military 
commandant. 

At'ka,  or  Atcha,  an  island  of 
the  Andrenovian  group  in  the 
chain  of  Aleutian  Islands,  (q.  v.), 
in  long.  195°  w.  It  contains  a 
good  harbor.  Area,  about  500 
square  miles. 

Atka  Fish,  or  Atka  Mack- 
erel, a  species  of  fish  belonging 
to  the  rock-trout  family  (Hex- 
agrammidse),  extremely  numer- 
ous in  the  kelp  beds  around  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  in  the  North 
Pacific.  It  is  a  handsome  fish 
about  18  inches  long,  with  an 
average  weight  of  2H  pounds. 
It  varies  in  color  from  a  pale  to  a 
chrome-yellow,  with  jet-black 
crossbars.  It  is  an  excellent 
food  fish,  especially  when  salted. 

At'kins,  Tommy,  originally  a 
supposititious nameused  in  speci- 
men forms  issued  by  the  British 
War  Office,  whence  it  came  to  be 
applied  generally  to  the  British 
regular  soldier. 

At'kinson,  Edward  (1827- 
1905),  American  economist,  was 
bom  in  Brookline,  Mass.  For 
more  than  forty  years  he  was  a 
prolific  writer  on  banking,  eco- 
nomic legislation,  industrial  edu- 
cation, the  money  and  tariff 
questions,  and  colonial  expan- 
sion. He  was  interested  also  in 
fire  prevention  and  in  problems 
of  nutrition.  His  published 
writings  include  Science  of  Nutri- 
tion; Distribution  of  Property;  In- 
dustrial Progress  of  the  Nation; 
Margin  of  Profit;  Taxation  and 
Work;  Prevention  of  Loss  by 
Fire. 

Atkinson,  George  Francis 
(1854-1918),  American  scientist, 
was  born  in  Raisinville,  Mich. 
He  was  educated  at  Olivet  Col- 
lege and  Cornell  University,  and 
was  successively  geologist  of 
North  Carolina;  assistant  and 
associate  professor  of  entomology 
and  zoology  at  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  (1885-8);  pro- 
fessor of  botany  and  zoology  at 
the  University  of  South  Caro- 
lina (1888-9);  and  professor  of 
biology  at  the  Alabama  Poly- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  '21 


technic  Institute  (1889-92).  In 
1892  he  joined  the  faculty  of 
Cornell  University,  where  he  be- 
came professor  of  botany  and 
head  of  the  botany  department  in 
1896.  He  was  botanist  of  the 
experiment  station  there  from 
1902  to  1907.  He  wrote  Biology 
of  Ferns  (1894);  Elementary 
Botany  (1898);  Lessons  in 
Botany  (1900) ;  Studies  of  Ameri- 
can Fungi  (1900);  Mushrooms, 
Edible,  Poisonous,  etc.  (1903); 
First  Studies  on  Plant  Life 
(1904);  College  Text-Book  of 
Botany  (1904) . 

Atlanta,  city,  capital  of 
Georgia,  county  seat  of  Fulton 
county,  7  miles  southeast  of  the 
Chattahoochee  River,  and  on  the 
Atlanta  and  West  Point,  the 
Southern,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line, 
and  five  other  railroads,  with  14 
lines  radiating  in  all  directions; 
269  miles  northwest  of  Savannah. 
It  is  situated  on  a  ridge  which 
divides  the  watershed  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  from  that  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  an  altitude  of 
1,050  feet.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  60°  F.,  and  the 
average  rainfall  48  inches;  the 
climate  is  mild  and  equable. 

The  city  covers  an  area  of  26 
square  miles,  and  has  18  public 
parks,  840  acres  in  extent,  of 
which  the  chief  are  Grant, 
Piedmont,  and  Lake  wood.  The 
business  blocks  and  the  civic 
buildings  are  both  handsome  and 
commodious.  Among  the  more 
important  edifices  are  the  State 
Capitol,  Carnegie  Library,  Con- 
federate Soldiers'  Home,  U.  S. 
Penitentiary,  the  County  Court 
House,  Post  Office  and  Federal 
Building.  The  auditorium  ar- 
mory seats  7,000  people,  "and  is 
said  to  be  the  finest  in  the  South. 
Educational  institutions  include 
the  Georgia  School  of  Tech- 
nology, Emory  University,  Ogle- 
thorpe University,  Lanier  Uni- 
versity, and  Georgia  Military 
Academy,  and  the  Agnes  Scott 
College,  Cox  College  and  Con- 
servatory and  Elizabeth  Mather 
College,  for  young  women.  There 
are  five  colleges  for  negroes, 
three  medical  colleges,  and  sev- 
eral business  schools.  The  State 
Library  is  also  located  in  Atlanta. 
The  public  school  system  is  well 
organized;  there  are  64  public 
schools  with  713  teachers  and 
over  31,000  pupils.  There  are 
272  churches  in  the  city,  repre- 
senting twenty  denominations. 
All  the  principal  denominations, 
including  the  Christian  Scien- 
tists, have  handsome  edifices. 

Commerce  and  Industry. — 
Atlanta  is  the  commercial  centre 
of  the  Southeastern  States,  with 
a  large  trade  in  cotton  and  cotton 
goods,  horses,  and  mules.  It  is 
the  second  largest  mule  market 
in  the  United  States.  Its  man- 
ufacturing interests  are  varied 
and  extensive,   including  agri- 


cultural implement  works  and 
machine  shops,  foundries,  fur- 
niture factories,  candy,  crackers, 
cakes,  cotton,  paper,  and  cotton- 
seed-oil mills,  ice  factories,  and 
printing  and  publishing  houses. 
Industrial  establishments  num- 
ber over  500,  with  a  capital  of 
more  than  $50,000,000  and  man- 
ufactured products  valued  at 
$185,000,000. 

The  population  of  Atlanta  is 
200,616  (1920).  It  was  2,572 
in  1850;  21,789  in  1870;  65,533 
in  1890;  89,872  in  1900,  and 
154,839  in  1910. 

History. — About  1840  the  vil- 
lage of  Marthasville  grew  up  on 
the  present  site  of  Atlanta;  the 
present  name  was  shortly  after- 
ward adopted,  and  the  town  soon 
became  a  centre  of  trade.  In  the 
Civil  War  it  was  a  base  of  sup- 
plies for  the  Confederate  armies, 
and  after  a  brief  siege  was  cap- 
tured by  General  Sherman  on 
Sept.  2,  1864.  By  his  orders  the 
city  was  afterward  destroyed  ex- 
cept for  a  few  central  and  public 
buildings.  It  was  speedily  rebuilt 
after  the  close  of  the  war  and  was 
the  seat  of  the  reconstruction 
government.  When  the  old  State 
government  was  re-established, 
the  seat  of  government  was  re- 
turned to  Milledgeville,  its  former 
site,  but  in  1877  a  popular  elec- 
tion, held  to  determine  the  per- 
manent location  of  the  capital, 
resulted  in  the  choice  of  Atlanta. 

Two  expositions  have  been 
held  in  Atlanta:  the  Cotton 
Exposition  of  1881,  and  the 
Cotton  States  and  International 
Exposition  of  1895.  The  city 
has  also  been  a  favorite  meeting 
place  for  conventions,  through 
which  it  has  become  widely 
known.  On  May  21,  1917,  a 
destructive  fire  occurred  in  the 
heart  of  the  city.  No  lives  were 
lost  but  the  property  loss  was 
estimated  at  $5,500,000. 
Atlantes.  See  Atlas. 
Atlan'tlc,  city,  Iowa,  county 
seat  of  Cass  county,  on  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacif- 
ic Railroad;  80  miles  southwest 
of  Des  Moines.  It  has  produce 
houses,  machine  works,  a  can- 
ning factory,  ice  factory,  sheet- 
metal  plant  and  brick  plant. 
Pop.  (1910)  4,500;  (1920)  5,329. 

Atlantic  Ca'ble.  The  idea 
of  uniting  Europe  and  America 
by  telegraphic  communication 
seems  to  have  originated  in  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, and  to  have  first  assumed 
definite  form  in  1845,  when 
Messrs.  John  and  Jacob  Brett 
registered  a  company  entitled 
'General  Oceanic  Company.' 
After  a  period  of  eleven  years, 
during  which  cables  had  been 
successfully  laid  across  the  Eng- 
lish Channel  and  across  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  these  gentlemen 
joined  a  syndicate,  of  which 
Cyrus  Field  (q.  v.)  was  the  lead- 


VIEWS  IN  ATLANTA,  GEORGIA. 

Gordon  Monument.  Carnegie  Library. 

Georgia  State  Capitol.  Grant  Park. 

Lower  Peachtree  Street.  Piedmont  HoteL 


■Oct.  '21 


Vol.  I.— at  Page  456 


» 


/ 


Atlantic  Cable 


457 


Atlantic  Fisheries  Arbitration 


ing  spirit,  for  the  establishment 
of  telegraphic  communication 
between  Ireland  and  Newfound- 
land. The  company  was  fi- 
nanced by  American,  English, 
and  Scottish  capitalists,  and 
was  registered  Oct.  20,  1856,  as 
the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Com- 
pany. 

Trinity  Bay,  Newfoundland, 
was  selected  as  the  American  ter- 
minus for  the  projected  cable  and 
Valentia  Bay,  Ireland,  as  the 
British,  and  construction  was 
begun  in  February,  1857.  The 
distance  between  the  two  ter- 
minal points  being  1,640  nautical 
miles,  a  cable  length  of  2,500 
nautical  miles  was  considered 
sufficient.  This  cable  consisted 
of  a  core  of  seven  strands  of 
copper  wire,  weighing  107  pounds 
to  the  mile,  insulated  with  three 
coatings  of  gutta-percha,  and 
sheathed  with  eighteen  strands, 
each  containing  seven  iron  wires 
of  22  gauge.  The  British  vessel 
Agamemnon  and  the  U.  S.  S. 
Niagara  were  selected  for  laying 
the  cable,  each  receiving  a  half 
of  the  entire  length.  The  first 
attempt  was  made  from  Valentia, 
August  6,  1857,  when  the  Niag- 
ara started  paying  out  the  cable. 
After  various  misfortunes  had 
occurred  and  the  cable  had  been 
returned  to  Plymouth,  it  was 
decided  to  start  the  laying  in 
mid-ocean,  and  in  June,  1858, 
the  two  vessels  proceeded 
thither,  successfully  spliced  the 
two  portions,  and  separated,  the 
Agamemnon  proceeding  toward 
Valentia  and  the  Niagara  toward 
Trinity  Bay.  On  Aug.  17,  1858, 
connections  with  the  receiving 
instruments  having  been  com- 
pleted, the  first  message  was 
cabled  across  the  Atlantic:  'Eu- 
rope and  America  are  united  by 
telegraph.  Glory  to  God  in  the 
highest;  on  earth  peace  and 
good- will  toward  men.'  Owing 
to  faulty  insulation  and  other 
defects,  however,  communica- 
tion was  soon  interrupted,  and 
no  messages  were  transmitted 
after  Oct.  20. 

Through  the  efforts  of  Cyrus 
Field  a  new  company,  known  as 
the  Anglo-American  Telegraph 
Company,  was  organized  in 
1865,  and  a  second  attempt  was 
made  to  establish  telegraphic 
connection  between  the  two  con- 
tinents. After  careful  study  and 
experimenting,  a  cable  ftilfilling 
conditions  favorable  for  deep-sea 
work  was  made,  and  the  Great 
Eastern,  a  vessel  of  22,500  tons, 
was  secured  for  the  enterprize. 
This  vessel  left  Valentia  on  July 
23,  but  after  nearly  1,000  miles 
had  been  laid,  the  cable  parted, 
all  attempts  to  recover  the  part 
submerged  were  unavailing,  and 
the  project  was  abandoned.  The 
following  year,  however,  addi- 
tional capital  was  raised,  and  it 
was  decided  not  only  to  attempt 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '21 


to  lay  a  new  cable  but  also  to 
recover  the  old  one  and  add  to  it 
a  sufficient  new  portion  to  com- 
plete it.  In  July  the  new  cable 
was  successfully  laid,  and  the 
following  September  the  old 
one  was  recovered,  spliced  to  the 
necessary  new  portion,  and  re- 
laid.  Since  that  date  a  number 
of  cable  companies  have  been 
formed,  and  there  are  now 
(1921)  15  cables  between  Europe 
and  North  America.  Consult 
Bright's  Submarine  Telegraphs. 

Atlantic  City,  city  and 
popular  Atlantic  coast  resort, 
Atlantic  county,  New  Jersey,  on 
the  Atlantic  City  and  the  West 
Jersey  and  Seashore  Railroads; 
60  miles  southeast  of  Philadel- 
phia. Situated  on  a  narrow 
sandbar  stretching  for  ten  miles 
along  the  coast,  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  salt  bays  and 
meadows,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
attractive  winter  and  summer 
resorts  in  the  United  States, 
its  splendid  beach,  bathing  facil- 
ities, and  immense  hotel  accom- 
modations attracting  weekly  from 
200,000  to  300,000  visitors. 

The  famous  Board  Walk,  50 
to  60  feet  wide,  extending  along 
the  ocean  front  for  eight  miles, 
and  six  huge  recreation  piers 
offer  a  vast  variety  of  amuse- 
ment to  pleasure  seekers.  The 
city  has  a  Carnegie  Library,  a 
fine  high'  school  btiilding,  and 
several  hospitals.  The  Atlantic 
City  Air  Port — the  first  in  the 
world  —  was  dedicated  in  May, 
1919.  It  supplies  a  splendid 
flying  field  for  the  Aero  Club  of 
America,  the  Aerial  League  of 
America,  and  the  Atlantic  City 
Aero  Club.  It  also  provides  an 
aerial  mail  station,  an  air  port 
for  trans-Atlantic  liners,  sea- 
plane, land  plane,  or  balloon 
type,  and  a  good  landing  field 
for  all  aircraft.  Absecon  Light, 
160  feet  high,  at  the  north  end 
of  the  beach,  is  a  well  known 
beacon  to  mariners. 

Atlantic  City  was  first  settled 
in  1854  on  the  site  of  a  fishing 
settlement  which  dated  from 
1780.  In  1902  it  was  visited  by 
a  disastrous  fire  which  destroyed 
several  hotels  and  other  buildings 
and  led  to  a  municipal  enact- 
ment regarding  fire-proof  build- 
ings within  the  city  limits. 
Permanent  population  (1910) 
46,150;   (1920)  50,707. 

Atlantic  Fisiieries  Arbitra- 
tion, The,  before  the  Permanent 
Court  at  The  Hague  in  1910,  was 
instituted  for  the  purpose  of  set- 
tling the  rights  of  United  States 
fishermen  to  fish  in  the  waters 
of  Northeastern  Canada.  The 
issues  involved  grew  largely  out 
of  the  true  interpretation  of  Ar- 
ticle I.  of  the  Treaty  of  1818. 

Question  I.  raised  the  issue  as 
to  whether  the  United  States  was 
to  have  a  voice  in  the  fishing 
regulations    passed    by  Great 


Britain.  The  tribunal  decided 
that  while  Great  Britain's  or 
Canada's  sovereign  right  to  leg- 
islate concerning  the  fisheries 
was  unimpaired,  nevertheless  it 
was  limited  to  the  enactment  of 
'  reasonable '  regulations.  For 
the  determination  of  the  reason- 
ableness of  any  regulation,  the 
tribunal  recommended  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  Fishery  Board, 
to  pass  upon  protests  on  the  part 
of  the  United  States  against 
the  reasonableness  of  any  partic- 
ular British  regulation.  If  such 
regulation  is  found  unreason- 
able, it  cannot  come  into  force. 

On  Question  il.,  the  tribunal 
decided  that  American  vessel 
owners  had  the  right  to  engage 
local  fishermen  '  of  Canada  as 
members  of  their  fishing  crews, 
overruling  Great  Britain's  con- 
tention that  by  the  treaty  both 
the  ownership  of  the  vessel  and 
the  manual  act  of  fishing  were 
confined  to  inhabitants  of  the 
United  States.  Newfoundland 
had  passed  laws  forbidding  its 
inhabitants  to  take  employment 
as  fishermen  on  American  fishing 
vessels,  and  the  award  takes  this 
legislation  into  consideration, 
for  it  points  out  "that  the  persons 
so  employed  derive  no  benefit  or 
immunity  from  the  treaty  in 
their  own  right. 

Under  Question  V.,  the  tri- 
bunal was  to  determine  what 
was  meant  by  the  negotiators  of 
the  Treaty  of  1818  when  they 
renounced,  for  the  inhabitants 
of  the  United  States,  the  right  of 
fishing  'within  three  miles  of 
.  .  .  bays  of  his  Britannic  Maj- 
esty's dominions  in  America.' 
The  United  States  contended 
that  the  bays  in  which  fishing 
was  thus  renounced  were  ter- 
ritorial bays  of  Great  Britain 
— i.e.,  bays  six  miles  or  less  wide. 
Great  Britain  contended  that 
the  term  was  intended  to  apply 
to  geographical  bays,  regardless 
of  their  width.  The  tribunal 
decided  that  such  a  body  of 
water  was  renounced,  the  con- 
figuration of  which  could  be 
recognized  as  a  bay;  and  they 
recommended  that  the  water 
inside  a  line  drawn  from  shore  to 
shore  where  the  width  of  the  bay 
first  contracted  to  ten  miles 
should  be  regarded  as  the  bay 
proper,  and  the  water  outside, 
the  open  sea. 

The  other  decisions  relieved 
United  States  fishing  vessels  from 
the  requirement  of  certain  cus- 
tom-house formalities  (Questions 
III.  and  IV.) ;  accorded  American 
fishing  vessels  the  right  to  fish  in 
bays  on  the  treaty  coast  (Ques- 
tion VI.);  and  decided  that  the 
use  of  an  American  vessel  for 
fishing  purposes  did  not  dis- 
qualify such  vessel  from  being 
used  for  commercial  purposes 
after  the  fishing  operations  had 
been  completed  (Question  vii.). 


Atlantic  Flights 


45g 


Atlas 


Atlantic  Flights.  See  Aero- 
nautics. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  a  large  body 
of  water  stretching  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  in  the  north  to 
the  Antarctic  Ocean  in  the 
south,  and  lying  between  the 
shores  of  Europe  and  Africa 
on  the  east  and  those  of  North 
and  South  America  on  the  west. 
Its  northern  and  southern  limits 
are  more  or  less  conventional,  a 
partial  separation  from  the 
Arctic  being  the  Wyville  Thom- 
son ridge,  which  stretches  north- 
west from  the  north  of  Scotland 
toward  the  Faroes,  and  rises  to 
within  250  fathoms  of  the 
surface.  The  Atlantic  is  about 
9,000  miles  long  from  north  to 
south,  and  its  breadth  varies  from 
4,500  miles,  between  Florida 
and  the  Saharan  coast,  to  1,600 
miles  between  Brazil  and  the 
African  coast.  Its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  from  23,000,000  to 
30,000,000  square  miles.  Direct- 
ly or  indirectly  it  receives  about 
one-half  the  entire  rainfall  of 
the  globe. 

The  floor  of  the  Atlantic  is  a 
gently  undulating  plain  (average 
depth,  2,200  fathoms),  with  a 
narrow  ridge,  at  less  than  1,700 
fathoms,  along  the  centre, 
roughly  parallel  to  the  Europeo- 
African  coasts,  the  volcanic 
peaks  of  the  Azores  representing 
its  greatest  elevation.  North 
and  south  of  these  islands  the 
ridge  widens  out  considerably, 
and  farther  to  the  north  stretches 
out  arms  eastward  to  Ireland 
and  westward  to  Newfoundland. 
Along  this  east  to  west  elevation 
the  chief  Atlantic  cables  have 
been  laid.  In  at  least  fifteen 
places  on  both  sides  of  this 
median  ridge  are  the  'deeps'  of 
the  oceanographers — abysses  of 
over  3,000  fathoms.  The  deepest 
sounding  thus  far  is  that  of  the 
Nares  deep  (70  miles  north  from 
Porto  Rico),  4,561  fathoms,  or 
nearly  5M  miles.  The  conti- 
nental shelf  is  relatively  narrow 
all  round  the  Atlantic,  but  at 
its  outer  edge  the  shelf  drops 
sharply  nearly  everywhere.  Sir 
John  Murray  estimates  this  con- 
tinental shelf  and  slope  as  cover- 
ing 17  per  cent,  of  the  horizontal 
area  of  the  ocean. 

There  are  relatively  few 
oceanic  islands.  Iceland,  the 
Azores,  St.  Paul's  Rocks,  Ascen- 
sion, and  the  Tristan  da  Cunha 
group  all  rise  from  the  central 
elevation,  and  are  all  of  volcanic 
origin.  Jan  Mayen  rises  from 
the  deep  water  of  the  Norwegian 
Sea.  "The  coral  group  of  Ber- 
mudas rises  from  the  deep  water 
of  the  western  North  Atlantic.  Off 
the  western  coast  of  Africa  are 
the  Canaries,  Cape  Verdes,  and 
Madeira.  In  the  South  Atlantic, 
to  the  west  of  the  central  ridge, 
are  Fernando  Noronha  and 
Trinidad,  and  to  the  east  of  the 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '21 


central  ridge,  St.  Helena.  There 
are  numerous  continental  islands, 
such  as  the  British  Isles,  New- 
foundland, the  West  Indies,  the 
Falklands,  and  others^. 

The  surface  temperature  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  North 
Atlantic  averages  40°  F.,  in- 
creasing to  50°  F.  near  the  shores 
of  Europe.  The  heat  equator  lies 
a  little  to  the  north  of  the  geo- 
graphical, and  the  surface  tem- 
perature there  averages  80°  to 
90°.  Between  this  central  belt 
and  the  polar  waters  a  band  of 
ocean  intervenes  on  each  side, 
with  a  temperature  of  between 
50°  and  60°.  Over  the  greater 
portion  of  the  South  Atlantic  the 
bottom  water  varies  between  35° 
and  40°,  but  in  the  North 
Atlantic  the  average  temperature 
ranges  2°  higher.  Soundings 
made  between  Europe  and  North 
America  by  way  of  the  Azores, 
in  1899,  appear  to  indicate  that 
the  temperature  of  the  water, 
even  at  the  lowest  depths,  varies 
slightly  according  to  the  season. 

Despite  its  great  tribute  of 
river  water  and  its  semi-enclosed 
seas,  the  Atlantic  is  relatively 
saltier  than  the  other  oceans,  its 
salinity  being  greatest  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  trade  winds,  and  least 
in  the  region  of  equatorial  calms. 
The  surface  everywhere  teems 
with  pelagic  life,  animal  and 
vegetable.  '  Seaweed  meadows ' 
of  gulf-weed  form  the  Sargasso 
Sea. 

For  the  characteristics  of  the 
deposits  on  the  Atlantic  floor,  see 
Oceans;  for  the  currents,  see 
Ocean  Currents  and  Gulf 
Stream;  and  for  the  winds. 
Trade  Winds. 

Since  the  16th  century  the  At- 
lantic has  been  the  chief  commer- 
cial highway  of  the  world.  The 
progress  made  in  its  navigation 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing comparative  statements.  In 
the  year  1620  the  Mayflower  took 
sixty-four  days  (Sept.  6  to  Nov. 
9)  to  cross  from  Plymouth  to 
Cape  Cod,  though  it  should  be 
noted  that  adverse  wind  and 
storms  rendered  the  voyage  ex- 
ceptionally long.  In  1819  the 
steamer  Savannah,  relying  main- 
ly on  her  sails,  crossed  in  twenty- 
six  days  from  New  York  to 
Liverpool.  In  1840  the  first 
regular  steam  liner,  the  Bri- 
tannia (Cunard  Line),  crossed 
from  Liverpool  to  Boston  in 
fifteen  days;  in  1909  the  voyage 
(Queenstown  to  New  York)  was 
accomplished  by  the  Mauretania 
in  four  days,  ten  hours,  and 
fifty-one  minutes.  About  a 
score  of  telegraph  cables  lie  on 
the  floor  of  the  Atlantic,  while 
the  Marconi  Company  maintains 
a  regular  service  between  Glace 
Bay,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Clifden, 
Ireland,  by  means  of  wireless 
telegraphy.  (For  trans-Atlantic 
flights,  see  Aeronautics.) 


The  foundation  for  our  knowl- 
edge of  this  as  of  the  other  oceans 
was  in  great  part  laid  by  the  Re- 
ports on  the  Scientific  Results  of 
the  Voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  'Challen- 
ger,' edited  by  Sir  Wyville  Thom- 
son and  Dr.  (Sir)  John  Mxirray, 
in  37  vols.  (1880-9).  Consult 
also  works  cited  under  Ocean; 
Schott's  Geographie  des  Atlan- 
tischen  Ozeans  (1912);  Hull's 
Monograph  on  the  Sub-Oceanic 
Physiography  of  the  North  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  (1912). 

Atlantic  Telegraph.  See 
Atlantic  Cable. 

Atlan^tis,  according  to  an- 
cient tradition  a  great  island  west 
of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  op- 
posite Mt.  Atlas,  the  inhabitants 
of  which  were  very  prosperous 
and  powerful,;  they  even  in- 
vaded Africa  and  Europe,  but 
were  defeated  by  the  Athenians 
and  their  allies.  Afterward,  ow- 
ing to  their  impiety,  they  and 
their  island  were  swallowed  up 
by  the  ocean.  Plato  mentions 
Atlantis  in  the  Timceus,  and  in 
his  Critias  he  gives  a  detailed 
account  of  the  history  and  cus- 
toms of  the  inhabitants.  The 
island  has  been  variously  identi- 
fied with  the  Canary  Islands, 
the  Azores,  and  the  continent  of 
America.  As  a  result  of  recent 
palaeontological  research,  geol- 
ogists have  concluded  that  in 
the  Tertiary  epoch  such  an  island 
really  existed.  The  Tertiary  shells 
of  the  United  States  are  identical 
with  a  whole  series  of  fossils  in 
the  same  beds  of  France.  Also 
the  Tertiary  vertebrate  animals 
in  France  have  their  analogues 
either  in  fossil  creatures  or  in 
living  species  in  America,  justi- 
fying the  conclusion  that  a  land 
connection  existed  between  the 
two  continents.  Consult  Archer- 
Hind's  and  Th.  H.  Martin's 
editions  of  the  Timceus  of  Plato; 
Steiner's  Submerged  Continents 
of  Atlantis  and  Lemuria.  Com- 
pare Isles  of  the  Blest. 

Atlantosau'rus,  or  Titano- 
SAURUS,  a  member  of  the  order 
Dinosauria,  the  largest  land 
animal  which  is  known  to  have 
at  any  time  inhabited  the  globe. 
Its  fossil  remains  are  found  in 
the  Jurassic  strata  of  Colorado. 
Its  thigh-bone  was  more  than  6 
feet  in  length,  and  the  limbs  were 
small  relatively  to  the  large 
body  they  supported.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  been  herbivor- 
ous in  habit,  being  able  to 
support  itself  in  a  half-erect 
posture  like  a  kangaroo.  Con- 
sult Marsh's  Dinosaurs  of  North 
America. 

At'Ias,  one  of  the  Titans  in 
Greek  legend,  son  of  lapctus  and 
Clymene;  said  to  have  been  the 
leader  of  the  Titans  in  the  war 
against  the  gods,  and  to  have  been 
condemned,  as  a  punishment,  to 
the  task  of  bearing  the  heavens 
on  his  shoulders.  In  some  stories 


Vol.  I —Oct.  '24 


Vol.  I— Page  459 


Atlas 


459  A 


Atmosphere 


Perseus  is  said  to  have  turned 
Atlas  to  stone  with  the  Gorgon's 
head  for  refusing  to  give  him 
shelter;  he  then  became  Mt. 
Atlas.  He  was  the  father  of  the 
Pleiades,  the  Hyades,  and  Hes- 
perides,  ^nomaus  and  Maia, 
Dione  and  Calypso. 

Atlas  (pi.  Atlantes),  in  archi- 
tecture, a  term  applied  to  statues 
of  men,  analogous  to  caryatides 
(q.  v.),  set  in  the  place  of  columns 
to  bear  the  entablature,  etc. 

Atlas,  a  collection  of  maps,  first 
used  in  this  sense  by  Mercator, 
evidently  from  the  common  deco- 
rative use  of  Atlas  bearing  the 
heavens  as  a  symbol  of  earth. 

Atlas,  in  anatomy,  the  highest 
vertebra  of  the  spinal  column, 
which  supports  the  skull.  See 
Spinal  Column. 

Atlas  Mountains,  an  extensive 
system  of  folded  mountains  in 
North  Africa,  stretching  from 
the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
to  which  it  has  given  its  name, 
through  Morocco,  Algeria,  and 
Tunis,  in  a  general  southwest  to 
northeast  direction,  to  the  shores 
of  the  Gulf  of  Tunis.  The  sys- 
tem, which  consists  of  broad 
ridges  and  rounded  elevations, 
sometimes  connected,  sometimes 
isolated,  with  numberless  off- 
shoots, extends  for  some  1,500 
miles,  and  is  unconnected  with 
the  other  highlands  of  North 
Africa. 

The  mountains  may  be  divided 
into  two  sections,  (1)  the  Western 
or  Moroccan  range,  which  con- 
sists of  three  chains,  the  Great 
Atlas,  Little  Atlas  and  Anti- 
Atlas,  and  (2)  the  Eastern  or 
Algerian  range,  comprising  the 
Tell  Atlas  and  the  Sahara  Atlas. 
The  Great  Atlas  is  the  highest 
part  of  the  Moroccan  range  and 
has  many  peaks  exceeding  10,000 
feet  in  height,  Jebel  Ayashin  and 
Tizi-Tamj^urt  being  over  14,000 
feet.  North  of  the  Great  Atlas 
lies  the  Little  Atlas  chain,  some- 
what lower  in  elevation;  to  the 
south  is  the  Anti-Atlas,  also 
lower  and  shorter  than  the  Great 
Atlas.  Of  the  Algerian  range  the 
Tell  Atlas  borders  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  its  highest  summits 
ranging  from  7,000  to  S,000  feet. 
The  Sahara  Atlas  fronts  the 
desert  in  a  wide  range  with 
several  southern  spurs  penetrat- 
ing the  arid  regions;  its  culminat- 
ing peak  is  Shelia,  over  7,600  feet. 
There  are  no  glaciers  in  the  Atlas 
Mountains,  only  a  few  of  the 
highest  peaks  being  perpetually 
snow-covered.  The  valleys  are 
fertile,  and  the  vegetation  is 
generally  Mediterranean  in  char- 
acter.   See  Algeria;  Morocco. 

Atlas  Powder,  an  explosive  of 
the  dynamite  class,  consisting 
mainly  of  nitroglycerine  ab- 
sorbed in  wood  fibre,  with  addi- 
tions of  sodium  nitrate  and  mag- 
nesium carbonate. 

At'lin,  Lake,  Canada,  with  an 
area  of  'M'.i  scjuare  miles,  of  which 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '24 


331  are  in  British  Columbia  and 
12  in  the  Yukon  Territory.  It 
is  long  and  narrow,  lying  parallel 
to  and  a  little  east  of  long.  13 1° 
w.;  in  its  northern  part  it  is 
crossed  by  lat.  60°  n.  It  is  con- 
nected with  Taku  Inlet,  the 
eastern  arm  of  Lake  Tagish,  by 
the  Atlintoc  River,  which  flows 
into  it  in  its  central  portion. 

Atlixco,  at-les'ko,  town,  Mex- 
ico, in  the  state  ot  Puebla,  about 
25  miles  southwest  of  Puebla.  It 
is  a  picturesque  Spanish  town, 
situated  in  a  rich  agricultural 
district.  Coffee,  oranges  and 
other  fruits,  wheat,  and  maize 
are  raised,  and  there  are  textile 
and  flour  mills.  Pop.  about 
16,000. 

Atmolysis  is  the  method  of 
separating  gases  of  different  den- 
sities by  means  of  porous  tubes 
or  other  septa.  By  diffusion  the 
gases  pass  through  the  porous 
septum  at  rates  inversely  propor- 
tional to  the  square  roots  of  their 
densities.    See  Filter. 

Atmometer,  an  instrument  for 
the  determination  of  the  amount 


Von  Lamont's  Atmometer 


oi  water  passing  into  the  air  by 
evaporation.  In  Von  Lamont's 
atmometer,  which  may  serve  as 
an  example  of  smaller  instru- 
ments, a  pan,  p,  is  connected  by 
a  pipe  with  a  cylinder,  c,  in  which 
a  closely  fitting  piston  plunger,  r, 
carrying  a  scale,  s,  is  adjusted  by 
means  of  a  screw.  The  scale  be- 
ing set  at  zero,  water  is  poured 
into  the  pan  until  it  stands  flush 
with  the  opening  of  the  outflow 
pipe;  the  water  is  then  driven  by 
the  piston  to  within  a  little  of  the 
top  of  the  pan,  and  evaporation 
is  allowed  to  take  place.  When 
an  observation  is  to  be  made, 
the  piston  is  raised  to  such  a 
height  that  the  water  sinks  again 
from  the  pan  to  the  vsame  level 
as  before,  and  the  reading  on  the 
scale  showing  the  change  of  level 
of  the  piston  gives  the  amount  of 
water  evaporated. 

Atmosphere  (Greek,  'sphere  of 
vapor'),  a  gaseous  envelope  sur- 
rounding a  body  in  space.  The 


atmospheres  of  the  several  planets 
differ  greatly  in  qualitv.  Those 
of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and 
Neptune  appear  to  be  dense  and 
cloud-laden;  that  of  Mars,  al- 
though much  less  dense  than  ter- 
restrial air.  almost  certainly  in- 
cludes a  considerable  ingredient 
of  water-vapor.  Mercury  is  be- 
lieved to  be  still  more  thinly 
covered;  and  refractive  phenom- 
ena on  Venus  indicate  her  posses- 
sion of  an  atmosphere  fully  com- 
parable with  our  own.  The  air- 
less condition  of  the  moon  is 
accounted  for  by  its  slight  gravi- 
tative  power;  for  the  gases  that 
may  have  primitively  enwrapped 
it  would,  according  to  the  kinetic 
theory,  have  gradually  escaped 
into  space,  owing  to  the  ineffec- 
tive control  exercised  by  the 
central  body  over  the  velocities 
of  their  particles.  Even  the 
earth  is  affirmed  by  some  authori- 
ties to  be  incapable  of  retaining 
such  volatile  substances  as  hy- 
drogen and  helium,  although 
heavier  gases  continue  perma- 
nently subject  to  her  attraction. 

The  atmospheres  of  massive 
globes  condense  rapidly  down- 
ward, and  are  hence — other 
things  being  equal — less  exten- 
sive proportionately  than  those 
of  minor  orbs.  That  of  the  earth 
may  extend  in  a  highly  rarified 
state  to  a  height  of  200  miles,  and 
meteors  give  rise  to  conspicuous 
light  at  elevations  up  to  120 
miles.  Above  45  miles,  however, 
the  effects  of  refraction  cease  to 
be  perceptible.  With  each  ascent 
of  3>^  miles  the  density  of  the  air 
is  halved.  For  each  300  feet  of 
ascent  the  temperature  falls  about 
1°  F.  The  higher  strata  are  verv 
cold  (-165°  F.  at  35,000  feet).  On 
the  summit  of  Mount  Misti 
(18,000  feet),  for  instance,  the 
barometer  stands  at  about  15 
inches;  and  at  32,600  feet  the  at- 
mosphere is  balanced  by  8  inches 
of  mercury.  The  whole  of  the  air, 
if  concentrated  into  a  shell  of  uni- 
form sea-level  density,  would 
rise  no  higher  than  5miles  (26,163 
f^et).  If  reduced  to  a  liquid  by 
the  cooling  of  the  earth  to  -200° 
c,  it  would  form  a  universal  ocean 
only  35  feet  in  depth  (See  Gases 
AND  Vapors.) 

Atmospheric  air  is  a  mechani- 
cal mixture  of  79.04  volumes  of 
nitrogen  with  20.93  of  oxygen  and 
1  of  argon;  a  small  percentage 
(0.03)  of  carbon  dioxide  is  also 
present,  besides  traces  of  free 
hydrogen  and  helium  (probably 
supplied  by  mineral  springs),  of 
neon,  krypton,  and  xenon.  The 
ceaseless  convection  currents  due 
to  the  sun's  heat  keep  the  atmos- 
phere mixed,  and  of  uniform  com- 
position. It  also  contains  a  vari- 
able but  all-important  proportion 
of  water- vapor.  It  is  through  the 
thermal  opacity  of  this  i)art  of 
its  atmosphere  that  the  e?rth 
is  rendered  habitable,  the  heat 
received   from   the  sun  being. 


Atmospheric  Electricity 


459  B 


Atom 


through  its  intervention,  stored, 
distributed,  and  hindered  from 
departing  uselesslj^  back  into 
space.  Water-vapor,  too,  is  the 
mainspring  of  atmospheric  circu- 
lation, as  well  as  of  all  the  actions 
and  disturbances  concerned  in 
meteorological  processes;  and  the 
amount  suspended  over  a  given 
area  largely  determines  the  type 
of  prevalent  weather.  (See 
Meteorology.) 

The  total  weight  of  the  atmos- 
phere, as  computed  by  Sir  John 
Herschel,  amounts  to  II5  trillion 
tons,  or  lanJgoo  that  of  the  solid 
globe  itself.  It  exerts  a  pressure, 
when  the  barometer  stands  at  30 
inches  (760  mm.),  of  14.73  lbs. 
avoirdupois  to  the  square  inch, 
so  that  an  average  man  sustains 
a  constant  weight  of  about  14 
tons.  The  unit  of  pressure,  called 
an  'atmosphere,'  is  defined  in 
Paris  as  that  of  760  millimetres 
(29.922  in.),  in  London  as  that  of 
30  in.  of  mercury  at  0°  c.  See 
Climate;  Temperature. 

Atmospheric  Electricity.  See 
Electricity,  Atmospheric. 

Atmospheric  Nitrogen.  See 
Nitrogen. 

Atoll.  See  Coral. 
Atom — from  the  Greek,  mean- 
ing indivisible — the  name  applied 
to  the  ultimate  portions  of  mat- 
ter which  are  supposed  to  be  the 
smallest  quantities  which  can 
enter  into  chemical  combination, 
the  'grains'  of  which  masses  of 
matter  are  built,  as  houses  are 
built  of  bricks. 

The  notion  of  a  granular  struc- 
ture of  matter  is  a  very  old  one 
and  seems  to  have  been  first  sug- 
gested by  the  Greek,  Democritus, 
360  B.C.,  who  explained  all  mat- 
ter as  being  made  up  of  minute 
granules,  alike  in  their  sizes  and 
qualities.  The  different  qualities 
of  matter  he  attributed  to  dif- 
ferences in  number  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  atoms  entering  into 
the  body.  Each  atom  was  exactly 
similar  to  every  other  atom. 

The  modern  conception  of  the 
atom  springs  from  the  work  of 
Dalton,  the  English  chemist, 
about  the  end  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. According  to  Dalton,  cer- 
tain substances  are  found  in 
nature  which  are  called  elements, 
or  elementary  substances — as 
gold,  iodine,  bismuth,  aluminium, 
oxygen — which  cannot  be  broken 
up  into  other  substances.  The 
smallest  amounts  of  these  sub- 
stances which  can  enter  into 
chemical  combination  are  the 
atoms.  On  the  other  hand,  sub- 
stances are  found  in  nature  which 
can,  by  proper  means,  be  decom- 
posed into  other,  and  elementary, 
substances.  Examples  of  these 
bodies  are  iron  pyrites,  ordinary 
salt,  water,  alcohol,  indigo,  cellu- 
loid. The  smallest  amounts  of 
these  substances  which  can  be 
separated  are  always  made  up  of 
at  least  two  atoms,  often  many 
times  two.     The  atom  cannot 


exist  alone,  but  at  once  combines 
with  other  atoms  to  form  mole- 
cules (see  MoLECur^E). 

Chemical  combinations  are 
brought  about  by  the  attractions 
between  the  atoms.  In  such 
combinations  a  definitely  fixed 
amount  of  any  one  element  always 
combines  with  a  fixed  amount  of 
some  other  substance.  For 
example,  23  units  by  weight  of 
sodium  will  always  combine  with 
35.5  units  of  chlorine  to  form 
ordinary  table  salt,  without  any 
residue  of  sodium  or  chlorine 
being  left  over.  And  one  unit  of 
hydrogen  will  combine  with 
35.5  units  of  chlorine  to  form  hy- 
drochloric, or  muriatic,  acid. 
The  single  atoms  cannot  be  is- 
olated and  weighed,  but  from 
combinations  made  it  can  be 
shown  that  hydrogen  and  chlo- 
rine and  sodium  always  unite  in 
proportion  to  1  and  35.5  and  23 
respectively.  These  numbers  are 
then  said  to  be  the  atomic  weights 
of  the  three  substances  named. 
They  surely  give  the  relative 
weights  ot  those  substances;  and 
similarly,  for  other  substances. 

In  what  is  said  above  concern- 
ing the  atomic  weights  of  sub- 
stances, it  is  implicitly  assumed 
that  the  atoms  are  all  just  alike. 
This  assumption  seems  not  to  be 
borne  out  by  experimental  evi- 
dence. Aston  has  shown,  for 
example,  that  lead  of  different 
origins  has  several  atomic  weights, 
differing  by  four  or  five  units 
among  themselves.  This  seems 
to  indicate  that,  instead  of  having 
all  the  atoms  of  one  size,  like 
grains  of  shot  of  one  number,  the 
atoms  of  any  substance  have 
somewhat  varying  sizes,  like 
strawberries  in  a  basket.  What 
is  commonly  called  the  atomic 
weight  would,  according  to  this 
view,  be  the  average  weight  of 
all  the  several  and  different 
weights  of  the  separate  atoms, 
or  at  least,  a  number  propor- 
tional to  this  averaee. 

From  the  time  of  Democritus 
efforts  have  been  made  to 
determine  the  real  nature  of  the 
atom,  its  real  'structure.'  During 
the  last  century,  it  was  recognized , 
because  of  certain  elastic  proper- 
ties, the  theories  of  heat  and  our 
understanding  of  temperature, 
that  the  simple,  solid  atom  as- 
sumed by  Democritus  and  his 
immediate  successors  could  not 
be  acceptable.  The  atom  might 
be  a  solid  particle  but  this  parti- 
cle must  dominate  and  occupy  a 
volume  larger  than  that  of  the 
solid  part  alone,  and  must,  in 
some  way,  be  able  to  keep  all 
other  similar  particles  out  of  this 
volume.  This  could,  of  course, 
be  accomplished  by  the  very 
rapid  vibratory  motion  of  the 
solid  particle,  or  nucleus,  along 
rapidly  changing  lines.  As  a 
shepherd  dog,  by  dashing  rapidly 
in  different  directions,  might  keep 
a  large  area  clear  of  sheep,  so  the 


nucleus  of  the  atom,  by  its  rapid 
motion,  might  keep  a  volume 
much  greater  than  its  own  clear 
of  all  other  material  particles. 
The  atom,  then,  consisted  of  a 
solid  core,  or  nucleus,  surrounded 
by  a  shell,  a  'sphere  of  influence,' 
which  was  not  entered  by  other 
atoms. 

Lord  Kelvin  offered  a  very 
ingenious  explanation  of  the 
atom  and  atomic  characteristics 
in  the  vortex  theory,  in  which 
the  atom  consisted  of  a  vortex 
ring  in  a  continuous  medium.  By 
the  known  properties  of  vortices 
many  atomic  properties  could  be 
explained. 

With  the  discovery  of  radio- 
activity by  the  Curies,  there  came 
an  epochal  change  in  the  theory 
of  the  nature  of  the  atom.  Obser- 
vation showed  that  radium  and 
other  radioactive  substances  con- 
stantly emitted  streams  of  parti- 
cles, which  were  found  to  be  elec- 
tric charges.  It  also  showed  that 
radium  was  constantly  at  a  higher 
temperature  than  the  surround- 
ing medium.  Later  experiments 
indicated  that  uranium  gave  off 
successive  emissions,  or  radia- 
tions, and  at  the  end  turned  into 
lead,  with  helium,  a  gas,  as  one 
of  the  by-products  of  this  radio- 
active transformation,  this  trans- 
mutation of  the  elements  (see 
Radio-activity).  The  dream  of 
the  alchemist  was  come  true,  one 
metal  was  transmuted  into  an- 
other, but  the  noble  into  the  base. 
Today  reports  come  of  the  possi- 
ble transformation  of  mercury 
into  gold  by  means  of  the  electri- 
cal furnace. 

These  convincing  results  of 
observation  and  experiment  make 
it  impossible  for  us  to  hold  to  a 
belief  in  the  old  type  of  atom. 
The  atom  can  no  longer  be  re- 
garded as  simple  but  must  be 
thought  of  as  complex,  as  having 
a  structure,  and  therefore,  as 
being  divisible.  The  atom  can- 
not now  be  looked  upon  as  the 
smallest  portion  of  matter  that 
can  exist,  for  the  electron,  whose 
mass  is  about  if?oo  that  of  the  hy- 
drogen atom,  has  been  collected 
and  measured.  It  is  negative 
electricity,  and  has  been  called 
the  'atom  of  electricity.'  The 
fact  that  matter,  the  atom  of 
radium,  gives  off  constantly 
streams  of  particles  of  electricity 
suggests  the  thought  that  elec- 
tricity is  the  fundamental  stuff 
and  that  matter  is  only  the  col- 
lection of  particles  of  electricity. 
It  offers  a  possible  explanation 
of  the  structure  of  the  atom,  and 
of  some  of  its  qualities. 

Many  efforts  have  been  made 
to  formulate  a  theory  of  the 
structure  of  the  atom  and  to 
make  a  mechanical  model,  or 
picture,  of  such  structures.  One 
of  the  earliest  and  most  success- 
ful of  such  efforts  is  that  due  to 
Bohr.  Sommerfeld,  Lewis  and 
Longmuir  have  suggested  other 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Atom 

types  of  atomic  structure.  All 
present  theories  of  the  structure 
of  the  atom  agree  that  there  are 
minute  charges  of  negative  elec- 
tricity called  negative  electrons, 
or  simply  electrons,  and  equally 
small  charges  of  positive  elec- 
tricity, or  protons;  that  in  any 
uncharged  atom  there  are  the 
same  amounts  ol  positive  and 
negative  electricity  and,  there- 
fore, the  same  number  of  protons 
(positive  electrons)  as  of  elec- 
trons (negative  electrons) ;  that 
an  atom  becomes  positively  elec- 
trified by  losing  electrons,  and 
negatively  electrified  by  losing 
protons.  These  theories  further 
agree  that  the  protons  (the  posi- 
tive electricity)  and  some  of  the 
electrons  (the  negative  charges) 
are  grouped  together  in  a  volume 
which  is  small  in  comparison  with 
the  total  volume  of  the  atom. 
This  is  known  as  the  nucleus. 
The  remainder  of  the  electrons 
are  outside  the  nucleus  at  dis- 
tances from  each  other  compar- 
able with  the  dimensions  of  the 
atoms.  Several  theoretical  con- 
siderations and  three  lines  of 
experimental  attack  indicate  that 
the  number  of  electrons  outside 
the  nucleus  is  always  the  same 
as  the  atomic  number.  If  the 
elements  be  arranged  in  a  table 
in  the  order  of  their  atomic 
weights,  the  rank  of  any  element 
in  the  table  is  its  atomic  number. 


Element. 

Atomic 

Atomic 

Weight. 

Number. 

Hydrogen  

1.007 

1 

Helium  

4 

•  2 

Lithium  

{? 

3 

Carbon  

12 

6 

Oxygen  

16 

8 

(20 

Neon  

]2\ 

10 

(22 

Thus,  in  the  carl)on  atom  there 
are  6  electrons  outside  the 
nucleus,  in  the  neon  atom  10 
electrons  outside  the  nucleus,  in 
the  helium  atom  2  electrons  out- 
side the  nucleus,  and  so  on.  In 
the  Bohr  atom,  the  electrons  out- 
side the  nucleus  are  assumed  to 
be  in  rapid  orbital  motion  about 
the  nucleus,  like  the  earth  and 
the  other  planets  in  their  motions 
about  the  sun.  Such  an  atom  is 
a  dynamical  atom  and  meets  with 
especial  success  in  accounting  for 
the  phenomena  ot  radiation  and 
of  ionization.  It  is  a  striking  fact 
that  the  same  mathematical 
processes  are  used  in  the  study  of 
the  structure  of  the  dynamical 
atom  as  in  the  calculation  of  the 
motions  of  the  planetary  bodies 
of  the  solar  system. 

A  different  type  of  atom  has 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


4C0 

been  conceived  by  Lewis  and 
Longmuir,  a  statical  atom.  In 
it,  the  electrons  outside  the 
nucleus  are  assumed  to  be  ar- 
ranged as  symmetrically  as 
possible  in  shells  drawn  about  the 
nucleus  as  a  focus.  These  shells 
are  arranged  as  are  the  successive 
layers  of  an  onion.  In  the  shell 
next  the  nucleus  2  electrons  are 
arranged,  8  in  the  next  shell,  8 
in  the  third,  18  in  the  fourth,  18 
in  the  fifth,  and  increasing  num- 
bers in  the  further  shells.  No 
shell  towards  the  outside  can 
contain  any  electrons  at  all  until 
all  the  shells  within  this  one  shell 
have  their  full  complement  of 
electrons.  The  total  number  of 
electrons  thus  distributed  on  the 
shells,  and  outside  the  nucleus, 
equals  the  atomic  number  of  the' 
element. 

This  atomic  structure,  very 
ingeniously  imagined,  explains 
chemical  combination  by  assum- 
ing that  an  outer  electron  of  an 
atom  may  be  'shared'  by  a 
second  atom,  that  such  an  elec- 
tron may  be  on  the  shells  of  two 
different  atoms  at  one  time.  It 
also  explains  the  phenomena  of 
the  periodicity  of  the  physical 
qualities  of  elements  arranged  in 
the  order  of  increasing  atomic 
weights. 

Each  of  the  dynamical  and  the 
statical  types  of  atomic  structure 
explains  certain  phenomena  which 
the  other  does  not,  but  both  leave 
much  yet  to  be  comprehended. 
They  are  both  only  possible  steps 
towards  an  ultimate  correct  un- 
derstanding of  the  real  nature  of 
the  atom. 

Consult  Kelvin's  Constitution 
of  Ma//(?r,-  Millikan's  The  Electron; 
Aston's  Mass  Spectra  of  the  Ele- 
fnents:  Sommerfeld's  Atombau 
und  Specirallinien. 

Atomic  Heat.  Dulong  and 
Petit  of  Paris  were  the  first  to 
show  (1819)  that  an  approximate 
relation  exists  between  the  spe- 
cific heat  and  the  atomic  weight 
of  elements — viz.,  that  the  spe- 
cific heat  is  inversely'  proportional 
to  the  atomic  weight;  the  higher 
the  specific  heat,  the  lower  the 
atomic  weight.  They  concluded 
that  'all  atoms  of  the  solid  ele- 
ments have  the  same  specific 
heat  or  thermal  capacity,'  and 
termed  this  the  atomic  heat. 
Expressed  in  another  way,  the 
same  cjuantity  of  heat  is  required 
to  raise  an  atom  of  mercury,  an 
atom  of  iron,  ;ui  atom  of  sulphur, 
and  an  atom  of  lithium,  or  an 
atom  of  any  solid  element,  through 
1°  c.    Hence:  The  mean  specific 


Element. 

Specific 
Heat. 

Atomic 
Weight. 

Atomic 
Heat. 

Platinum.  . 

.032 

195 

6.2 

Iron  

.112 

56 

6.3 

Sulphur. . . 

.178 

32 

5.7 

Litliium.  . . 

.941 

7 

6.6 

heat  multiplied  by  the  atomic 
weight  of  a  great  number  of 


Atomic  Theory 

elements  is  approximately  6.4; 
conversely,  the  constant  (6.4), 
divided  by  the  specific  heat  of  an 
element,  equals  its  atomic  weight. 
Increasing  knowledge  of  physical 
data  has  tended  to  belittle  the 
importance  of  the  Dulong  and 
Petit  law.  The  discrepancies 
from  the  law  are  too  great  to  be 
ignored.  The  atomic  heat  (6.4) 
is  of  value  only  as  an  indication 
of  the  atomic  weight  of  an  ele- 
ment, when  there  is  any  doubt  as 
to  the  result  by  other  methods. 

Atomicity,  or  Valency,  de- 
notes the  number  of  atoms  of 
hydrogen  which  an  element  will 
unite  with  or  displace:  it  is  prac- 
tically the  atomic  weight  divided 
by  the  equivalent.  All  those 
elements  which  combine  with 
hydrogen,  atom  for  atom,  are 
termed  monads,  the  valency  being 

I.  Those  elements  of  which  1 
atom  can  unite  with  or  displace 
2  atoms  of  hydrogen  are  termed 
dyads,  their  valency  being  2;  and 
so  on — the  remaining  elements 
being  triads,  tetrads,  or  pentads, 
etc.  An  element  may  have,  really 
or  apparently,  more  than  one 
atomicity  (or  valency) — e.g.  ni- 
trogen is  a  triad  in  ammonia, 
while  it  is  a  pentad  in  ammonium 
chloride.  Atomicity  is  usually 
shown  graphically  by  putting 
dashes  or  numerals  over  the 
symbol;  but  it  is  often  useful  to 
represent  it  by  dashes  (techni- 
cally known  as  bonds)  radiating 
from  the  symbol,  thus: 

I 

H  O  N  C— 

I  I 
Atomic  Theory.  The  atomic 
theory  is  the  foundation  on  which 
modern  chemical  science  is  built. 
John  Dalton,  in  the  first  decade 
of  the  19th  century,  revived  the 
idea  of  atoms,  which  was  first 
taught  by  the  ancient  Greek  phi- 
losopher Democritus,  400  B.C.; 
and  it  is  now  generally  agreed 
that  all  matter  consists  of  atoms 
of  elements  united  with  each 
other  by  the  force  which  has  been 
known  as  the  'force  of  chemical 
afiinity.' 

Modern  divscoveries  indicate 
that  this  force  is  probably  electri- 
cal in  origin.  These  discoveries 
have  proved  that  the  atom  is  not 
indivisible  but  can  be  broken  up 
into  parts,  some  of  which  have 
masses  only  a  small  fraction  of 
the  mass  of  the  atom  (see  Atom). 
They  have  shown,  further,  that 
all  matter  is  proba/bly  electrical 
in  nature,  and  that  certain  ele- 
ments can  be  transformed  into 
others,  and  they  indicate  that 
the  atoms  of  any  element  do  not 
all  have  the  same  weight.  Lith- 
ium atoms  have  weights  6  and 
7,  boron  atoms  weights  10  and 

II,  and  mercury  atoms  all  the 
integral  weights  between,  and 
including,  197  and  204.  The  so- 
called  atomic  weights  are  aver- 
ages of  these  multiple  atomic 
weights. 


Atomic  Theory 


461 


Atonement 


However,  these  recent  ad- 
vances in  physical  knowledge 
and  theory  of  the  atom  have  been 
chiefly  quahtative  in  character, 
are  still  greatly  in  the  realm  of 
hypothesis,  and  have  not  affected 
the  quantitative  relations  under- 
lying chemical  reactions,  and 
their  calculations.  The  weights 
of  the  various  atoms  relatively  to 
one  another  are  known.  The 
atom  of  hydrogen,  being  the 
lightest,  is  taken  as  unity;  com- 
pared with  it,  the  atom  of  oxygen 
weighs  in  round  numbers  16, 
nitrogen  14,  iron  56,  and  mercury 
200.  These  numbers  are  known 
as  'atomic  weights.'  When  a 
chemical  change  takes  place,  it 
is  due  to  the  union  or  separation 
of  atoms,  and  it  necessarily  fol- 
lows from  the  indivisibility  of  the 
atoms  that  this  union  or  separa- 
tion must  occur  in  definite  or 
fixed  proportions  by  weight — i.e. 
the  weights  of  the' atoms  them- 
selves. For  example,  if  the  atoms 
of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  weigh 
respectively  14  and  16  times  as 
heavy  as  a  hydrogen  atom,  then, 
according  to  the  theory,  they 
can  only  unite  1  to  1,  2  to  1,  3  to 
1,  3  to  2,  etc.;  and  the  proportion 
of  nitrogen  to  oxygen  in  the  com- 
pound formed  will  be  that  of  14 
parts  by  weight  of  nitrogen  to  16 
of  oxygen,  14X2  to  16,  14X3  to 
16,  14  to  16X2,  and  so  on.  And 
this  we  know  by  experiment  to 
be  the  case. 

Carbon  combines  with  oxygen 
to  form  two  compounds — the 
monoxide  and  dioxide;  and  with 
hydrogen  to  form  marsh  gas  and 
ethylene.  An  analysis  of  these 
compounds,  stated  in  the  usual 
way,  shows  them  to  contain  the 
weights  as  follows: — 

Carbon      Carbon  Marsh  Ethylene. 

Monoxide.  Dioxide.  Gas. 

C  =  42.8   C  =  27.2  C  =  75  C  =  85.7 

0  =  57.2    0  =  72.8  H=  25  H  =  14.3 

100.0         100.0  100  100.0 

There  is  here  no  apparent  relation 
between  the  weight  of  carbon  in 
the  four  compounds  to  the  oxy- 
gen and  hydrogen;  but  if  we  cal- 
culate the  weight  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  in  each  to  unit  weight 
of  carbon,  we  obtain  the  following 
figures: — 

Monoxide.  Dioxide.  Marsh  Gas.  Ethylene. 
0  =  1  .C  =  l  .C  =  l  .C  =  l  . 
0  =  1.33  0  =  2.66  H  =  .33  H  =  .166 

We  thus  learn  that  the  dioxide 
contains  twice  as  much  oxj-gen  as 
the  monoxide,  and  that  ethylene 
contains  but  half  as  much  hydro- 
gen as  marsh  gas  relative  to  the 
weight  of  carbon. 

Though  Dalton  was  unable  to 
understand  and  explain  all  his 
facts,  he  laid  down  the  following 
laws  of  definite  (or  constant)  and 
multiple  proportions: — (1)  The 
same  compound  always  contains 
the  same  elements,  combined  in 
the  same  proportion  by  weight; 
or,  in  every  chemical  compound, 


however  produced,  the  proportion 
by  weight  of  the  elements  is  al- 
ways the  same.  (2)  When  two 
elements  unite  with  each  other 
in  more  than  one  proportion  by 
weight,  the  quantity  of  one  of 
these  being  constant,  the  weights 
of  the  others  vary  in  simple  ratio. 

Further  advances  were  made 
by  the  investigations  of  Gay- 
Lussac  and  Avogadro.  The 
researches  of  the  former  were 
chiefly  confined  to  gases.  He 
proved  by  experiment  that  2 
volumes  of  hydrogen  (say  2  cub. 
in.)  combine  with  1  volume  of 
oxygen  (1  cub.  in.),  no  more  and 
no  less,  to  produce  2  volumes  of 
water  vapor  (2  cub.  in.).  He 
thus  arrived  at  the  following  con- 
clusions, known  as  'Gay-Lussac's 
Laws':  (1)  There  is  a  simple  ratio 
between  the  volumes  of  gases 
which  combine.  (2)  The  volume 
of  the  resulting  compound  bears 
a  simple  ratio  to  the  volumes  of 
the  original  gaseous  constituents. 
Avogadro  was  the  first  to  suggest 
an  explanation  of  these  experi- 
mental facts.  By  the  assump- 
tions— (a)  that  atoms  combine  to 
form  molecules,  ib)  that  atoms  of 
the  same  kind  unite  in  pairs  to 
form  elementary  molecules  {e.g. 
H2  and  O2  represent  molecules 
respectively  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen),  and  (c)  that  atoms  of 
different  elements  unite  to  form 
compound  molecules  (HCl,  H2  O, 
CH4,  and  C2H4  represent  mole- 
cules of  hydrochloric  acid,  water, 
marsh  gas,  and  ethylene  respect- 
ively), he  concluded  that  equal 
volumes  of  all  gases  at  the  same 
temperature  and  pressure  con- 
tain the  same  number  of  mole- 
cules, independently  of  their  size 
or  the  number  of  atoms  in  them, 
and  thus  laid  the  foundations  of 
modern  chemistry. 

It  is  impossible  to  describe  here 
how  atomic  weights  are  deter- 
mined, or  all  that  the  atomic 
theory  leads  to,  but  one  result  is 
that  we  can  employ  symbols, 
formulae,  and  equations.  A  syyn- 
bol  of  an  element  indicates  (1)  its 
name,  (2)  one  atom  of  the  ele- 
ment, (3)  the  weight  of  the  ele- 
ment compared  with  hydrogen  or 
its  atomic  weight.  A  formula 
indicates  (1)  the  name  of  the 
substance,  (2)  the  number  of 
atoms  in  the  molecule,  (3)  the 
composition  of  the  molecule  {i.e. 
the  elements  which  by  combina- 
tion produce  it),  and  (4)  the 
weight  of  the  molecule  (molecu- 
lar weight)  compared  with  the 
atom  of  hydrogen.  Equations 
describe  or  express  chemical 
changes.  They  indicate  graphi- 
cally the  nature  of  the  combina- 
tions or  decompositions  which 
take  place,  the  relative  weights  of 
the  substances  involved,  and,  in 
the  case  of  gases,  their  volumes. 

A  table  of  the  atomic  weights 
of  the  chemical  elements,  com- 
piled by  the  International  Com- 
mittee of  Atomic  Weights,  will 


be  found  in  the  article  on  Ele- 
ments. Certain  important  rela- 
tions which  atomic  weights  bear 
to  one  another,  pointed  out  by 
Mendeleyeff,  are  indicated  in  the 
article  Periodic  Law.  See  also 
Chemistry. 

Consult  Ostwald's  Outlines  of 
General  Chemistry  (trans,  by 
Walker) ;  Nernst's  Theoretical 
Chemistry  (trans,  by  Palmer) ; 
Clarke's  A  Recalculation  of  the 
Atomic  Weights. 

Atonement,  the  name  given  in 
(English)  Christian  theology  to 
the  work  of  Jesus  Christ  as  the 
Saviour  of  sinners.  The  word 
occurs  but  once  in  the  King  James 
version  of  the  New  Testament 
(Rom.  v.  11),  and  not  at  all  in 
the  Revised  V^ersion,  in  which  the 
more  accurate  rendering  of  the 
Greek — 'reconciliation' — is  em- 
ployed. The  term  is  common, 
however,  in  the  sacrificial  lan- 
guage of  the  Old  Testament  law, 
in  the  sense  of  propitiation  or 
expiation,  and  it  is  in  th's  latter 
sense  that  it  has  been  applied  to 
the  work  of  Christ,  which  is 
looked  upon  as  an  expiatory  offer- 
ing, 'propitiating  an  offended 
deity  and  reconciling  him  with 
man.'  Some  authorities  regard 
atonement  (removal  of  guilt)  as 
one  important  element  in  primi- 
tive conceptions  of  sacrifice; 
while  others  point  out  that  the 
sin  offering  or  atoning  sacrifice, 
as  such,  is  admittedly  a  late 
development.  Men  offered  sacri- 
fices before  they  realized  the  need 
of  propitiating  the  divine  anger 
and  afterward  employed  the  rite 
for  a  new  exigency. 

It  does  not  follow  that  the  New 
Testament  writers  thought  of 
atoning  sacrifice  exactly  as  primi- 
tive men  or  Old  Testament  law- 
givers had  thought.  They  do 
not  define  its  meaning;  the  'altar 
forms'  (Bushnell's  phrase)  were  so 
familiar  in  New  Testament  times 
that  they  seemed  to  require  no 
explanation.  Christian  thought 
is,  therefore,  largely  thrown  back 
on  hypotheses  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  atonement.  It  takes  shape 
somewhat  as  follows:  We  cannot 
put  right  what  our  misconduct 
has  put  wrong;  it  is,  perhaps, 
even  immoral  to  try  to  do  so,  im- 
plying that  we  underestimate 
the  gravity  of  our  sin;  but  all 
Christians  are  agreed  that  recon- 
ciliation with  God  is  effected  by 
Jesus  Christ,  although  there  is 
considerable  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  way  in  which  this  is 
accomplished. 

In  the  early  church  it  was  for 
a  long  time  held  that  Christ's 
sufferings  were  the  price  paid  to 
Satan  in  order  to  rescue  from  his 
dominion  the  souls  acquired  by 
him  by  right  of  conquest.  This 
view  was  held  by  Origen,  Gregory 
of  Nyssa,  Augustine,  Jerome,  and 
other  Church  fathers  but  was 
controverted  by  Athanasius.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Atonement,  Day  of 


462 


Atriplex 


century  Anselm  (q.  v.),  taught 
that,  sin  being  a  debt,  it  must  be 
paid,  and  as  no  mere  creature 
was  able  to  discharge  it,  a  substi- 
tute was  found  in  Jesus  Christ, 
who  as  the  incarnate  Son  of  God 
offered  a  vicarious  satisfaction  to 
divine  justice.  Most  of  the  best 
scholars  of  the  day  accepted  this 
view,  and  at  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  it  was  incorporated 
into  the  creeds  of  nearly  all  the 
churches.  This  so-called  juridi- 
cal theory  lays  the  necessity  of 
atonement  on  the  perfections  of 
the  divine  nature  and  holds  that 
it  was  a  complete  satisfaction  to 
the  claims  arising  from  those 
perfections.  Socinus  dissented 
from  this  view,  maintaining  that 
Christ  is  a  Saviour  because  He 
announced  and  confirmed  the 
way  of  salvation  and  showed  it 
in  His  own  person  by  His  example 
and  resurrection. 

In  opposition  to  Socinus,  Gro- 
tius  set  forth  what  is  known  as 
the  governmental  theory,  namely 
that  God  as  moral  governor  of 
the  world  must  enforce  precept 
and  penalty,  and  that  an  exam- 
ple of  suffering  in  Christ  was 
necessary  to  a  wicked  world  to 
show  that  sin  cannot  escape  witn 
impunity.  Still  another  theory 
is  the  mystical  theory,  held  by 
the  disciples  oi  Scotus  Erigena, 
the  Platonizing  fathers,  Osiander, 
Schleiermacher  and  many  others. 
According  to  this  view,  the  recon- 
ciliation effected  by  Christ  is  due 
to  the  mysterious  union  of  God 
and  man  by  the  incarnation 
rather  than  to  His  sacrificial 
death. 

Many  modern  writers  deny 
any  form  of  satisfaction  or  expia- 
tion but  explain  the  doctrine  of 
atonement  as  a  sort  of  moral 
influence  exerted  upon  man; 
some  writers  teaching  that  Christ 
suffered  with  us  through  sym- 
pathy so  as  to  give  Him  the  power 
of  quickening  and  moulding  men 
by  love  and  example;  others  that 
His  death  and  suffering  were 
designed  to  illustrate  the  beauty 
of  vself-sacrifice;  and  still  others, 
notably  M'Leod  Campbell,  that 
Christ  so  identified  Himself  with 
us  as  sinners  that  He  offered  to 
God  a  perfect  confession  and 
adequate  repentance  for  our  sins 
and  thus  met  all  the  demands  of 
the  law. 

Consult  Remensnyder's  The 
Atonement  and  Modern  Thouiiht; 
Oxenham's  The  Catholic  Doctrine 
of  Atonement;  Simon's  The  Re- 
demption of  Man;  Pullan's  The 
Atonement:  Tymms'  The  Christian 
Idea  of  the  Atonement. 

Atonement,  Day  of,  a  Jewish 
fast  day,  on  which  the  high 
priest,  clad  in  robes  of  white, 
entered  the  holy  of  holies  with 
the  sacrificial  blood  which  he 
offered  as  an  expiatioti  for  the 
sins  of  himself  and  his  people.  It 
is  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh 
month  (Tishri),  and  is  known  in 


the  Talmud  as  'the  great  day.' 
Its  observance  is  enjoined  in 
Leviticus  xvi.  and  in  some  few 
scattered  passages  elsewhere;  but 
there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was 
observed  before  the  Exile.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Mosaic  law,  it  is 
to  be  observed  as  'a  sabbath  of 
solemn  rest,'  and  on  it  no  manner 
of  work  is  to  be  done.  At  the 
present  time  the  day  is  kept  by 
fasting  from  sunset  of  the  ninth 
to  sunset  of  the  tenth  day  of 
Tishri  and  by  elaborate  services 
throughout  the  day.  It  is  looked 
upon  generally  as  the  most  sacred 
day  of  the  Jewish  year. 

At'ony,  a  medical  term,  indi- 
cating a  want  of  tone;  weakness; 
debility. 

Atos'sa,  queen  of  Persia,  was 
daughter  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  and 
wife  successively  of  her  brother 
Cambyses,  Smerdis  the  usurper, 
and  Darius  Hystaspis.  to  whom 
she  bore  Xerxes  and  three  other 
sons.  She  possessed  great  influ- 
ence over  Darius,  and  is  said  to 
have  urged  him  to  the  invasion 
of  Greece.  In  ^schylus'  play 
The  Perscp.  she  is  a  prominent 
character.  Consult  also  Herodo- 
tus, bks.  iii.  and  vii 

Atrak',  or  Atrfk,  river  of 
Persia,  rising  in  Khorassan.  It 
flows  northwest  and  then  west 
between  Khorassan  and  Trans- 
caspian  districts  and  enters  the 
Caspian  Sea  at  Hassan  Kuli  Bay. 
Its  total  length  is  about  350 
miles. 

Atrato,  ii-tra'to,  river  in  Co- 
lombia, South  America,  rising  on 
the  west  flank  of  the  Western 
Cordillera  and  flowing  north  to 
the  Gulf  of  Darien.  It  is  about 
400  miles  long,  drains  a  basin  of 
11,400  square  miles,  and  is  navi- 
gable for  250  miles,  to  a  point  a 
little  beyond  Quibdo,  but  a  shal- 
low bar  closes  its  mouth  to  ocean 
steamers.  At  various  times  the 
construction  of  a  canal  to  the 
San  Juan,  to  connect  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific,  has  been  suggested, 
but  the  idea  has  been  abandoned 
as  impractical. 

Atrebates,  a-treb'a-tez,  an  an- 
cient Celtic  people  of  Gallia  Bel- 
gica,  having  as  their  capital  Nem- 
clacum  or  Nemetocenna  (now 
Arras) .  A  branch  was  also  settled 
in  England,  in  what  is  now  Berk- 
shire, their  chief  town  being 
Calleva  or  Calleva  Atrebatum  {i.e. 
Silchester). 

Atveus,  a'troos,  in  Greek  legend , 
the  son  of  Pelops  and  Hippo- 
damia,  and  grandson  of  Tantalus. 
Versions  of  the  legend  vary,  but 
it  is  substantially  as  follows. 
Atreus  was  thrice  married:  first 
to  Cleola,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  Pleisthenes;  then  to 
Aerope,  who  bore  him  Agamem- 
non, Menelaus,  and  Anaxibia; 
and  then  to  Pclopia,  the  daughter 
of  his  brother  Thyestes.  Atreus 
and  Thyestes,  at  the  instigation 
of  their  mother,  murdered  Chry- 
sippus,   their  half-brother,  and 


fled  to  Mycena?,  where  they  were 
received  by  their  nephew  Eurys- 
theus,  whom  Atreus  afterward 
succeeded  as  king.  Thyestes, 
having  seduced  Aerope,  was  ban- 
ished by  his  brother,  and  in 
revenge  sent  Atreus'  son  Pleis- 
thenes, whom  he  had  brought  up 
as  his  own  son,  to  slay  his  rightiul 
father.  Atreus,  after  unwittingly 
killing  Pleisthenes,  discovered 
Thyestes'  treachery,  and  pre- 
tending a  reconciliation,  sent  for 
Thyestes,  whose  two  sons  he 
killed  and  served  to  their  father 
at  a  banquet.  At  the  knowledge 
of  this  crime  Thyestes  fled  in 
horror,  calling  the  curse  of  the 
gods  upon  the  house  of  Atreus. 
Later  Atreus  married  Pelopia, 
daughter  of  Thyestes,  in  igno- 
rance of  her  parentage,  and 
brought  up  as  his  own  ^gisthus, 
Pelopia's  son  by  Thyestes,  who 
had  unknowingly  violated  her. 
Eventually  .-Egisthus  learned  of 
his  real  parentage  and  vslew  his 
foster  father.  TThe  misfortunes 
of  the  house  of  Atreus  supply  the 
theme  for  many  Greek  tragedies, 
notably  the  Agamemnon,  the 
Choephorce  and  Eumenides  of 
^schylus,  the  Electra  of  Sopho- 
cles, and  the  Electra  and  Orestes 
of  Euripides.  The  Treasury  of 
Atreus  at  Mycenae  (q.  v.)  is  the 
largest  of  the  ancient  tombs. 

Atri,  a'tre,  city,  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Teramo;  8  miles  from 
the  Adriatic  and  14  miles  north- 
west of  Pescara.  It  has  a  fine 
Gothic  cathedral  dating  from  the 
fourteenth  century,  occupying 
the  site  of  an  ancient  temple. 
Pop.  (1911)  14,053. 

A'triplex,  a  genus  of  the  Cheno- 
podiacese,  the  species  of  which 
are  commonlv  called  Oraches,  or 
Salt  Bushes  or  Salt  Sages.  They 
are  either  annual  or  perennial 
herbs  and  low  shrubs,  and  are 
often  silvery  or  scurfy.  Their 
'seeds,'  so-called,  are  fruits  or 
utricle,  nearly  always  enclosed  by 
two  bractlets  which  enlarge  at 
maturity  and  are  grotesquely 
winged  or  crested  or  tubercled,  in 
most  species.  One  annual  species, 
A.  arenaria,  is  common  along  the 
A'tlantic  beaches,  decumbent  in 
huge  rosettes,  the  crested  fruits 
clustered  in  the  axils  of  the 
silvery,  scurfy,  oblong  leaves. 

It  is  the  perennial  salt  bushes 
which  are  important,  however. 
A.  nuttallii,  or  Nuttall's  Salt 
Bush,  is  the  most  useful,  and  is 
the  one  usually  referred  to  as 
'Salt  Sage.'  Like  the  other 
species  it  will  grow  in  soils  strongly 
impregnated  with  salt,  and  even 
absorbs  a  distinct  quantity  of 
that  chemical.  It  is  a  perennial 
with  a  woody  base,  pale  green 
and  scurfy,  rising  to  2}4  it.,  with 
oblong  leaves.  The  flowers  are  in 
terminal  spikes,  or  clustered 
in  heads  at  the  axils;  the  bract- 
lets,  in  fruit,  have  toothed  mar- 
gins, and  crested,  tubercled  or 
spiny   sides.    The   Shad  Scale 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


A.trium 


463 


Atsuta 


(A.  canescens)  has  seeds,  bearing 
4  membranous  scales;  the  spiny 
salt-bush,  A.  confertifolia,  has 
comparatively  simple  fruits,  with 
bracts  meeting  all  around  the 
edges.  One  annual  atriplex  {A. 
volutans)  is  a  tumble-weed,  break- 
ing loose  from  its  tap-root  in 
autumn  and  rolling  over  the 
desert.  In  summer  it  forms  a 
nearly  spherical  mass  about  3  ft. 
in  diameter.  All  of  these,  and  es- 
pecially the  former,  are  very  val- 
uable forage  plants  in  arid  regions; 
and  both  young  shoots,  foliage, 
and  fruit  are  highly  nutritive,  be- 
sides affording  salt,  in  their  tis- 
sues, to  live  stock.  They  flourish 
in  regions,  where  live  stock  can- 


later  times  other  rooms  were  built 
on  to  the  atrium,  but,  with  Ro- 
man conservatism,  it  retained  its 
original  character  as  the  chief 
room  of  the  house.    In  it  were 

E laced  the  sacred  fireplace,  the 
ousehold  gods,  the  bed  of  mas- 
ter and  mistress,  and  the  statues 
of  their  ancestors;  and  it  was  used 
as  the  formal  reception-room.  In 
early  Christian  churches  the  atri- 
um was  an  open  court  in  front  of 
the  basilica,  a  place  of  abode  for 
penitents,  sometimes  also  as  an 
asylum  for  criminals.  See  Pres- 
ton and  Dodge's  Private  Life  oj 
the  Romans  (1893). 

Atrophy,  a  general  or  local 
wasting  of  the  body.    In  chil- 


shade),  and  in  the  seeds  of  Da- 
tura stramonium.  It  is  a  powerful 
poison,  but  used  medicinally  it  is 
valuable  to  dilate  the  pupil  of  the 
eye,  quicken  the  heart's  action, 
and  relieve  cardiac  distress,  and 
as  an  external  application  for 
the  relief  of  pain.  See  Bella- 
donna. 

Atropos,  the  eldest  of  the  three 
Fates.  Her  functions  were  to 
render  the  decisions  immutable, 
according  to  Plato,  and  to  sever 
the  thread  of  life  (spun  by  her 
sisters)  with  ^  the  scissors  with 
which  she  is  pictured,  her  features 
darkly  veiled.  Wyntoun's  witches, 
in  his  story  of  Macbeth,  and  Gray's 
Fatal  Sisters,  doubtless  owe  their 


The  Atrium  o}  a  House  in  PoDipai  {restored). 


not  be  pastured  in  summer  for 
lack  of  water;  in  this  period  the 
perennial  salt-sages  grow  rapidly, 
and  mature  their  fruits,  while  the. 
sun  'cures'  their  foliage.  Then, 
when  the  snows  come,  furnishing 
water,  the  stock,  especially  sheep, 
are  driven  into  the  deserts,  and 
feed  on  the  salt-sages  for  about 
four  months.  These  arid  past- 
ures are  being  constantly  im- 
proved by  this  system  of  pastur- 
age, and  the  seedmg  of  such  areas 
with  salt-bushes,  is  contemplated. 

Atrium,  the  principal  apart- 
ment of  a  Roman  house;  in  the 
earliest  times,  no  doubt,  the  only 
chamber.  It  had  a  hole  in  the 
roof,  called  the  compluvium,  which 
collected  the  rain  and  conducted 
it  to  a  cistern  in  the  floor.  In 


dren,  general  atrophy  is  most 
commonly  due  to  unsuitable  food 
(see  Athrepsia),  to  catarrh  of  the 
digestive  organs,  to  tubercle,  or 
to  worms  in  the  alimentary 
canal.  In  adults  it  is  generally 
the  result  of  grave  organic  dis- 
ease, such  as  gastric  ulcer,  tu- 
bercle, cancer,  albuminuria,  or 
long  suppuration;  it  is  occasion- 
ally due  to  nervous  disorder,  as 
in  hysteria.  Local  atrophies  of 
muscle  and  nerve  mav  be  caused 
by  disuse,  as  in  paralyzed  limbs; 
more  rarely  by  overwork.  It  is 
sometimes  congenital,  the  normal 
growth  of  a  part  being  arrested. 

Atropia,  or  Atropine,  an  al- 
kaloid which  occurs  along  with 
hyoscyamine  in  all  parts  of  the 
Atropa  belladonna  (deadly  night- 


origin  to  Atropos  and  her  sisters, 
Clotho  and  Lachesis. 

Atrypa,  a  genus  of  fossil  bra- 
chiopods  of  the  family  Atrypidas, 
found  abundantly  in  the  Silurian 
and  Devonian.  A .  reticularis  is  the 
best  known  form  and  is  remark- 
able for  its  range  of  time,  extend- 
ing from  the  Clinton  to  the  Wa- 
verly  group  inclusive,  and  having 
a  very  wide  geographic  distribu- 
tion. The  Tcrebratulina  are  the 
nearest  resembling  genus  to-day. 
See  Brachiopods. 

At  sight,  a  commercial  term 
used  upon  bills  of  exchange, 
equivalent  to  'on  demand.' 

Atsuta,  tn.  on  the  s.  coast  of 
Nippon,  Japan,  70  m.  e.  of  Kioto; 
has  Shinto  temples.  Pop.  (1898) 
24,941. 


Attacca 


464 


Atterbury 


Attacca  (Ital.'i,  in  music  a  term 
signifying  that  a  succeeding 
movement  is  to  be  begun  without 
stopping  for  any  intermediate 
pause. 

Attache,  Military.  To  the 
embassy  or  legation  representa- 
tive of  a  nation  at  the  seat  of 
government  of  a  foreign  poM^er 
there  is  usually  appointed  a  mili- 
tary or  naval  attache.  The  duties 
of  these  officers  are  to  make  them- 
selves thoroughly  acquainted  with 
every  change  that  takes  place  in 
military  or  naval  matters,  and 
to  report  from  time  to  time  on 
the  mobilization,  armament,  and 
equipment  of  the  power  to  whom 
they  arc  accredited.  The  task 
is  one  of  no  little  difficulty,  as  they 
must  be  thoroughly  alive  to  all 
that  concerns  their  professional 
interests,  be  diplomatically  and 
socially  persona  grata,  and  must 
refrain  from  procuring  informa- 
tion in  an  underhand  manner. 
In  time  of  war  the  privilege  of 
being  attached  to  the  headquarters 
staff  of  an  army  is  usuall;^  con- 
ceded to  representatives  of  friendly 
nations. 

Attachment.  A  process  for 
placing  a  person  or  personal 
property  in  legal  custody.  At- 
tachment of  persons  is  commonly 
employed  in  this  country  to  com- 
pel the  attendance  of  a  delin- 
quent juror  or  witness  or  a  person 
guilty  of  contempt  of  court.  It 
was  once  extensively  resorted  to 
to  enforce  the  payment  of  debts, 
but  its  use  as  a  creditor's  process 
is  now  limited  to  cases  of  fraudu- 
lent concealment  of  property 
by  a  debtor  and  the  like.  See 
Arrest;  Execution.  Attach- 
ment of  Goods  is  not  generally 
available  to  a  creditor  except  as 
a  special  proceeding  based  upon 
proof  that  the  debtor  is  concealing 
th»  goods  to  avoid  legal  process 
or  is  about  to  remove  them  from 
the  jurisdiction  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. It  is  a  pureljr  statutory  pro- 
ceeding and  IS  strictly  regulated 
by  law.  Attachment  of  Debts  is 
a  creditor's  process  whereby  a 
judgment  creditor,  in  satisfaction 
of  his  judgment,  secures  the  pay- 
ment to  himself  of  a  sum  of 
money  due  from  a  third  person 
to  the  judgment  debtor.  See 
Garnishment. 

Attainder.  The  extinction  of 
all  civil  rights  as  a  consequence 
of  a  judgment  of  treason  or 
felony.  Attainders  was  a  neces- 
sary result  of  such  a  judgment 
at  common  law  and  it  involved 
(1)  a  forfeiture  of  all  the  estate, 
real_  and  personal,  of  the  person 
attainted  and  (2)  the  corruption  of 
his  blood.  The  latter  had  the 
effect  of  breaking  the  line  of 
descent,   rendering  the  attainted 

Eerson  incapable  either  of  in- 
eriting  or  of  transmitting  real 
property  bv  descent.  Attainder 
was  abolished  by  act  of  Parlia- 


ment in  1870  (33  and  34  Vict.  c.  23). 
(See  Escheat.)  In  the  15th  cen- 
tury there  arose  a  practice  of 
introducing  bills  of  attainder  into 
Parliament,  which  were  passed 
like  any  other  Act  of  Parliament, 
and  had  against  the  persons  or 
person  mentioned  therein  the 
effect  of  a  common  law  attainder. 
The  last  execution  under  an  Act 
of  Attainder  was  in  1797.  In  the 
United  States  a  man  may  be 
attainted  for  treason,  but  the 
condemnation  does  not  involve 
corruption  of  blood.  The  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  and 
those  of  the  several  states  limit- 
ing the  attainder  to  a  forfeiture 
of  estate  only  for  the  life  of  the 
person  attainted.  (U.  S.  Const., 
Art.  III.,  Sec.  3.) 

Attains,  the  fiame  of  three 
kings  of  Pergamus.  (1.)  Sur- 
named  Soter,  reigned  from  241 
to  197  B.C.;  defeated  the  Gauls 
near  Sardis  in  239  B.C.;  waged  fre- 
quent war  against  the  Seleucids; 
and  was  allied  with  the  Romans 
against  Philip  of  Macedon  and 
the   Achaeans.    He   was  distin- 

guished  for  his  great  wealth  and 
is  patronage  of  literature.  (3.) 
A.  Philadelphus,  reigned  from 
159  to  138  B.C.,  second  son  of  (1), 
and  like  him  an  ally  of  the  Ro- 
mans; he  overthrew  Prusias  of 
Bithynia.  (3.)  A.  Phjlometor, 
succeeded  (2),  who  was  his  uncle; 
he  reigned  from  138  to  133  B.C., 
and  by  his  will  left  his  kingdom 
to  the  Romans;  it  formed  their 
original  province  of  Asia. 

Attap,  the  native  name  cd  the 
Nipa  f  ruticans,  a  nearly  stemless 
palm  indigenous  to  the  forests 
of  the  E.  _  Indian  Archipelago. 
Its  long,  thick  pinnate  leaves  are 
in  common  use  for  thatching. 

Attar,  or  Athar,  Ferid  ud- 
DiN  (1119-1230),  Persian  poet  of 
the  mystic  school,  and  author  of 
the  Mantik  ut-Tair,  or  Conversa- 
tions of  the  Birds,  a  series  of  thirty 
moral  tales,  describing,  in  terms 
of  Sufic  thought,  the  progress  of 
the  human  soul  to  Nirvana.  He 
also  wrote  the  Pandnama,  or 
Book  of  Counsels,  and,  in  prose,  a 
Biography  of  famous  n^ystics.  Ed. 
and  Fr.  trans,  of  the  Mantik  by 
Garcin  de  Tassy  (1857-63);  and 
ed.  and  Eng.  trans,  of  the  Pand- 
nama by  Hindley  (180€). 

Attar,  or  Otto,  of  Roses,  a 
perfume  which  consists  of  the 
volatile  or  essential  oil  distilled 
from  certain  varieties  of  rose. 
The  manufacture  is  carried  on 
in  India,  Persia,  and  Bulgaria, 
the  latter  district  producing  the 
largest  quantity  and  the  best 
quality.  The  flowers  are  gathered 
in  May  and  June,  and  at  once 
placed  in  copper  stills  heated  with 
a  wood  fire,  and  partially  filled 
with  spring  water.  The  distillate 
from  the  first  operation  is  again 
distilled,  and  the  distillate  is  re- 
ceived in  narrow-necked  bottles. 


This  distillate  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  the  oil  suspended 
in  tne  water,  and  on  allowing  it 
to  stand  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  60°  F.  the  oil  gradually 
rises  to  the  top,  and  is  skimmed 
off.    It  is  largely  adulterated. 

Attention,  ^  tne  process  in 
which,  or  activity  by  which,  an 
object  is  brought  from  the  mar- 
gin to  the  focus  of  consciousness, 
and  thus  acquires  additional  clear- 
ness and  distinctness.  It  has  been 
a  matter  of  controversy  within 
recent  years  whether  attention  is 
to  be  conceived  as  a  complex  pro- 
cess explicable  in  more  ultimate 
terms,  or  as  a  unique  activity  in- 
capable of  further  analysis.  See 
James's  Principles  of  Psychology 
(1890),  vol.  i.  ch.  xi.;  Ribot, 
Psychology  of  the  Attention  (trans.). 

Atterbom,  Peter  Daniel 
Amadeus  (1790-1855),  the  most 
distinguished  poet  of  the  roman- 
tic school  in  Sweden.  When  a 
student  at  Upsala  he  helped  to 
found  the  Aurora  League,  and 
played  an  active  part  in  the  strife 
which  the  romanticists  waged 
against  the  old  'classic'  writers, 
first  in  the  journal  Fosfor  (18.10- 
13) — whence  they  were  called 
Phosphorists — and  afterward  in 
the  periodicals  {Poetisk  Kalender 
(1812-22),  which  Atterbom  him- 
self edited,  and  in  the  Svensk 
Litteratur  Tidning  (1813-24).  At- 
terbom's  own  chef-d'  ceuvre  is  the 
dramatic  poem  Lycksalighetens 
O  (1824-7),  or  Isle  of  Happiness, 
which  contains  some  of  the  swcet- 
estlyrics^in  the^language.  A  frag- 
ment, Fagel  Bla,  is  almost  equally 
famous.  Atterbom  also  wrote 
an  important  work  on  Swedish 
literary  history  entitled  Siare 
og  Skalder  (184  1-64).  In  1828 
he  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy,  and  in  1835  professor 
of  aesthetics  and  literary  history, 
at  Upsala  University.  His  col- 
lected \yorks  {Samlede  Skrifter) 
appeared  in  1854-70. 

Atterbury,  Francis  (1662- 
1732),  bishop  of  Rochester,  was 
born  at  Milton,  in  Buckingham- 
shire. He 'became  lecturer  of 
St.  Bride's,  a  royal  chaplain,  and 
minister  to  Bridewell  Hospital  in 
1691.  He  manifested  his  skill  as 
a  controversialist  in  a  defence  of 
Protestantism  against  Walker, 
master  of  University  College 
(1687);  in  the  Examination  of 
Dr.  Bentley's  Dissertations  on  the 
Epistles  of  Phalaris  (1698),  though 
the  book  appeared  with  the  name 
of  Charles  Boyle;  and  in  1700  he 
ably  upheld,  on  the  High  Chuich 
side,  the  powers  and  privileges  of 
Convocation  in  an  argument  with 
Dr.  Wake.  This  service  procured 
him  the  archdeaconry  of  Totnes 
and  a  canonry  of  Exeter.  He  be- 
came dean  of  Westminster  and 
bishop  of  Rochester  in  1713.  At- 
terbury is  credited  with  Dr. 
Sacheverell's  defence  (1710),  and 


Attestation 


465 


AttUa 


the  authorship  of  the  well-known 
treatise  Representation  of  the  State 
of  Religion.  After  the  acces- 
sion of  George  i.  he  bitterly  re- 
sented the  Hanoverian  rule,  and 
in  1722  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower,  and  finally  deprived  of 
all  his  ecclesiastical  offices  and 
banished  from  the  kingdom.  He 
died  in  Paris,  and  was  buried 
obscurely  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Atterbury  wrote  four  volumes 
of  Sermons,  a  Latin  translation 
of  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  and 
letters  to  Swift,  Pope,  Boling- 
broke,  and  others,  all  of  which 
were  published  between  1682  and 
1723.  His  Private  Correspondence 
was  published  by  Lord  Hailes  in 
1800,  and  his  Epistolary  Corre- 
spondence by  Nichols  in  1790. 
Curll  published  in  1727  Atter- 
buryana:  being  Miscellanies  by  the 
late  Bishop  of  Rochester  (1727). 
Consult,  also,  Atterbury's  Mem- 
oirs (1723);  Williams'  Memoirs 
and  Correspondence  of  Atterbury; 
Canon  Beeching's  Life. 

At'testa'tion,  the  verification 
by  a  witness  of  the  due  execution 
of  a  legal  document.  An  attesta- 
tion is  usually  effected  by  the 
addition  of  the  signature  of  the 
witness  to  the  instrument  at- 
tested. Legal  instruments  are 
often  attested  to  give  them  addi- 
tional solemnity  or  to  facilitate 
the  proof  of  their  due  execution, 
but  in  many  cases  attestation  is 
required  by  law  either  to  render 
an  instrument  valid  or  to  entitle 
it  to  registration. 

Att'field,  John  (1835-1911). 
English  chemist,  was  born  near 
Barnet,  Hertfordshire.  He  was 
demonstrator  of  chemistry  at  St. 
Bartholomew's  Hospital  (1854- 
62) ,  and  professor  of  practical 
chemistry.  Pharmaceutical  Soci- 
ety of  Great  Britain  (1862-96). 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
British  Pharmaceutical  Confer- 
ence and  of  the  Institute  of 
Chemistry,  and  an  authority  on 
pharmaceutical  education.  He 
published:  A  Manual  of  Chemis- 
try (1867,  19th  ed.  1906),  and 
many  lectures  and  papers  on 
chemical  subjects.  He  was  assist- 
ant editor  of  the  British  Pharma- 
copoeia in  1885,  and  editor-in- 
chief  in  1898. 

At'tica,  a  division  of  ancient 
Greece,  with  the  ^gean  Sea  to 
the  east  and  southwest,  and 
Boeotia  to  the  north.  It  was 
divided  into  several  independent 
states,  but  before  the  dawn  of 
history  they  were  united  into  one 
polity  (by  Theseus,  according  to 
the  legends) ;  Athens  was  the 
capital  city.  Attica  and  Boeotia 
now  form  a  nomarchy  of  Greece, 
extending  from  the  ^Egean  Sea 
and  the  Egripos  Channel  west  to 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  Area  2,472 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1920)  623,- 
399.  See  Greece. 

Attica,  city,  Indiana,  Foun- 
tain county,   on   the  Wabash 


River,  and  on  the  Wabash  and 
the  Chicago,  Attica  and  South- 
ern (freight  only)  Railroads;  21 
miles  southwest  of  Lafayette.  It 
is  served  by  three  important 
highways.  State  road  no.  9,  the 
W  Trail,  and  the  Adeway. 
Attica  has  a  large  steel  foundry, 
a  brick  plant,  several  gravel 
companies,  a  lumber  and  plan- 
ing mill,  and  clothing  factories. 
Pop.  (1910)  3,335;  (1920)  3,392. 

Atticism,  at'i-ciz'm,  a  term 
used  to  denote  a  well-turned 
phrase,  was,  among  the  Atheni- 
ans, applied  to  those  grammari- 
ans (Atticists)  who  endeavored 
to  retain  the  pristine  purity  of 
the  Attic  dialect,    Attic  wit  and 


Marius,  Sulla,  Pompey,  Brutus, 
Cassius,  Antony,  and  Augustus, 
and,  above  all,  with  Cicero,  from 
whose  correspondence  with  him, 
covering  the  years  from  68  to 
43  B.C.,  we  gain  a  picture  of  him 
as  the  ideal  classical  man  of  cul- 
ture. In  philosophy  he  was  an 
Epicurean.  He  wrote  on  Roman 
history,  and  also  in  Greek  on 
Cicero's  consulship,  but  none  of 
his  works  survives. 

Atticus  Herodes,  at'i-kus 
he-ro'dez,  Tiberius  Claudius 
(104-180  A.D.),  celebrated  Greek 
rhetorician  of  the  2nd  century. 
He  possessed  great  wealth,  even 
after  presenting  five  minae — 
nearly  $100 — to  every  Athenian 


Ancient  Attica 


Attic  salt  signify  a  poignant  and 
delicate  wit  characteristic  of  the 
Athenians. 

Atticus  (c.  400  A.D.),  at'i-kus, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  and 
successor  of  Chrysostom.  He 
wrote  a  treatise,  entitled  De  Fide 
et  Virginitate,  opposing  Nestorian 
views. 

Atticus,  Titus  Pomponius 
(c.  109-32  B.C.),  a  Roman  knight, 
whose  full  name  was  Quintus 
Caecilius  Pomponianus  Atticus. 
The  last  name  was  given  him  be- 
cause of  his  residence  in  Athens 
(86-65  B.C.)  and  his  attainments 
in  Greek  literature  and  culture. 
Though  distinguished  for  his 
ability  among  his  contemporaries, 
he  decided  to  stand  aside  from 
the  politics  of  Rome,  especially 
from  the  civic  war  of  87  to  81 
B.C.  He  was  on  terms  of  intimate 
friendship    with    the  younger 


citizen  in  fulfilment  of  his  father's 
will.  He  built  a  race-course 
(ruins  of  which  remain)  and  a 
theatre  at  Athens,  erected  a 
theatre  at  Corinth,  an  aqueduct 
at  Olympia,  a  stadium  at  Delphi, 
and  hot  baths  at  Thermopylae. 
He  taught  rhetoric  both  in 
Athens  and  Rome,  having  for 
pupils  the  Emperors  Marcus 
Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus.  In 
143  A.D.  he  was  made  consul  by 
Antoninus  Pius,  and  at  one  time 
was  administrator  of  the  free 
towns  in  Asi?.  None  of  his 
works  survives. 

Attila,  at-ti'la,  or  Etzel,  king 
of  the  Huns,  succeeded  to  the 
kingship  in  a.d.  434.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reign  his  brother 
Bleda  shared  the  royal  authority, 
but  the  overweening  ambition  of 
Attila  speedily  led  him  to  de- 
prive his  brother  of  his  sceptre, 
Vol.  I. — March  '24 


Attis 


466 


Atwater 


and  even,  according  to  some  writ- 
ers, oi  his  life. 

In  the  reign  of  Attila  (434- 
453)  the  supremacy  of  the  Huns 
is  said  to  have  extended  from  the 
Caspian  Sea  to  the  Rhine,  the 
commanding  position  then  at- 
tained by  this  savage  people  be- 
ing due  largely  to  the  resistless 
energy  and  masterfulness  of  their 
great  leader.  It  is  said  that  he 
styled  himself  the  'Scourge  of 
God' ;  but  Gibbon  observes  that 
'the  ancients,  Jornandes,  Priscus, 
and  others,  are  ignorant  of  this 
epithet.' 

In  441  Attila  laid  waste  Thrace 
and  Illyria,  withdrawing  his 
forces  only  after  exacting  a  heavy 
fine.  In  445  he  founded  the  city 
of  Buda  as  his  capital.  In  448  he 
extorted  a  heavy  tribute  from  the 
Byzantine  emperor,  Theodosius; 
but  in  450  again  attacked  the 
Eastern  empire,  until  his  atten- 
tion was  diverted  to  the  Western 
empire,  it  is  said  by  the  offer  of 
the  hand  of  Princess  Honoria.  In 
the  following  year  he  marched  on 
Gaul  with  an  army  nearly  three- 
quarters  of  a  million  strong.  Fail- 
ing in  his  effort  to  detach  The- 
odoric,  king  of  the  West  Goths, 
from  his  alliance  with  the  Romans 
under  their  general,  Aetius,  Attila 
retired  from  Orleans  to  Chalons, 
where  he  gave  battle  to  the  allies 
on  the  Catalaunian  Fields  (451). 
The  Huns  were  defeated;  but  the 
Romans  did  not  follow  up  their 
victory,  and  in  the  following  year 
Attila  laid  waste  Northern  Italy, 
and  even  threatened  Rome.  He 
died  in  453  on  the  night  of  his 
marriage  with  the  Burgundian 
princess,  Hilda  or  Ildiko.  Con- 
sult Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire  and  Thierry's 
Histoire  d' Attila. 

Attis.  See  Atys. 

At'tleboro,  city,  Massachu- 
setts, Bristol  county,  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and 
Hartford  Railroad;  31  miles 
southwest  of  Boston.  It  has 
manufactures  of  silverware,  cot- 
ton, jewelry,  leather,  and  chains, 
as  well  as  carriage  works,  bleach- 
ing and  dye  works,  and  smelters. 
According  to  the  Federal  Census 
for  1919  industrial  establishments 
number  144,  with  $22,632,192 
capital,  and  products  valued  at 
.1534,471,577.  Pop.  (1900)  11,335; 
(1910)  16,215;  (1920)  19,731. 

Attorney,  at-tur'ni,  in  the 
most  general  sense,  any  person 
appointed  by  another  to  act  in 
his  behalf.  An  attorney  in  fad  is 
an  agent  with  specific  authority 
to  bind  his  principal,  the  author- 
ity being  usually  conferred  by  a 
writing  known  as  a  'power  of 
attorney'  or  'letters  of  attorney.' 
Such  power  may  be  either  general, 
to  act  for  the  principal  in  all 
matters,  or  special,  to  act  for  him 
only  in  particular  matters  or  in  a 
particular  manner.  Powers  of 
attorney  are  strictly  construed. 

Vol.  I. — March  '24 


In  a  specific  sense,  an  attorney, 
or  attorney  at  law,  is  one  who 
represents  another,  known  as  his 
client,  in  legal  proceedings.  The 
term  was  formerly  employed  in 
England  to  describe  the  class  of 
legal  representatives  who  con- 
ducted the  business  of  litigants  in 
the  common  law  courts,  the  corre- 
sponding class  of  practitioners  in 
the  equity  tribunals  being  known 
as  solicitors;  but  by  the  Judica- 
ture Act  of  1873  the  two  classes 
were  merged  in  one  under  the 
name  of  solicitors.  The  term 
attorney  has  never  been  applied 
in  England  to  the  superior  order 
of  lawyers  known  as  advocates 
and  barristers.  In  the  United 
States,  however,  all  classes  of 
lawyers  have  been  described  as 
attorneys,  and  that  is  still  the 
name  by  which  they  are  com- 
monly known,  though  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  the  title 
'counsellor'  is  employed  either  in 
substitution  for  'attorney'  or, 
more  frequently,  as  an  addi- 
tional title — as  in  the  phrase 
'attorney  and  counsellor  at  law.' 
For  a  description  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  attorney  and  his 
place  in  the  administration  of 
justice  see  Bar;  Lawyer.  See 
also  Disbar. 

Attorney  General,  in  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
the  principal  law  officer  of  the 
government.  He  is  the  public 
prosecutor  and  standing  counsel 
for  the  government  in  all  its 
legal  proceedings,  as  well  as  the 
legal  adviser  of  the  various  gov- 
ernmental departments.  In  Eng- 
land he  is  a  member  of  the  minis- 
try but  not  of  the  cabinet  and  he 
is,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  the 
recognized  head  of  the  bar.  In 
the  United  States  the  Attorney 
General,  who  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  first  cabinet  of  Presi- 
dent Washington  (1789),  is 
fourth  in  rank  of  the  great 
appointive  officers  of  the  govern- 
ment, only  the  Secretaries  of 
State,  Treasury,  and  War  having 
precedence  over  him.  His  duties 
are  prescribed  by  Act  of  Con- 
gress. Besides  performing  the 
legal  functions  which  attach  to 
the  office  of  Attorney  General  in 
England,  he  is  in  the  American 
administrative  system  the  head 
of  the  Department  of  Justice. 
He  is  the  legal  adviser  of  the 
President  and  of  Congress,  and 
his  opinions  are  regularly  pub- 
lished and  form  precedents  for 
future  decisions.  The  organiza- 
tion of  the  Department  of  Justice 
includes,  also,  a  Solicitor  Gen- 
eral, an  Assistant  to  the  Attorney 
General,  and  several  Assistant 
Attorneys  General.  The  Attor- 
ney General  receives  a  salary  of 
$12,000.  Each  of  the  States  has 
a  similar  officer.  See  Justice, 
U.  S.  Department  of. 

Attornment,  at-turn'ment,  the 
formal  recognition  by  a  tenant  of 


another  person  than  his  lessor  as 
landlord.  At  the  common  law  no 
conveyance  by  a  landlord  was 
complete  without  an  attornment 
of  the  tenant  to  the  grantee  of 
the  reversion.  A  complete  aliena- 
tion of  lands  subject  to  lease 
thus  required  the  twofold  process 
of  grant  and  attornment.  The 
necessity  for  an  attornment  was 
done  awav  with  by  statute  in 
1'705  (4  Anne,  c.  16),  but  it  may 
still  be  employed  so  as  to  affect 
the  rights  of  parties  in  certain 
cases,  as  where  the  tenant  of  a 
mortgagor  recognizes  the  right 
of  the  mortgagee  to  take  the 
rents  of  the  mortgaged  premises. 
See  Landlord  and  Tenant. 

Attrac'tion,  the  tendency  of 
bodies  to  approach  each  other 
and  unite;  the  force  which  brings 
bodies  together  and  resists  their 
separation.  The  chief  kinds  of 
attraction  are:  the  attraction  of 
gravitation  (q.  v.);  capillary 
attraction,  meaning  the  attrac- 
tion excited  by  a  hairlike  tube  on 
a  liquid  within  it — a  variety  of 
adhesion  (see  Capillarity)  ;  mo- 
lecular attraction,  which  acts 
only  at  infinitely  small  distances; 
chemical  attraction  (see  Affin- 
ity, Chemical)  ;  magnetic  at- 
traction— the  power  of  a  magnet 
or  loadstone  of  drawing  iron  to 
itself  (see  Magnetism);  and  elec- 
trical attraction — the  power  pos- 
sessed by  an  electrified  body  of 
drawing  certain  other  bodies  to 
itself  (see  Electricity).  These 
attractions  are  divisible  into  two 
classes:  (1)  those  which  act  at 
sensible  and  measurable  dis- 
tances, as  gravitation,  magnetic 
and  electrical  attraction;  and  (2) 
those  which  extend  only  to  ex- 
tremely small  and  insensible  dis- 
tances, as  capillary,  molecular, 
and  chemical  attraction. 

Attribute,  a  term  employed 
in  logic  to  denote  the  opposite 
of  substance.  See  also  Sub- 
stance, 

Attu,  iit'toS,  the  most  westerly 
of  the  group  of  Aleutian  Islands, 
in  the  Northern  Pacific  Ocean, 
in  lat.  52°  58'  n.,  long.  172°  66' 
e.  It  has  a  small  population  of 
Aleut  Indians. 

At'water,  Wilbur  Olin  (1844- 
1907),  American  chemist,  was 
born  in  Johnsburgh,  N.  Y.  He 
was  graduated  in  1865  from  Wes- 
leyan  University  (Middletown, 
Conn.),  and  after  a  course  in 
chemistry  at  the  Sheffield  Scien- 
tific school,  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  at  Wesleyan, 
a  position  which  he  held  for  more 
than  thirty  years.  He  was  active 
in  the  formation  of  agricultural 
experimental  stations  for  the 
Connecticut  and  U.  S.  govern- 
ments, and  in  1894  he  took 
charge  of  the  U.  S.  government 
investigation  as  to  the  relative 
values  of  food  materials.  Dr. 
Atwater  wrote  many  papers  for 
scientific  publications. 


Atwood 


467 


Aubry  de  Montdidier 


At'wood,  George  (1746-1807), 
English  mathematician,  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminister  and  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  was  third 
wrangler,  and  afterward  excelled 
as  a  lecturer.  In  1784,  William 
Pitt,  one  of  his  pupils,  bestowed 
on  him  a  patent  office — an  indi- 
rect payment  for  his  services  in 
financial  calculations.  Atwood 
was  the  author  of  many  mathe- 
matical works,  one  of  which  gives 
the  first  description  of  what  is 
now  called  'Atwood 's  machine' 
(q.  v.). 

Atwood,  Isaac  Morgan 
(1838-1917),  American  clergy- 
man, was  born  in  Pembroke, 
N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at  Yale 
University  and  was  ordained  as 
a  Universalist  Minister  in  1861. 
After  holding  several  pastorates 
in  New  York  and  New  England, 
he  became  in  1879  president  of 
the  Canton  Theological  Semin- 
ary. From  1898  to  1906  he  was 
superintendent  of  the  Universal- 
ist Church  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  and  in  1911  he  be- 
came professor  of  theology  and 
philosophy  at  St.  Lawrence  Uni- 
versity. His  published  writings 
include:  Have  we  Outgrown  Chris- 
tianity? (1870);  Walks  about 
Zion  (1881);  Latest  Word  of 
Universalism  (1879);  Balance 
Sheet  of  Biblical  Criticism  (1895). 

Atwood,  Thomas  (1765- 
1838),  English  musician  and 
composer,  was  born  in  London. 
He  was  a  favorite  pupil  of  Mo- 
zart at  Vienna,  and  an  intimate 
friend  of  Mendelssohn.  He  be- 
came organist  of  St.  Paul's 
(1795),  and  composer  and  organ- 
ist to  the  Chapel  Royal  (1796). 
His  works  include  many  songs 
and  glees,  operas  and  anthems. 

Atwood's  Machine,  a  machine 
invented  by  George  Atwood  to 
demonstrate  the  laws  of  uni- 
formly accelerated  motion,  and 
to  illustrate  the  relations  of  time, 
space,  and  motion  in  the  case  of  a 
body  falling  under  the  action  of 
gravitation.  This  machine  is  so 
constructed,  by  means  of  pulleys 
and  wheels  which  turn  with  the 
least  possible  friction,  that  a 
weight  (or  falling  body)  descends 
much  more  slowly  than  a  body 
falling  in  free  space,  being  made 
to  raise  a  counterpoise  by  means 
of  a  cord  passing  over  a  pulley, 
yet  increases  in  velocity  in  the 
same  ratio  as  when  falling  at 
liberty. 

Atys,  at'is,  or  Attis,  a  beauti- 
ful Phrygian  sHepherd  beloved 
by  the  goddess  Cybele,  who  made 
him  her  priest,  then  changed  him 
into  a  fir-tree.  The  story  is 
related  by  Ovid  (Fasti,  bk.  iv.) 
and  by  Catullus  (Ode  63).  The 
versions  vary  widely. 

Aubagne,  6-ban'y',  town, 
France,  department  of  Bouches- 
du-Rhone,  10  miles  east  of  Mar- 
seilles. There  are  important  pot- 
tery works.    Pop.  (1911)  9,744. 


Aubanel,  o-ba-nel',  Theodore 
(1829-86),  poet  and  dramatist  of 
the  Provengal  language,  and  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  development 
of  Provengal  poetry,  was  born  in 
Avignon,  where  he  carried  on  the 
business  of  publishing.  His  works 
are  La  Miougrano  Entreduberto 
(1860)  and  Li  Fiho  d'Avignoun 
(1885),  both  collections  of  poetry. 
He  also  wrote  the  dramas  Lou 
Pan  dou  Pecat  (played  at  Mont- 
pelier  in  1878  with  great  success), 
Lou  Pastre,  and  Lou  Raubatori. 

Aube,  6b,  river,  France,  a 
tributary  of  the  Seine  (q.  v.). 

Aube,  department,  Central 
France,  consisting  for  the  most 
part  of  the  parallel  valleys  of  the 
Seine  and  its  tributary  the  Aube, 
with  an  area  of  2,326  square 
miles.  The  lower  parts  of  the 
valleys  of  the  Seine  and  Aube 
belong  to  the  chalky,  barren 
Champagne  Pouilleuse,  which 
grows  only  a  little  oats,  rye,  and 
buckwheat.  The  hilly  district 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine 
(Pays  d'Othe),  and  the  Bassigny, 
between  the  Aube  and  the  Seine 
on  the  southeast,  yield  good 
crops  of  wheat,  contain  market 
gardens,  and  have  several  large 
forests.  There  are  deposits  of 
limestone  and  potter's  clay. 
Cotton  weaving  is  the  leading 
industry.  Aube  was  the  scene 
of  disturbances  and  rioting  in 
1911,  during  what  was  known  as 
the  Champagne  War  (q.  v.).  The 
capital  is  Troyes.  Pop.  (1921) 
227,839. 

Aubenas,  ob-na',  town, 
France,  department  of  Ardeche, 
on  the  river  Ardeche,  20  miles 
southwest  of  Privas.  Notewor- 
thy features  are  a  church  with  a 
15th  century  tower,  the  massive 
Chateau,  now  used  as  the  Hotel 
de  Ville,  and  the  chapel  of  the 
old  College.  Coal  and  iron 
occur  in  small  quantities,  and 
the  silk  industry  is  important. 
Pop.  (1911)  7,206. 

Auber,  o-bar',  Daniel  Fran- 
cois Esprit  (1782-1871),  French 
operatic  composer,  was  born  in 
Caen.  His  first  dramatic  com- 
position was  the  resetting  of  an 
operatic  libretto  called  Julie, 
which  was  performed  in  1812  and 
so  impressed  Cherubini  that  he 
became  Auber's  instructor.  His 
next  work  was  a  mass,  from 
which  he  afterward  took  the 
'Prayer'  which  appears  in  Ma- 
saniello,  his  most  serious  work. 
His  first  two  operas  were  unsuc- 
cessful; but  his  third.  La  Bergere 
Chatelaine  (1820),  was  well  re- 
ceived. Auber's  subsequent  col- 
laboration with  Scribe  (q.  v.), 
the  most  succcvssful  of  librettists, 
did  much  to  enhance  his  musical 
reputation.  In  1842  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  Conserva- 
tory in  Paris;  and  in  1857  Na- 
poleon III.  made  him  Maitrc 
de  Chapelle.  He  wrote  ov6r 
forty  operas,  among  which  are 


Le  Macon  (1825),  La  Muette  de 
Portici  or  Masaniello  (1828),  La 
Fiancee  (1829),  Fra  Diavolo 
(1830),  La  Cheval  de  Bronze 
(1835),  Le  Domino  Noir  (1837), 
Les  Diamants  de  la  Couronne 
(1841),  Zerline  (1851),  written 
for  Madame  Alboni,  and  Le 
Reve  d' Amour  (1869). 

Aubergine,  6-bar-zhen',  an- 
other name  for  the  Eggplant 
(q.  v.). 

Aubervilliers,  6-bar-ve-ya', 
town,  France,  department  of  the 
Seine,  forming  a  suburb  of  Paris 
to  the  northwest.  It  has  nu- 
merous factories,  mainly  engaged 
in  chemical  industries.  Pop. 
(1921)  40,832. 

Aubignac,  Aubigne.  See 
D'AUBIGNAC,  etc. 

Aubin,  o-ban',  industrial 
town,  France,  department  of 
Aveyron,  on  the  Orleans  Rail- 
road; 30  miles  northwest  of 
Rodez.  It  is  in  an  important 
coal-producing  district  and  has 
large  coal  and  iron  mines  and 
iron  works.    Pop.  (1911)  9,574. 

Aublet,  Jean  Baptiste  Chris- 
TOPHORE  Fusee  (1720-78), 
French  botanist,  was  born  in 
Salon,  in  the  south  of  France. 
He  founded  botanic  gardens  and 
pharamaceutical  schools  in  Mau- 
ritius and  French  Guiana  (1762), 
and  in  his  expeditions  made  val- 
uable collections  of  plants.  He 
wrote  Histoire  des  Plantes  de  la 
Guyane  Francaise  (1775). 

Aubrey,  6'bri,  John  (1626-97), 
English  antiquary,  was  born 
in  Easton  Pierse  in  Wiltshire. 
In  1649  he  drew  attention  to  the 
megalithic  remains  at  Avebury, 
of  which,  in  1663,  he  wrote  an 
account  by  command  of  Charles 
II.  After  1670  he  worked  on 
antiquarian  subjects  with  Hobbes 
and  Ashmole.  His  Miscellanies 
(1696)  is  a  complete  storehouse 
of  quaint  anecdotes  with  refer- 
ence to  supernatural  subjects. 
His  'Minutes  of  Lives,'  given 
by  him  to  Anthony  a  Wood, 
and  printed  in  Letters  by  Emi- 
nent Persons  (1813),  show  him  as 
a  kind  of  'immature  Boswell.' 
His  antiquarian  researches  in 
Surrey  were  published  in  five 
volumes  by  Rawlinson  (1718- 
19),  and  a  similar  collection  for 
Wilts  was  privately  printed  by 
Sir  T.  Phillips  in  1821,  but  the 
Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford 
contains  much  still  unpublished 
MS.  A  fragment.  Remains  of 
Gentilism  and  Judaism,  was 
printed  by  the  Folklore  Society 
in  1880. 

Aubrietia,  or  Purple  Rock 
Cress,  a  genus  of  small  plants 
belonging  to  the  order  Crucifera\ 
They  are  about  3  inches  high, 
and  in  the  spring  produce  masses 
of  violet,  lilac,  and  purple  flowers 
admirably  adapted  for  pots, 
borders,  and  rock  gardens. 

Aubry  dc  Montdidieri  d-bre' 
dc  mon-de-dya',  courtier  of 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Auburn 


468 


Auohmuty 


Charles  v.  of  France.  Tradition 
says  that  he  was  assassinated 
(1371)  by  Richard  de  Macaire, 
and  that  the  murderer  was  re- 
vealed through  the  animosity 
displayed  toward  him  by  the 
victim's  dog.  To  decide  the 
case,  Macaire  was  commanded 
by  the  king  to  fight  the  dog,  was 
beaten,  and  confessed.  The  pop- 
ular drama,  Le  Chien  d'Aubry,  is 
founded  on  this  story,  which  is 
known  also  as  The  Dog  of  Mon- 
targis. 

Auburn,  city,  California, 
county  seat  of  Placer  county,  on 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad; 
126  miles  northeast  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. Situated  in  an  agricul- 
tural district,  its  principal  indus- 
tries are  the  raising  of  farm  prod- 
ucts and  fruit  growing.  There 
are  quartz  mills  and  other  mining 
industries  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
(1910)  2,376;  (1920)  2,289. 

Auburn,  city,  Illinois,  Sanga- 
mon county,  on  the  Chicago  and 
Alton,  and  the  Chicago  and  Illi- 
nois Midland  Railroads,  and  a 
local  trolley  line;  26  miles  south- 
west of  Springfield.  The  St. 
Louis-Chicago  Highway  passes 
through  the  city.  There  are  coal 
mines  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
Pop.  (1910)  1.814;  (1920)  2,660. 

Auburn,  city,  Indiana,  county 
seat  of  De  Kalb  county,  on  Ce- 
dar Creek  and  on  the  New  York 
Central,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
and  the  Pennsylvania  Railroads, 
and  a  local  electric  line;  23  miles 
north  of  Fort  Wayne.  It  is  a 
trading  centre  for  agricultural 
produce,  and  has  manufactures  of 
automobiles,  tires,  brooms,  han- 
dles, furniture,  excelsior,  and 
rubber  goods.  It  has  a  supply  of 
natural  gas.  Pop.  (1910)  3,919; 
(1920)  4,650. 

Auburn,  city,  Maine,  county 
seat  of  Androscoggin  county,  on 
the  Androscoggin  River,  and  on 
the  Maine  Central,  and  the 
Grand  Trunk,  New  England 
Lines  Railroads,  and  several  local 
trolley  lines;  34  miles  north  of 
Portland.  The  falls  of  the  river 
furnish  power  for  manufactures, 
principally  boots  and  shoes,  fur- 
niture, and  cotton.  Pop.  (1900) 
12,951;  (1910)  15,064;  (1920) 
16,985. 

Auburn,  city,  Nebraska,  county 
seat  of  Nemaha  county,  on  the 
Little  Nemaha  River,  and  on  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy, 
and  the  Missouri  Pacific  Rail- 
roads; about  65  miles  south  of 
Omaha.  Flour  milling  is  its 
chief  industry.  Pop.  (1910)  2,729; 
(1920)  2,863. 

Auburn,  city.  New  York, 
county  seat  of  Cayuga  county, 
situated  at  the  foot  of  Owasco 
Lake  (which  furnishes  the  city 
with  water,  and  also  supplies 
power  for  manufacturing),  and 
on  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Cen- 
tral New  York  Southern,  and  the 
New  York  Central  Railroads;  174 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '23 


miles  west  of  Albany.  Among 
the  public  institutions  are  the 
Auburn  Theological  Seminary 
(q.  V.)  and  a  State  prison,  not- 
able for  the  reformatory  charac- 
ter of  its  discipline.  Manufac- 
tures include  shoes,  woollen 
goods,  rope  and  twine,  agricul- 
tural implements,  oil  engines, 
wagons,  forgings,  rugs,  flour,  and 
carpets.  Auburn  was  long  the 
home  of  William  H.  Seward,  Sec- 
retary of  State  in  President  Lin- 
coln's cabinet.  Pop.  (1900)  30,- 
345;  (1910)  34,668;  (1920)  36.192. 

Auburn,  city,  Washington, 
King  county,  on  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  the 
Great  Northern,  the  Northern 
Pacific,  and  the  Oregon-Wash- 
ington Railroads;  22  miles  south 
of  Seattle.  Freight  transfer  sheds 
and  the  car  repair  department  of 
the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad 
Company  are  located  here.  There 
are  also  a  milk  condensory  and 
terra  cotta  plant.  It  is  a  ship- 
ping point  for  lettuce  and  small 
fruits.  Pop.  (1910)  957;  (1920) 
3,163. 

Auburn-Lissoy,  village  in 
county  Westmeath,  Ireland,  8 
miles  northeast  of  Athlone.  It 
is  famous  as  the  scene  of  Oliver 
Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village. 

Auburn  Theological  Semin- 
ary, a  divinity  school  under  Pres- 
byterian control  at  Auburn,  N. 
Y.,  founded  in  1818,  associated 
with  which  is  a  School  for  Re- 
ligious Education  (1921)  designed 
to  prepare  young  men  and  women 
as  directors  of  religious  educa- 
tion, teachers,  missionaries,  and 
pastors'  assistants.  The  course 
in  the  Seminary  is  three  years; 
that  of  the  School  of  Religious 
Education  two  years.  There  are 
summer  sessions  for  both  the 
Seminary  and  the  School  of  Relig- 
ious Education,  and  post-grad- 
uate courses  are  offered. 

Aubusson,  o-bii-soii',  town, 
France,  department  of  Creuse,  is 
picturesquely  situated  on  the 
Creuse,  34  miles  southwest  of 
Montlucon.  It  is  noted  for  its 
carpet  and  tapestry  factories, 
one  of  them  established  by  Col- 
bert in  1665.  This  industry  is 
said  to  have  been  introduced  by 
the  Saracens,  who  are  supposed 
to  have  founded  the  town  after 
their  defeat  at  Tours  (732  a.d.). 
Pop.  (1911)  7,211. 

Aubusson,  Pierre  d'  (1423- 
1503),  sometimes  called  'the 
shield  of  the  Church,'  was  in  1476 
elected  grand  master  of  the  order 
of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem,  having  previously  dis- 
tinguished himself  against  the 
Turks  (1435),  the  English  at 
Montereau  (1437).  and  the  Swiss 
at  St.  Jakob  (1444).  After  his 
elevation  to  the  grand-master- 
ship he  strove  to  create  a  confed- 
eration of  the  Christian  powers 
against  the  Turks,  and  by  his 
successful    defence    of  Rhodes 


(May- July,  1480)  against  an 
army  of  ioO.OOO  Turks,  checked 
their  victorious  course  after  the 
fall  of  Constantinople  (1453). 

A.U.C.  (Lat.  anno  urbis  con- 
dilcE,  'in  the  year  from  the  found- 
ing of  the  city').  In  Rome  a 
particular  year  was  usually  de- 
scribed by  the  names  of  the  con- 
suls for  that  year;  but  later 
Roman  writers  reckoned  from 
the  year  of  the  founding  of  Rome 
— according  to  Varro,  B.  c.  753. 
Hence,  to  bring  a  date  A.  u.  c.  in 
accordance  with  Christian  chro- 
nology, the  date  a.  u.  c.  must  be 
subtracted  from  754  if  b.  c,  but 
753  must  be  added  to  the  given 
date  A.  u.  c.  if  a.  d. 

Aucassin  et  Nicolette,  6-ka- 
san'  a  ne-ko-let',  a  celebrated 
French  romance  of  the  12th 
century,  written  in  alternate 
prose  and  assonant  verse  of  seven 
syllables.  It  recounts  the  love  of 
Aucassin,  son  of  the  Count  of 
Beaucaire,  for  Nicolette,  the  cap- 
tive daughter  of  the  king  of  Car- 
thage. 

Auch,  osh  (the  Augusta  Aus- 
corum  of  the  Romans),  town, 
France,  department  of  Gers,  for- 
merly capital  of  Gascony,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Gers;  367  miles 
south  of  Paris.  It  is  situated  on 
a  steep  hill  (540  ft.),  approached 
from  the  river  by  a  flight  of  200 
steps,  and  crowned  by  a  Gothic 
cathedral  with  stained  windows 
of  great  beauty.  It  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop,  and  has  a  public 
library  and  museum.  Thread, 
cotton,  and  woollen  goods  are 
manufactured,  and  there  is  trade 
in  wines  and  brandy.  Pop. 
(1911)  13.638. 

Aucbenia,  6-ke'ni-a,  or  Lama, 
the  genus  to  which  belong  the 
llama,  alpaca,  guanaco,  and 
vicuiia.  Though  the  nearest 
allies  of  these  animals  are  the 
Old  World  camels,  they  them- 
selves are  entirely  confined  to 
South  America,  and  even  as  fos- 
sils are  not  known  outside  the 
American  continent.  They  dif- 
fer from  the  Old  World  camels 
by  their  smaller  size,  the  absence 
of  any  dorsal  hump,  the  woolly 
coat,  the  narrow  feet  with  dis- 
tinctly separated  toes,  the  short 
tail,  long  and  pointed  ears,  and 
in  the  detailed  characters  of  the 
teeth. 

Auchmuty,  ok'mu-ti,  Sir  Sam- 
uel (1756-1822),  English  soldier, 
was  the  son  of  Samuel  Auchmuty 
(1722-77),  and  was  educated  at 
Kings  College  (now  Columbia 
University).  He  fought  for  the 
king  in  the  battles  of  Brooklyn 
and  White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  and 
after  the  declaration  of  peace 
went  to  England,  and  then  to 
India,  where  he  served  against 
Hyder  Ali  and  against  Tippoo 
Sultan  at  Seringa patam  (1792). 
He  was  engaged  in  the  capture 
of  Monte  Video  (1806);  was 
commander  in  chief  at  Madras 


Auchterarder 


469 


Audiphone 


(1810) ;  captured  Java  (1811) ;  but 
it  was  as  adjutant  general  to  Sir 
David  Baird  in  his  march  across 
the  desert  to  the  Nile  (1801)  that 
he  became  a  popular  hero. 

Auchterarder,  ok-ter-ar'der, 
market  town,  Scotland,  in  Perth- 
shire; 13  miles  southwest  of 
Perth.  Industries  include  brew- 
eries, cotton  weaving,  flour  mil- 
ling and  the  manufacture  of 
tartans.    Pop.  (1921)  2,263. 

Auckland,  ak'land,  provincial 
district.  North  Island,  New 
Zealand;  area  25,364  square 
miles.  It  is  hilly,  well  timbered, 
and  well  watered,  and  has  an 
extensive  seaboard,  with  many 
good  harbors.  Kauri  timber  and 
gum,  and  sub-tropical  fruits  are 
peculiar  to  this  district.  In 
Thames  and  Coromandel  coun- 
ties are  large  gold  fields  (quartz 
reefs),  and  in  the  Waikato  basin 
agriculture  is  important.  In  the 
south  are  the  Hot  Lakes  district 
(See  Rotorua)  and  Lake  Taupo. 
The  chief  exports  are  wool,  gold, 
kauri  gum,  timber,  and  flax. 
The  district,  the  first  to  be 
settled,  includes  two-thirds  of  the 
Maoris.    Pop.  (1921)  369,618. 

Auckland,  the  largest  and  most 
important  city  of  New  Zealand, 
in  North  Island,  is  situated  on  an 
isthmus  at  the  head  of  Waite- 
mata  Harbor,  an  inlet  of  Hauraki 
Gulf.  It  is  a  city  of  beautiful 
parks,  chief  among  which  are 
Albert  Park,  Auckland  Domain, 
and  Victoria  Park,  of  wide,  shaded 
streets,  and  fine  public  buildings. 
Features  of  interest  are  the 
General  Post  Office,  Government 
House,  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral 
(R.  C),  St.  Mary's  Cathedral 
(Anglican),  the  Free  Public 
Library  and  Art  Gallery,  with  a 
valuable  collection  of  pictures 
and  books  presented  by  Sir 
George  Grey,  Leys  Institute,  the 
Museum,  with  a  splendid  Maori 
collection,  and  University  College. 

The  harbor,  one  of  the  best  in 
New  Zealand,  has  ample  accom- 
modation for  shipping  and  is 
equipped  with  graving  docks, 
one  of  which,  the  Calliope  dock, 
being  among  the  largest  in 
Australasia.  Manakau  harbor 
on  the  western  coast  is  only  six 
miles  distant. 

Industries  include  shipbuilding, 
sugar  refining,  brick  making  and 
timbering.  The  city  was  founded 
in  1840  and  until  1865  was  the 
seat  of  colonial  government. 
Pop,  (1924)  172,935. 

Auckland,  George  Eden, 
Earl  of  (1784-1849),  British 
statesman,  was  born  near  Becken- 
ham,  Kent.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1809.  He  succeeded  his 
brother  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons (1810),  was  President  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  (1830),  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  (1834), 
and  Governor  General  of  India 
(1835-41),  being  recalled  because 


of  his  failure  in  the  Afghan  cam- 
paign. He  was  created  Earl  of 
Auckland  in  1839. 

Auckland,  William  Eden, 
Baron  (1744-1814),  British  dip- 
lomat was  born  in  Durham. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1769. 
Entering  the  House  of  Commons 
(for  Woodstock),  he  joined  Lord 
North's  party;  was  a  devoted 
follower  of  Pitt,  who  sent  him 
as  minister  -  plenipotentiary  to 
France,  where  he  negotiated  an 
important  commercial  treaty 
(1786);  and  was  ambassador  to 
Spain  and  later  to  Holland. 
Created  an  English  peer  (1793), 
he  was  Postmaster  General 
(1798-1801).  His  published 
works  include  Principles  of  the 
Penal  Law  (1772);  History  of 
New  Holland  (1787). 

Auckland  Islands,  a  group  of 
uninhabited,  mountainous,  vol- 
canic, islands  about  180  miles 
south  of  New  Zealand,  to  which 
they  belong;  total  area,  about 
350  square  miles.  The  largest, 
Auckland  Island,  about  330 
square  miles  in  area  has  two  good 
harbors  and  a  relief  department 
for  shipwrecked  sailors.  The 
islands  were  discovered  in  1806, 
by  Bristow  and  annexed  by 
Great  Britain  in  1886. 

Auction,  a  method  of  selling 
property  by  which  the  vendor 
agrees  to  sell  to  the  highest  bidder. 
An  auction  sale  is  usually  made 
subject  to  printed  conditions  of 
sale  and  an  exact  description  of 
the  property  to  be  sold.  The 
sale  proceeds  by  increased  bid- 
dings until  no  more  offers  are 
forthcoming,  when  the  property 
is  'knocked  down'  to  the  highest 
bidder,  unless  a  reserve  price  has 
been  fixed  by  the  vendor,  at 
which  the  property  may  be 
withdrawn  if  not  reached.  A 
bid  may  be  retracted  at  any 
time  before  the  property  is 
knocked  down  on  the  general  prin- 
ciple of  contract  law  that  an  offer 
is  not  binding  without  acceptance. 
The  auctioneer  is  the  agent  both 
of  the  seller  and  the  buyer,  and 
his  signature  to  the  memorandum 
of  sale  will  bind  both  parties.  He 
should  sell  for  ready  money  only 
and  has  authority  to  receive  the 
purchase  money  for  the  goods 
sold.  Auction  sales  and  the  busi- 
ness of  conducting  them  are 
carefully  regulated  by  statute, 
both  in  England  and  the  United 
States. 

Auction  Bridge.    See  Bridge. 

Aucuba  Japonica,  a'ku-ba  ja- 
p6n'i-ka,  an  Asiatic  shrub  of  the 
order  Cornaceae.  It  grows  to  a 
height  of  a  few  feet,  and  bears 
large  mottled  evergreen  leaves 
and  red  berries,  ripened  in  March. 
It  somewhat  resembles  the  laurel 
and  is  frequently  cultivated  as  an 
ornamental  shrub. 

Aude,  od,  maritime  depart- 
ment in  Southern  France,  lying 


along  the  Mediterranean  coast; 
area  2,448  square  miles.  The 
northern  part  of  the  department 
lies  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Montague  Noire  (highest  point 
Pic  de  Noire,  3,970  feet);  but 
between  the  Aude  and  the  sea 
runs  the  Chaine  des  Corbieres. 
The  Canal  Languedoc  (Canal  du 
Midi)  traverses  the  department. 
The  climate  is  generally  mild  and 
agreeable.  Several  localities  with 
mineral  springs  are  much  fre- 
quented; many  varieties  of  fruit 
ripen  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills, 
and  the  summits  afford  good 
pasturage.  The  honey  of  Nar- 
bonne  is  famous.  The  quarries 
yield  plaster,  slate,  and  marble, 
there  is  some  iron  ore  and  coal, 
and  manufacturing  is  carried  on. 
Carcassonne  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
(1921)  287,052. 

Aude,  river,  France,  rising  in 
the  department  of  Pyrenees- 
Orientales,  crossing  the  depart- 
ment of  Aude,  and  entering  the 
Mediterranean  after  a  course  of 
139  miles. 

Audebert,  6d-bar',  Jean  Bap- 
tists (1759-1800),  French  natu- 
ralist and  painter,  was  born  in 
Rochefort.  He  studied  in  Paris 
and  in  1800  produced  Histoire 
naturelle  des  singes,  with  62 
plates,  printed  in  oil  colors  by  a 
process  of  his  own  invention, 
being  the  first  to  use  gold  leaf  in 
illustrating  the  plumage  of  birds. 
Other  publications  include  His- 
toire des  colibris,  des  oiseaux- 
mouches,  des  jacmares,  et  des 
promerops  (1802);  L' Histoire  des 
grimpereaux  et  des  oiseaux  de 
paradis  (1803). 

Audenarde,  Belgiufn.  See 
Oudenarde. 

Audh.  See  Oudh. 
Audhumla,  oud-hdom'la,  in 
Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
cow  whose  milk  nourished  the 
giant  Ymir,  the  first  created 
being,  and  his  race. 

Audiffret-Pasquier,  6-de-fra'- 
pas-kya',  Edme  Armand  Gaston, 
Due  d'  (1823-1905),"  French 
statesman,  was  born  in  Paris. 
At  first  an  adherent  of  the 
Orleanists,  he  subsequently  sup- 
ported the  moderate  Republi- 
cans. He  was  the  first  person 
elected  life  senator  by  the  Na- 
tional Assembly,  of  which  he  be- 
came president  in  1875,  and  was 
president  of  the  Senate  in 
1876-79.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  in  1879. 

Audiom'eter,  an  instrument, 
invented  by  Professor  D.  E. 
Hughes  in  1879,  to  accurately 
measure  the  sense  of  hearing.  It 
consists  of  an  adaptation  of  the 
telephone. 

Au'diphone,  a  device  for  im- 
proving the  hearing  of  persons 
partially  deaf.  It  consists  of  a 
thin  fan-shaped  sheet  of  ebonite 
or  other  suitable  material,  which 
is  pressed  against  the  upper 
front  teeth,  and  capable  of  being 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Auditor 


470 


Audubon 


varied  in  convexity.  Sound 
vibrations  are  conveyed  through 
the  bones  of  the  head. 

Auditor,  a  person  employed  to 
examine  and  report  upon  the 
financial  condition  of  a  private 
business  or  undertaking,  or  of  a 
corporation,  or  of  a  public  office 
or  department,  municipal,  state, 
or  federal.  When  appointed  by 
statute,  his  duties  are  thereby  de- 
fined, and  the  skill  and  caution 


of  a  professional  or  expert  ac- 
countant is  required  of  him; 
otherwise  he  is  subject  only  to  the 
terms  of  the  contract  under  which 
he  is  engaged.  He  is  obliged  to  go 
behind  the  figures  and  to  investi- 
gate and  report  upon  proper  re- 
ceipts and  expenditures,  make  a 
just  allowance  for  depreciation 
and  bad  debts,  and  otherwise 
determine  the  true  state  of  the 
account.  He  is  often  a  perma- 
nent official  of  industrial  cor- 
porations. There  are  six  auditors 
of  the  treasury  department  at 
Washington.  (1)  Civil  Service, 
Customs,  Judiciary,  Public  Debt, 
etc.  (2)  Indian  Affairs  and  a 
part  of  Army  Affairs.  (3)  Quar- 
termaster-General, Engineer 
Corps,  War  Claims,  etc. 
(4)  Navy.  (5)  Internal  Revenue, 
Census,  Patent  Office.  (6)  Post 
Office  department. 

Auditory  Nerve,  the  eighth 
cranial  nerve,  consists  of  two 
roots  (auditory,  vestibular)  with 
different  functions  and  distinct 
peripheral  and  central  connec- 
tions, and  should  be  regarded  as 
two  distinct  nerves.  The  audi- 
tory nerve  is  concerned  solely 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


with  hearing,  passes  from  the 
cochlea,  and  for  that  reason  is 
known  as  the  cochlear  nerve. 
It  leaves  the  trunk  of  the  eighth 
nerve  and  enters  the  pons  by  the 
posterior,  lateral  or  cochlear  root. 
See  also  Brain;  Ear. 

Audley,  ad'li,  Sir  James 
(?  13 16-69),  British  knight,  a 
'first  founder'  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter  (1344) ,  famous  as  a  brave 
companion  of  the  Black  Prince. 


His  chief  exploits  were  at 
Poitiers  (1356).  In  1362  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  Aquitaine 
by  the  Black  Prince. 

Audley,  Thomas  (1488-1544), 
lord  chancellor  of  England,  was 
born  in  Essex.  He  studied  law; 
was  returned  to  Parliament  in 
1523  and  in  1527  became  a 
member  of  Wolsey's  household. 
In  1529  he  succeeded  Sir  Thomas 
More  as  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  and  in  1533  was 
elevated  to  the  lord  chancellor- 
ship through  his  subserviency  to 
Henry  viii.  He  presided  at  the 
trials  of  More  and  Fisher  and  his 
conduct  at  both  has  been  uni- 
versally condemned. 

Audouln,  o-doo-an',  Jean  Vic- 
tor (1797-1841),  French  natu- 
ralist, was  born  in  Paris  and  in 
1833  was  appointed  professor  of 
entomology  at  the  Paris  Museum 
of  Natural  History.  He  inves- 
tigated certain  plant  diseases 
affecting  French  industries,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  silkworm  and 
vine.  He  wrote,  in  conjunction 
with  Milne-Edwards,  Hisloire 
des  insecles  nuisibles  d  la  vigne 
(1842),  and  contributed  the  sec- 


tion on  insects  to  Cuvier's 
Regne  animal  (1817). 

Audran,  o-dran',  Edmond 
(1842-1901),  French  musical 
composer,  was  born  in  Lyons. 
He  was  originally  intended  for 
the  church,  but  finding  himself 
unfitted  for  that  vocation  he 
turned  to  music,  and  became 
choirmaster  at  Marseilles.  His 
Grand  mogul,  an  operetta  (1864), 
first  brought  him  prominently 
into  notice.  It  was  followed  by 
Olivette,  La  mascotle.  La  Cigale 
and  La  poupee,  all  of  them  grace- 
ful, sparkling,  and  melodious 
light  operas. 

Audran,  a  family  of  French  ar- 
tists who  flourished  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  seventeenth  and  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
turies. The  best  known  are: 
Gerard  (c.  1640-1703),  an  en- 
graver who  developed  a  system 
that  reproduced  the  breadth  and 
tone  of  the  original  picture.  His 
best  known  works  are  Les 
batailles  d' Alexandre,  after  Le- 
brun.  Jean  (1667-1756),  whose 
masterpiece  is  L' enlevement  des 
Sabines,  after  Poussin,  and  other 
works  after  Rubens,  Veronese, 
and  Lebrun.  Claude  ii.  (1644- 
84),  painter,  pupil  of  Lebrun, 
whom  he  imitated.  He  dec- 
orated with  frescoes  the  gallery  of 
the  Tuileries  and  the  grand  stair- 
case at  Versailles.  Claude  hi. 
(1658-1734),  known  as  a  painter 
of  the  extreme  grotesque  and 
ornamental. 

Audsley,  George  Ashdown 
(1838-1925),  architect  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Elgin,  Scot- 
land. He  went  to  the  United 
States  in  1892  and  settled  in  New 
York  City  where  he  practised  as 
an  architect.  His  work  in  archi- 
tecture includes  the  Bowling 
Green  office  building  and  other 
similar  structures.  His  writings 
include  a  Handbook  of  Christian 
Symbolism  (1865).  The  Art  of 
Chromolithography,  and  a  number 
of  beautiful  volumes  on  JapancvSe 
art,  including  The  Ornamental 
Arts  of  Japan  (1882-6)  and  (with 
J.  L.  Bowes)  Ceramic  Art  of 
Japan  (1875-80);  The  Art  of 
Organ-Building  (1903). 

Audubon,  o'ddb-bun,  John 
James  (1780-1851),  American 
ornithologist,  was  born  in  Mande- 
ville,  near  New  Orleans,  La. 
His  father  was  a  wealthy  plan- 
tation owner,  who  had  been  a 
commander  in  the  French  navy, 
and  his  mother  was  a  Spanish 
Creole.  His  father  early  recog- 
nized his  on's  talent  as  a 
draughtsman,  and  sent  him  to 
study  under  the  artist  David, 
in  Paris.  On  his  return  (1798) 
young  Audubon  went  to  the  Mill 
Grove  farm,  near  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  where  he  had  unlimited 
facilities  for  collecting  natural 
history  specimens,  making  his 
drawings,  and  setting  down 
his    notes    of    the  appearance 


Audubon's  Peak 

and  habits  of  wild  creatures.  He 
there  met  Miss  Lucy  Bakewell, 
whom  he  was  to  marry  (1808), 
and  who  accompanied  him  in  his 
wanderings  through  the  Middle 
West,  in  several  towns  of  which 
he  tried  unsuccessfully  to  estab- 
lish businesses.  Through  all  this 
period  (1808-26)  he  continued 
work  on  his  drawings  of  birds, 
and  in  1826  went  to  England  to 
arrange  for  the  publication  of  the 
great  volume  of  The  Birds  of 
America  (1830-9).  This  work 
was  characterized  by  Cuvier  as 
'the  most  magnificent  monu- 
ment that  art  has  yet  raised  to 
ornithology.'  At  the  same  time 
Audubon  put  through  the  press 
the  volumes  of  descriptive  text. 
Ornithological  Biography  (1831- 
9).  A  great  part  of  the  Quadru- 
peds of  America  (1846-54)  was 
completed  by  his  sons.  He  re- 
turned to  America  in  1840,  and 
thereafter  resided  at  his  home  on 
the  Hudson  River.  Consult  Life 
by  Buchanan  from  materials  sup- 
plied by  his  widow;  Coues'  Aud- 
ubon and  his  Journals  and  the 
appendix  to  Coues'  Birds  of  the 
Colorado  Valley;  Herrick's  Audu- 
bon, the  Naturalist  (1917). 

Audubon's  Peak,  one  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  situated  in 
Colorado,  lat.  40°  5'  n.,  long. 
105°  37'  w.    Height,  13,173  ft. 

Aue,  ou'^,  town,  Saxony,  dis- 
trict of  Zwickau,  on  the  Mulde, 
12  miles  southeast  of  Zwickau. 
Machinery,  lace,  furniture,  and 
linens  are  manufactured,  and 
there  is  an  industrial  school. 
Pop.  (1910)  19,360. 

Aue,  Hartmann  von.  See 
Hartman  von  Aue. 

Auenbrugger  von  Auen- 
brugg,  ou'en-brobg-er,  Leopold 
(1722-1809),  Austrian  physician, 
was  born  in  Gratz,  studied  in 
Vienna,  and  practised  in  the 
Spanish  hospital  there  (1751-68). 
He  introduced  the  method  of 
diagnosing  chest  and  abdominal 
diseases  by  percussion  and  de- 
scribed this  in  his  Inventum  no- 
vum ex  Percussione  Thoracis  hu- 
mani  interni  Pectoris  Morbos  dete- 
gendi  (1761). 

Auer,  ou'er,  Aloys  (1813-69), 
Austrian  printer,  was  born  in 
Wels,  Upper  Austria.  He  was 
trained  as  a  compositor,  but 
managed  to  study  French,  Ital- 
ian, English  and  other  languages 
with  the  result  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Italian  in 
Linz  (Upper  Austria).  He  trav- 
elled widely,  collecting  material 
on  printing,  and  from  1841  to 
1868  was  director  of  the  Imperial 
Printing  Office  in  Vienna.  He 
made  many  typographical  in- 
ventions and  made  known  the 
discovery  of  'spontaneous  im- 
pression' in  Die  Enldeckung  des 
Naturselbstdrucks  (1854).  He  also 
published  the  Lord's  Prayer  in 
over  six  hundred  languages. 

Auer,  Leopold  (1845-  ), 
Hungarian  violinist,  was  born  at 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '23 


Veszprimf  anciystuaied  music  at 
Vienna  and  later  with  Joachim 
at  Hanover.  After  conducting 
in  Dusseldorf  (1863)  and  Ham- 
burg (1866),  he  was  engaged  in 
1868  as  soloist  for  the  imperial 
orchestra  at  St.  Petersburg,  and 
was  appointed  professor  at  the 
conservatory  of  music.  From 
1887  to  1892  he  was  conductor  of 
the  symphony  concerts  given  by 
the  Imperial  Russian  Musical 
Society.  After  the  revolution  in 
March,  1917,  he  emigrated  to 
Scandinavia  and  in  1918  made 
New  York  his  residence.  His 
best  known  pupils  are  Elman, 
Zimbalist,  Heifetz  and  Seidel. 

Auerbach,  ou'^r-bak,  Ber- 
THOLD  (1812-82),  German  au- 
thor, was  born  of  Jewish  parent- 
age in  Nordstetten.  He  had 
been  destined  for  the  synagogue 
but  turned  to  philosophy,  study- 
ing closely  and  translating  the 
works  of  Spinoza,  whom  he  made 
the  hero  of  his  novel  Spinoza 
(1837).  He  is  chiefly  known  as 
the  founder  of  the  contemporary 
German  'tendency  novel'  and  as 
the  author  of  various  novels  of 
peasant  life  in  the  Black  Forest. 
Many  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English;  the  best 
known  are  Das  Judentum  und 
die  neueste  Litteratur  (1836); 
Schwarzwdlder  Dorf geschichten 
(1843);  Village  Tales  (1846); 
Barfiissele  (1856);  Joseph  in 
Schnee  (1861);  Edelweiss  (1861); 
Auf  der  Hoke  (1865);  Nach  dreis- 
sig  Jahren  (1876);  Der  Forst- 
meister  (1879);  Brigitta  (1880). 

Auerbach's  Keller,  a  wine  cel- 
lar and  restaurant  in  Leipzig  (No. 
1  Grimmaische  Strasse),  associ- 
ated with  the  early  life  of  the 
poet  Goethe,  who  used  it  as  one 
of  the  scenes  of  his  drama  Faust. 

Auersperg,  ou'ers-per ch,  An- 
ton Alexander,  Count  von 
(1806-76),  German  poet,  known 
under  the  pen  name  Anastasius 
GrDn,  was  born  in  Laibach.  As 
a  politician  he  played  an  active 
part  in  the  provincial  govern- 
ment of  Styria  and  Carniola 
(1861-7),  in  the  constitutional 
assemblies  of  1848,  and  in  the 
Austrian  House  of  Peers,  of  which 
he  became  a  life  member  in  1861. 
He  was  noted  for  his  liberal  and 
pro-German  tendencies.  His  po- 
etical works  include  political 
satires,  in  behalf  of  liberty  and 
light  humorous  verse. 

Auerstiidt,  au'er-stat,  village. 
Saxony,  32  miles  southwest  of 
Halle.  Here,  on  Oct.  14,  1806, 
the  day  of  the  battle  of  Jena,  the 
French  under  Davoilt  defeated 
the  Prussians  with  great  slaugh- 
ter.   Pop.  600. 

Aufrecht,  oui'recht,  Theodor 
(1822-1907),  German  Sanskrit 
scholar,  was  born  in  Leschnitz,  in 
Upper  Silesia.  He  studied  un- 
der Bopp,  Bockh,  and  Lachmann 
at  Berlin,  and  in  1852  went  to 
Oxford,  where  he  compiled  a 
catalogue  of  the  Sanskrit  mss. 


Augier 

(1859-64)  in  the  Bodleian  Li- 
brary, and  assisted  Max  Miiller 
with  his  edition  of  the  Rigveda 
(1877).  He  was  professor  of 
Sanskrit  at  Edinburgh  (1862- 
75)  and  at  Bonn  (1875-89),  and 
published,  in  collaboration  with 
Kirchoff,  Die  umbrischen  Sprach- 
denkmdler  (1849-51),  dealing 
with  the  comparative  philology 
of  the  old  Italian  tongues,  and 
Catalogus  Catalogorum:  an  Al- 
phabetical Register  of  Sanskrit 
Works  and  Authors  (1891-1903). 
He  founded  the  Zeitschrift  der 
ver gleichenden  Sprachforschung. 

Auge.    See  Telephus. 

Augean  Stables.  See  Her- 
cules. 

Augereau,  ozh-ro',  Pierre 
Francois  Charles,  Duke  of 
Castiglione(  1757-18 16),  French 
soldier,  was  born  in  Paris.  He 
gained  distinction  in  Napoleon's 
campaigns  in  Northern  Italy,  es- 
pecially at  Lodi  (1796),  Castig- 
lione,  and  Carmignano,  and 
shared  the  honor  of  Areola 
(1796);  was  made  a  marshal  in 
1804,  and  served  in  the  battles  of 
Jena  (1806),  Eylau  (1807),  and 
Leipzig  (1813).  On  the  return 
of  Louis  xviii.  he  made  his  sub- 
mission and  retained  his  rank, 
but  refused  to  act  as  a  member 
of  the  military  tribunal  on  Mar- 
shal Ney.  During  the  'hun- 
dred days'  he  endeavored  to 
conciliate  and  rejoin  Napoleon, 
but  succeeded  only  in  incurring 
the  displeasure  of  the  Bourbons. 

Au'gershell,  an  elongated, 
closel^'^  coiled,  carnivorous  gas- 
tropod mollusc,  of  the  family 
Terebridae,  inhabiting  the  tropi- 
cal seas  and  the  Southern  Pacific. 
Over  200  varieties  are  known. 

Aughrim,  6 'grim  (anc.  Each- 
raim),  village  and  parish,  county 
Galway,  Ireland.  It  is  famous 
as  the  scene  of  the  decisive  battle 
(fought  July  12,  1691,  after  the 
capture  of  Athlone)  between  the 
troops  of  William  iii.,  under  the 
command  of  Ginkel,  and  those 
of  James  ii.,  led  by  St.  Ruth. 

Augier,  o-zhi-a',  Guillaume 
Victor  Emile  (1820-89),  French 
dramatist,  was  born  in  Valence. 
Although  educated  as  a  barris- 
ter, he  early  turned  his  attention 
to  literary  work,  and  in  1844 
produced  La  cigue,  a  play  in 
verse,  which  pleads  the  cause  of 
the  courtesan  redeemed  by  love. 
This  was  followed  by  Un  homme 
de  bien  (1845),  L'aventuriere 
(1848),  and  Gabrielle  (1849).  His 
works  do  not  show  great  tech- 
nical skill  but  his  characters  and 
settings  indicate  real  human 
sympathy  and  understanding. 
His  plays,  while  lacking  passion 
and  imagination,  are  straightfor- 
ward in  action  and  never  unduly 
theatrical.  Other  works  than 
those  already  mentioned  are  Le 
joueur  de  flute  (1850);  Diane 
(1852) ;  La  pierre  de  louche  (1853) ; 
Philiberte  (1853);  Le  mariage 
d'Olympe  (1855) ;  Le  gendre  de  M. 


Augite 


472 


Augusta 


Poirier  (written  in  collaboration 
with  Sandeau,  1855);  Ceinture 
doree  (1855);  La  jeiinesse  (1858); 
Les  lionnes  paimres  (with  Edou- 
ard  Foussier,  1858);  Un  beau 
mariage  (1859);  Les  efrontes 
(1861);  Le  fils  de  Giboyer  (1862); 
Le  maUre  Guerin  (1864);  La  con- 
tagion (1866);  Paul  Forestier 
(1868);  Lions  et  renards  (1869); 
Jean  de  Thommeray  (1873);  Mad- 
ame Caverlet  (1876);  Les  Four- 
chambauU  (1878).  His  collected 
dramatic  works  appeared  in  1890. 

Aug'ite,  a  common  variety  of 
pyroxene  (q.v.),  rich  in  iron  and 
aluminum,  and  specially  impor- 
tant as  a  rock-forming  mineral. 
It  is  most  abundant  in  the  cry- 
stalline igneous  rocks,  and  is 
often  an  essential  ingredient  in 
basalt,  andesite,  and  picrite. 
Augite  is  usually  black,  occurring 
in  small  crystals  of  the  mono- 
clinic  system,  as  well  as  in  irreg- 
ular grains.  It  may  be  distin- 
guished from  hornblende  (q.v.), 
the  corresponding  variety  of 
amphibole,  by  the  shorter,  stouter 
crystals  and  less  perfect  cleavage. 
The  cleavage  angle  is  approxi- 
mately 87°.  The  hardness  is  SK. 
and  sp.  gr.  3.3.  Augite  decom- 
poses into  chlorite,  uralite,  and 
serpentine  (qq.v.). 

Augmentation,  in  music,  is 
the  reproduction  or  imitation  of 
a  theme  or  subject  by  doubling 
the  time  value  of  the  notes  in 
which  it  was  first  introduced. 

Augmentation,  Honorable, 
in  heraldry  an  addition  to  a  coat- 
of-arms  granted  by  the  sovereign 
for  distinguished  service. 

Augsburg,  ouks'bobrch,  city, 
Bavaria,  situated  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Wertach  and  the 
Lech;  about  40  miles  northwest 
of  Munich.  Some  of  the  gates  of 
the  mediaeval  fortifications  are 
still  extant,  the  buildings  are 
many  of  them  elaborate  Renais- 
sance structures,  and  there  are 
several  celebrated  fountains. 
Noteworthy  structures  are  the 
Rathaus,  erected  in  1615-20, 
containing  the  Golden  Hall,  one 
of  the  most  magnificent  halls  in 
Germany;  the  Cathedral,  begun 
in  995  and  altered  in  the  four- 
teenth century;  the  Maximilian 
Museum,  iiistalled  in  the  so- 
called  Fugger  Bath  Rooms,  con- 
taining the  art  treasures  of  the 
Fugger-Babenhausen  family;  the 
Arsenal;  the  Royal  Picture  Gal- 
lery; and  the  churches  of  St. 
Anna,  founded  in  1321,  and  St. 
Ulrich,  erected  in  1467-99.  In 
the  western  part  of  the  city  are 
several  handsome  modern  build- 
ings, including  the  Municipal 
Archives,  the  Law  Courts,  and 
the  Municipal  Library.  Augs- 
burg has  good  water  power  and 
its  industries  include  cotton 
spinning  and  weaving  mills,  pa- 
per factories,  dye-works,  and 
machine  works.  Augsburg  was 
founded  by  the  Romans  about  15 
B.C.    Pop.  (1919)  154,555. 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  "23 


Augsburg  Confession,  the  chief 
statement  of  faith  of  the  Luth- 
eran church.  In  1530  Emperor 
C'harles  v.  of  Germany,  desirous 
of  effecting  an  amicable  vsettle- 
ment  of  the  religious  differences 
between  Protestants  and  Catho- 
lics, summoned  the  German  Diet 
to  meet  in  Augsburg  (April  8, 
1530)  and  requested  from  the 
Protestants  a  statement  of  the 
doctrines  in  which  they  differed 
from  the  Catholic  faith.  Such  a 
statement,  known  as  the  Torgau 
Articles,  was  accordingly  drawn 
up  by  Luther,  Jonas,  Bugen- 
hagen,  and  Melanchthon,  and 
with  this  as  a  basis  Melanchtho.n, 
aided  by  suggestions  from  Luther 
and  others,  drew  up  the  Confes- 
sion of  Faith  which  was  pre- 
sented to  the  Diet  on  June  25. 

Augsburg  Interim.  See  In- 
terim. 

Au'gur  and  Auspex,  o'ger, 
os'peks,  names  given  to  the  Ro- 
man diviners,  meaning  primarily 
'diviners  by  birds'.  The  Roman 
augurs  formed  a  priestly  col- 
legium and  in  ancient  times  no 
public  transaction  took  place 
without  consulting  them.  The 
college  originally  consisted  of 
three  patricians,  of  whom  the 
king  was  one;  about  300  B.C.  the 
number  was  raised  to  nine,  four 
patricians  and  five  plebeians,  and 
finally,  under  Julius  Caesar,  it 
was  raised  to  sixteen,  all  of  whom 
held  office  for  life.  The  college 
continued  to  exist  until  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century  a.d. 

In  ancient  times  the  auspices 
were  taken  by  observation  of  the 
flight  of  birds,  generally  immedi- 
ately after  midnight  or  at  the 
dawn  of  day.  In  later  times 
other  kinds  of  auspices  were 
used — signs  in  the  sky,  such  as 
thunder  and  lightning;  the  be- 
haviour of  chickens  while  feed- 
ing; the  cries  and  motions  of  ani- 
mals; and  signs  given  by  unusual 
and  terrible  occurrences.  See 
Divination. 

August.    See  Year. 

August 'a,  name  of  several  an- 
cient cities  built  by  or  called  after 
Augustus  and  other  Roman  em- 
perors; Augusta  Allohrogum,  now 
Geneva;  Augusta  Ccesarea,  now 
Saragossa;  Augusta  or  Julia  Gadi- 
tana,  now  Cadiz;  Augusta  Tauri- 
norum,  now  Turin;  and  Augusta 
Vindelicorum,  now  Augsburg. 

Augusta  or  Agosta,  a  fortified 
seaport  in  the  province  of  Syra- 
cuse, Sicily,  is  situated  on  a  small 
island  close  to  the  southeastern 
coast;  19  miles  north  of  Syracuse. 
Vines  and  olives  are  grown,  there 
is  a  large  salt  industry,  and  fish- 
ing is  carried  on.  The  town  was 
founded  in  1232.    Pop.  16,000. 

Augusta,  city,  Georgia,  county 
scat  of  Richmond  county,  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  the  Sa- 
vannah River,  and  on  the  Cen- 
tral of  Georgia,  the  Charleston 
and  Western  Carolina,  the  Chat- 
tahoochee Valley,  Georgia  and 


Florida,  and  Southern  Railroads; 
170  miles  southeast  of  Atlanta. 
It  is  an  attractively  built  city, 
with  wide,  well-paved  streets, 
and  contains  several  parks.  Edu- 
cational and  philanthropic  in- 
stitutions include  the  Medical 
College  of  Georgia,  Paine's  Col- 
lege (for  colored  persons),  Rich- 
mond Academy,  a  public  library, 
orphan  asylum,  and  a  number  of 
hospitals,  including  the  Univer- 
sity Hospital  and  Wilhenford 
Hospital  for  Children.  Other 
features  of  interest  are  the  Ma- 
sonic Temple,  the  cotton  ex-  - 
change,  two  fine  public  monu- 
ments, and  the  U.  S.  Arsenal. 
The  Augusta  canal,  7  miles  long, 
owned  by  the  city,  diverts  the 
waters  of  the  Savannah  River 
for  the  use  of  the  manufacturing 
industries,  which  include  cotton, 
cotton-seed  oil,  lumber,  and  flour 
mills,  foundries,  machine  shops, 
and  manufactures  of  confection- 
ery and  ice  cream,  and  mineral 
and  carbonated  waters.  The 
total  number  of  manufacturing 
establishments  according  to  the 
Federal  Census  for  1919  is  93. 
with  5,156  wage  earners  and 
products  valued  at  $37,161,000. 
The  cotton  trade  is  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  South. 

Augusta  was  captured  bv  the 
British  in  1779  and  in  1780',  and 
recaptured  by  Gen.  Henry  Lee  in 
1781.  Pop.  (1900)  39,441;  (1910) 
41,040;  (1920)  52,548. 

Augusta,  city,  Kansas,  Butler 
county,  on  the  Atchison,  To- 
peka  and  Santa  Fe,  and  the  St. 
Louis-San  Francisco  Railroads; 
about  20  miles  east  of  Wichita. 
It  has  two  refineries,  and  oil  well 
tools,  boilers,  and  artificial  ice 
are  manufactured.  Pop.  (1910) 
1,235;  (1920)  4,217. 

Augusta,  city,  capital  of  Maine 
and  county  seat  of  Kennebec 
county,  is  situated  on  the  Kenne- 
bec River  and  the  Maine  Cen- 
tral Railroad;  60  miles  northeast 
of  Portland.  It  has  remarkably 
fine  civic  buildings,  and  is  the 
seat  of  a  U.  vS.  arsenal,  the  State 
asylum  for  the  insane,  Old  Fort 
Western  of  the  Revolutionary 
era,  the  State  library,  and  a  pub- 
lic library.  The  Blaine  Man- 
sion, formerly  the  home  of  James 
G.  Blaine,  is  also  located  here, 
and  is  now  the  property  of  the 
State,  used  as  its  Executive 
Mansion.  Manufacturing  indus- 
tries, fed  by  water-power  from  a 
dam  above  the  city,  include  pa- 
per, pulp,  lumber,  and  cotton 
mills,  and  in  recent  years  the  city 
has  shown  rapid  development  as 
a  shoe  centre.  Pop.  (1910)  13,- 
211;  (1920)  16,985. 

Augusta,  Marie  Luise 
Katharina  (1811-90),  German 
empress,  daughter  of  Charles 
Frederick,  Grand-Duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar.  On  June  11,  1829,  she 
married  William,  Crown-Prince 
of  Prussia,  afterward  the  Em- 
peror William  i. 


A.ugusfales 


473 


Augustine 


Augustales.  (1.)  Games  in 
honor  of  Augustus  held  at  Rome 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  empire. 
After  B.C.  11  the  senate  decreed 
their  celebration  annually  on  the 
birthday  of  Augustus.  (3.)  Two 
classes  of  priests,  one  at  Rome 
isodales  augustales)  and  the  other 
in  the  municipia,  instituted  by 
Tiberius  to  attend  the  worship 
of  Augustus  and  the  Julia  gens. 
They  numbered  twenty-one,  to- 
gether with  certain  members  of 
the  imperial  family,  and  were 
selected  from  the  principal  per- 
sons in  Rome.  In  the  municipia 
they  are  supposed  to  have  been 
wealthy  libertini.  They  formed 
a  collegium,  and  were  appointed 
by  the  deciiriones,  or  senate  of  the 
municipia.  The  six  chief  mem- 
bers were  called  seviri. 

Augustana  College  ani  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  A  Lutheran 
institution  at  Rock  Island,  111., 
established  in  1860  at  Chicago. 
Students  of  both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted except  in  the  divinity 
school.  In  1905  it  had  350  stu- 
dents, a  faculty  of  40,  and  a  li- 
brary of  40,500  volumes.  The 
productive  funds  amount  to  $57,- 
700,  with  an  income  of  $98,500 
from  all  sources. 

Augustan  Age,  a  term  applied 
to  the  period  of  the  Roman  em- 
peror Augustus  (31  B.C.  to  14 
A.D.).  The  great  names  of  the 
Augustan  age  were  Ovid,  Horace, 
Livy,  Virgil,  and  Catullus.  The 
expression  is  also  associated  with 
the  age  of  Queen  Anne  and  the 
early  Georges  in  English  litera- 
ture, and  with  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.  in  French  history. 

Augusta  Praetoria,  Italy.  See 

AOSTA. 

Augusta  Victoria  (1858),  Ger- 
man Empress  and  Queen  of  Prus- 
sia, daughter  of  Frederick,  Duke 
of  Schleswig-Holstein.  In  1881 
she  married  Prince  William  of 
Prussia,  now  William  n. 

Augustenburg,  seaside  resort 
on  the  Baltic,  in  the  Prussian 
prov.  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  at 
the  head  of  a  bay  of  Alsen  I., 
20  m.  N.E.  of  Flensburg.  Pop. 
,     (1900)  663. 

Augusti,  JoHANN  Christian 
WiLHELM  (1772-1841),  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at 
Eschenberga,  near  Gotha.  His 
chief  works  are  Lehrbuch  der 
christlichen  Dogm  engeschichte 
(^1805;  new  ed.  1835);  Denkwiir- 
digkeiten  aus  der  christlichen 
Archdologie  (12  vols.  1817-31); 
Handbiich  der  christlichen  Ar- 
chdologie (1836-7)  ;  Kritik  der 
neuen  Preussischen  Kirchena- 
gende  (1823). 

Augustine  (Aurelius  Augus- 
TiNus),  the  greatest  of  the  Latin 
fathers  of  the  Christian  church, 
was  born  on  Nov.  13,  354  a.d.,  at 
Tagaste,  a  small  Numidian  coun- 
try town.  Monica,  Augustine's 
mother,  was  a  woman  of  deep 


(Christian  piety.  At  the  age  of 
sixteen  he  was  enabled  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  University  of  Car- 
thage. During  his  residence  at 
Carthage  Augustine  lived  a  life 
of  gaiety  and  dissipation;  but  not, 
apparently,  to  the  neglect  of  his 
studies,  for  he  gained  the  first 
place  in  the  school  of  rhetoric-^ 
the  most  coveted  distinction  in 
those  days.  In  Carthage,  while  a 
youth  of  eighteen,  he  contracted 
an  alliance  with  a  young  woman, 
with  whom  he  lived  in  a  state  of 
unmarried  fidelity  for  fourteen 
years. 

When  in  his  twentieth  year 
Augustine  began,  as  he  says,  to 
desire  '  with  an  incredible  ardor 
the  immortality  of  .wisdom.'  The 
book  that  awakened  him  to  this 
serious  state  of  mind  was  Cicero's 
Hortensins.  Turning  to  the 
Scriptures  to  satisfy  his  new  hun- 
ger, he  was  disappointed,  for  they 
seemed  to  him  '  unworthy  of 
being  brought  into  comparison 
with  the  rnajesty  of  Cicero.'  In 
this  condition  of  mental  fermen- 
tation Augustine  fell  in  with  pro- 
fessors of  Manichaeism,  and  for 
more  than  nine  years  he  remained 
a  professed  Manichsean. 

With  a  '  mind  darkened  by  er- 
ror and  a  heart  led  astray  by 
passion,'  Augustine,  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  opened  a  school  for  in- 
struction in  grammar  and  rheto- 
ric in  his  native  town.  Though 
not  unsuccessful,  the  young  lec- 
turer ere  long  resolved  to  seek 
fame  in  Carthage.  There  pupils 
gathered  around  him  in  large 
numbers,  and  Augustine  further 
increased  his  fame  by  winning  a 
high  prize  in  a  public  rhetorical 
contest.  But,  owing  to  the  lack 
of  discipline  among  the  students, 
he  resolved  to  seek  his  fortune  in 
Rome.  His  mother  opposed  the 
idea;  but  finally  (383  a.d.)  he 
eluded  her  vigilance  and  escaped. 
'  I  lied  to  my  mother,  and  to  such 
a  mother.'  On  his  arrival  at  Rome 
the  fugitive  fell  into  a  dangerous 
illness,  but  recovered.  He  set 
about  opening  a  school,  and  num- 
bers came  to  listen  to  his  teach- 
ing. Unlike  the  students  at 
Carthage,  they  behaved  well;  but 
they  invariably  failed  to  pay  their 
fees.  As  a  consequence  Augus- 
tine applied  for  and  obtained  a 
post  as  teacher  of  rhetoric  in 
Milan,  where  he  drew  a  salary 
from  the  government. 

Before  leaving  Carthage  his 
enthusiasm  for  the  teaching  of 
the  Manichaeans  had  considerably 
abated.  In  Milan  various  influ- 
ences operated  on  him  which 
tended  to  lead  him  to  accept 
Christianity.  The  study  of  Plato 
completely  undermined  his  old 
faith,  and  the  preaching  of  Am- 
brose, bishop  of  Milan,  completed 
the  process.  It  was  about  this 
crisis  in  his  history  that  his 
mother  arrived  from  Africa.  As 


a  result  of  her  influence  and  that 
of  others,  and  of  the  study  of  the 
New  Testament,  Augustine  was 
convinced  of  the  truth  of  Chris- 
lianity.  The  moment  of  awaken- 
ing, so  graphically  described  at 
the  close  of  the  eighth  book  of  the 
Confessions,  was  the  result  of  a 
conversation  in  which  Pontitianus, 
a  fellow-countryman  of  his  own 
and  a  Christian,  told  him  how  the 
Life  of  Anthony  the  Hermit  had 
so  deeply  impressed  two  members 
of  the  imperial  service  as  to  in- 
duce them  Xo  retire  to  a  mon- 
astery. 

This  great  change  in  Augus- 
tine's life  took  place  in  August, 
386.  On  Easter  eve,  April,  387, 
he,  along  with  his  son  Adeo- 
datus  and  his  friend  Alypius, 
was  baptized  in  Milan  by  Am- 
brose. Tradition  associates  with 
this  memorable  occasion  the  com- 
position of  the  great  Christian 
hymn  the  Te  Deuin.  Shortly 
afterward  at  Ostia,  when  about 
to  return  to  Africa,  Augustine  ex-, 
perienced  a  great  sorrow  through 
the  death  of  his  saintly  mother; 
and  he  had  not  long  settled  in  his 
native  town,  Tagaste,  when  his  son 
also  was  taken  away.  In  391  the 
Christian  community  of  Hippo 
Regius,  a  town  close  to  the  bor- 
ders of  Algeria  and  Tunis,  com- 
pelled him  to  accept  ordination. 
Within  five  years,  Valerius,  the 
bishop,  secured  him  as  his  col- 
league; and  after  the  death  of 
the  former,  Augustine  remained 
in  possession  of  the  see  till  the 
end  of  his  life._  The  year  429  saw 
the  Vandals  in  Africa,  and  in 
430  they  besieged  Hippo.  Three 
months  later,  on  Aug.  28,  430,  the 
famous  divine  breathed  his  last. 

No  theologian  has  produced  a 
larger  and  deeper  impress  on  the 
mind  of  Christendom  than  the 
bishop  of  Hippo.  This  he  has 
achieved  not  only  by  his  writings, 
but  by  the  exhibition  of  Chris- 
tian fervor  and  devotion  which 
is  given  in  the  story  of  his  inner 
life.  _  As  a  philosopher  and  a 
moralist  he  anticipated  many  of 
the  problems  of  modern  times. 
As  a  stylist  he  is  often  prolix,  but 
sooner  or  later  he  strikes  off  a 
sentence  of  immortal  brilliance. 
Three  great  controversies  called 
forth  his  immense  mental  re- 
sources. As  against  the  Manichsc' 
ans,  he  maintained  the  doctrine 
that  evil  was  not  a  nature.  Every- 
thing that  God  made  was  good. 
Evil  was  a  defect  or  corruption 
of  nature,  brought  about  by  the 
exercise  of  the  human  will.  In 
opposition  to  the  Donatists,  who 
claimed  that  the  Catholics  had 
ceased  to  be  a  holy  church  by  ad- 
mitting those  who  had  been  un- 
faithful, Augustine  denied  that 
the  church  now  existing  was  in- 
tended to  be  coextensive  with  the 
final  and  glorious  church,  and  re- 
ferred his  opponents  to  the  par- 


Augustine 


474 


Augustus 


ables  of  the  *  Tares  *  and  the 
'  Drag-net.'  But  Augustinianism 
— the  doctrines  with  which  the 
name  of  Augustine  is  universally 
identified — was  developed  by  its 
author  in  controversy  with  Pela- 
gius,  a  British  monk,  and  others 
who  more  or  less  entirely  sup- 
ported his  views.  The  point  of 
conflict  was  the  relation  between 
truth  and  individuals — the  con- 
ditions and  process  of  salvation. 
Augustine  employed  all  his  ener- 
gies to  establish  the  position  that 
man  is  unable  of  himself  to  will 
anything  good.  There  is  no  power 
either  of  choosing  or  of  realizing 
the  good  in  man;  grace  must  do 
all.  Starting  from  this,  which  he 
regarded  as  a  fact  of  conscious- 
ness and  as  the  teaching  of  Scrip- 
ture, Augustine  built  up  that  elab- 
orate system  of  theology  which 
took  shape  in  later  days  as  Cal- 
vinism. 

Embracing  expositions  of 
Scripture,  letters,  philosophical 
and  strictly  theological  works, 
Augustine's  writings  are  volumi- 
nous. But  the  two  best-known 
compositions  are  undoubtedly  the 
De  Civitate  Dei,  or  '  City  of  God  ' 
(413-426)  and  the  Confessions 
(397).  The  former  appeared 
after  the  fall  of  Rome  (410),  and 
if  much  of  it  lacks  weight  because 
of  Augustine's  slight  acquaintance 
with  Greek  and  ignorance  of  He- 
brew, it  is  a  stupendous  attempt 
to  create  a  philosophy  of  history. 
In  the  midst  of  grave  political 
disasters  it  brought  before  men's 
minds  the  conception  of  that 
spiritual  city  of  God  which  had 
been  slowly  rising  in  the  past,  and 
which  was  destined  to  include  all 
the  kingdoms  of  the  earth.  The 
Confessions  is  the  history  of  Au- 
gustine's thoughts  and  emotions, 
his  sins  and  his  struggles,  his  de- 
feats and  delays,  and  ultimate 
triumph.  It  was  written,  as  he 
says,  '  to  praise  the  just  and  good 
God,  and  stimulate  the  heart  and 
mind  of  man  to  approach  unto 
Him.'  And,  with  Bunyan's  Pil- 
grim's Progress,  Pascal's  Pensees, 
and  a  Kempis's  De  Imitafione,  it 
has  fulfilled, _  and  still  fulfils,  its 
author's  design.  Many  English 
editions  of  these  two  Avorks  have 
appeared.  In  the  original,  the 
best  editions  of  Augustine's  writ- 
ings are  the  Benedictine  (8  vols, 
folio,  published  at  Paris,  1679- 
1700,  and  republished  in  22  vols., 
1836-40),  and  Migne's  (16  vols.). 
An  English  edition,  including 
most  of  the  important  works,  ex- 
cept the  Retractiones  (428),  was 
published  at  Edinburgh  (T.  and 
T._  Clark)  in  1872-80,  under  the 
editorship  of  Professor  Marcus 
Dods.  See  also  Nicene  and  Posf- 
Nicene  Fathers  (ed.  by  Schafif, 
1886-8,  8  vols.);  Milman's  Latin 
Christianity:  Mozley's  Augustin- 
ianism: Cunningham's  St.  Austin, 
etc.    (Hulsean   Lecture,  1885); 


Harnack's  Hist,  of  Dogma  (1898) 
and  Monasticism  and  Confessions 
of  Augustine  (1901);  Hatzfeld's 
St.  Augustine  (1898);  Rainy's 
Catholic  Church  (1902);  Schaff's 
Life  and  Labors  of  St.  Augustine 
(1854);  Baillie's  St.  Augustine 
(1859);  Maccabe's  St.  Augustine 
and  his  Age  (1902);  also  works 
in  German  by  Cloth  (1840),  Reu- 
ter  (1887),  Bindemann  (1844- 
69),  Dorner  (1873),  Ribbeck 
(1858),  Bqhringer  (1877-8),  and 
Von  Hertling,  and  in  French  by 
Poujoulat  (1886)  and  L'Abbe 
Flottes  (1861).  For  an  unfavor- 
able estimate,  see  Allen's  Con- 
tinuity of  Christian  Thought 
(1894). 

Augustine,  or  Austin,  St., 
first_  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
originally  a  monk  of  the  Benedic- 
tine convent  at  Rome,  was  sent 
by  Pope  Gregory  to  convert  Brit- 
ain to  Christianity.  Accompa- 
nied by  forty  monks,  Augustine 
landed  on  the  Isle  of  Thanet 
(596).  Through  the  intercession 
of  Bertha,  wife  of  Ethelbert,  king 
of  Kent,  he  was  permitted  to 
preach,  and  succeeded  in  making 
the  king  himself  a  convert  to  his 
cause.  He  was  consecrated  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and,  fol- 
lowing Gregory's  advice,  concili- 
ated native  feeling,  and  made  the 
change  of  religion  as  gradual  as 
possible.  Augustine  ranks  high 
for  his  monastic  zeal,  and  as  a 
capable  bishop  of  the  Roman 
Church.  He  died  c.  607,  and  was 
buried  at  Canterbury.  See  A.  J. 
Mason's  The  Mission  of  St.  Au- 
gustine to  England  (1897).  and 
books  by  E.  W.  Benson.  G.  F. 
Browne,  and  W.  E.  Collins  (all 
in  1897).  The  chief  source  is 
Bede's  Eccles.  Hist.  (ed.  Gidley, 
1870). 

Augustinians,  fraternities  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  who 
follow  the  rules  referred  to  St. 
Augustine;  but  the  origin  of  the 
order  is  in  dispute.  The  princi- 
pal congregations  are  the  Canons 
Regular,  the  Hermits,  the  Special 
Congregations  (of  which  Luther 
was  a  member),  and  the  Bare- 
footed Augustinians.  The  Can- 
ons Regular,  or  Austin  Canons, 
founded  at  Avignon  about  1061, 
made  their  first  appearance  in 
Britain  about  1100.  At  the  Re- 
formation they  owned  two  hun- 
dred houses,  the  chief  being  at 
Pontefract,  Scone,  and  Holyrood, 
and  from  their  habit  they  were 
sometimes  called  the  Black  Friars. 
The  Hermits,  or  Austin  Friars, 
were  under  a  rule  much  more  se- 
vere, and  were  one  of  the  four 
great  mendicant  orders  of  the 
church,  whence  the  name  '  Beg- 
ging Friars.'  The  Special  Con- 
gregations and  Barefooted  Augus- 
tinians were  even  more  rigorous 
in  their  discipline.  The  Augus- 
tinian  nuns  are  said  to  have 
founded  their  first  convent  at 


Hippo,  under  Perpetua,  the  sis- 
ter of  Augustine.  See  Speak- 
man's  Rule  of  St.  Augustine 
(1902);  Dugdale's  Monasticon, 
vi.  37;  and  Heimbucher,  Die 
Orden  und  Kongregationen  der 
Katholischen  Kirche  (2  vols. 
1896-7). 

Augustowo,  tn.,  Poland,  Rus- 
sia, gov.  Suwalki,  50  m.  N.w.  of 
Grodno,  on  river  Netta,  which  is 
connected  by  canal  with  the  Nie=- 
men,  was  founded  in  1557.  It  is 
noted  for  its  cattle  and  horse 
fairs.    Pop.  (1897)  12,700. 

Augustulus,  Romulus,  the  last 
Roman  em.peror  of  the  West,  was 
the  son  of  Orestes,  a  Pannonian, 
who,  ^yith  the  assistance  of  the 
barbarian  troops,  dethroned  Ju- 
lius Nepos,  and  placed  Augustulus 
(the  diminutive  was  added  in  de- 
rision of  his  youth  and  his  weak 
intellect)  as  a  puppet  upon  the 
throne  (476).  Dissatisfied  with 
their  reward,  the  barbarians,  un- 
der Odoacer,  overcame  and  slew 
Orestes.  Augustulus,  deprived 
of  his  sovereignty,  retired  to 
Naples. 

Augustus  (63  B.C.-14  A.D.),  the 
first  and  greatest — unless  Julius 
Caesar  is  reckoned — of  the  em- 
perors of  Rome,  was  the  son  of 
C.  Octavius,  by  Atia,  daughter 
of  JuUa,  the  sister  of  Julius 
Caesar,  who  adopted  him.  His 
name  before  adoption  was  C.  Oc- 
tavius; afterward  it  was  Gains 
Julius  Caesar  Octavianus.  the  title 
Augustus  ('  the  revered  ')  being 
added  by  the  senate  and  people 
in  27  B.C.  Augustus  was  studying 
at  Apollonia,  in  44  B.C.,  when  the 
news  of  the  murder  of  Caesar 
reached  him.  Proceeding  to 
Rome,  at  first  he  professed  ad- 
herence to  the  republican  party, 
and  fought  against  Antony  at 
Mutina,  along  with  the  consuls 
Hirtius  and  Pansa.  Antony  fled 
across  the  Alps,  and  both  the 
consuls  fell  in  the  battle.  Au- 
gustus, on  his  return  to  Rome, 
compelled  the  senate  to  support 
his  election  to  the  consulship. 
He  then  proceeded  against  An- 
tony, but  was  reconciled  to  him 
by  Lepidus;  and  the  three  formed 
the  second  triumvirate,  which  was 
to  last  for  five  years.  They  pro- 
scribed all  their  enemies,  massa- 
cring them  and  confiscating  their 
property,  to  the  number  of  over 
2,000  knights  and  300  senators, 
including  Cicero.  In  42  B.C. 
Augustus  and  Antony  defeated 
Brutus  and  Cassius  at  Philippi, 
thus  destroying  the  hopes  of  the 
republican  party.  Returning  to 
Italy  (b.c.  41).  Augustus  had_  to 
wage  war  with  L.  Antonius, 
brother,  and  Fulvia,  wife,  of  the 
triumvir.  The  capture  of  Peru- 
sia  decided  the  contest  favorably 
for  him.  Antony  now  threatened 
him,  but,  thanks  to  Fulvia's  death 
a  reconciliation  was  effected  be- 
tween them  at  Brundusium.  An- 


Augustus 


475 


Aumale 


tony  then  took  the  east,  Augustus 
the  west  of  the  empire,  and  Lep- 
idus  Africa.  In  36  b.c.  Augustus 
put  down  the  power  of  Sextus 
Pompeius,  son  of  Pompey  the 
Great,  who  had  for  years  held 
Sicily  with  a  powerful  fleet,  and 
deposed  Lepidus,  whom  he  al- 
lowed to  live  at  Rome  as  pontifex 
maximus  ('chief  priest').  Mean- 
while Antony's  repudiation  of 
Octavia,  his  wife,  Augustus's  sis- 
ter, led  to  the  decisive  struggle  for 
supreme  power,  which  was  ended 
by  Augustus's  victory  at  Actium 
(Sept.  31).  Next  year  he  went  to 
Egypt,  and  the  death  of  Antony 
and  Cleopatra  left  him  undisputed 
master  of  the  Roman  world.  In 
29  B.C.  he  returned  to  Rome,  and 
held  a  triple  triumph.  He  pro- 
posed, in  27,  to  lay  down  his  ex- 
traordinary powers;  but  the  sen- 
ate prevailed  on  him  to  accept 
them  for  ten  years  longer,  and 
this  plan  was  repeated  more  than 
once.  His  last  years  were  clouded 
by  the  defeat  of  Varus  in  Ger- 
many in  9  A.D. 

Though  Augustus  was  really  an 
absolute  monarch,  he  appeared  to 
preserve  the  republican  constitu- 
tion. In  the  Monumentum  An- 
cyranum — his  own  record  of  his 
achievements — he  claims  to  have 
held  extraordinary  power  only  by 
will  of  the  people  until  the  empire 
was  reduced  to  order,  and  then 
(in  27)  to  have  restored  the  old 
constitution.  And  this  claim  was 
justified  ;  for  though  he  held 
the  consulship  eleven  times,  his 
authority  really  depended  on 
wider  powers  conferred  on  him 
without  a  definite  office — the  im- 
perium  proconsnlare  ('  conimand 
of  a  proconsul'),  unlimited  in 
time  or  place,  which  made  him 
supreme  over  all  other  provincial 
governors;  and  the  tribunitia  po- 
testas  ('power  of  a  tribune'), 
which,  given  for  life,  enabled  him 
to  call  the  senate,  initiate  legisla- 
tion, and  control  politics  in  Rome. 
His  reform  of  provincial  gov- 
ernment was  his  best  title  to 
fame;  he  regulated  taxation,  re- 
stored justice,  and  gave  peace  and 
order  to  the  Roman  world.  Au- 
gustus did  not  aim  to  extend  the 
empire,  but  to  secure  it  within 
its  natural  boundaries — the  At- 
lantic on  the  west,  the  Sahara  on 
the  south,  the  Euphrates  on  the 
east,  the  Danube  and  Rhine  on 
the  north.  Rome  was  greatly  em- 
bellished under  his  rule  ;  he 
boasted  that  he  found  Rome  made 
of  brick,  and  left  it  built  of  mar- 
ble. Literature  was  much  en- 
couraged by  his  patronage :  Hor- 
ace, Virgil,  Livy,  and  other 
writers  of  the  *  Augustan  age,' 
were  assisted  by  the  emperor's 
advice  and  reward.  He  owed 
much  to  his  assistants,  Agrippa 
in  action,  Maecenas  in  counsel. 
The  dominant  note  of  his  char- 
acter is  a  studied  moderation. 


Ancient  authorities  :  Cicero's 
Letters  and  Philippics  ;  Tacitus's 
Amials,  bk.  i.;  Suetonius's  Augus- 
tus ;  Plutarch's  Antonius :  Dion 
Cassius,  bks.  xlv.-lvi.;  Velleius 
Paterculus,  bk.  ii.  See  Beule's 
and  Gardthausen's  Life  of  Au- 
gustus, Baring  -  Gould's  Tragedy 
of  the  C(csars,  and  Shuckburgh's 
Life  of  Augustus. 

Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony 
(1526-86),  born  at  Freiburg,  was 
brought  up  at  Prague  a  Calvinist, 
in  intimate  friendship  with  Maxi- 
milian, afterward  emperor  of 
Germany.  Having  married  the 
Lutheran  Anna  of  Denmark 
(1548),  he  became  a  staunch  Lu- 
theran, and  on  succeeding  his 
brother  Maurice  (1553)  he  per- 
secuted the  Calvinists.  He  was 
mainly  instrumental  in  negotiat- 
ing the  peace  of  Augsburg  (1555), 
and  showed  great  and  enduring 
activity  as  an  organizer  of  the 
legal  institutions  of  his  country. 

Augustus  II.,  Frederick,  the 
Strong,  elector  of  Saxony  and 
king  of  Poland  (1670-1733),  sec- 
ond son  of  John  George  iii.  of 
Saxony,  was  born  at  Dresden,  and 
succeeded  his  brother,  John 
George  iv.,  as  elector  in  1694. 
He  was  elected  king  of  Poland 
in  1697,  becoming  a  convert  to 
Roman  Catholicism  in  order  to 
obtain  election.  Joining  Peter  the 
Great  and  Denmark  against 
Charles  xii.  of  Sweden,  he  in- 
vaded Livonia  (1699),  but  suf- 
fered defeat  at  Riga  (1701)  and 
Klissow  (1702).  He  was  deposed 
by  Charles  xii.  from  the  Polish 
throne  in  favor  of  Stanislaus 
Leszcynski,  but  after  the  defeat 
of  Charles  at  Pultowa  (1709)  was 
reinstated,  and  renewed  the  war 
(1710-19)  with  Sweden.  He  had 
various  mistresses,  among  them 
Aurora  von  Konigsmarck;  and 
among  his  many  illegitimate  chil- 
dren was  Marshal  Saxe. 

Augustus  III.,  Frederick, 
elector  of  Saxony  (1696-1763), 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Dresden.  Succeeding  his  father 
(1733),  he  was  chosen  king  of 
Poland  (1734)  by  a  party  of  the 
Diet,  prevailing  over  Stanislaus. 
He  was  embroiled  in  the  three 
Silesian  wars — siding  in  the  first 
with  Prussia;  in_  the  second  and 
third,  through  jealousy  of  the 
power  of  Prussia,  with  Austria. 
In  the  second  (1745)  Dresden 
was  occupied  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  through  the  defeat  of  Au- 
gustus and  his  ally  Maria  There- 
sa ;  in  the  third  (the  Seven 
Years'  War,  1756-63)  he  escaped 
to  Poland,  returning  after  the 
peace  of  Hubertsburg  in_  1763. 
He  was  a  patron  of  music  and 
painting. 

Auks,  or  Alcid^,  a  family  of 
marine  birds  with  heavy  bodies, 
large  heads,  and  compact  plu- 
mage. The  wings  are  always 
short,  and  the  great  auk,  or  gare- 


fowl,  now  extinct,  was  flightless. 
From  the  position  of  the  feet,  the 
gait  on  land  is  clumsy;  but  the 
auks  are  expert  at  swimming  and 
diving,  rarely  leaving  the  sea  ex- 
cept for  breeding  purposes,  when 
they  resort  to  the  ledges  of  sea- 
fronting  cliffs  on  remote  northern 
coasts  and  islands,  and  each  pair 
lays  a  single  conical,  blotched 
egg,  making  no  nest.  They  feed 
wholly  upon  fish.  See  Newton. 
Dictionary  of  Birds  (1896).  See 
Garefowl. 

Aulapolai.  See  Alleppi. 

Aula  Regia,  or  Regis,  a  court 
instituted  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, formed  of  the  great  offi- 
cers of  state,  and  afterward 
regulated  by  Magna  Charta. 

'Auld  Lichts.'  See  Presby- 
terian Church. 

Aulic  Council.  The  Em- 
peror Maximilian,  in  1501,  set 
up  in  Vienna  the  Aulic  Coun- 
cil. Though  at  first  it  dealt 
only  with  Austrian  business, 
the  Aulic  Council  gradually 
encroached  upon  the  Imperial 
Chamber  and  usurped  many  of 
its  functions.  With  the  disso- 
lution of  the  empire  in  1806,  the 
term  Aulic  Council  was  applied 
to  the  emperor  of  Austria's  coun- 
cil of  state. 

Aulie-Ata  ('Holy  Father'),  tn. 
on  r.  bk.  of  the  Syr  Daria,  Rus- 
sian Turkestan;  pop.  (1897)  12,- 
006,  mostly  Kirghiz.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Russians,  July  3, 
1864. 

Aulis,  seapt.  in  Boeotia,  Greece, 
on  the  Euripus.  It  was  the  scene 
of  the  detention  of  the  Greek 
fleet,  Trojan  War,  and  of  a  part 
of  the  famous  story  of  Iphigenia, 
the  subject  of  two  plays  by  Eurip- 
ides. 

Aullagas,  Lake.  SeeTm- 

CACA. 

Aulnoy.   See  D'Aulnoy. 

Aumale.  (1.)  The  anc.  Alhe- 
marle,  tn.  of  France,  dep.  of 
Seine-Inferieure,  on  the  Bresle, 
37  m.  n.e.  of  Rouen.  It  produces 
cloth,  leather,  and  steel,  and  has 
a  mineral  spring.  Pop.  (1901) 
2,383.  (2.)  The  anc.  ^w^rm, 
military  post,  Algeria,  80  m.  s.e. 
of  Algiers;  has  many  Roman  re- 
mains.   Pop.  (1901)  5,203. 

Aumale,  Count  and  Duke  of. 
The  former  title  was  granted  by 
William  the  Conqueror  to  Eudes, 
son  of  Henri  Etienne,  count  of 
Troyes  and  Meaux,  in  the  11th 
century.  The  male  line  of  this 
family  terminated  with  the  third 
generation,  when  the  title  passed 
by  marriage  to  the  family  of  Cas- 
tille.  Confiscated  by  Philippe  Au- 
guste  (1194),  it  was  granted  in 
the  13th  century  to  Simon  _de 
Dammartin,  count  of  Ponthieu, 
and  passed  by  marriage  to  the 
house  of  Lorraine  (1417).  The 
countship  was  made  into  a  duchy 
(1547)  by  Henry  ii.  in  favor  of 
FranQois  de  Lorraine,  who  ceded 


Aumale 


476 


Aurellus' 


it  to  his  brother,  Claude  de  Lor- 
raine. In  1618  it  passed  to  the 
house  of  Savoy  by  the  marriage 
of  Anne  de  Lorraine  with  Henry 
of  Savoy,  and  in  1675  was  bought 
by  Louis  xiv.  and  given  to  Louis 
Auguste  de  Bourbon.  In  1679  it 
passed  by  marriage  to  the  house 
of  Orleans,  the  fourth  son  of 
Louis  Philippe  bearing  the  title. 

Aumale.  (1.)  Charles  de 
Lorraine.  Due  d'Aumale  (1554- 
1631),  the  last  of  the  old  dukes, 
was  a  prominent  rnember  of  the 
Holy  League,  instituted  by  the 
Duke  of  Guise  (1576).  Defeated 
at  Senlis  by  the  Due  de  Longue- 
ville,  and  at  Arques  (1589)  and 
Ivry  (1590)  by  Henry  iv.,  he  fled 
to  Spain,  was  condemned  to  death 
in  absence,  and  lived  abroad  till 
his  death  at  Brussels.  (3.) 
Henri  Eugene  Philippe  Louis 
d'Orleans,  Due  d'  (1822-97), 
fourth  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  was 
born  in  Paris.  He  served  in  the 
army  of  Algeria  (1840-7),  of 
which  province  he  became  gover- 
nor-general in  1847.  After  a  year 
in  office  he  retired,  as  the  result 
of  the  Revolution  of  1848,  and 
lived  in  England.  He  devoted 
himself  to  literature,  mainly  mili- 
tary and  historical,  his  chief 
works  being  Les  institutions  mili- 
taires  de  la  France  (1867)  and 
the  Histoire  des  Princes  de  Conde 
(1869).  In  1871  he  returned  to 
France,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  Assembly  and  of  the  Academy 
(1871).  Expelled  in  1886,  he 
was  permitted  to  return  in  1889, 
having  in  1886  handed  over  his 
chateau  at  Chantilly  to  the  Insti- 
tut  de  France.  See  E.  Daudet's 
Le  Due  d'Aumale  (1898). 

Aune,  an  old  European  cloth 
measure  corresponding  to  the 
English  ell,  varying  between  27 
and  54  in.  It  survives  in  Switzer- 
land, where  the  aune  is  47i  in. 

Aungerville,  RieHARD  (1281- 
1345),  called  also  RieHARD  de 
Bury,  from  his  birthplace,  Bury 
St.  Edmunds;  tutor  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  afterward  Edward  iii.; 
becamebishop  of  Durham  (1333). 
lord  high  chancellor  (1334),  and 
treasurer  (1337).  Having  acted  as 
ambassador  to  France,  Germany, 
Hainault,  and  to  the  Pope,  he 
gained  a  wide  knowledge  of 
European  literature,  and  corre- 
sponded with  Petrarch.  He  was 
an  ardent  book  collector,  and 
founded  a  library  in  connection 
with  Durham  College,  Oxford. 
Philobiblon  is  his  chief  work 
(1473);  ed.  by  E.  C.  Thomas, 
1902. 

Aura,  any  strange  sensation 
which  gives  warning  of  the  ap- 
proach of  an  epileptic  or  a  hys- 
terical fit.  It  often  resembles  a 
breath  of  cold  air  moving  up  the 
body  to  the  head;  whence  the  name. 

Aural  Diseases.    See  Ear. 

Auray,  tn.,  dep.  Morbihan, 
France,  3  m.  from  the  sea  (Bay  of 


Morbihan),  11  m.  w.  of  Vannes. 
It  produces  corn,  butter,  honey, 
cloth,  and  cattle.  '  Le  Pardon 
d' Auray '  gathers  yearly  thou- 
sands of  Bretons  round  the 
Chapel  of  St.  Anne.  In  1364  the 
Anglo-Breton  army  defeated  the 
French  under  Duguesclin,  who 
was  taken  prisoner.  Pop.  (1901) 
6,485. 

Aurelianu,  Petru,  Rumanian 
statesman,  born  in  1833;  entered 
public  life  (1876)  in  which  he  has 
taken  a  leading  part;  prime  min- 
ister (1896-7).  Is  also  a  notable 
economist.  Chief  work,  Tara 
Noastra  (1876  ;  new  ed.  1888). 
In  1868  he  founded  the  journal 
Economia  rurala  la  Romanii. 

Aurelianus,  emperor  of  Rome 
from  270  to  275  a.d.,  was  born 
of  humble  parents,  probably  at 
Sirmium,  in  Pannonia,  c.  212. 
Elected  by  the  army  to  suc- 
ceed Claudius  ii.,  he  defeated 
the  Goths  and  Vandals,  who  had 
crossed  the  Danube,  and  repelled 
a  German  invasion  of  Italy.  In 
the  east  he  overcame  (271)  Ze- 
nobia,  queen  of  Palmyra,  and 
brought  her  captive  tO'  Rorne. 
Next  he  recovered  Gaul,  Spain, 
and  Britain  from  the  usurper 
Tetricus.  He  fortified  Rome  with 
a  new  line  of  walls,  and,  abandon- 
ing Dacia,  made  the  Danube  the 
frontier  of  the  empire.  He  was 
murdered  by  his  officers  while 
preparing  an  expedition  against 
Persia. 

Aurelian  Wall,  the  wall  which 
the  Emperor  Aurelian  built  round 
Rome  in  271  a.d.,  though  it  was 
completed  by  Probus  in  280.  _  It 
had  a  circuit  of  over  12  m.,  in- 
closing 5,000  square  miles  of  ter- 
ritory, and  was  pierced  by 
fourteen  gates.  It  was  built  of 
concrete,  with  brick  facing,  and 
was  12  ft.  thick.  Its  height  varied 
according  to  the  contour  of  the 
ground,  but  in  some  places  it  was 
as  much  as  60  ft.  high,  and  was 
provided  at  regular  intervals  of 
45  ft.  with  massive  square  towers. 
A  great  part  of  it  still  exists  in  a 
more  or  less  perfect  state — e.g. 
near  the  Porta  Appia.  See  J.  H. 
Middleton's  Remains  of  Ancienl 
Rome  (1892);  Burn's  Rome  and 
the  Campagna  (1870);  Quaren- 
ghi's  Le  Mura  di  Roma  (1880). 

Aurelian  Way  {Aurelia  Via), 
one  of  the  principal  ancient  mili- 
tary roads  of  Italy,  which,  start- 
ing from  Rome  near  the  janicu- 
lan  gate,  ran  northwards  along 
the  west  coast,  passing  through 
Centumcellae  (Civita  Vecchia), 
Pisa,  Genoa,  to  Antipolis  (An- 
tibes)  in  Gallia.  The  part  north 
of  Pisa  was  constructed  by  Au- 
gustus. 

Aurelius,  Marcus  (121-180 
A.D.),  Roman  emperor,  whose 
birth-name  was  M.  Annius  Verus, 
was  born  at  Rome.  His  father's 
sister,  Faustina,  married  T.  An- 
toninus Pius,  the  successor  of 


Hadrian,  in  the  empire;  and  it 
was  to  Antoninus,  '  that  true 
unconscious  humanist,'  that  he 
owed  his  highest  example  in 
rectitude  and  the  duties  of 
sovereignty.  But  the  bent  of 
his  mind  towards  Stoic  prin- 
ciples seems  to  have  been  fos- 
tered most  by  Junius  Rusticus, 
to  whom  he  owed  his  reading 
of  Epictetus.  In  138  he  was 
adopted  by  his  uncle,  the  Em- 
peror Antoninus,  taking  on  him- 
self the  new  name  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus.  With  his 
deepening  conversion  to  philos- 
ophy came  also  a  growing  Stoic' 
abnegation  of  the  pleasures  of 
literature,  although  his  connection 
with  men  of  letters  never  entirely 
ceased.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  the  year  161.  The  influence  of 
the  emperor's  philosophy  became 
apparent  in  the  broader  and  more 
beneficent  interpretation  of  Ro- 
man law :  the  rights  of  slaves 
were  extended  even  to  a  share  in 
an  intestate  master's  property; 
the  '  tutelary  praetor  '  was  created 
to  safeguard  orphans;  and  hu- 
manitarian foresight  touched  even 
the  circus  and  the  gladiatorial 
shows.  In  166  the  frontiers  of 
Italy  were  menaced  by  northern 
barbarians.  Aurelius  first  took 
the  field  in  person  in  167,  and  the 
uncongenial  business  of  war  oc- 
cupied him  almost  continuously 
until  the  year  175.  In  173  the 
Marcomanni  were  overwhelmed 
in  their  passage  of  the  Danube. 
In  the  previous  year  Aurelius  had 
won  the  title  of  *  Germanicus '; 
in  the  succeeding  one  he  added  to 
it  that  of  *  Sarmaticus.'  Avidius 
Cassius,  an  able  commander  in 
the  East,  declared  himself  im- 
perator  in  175,  but  was  murdered 
before  the  arrival  of  Aurelius. 
In  Dec,  176,  the  emperor  re- 
turned to  Rome,  where  he  was 
accorded  a  triumph.  But  the  Mar- 
comannic  troubles  breaking  out 
afresh,  he  left  again  for  the  field 
in  Aug.,  178.  The  campaign  was 
successful  ;  but  Aurelius  died, 
either  at  Vienna  or  Sirmium. 
March  17,  180.  In  the  Piazza 
Colonna,  on  the  Corso  at  Rome, 
stands  a  fine  ancient  monument 
(95  ft.  high)  to  his  memory.  The 
emperor's  twelve  books,  or  rather 

short    chapters,     to)!/    ei?  eavrhv, 

form  one  of  the  famous  books  of 
the  world.  They  are  the  jottings 
of  his  lonely  reflections  in  the 
moments  snatched  from  rest  or 
action  during  his  campaigns — 
Among  the  Ouadi.  At  Carnutum, 
etc.  The  Thoughts  unite  high 
nobility  with  complete  sincerity 
and  tenderness.  The  premises 
of  stoicism  M.  Aurelius  accepts 
more  faithfully  than  was  general 
among  his  contemporaries,  and 
it  is  possible  to  ^  trace  in  his 
Thoughts  all  its  main  doctrines — - 
life  according  to  nature,  mastery 
of  the  inner  self,  God  immanent 


Aureole 


477 


Aurora 


in  the  cosmos,  and  the  insignifi- 
cance of  the  individual.  But  the 
enduring  quaHties  of  the  book  are 
due  rather  to  its  human  feeling 
— its  wistfulness,  its  courage,  and 
its  call  to  duty. 

M.  Aurelius  wrote  in  Greek — 
the  accepted  philosophical  speech 
of  his  age — but  hardly  with  per- 
fect ease.  The  Thoughts  were 
not  published  till  1558,  when 
Xylander  issued  at  Zurich  the 
first  edition,  from  a  MS.  since  lost. 
Some  time  previously  (in  1529) 
the  Spanish  euphuist,  Antonio  de 
Guevara,  had  written  his  Lihro 
de  Marco  Aurelio,  a  work  based 
on  the  Emperor's  teaching;  and 
Sir  Thomas  North's  version  of 
this,  entitled  The  Dial  of  Princes, 
had  a  considerable  vogue  in  Eng- 
land. The  first  translation  of 
Aurelius'  own  book  into  English 
was  that  of  Meric  Casaubon,  is- 
sued in  1634  (recent  edition, 
1900,  by  W.  H.  D.  Rousse). 
Jeremy  Collier  (1702)  published 
a  version,  not  without  some  mer- 
its; but  the  two  standard  mod- 
ern translations  are  Long's  (2nd 
ed.  1880)  and  G.  H.  Kendall's 
(1898),  both  with  introductions, 
and  the  latter  with  a  careful 
study  of  Stoicism.  Walter  Pater 
introduced  M.  Aurelius  into  his 
romance  of  Marius  the  Epicurean, 
and  the  book  is  valuable  as  an 
attempt  to  give  the  atmosphere 
of  the  time.  Consult  also  Re- 
nan's  Marcus  Aurelius  {Origins 
of  Christianity,  bk.  vii.)  and 
Matthew  Arnold's  Essays  in 
Criticism. 

Aureole,  au're-ole,  a  radiance 
or  luminous  cloud  surrounding 
the  body  of  Christ,  the  Virgin 
Mary,  or  the  saints,  in  sacred  art, 
emblematic  of  the  influence  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  It  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  a  nimbus,  a 
luminous  circle  surrounding  the 
head  only.  The  combination  of 
the  aureole  and  the  nimbus  is 
termed  a  glory. 

Aurg>  Mountains,  5-ra'  (the 
Mons  Aurasius  of  Procope),  a 
range  in  Southern  Algeria,  prov- 
ince of  Constantine,  about  75 
miles  in  length,  overhanging  the 
Sahara,  and  enclosing  fertile  val- 
leys and  plains.  Its  inhabitants, 
the  Shawia,  are  Berbers,  and 
their  customs  betray  a  Christian 
ancestry.  The  highest  peaks  in 
the  range  are  Shelia  (7,600  ft.) 
and  Mahmel,  which  is  nearly  as 
high. 

Aureus,  6're-us  (Lat.  aurum, 
'gold'),  the  first  and  standard 
Roman  gold  coin,  issued  tenta- 
tively about  B.C.  217,  and  after- 
ward permanently  by  Julius 
Caesar  and  the  Roman  emperors, 
until  Constantine  substituted  for 
it  the  solidus  =  100  sesterces  or 
25  denarii.  Its  average  weight 
was  121  grains.  Its  value  was 
about  $5.00. 

Aurich,  ou'rich,  town,  Han- 
over, Prussia,  18  miles  by  rail 
northeast   of   Emden.    In  the 


vicinity  is  the  hill  of  Upstalls- 
bloom,  where  in  olden  times  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Frisian  coast- 
lands  met  each  Whitsuntide  to 
deliberate.  An  important  horse 
fair  is  held  here  in  February. 
Pop.  about  7,000. 

Auricle.   See  Heart  and  Ear. 

Auricula.    See  Primrose. 

Auriga  (Lat.  'the  Charioteer'), 
an  ancient  constellation,  situated 
between  Perseus  and  Taurus,  of 
which  Capella  (q.  v.)  is  the  prin- 
cipal star.  There  is  little  doubt 
of  its  Euphratean  origin.  About 
five  degrees  southwest  of  Ca- 
pella are  T  and  v  Aurigae,  known 
to  Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy  as 
the  'Kids.'  Their  heliacal  rising 
in  October  was  supposed  by  the 
Romans  to  portend  stormy 
weather.  Virgil  mentions  them 
(yEneid,  ix.  668),  as  pluviales 
Hcedi,  and  Horace  (Od.,  vii.  v.  6) 
as  insana  sidera.  A  white  star 
of  the  second  magnitude,  /3  Au- 
rigae, marking  the  right  shoulder 
of  the  Charioteer,  was  discovered 
by  Miss  Maury,  in  1889,  to  be  a 
spectroscopic  binary  revolving  in 
four  days.  Similar  evidence  of 
circulatory  motion  was  derived 
by  Professor  Vogel,  in  1902,  from 
spectrographs  of  e  Aurigae,  a  star 
varying  irregularly  from  3.0  to 
4.5  magnitude.  A  temporary 
star  near  x  Aurigae,  which  rose  to 
4.4  magnitude  in  December, 
1891,  gave  a  remarkable  spec- 
trum of  bright  and  dark  lines, 
indicative  of  violent  disturbance. 
Nova  Aurigae  is  still  discernible 
with  powerful  telescopes.  It  is 
situated  in  the  Milky  Way.  Three 
clusters.  Messier  36,  37,  and  38, 
are  collected  in  the  same  neigh- 
borhood, the  last  resembling  in 
shape  an  oblique  cross,  while 
Messier  37  is  Admiral  Smyth's 
'gold-dust'  cluster. 

Au'rigna'cian,  an  important 
culture  stage  (the  first  division) 
of  the  upper  Palaeolithic  period, 
probably  began  25,000  or  30,000 
years  ago.  The  people  were  ar- 
tistically more  developed  than 
their  predecessors,  and  were 
probably  the  first  to  decorate  the 
walls  and  roofs  of  their  caves 
with  outlines. 

Aurigny,  o-re-nye',  the  French 
name  of  Alderney,  used  by  Ma- 
caulay  in  his  Armada.  See  Al- 
derney. 

Aurillac,  o-re-yak',  town, 
France,  capital  of  the  department 
of  Cantal,  on  the  Jordanne  river; 
about  200  miles  southwest  of 
Lyons.  The  church  of  St.  Ge- 
raud,  begun  in  the  15th  century 
and  completed  about  1890,  and 
an  old  castle  now  used  as  a  nor- 
mal school  arc  the  most  notable 
buildings.  Printing,  lace  mak- 
ing, the  manufacture  of  silver 
and  copper  articles,  and  slate 
quarrying  are  the  leading  indus- 
tries. An  abbey  was  founded 
here  in  900.  The  town  is  the 
birthplace  of  Pope  Sylvester  n. 
Pop.  (19X1)  18,036. 


Aurispa,  ou-re'spa,  Giovanni 
(c.  1369-1459),  Italian  scholar, 
was  born  in  vSicily,  and  in  1418 
visited  Constantinople  to  study 
Greek.  He  returned  with  a 
large  collection  of  manuscripts  of 
ancient  Greek  writers,  most  of 
which  he  translated. 

Aurlands  Fjord.  See  Sogne 
Fjord. 

Aurochs,  a'roks,  a  modern 
name  for  the  European  bison 
(see  Bison). 

Aurora  (Gr.  Eos),  goddess  of 
the  dawn,  daughter  of  Hyperion 
and  Thia.  Every  morning  she 
rose  from  her  couch  to  announce 
the  coming  of  the  sun,  in  a  cha- 
riot drawn  by  swift  horses.  She 
loved  several  mortals,  among 
others  Cephalus,  Orion,  and 
Tithonus.  Memnon  was  her 
son  by  Tithonus,  and «  Phaeton 
by  Cephalus. 

Aurora,  city,  Illinois,  Kane 
county,  on  the  Fox  River,  and 
on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 
Gary,  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western, and  the  Elgin,  Joliet 
and  Eastern  Railroads,  and  on 
electric  lines;  40  miles  west  or 
Chicago.  Important  institutions 
include  Aurora  College,  a  co- 
educational institution,  the  Jen- 
nings Seminary,  and  a  Central 
States  Fair  and  Exposition. 

Manufacturing  interests  are 
extensive  and  varied,  including 
foundries,  smelting  works,  ma- 
chine shops,  railroad  shops,  cot- 
ton and  woollen  mills,  sash  and 
blind  factories,  carriages,  print- 
ing material,  machinery,  and 
steel  products.  According  to 
the  Federal  Census  of  Manu- 
factures for  1919,  Aurora  has  133 
industrial  establishments,  with  a 
combined  capital  of  $35,307,941. 
the  products  of  which  are  valued 
at  $30,038,961.  Pop.  (1900)  24,- 
147;  (1910)  29,807;  (1920)  36,- 
397. 

Aurora,  city,  Indiana,  Dear- 
born county,  on  the  Ohio  River, 
and  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
and  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis  Railroads; 
about  23  miles  west  of  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio.  Its  chief  industries 
are  machine  shops,  foundries,  and 
flour  mills.  Pop.  (1910)  4,410; 
(1920)  4,299. 

Aurora,  city,  Missouri,  Law- 
rence county,  on  the  Missouri 
Pacific,  and  the  St.  Louis  and 
San  Francisco  Railroads;  40 
miles  southeast  of  Joplin.  Fruit- 
raising  and  agriculture  are  the 
chief  industries  of  the  region, 
together  with  the  mining  of  lead 
and  zinc.  Pop.  (1910)  4,148; 
(1920)  3,575. 

Aurora,  city,  Nebraska,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Hamilton  county,  on 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  and 
Quincy  Railroad;  78  miles  west 
of  Lincoln.  It  lies  in  a  fertile 
agricultural  region,  dairying  and 
flour-milling  being  the  chief  in- 
dustries. Pop.  (1910)  2,630; 
(1920)  2,962. 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '23 


Aurora  Borealis 


478 


Ausable  River 


Aurora  Borealis,  or  Northern 
Lights,  a  luminous  meteor  of 
great  beauty  which  is  seen  in  the 
northern  sky,  taking  the  form  of 
streamers,  arches,  or  patches, 
which  vary  in  shade  considerably, 
being  sometimes  smoky  black  or 
steel  gray,  and  at  others  brilliant 
yellow,  green,  violet,  or  fiery  red. 
As  usually  seen,  the  aurora  com- 
mences with  the  formation  of  an 
arch  with  its  apex  to  the  magnetic 
meridian,  the  arch  being  usually 
better  defined  on  the  lower  than 
on  the  upper  side.  Underneath 
the  arch  the  sky  is  apparently 
darker  than  the  rest  of  the  heav- 
ens, this  gloomy  portion  being 
known  as  'the  dark  segment'; 
stars  are  visible  through  this  part 
of  the  sky  as  well  as  through  the 
aurora  itself.  Slender  streamers 
of  well-defined  bright  light  extend 
up  from  the  arch  usually  to  a  dis- 
tance of  from  20  to  30  degrees, 
towards  the  magnetic  zenith.  In 
width  they  vary  from  half  a  de- 
gree to  three  degrees,  and  move 
a  degree  from  one  side  to  an- 
other. The  arch  is  sometimes 
evenly  illuminated,  but  is  at 
times  convoluted  like  a  folded 
curtain.  Sometimes  the  sky  is 
entirely  covered  with  brilliant 
coruscations  shooting  up  from 
the  horizon,  converging  in  a 
quivering  blaze  of  feathery  flame 
high  in  the  sky,  nearly  in  the 
direction  shown  by  the  south  end 
of  a  magnetic  dipping-needle. 
This  is  known  as  the  corona. 
The  arch  has  been  observed  after 
formation  to  move  slowly  away 
from  the  direction  of  the  belt  of 
greatest  frequency.  Its  appar- 
ent breadth  diminishes  on  ap- 
proaching the  coronal  point,  the 
streamers  making  a  more  and 
more  acute  angle  with  the  arch 
until  they  unite  with  it  where  it 
meets  the  coronal  point.  The 
arch  is  supposed  to  be  like  a  sheet 
suspended  nearly  vertically,  the 
rays  and  streamers  being  paral- 
lel, their  apparent  divergence 
from  the  coronal  point  being  due 
to  perspective. 

Auroral  displays  are  most  fre- 
quent and  brilliant  in  relatively 
high  latitudes.  In  America,  ac- 
cording to  Professor  Loomis,  the 
zone  of  maximum  frequency  is 
between  lat.  50°  and  60°  N. ;  but 
in  Europe  and  Asia  the  region  of 
greatest  frequency  lies  between 
the  parallels  of  66°  and  75°.  The 
aurora  is  most  common  in  an  oval 
belt  which  surrounds  the  pole, 
closely  coinciding  with  the  line 
of  equal  dip.  This  belt  begins 
close  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  extending  from  the  North 
Cape  east  to  Point  Barrow, 
thence  south,  passing  through 
Hudson  Bay  in  lat.  60°,  then 
south  of  Greenland,  and  obliquely 
north  again  between  the  Faroe 
Islands  and  Iceland.  In  the 
zone  of  maximum  frequency  over 
eighty  auroras  are  seen  annually. 
In  the  torrid  zone  it  is  rarely  ob- 

VOL.  L— Oct.  '23 


served,  not  more  than- six  auroras 
in  a  century  being  seen  as  far 
south  as  lat.  20°.  Auroral  dis- 
plays are  much  more  frequent, 
latitude  for  latitude,  in  America 
than  in  Europe.  Auroras  are  at 
times  seen  simultaneously  over 
large  tracts  of  the  world,  from 
Russia  to  California,  and  from 
Jamaica  to  Labrador,  such  a  dis- 
play being  that  of  October,  1870. 
Professor  Loomis  is  of  opinion 
that  a  display  of  aurora  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  north  magnetic 
pole  is  regularly  attended  by  a 
simultaneous  display  round  the 
south  magnetic  pole. 

Messrs.  De  la  Rue  and  Miiller 
have  established  the  connection 
between  the  color  of  electrical 
discharges  and  the  potential, 
from  which  the  height  of  the 
aurora  may  be  approximately 
determined.  Using  a  battery  of 
11,000  cells,  they  find  that  the 
color  of  the  discharge  with  the 
same  potential  varies  greatly 
with  the  tenuity  of  the  gas  or  air. 
At  a  pressure  corresponding  to 
11.6  m.  the  discharge  is  of  a  full 
red  color;  at  a  pressure  corre- 
sponding to  a  height  of  12.4  m. 
the  discharge  assumes  the  car- 
mine tint  so  frequently  observed ; 
at  a  pressure  corresponding  to 
30.9  m.  the  discharge  becomes 
salmon-colored,  which  at  a  height 
of  34  m.  becomes  of  a  paler  hue, 
changing,  as  pressure  is  lowered, 
to  a  pale,  milky  white.  The 
roseate  and  the  salmon-colored 
tints  are  always  close  to  the  posi- 
tive source  of  the  electric  cur- 
rent. At  the  magnetic  terminal 
in  air  the  discharge  is  always  of  a 
violet  hue,  and  this  color  in  the 
aurora  is  due  to  the  proximity  of 
the  negative  source.  From  these 
researches  the  authors  concluded 
that  the  aurora  may  appear  at 
altitudes  as  low  as  a  few  thou- 
sand feet,  or  as  high  as  80  or  100 
miles. 

From  obsiervations  taken  in  the 
Arctic  regions  during  the  long 
polar  nights,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  aurora  is  more  frequent 
in  the  nocturnal  than  in  the  diur- 
nal hours,  but  in  the  middle  lati- 
tudes the  maximum  is  reached 
earlier  in  the  evening.  The  an- 
nual period  is  well  marked,  there 
being  two  maxima  and  two  min- 
ima, which  vary  slightly  in  dif- 
ferent localities.  Auroras  are  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  October 
and  April,  and  rare  in  December 
and  June. 

The  generally  received  theory 
is  that  the  aurora  is  due  to  the 
ascent  of  positive  electricity  from 
the  intertropical  water  surfaces, 
which  flows  towards  the  poles, 
wafted  by  the  higher  aerial  cur- 
rents. In  the  region  of  the  poles 
it  descends  towards  the  earth, 
and  comes  in  contact,  in  a  highly 
rarefied  atmosphere,  with  the 
terrestrial  negative  electricity, 
which  results  in  luminous  dis- 
charges of  great  brilliancy. 


The  Aurora  Australis,  which 
is  the  name  applied  to  auroral 
displays  seen  in  the  southern 
hemisphere,  differs  in  no  striking 
feature  from  the  Northern  Lights. 
See  text-books  of  meteorology, 
and  The  Polar  Aurora,  by  M. 
Angot  (Inter.  Scientific  Series, 
1896). 

Aurungabad,  6-rung-ga-bad', 
walled  town  in  the  state  of 
Haidarabad  (Deccan),  India,  67 
miles  northeast  of  Ahmednagar 
and  180  miles  from  Bombay.  It 
contains  the  ruins  of  a  palace 
built  by  Aurungzebe,  and  the 
mausoleum  of  a  favorite  daugh- 
ter. There  are  caves,  partly 
Buddhist,  a  mile  west  of  the 
town.  Embroidery,  silverware, 
silk,  and  cotton  are  produced. 
Pop.  35,000. 

Aurungzebe,  o-rung-zeb',  Mo- 
hammed MUHI  ED-DiN  AURUNG- 
ZEB  Alamgir  (1618-1707),  Mo- 
gul emperor,  ascended  the  throne 
of  Delhi  in  1658,  when  he  put  to 
death  his  two  brothers,  Dara  and 
Murad  Baksh,  drove  his  third 
brother,  Shuja,  into  exile,  and 
imprisoned  his  father,  the  Em- 
peror Shah  Jehan,  for  the  rest 
of  his  life.  Once  firmly  seated 
on  the  throne,  Aurungzebe,  un- 
der the  cloak  of  piety,  as  a  strict 
Mohammedan,  persecuted  the 
Hindus,  and  alienated  his  non- 
Moslem  subjects.  He  subdued 
Bijapur  and  Golconda,  and  his 
reign  has  been  regarded  as  the 
most  brilliant  period  of  the  Mo- 
gul domination;  but  the  animos- 
ity aroused  by  his  persecutions, 
and  the  successful  raids  of 
Sevaji,  the  Mahratta  chief, 
sapped  the  foundations  of  the 
empire.  Consult  S.  L.  Poole's 
Aurangzib  and  Sarkan's  History 
of  Aurangzib  (1913). 

Ausable  Chasm,  au-sa'b'l, 
village.  New  York,  Clinton 
county,  on  the  Keesville,  Au 
Sable  Chasm  and  Lake  Cham- 
plain  Railroad,  at  a  point  where 
the  stream  falls  70  feet  and  flows 
through  a  narrow,  deep  chasm 
between  vertical  rocks  of  Pots- 
dam sandstone,  from  90  to  175 
feet  in  height.  It  is  a  famed 
rock  formation  and  a  resort  for 
tourists. 

Ausable  Lakes,  two  small  bod- 
ies of  water,  called  Lower  and 
Upper  Ausable  Lake,  situated  in 
the  Adirondack  Reserve,  New 
York,  about  2,000  feet  above 
sea-level. 

Au  Sable  River,  river  of  Mich- 
igan, about  80  miles  long,  rising 
in  Crawford  county,  and  flowing 
in  a  southeasterly  direction  into 
Lake  Huron  at  Oscoda,  iosco 
county.  Grayling  fishing  makes 
it  popular  with  anglers. 

Ausable  River,  river  of  New 
York,  rising  in  the  Adirondacks, 
in  Essex  county,  in  two  small 
streams  which  unite  at  Ausable 
Forks.  It  follows  a  northeast- 
erly course  between  Clinton  and 
Essex  counties,   forming  their 


AascnltatlcQ 


479 


Aosttn 


boundary  line,  and  discharging 
into  Lake  Champiain,  See  Au- 
SABLE  Chasm. 

Auscultation,  in  medical  prac- 
tice listening  to  the  sounds  (es- 
pecially respiratory  and  cardiac) 
of  the  body,  with  a  view  to  diag- 
nosis. It  was  introduced  regu- 
larly into  practice  by  Laennec 
(q.  v.). 

Ausglcich,  ous'glich,  the  com- 
promise between  Austria  and 
Hungary,  effected  in  1867,  which 
governed  the  relations  between 
the  two  halves  of  the  monarchy 
prior  to  its  dissolution  in  1918. 
See  Austria-Hungary. 

Ausonius,  au-so'ni-us,  called 
Decimus  Magnus,  one  of  the 
latest  Latin  poets,  was  born  after 
300  A.D.  and  died  after  388  a.d. 
He  was  born  in  Bordeaux,  where 
he  practised  at  the  bar  until  he 
reached  the  age  of  thirty,  when 
he  became  a  teacher  of  rhetoric. 
He  was  later  tutor  to  Gratian,  son 
of  Valentinian,  and  from  the  lat- 
ter received  the  title  of  count  and 
the  qusestorship.  Gratian  made 
him  prefect  of  Latium,  Libya, 
and  Gaul,  and  finally  consul  in 
379  A.D.  A  number  of  his  works 
survive,  of  which  the  poem  Mo- 
sella,  on  the  river  of  that  name, 
is  the  most  interesting. 

Auspex.    See  Augur. 

Aussig,  oxi'sich,  now  known  as 
Uste  n.  Labem,  town,  Czecho- 
slovakia, in  Bohemia,  66  miles 
northwest  of  Prague.  The  chief 
points  of  interest  are  the  town 
hall,  town  museum,  and  the 
Stadt-Kirche,  destroyed  by  the 
Hussites  in  1426  and  several 
times  restored.  There  are  large 
chemical  works  and  a  good  trade 
in  coal,  grain,  and  fruit.  The 
painter,  Raphael  Menge,  was  born 
here.    Pop.  (1921)  39,815. 

Austen,  Jane  (1775-1817), 
English  novelist,  was  born  in 
Steventon,  Hampshire,  of  which 
parish  her  father  was  rector. 
The  first  twenty-five  years  of  her 
life  were  spent  in  her  native 
town;  there  she  received  her  edu- 
cation— a  somewhat  better  one 
than  was  usual  for  girls  of  her 
day;  and  there  she  began  writing. 
Her  first  serious  literary  work  was 
done  when  she  was  about  seven- 
teen, taking  the  form  of  a  story 
in  letters,  called  Elinor  and  Mar- 
ianne. This,  when  finished,  she 
put  away  for  a  while,  and  turned 
her  efforts  to  a  second  story. 
To  this  she  gave  the  title  First 
Impressions;  but  meeting,  it  is 
conjectured,  the  phrase  'pride 
and  prejudice'  in  Fanny  Bur- 
ney's  Cecilia,  she  altered  it  to 
that.  The  novel  was  finished  in 
1797^  having  taken  ten  months; 
was  offered  to  Cadell  and  re- 
jected. Elinor  and  Marianne 
was  then  taken  in  hand,  rewrit- 
ten, and  renamed  Sense  and  Sen- 
sibility. This  was  again  put 
away,  and  Northanger  Abbey  was 
begun  in  1798.  The  new  work 
was  a  departure,  being  at  first 


frankly  a  travesty  of  the  school 
of  Mrs.  Radcliffe,  whose  Mys- 
teries of  Udolpho  was  in  every 
one's  hands,  and  also  of  a  certain 
type  of  sentimental  love  story 
then  prevalent;  but  as  the  story 
proceeded  the  human  interest 
deepened,  and  fortunately  el- 
bowed out  the  original  ironical 
purpose.  Northanger  Abbey  was 
sold  to  a  Bath  bookseller  for  £lO 
in  1803,  but  was  not  published. 
Thus  ended  the  first  period  of 
Miss  Austen's  literary  career. 

From  1801  to  1805  the  Aus- 
tens lived  at  Bath,  where  Mr, 
Austen  died;  they  then  moved  to 
Southampton,  and  then  (1809)  to 
Chawton,  near  Alton.  During 
the  years  at  Bath  and  South- 
ampton Miss  Austen  seems  to 
have  written  only  the  fragment 
known  as  The  Watsons;  but  at 
Chawton  the  second  writing 
period  of  her  life  began.  Her 
first  care  was  to  revise  Sense  and 
Sensibility  and  Pride  and  Preju- 
dice (which  were  published, 
anonymously,  in  1811  and  1813 
respectively),  and  to  get  back 
Northanger  Abbey  from  its  pur- 
chaser, and  to  revise  that.  She 
also  wrote  three  new  novels — 
Mansfield  Park,  published  in 
1814;  Emma,  1816;  and  Per- 
suasion, published  posthumously, 
with  Northanger  Abbey,  in  1818, 
with  a  memoir  prefixed,  and  the 
author's  name  for  the  first  time 
on  a  title-page.  These  six  stories, 
with  a  shorter  tale  in  letters, 
called  Lady  Susan,  and  the  frag- 
ment already  referred  to,  consti- 
tute Jane  Austen's  entire  contri- 
bution to  English  literature. 
She  died  on  July  24,  1817,  and 
was  buried  in  Winchester  Ca- 
thedral, 

Jane  Austen's  novels  are  the 
earliest  and  the  best  example  of 
the  so-called  domestic  novel  in 
English,  Macaulay  said  that 
in  the  minute  delineation  of 
shades  of  character  she  came 
nigh  Shakespeare;  Tennyson 
made  a  similar  criticism;  and 
Scott  said,  'That  young  lady  had 
a  talent  for  describing  the  in- 
volvements, and  feelings,  and 
characters  of  ordinary  life  which 
is  to  me  the  most  wonderful  I 
ever  met  with.'  These  enco- 
miums omit  reference  to  Miss 
Austen's  fine  irony  which  by 
many  readers  is  as  much  valued 
as  her  analysis  of  the  tender 
passion  and  emotion.  Of  all  the 
novels,  the  earliest.  Pride  and 
Prejudice,  is  at  once  the  most 
popular  and  the  best.  Though 
it  has  not  the  maturity  of  Emma, 
which  vies  with  it  for  first  place, 
in  steadiness  of  progress,  in  di- 
rectness of  purpose,  in  intensity 
of  interest,  it  excels. 

Consult  Goldwin  Smith's  Life; 
Howell's  Heroines  of  Fiction; 
Hill's  Jane  Austen;  Bonnell's 
Charlotte  Bronte,  George  Eliot, 
Jane  Austen;  Mitton's  Jane 
Austen;  Chapman's  English  Lit- 


erature in  Account  with  Religion; 
Austen-Leigh's  Jane  Austen:  Her 
Life  and  Letters;  A  Family 
Record  (1913);  Cornish's  Jane 
Austen  ('English  Men  of  Letters 
Series';  1913);  Firkins'  Jane 
Austen  (1920). 

Auster,  called  Notus  by  the 
Greeks,  the  south  or  southwest 
wind,  which  was  usually  wet,  but 
at  certain  seasons  dry  and  un- 
healthful;  the  modern  Italian  si- 
rocco. 

Austerlitz,  Battle  of,  ous'ter- 
lits,  a  famous  battle  of  the  Na- 
poleonic Wars,  fought  in  the 
country  west  of  the  town  of 
Austerlitz  (a  small  town  in  Mo- 
ravia, Austria,  on  the  Littawa), 
on  Dec.  2,  1805,  in  which  the 
French  army  under  Napoleon  i. 
routed  the  combined  forces  of 
the  Austrians  and  Russians.  The 
forces  engaged  numbered  65,000 
French  and  82,000  Allies,  and 
the  battle  lasted  from  7  a.m.  until 
dark.  The  French  lost  6,800 
men,  while  the  Allies  lost  12,200 
in  killed  and  wounded  and  1^,000 
prisoners.  As  a  result  of  the 
battle,  Austria  was  forced  to  sign 
the  Treaty  of  Pressburg  (Dec. 
26,  1805). 

Austin,  city,  Minnesota,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Mower  county,  on  the 
Cedar  River,  and  on  the  Chi- 
cago Great  Western,  and  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St. 
Paul  Railroads;  100  miles  south 
of  St.  Paul,  at  the  intersection  of 
the  Red  Ball  Route  (north  and 
south)  and  the  S.  M.  Route 
Highway  No.  9,  running  east  and 
west.  Free  camps  are  main- 
tained by  the  city.  It  has  a  fine 
Court  House,  Modern  High 
School,  Public  Library,  Hospital, 
State  Armory,  three  city  parks, 
and  the  Horace  Austin  State 
Park.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
University  of  Southern  Minne- 
sota and  College  ot  Engineering. 
Among  the  city's  industrial  in- 
terests are  furniture  and  cement 
factories,  creameries,  green- 
houses, brick  and  tile  works, 
machine  shops,  bottling  works, 
and  the  manufacture  of  rugs, 
brushes,  candv,  and  food  prod- 
ucts. Pop.  (1900)  5,474;  (1910) 
6,960;  (1920)  10,118. 

Aus'tin,  borough,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Potter  county,  terminus 
of  a  branch  of  the  Buffalo  and 
Susquehanna  Railroad;  13  miles 
southwest  of  Coudersport.  For- 
merly the  centre  of  a  large  lum- 
ber trade,  its  principal  industry 
has  recently  been  the  manufac- 
ture of  wood  pulp  and  paper. 
Pop.  (1910)  2,941;  (1920)  1,556. 

On  Sept.  30,  1911,  the  great 
concrete  dam  of  the  Bayless 
Pulp  and  Paper  Company  broke, 
and  the  fiood  of  released  water 
overwhelmed  the  entire  village, 
spread  out  along  the  bottom  of 
the  valley  one  and  a  half  miles 
below.  Fire  from  the  broken 
natural-gas  mains  added  to  the 
devastation.  The  loss  of  life 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Austin 


480 


Austin 


was  about  100,  and  the  property 
loss  about  $4,000,000. 

Austin,  city,  capital  of  Texas, 
county  seat  of  Travis  county,  on 
the  Colorado  River,  and  border- 
ing Lake  Austin,  and  on  the 
International  and  Great  North- 
ern, the  Missouri,  Kansas  and 
Texas  of  Texas,  and  the  South- 
ern Pacific  Railroads;  about  165 
miles  northwest  of  Houston. 
Five  National  highways,  the 
Meridian,  Southern  National, 
King  of  Trails,  Bankhead,  and 
Colorado-Gulf,  pass  through  Aus- 
tin. There  are  a  number  of 
naturally  scenic  camping  grounds 
in  the  vicinity.  It  is  a  beautiful 
and  well-built  city,  and  contains 
some  of  the  finest  public  build- 
ings in  the  country,  notably  the 
State  House,  an  immense  granite 
structure  erected  at  a  cost  of 
more  than  $6,500,000.  It  is  the 
educational  centre  of  the  State, 
being  the  seat  of  the  University 
of  Texas,  the  Presbyterian  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  St.  Edward's 
College,  St.  Mary's  Academy, 
Texas  Wesleyan  College,  Mili- 
tary Academy,  efficient  prepara- 
tory schools,  and  two  extensive 
libraries,  including  the  new  build- 
ing of  the  University  of  Texas 
($250,000).  The  city  has  also 
State  asylums  for  the  blind, 
insane,  deaf,  and  defective,  a 
Confederate  Home,  and  a  City 
Hall.  Among  the  many  points 
of  interest  are  the  old  home  of 
the  French  Ambassador  to  Texas, 
Aldridge  Place,  the  scene  of  early 
Indian  massacres,  and  the  State 
Pasteur  Institute. 

Austin  is  a  trade  centre  for 
farm  products  and  live-stock, 
and  is  noted  for  its  brick  and 
white  lime  manufactures.  It 
ships  more  pecans  than  any  other 
point  in  the  South.  Other  in- 
dustries are  chili  packing  plants, 
iron  foundries,  and  manufactures 
of  flour,  cotton-seed  oil,  engines, 
wagons,  trucks,  harness  and  sad- 
dlery, and  food  products.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Federal  Census  of 
Manufactures  for  11)10  there  are 
in  Austin  91  industrial  establish- 
ments, representing  a  capital  of 
$4, .305, 038,  with  products  valued 
at  $4,990,021.  The  commission 
form  of  government  was  adopted 
in  190H.  Pop.  (1900)  22,258; 
(1910)  29,860;  (1920)  34,876. 

Austin,  Alfred  (1835-191.3), 
English  poet,  was  born  in  Head- 
ingley,  near  Leeds.  He  was 
graduated  from  London  Univer- 
sity in  1853,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  (1861)  he  abandoned  law 
for  journalism  and  literature.  His 
first  publication  was  Randolph: 
A  Tale  of  Polish  Grief  (1854), 
followed  by  the  much-criticised 
volume,  The  Season:  A  Satire 
(1861),  and  its  sequel,  entitled 
My  Satire  and  Its  Censors,  in  the 
same  year.  After  that  date  he 
wrote  numerous  volumes  of 
verse,  including  The  Human 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Tragedy  (1862;  new  ed.  1889); 

Songs  of  England  (new  ed.  1900); 
Tale  of  True  Love  and  Other 
Poems  (1902);  Door  of  Humility 
(1906);  Sacred  and  Profane  Love 
(1908).  He  also  published  sev- 
eral novels,  and  as  a  journalist 
contributed  to  the  Conservative 
press,  notably  the  Standard  news- 
paper (which  he  represented  at 
Rome  and  as  correspondent  dur- 
ing the  Franco-German  War), 
the  Quarterly  Review,  and  the 
National  Review,  of  which  he 
was  for  a  time  editor.  In  1896 
he  was  appointed  poet-laureate, 
in  succession  to  Tennyson.  A 
collected  edition  of  his  Poems 
appeared  in  6  vols.  (1892). 
Among  his  prose  works  are  In 
Veronica's  Garden  (1895);  Spring 
and  Autumn  in  Ireland  (1900); 
Haunts  of  Ancient  Peace  (1902); 
Lesson  in  Harmony  (1904);  Au- 
tobiography (1911). 

Austin,  John  (1790-1859), 
founder  of  the  modern  English 
school  of  analytical  jurisprudence, 
and  friend  of  Jeremy  Bentham 
and  John  Stuart  Mill,  was  born 
in  Greeting  Mill,  Suffolk.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar,  but  met 
with  slight  success  and  retired 
from  practice  in  1825.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  jurisprudence  (1826) 
in  the  newly  founded  University 
of  London,  but  in  1832  resigned 
his  chair.  He  subsequently  served 
on  two  royal  commissions — one 
for  the  reform  of  the  criminal  law 
(in  1833),  the  other  to  examine 
the  condition  of  Malta  (in  1836), 
the  latter  being  probably  his  one 
practical  success.  The  real  work 
of  his  life  was  the  summary  of  his 
lectures  on  jurisprudence,  the 
first  part  of  which  was  published 
in  1832  and  re-edited  by  his 
widow  in  1861.  Additions  sub- 
sequently appeared,  under  the 
editorship  of  his  son-in-law,  Rob- 
ert Campbell;  and  the  completed 
work  contained  three  parts — The 
Province  of  Jurisprudence  Deter- 
mined; The  Analysis  of  Pervad- 
ing Notions;  and  The  Arrange- 
ment of  Law  According  to  Its 
Sources  and  Modes.  The  first 
part  expounds  Austin's  much  de- 
bated philosophy  of  law,  founded 
mainly  on  Hobbes  and  Locke, 
and  reminiscent  of  Bentham,  but 
without  the  depth  of  the  older 
philosophers  or  the  fecundity  of 
the  later.  Essentially  a  Tory 
and  a  soldier,  Austin  bases  the 
whole  authority  of  law  on  physi- 
cal force  expressed  in  definite 
orders.  The  second  part  of  the 
work  is  admirable  and  original, 
showing  great  acuteness  and 
power  of  expression.  The  third 
part,  despite  certain  obvious  mis- 
takes, is  likewise  suggestive  and 
original.  In  a  word,  Austin  was 
a  jurist  rather  than  a  politician 
or  a  philosopher.  His  great 
merit  consists  in  his  having  been 
the  first  English  writer  to  attach 
precise  and  intelligible  meanings 


to  the  terms  which  denote  the 
leading  conceptions  underlying 
all  systems  of  jurisprudence. 
Consult  Mill's  Autobiography; 
Brown's  Austinian  Theory  of 
Law. 

Austin,  Jonathan  Loring 
(1748-1826),  American  soldier 
and  diplomat,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.  He  was  graduated 
from  Harvard  (1766);  entered 
the  American  Revolutionary 
Army  (1775),  and  as  major  was 
in  turn  an  aide  to  General  Sulli- 
van and  the  secretary  of  the 
Massachusetts  Board  of  War. 
He  carried  to  the  American  rep- 
resentatives in  France  the  news 
of  Burgoyne's  surrender  al  Sara- 
toga (1777);  was  for  two  years 
Franklin's  private  secretary,  and 
during  this  time  was  sent  by 
Franklin  to  England  on  a  secret 
service  mission.  In  1780,  as  the 
agent  of  Massachusetts,  he  tried 
unsuccessfully  to  secure  a  loan  of 
£150,000  in  France,  Spain,  and 
Holland,  being  captured  and 
held  as  a  prisoner  for  some  time 
by  the  British. 

Austin,  Stephen  Fuller 
(1793-1836),  American  pioneer, 
one  of  the  founders  of  Texas,  was 
born  in  Wythe  county,  Va.,  the 
son  of  Moses  Austin  (1767-1821), 
who  just  before  his  death  ob- 
tained from  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment a  tract  of  land  in  Texas, 
on  which  he  planned  to  estab- 
lish a  settlement  of  Americans. 
Stephen  Fuller  carried  out  his 
father's  plan  early  in  1822,  found- 
ing the  city  now  known  as  Austin 
(q.  v.).  For  several  months  in 
1835  Austin  was  imprisoned  in 
the  City  of  Mexico  for  having 
attempted  to  secure  from  the 
Mexican  government  the  separa- 
tion of  Texas  from  the  province 
of  Coahuila  and  its  erection  into 
a  distinct  commonwealth  of  the 
Mexican  Union.  He  was  one  of 
the  foremost  leaders  of  the  Tex- 
ans  both  before  and  during  the 
war  for  Texan  independence,  be- 
ing commander-in-chief,  for  a 
short  time  (1835),  of  the  army  of 
Texas.  With  William  Wharton 
and  Branch  Archer,  he  was  sent 
as  agent  of  Texas  to  Washington 
in  1835,  securing  considerable  aid 
in  the  United  States  for  the  revo- 
lutionists; and  after  his  return 
(1836)  was  defeated  for  the  pres- 
idency of  the  Republic  of  Texas 
by  Gen.  Sam  Houston,  in  whose 
cabinet  he  was  secretary  of  state. 

Austin,  William  (1778- 
1841),  American  author,  was 
born  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  and 
was  graduated  from  Harvard.  He 
studied  law  and  gained  a  prom- 
inent position  at  the  Middlesex 
bar.  A  two-years'  visit  to  Eng- 
land, during  which  he  met  many 
distinguished  personages,  is  de- 
scribed in  his  Letters  from  Eng- 
land (1804).  He  is  best  remem- 
bered for  his  story,  Peter  Rugg, 
the  Missing  Man,  a  modern  ver- 
sion of  the  Wandering  Jew. 


Australasia 


481 


Australia 


Australasia,  os'tral-a'sha  or 
-zha  ('Southern  Asia'),  a  popular 
term,  sometimes  used  to  com- 
prehend the  Malay  Archipelago, 
the  Philippines,  Australia,  and  all 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific;  at  other 
times  confined  to  the  British 
possessions  of  Australia,  Tas- 
mania, and  New  Zealand,  to 
which  New  Guinea  and  Fiji  are 
sometimes  added.  As  a  geo- 
graphical term  it  is  best  applied 
to  the  greater  Australian  region, 
which  includes  the  islands  of 
Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Guin- 
ea, the  Bismarck,  Solomon,  and 
New  Hebrides  archipelagoes. 
New  Caledonia,  and  New  Zea- 
land (qq.  v.).    If  all  this  region 


under  mandate  from  the  League 
of  Nations.  The  area  of  the 
island  of  Australia  is  2,948,366 
square  miles;  of  the  Common- 
wealth, 2,974,581  square  miles, 
exclusive  of  Papua  (90,540  square 
miles).  From  Steep  Point,  in 
the  west,  to  Cape  Byron,  in  the 
east,  is  a  distance  of  about  2,400 
miles,  and  from  Cape  York  in 
the  north,  to  Wilson  promon- 
tory, in  the  south,  nearly  2,000 
miles.  Australia  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Timor  and  Ara- 
fura  Seas  and  Torres  Strait,  on 
the  west  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  on 
the  south  by  the  Southern  Ocean, 
and  on  the  east  by  the  Pacific. 
The  coast  line,  exclusive  of  minor 


Tasmanian  Alps,  and  other  lat- 
eral spurs,  culminates  in  Mount 
Kosciusko  (7,777  feet)  in  New 
South  Wales — the  highest  point 
on  the  continent.  To  the  west  of 
these  mountains  are  extensive 
table  lands  and  plateaus,  stretch- 
ing far  into  the  interior,  as  the 
Monaro  Table  Land,  the  Great 
Western  Plains,  and  the  'Downs' 
country  of  Queensland  and  South 
Australia. 

In  the  north  a  rugged  table 
land  of  moderate  elevation  rises 
sharply  from  the  low  coast  lands 
and  extends  well  into  South 
Australia. 

The  western  half  of  Australia 
is  also  a  table  land,  with  a  mean 


were  above  the  sea  level,  it  would 
form  a  continent  as  large  as 
North  America.  See  Melanesia. 

Austra'Iia  is  the  name  ap- 
plied, at  the  suggestion  of  Cap- 
tain Matthew  Flinders,  to  the 
island  continent  which  lies  be- 
tween latitude  10°  39'  and  39° 
IIK'  s.,  and  longitude  113°  5' 
and  153°  16'  E.  It  includes  the 
island  of  Tasmania.  The  Terri- 
tory of  Papua  in  New  Guinea  is 
adjacent  to  Australia  and  is 
administered  by  the  Common- 
wealth. 

The  Commonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia comprises  the  states  of 
New  S"ith  Wales,  Queensland, 
South  .  istralia,  Victoria,  West- 
ern An  •  alia,  and  Tasmania,  the 
North'^ri.  Territory,  and  the 
Federal  Capital  Territory.  The 
Commonwealth  also  administers 
the  Territory  of  New  Guinea 
(late    German    New  Guinea) 


indentations,  is  12,210  miles  in 
length. 

Topography.  —  The  general 
physical  appearance  of  Australia 
has  been  roughly  compared  to  an 
inverted  saucer.  There  is  a  rich, 
low-lying  coastal  belt  of  fertile 
soil,  averaging  40  miles  in  width, 
separated  from  the  vast  plains  of 
the  interior  by  the  mountain 
ranges  of  the  east  and  west. 

In  the  east  is  the  Great  Divid- 
ing Range,  stretching  the  length 
of  the  continent  in  a  line  parallel 
to  the  coast.  The  northern  sec- 
tion of  this  great  range  extends 
through  North  Queensland  to 
Cape  Grafton,  with  Mount  Bar- 
tie  Frere  (5,440  feet) ;  the  central 
portion  varies  from  2,500  to  4,000 
feet  above  sea  level,  with  Mount 
Lindsay  (5,700  feet)  and  a  num- 
ber of  other  high,  rugged  peaks; 
and  the  southern,  comprising  the 
Blue  Mountains,  Australian  Alps, 


JolmJEdTliolom.--  &  Co  Jl<iiui 


elevation  of  between  1,000  and 
1,500  feet,  culminating  in  heights 
which  rise  from  2,000  to  over 
3,000  feet,  the  highest  being 
Mount  Bruce  (3,800  feet).  The 
Darling  Range  extends  for  some 
distance  along  the  coast,  its  high- 
est point  being  1,500  feet  above 
sea  level.  The  Stirling  Range 
reaches  its  highest  points  in  El- 
lens Peak  (2,320  feet)  and  Mount 
Toolbrunup  (3,341  feet).  In  the 
northwest  are  the  Leopold  and 
Mueller  Ranges.  The  coast 
lands  are  flat  and  sandy. 

Along  the  southern  coast  no 
mountains  occur  as  far  east  as 
Spencer  Gulf,  the  principal  phys- 
ical feature  being  the  sandstone 
cliffs  bordering  the  Great  Aus- 
tralian Bight.  Inland  lie  great 
stretches  of  sandy  country  bear- 
ing low-growing  trees  and 
grasses.  East  of  Spencer  Gulf, 
in  South  Australia,  mountains 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Australia 


482 


Australia 


again  appear,  the  principal  ranges 
being  Mount  Lofty,  Flinders, 
Hummock,  and  Gawler. 

Although  Central  Australia  is 
in  general  not  mountainous, 
there  are  a  few  isolated  mountain 
groups,  notably  the  Musgrave 
Range,  culminating  in  Mount 
Woodroffe  (4,100  feet),  and  the 
McDonnell  and  Ashburton 
Ranges.  The  Tasmanian  pla- 
teau averages  from  3,000  to 
4,000  feet,  and  rises  to  5,100  feet 


shallow  salt  lakes  or  disappear  in 
the  plains.  The  largest  of  these 
are  the  Diamantina  and  Barcoo 
or  Cooper's  Creek,  from  the 
eastern  highlands,  and  the  Finke, 
from  the  Macdonnell  Plateau, 
flowing  into  Lake  Eyre.  This 
lake  consists  of  two  parts,  a 
larger  northern  sheet  of  water 
and  a  smaller  southern  one,  both 
nearly  40  feet  below  sea  level. 
Lakes  Frome,  Torrens,  and 
Gairdner,    similarly,    are  huge 


Area  and  Population  of  Australia 


Area 
(square  miles) 

Population 
(1921) 

309,432 
670,500 
380,070 
26,215 
87.884 
975,920 
523,620 
940 

2,100,371 
755,972 
495,160 
213,780 
1,531,280 
332,732 
3,867 
2,572 

Total  

2,974,581 

5,435,734 

in  Ben  Lomond,  and  5,070  feet 
in  Cradle  Mountain. 

The  chief  river  of  Australia  is 
the  Murray  (q.v.),  in  the  south- 
east, which,  with  its  great  tribu- 
tary, the  Darling,  drains  an  area 
of  414,253  square  miles.  The 
total  length  of  the  Murray  has 
been  estimated  at  1,700  miles, 
and  of  the  Darling  at  1,953  miles. 
During  wet  seasons  the  Murray 
is  navigable  for  1,600  miles,  and 
the  Darling  for  700  miles  farther; 
but  in  dry  seasons  the  entrance  is 
shallow,  and  the  volume  of  water 
comparatively  small.  The  Mur- 
rumbidgee  River  (1,350  miles),in 
New  South  Wales,  is  the  other 
main  tributary  of  the  Murray. 
Along  the  eastern  coast  are  nu- 
merous short,  rapid  rivers  rising 
in  the  highlands  and  crossing  the 
fiat  coastal  belt,  most  of  them 
navigable  for  short  distances,  but 
liable  to  sudden  floods  during 
periods  of  heavy  rain.  Chief 
among  them  are  the  Snowy 
River  in  Victoria,  the  Hunter 
and  Clarence  in  New  South 
Wales,  and  the  Brisbane,  Fitz- 
roy,  and  Burdekin  in  Queens- 
land. 

There  are  several  fine  rivers  in 
the  north.  The  Victoria  has  an 
excellent  harbor  and  a  wide,  deep 
channel,  and  is  navigable  for  the 
largest  ships  for  fully  50  miles. 
The  Roper,  Adelaide,  and  Daly 
are  also  of  importance.  There 
are  no  large  rivers  in  Western 
Australia.  The  Fitzroy,  Ash- 
burton, Gascoyne,  and  Black- 
wood vary  in  length  from  300  to 
500  miles,  but  their  channels  are 
shallow  except  during  heavy 
rains.  The  Swan  River  in  the 
southwest  is  navigable  for  20 
miles. 

Most  of  the  inland  rivers  flow 
only  after  rain,  and  feed  vast 

Vol.  L— -Mar.  '26 


depressions  filled  with  salt  water 
after  rains. 

Climate. — The  Tropic  of  Cap- 
ricorn crosses  Australia  midway 
between  north  and  south,  and 
the  temperature  is  never  very 
low  except  in  the  mountains  of 
the  south.  Indeed,  Australia  is 
less  subject  to  extremes  of  cli- 
mate than  almost  any  other 
similar  area  in  the  world;  and 
with  the  exception  of  some  of  the 
low-lying  coast  lands,  even  the 
tropical  zone  is  healthful.  The 
southern  and  southwestern  por- 
tions of  the  continent  are  cool 
and  healthful  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  coast,  where  much 
humidity  prevails;  the  table  lands 
of  New  South  Wales  and  the 
Downs  of  Queensland  have  a 
remarkably  fine  climate,  the 
latter  with  hot,  dry  summers  and 
cool,  bracing  winters;  but  the 
central  plains  of  the  continent 
are  hot  and  dry. 

The  mean  annual  temperature 
varies  from  85°  f.  in  the  north 
to  54°  F.  in  the  south.  In  Jan- 
uary, which  is  the  hottest  month, 
the  average  is  84.7°  f.  at  Palm- 
erston,  on  the  northern  coast; 
85.4°  F.  at  Alice  Springs,  in  the 
centre  (2,100  feet  above  the  sea); 
and  79.7°  F.  at  Port  Augusta,  on 
the  southern  coast. 

The  southeast  trade  winds 
prevail  at  most  seasons  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  continent.  In 
winter  V-shaped  low-pressure 
systems  reach  the  southern 
shores;  in  summer  the  northwest 
monsoon  blows  over  the  northern 
ones.  In  spring,  summer,  and 
autumn  only  the  northern  mar- 
gins of  the  southern  storm  sys- 
tems reach  South  Australia, 
drawing  hot,  dry  winds  from  the 
interior  followed  by  strong,  cool 


south  winds  ('southerly  busters') 
which  bring  relief.  Unequal  dis- 
tribution of  rainfall,  varying 
from  150  inches  in  certain  dis- 
tricts in  Eastern  Queensland  to 
5  inches  in  the  Lake  Eyre  dis- 
trict is  characteristic  of  Aus- 
tralia. Arnhem  Land,  on  the 
northern  coast,  has  an  annual 
average  of  63  inches,  and  the 
Australian  Alps  in  the  extreme 
southwest  50  inches,  while  a 
great  belt  of  country  to  the  west 
of  the  Great  Dividing  Range  has 
an  average  of  from  10  to  30 
inches.  The  fall  is  even  more 
scanty  on  the  western  coast, 
except  in  the  southeast,  and  in 
Southern  Australia,  where  there 
are  persistent  dry  spells  and 
excessive  heat.  In  Tasmania 
the  rain  falls  at  all  seasons,  but 
is  most  plentiful  in  the  winter. 

The  most  fertile  districts  are  on 
the  coast,  where  there  are  abun- 
dant rainfall  and  rich  alluvial 
deposits;  but  there  are  also  great 
expanses  in  the  interior,  which 
with  an  annual  rainfall  of  only 
12  or  15  inches  are  extremely- 
productive.  With  water  conser- 
vation and  irrigation,  many  of 
the  more  arid  districts  may  be 
made  suitable  for  agricultural 
purposes. 

Geology. — Australia  seems  to 
be  built  up  chiefly  from  Palaeo- 
zoic and  Cenozoic  or  tertiary 
formations,  while  Mesozoic  or 
Secondary  deposits  have  also 
been  laid  open  in  various  quar- 
ters. The  mountains  of  Victoria, 
New  South  Wales,  and  Queens- 
land consist  principally  of  Silu- 
rian strata,  broken  in  upon  by 
intrusive  granites,  syenites,  etc. 
Though  igneous  rocks  occupy  a 
large  area  to  the  south  and  west 
of  Australia,  traces  of  Palaeozoic 
formations  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Darling  Range.  The  older  set- 
tlements of  New  South  Wales 
rest  on  sandstone.  Carbonif- 
erous strata,  abounding  in  fine 
coal,  extend  over  50,000  square 
miles  of  Queensland,  and  the  tin 
mines  of  Queensland  occur  in 
granite  rising  through  the  car- 
boniferous rocks.  The  Second- 
ary formations  lie  chiefly  in 
Queensland,  where  Cretaceous 
beds  extend  for  about  200,000 
square  miles. 

Tertiary  deposits,  mostly  Plio- 
cene it  is  supposed,  occupy  an 
immense  area  of  Australia,  com- 
prehending the  desert  sandstone, 
the  coral  limestone,  and  a  large 
part  of  the  conglomerates  and 
clays  of  the  gold  diggings. 
Quaternary  deposits,  forming 
'flats'  in  the  gold  districts,  occur 
in  the  Upper  Macquarie  and  Up- 
per Murrumbidgee  Rivers. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — The  most 
striking  feature  of  the  plant  life 
of  the  Australian  continent  is  the 
eucalyptus  or  gum  tree,  some 
150  species  of  which  occur,  from 


Australia 


483 


Australia 


the  giant  forms  on  the  eastern 
coast,  which  reach  heights  of  300 
and  400  feet,  to  the  dwarf  eu- 
calyptus of  the  interior,  also 
known  as  the  'mallee  scrub,' 
growing  to  15  or  16  feet.  There 
is  a  rich  tropical  vegetation  on 
the  eastern  and  northeastern 
coasts,  and  mangroves,  palms, 
tree  ferns,  pandanus,  and  grass 
trees  are  characteristic.  There 
are  forests  of  valuable  timber  in 
the  eastern  and  southwestern 
portions  of  the  continent,  includ- 
ing blackbutt,  tallow  wood,  jar- 
rah,  karri,  mahogany,  beech,  and 


the  other  class  of  Australian 
mammals,  the  monotremes.  Birds 
are  numerous,  including  running 
emus,  cassowaries,  laughing  king- 
fishers, black  swans,  parrots,  and 
cockatoos  of  great  beauty,  regent 
birds,  rifle  birds,  bush  turkeys, 
lyre  birds,  bower  birds,  as  well 
as  the  more  familiar  doves, 
ducks,  geese,  and  innumerable 
sea  birds.  Lizards  and  snakes 
abound,  the  latter  frequently 
venomous.  Lung-breathing  fish 
iCeratodus),  fresh- water  herring 
(Diplomystus) ,  tailless  amphibia, 
whistling  spiders,  tank-making 


being  preferred  to  steel  or  iron 
for  girders.  The  jarrah,  karri, 
and  Murray  red  gum  are  used 
for  paving  blocks,  the  stringy 
barks  and  turpentine  for  wharves 
and  bridges,  being  of  great  dur- 
ability in  the  ground  and  under 
water,  the  pines  for  ceilings,  box 
making,  etc.,  and  the  red  cedar, 
rosewood,  white  beech,  tulip 
wood,  figured  blackwood,  and 
others  for  furniture  and  cabinet 
making.  Sandalwood  is  pro- 
duced in  the  western  forests,  and 
has  been  an  item  of  export  for 
over    fifty    years.    From  the 


AUSTRALIA 

INDUSTRIES 


Sheep 

Cattle 

Coal 

Gold 

Silver 

Copper 
Iron 

Evfilish  Miles 

varieties  of  pine  and  gum  trees. 
In  the  interior,  besides  the 
dwarf  eucalyptus,  are  found  a 
number  of  varieties  of  the  acacia, 
porcupine  grass  (spinifex  scrub), 
and  the  paper  bark  tree.  Flower- 
ing plants  abound,  and  grasses 
and  herbage  in  great  variety  and 
of  considerable  commercial  value. 

The  Australian  fauna  is  re- 
markable for  its  primitive  mam- 
mals, and  for  the  absence  of  all 
higher  forms  except  rodents  and 
bats,  and  the  dingo  or  wild 
dog.  possibly  introduced  by  man. 
The  Tasmanian  devil  (confined  to 
that  island),  the  pouched  kan- 
garoos, opossums,  wombats,  and 
bandicoots  are  among  the  dis- 
tinctive mammals,  all  marsupi- 
als. The  duck-billed  platypus 
{Ornithorhyncus)  and  the  echid- 
na, or  spiny  ant-cater,  belong  to 


crayfish,  and  worms  of  great 
length  are  peculiar  to  the  conti- 
nent. 

Forestry. — The  forest  area  of 
Austraha  is  estimated  at  69,000,- 
000  acres,  or  3.6  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  area.  The  principal  tim- 
ber regions  are  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  portions  of  the  country, 
including  Tasmania,  and  in  the 
southwest.  While  forestry  and 
fisheries  constitute  the  smallest 
item  of  the  six  great  elements  of 
Commonwealth  production,  the 
development  of  the  timber  in- 
dustry is  being  encouraged  by 
the  government,  and  the  output 
is  increasing  year  by  year. 

Among  hardwood  timbers,  the 
ironbarks,  species  of  eucalyptus, 
are  highly  valued  for  building 
purposes  because  of  their  great 
strength   and  durability,  often 


latter  tree  the  production  of 
sandalwood  oil  has  developed 
into  an  important  industry  in 
Western  Australia.  Tanning 
bark  is  also  an  important  forest 
product  and  article  of  export. 

Forest  reserves  have  been  set 
apart  in  all  the  states,  and  nur- 
series and  plantations  estab- 
lished. The  quantity  of  timber 
sawed  or  hewn  in  the  Common- 
wealth in  1923  was  estimated  at 
587.441,000  vsuper  feet. 

Fisheries. — Snapper,  whiting, 
mullet,  sea  perch,  black  and  red 
bream,  sole,  gropcr,  cod,  flat- 
head,  sea  carp,  herring,  and  many 
other  varieties  of  food  fish  are 
caught  on  the  coast;  while  the 
Murray  cod,  perch,  and  mullet 
are  found  in  the  lakes  and 
streams.  Oyster  beds  exist  in 
the  shallow  waters  of  inlets  and 

Vol.  L— Mar'  '26 


Australia 


484 


Australia. 


bays,  and  oyster  ^sl-'ing  is  carried 
on  to  some  c"*^e  ~t.  Pearl  oysters 
are  found  m  the  waters  along  the 
northern  and  v,  estern  coasts,  and 
the  pearl  industry  is  of  impor- 
tance. In  1922,  7,771  men  were 
enga^^ed  in  general  fisheries,  and 
the  value  of  the  catch  was  about 
$4,000,000.  The  value  of  the 
euible  oysters  taken  in  that  year 
was  $570,000;  of  pearl  shell, 
$1,515,000. 

Mining. — Although  the  pres- 
ence of  valuable  mineral  deposits 
in  Australia  has  long  been  known, 
a  large  portion  of  the  continent 
has  not  yet  been  adequatelv  pros- 


in  New  South  Wales  being  one  of 
the  most  productive  mining  cen- 
tres in  the  world,  with  a  total 
output  of  silver  to  the  end  of 
1922  roughly  valued  at  $557,- 
145,000.  The  total  silver  pro- 
duction of  Australia  for  1919 
was  estimated  at  7,800,000  ounces 
— about  4K  per  cent,  of  the 
world's  production. 

Copper  is  found  in  all  the 
states  of  the  Commonwealth,  the 
greatest  amount  in  recent  years 
coming  from  Queensland.  Cop- 
per and  copper  ore  mined  in  1922 
were  valued  at  $4,220,000.  Zinc 
and  tin  are  also  important,  the 


coal  is  first.  The  great  bulk  of 
the  coal  mined  comes  from  New 
South  Wales,  the  production  of 
that  state  for  1922  being  12,208,- 
000  tons;  there  are  also  valu- 
able deposits  of  black  coal, 
brown  coal,  and  lignite  in  Vic- 
toria, and  productive  mines  in 
Queensland,  Western  Australia, 
and  Tasmania.  In  1922  the 
total  coal  production  of  the 
Commonwealth  was  valued  at 
$52,275,000. 

Coke  is  produced  to  some  ex- 
tent, and  oil-shale,  alunite,  clays, 
and  pigments.  Fuller's  earth, 
graphite,  gypsum,  tripolite.  and 


AUSTRALIA 

CONTOURS 

Continental  Shelf 
o  to 
6oo  to  tsoo 
1500  to  3000 
Above  3000 

EiKjlisk  M  iles  ^ 
Too    aoo   s5o  400 


pected,  and  the  mineral-bearing 
areas  have  been  only  superficially 
worked.  There  are  vast  coal 
beds  and  extensive  deposits  of 
iron  ore,  as  well  as  a  great  variety 
of  other  minerals,  including  gems 
and  building  stones.  Gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  tin  are  produced  in 
large  quantities.  Since  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  paying  quanti- 
ties in  1851,  Australia  has  held 
an  important  place,  furnishing 
about  5  per  cent,  of  the  world's 
production.  In  1922  the  total 
production  for  Australia  was 
755,470  fine  ounces.  Remark- 
able masses  or  nuggets  of  gold 
have  been  found  at  various 
times,  such  as  the  famous  'Wel- 
come nugget'  (2,217  ounces)  and 
the  'Welcome  stranger'  (2,315 
ounces). 

Large  amounts  of  silver  are 
produced,  the  Broken  Hill  Field 

Vol..  I.— Mar.  '26 


output  of  zinc  for  1922  being 
valued  at  $5,785,000,  and  the 
output  of  tin  being  valued  at 
$1,975,000.  Iron  ore  is  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  coun- 
try. Steel  works  have  been  es- 
tablished at  Newcastle  and  at 
Lithgow  in  New  South  Wales,  at 
the  sources  of  coal,  and  every 
kind  of  steel  section  and  plate  is 
produced.  Many  subsidiary  in- 
dustries have  been  started,  such 
as  the  manufacture  of  corrugated 
iron  for  roofing  and  wire  for 
fencing. 

Among  other  metals  found  in 
Australia  are  platinum  and  the 
platinoid  metals,  aluminum  ores, 
antimony,  arsenic,  barium,  bivS- 
muth,  lead,  mercury,  manga- 
nese, molybdenum,  tungsten, 
uranium,  and  a  number  of  radi- 
um-bearing metals. 

Of  th^  non-m?t£^lliq  rninerals, 


natural  manures  are  found  in 
various  sections.  Salt  is  ob- 
tained from  the  salt  lakes  of  the 
interior.  The  most  important 
gem  mined  is  opal;  diamonds, 
sapphires,  emeralds,  garnets,  to- 
pazes, and  other  precious  and 
semi-precious  stones  are  also 
found.  The  total  value  of  the 
mineral  production  for  1923  was 
$101,160,000. 

Mining  production  has  de- 
creased considerably  in  recent 
years,  due  mainly  to  increased 
costs  of  operation  and  the  re- 
duced world  prices  for  the 
products. 

Agriculture. — Australia  is  pre- 
eminently a  pastoral  country; 
agriculture  ranks  second  among 
the  country's  sources  of  wealth, 
and  is  of  growing  importance. 
The  soil  in  many  vsections  is  of 
great  fertility,  the  climate  espe- 


ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  AUSTRALIA 
1.  Laughing  jackass  or  laughing  kingfisher.   2.  Ceratodus.   3.  Gray-headed  fruit  bat.  4.  Common  Australian  echidna.   5.  Aus- 
tralian water  mole.    6.  Australian  tree-bear  or  koala.   7.  Kangaroo.   8.  Common  emu.   9  Common  wombat.    10.  Gould's  monitor. 
11.  Chelmo 

Vol  I.  Page  485  Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Australia 


485  A 


Australia 


cially  favorable,  and  danger  from 
frosts  unknown.  While  drought 
constitutes  a  source  of  danger, 
the  soil  has  unusual  powers  of 
recuperation  even  after  pro- 
longed periods  of  dryness.  In 
the  season  1900-1  there  were 
under  cultivation,  exclusive  of 
permanent  artificially  sown 
grasses,  8,812,463  acres;  in  the 


and  Queensland,  where  the  warm, 
humid  climate  is  particularly 
adapted  to  its  requirements,  and 
is  cultivated  to  some  extent  in 
the  other  states  as  forage.  Barley 
is  also  grown  in  all  the  states, 
most  extensively  in  Victoria. 
Rye,  beans,  and  peas  are  raised, 
and  rice  cultivation  is  being 
tried.    Root    and    tuber  crops 


season  1912-3,  13,038,049  acres 
— an  increase  of  4,22.5,586  acres 
in  twelve  3'ears;  in  the  vseavson 
1923-4,  16,531,000  acres,  a  fur- 
ther increase  of  3,492,951  acres  in 
ten  years. 

Wheat  is  the  principal  crop 
of  the  Commonwealth,  over  half 
of  the  entire  cultivated  area  be- 
ing devoted  to  it.  With  flour  it 
constitutes  an  important  item 
of  export.  Next  in  importance 
among  the  grain  crops  is  oats, 
the  principal  oat-growing  state 
being  Victoria.  Maize  is  grown 
as  grain  in  New  South  Wales 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


thrive,  but  with  the  exception  of 
potatoes  are  not  widely  culti- 
vated. 

Hay  is  second  in  value  only  to 
wheat.  The  Australian  hay  crop 
differs  greatly  from  European 
crops  in  that  it  consists  largely 
of  wheat  and  oats,  with  barley 
and  lucerne  to  a  lesser  extent. 
All  of  the  states  devote  large 
areas  to  artificially  sown  grasses 
and  green  forage,  mainly  in 
connection  with  the  dairying 
industry.  Sugar  cane  is  pro- 
duced in  Queensland  and  New 
South    Wales,     216,886  acres 


being  devoted  to  this  crop  in 

1922-  3. 

Grapes  are  grown  in  every 
state  except  Tasmania,  for  wine 
making,  table  use,  or  drying. 
Fruits  characteristic  of  both  the 
temperate  and  tropic  zones  are 
produced  in  wide  variety,  includ- 
ing the  pineapple,  paw-paw, 
mango,  guava,  orange,  lemon, 
banana,  olive,  fig,  apple,  plum, 
peach,  apricot,  cherry,  pear,  and 
small  fruits. 

The  yield  of  the  principal 
crops  of  the  Commonwealth  for 

1923-  4  was  as  follows:  wheat, 
124,993,000  bushels;  hay,  4,052,- 
000  tons;  oats,  17,303,000  bush- 
els; maize,  8,115,000  bushels; 
barley,  4,975,000  bushels;  pota- 
toes, 448,000  tons;  sugar  cane, 
2,178  tons.  Among  the  minor 
crops  are  tobacco,  pumpkins  and 
melons,  grass  seed,  hops,  and 
millet.  Considerable  develop- 
ment has  recently  taken  place  in 
cotton  growing,  mainly  in  Queens- 
land. It  has  been  fostered  by  a 
government  guarantee  of  a  cer- 
tain minimum  price  to  the 
growers.  In  1919  there  were  72 
acres  planted,  yielding  27,470 
pounds;  in  1923  the  area  was 
40,000  acres  and  the  yield  11,- 
784,000  pounds. 

The  instruction  given  in  the 
agricultural  schools  and  colleges 
throughout  the  Commonwealth 
is  helping  the  farmer  properly  to 
cultivate  the  soil;  and  the  in- 
creased yield  of  wheat  and  oats 
per  acre  is  due  almost  entirely 
to  improved  methods  of  farming. 
Financial  aid  is  also  given  agri- 
culturists by  the  state  govern- 
ment; and  bounties  are  paid  on 
certain  agricultural  products,  es- 
pecially sugar. 

Stock  Raising. — By  far  the 
most  important  Australian  indus- 
try is  the  raising  of  horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  pigs,  goats,  and  other  live 
stock,  and  the  list  of  pastoral 
exports  includes  live  animals, 
meats,  hides,  wool,  and  tallow. 
The  mildness  of  the  climate, 
making  housing  for  the  cattle  un- 
necessary at  any  time  of  the  year, 
and  the  excellence  of  the  Aus- 
tralian grasses,  are  great  advan- 
tages to  the  dairy  farmer.  The 
sheep  is  not  a  native  of  Australia, 
but  sheep  breeding  was  begun  at 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  has  been  characterized 
by  a  continuous  and  remarkable 
growth,  due  largely  to  the  fine 
grazing  facilities  of  the  country, 
especially  the  grassy  Downs  in 
the  east.  In  1923-4  the  number 
of  sheep  in  Australia  was  80,111,- 
000,  nearly  half  of  which  were  in 
New  South  Wales.  Since  the 
introduction  of  the  freezing  syvS- 
tem,  trade  in  mutton  and  lamb 
has  advanced  rapidly,  and  much 
attention  is  being  paid  to  the 
breeding  of  sheep  that  will  be 
valuable  for  both  meat  and  wool 


Austraila 


485  B 


Australia 


production.  Australian  wool, 
which  is  thick,  long,  and  beauti- 
fully fine,  is  in  demand  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  In  1923-4, 
590,820,000  pounds  of  wool  were 
produced  in  the  Commonwealth. 
In  addition  to  wool  and  meat, 
sheepskins,  both  with  and  with- 
out wool,  form  an  important  item 
of  export. 

Cattle  raising  is  carried  on  in 
all  the  states,  both  for  slaugh- 
tering and  dairying  purposes. 
Queensland  ranks  first  as  a  pro- 
ducer of  cattle,  and  in  1923-4 
had  nearly  half  of  the  country's 
total  of  13,358,000.  Few  live 
cattle  are  exported,  but  beef 
preserved  by  cold  process  and 
hides  form  important  items  of 
trade. 

Dairying  has  also  grown  great- 
ly in  importance  during  recent 
years.  In  1922  the  production  of 
milk  reached  685,310,000  gallons; 
of  butter,  234,995,000  pounds;  of 
cheese,  23,710,000  pounds.  Con- 
densed and  concentrated  milk 
are  made,  and  poultry  and  bee 
farming  carried  on,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  other  agricultural  in- 
dustries. The  country  is  well 
adapted  to  horse  breeding,  and 
Australian  horses  compare  favor- 
ably with  those  of  other  lands. 
In  1922  there  were  2,390,460  in 
Australia;  they  are  exported  in 
fairly  large  numbers. 

Transportation. — Owing  to  the 
lack  of  navigable  rivers  to  fur- 
nish communication  between  the 
coast  and  the  interior,  Australia 
is  especially  dependent  on  its 
railways  for  transportation.  In 
the  eastern,  southeastern,  and 
southern  parts  railway  lines  con- 
nect the  chief  ports  with  each 
other  and  with  the  surrounding 
industrial  districts.  Some  of  the 
eastern  lines  run  inland  more 
than  600  miles,  and  one  main  line 
runs  from  Adelaide  northward 
for  nearly  700  miles.  Western 
Australia  also  has  a  connected 
system  of  lines  between  its  ports 
and  the  agricultural,  mining, 
and  pastoral  districts.  There 
are  a  number  of  disconnected 
lines  in  Northern  Queensland, 
Northern  Territory,  and  Tas- 
mania. 

In  1924  there  were  open  24,485 
miles  of  government  line.  In 
addition  to  this  mileage,  there 
were  2,830  miles  of  private  rail- 
ways, of  which  about  half  were 
open  for  general  traffic.  The 
Trans-Australian  Railway,  which 
was  completed  in  1917,  connects 
Port  Augusta,  in  South  Aus- 
tralia, and  Kalgoorlie,  in  the 
Western  Australian  gold  fields, 
a  distance  of  1,051  miles.  This 
line  furnishes  the  only  rail  con- 
nection between  Eastern  and 
Western  Australia,  and  is  an 
important  means  of  passenger 
and  mail  traffic,  as  well  as  a 
measure  of  defence  in  time  of 


war.  A  second  transcontinental 
line  from  Oodnadatta,  the  pres- 
ent terminus  of  the  main  north- 
ern line  from  Adelaide,  to  Pine 
Creek,  the  southern  terminus  of 
the  Northern  Territory  line,  has 
been  projected.  This  line  will 
bring  Northern  and  Southern 
Australia  into  communication, 
and  will  be  a  factor  in  the  eco- 
nomic development  of  the  great 
Northern  Territory. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the 
Commonwealth  Constitution  Act 
of  1901,  control  of  the  postal, 
telegraph,  and  telephone  systems 
is  vested  in  the  central  govern- 
ment. In  1923  there  were  5,960 
post  offices  and  154,080  miles  of 
telegraph  and  telephone  lines  in 
the  Commonwealth.  Telephone 
systems  have  been  established 
throughout  the  country. 

Three  civil  aviation  services 
for  mails  and  passengers  have 
been  established  and  are  being 
operated  with  the  greatest  regu- 
larity and  success:  Geraldton  to 
Derby  in  Western  Australia 
started  in  1921,  and  extended 
from  Perth  to  Geraldton  in  1924, 
a  weekly  return  service  over  a 
route  of  1442  miles;  Charleville 
to  Cloncurry  in  Queensland, 
linking  up  the  ends  of  the  rail- 
ways in  western  Queensland, 
started  in  1922,  a  weekly  service 
over  a  route  of  560  miles;  Ade- 
laide to  Sydney,  760  miles,  a 
weekly  service,  started  in  1924. 

Manufactures.  —  Nearly  one- 
fourth  of  the  value  of  Australian 
production  is  contributed  by  the 
manufacturing  industries.  The 
richness  of  the  country's  re- 
sources, and  the  policy  of  the 
Commonwealth  government  to 
encourage  local  industries  by 
means  of  protective  duties  and 
the  payment  of  bounties  and 
bonuses,  promise  much  for  the 
future  development  of  manufac- 
turing. In  1923-4  there  were  in 
Australia  20,189  establishments, 
employing  430,000  persons.  New 
South  Wales  and  Victoria  are 
the  leading  states. 

Measured  by  the  value  added 
to  the  raw  material,  the  most  im- 
portant group  of  industries  is  that 
of  metal  working  and  machin- 
ery, which  includes  the  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, cutlery,  railway  carriages, 
brass  and  copper  works,  iron 
works  and  foundries,  smelting, 
tin  smithing,  and  wire  working. 
In  1923-4  the  products  of  this 
class  were  valued  at  $145,205,000 
(i.e.,  the  value  added  by  manu- 
facture). Next  comes  the  group 
of  food  products,  including  butter, 
cheese,  and  condensed  milk  fac- 
tories, bacon  curing,  meat  and 
fish  preserving,  flour  mills,  fruit 
preserving,  sugar  mills  and  re- 
fineries, breweries  and  distilleries, 
and  refrigerating  plants,  of  which 
the  value  added  reached  $142,- 


285,000.  The  clothing  and  tex- 
tile industry  ranks  third,  the  out- 
put of  the  woollen,  cotton  and 
tweed  mills  in  1911  being  over 
5,000,000  yards.  Including 
boots  and  shoes,  hats  and  caps, 
dressmaking,  millinery,  etc.,  the 
total  value  of  products  in  1923- 
4  was  $222,100,000.  Other  im- 
portant industries  are  books  and 
paper,  printing  and  binding, 
tanning,  soap  and  candle  mak- 
ing, heat,  light,  and  power 
works,  furniture  and  cabinet 
making,  and  drugs  and  chemicals. 

Commerce. — The  total  foreign 
trade  of  Australia  for  1923-4 
was  valued  at  $1,300,525,000. 
Of  this  total,  $597,435,000  repre- 
sented imports,  and  $703,090,- 
000  represented  exports.  Wool 
is  by  far  the  largest  item  of 
export,  the  shipment  of  greasy 
wool  in  1923-4  amounting  to 
$243,365,000  and  of  scoured 
wool  to  $37,610,000.  Grain  is 
another  leading  export,  ship- 
ments of  wheat  for  1923-4  being 
valued  at  $69,895,000  and  of 
wheaten  flour  at  $26,585,000. 
Other  important  exports  in  1923- 
4  were  butter,  $24,370,000; 
frozen  beef,  $6,505,000;  frozen 
mutton  and  lamb,  $5,850,000; 
preserved  meats,  $795,000. 

In  1923-4,  50.6  per  cent,  of  the 
Commonwealth's  exports  went 
to  the  United  Kingdom  and  to 
British  possessions;  France  com- 
ing next  with  12  per  cent.,  and 
the  United  States  third.  The 
exports  to  the  United  States  were 
valued  at  $35,547,480.  They  in- 
cluded wool,  constituting  more 
than  half  the  total,  furs,  and 
skins  (hare,  rabbit,  opossum,  kan- 
garoo) . 

Of  the  imports,  the  leading 
items,  with  their  value  in  1923- 
4,  are  machinery,  $21,325,000; 
chassis  and  bodies  for  motor 
cars,  $55,001,900;  cotton  and 
linen  textiles,  $31,665,000;  iron 
and  steel,  $31,510,000;  wearing 
apparel,  $16,308,000;  mineral 
oils,  $25,275,000;  silk  piece 
goods,  $23,625,000;  timber  and 
lumber,  $20,380,000;  chemicals 
and  drugs,  $19,390,000.  Aus- 
tralia derives  about  one-fourth 
of  its  imports  from  the  United 
States.  The  principal  items  are 
automobiles  and  automobile 
parts,  chemicals,  machinery,  and 
petroleum. 

Finance. — Under  the  provi- 
sions of  the  Federation  Act  of 
1901,  the  various  state  depart- 
ments of  customs  and  revenue — 
the  main  sources  of  state  revenue 
up  to  that  time — were  trans- 
ferred to  the  Commonwealth 
government.  While  certain  de- 
partments involving  expenditure 
also  passed  into  the  control  of 
the  central  government,  the 
resulting  decrease  in  state  ex- 
penditure was  so  much  smaller 
than  the  decrease  in  receipts  that 

Vol.  I. — Mar.  '26 


Australia 


485  C 


Australia 


provision  was  made  for  repay- 
ment to  the  states  of  not  less 
than  three-fourths  of  the  total 
net  customs  and  excise  revenue 
of  the  Commonwealth.  Each 
state  was  accordingly  credited 
with  the  Commonwealth  revenue 
collected  in  respect  of  that 
state,  and  debited  with  the  ex- 
penditures incurred  on  its  behalf. 


balance  their  budgets  by  increas- 
ing their  income  tax  revenues  in 
the  field  vacated  by  the  Com- 
monwealth. This  is  part  of  a 
plan  whereby  it  is  hoped  to 
simplify  the  entire  taxation  sys- 
tems of  Australia.  Besides  cus- 
toms and  excise,  the  chief  sources 
of  revenue  are  the  income  and 
land  taxes  and  the  postal  service. 


This  cumbersome  method  was 
replaced  by  the  Surplus  Revenue 
Act  of  1910.  Under  this  Act, 
the  Commonwealth  made  annual 
payment  to  each  state  of  25 
shillings  per  head  of  population, 
-either  directly  or  as  interest  on 
the  state  debt.  In  192.3  it  was 
agreed  to  discontinue  this  per 
capita  payment  to  the  states. 
At  the  same  time  the  Common- 
wealth ceased  to  collect  income 
tax  on  incomes  of  £2,000  or 
less,  leaving  the  states  free  to 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


For  1924-5  the  total  revenue  of 
the  Commonwealth  was  $344,- 
275,000;  the  total  expenditure, 
including  payment  to  the  states 
of  surplus  revenue,  $334,180,000. 
The  total  public  debt  of  the 
Commonwealth  in  1925  was  $2,- 
154,735,000.  The  government 
provides  for  the  payment  of  in- 
valid, war,  and  old-age  pensions, 
and,  by  the  Maternity  Bill  of 
1912,  of  a  bonus  (maximum  $25) 
for  every  child  born  in  Australia 
of  white  parents. 


Population. — The  population 
of  Australia,  according  to  the 
census  of  1921,  exclusive  of  full- 
blooded  aborigines,  was  5,435,- 
734,  compared  with  4,455,005 
in  1911.  In  1925  it  was  esti- 
mated at  5,904,592.  The  ab- 
original population  is  estimated 
at  60,000.  The  average  density 
is  but  1.83  persons  to  the  square 
mile,  and  the  only  districts 
which  may  be  considered  well 
populated  are  those  on  the 
coast.  The  great  proportion  of 
the  population  are  either  Aus- 
tralian or  British  born,  but 
there  are  small  percentages  of 
Germans,  Scandinavians,  Ameri- 
cans, Italians,  and  Asiatics. 

The  population  shows  a  strong 
tendency  to  gather  in  the  capital 
cities,  and  in  every  state  the 
population  of  the  capital  far 
outnumbers  that  of  any  other 
town.  In  1924  the  populations 
of  the  state  capitals  were: 
Sydney  (New  South  Wales), 
1,012,070;  Melbourne  (Victoria), 
885,700;  Brisbane  (Queensland), 
245,015;  Adelaide  (South  Aus- 
tralia), 289,914;  Perth  (Western 
Australia),  176,467;  Hobart  (Tas- 
mania), 56,507. 

Religion. — There  is  no  estab- 
lished state  religion,  but  by  far 
the  larger  proportion  of  the 
people  belong  to  the  Church  of 
England.  Roman  Catholics  are 
second  in  numerical  strength, 
followed  by  Presbyterians,  Meth- 
odists, and  Baptists.  The  census 
of  1921  showed  2,372,995  mem- 
bers of  the  Church  of  England, 
1,134,002  Roman  Catholics,  636,- 
974  Presbyterians,  632,629  Meth- 
odists, and  105,703  Baptists. 

Education  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  separate  states,  and  in  the 
primary  grades  is  free  and  com- 
pulsory throughout  Australia. 
The  universities  are  also  under 
state  control,  but  intermediate 
secondary  education  is  largely  in 
private  hands,  though  most  of 
the  states  have  a  limited  number 
of  high  schools.  In  nearly  all 
the  states  there  are  training 
schools  or  colleges  for  teachers, 
and  technical  schools  devoted  to 
engineering,  mining,  architecture, 
etc.  In  1923  there  were  10,053 
state  schools  and  over  1,700  pri- 
vate schools  in  the  Common- 
wealth. There  are  universities  at 
Sydney,  Melbourne,  Brisbane, 
Adelaide,  Hobart,  and  Perth. 

Army  and  Navy. — By  the 
Defence  Act  of  1903,  amended 
several  times  since,  Australia 
has  a  system  of  compulsory  mili- 
tary training  and  service.  Cadet 
training  is  prescribed  for  all 
youths  from  twelve  to  eighteen, 
followed  by  two  years'  training 
in  the  citizen  forces,  after  which 
they  remain  in  the  army  for 
seven  years.  The  actual  period 
of  training  is  very  short — 16  six- 
hour  davs  in  each  year  for  all 


Australia 


485  D 


Australia 


soldiers  between  eighteen  and 
twenty-six.  All  males  between 
eighteen  and  sixty  are  liable  to 
service  within  Australia  in  time 
of  war.  Only  enough  permanent 
troops  are  maintained  to  ad- 
minister the  citizen  forces.  The 
total  military  forces  in  1923 
numbered  53,046,  of  which  num- 
ber 1,703  were  permanent,  36,900 
citizen  soldiers,  and  13,628  re- 
serve of  officers. 

Sydney,  capital  of  New  South 
Wales,  is  a  first-class  naval  sta- 
tion, and  has  been  the  head- 
quarters of  the  British  fleet  in 
Australasia.  By  the  defence 
agreement  of  1903,  Great  Britain 
maintained  in  Australian  waters 
a  fleet  consisting  of  one  first- 
class,  three  second-class,  and 
five  third-class  cruisers,  partly 
manned  by  the  Commonwealth 
— Australia  paying  five-sixths  of 
one-half  the  expense,  and  New 
Zealand  the  remaining  sixth.  In 
1909,  however,  it  was  decided  to 
create  an  Australian  naval  force 
to  replace  the  squadron  hitherto 
maintained  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment. This  naval  force  was 
under  the  control  of  the  Com- 
monwealth government,  but 
passed  under  imperial  control  for 
the  period  of  the  war.  The 
Washington  Conference  of  1921 
had  a  marked  effect  on  the 
Australian  naval  defence  schemes, 
the  fleet  personnel  was  reduced 
from  4,843  in  1921  to  3,500  in 
1923,  and  the  ships  in  com- 
mission were  reduced  from  25 
to  13. 

Goyernmen/.— According  to  the 
Federal  Constitution,  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia  is  gov- 
erned by  a  Governor-General 
appointed  by  the  British  Crown, 
and  assisted  by  a  Cabinet  re- 
sponsible to  the  Australian  Par- 
liament. The  Parliament  con- 
sists of  a  Senate  of  36  members 
(six  elected  by  each  of  the  six 
original  states  for  six  years,  half 
retiring  every  three  years),  and 
a  House  of  Representatives, 
numbering  75  members  and 
elected  every  three  years.  The 
number  of  the  Representatives 
sent  from  each  state  is  propor- 
tional to  its  population  (exclud- 
ing aborigines),  but  may  not 
number  less  than  five  in  the  case 
of  any  of  the  original  states. 
Voting  is  compulsory,  failure  to 
vote  being  punishable  by  a  fine 
of  $10.00.  The  new  Compulsory 
Voting  Law  came  into  force  at 
the  Federal  election  in  Novem- 
ber 1925,  when  approximately 
ninety-two  per  cent,  of  the 
males  on  the  register,  and  ninety- 
one  per  cent,  of  the  females 
voted. 

The  Federal  Parliament  con- 
trols defence,  finance,  banking, 
commerce,  insurance,  naturali- 
zation, communications,  census, 
marriage,  immigration,  currency, 


weights  and  measure,  and  con- 
ciliation in  labor  disputes  ex- 
tending beyond  the  limit  of  any 
one  state.  Each  state  has  a 
state  governor,  who  represents 
the  sovereign  for  the  state,  and 
a  parliament  which  exercises  all 
rights  not  delegated  to  the 
Federal  Parliament. 

There  is  a  High  Court,  con- 
sisting of  a  chief  justice  and  six 
justices  appointed  by  the  Gover- 
nor-General in  Council,  exercising 
original  as  well  as  appellate 
jurisdiction. 

The  year  1913  witnessed  the 
formal  commencement  of  work 
on  the  new  Federal  capital  at 
Canberra,  Federal  Territory 
(within  the  state  of  New  South 
Wales).  The  prize  ofifered  by 
the  Commonwealth  government 
for  the  design  of  the  capital  city 
was  awarded  to  W.  H.  Griffin,  of 
Chicago,  111.,  who  personally 
supervised  the  early  stages  of 
the  town  planning  scheme.  The 
work  is  now  (1926)  controlled 
by  a  Board  of  Commissioners. 
It  is  anticipated  that  the  Federal 
administration  will  move  to 
Canberra  in  1927. 

Australian  Race. — E  t  h  n  o  g  - 
raphers  differ  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  native  Australian  race 
(aborigines),  many  holding  that 
the  numerous  tribes  scattered 
over  Australia  were  not  originally 
of  common  descent.  Sir  G.  Grey, 
however,  believed  that,  notwith- 
standing apparent  differences  be- 
tween tribes,  their  common  origin 
and  fundamental  unity  must  be 
admitted.  The  theory  that  they 
are  of  exclusive  Papuan  descent 
is  untenable,  as  they  are  widely 
separated  from  the  Papuans  of 
New  Guinea  by  their  silky  hair, 
full  beards,  and  contrasted  fea- 
tures, no  less  than  by  their  ig- 
norance of  the  bow  and  arrow, 
the  chief  weapon  of  most  of  the 
Papuan  tribes.  But  a  fundamen- 
tal connection  with  the  negro 
stock,  whether  Oceanic  or  Afri- 
can, is  shown  in  the  dark  color, 
the  shape  of  the  skull  (highly 
dolichocephalic,  or  long-headed), 
and  several  other  physical  char- 
acteristics. 

The  Australian  aborigine  is  of 
about  the  same  height  as  the 
average  European,  but  is  inferior 
in  muscular  development.  In 
complexion,  different  tribes  vary 
from  light  coffee  color  to  coal 
black.  Their  mental  faculties 
are  low,  but  they  have  a  keen 
sense  of  the  ridiculous  and  a 
great  talent  for  mimicry.  Al- 
though the  native  idioms  differ 
greatly  in  their  vocabulary,  the 
phonetic  system,  the  grammati- 
cal structure,  and  the  universal 
absence  of  radicals  for  numerals 
beyond  two  or  three,  point  to  a 
common  origin. 

The  natives  cultivate  no  sort 
of  food  crop,  and  have  no  do- 


mesticated animals  except  the 
'dingo,'  or  native  dog,  and  no 
permanent  dwellings  except 
hovels  of  boughs  or  grass  for 
temporary  shelter.  In  their 
primitive  state  the  aborigines, 
male  and  female,  go  entirely 
naked,  or  with  a  tussock  of 
grass,  resembling  a  Scottish 
sporran,  suspended  over  the 
loins.  In  cold  weather  they 
sometimes  wear  a  cloak  of  skins 
over  the  shoulders.  They  live 
ordinarily  on  roots,  herbs,  ber- 
ries, fish,  birds  (including  the 
emu),  kangaroos,  iguanas,  snakes, 
rats,  and  several  sorts  of  grubs 
found  in  trees.  Their  principal 
weapons  are  spears  (which  are 
sometimes  tipped  with  poison), 
hatchets  with  stone  heads,  nulla- 
nullas  (clubs  made  of  hard  wood), 
and  the  boomerang,  a  weapon 
peculiarly  their  own.  They 
practise  polygamy,  and  morality, 
as  understood  by  Europeans,  is 
unknown.  The  aboriginal  pop- 
ulation is  estimated  at  60,000. 
The  state  parliaments  have  made 
humane  and  adequate  provision 
for  the  protection  of  these 
peoples. 

History. — The  precise  date  of 
the  discovery  of  Australia  is 
doubtful.  It  has  been  asserted 
that  Magellan's  followers  sighted 
Western  Australia  in  1522,  and 
that  a  Spanish  ship  passed 
Torres  Strait  in  1545.  In  a 
French  chart  of  1542  it  figures  as 
'Java  la  Grande.'  It  is  next 
distinctly  referred  to  in  a  book 
by  Cornelius  Wytfliet  (Louvain, 
1598),  in  which  it  is  conjectured 
to  measure  one-fifth  of  the 
world.  The  first  definite  knowl- 
edge of  the  country  was  brought 
to  Europe  by  the  Duyfken,  a 
Dutch  ship,  which  explored  the 
north  coast  in  1606.  In  the 
same  year  Torres,  a  Spaniard, 
passed  through  the  strait  which 
bears  his  name.  In  1616  ex- 
ploration of  the  west  coast  was 
carried  on  by  Dirk  Hartog. 
The  Dutch  vessel  Arnhem  in 
1618  explored  the  coast  of  Arn- 
hem Land,  and  in  1627  the 
Guldene  Zeepard,  also  Dutch, 
sighted  a  large  part  of  the  south 
coast  from  Cape  Leeuwin  east- 
ward. Another  Dutchman,  Tas- 
man,  discovered  Tasmania, which 
he  called  Van  Diemen's  Land,  in 
1642.  and  William  Dampier,  an 
Englishman,  visited  the  conti- 
nent in  1688  and  1699. 

A  century  later  (1770)  Cap- 
tain Cook  came  upon  this  island 
continent,  in  the  course  of  his 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe, 
exploring  the  whole  eastern 
coast  from  Gipps  Land  on  the 
southeast  (in  Victoria)  to  Cape 
York.  This  expedition  stayed  a 
week  in  'Botany  Bay,'  where  Sir 
Joseph  Banks  and  his  associate. 
Dr.  Solander,  collected  some 
thousand  species  of  the  wonders 

Vol.  I. — Mar.  '26 


Australia 


485  E 


Australia 


of  Australian  botany  to  show  at 
home.  Twenty  years  later  (1790), 
a  naval  surgeon  by  the  name 
of  Bass,  navigated  Bass  Strait 
with  Lieutenant  Flinders.  In 
1792  Flinders  surveyed  Moreton 
Bay  and  Hervey  Bay;  in  1801, 
Spencer  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Vincent,  as  also  the  coast 
on  the  east  and  north.  In  1800 
Captain  Grant,  and  in  1802 
Lieutenant  Murray,  explored 
the  shores  of  Victoria;  the  latter 
discovering  the  bay  of  Port 
Phillip,  at  the  head  of  which 
stands  the  city  of  Melbourne. 
The  exploration  of  the  whole 
coast  of  Australia  was  com- 
pleted by  the  Beagle  (in  which 
Charles  Darwin  sailed),  1837-43. 

The  first  British  settlement 
having  been  made  in  1788  at 
Port  Jackson  (where  Sydney 
now  stands),  inland  exploration 
followed.  For  the  first  twenty- 
five  years  it  was  limited,  by  the 
barrier  of  the  Blue  Mountains, 
to  a  district  of  some  50  miles 
inland.  In  1813,  however,  these 
mountains  were  crossed,  and  the 
valley  of  the  Fish  River  and 
Bathurst  Plains  were  for  the 
first  time  brought  within  the 
limits  of  civilization.  Two  years 
later  (1815)  the  Lachlan  River 
(tributary  of  the  Murrumbidgee) 
was  discovered  and  traced  300 
miles  in  a  southwesterly  direc- 
tion to  a  'marsh.'  Next  the 
Macquarie  (tributary  of  the 
Darling)  was  discovered,  and 
followed  likewise  to  a  'marsh' — 
experiences  which  suggested  the 
theory  of  a  sea  in  the  interior 
of  Australia.  Oxley  pushed  ex- 
ploration through  New  South 
Wales  into  Queensland,  laying 
open  the  Brisbane  River. 

In  1819  Hamilton  Hume 
reached  the  Murrumbidgee;  and 
in  1824  he  travelled  overland 
from  Sydney  to  Port  Phillip, 
crossing  the  Upper  Murray  en 
route.  In  1828  Hume  and  Cap- 
tain Sturt  followed  the  Mac- 
quarie to  its  junction  with  the 
Darling,  and  in  the  following 
year  vSturt  traced  the  Murrum- 
bidgee to  its  junction  with  the 
Murray;  then  sailed  down  the 
Murray  to  its  discharge  into 
Lake  Alexandrina,  a  few  miles 
from  its  entrance  to  the  sea  at 
Encounter  Bay.  Major  Mitchell 
traced  the  Lachlan  through  the 
'marshes,'  discovered  (1835)  the 
Loddon  and  Wimmera,  crossed 
the  Grampians,  descended  the 
Goulburn  to  the  Murray,  and 
altogether  surveyed  the  fairest 
and  richest  part  of  Victoria, 
'Australia  Felix,'  as  he  admir- 
ingly named  it.  In  1839  E.  J. 
Eyre  discovered  Lake  Torrens 
(in  vSouth  Australia) ;  and  in 
1840,  after  exploring  its  eastern 
shores,  and  the  Flinders  Range 
to  the  south,  accomplished  a 
successful  but  perilous  march  of 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


1,209  miles  from  Adelaide  to 
King  George's  Sound. 

In  1844-5  Captain  Sturt  started 
from  the  Darling  (130  miles 
above  its  confluence  with  the 
Murray),  travelled  250  miles 
northwestward,  then  north  to 
the  Grey  Ranges,  over  endless, 
deep  red  sand  ridges,  and  a  bar- 
ren mud  plain,  through  'Spinifex' 
(spiny  lacerating  'porcupine 
grass')  to  a  point  within  150 
miles  of  the  centre  of  the  con- 
tinent. In  1843-6  Leichardt  ex- 
plored Queensland  from  the 
south  borders  to  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria.  In  1844  he  crossed 
from  Fitzroy  River  to  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
whence  he  made  his  way  west- 
ward along  the  north  coast  as 
far  as  Port  Essington. 

One  of  the  greatest  and  most 
successful  of  all  Australian  ex- 
plorations was  the  crossing  of 
the  continent,  from  south  to 
north,  from  Adelaide  to  a  point 
west  of  Chambers  Bay,  in  1862, 
by  J.  M'Douall  Stuart;  opening 
up  the  Albert  River,  the  Finke 
River,  the  Macdonnell  Ranges, 
the  Ashburton  Ranges,  etc., 
altogether  a  practicable  route 
across  the  continent  through  a 
fairly  continuous,  if  narrow  belt 
of  upland  and  stream,  a  route 
utilized  in  1872  for  a  telegraph 
line,  with  fixed  stations.  Nearly 
contemporaneous  with  this  for- 
tunate expedition  was  the  tragic 
one  of  Burke  and  Wills.  Start- 
ing from  Melbourne,  these  two 
explorers  reached  Cooper's  Creek, 
the  lower  course  of  the  Barcoo 
River.  Leaving  the  larger  por- 
tion of  their  cumbrous  cavalcade, 
they  pushed  on,  passing  the 
M'Kinlay  Mountains,  and  reach- 
ing the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Flinders,  the 
first  passage  made  across  the 
continent.  On  their  return  jour- 
ney they  perished  of  starvation 
at  Cooper's  Creek.  M'Kinlay, 
sent  in  search  of  the  lost  party, 
traversed  the  whole  continent  to 
Albert  River,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria,  thence  eastward  to 
Burdekin  River  and  Port  Deni- 
son  in  Queensland.  In  1861  F. 
F.  Gregory  explored  800  miles  of 
the  northwest  of  Australia.  The 
west  side  of  Cape  York  Peninsula 
was  explored  by  Jardine  in  1864. 

In  1872,  Ernest  Giles  started 
from  Chambers  Pillar,  near  the 
Charlotte  Waters  telegraph  sta- 
tion; but  in  spite  of  the  most 
stubborn  resolution,  reached  only 
100  miles  to  the  north  of  Lake 
Amadeus.  In  1873-4,  starting 
200  miles  farther  south,  he 
reached  halfway  across  to  the 
west  coast.  In  1873,  however, 
Colonel  Warburton,  starting  in 
April  from  Alice  Springs  (just 
north  of  the  tropic)  with  camels 
arrived  in  December  of  that  year 
at  Oakover  River  in  Western 


Australia.  In  1874  John  Forrest, 
with  horses  only,  passed  from 
Murchison  River  on  the  west 
coast,  to  the  telegraph  line  a 
little  to  the  north  of  Peake  Sta- 
tion. In  1875  Giles  crossed  from 
the  head  of  St.  Vincent  Gulf  to 
Perth  on  the  west  coast,  having 
traversed  2,500  miles  through  a 
country  unfit  for  settlement,  and 
for  1,000  miles  had  to  force  his 
way  through  interminable  scrub. 

The  first  civilized  settlement 
in  Australia  was  made  at  Botany 
Bay  in  1788  by  1,030  persons, 
mostly  convicts.  In  1825  More- 
ton  Bay  (now  Queensland)  was 
settled  as  a  part  of  New  South 
Wales,  attaining  in  December, 
1859,  the  position  of  a  separate 
colony.  The  settlement  of  West- 
ern Australia  (the  Swan  River 
Settlement,  as  it  was  then  called) 
dates  from  1829.  It  continued 
to  be  a  penal  settlement  from 
1851  to  1868.  Port  Phillip  (now 
Victoria),  then  a  part  of  New 
South  Wales,  was  first  colonized 
in  1835,  and  on  July  1,  1851, 
was  constituted  an  independent 
colony.  The  colonization  of 
South  Australia  by  British  emi- 
grants dates  from  1836. 

All  the  colonies  were  granted 
responsible  government  between 
1850  and  1860,  except  West 
Australia,  which,  on  account  of 
its  sparse  population,  was  not 
granted  self-government  until 
1893. 

The  definite  movement  for 
Federation  began  in  1885,  with 
the  creation,  by  the  Imperial 
Parliament,  of  the  Federal  Coun- 
cil of  Australasia,  representing 
Victoria,  Queensland,  Tasmania, 
Western  Australia,  and  Fiji,  but 
having  merely  advisory  powers. 
Another  step  was  taken  in  1891 
by  the  calling  of  a  national  con- 
vention at  Sydney;  and  a  third 
step  in  1897,  when  a  constitu- 
tional convention  was  assembled 
and  a  constitution  drawn  up. 
This  constitution  was  submitted 
to  the  various  colonies  in  1898, 
rejected,  amended,  re-submitted 
in  1899,  and,  in  spite  of  strong 
opposition,  accepted.  In  1900 
the  constitution  was  submitted 
to  the  British  Parliament,  and  on 
Jan.  1,  1901,  the'  six  colonies 
were  proclaimed  a  British  colo- 
nial federation,  under  the  title 
of  'The  Commonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia.' 

Among  important  events  in  the 
recent  history  of  the  Federation 
have  been  the  selection  and  ac- 
quisition of  a  site  for  the  Federal 
capital  in  the  Yass-Canberra  dis- 
trict of  New  South  Wales,  and 
the  adoption  of  plans  for  the  new 
capital  city  Canberra  (150  miles 
southwest  of  Sydney);  financial 
readjustment  (see  section  on 
Finance);  the  acquisition  of  the 
Northern  Territory  and  the 
island  of  Papua;  the  adoption  of 


Australia 


485  F 


Australian  Literature 


a  new  system  of  military  and 
naval  defence;  and  the  series  of 
improvements  on  the  Murray 
River  at  a  cost  of  $22,500,000. 

Labor  is  thoroughly  organized 
as  a  political  force  in  Australia. 
It  has  controlled  the  policy  of 
some  of  the  states  for  years, 
and  has  played  an  important  part 
in  the  Commonwealth.  Among 
the  labor  measures  in  force  are 
those  providing  for  old  age 
pensions  (1908),  a  graduated 
land  tax,  the  pensioning  of  all 
helpless  persons  over  sixteen, 
and  a  maternity  bonus  (1912). 
A  Labor  ministry  was  in  power 
in  1908-09,  and  again  from  1910 
to  1913.  It  was  replaced  in  the 
latter  year  by  the  Liberal 
Party,  but  returned  to  power 
for  the  third  time  in  1914,  under 
the  leadership  of  Andrew  Fisher. 
At  the  end  of  1915  Fisher  re- 
signed to  become  High  Com- 
missioner to  London,  and  Wil- 
liam M.  Hughes  became  Prime 
Minister. 

The  chief  political  issue  dur- 
ing the  years  1916  and  1917 
was  conscription  for  military 
service  abroad,  service  under 
the  Defence  Act  being  compul- 
sory for  home  defence  only. 
In  October,  1916,  a  referendum 
was  held,  and  conscription  was 
defeated.  Mr.  Hughes'  advo- 
cacy of  compulsory  service  drove 
him  from  the  leadership  of  the 
Labor  Party,  and  in  February, 
1917,  he  resigned  but  was  at 
once  requested  by  the  Governor- 
General  to  form  a  new  coalition 
cabinet.  This  he  did  under  the 
name  of  the  Commonwealth 
War  Government.  The  election 
in  May  saw  the  complete  defeat 
of  the  Labor  Party,  but  a  second 
referendum  on  conscription, 
taken  in  December  1917,  re- 
sulted in  the  defeat  of  the 
measure  by  an  even  greater 
majority  than  in  the  previous 
year.  In  January  1918,  the 
entire  Hughes  cabinet  resigned 
and  a  new  ministry  was  formed, 
Hughes  still  retaining  the  pre- 
miership. 

At  the  general  election  in 
1923,  W.  H.  Hughes,  as  leader 
of  the  Nationalist  party,  failed 
to  secure  a  majority  in  excess  of 
the  Country  and  Labor  parties, 
and  thereupon  resigned  as  Prime 
Minister.  Stanley  M.  Bruce 
was  elected  leader  of  the  Na- 
tionalist party,  and  with  Dr. 
Earle  Page,  leader  of  the  Country 
party,  formed  e  coalition  govern- 
ment. At  the  general  election 
in  November  1925,  the  Prime 
Minister,  Mr.  Bruce,  was  re- 
turned with  an  absolute  majority 
of  Nationalists.  No  change  was 
made  in  the  character  of  the 
Government,  however,  which 
met  Parliament  in  January  1926 
as  a  cabinet  comprising  both 
members  of  the  Nationalist  and 


Country  parties.  At  the  same 
election,  the  Senate  received  an 
absolute  majority  of  Nationalists, 

Australia's  part  in  the  Great 
War  was  a  notable  one.  More 
than  362,000  volunteers,  fully 
equipped  and  trained,  were  sent 
to  the  front,  and  Australian 
troops,  with  the  New  Zealanders 
(see  Anzacs),  saw  service  in 
the  Pacific,  where  they  compelled 
the  surrender  of  Herbertshohe, 
German  New  Guinea,  in  Egypt, 
in  the  disastrous  Gallipoli  cam- 
paign (see  Dardanelles),  in 
Southern  Palestine  and  Meso- 
potamia, and  on  the  Western 
Front.  The  Commonwealth 
government  organized  a  pool 
for  supplying  Great  Britain  and 
her  Allies  with  Australian  wheat, 
and  a  line  of  cargo  steamers  was 
purchased  for  transporting  it. 

Bibliography. — Bentham  and 
Mueller's  Flora  Australiensis; 
Lang's  The  Aborigines  of  Aus- 
tralia; Rusden's  History  of  Aus- 
tralia; Finch-Hatton's  Advance 
Australia;  Froude's  Oceana; 
Favenc's  History  of  Australian 
Exploration;  Curr's  The  Austra- 
lian Race;  Lumholtz'  Among 
Cannibals;  Giles'  Australia  Twice 
Traversed;  Schmeisser's  Gold 
Fields  of  Australasia;  Kent's 
Great  Barrier  Reef  of  Australia; 
Barton's  Outlines  of  Australian 
Physiography;  Collingridge's  Dis- 
covery of  Australia;  Afialo's  Nat- 
ural History  of  Australia;  Gar- 
ran's  Coming  Commonwealth; 
Cockburn's  Australian  Federa- 
tion; Grey's  A  ustralasia  Old  and 
New;  Jenks'  History  of  Austra- 
lia; Reeves'  State  Experiments 
in  Australia  and  New  Zealand; 
Thomas'  Natives  of  Australia 
(1906);  St.  Ledger's  Australian 
Socialism  (1909);  Eraser's  Aus- 
tralia: The  Making  of  a  Nation 
(1910);  Jose's  History  of  Aus- 
tralasia (1911);  Taylor's  Aus- 
tralia: Its  Physiographic  and 
Economic  Aspects  (1911);  Fitch- 
ett's  The  New  World  of  the 
South,  Australia  in  the  Mak- 
ing (1913);  Wise's  The  Common- 
wealth of  Australia  (1909)  and 
The  Making  of  the  Common- 
wealth (1913);  Duncan's  Aus- 
tralian Byways  (1915);  Mills' 
The  Colonization  of  Australia 
(1915);  Scott's  Short  History  of 
Australia  (1916);  Murdock's  The 
Making  of  Australia  (1917);  The 
Australian  Encyclopedia  (2  vols., 
1925-6);  The  Year  Book  of 
Australia  (annual);  Official  Year 
Book  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia  (annual). 

Australian  Alps,  a  mountain 
range  of  Southeastern  Australia, 
part  of  the  Great  Dividing 
Range,  stretching  from  near 
Melbourne  to  the  southeastern 
part  of  New  vSouth  Wales. 
Length,  about  400  miles;  width, 
about  100  miles.  The  loftiest 
summits  are  Mount  Townsend 


(7,347  feet)  and  Mount  Borong 
(6,508  feet). 

Australian    As!i.    See  Flin- 

DERSIA, 

Australian  Ballot,  a  method 
of  voting  in  which  the  ballots, 
printed  by  the  government  and 
having  the  names  of  all  the  can- 
didates of  all  parties  inscribed 
thereon,  are  handed  to  each  voter 
as  he  enters  the  voting  booth, 
that  he  may  designate  the  candi- 
dates he  desires  to  support  with 
his  vote,  absolute  secrecy  and 
freedom  of  choice  being  thus  se- 
cured in  the  ballot.  The  method 
was  first  employed  with  success 
in  some  of  the  Australian  states. 
It  has  been  adopted,  sometimes 
in  a  modified  form,  by  many 
States  of  the  United  States.  See 
Ballot. 

Australian  Gum  Tree.  See 
Eucalyptus. 

Australian  Literature,  while 
essentially  part  of  English  litera- 
ture, is  yet  sufficiently  distinc- 
tive to  justify  a  separate  classifi- 
cation. The  first  Australian 
poet  worthy  of  the  title  is 
Charles  Harpur  (1812-68),  whose 
Bushrangers  and  Other  Poems 
appeared  in  1853.  Harpur  is 
worthy  of  note  for  his  faithful 
descriptions  of  bush  life  and  as 
the  forerunner  of  Henry  Clarence 
Kendall  (1842-82),  in  whose 
work  the  Australian  genius  finds 
its  first  real  expression.  Ken- 
dall's poetry  is  characterized 
by  a  musical  quality  wholly 
lacking  in  Harpur,  combined 
with  a  melancholy  beauty  and 
deep  sincerity  of  feeUng.  'Sep- 
tember in  Australia,'  'The  Grave 
of  Leichhardt'  and  'At  Euroma' 
are  typical  poems.  Adam  Lind- 
say Gordon,  author  of  Bush 
Ballads  and  Galloping  Rhymes, 
although  a  Scotsman,  is  con- 
sidered by  some  the  real  pioneer 
poet  of  Australia.  The  vigor 
and  adventurous  spirit  of  his 
work  are  typically  Australian, 
and  many  of  his  poems,  as 
'How  We  Beat  the  Favorite,' 
'The  Sick  Stock  Rider,'  and 
'The  Rhyme  of  the  Joyous 
Garde',  are  well  known. 

Among  other  Australian  poets 
are  Brunton  Stevens,  whose 
'Convict  Once'  is  of  real  liter- 
ary worth  and  whose  humorous 
poems  are  deservedly  popular; 
George  Gordon  M'Crae,  author 
of  two  epics  of  the  Australian 
natives;  and  Alfred  Domett, 
author  of  the  Maori  epic  'Ranolf 
and  Amohia.'  Among  the  later 
Australian  poets  are  Boake, 
whose  best  poem  is  'Down  Where 
the  Deadmen  Lie,'  A.  B.  Patter- 
son, whose  Man  from  Snowy 
River  met  with  remarkable  suc- 
cess, and  Henry  Lawson,  who 
is  equally  famous  for  his  short 
stories.  When  the  Billy  Boils. 

Marcus  Clarke  (1846-81)  is 
probably  the  best  all-round  man 

Vol.  L — Mar.  '26 


Australian  Oats 


486 


Austria 


of  letters  Australia  can  claim.  A 
literary  critic,  short  story  writer, 
and  novelist,  his  fame  rests 
chiefly  upon  his  For  the  Term  of 
His  Natural  Life,  a  powerful 
novel  picturing  in  gruesome  de- 
tail the  conditions  existing  in 
Australia  in  the  early  days  when 
it  was  little  more  than  a  penal 
colony.  Henry  Kingsley  (1830- 
76),  brother  of  the  more  famous 
Charles  Kingsley,  though  not  an 
Australian,  was  the  author  of 
two  novels  which  portray  most 
vividly  the  pastoral  epoch  of 
Australian  history.  The  Recollec- 
tions of  Geoffrey  Hamlyn  and 
The  Hillyars  and  the  Burtons. 
'Rolf  Bolderwood'  (Thomas 
Alexander  Browne),  Kingsley's 
foremost  disciple,  has  furnished 
some  excellent  though  hardly 
profound  pictures  of  AustraUan 
life  in  his  Robbery  under  Arms 
(1888)  and  other  novels,  as  well 
as  in  his  Old  Melbourne  Memories. 
Mrs.  Campbell  Praed  has  done 
more  than  any  other  novelist 
to  depict  the  political  and  social 
side  of  Australian  life.  Policy 
and  Passion  is  one  of  her  finest 
novels,  while  Australian  Life: 
Black  and  White  is  an  excellent 
volume  of  reminiscences  of 
Queensland. 

Other  Australian  writers  of 
note  are  Ada  Cambridge,  Ma- 
dame Couveur  ('Tasma'),  Mary 
Gaunt,  Louis  Becke,  Guy  Booth- 
by,  'Steele  Rudd,'  Ethel  Turner, 
Hume  Nisbit,  Price  Warung,  and 
the  historical  and  philosophic 
writers,  Charles  Henry  Pearson, 
William  Edward  Hearn,  and  G. 
W.  Rusden. 

Consult  Turner  and  Suther- 
land's The  Development  of  Aus- 
tralian Literature;  Stevens'  Golden 
Treasury  of  Australian  Verse 
(1909). 

Australian  Oats.  See  Rescue 
Grass. 

Austrasia,  6s-tra'sha,  or  King- 
dom OF  THE  East  (as  opposed  to 
Neustria,  which  formed  the 
Kingdom  of  the  West),  a  large 
part  of  Prankish  Gaul,  compris- 
ing Thuringia,  the  duchies  of 
Alemanni,  of  Bavaria,  and  Fries- 
land,  with  all  the  country 
between  the  Rhine,  Meuse,  and 
Scheldt.  Metz  was  its  capital. 
Austrasia  was  founded  in  511, 
and  governed  from  the  sixth  to 
the  eighth  century  by  a  succes- 
sion of  Merovingian  kings,  ulti- 
mately being  merged,  under 
Charlemagne's  successor,  into 
Germany,  as  Neustria  was  into 
France. 

Austremoine,  6-str'mwan',  or 
Stremonius,  St.,  apostle  and 
first  bishop  of  Auvergne.  He 
introduced  Christianity  into  Is- 
soire,  France,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, but  the  Christian  commu- 
nity which  he  established  was 
overthrown  in  the  fifth  century 
by  the  Vandals.  The  Church  of 
St.  Paul  at  Issoire  is  built  on  the 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


site  of  his  tomb.  His  day  is 
Nov.  1. 

Aus'tria,  a  country  of  Central 
Europe,  constituting,  prior  to 
the  Great  War,  the  western 
half  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy  (see  Austria-Hun- 
gary), and  embracing  the  king- 
dom of  Bohemia,  the  margra- 
vate  of  Moravia,  the  duchy  of 
Silesia,  the  archduchies  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Austria,  the  duchies 
of  Styria,  Salzburg,  Carinthia, 
and  Carniola,  the  county  of 
Tyrol,  the  dependency  of  Vorarl- 
berg,  the  county  of  Gorz  and 
Gradisca,  the  margravate  of 
Istria,  the  town  of  Trieste, 
and  a  coast  strip  of  the  Adriatic 
(the  kingdom  of  Dalmatia); 
the  kingdom  of  Galicia  and  the 
duchy  of  Bukowina,  lying  north 
and  northeast  of  Hungary;  and 
after  1908,  the  provinces  of 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  Stretch- 
ing from  Prussia  and  Saxony  in 
the  north  to  Italy  in  the  south, 
and  from  Switzerland  and  Ba- 
varia in  the  west  to  Russia, 
Hungary,  Servia,  and  Monte- 
negro in  the  east,  it  covered  a 
covered  a  total  area  of  135,600 
square  miles. 


Area  and  Population  of  Austria 
(1910). 


Area 

Provinces. 

(Square 

Popu- 

Miles). 

lation. 

Lower  Austria. . . 

7,658 

3,531,814 

Upper  Austria. .  . 

4,628 

853,006 

Salzburg  

2,763 

214,737 

Styria  

8,662 

1,444,157 

Carinthia  

3,989 

396,200 

Carniola  

3,845 

525,995 

Coastland  

3,079 

893,797 

Tyrol  and  Vorarl- 

berg  

11,312 

1,092,021 

Bohemia  

20,065 

6,769,548 

Moravia  

8,583 

2,622,271 

Silesia  

1,988 

756,949 

30,321 

8,025,675 

4,033 

800,098 

Dalmatia   

4,956 

645,666 

Bosnia  and  Her- 

zegovina  

19,718 

1,898,000 

Total  

135,600 

30,669,934 

By  the  terms  of  the  Peace 
Treaty  (1919)  this  area  was  re- 
duced to  between  40,000  and 
50,000  square  miles,  the  recon- 
stituted nation,  known  as  the 
Republic  of  Austria,  including 
only  Upper  and  Lower  Austria, 
Vorarlberg,  Salzburg,  and  parts 
of  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  and  Styria. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Czechoslovak  Republic;  on 
the  east  by  an  independent 
Hungary;  on  the  south  by  the 
Jugoslav  state  and  Italy;  and 
on  the  west  by  Switzerland  and 
Germany. 

Topography. — With  the  ex- 
ception of  Switzerland,  Austria 
is  the  most  mountainous  country 
in  Europe,  the  greater  part  of 
the  surface  being  covered  by  the 
ranges  and  peaks  of  the  Eastern 


Alps.  The  Bohemian  Forest 
(Bohmerwald)  extends  into 
Upper  Austria,  occupying  the 
entire  section  north  of  the 
Danube,  and  the  Little  Carpa- 
thians separate  Lower  Austria 
from  Hungary. 

Austria  is  for  the  most  part 
well  watered.  The  principal 
river  is  the  Danube  (q.  v.), 
which  traverses  the  country  for 
a  distance  of  234  miles  and,  with 
its  tributaries — the  Inn,  Enns, 
March,  Drave,  and  Save — waters 
over  half  the  country.  Vorarl- 
berg is  dominated  by  the  Rhine, 
which  forms  a  boundary  line 
between  Switzerland  and  Austria. 
There  are  numerous  small  moun- 
tain lakes,  some  of  them  of  great 
beauty. 

Climate  and  Soil. — Owing  to 
the  wide  diversity  in  altitude, 
the  climate  is  extremely  varied; 
on  the  whole,  it  is  moderate. 
Short,  mild  winters  and  long 
summers  are  characteristic  of 
the  south;  more  severe  winters 
and  hotter  summers  of  the 
northern  and  central  portions. 
The  mean  annual  temperature  at 
Vienna  is  49°  F.  The  rainfall  is 
heaviest  in  the  Alpine  regions. 
The  snow  line  on  the  Alps  runs 
at  about  9,200  feet.  The  most 
fertile  country  is  in  the  river 
valleys. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — The  di- 
verse climatic  and  geographic 
conditions  of  Austria  are  accom- 
panied by  a  similar  diversity  in 
its  flora.  Generally  speaking, 
vines  and  maize  grow  in  the 
lowlands,  cereals  on  the  moun- 
tain slopes,  and  forests  still 
higher,  sometimes  over  6,000 
feet  above  sea  level.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  flowering 
plants,  especially  in  Lower  Aus- 
tria, which  alone  has  some  1,700 
species. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  domes- 
tic animals,  which  are  found 
throughout  the  country,  wild 
boars,  deer,  bears,  lynxes,  wolves, 
foxes,  chamois,  and  similar  ani- 
mals abound  in  certain  districts. 
Birds  are  numerous  and  fish 
abundant.  The  bee  and  the  silk- 
worm are  cultivated  with  excel- 
lent results. 

Forestry. — The  forests  of  Aus- 
tria, many  of  which  are  state 
property,  are  extensive,  more 
than  a  third  of  the  total  culti- 
vated area  being  woodland. 
Styria  is  the  most  heavily 
wooded  of  the  provinces.  The 
principal  trees  are  oak,  ash, 
pine,  beech,  and  elm,  pines 
largely  predominating.  Aside 
from  the  value  of  the  timber, 
the  forests  are  of  great  import- 
ance to  agriculture  and  other 
industries.  In  the  Alpine  prov- 
inces they  attract  rain,  and  often 
prevent  damage  from  mountain 
torrents  and  avalanches. 

Mining. — The  mineral  re- 
sources of  the  old  Austrian  Em- 


Photos  by  rublls/tcrs  rUol'i  .-a:n  ice 

AUSTRIA 

1.  A  Typical  Styrian  Village.    2.  Houses  of  Parliament,  Vienna. 
Vol.  I.— Page  487.  Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Austria 


488 


Austria 


pire  were  so  extensive  as  to  be 
practically  inexhaustible,  includ- 
ing, with  the  single  exception 
of  platinum,  every  metal  of 
value  for  manufacture  and  indus- 
try. The  total  value  of  mining 
products  in  1913  was  over  $75,- 
000,000,  exclusive  of  salt  and 
petroleum. 

The  loss  of  Bohemia,  Silesia, 
and  Moravia  by  the  terms  of 
the  Peace  Treaty  deprived  Aus- 
tria of  her  richest  coal  lands 
and  of  valuable  deposits  of 
iron,  silver,  lead,  and  graphite; 
while  the  loss  of  Galicia  meant 
also  the  loss  of  large  quantities 
of  petroleum  and  rock  salt. 
The  mineral  wealth  of  the 
country  is,  in  spite  of  these 
losses,  still  considerable.  Coal 
and  lignite  are  mined  in  Upper 
and  Lower  Austria,  Styria, 
Carinthia,  and  Tyrol;  and  iron 
in  Styria  and  Carinthia,  while 
salt  is  extracted  from  brine 
springs  in  the  Alpine  districts. 
There  are  deposits,  also,  of  gold, 
precious  stones,  graphite,  tin, 
copper,  lead,  zinc,  nickel,  anti- 
mony, quicksilver,  and  sulphur. 

Agriculture.  —  Although  the 
growth  of  modern  industrial  life 
in  Austria  has  attracted  large 
numbers  from  the  soil,  agricul- 
ture remains  an  important  indus- 
try, and  the  mainstay  of  large 
numbers  of  people.  The  greatest 
amount  of  arable  land  is  in  Lower 
Austria;  the  largest  area  of 
vinelands  in  Lower  Austria, 
Styria,  and  Carinthia.  Forest, 
pasture,  and  meadow  lands  pre- 
vail in  the  mountains  of  Vorarl- 
berg  and  Styria,  and  corn  lands 
in  Upper  and  Lower  Austria. 

The  most  important  products 
are  cereals  and  root  crops.  The 
principal  crops,  with  their  acre- 
age and  yield  in  1924,  are  as 
follows:  wheat,  481,000  acres, 
8,491,000  bushels;  rye.  928,000 
acres,  16,188,000  bushels;  barley, 
341,000  acres,  7,207,000  bushels; 
oats,  763,000  acres,  22,838,000 
bushels;  corn,  147,000  acres, 
3,916,000  bushels;  potatoes,  411,- 
000  acres,  56,033,000  bushels; 
sugar  beets,  46,000  acres,  365,000 
metric  tons;  vines,  79,000  acres, 
5,941,000  gallons  of  wine.  Dairy 
farming  is  carried  on  in  Carin- 
thia, Tyrol,  and  Vorarlberg. 

Stock  raising  is  an  important 
source  of  revenue,  and  horses 
cattle,  and  sheep  are  exported. 

Transportation.  —  The  total 
mileage  of  railways  in  Austria  in 
1924  was  4,126,  of  which  3,715 
miles  were  state-operated.  The 
policy  of  railway  nationalization 
was  begun  about  thirty-five 
years  ago.  The  most  important 
waterways  are  the  Danube  and 
its  tributaries. 

Manufactures. — The  manufac- 
turing industries  enjoy  several 
natural  advantages,  as  good 
water  supply,  equable  distribu- 


tion of  fuel,  abundance  of  raw 
materials,  cheap  labor,  and  fairly 
good  and  economical  means  of 
communication,  besides  being 
fostered  by  excellent  technical 
schools,  museums,  and  favorable 
legislative  measures.  Under  the 
old  regime  the  domestic  indus- 
tries were  everywhere  common 
and  productive,  and  large  indus- 
trial establishments  were  numer- 
ous, including  the  various  iron 
trades,  the  manufacture  of  sugar, 
porcelain,  pottery,  glass,  chemi- 
cals, beer,  musical  and  scientific 
instruments,  paper,  leather,  silk, 
woollens,  cottons  and  linens, 
tobacco,  bronze  and  other  fancy 
articles,  flour  milling,  lace  mak- 
ing, and  saw  milling. 

Following  the  Great  War, 
Austrian  industries  suffered  se- 
verely. In  1924  the  principal 
manufactured  products  were  iron 
and  steel,  paper  and  wood  pulp, 
cardboard,  pianos,  motor  cars, 
textiles,  and  tobacco. 

Commerce. — By  virtue  of  an 
agreement  between  Austria  and 
Hungary,  made  in  1867  and 
renewed  every  ten  years,  the  two 
countries  under  pre-war  condi- 
tions formed  a  single  customs 
territory.  Their  commercial  im- 
portance to  each  other  was 
paramount,  Austria's  agricultural 
imports  from  Hungary  amount- 
ing to  about  $200,000,000  annu- 
ally, and  her  exports  of  manu- 
factures to  Hungary  being  of 
about  equal  value.  In  1913  the 
exports  of  the  common  territory 
amounted  to  $606,469,000,  of 
which  $512,337,000  represented 
Austria's  share;  imports  were 
valued  at  $712,266,000,  of  which 
Austria's  share  was  $597,354,- 
000.  The  chief  articles  of  import 
were  cotton,  coal,  wool,  ma- 
chinery, and  coffee;  the  principal 
exports  were  sugar,  wood,  glass, 
and  hides.  Trade  with  Ger- 
many was  valued  at  $502,776,000 
($277,304,000  imports;  $225,- 
472,000  exports) ;  with  the  United 
Kingdom,  $98,920,000  ($44,146,- 
000  imports;  $54,774,000  ex- 
ports) ;  with  the  United  States, 
$79,895,000  ($65,637,000  im- 
ports; $14,258,000  exports);  with 
Italy,  $78,081,000  ($34,316,000 
imports;  $43,765,000  exports). 

During  the  war,  trade  could 
be  carried  on  only  with  the  coun- 
tries allied  to  Austria-Hungary 
and  with  the  neutral  countries 
of  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands, 
Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden; 
production  naturally  decreased, 
and  the  percentage  of  excess  of 
imports  over  exports  increased 
steadily. 

In  1924  the  foreign  trade 
reached  its  highest  level  (up  to 
that  time)  since  the  war,  with 
imports  valued  at  $469,223,000 
and  exports  at  $256,141,000. 
The  principal  imports  (by  value) 
were  coal,  textiles  (cotton,  silk. 


and  woollen),  grain,  and  flour. 
Exports  included  iron  and  steel 
and  other  metals,  cotton  and 
silk  goods,  wood,  clothing,  ma- 
chinery, and  leather. 

Finance. — The  net  proceeds  of 
the  customs  of  Austria  and 
Hungary  were  devoted  to  the 
administration  of  common  affairs, 
the  expenditures  in  excess  of  the 
customs  revenue  being  divided 
between  the  two  countries — 
Austria  paying  63.6  per  cent., 
and  Hungary  36.4  per  cent.  The 
two  countries  had  a  general  debt 
of  $1,034,000,000  and  in  addition 
Austria  had  a  special  debt  of 
$1,410,000,000  (1912).  The  Aus- 
trian budget  for  1913  showed 
estimated  revenue  of  $653,642,- 
000,  and  expenditures  of  $653,- 
584,000. 

At  the  break-up  of  the  old 
empire  by  the  terms  of  the  Peace 
Treaty,  Austrian  finances  were 
in  a  state  of  chaos.  The  almost 
complete  paralysis  of  the  foreign 
trade,  the  loss  of  many  of  the 
country's  most  productive  terri- 
tories, and  the  general  economic 
disorganization  incident  to  the 
war,  created  a  situation  that 
threatened  to  end  in  complete 
disaster.  The  attempt  to  meet 
the  problem  by  the  issue  of  paper 
currency  served  only  to  increase 
the  difficulty.  Generous  foreign 
loans  gave  merely  temporary 
relief,  and  the  value  of  the 
crown,  already  far  below  the 
normal  of  twenty  cents,  fell  to 
less  than  a  hundredth  of  a  cent 
in  the  summer  of  1922, 

At  this  juncture  the  impover- 
ished government  appealed  for 
assistance  to  the  Supreme  Coun- 
cil of  Allied  Premiers  meeting  in 
London,  but  this  body  could 
promise  no  further  financial 
assistance  from  the  Allied  Powers 
unless  the  League  of  Nations 
might  be  able  to  propose  'such  a 
programme  of  reconstruction'  as 
would  induce  foreign  financiers 
to  come  to  Austria's  aid.  In  ac- 
cord with  this  suggestion  the  situ- 
ation was  referred  to  the  League 
Council  meeting  in  Geneva, 
Aug.  31,  1922. 

The  League  of  Nations  plan 
for  the  rehabilitation  of  Austrian 
finances  was  completed  and  the 
protocols  embodying  the  details 
were  signed  by  Great  Britain, 
France,  Italy,  Czechoslovakia, 
and  Austria,  on  Oct.  4,  1922. 
After  providing  that  the  political 
independence,  territorial  integ- 
rity, and  sovereignty  of  Austria 
be  respected  by  the  signatories 
and  that  these  seek  no  exclusive 
economic  or  financial  advantage 
compromising  that  independence, 
they  proceeded  to  outline  in 
detail  a  programme  of  financial 
reform  designed  to  insure  the 
balancing  of  the  Austrian  budget 
by  the  end  of  1924.  The  govern- 
ment was  to  cease  at  once  the 


Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Austria 


489 


Austria 


issue  of  notes,  which  was  to  be 
taken  over  by  a  newly  estab- 
lished Bank  of  Issue  working 
in  accordance  with  certain  defi- 
nite and  specified  conditions, 
and  numerous  other  reforms  were 
to  be  instituted.  The  immedi- 
ate deficit  was  to  be  met  by 
proceeds  from  a  loan  doubly 
guaranteed  by  Austrian  assets 
(customs  and  tobacco  receipts) 
and  by  the  other  signatories  of 
the  agreement.  To  insure  the 
execution  of  the  plan,  a  resident 
commissionc-general  was  ap- 
pointed to  report  monthly  to 
the  League. 

This  plan  was  almost  immedi- 
ately effective.  The  loan  was 
raised  without  delay;  the  crown 
was  stabihzed  at  $0.000014;  and 
the  budget  deficit  was  greatly 
decreased.  The  general  econo- 
mic condition  of  the  country  im- 
proved markedly,  and  foreign 
trade  greatly  increased.  The 
budget  estimates  for  1925  called 
for  expenditures  of  19,307,000,- 
000,000  crowns  and  provided  a 
revenue  of  18,726,000,000,000 
crowns.  Early  in  1925  the  gold 
standard  shilling  was  adopted, 
with  a  value  of  $0.14. 

Population. — At  the  close  of 
1910  the  population  of  Austria 
was  28,571,934  (26,150.708  in 
1900),  exclusive  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina,  whose  population 
was  1,898,044.  In  1912  it  was 
estimated  to  be  28,995,844.  The 
German  element  formed  a  third 
of  this  total,  and  possessed  much 
of  the  country's  wealth  and 
culture.  In  Bohemia  the  Ger- 
mans were  largely  outnumbered 
by  the  Czechs,  the  most  pro- 
gressive of  the  Slavonic  peoples 
in  Austria.  Slovaks,  Poles,  Ru- 
thenians,  Croatians,  Slovenes, 
Serbs,  Magyars,  and  Wallachs 
constituted  the  rest  of  the 
population. 

The  loss  of  the  territories  now 
constituting  the  new  Czecho- 
slovak and  Jugoslav  states  and 
Poland,  greatly  reduced  the 
proportion  of  Czechs,  Slovaks, 
Slovenes,  Croatians,  and  Poles. 
The  total  population  according 
to  the  1923  census  was  6,536,893, 
of  which  number  1,866,147  were 
in  Vienna.  The  other  principal 
cities  are  Graz  (152,706),  Linz 
(102,081),  and  Innsbruck  (56,- 
380). 

Religion. — The  religious  creeds 
of  Austria  are  as  numerous  as 
the  nationalities  represented 
among  its  people.  Religious 
liberty  is  the  leading  principle, 
but  the  Roman  and  Greek 
Catholic  churches  predominate. 
Other  faiths  are  the  Old  Catho- 
lic, Greek  Orthodox,  Evangelical, 
Armenian  Catholic,  Armenian 
Oriental,  Jewish,  and  various 
minor  sects. 

Education. — The  educational 
system   in   Austria   is   of  the 


German  type.  There  are  (1) 
elementary  schools,  (2)  second- 
ary schools,  including  gymnasia, 
realschulen,  and  middle  schools, 
(3)  universities  and  colleges, 
including  three  state  universities, 
and  (4)  schools  offering  training 
in  special  fields.  These  last  in- 
clude higher  technical  schools, 
special  schools  for  textile  indus- 
tries, pottery,  lace  making,  elec- 
tricity, etc.;  masters'  schools  for 
those  already  having  practical 
experience;  preparatory  schools 
for  children  under  twelve;  con- 
tinuation schools  for  apprentices; 
and  commercial  schools.  Ele- 
mentary education  is  free  and 
compulsory. 

Army  and  Navy. — In  addition 
to  the  common  army  of  the 
dual  monarchy  Austria  formerly 
maintained  Landwehr  forces  to 
the  number  of  about  50,000,  mil- 
itary service  being  compulsory 
and  universal.  By  the  military 
law  of  1912  the  term  of  service 
with  the  colors,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, was  reduced  from  three 
to  two  years,  and  the  term  of 
service  in  the  reserve  increased 
from  eight  to  ten  years. 

Naval  affairs  were  adminis- 
tered by  the  Naval  Department 
of  the  common  War  Ministry. 
(See  Austria-Hungary:  De- 
fence.) 

By  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain 
(Sept.  10,  1919),  universal  com- 
pulsory military  service  was 
abolished  in  Austria,  and  the 
country's  military  forces  were 
limited  to  30,000  men.  The 
only  Austrian  war  vessels  are 
four  patrol  boats  on  the  Danube. 

Government. — Prior  to  the 
Great  War  Austria  and  Hungary 
formed  a  dual  monarchy  with  a 
common  ruler  and  common  Min- 
istries of  War,  Foreign  Affairs, 
and  Finance  (see  Austria-Hun- 
gary). Otherwise,  Austria  had 
its  own  parliament,  ministry,  and 
administration.  The  parliament, 
or  Reichsrath,  consisted  of  two 
houses, — the  Upper  House,  com- 
posed of  nobles,  princes  of  the 
Church,  and  life  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  Emperor;  and 
the  Lower  House,  elected  by 
the  provincial  voters  for  six  years, 
but  subject  to  dissolution  by  the 
Emperor.  In  addition,  there  was 
a  delegation  of  60  members 
chosen  from  the  Reichsrath, 
which  met  annually  with  a  sim- 
ilar Hungarian  delegation  to 
consider  financial  matters. 

There  were  17  local  diets,  legis- 
lating on  all  matters  not  expressly 
placed  under  the  Reichsrath, 
Universal  suffrage  was  estab- 
lished in  1907. 

According  to  the  new  Austrian 
constitution,  promulgated  Nov. 
10,  1920,  the  Austrian  republic 
is  a  confederation  of  nine  in- 
dependent states,  with  its  capi- 
tal at  Vienna.    The  legislative 


power  is  vested  in  two  chambers 
— the  National  Council,  whose 
members  are  elected  by  direct 
proportional  suffrage,  for  a  term 
of  four  years,  and  the  Federal 
Council,  elected  by  the  Land- 
tagen  or  diets  of  the  various 
states,  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  citizens  in  each,  to 
serve  for  the  legislative  term  of 
the  diet  electing  them.  The 
two  houses  together  form  the 
Federal  Assembly,  which  con- 
venes only  for  the  purpose  of 
declaring  war  and  electing  the 
president.  The  National  Coun- 
cil acts  on  all  political  treaties, 
presents  the  annual  budget,  and 
fixes  railroad  tariffs  and  com- 
munication duties.  The  Federal 
Council  exercises  a  limited  veto 
power,  and  the  popular  referen- 
dum is  in  force.  The  president  of 
the  Republic,  elected  by  the  two 
legislative  bodies  in  joint  (secret) 
session,  serves  for  four  years 
and  is  eligible  for  re-election 
but  once.  The  other  high  gov- 
ernment ofifacials — chancellor, 
vice-chancellor,  and  ministers — - 
are  chosen  by  the  National 
Council.  Federal  judges  are 
nominated  by  the  president  or 
by  competent  ministers. 

Each  province  has  its  pro- 
vincial diet  (landtag)  and  a 
governor  chosen  by  the  diet 
from  its  membership.  The  pro- 
vincial governments  exercise 
powers  not  expressly  delegated 
to  the  Federal  government  and 
where  special  Federal  officers 
are  not  provided  exercise  Federal 
jurisdiction  in  executing  Federal 
laws. 

History. — The  Austro-Hun- 
garian  monarchy  originated  in  a 
margravate  founded  by  Charle- 
magne at  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century,  to  the  east  of  Bavaria, 
as  a  defence  against  the  Avars. 
It  was  afterward  called  Oester- 
reich,  or  Austria,  being  first  men- 
tioned in  996.  In  900  the  Mag- 
yars seized  the  Mark,  but  in  955 
Otto  the  Great  again  annexed 
it  to  Germany.  In  974  the  Em- 
peror Otto  II.  gave  the  Mark  of 
Austria  to  Leopold  I.,  of  the 
house  of  Babenberg,  who  con- 
quered a  large  portion  of  Hun- 
garian territory,  and  peopled  it 
with  German  colonists.  For  some 
260  years,  till  the  family  died 
out,  the  house  of  Babenberg  con- 
tinued to  rule  the  Austrian  lands. 

A  period  of  confusion  followed, 
and  after  some  fighting,  Ottokar, 
king  of  Bohemia,  gained  posses- 
sion of  the  Austrian  territories 
(1252),  to  which  he  added  by 
inheritance  Carinthia  and  Car- 
niola  in  1269.  In  1276,  how- 
ever, he  lost  them  all  through 
his  refusal  to  recognize  as  em- 
peror Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  who 
gave  (1282)  Austria,  Styria,  and 
Carniola  in  fief  to  his  sons  Albert 
and  Rudolf,  and  thus  founded 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Austria 


490 


Austria 


the  future  greatness  of  the  house 
of  Hapsburg.  Carinthia  was 
added  to  its  possessions  in  1335, 
and  Tyrol  in  1363. 

In  1379  two  of  Albert's  grand- 
sons, Albert  iii.  and  Leopold  iii., 
made  a  division — the  former  tak- 
ing Austria  and  the  latter  Styria 
and  the  remaining  lands.  Leo- 
pold fell  at  Sempach  in  1386, 
warring  against  the  Swiss,  but  his 
family  continued  to  rule  in 
Styria.  Albert  v.  secured  (1437) 
Hungary  and  Bohemia  by  mar- 
riage with  the  daughter  of  the 
Emperor  Sigismund,  and  was 
himself  chosen  king  of  the  Ro- 
mans in  1438.  From  this  time 
the  imperial  crown  was  held 
without  interruption  by  the 
house  of  Austria  till  1740,  when 
the  male  line  died  out.  On  Al- 
bert's death,  in  1439,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Frederick  v.  (Emperor 
Frederick  iii.  from  1442),  duke  of 
Styria,  who  governed  (alone  from 
1463)  till  1493.  In  1453  he 
raised  his  hereditary  lands  into 
an  archduchy. 

Between  1439  and  1526  Hun- 
gary and  Bohemia  were  ruled  by 
other  princes,  but  by  prudent 
policy  and  clever  marriages  the 
Hapsburg  power  steadily  grew. 
Frederick's  son,  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  i.,  was,  in  his  own 
right,  archduke  of  Austria,  duke 
of  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Carni- 
ola,  and  count  of  Tyrol,  besides 
having  lands  in  Swabia  and 
Alsace.  His  death,  in  1519,  was 
followed  by  the  accession  of  his 
grandson,  Charles  ii.  of  Spain,  to 
the  imperial  throne  as  Charles 
v.  The  Archduke  Ferdinand, 
brother  of  Charles,  had  married 
the  daughter  of  Ladislaus,  king 
of  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  and  on 
the  death  of  her  brother,  Louis 
II.,  at  Mohacz,  in'  1526,  Ferdi- 
nand was  elected  and  crowned 
king  of  Bohemia,  and  also  chosen 
king  of  Hungary.  But  in  the 
latter  country  a  powerful  party 
placed  John  Zapolya,  voivode  of 
Transylvania,  on  the  throne,  and 
called  in  the  aid  of  Solyman  the 
Magnificent,  the  Turkish  Sultan, 
who  twice  advanced  to  the  walls 
of  Vienna  (1529  and  1532).  It 
was  not  till  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  that  the 
Hapsburgs  obtained  undisputed 
possession  of  the  whole  of  Hun- 
gary. 

Ever  since  the  election  of 
Frederick  v.  to  the  imperial 
crown  the  Hapsburg  emperors 
had  endeavored  to  extend  their 
hold  over  the  electors  and 
princes,  and  to  lessen  their  in- 
dependence. But  the  outbreak 
of  the  Reformation  movement 
strengthened  the  forces  of  dis- 
integration, and  frustrated 
Charles  v.'s  hopes  of  forming  a 
strong  centralized  German  mon- 
archy. The  policy  of  his  success- 
ors   in    Austria — Ferdinand  I. 

Vol.  L— Mar.  '26 


(1556-64),  Maximilian  ii.  (1564- 
76),  and  Rudolph  ii.  (1576-1612) 
— was  chiefly  dictated  by  the  re- 
ligious controversies  of  the  age, 
the  last  named  finally  choosing 
Roman  Catholicism,  and  ruth- 
lessly oppressing  his  Protestant 
subjects.  Ferdinand  ii.,  the 
Hapsburg  emperor  (1619-37), 
made,  during  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  (1618-48),  a  last  attempt  to 
bring  all  Germany  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  Hapsburgs. 

Never  was  the  dream  of  the 
undisputed  supremacy  of  the 
Austrian  house  so  nearly  realized 
as  in  the  years  from  1619  to  1630. 
Frederick,  Count  Palatine,  was 
swept  in  turn  from  Bohemia  and 
the  Palatinate.  Wallenstein,  at 
this  time  the  avowed  champion 
of  the  absolutist  ambition  of  the 
emperor,  and  Tilly,  at  the  head 
of  the  armies  of  Ferdinand  and 
the  Catholic  League  respectively, 
advanced  to  the  Baltic;  and  Wal- 
lenstein's  plan  of  making  the 
Baltic  an  Austrian  lake,  domi- 
nated by  an  Austrian  fleet, 
seemed  on  the  eve  of  being  car- 
ried out.  But  though  the  oppo- 
sition of  Christian  iv.,  king  of 
Denmark,  was  easily  crushed  at 
Lutter  (1626)  by  Tilly,  Stral- 
sund  stubbornly  resisted,  and  was 
never  taken;  and  the  interven- 
tion (1630)  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 
put  an  entirely  new  complexion 
on  the  struggle. 

From  the  time  of  Gustavus' 
victory  over  Tilly  at  Breiten- 
feld,  in  1631,  all  chance  of  the 
establishment  of  'the  rule  of 
the  Jesuit  and  the  soldier' 
throughout  Germany  disap- 
peared; and  when  France,  in 
1635,  joined  in,  the  war  ceased 
to  be  a  religious  and  became  a 
purely  political  struggle  between 
the  Hapsburgs  and  the  Bourbons. 
The  Peace  of  Westphalia  (see 
Westphalia,  Peace  of),  in  1648, 
placed  the  pohtical  and  religious 
independence  of  the  German 
princes  on  a  secure  footing;  and 
the  emperors,  recognizing  the 
impossibility  of  founding  an  ab- 
solutism, henceforward  aban- 
doned their  imperial  aspirations 
and  devoted  themselves  to  purely 
AuvStrian  interests. 

The  Emperor  Leopold  I.  (1657- 
1705),  by  the  harshness  of  his 
rule  and  the  bigotry  of  his  policy 
in  Hungary,  provoked  the  Hun- 
garians to  revolt,  and  they  called 
in  the  Turks,  who  in  1683  laid 
siege  to  Vienna.  The  city  was 
saved  only  by  the  arrival  of 
Charles  of  Lorraine  with  an  army 
of  Germans,  and  of  John  Sobieski 
with  another  of  Poles.  Their 
victories,  and  those  of  the  Mar- 
grave Louis  of  Baden  (at  Szalan- 
kemen  in  1691)  and  Prince  Eu- 
gene (at  Zenta  in  1697)  enabled 
the  emperor  to  force  upon  the 
Turks  the  Peace  of  Carlowitz  in 
1699.    By  this  he  compelled  the 


Turks  to  cede  to  Hungary  the 
country  lying  between  the  Dan- 
ube and  the  Theiss. 

In  1701  a  long  duel  with 
France  culminated  in  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  (1701- 
14),  which  was  prosecuted  with 
equal  vigor  by  Leopold's  suc- 
cessor, Joseph  I.  (1705-11). 
Though  the  hopes  entertained  by 
the  Hapsburgs  of  securing  the 
Spanish  succession  were  not  real- 
ized, Charles  vi.  (1711-40)  ob- 
tained for  his  house,  by  the  Peace 
of  Utrecht  (1713)  and  the  Treaty 
of  Rastatt  (1714),  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  as  well  as  Milan, 
Mantua,  Naples,  and  Sardinia. 
In  1718,  by  the  Peace  of  Passaro- 
witz,  after  fresh  victories  of 
Prince  Eugene  at  Peterwardein 
(1716)  and  Belgrade  (1717),  the 
Turks  were  forced  to  yield  im- 
portant provinces  on  the  Dan- 
ube, and  in  1720  Sardinia  was 
exchanged  for  Sicily. 

Till  his  death  Charles  was  in- 
volved in  continual  difficulties. 
He  made  repeated  efforts  to 
induce  the  powers  of  Europe  to 
accept  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
an  instrument  securing  to  his 
eldest  daughter  and  heiress, 
Maria  Theresa,  the  whole  of  the 
Austrian  possessions.  In  1725 
he  made  an  alliance  with  Spain, 
and  a  European  war  over  the 
Polish  succession  was  prevented 
only  by  the  want  of  harmony  be- 
tween the  allies,  and  by  the 
peaceful  policy  of  Louis  xv.'s 
minister,  Fleury;  in  1731,  when 
Don  Carlos,  the  elder  son  of 
Elizabeth  Farnese,  queen  of 
Spain,  succeeded  to  Parma  and 
Piacenza,  war  was  again  averted, 
by  the  diplomatic  skill  of  Wal- 
pole  of  England.  In  1733,  how- 
ever, France,  Spain  and  Sardinia 
did  attack  Charles;  and  at  the 
Peace  of  Vienna,  in  1738,  he  was 
compelled  to  cede  to  Don  Carlos 
Naples,  Sicily  and  the  Tuscan 
ports  in  exchange  for  Parma 
and  Piacenza.  Nor  did  his  mis- 
fortunes end  here.  In  1737  he 
became  involved,  in  conjunction 
with  Russia,  in  a  war  against 
Turkey,  in  which  the  Austrians 
were  unsuccessful;  and  by  the 
Peace  of  Belgrade  (1739)  lost 
the  greater  part  of  their  gains 
of  1718. 

The  death  of  Charles  vi.,  in 
1740,  threw  open  to  Europe  (1) 
the  imperial  crown,  and  (2)  the 
succession  to  the  Austrian  pos- 
sessions. The  invasion  of  Silesia 
by  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prus- 
sia, and  the  invasion  of  Germany 
by  French  troops,  proved  the 
beginning  of  the  famous  Austrian 
Succession  War  (1740-8),  which 
in  many  ways  benefited  Austria. 
Maria  Theresa  (1740-80)  had 
married  Francis  of  Lorraine,  who 
had  received  Tuscany  in  ex- 
change for  Lorraine.  She  de- 
sired the  imperial  crown  for  her 


Austria 


491 


Austria 


husband,  and  the  preservation 
of  the  integrity  of  her  ancestral 
lands.  But  no  sooner  had  France 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  elector 
of  Bavaria  in  the  matter  ®f  the 
imperial  crown  than  the  elector 
himself,  together  with  Saxony, 
Spain,  and  Sardinia,  advanced 
claims  to  different  portions  of 
the  Austrian  possessions.  Great 
Britain  supported  the  cause  of 
Maria  Theresa,  and  Europe  was 
involved  in  war. 

Peace  was  eventually  con- 
cluded at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
1748.  Prussia  remained  in  Si- 
lesia and  Sardinia  secured  some 
districts  in  Italy.  Otherwise 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  was 
carried  out.  Moreover,  in  1745, 
on  the  death  of  the  elector  of 
Bavaria,  who  had  been  elected 
emperor,  Maria  Theresa's  hus- 
band Francis  had  secured  the 
imperial  crown;  while,  for  the 
first  time  in  its  history,  Hungary 
had  remained  loyal  to  the  Haps- 
burgs,  and  became  an  integral 
portion  of  their  dominions. 

The  Anglo-Austrian  alliance 
was  weakened  by  Maria  The- 
resa's determination  to  recover 
Silesia — a  determination  which 
brought  Austria  into  alliance 
with  Russia  and  France  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War  (1756-63). 
The  alliance  made  in  1756  with 
France  constituted  what  is 
known  as  the  Diplomatic  Revo- 
lution, and  continued  till  the 
French  Revolutionary  War  of 
1792.  For  a  time  it  seemed  that 
Prussia  would  be  overwhelmed. 
But  the  courage  and  skill  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  who  was 
aided  by  British  money,  saved 
his  country  from  destruction; 
and  at  the  peace  of  Hubertsburg, 
in  1763,  Maria  Theresa  was 
forced  to  acquiesce  in  the  loss  of 
Silesia,  and  to  recognize  in  Prus- 
sia a  formidable  rival.  Hence- 
forward Austria  and  Prussia 
intrigued  against  each  other  for 
supremacy  in  Germany,  and  it 
was  not  till  the  Austro-Prussian 
War  of  1866  that  the  Battle  of 
Sadowa  finally  assured  the  pre- 
dominance of  Prussia. 

Freed  at  length  from  the  anxi- 
eties of  nearly  a  quarter  of  a 
century  of  warfare,  Maria  The- 
resa turned  her  attention  to  the 
internal  condition  of  her  country 
and  its  peoples.  The  government 
was  centralized,  and  ecclesias- 
tical abuses  were  reformed;  in- 
dustry and  commerce  were  fos- 
tered, the  condition  of  the  serfs 
improved,  and  education  encour- 
aged. On  the  death  of  the  Em- 
peror Francis,  in  1765,  his  son, 
Joseph  II.  (1765-90),  succeeded, 
both  as  emperor  and  as  joint 
ruler  with  his  mother  over  Aus- 
tria. He  developed  and  ex- 
panded Maria  Theresa's  reforms 
in  every  direction,  but  until 
her  death,  in  1780,  was  unable 


to  exercise  freely  his  extraor- 
dinary energy.  He  took  part 
with  his  minister  Kaunitz  in 
the  partition  of  Poland  in  1772, 
and  in  1778  endeavored  to  secure 
Bavaria.  This  project  was  de- 
feated by  the  resolution  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  who,  as  in 
1745,  realized  that  Austria,  if 
possessed  of  Bavaria,  would  be 
able  to  impede  the  growth  of 
Prussian  supremacy  in  Germany. 

In  1781  Joseph  made  his  fa- 
mous alliance  with  Russia,  and 
in  1787  joined  with  that  power 
in  an  attack  upon  Turkey.  At 
the  same  time  he  was  busily  en- 
gaged in  carrying  out  the  most 
far-reaching  reforms.  He  de- 
creed freedom  of  worship  and 
civil  rights  to  Protestants,  and 
toleration  to  Jews;  he  abolished 
numerous  monasteries  and  con- 
vents; abolished  serfdom  (1782) ; 
improved  the  system  of  educa- 
tion; and  insisted  on  uniformity 
of  legislation  throughout  his  do- 
minions, and  on  the  general  use 
of  the  German  language. 

These  well-meant  reforms,  in- 
augurated en  bloc,  roused  the 
conservative  feelings  of  the  vari- 
ous divisions  of  the  empire,  and 
stirred  up  the  bitter  hostility  of 
the  church.  Joseph's  disregard 
for  national  prejudices  earned 
special  dissatisfaction  in  Hun- 
gary and  the  Netherlands,  and 
revolt  broke  out  (1788)  in  the 
latter  province.  With  the  Neth- 
erlands in  a  state  of  revolution, 
and  the  Austrian  troops  unsuc- 
cessful in  the  Turkish  war,  the 
break-up  of  the  Austrian  mon- 
archy seemed  imminent;  for 
Frederick  William  ii.  of  Prussia 
was  preparing  to  take  advantage 
of  the  Austrian  weakness,  and 
had  mobilized  a  large  army. 
This  was  prevented,  however, 
by  the  death  of  Joseph  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1790,  and  by  the  acces- 
sion of  his  brother  Leopold,  arch- 
duke of  Tuscany. 

Leopold  II.  (1790-2)  was  a 
statesman,  and  by  his  modera- 
tion, firmness,  and  wisdom  saved 
Austria.  He  quelled  the  revolt 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  restored 
their  privileges;  he  made  with 
Prussia  the  convention  of  Reich- 
enbach  (July,  1790),  and  he  con- 
cluded the  Peace  of  Sistova 
(1791)  with  the  Turks.  This 
crisis  was,  however,  no  sooner 
over  than  the  conduct  of  the 
French  revolutionists  brought 
Austria  into  conflict  with  France, 
and  in  1792  war  began.  Anxi- 
ety with  regard  to  the  action  of 
Prussia  and  Russia  in  Poland 
weakened  the  alliance  between 
the  courts  of  Vienna  and  Berlin, 
and  contributed  to  the  French 
successes  in  1792  and  1794. 

Meanwhile  Leopold  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Francis  ii.  (1792- 
1804;  Emperor  Francis  i.  of 
Austria,  1804-35).    In  1795,  by 


the  Treaty  of  Basel,  Prussia, 
Sweden,  Spain,  and  Tuscany  re- 
tired from  the  war,  leaving  Aus- 
tria, England,  and  Sardinia  to 
continue  the  resistance  to  the 
French  armies.  Beaten  in  Italy 
in  1796  by  Bonaparte,  Austria 
made  the  Peace  of  Campo  Formio 
in  1797,  and  received  Venetian 
territory  as  compensation  for  the 
loss  of  Lombardy  and  the  Neth- 
erlands. 

Henceforward,  till  1814,  Aus- 
tria suffered  greater  and  greater 
territorial  losses  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  each  fresh  struggle  with 
Napoleon.  By  the  Peace  of 
Luneville,  in  1801,  Tuscany  was 
taken  from  its  Austrian  grand 
duke,  and  Austria,  as  at  Campo 
Formio,  recognized  the  Rhine 
as  the  limit  of  France.  After 
the  disastrous  Austerlitz  cam- 
paign, the  treaty  of  Pressburg, 
in  1805,  inflicted  new  losses  upon 
Austria.  Venice,  Istria,  and 
Dalmatia  were  ceded  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  and  the  Tyrol 
and  part  of  Swabia  to  Bavaria. 
On  the  adoption  by  Napoleon, 
in  May  1804,  of  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  the  French,  Francis  ii, 
had  erected  the  Austrian  domin- 
ions into  a  hereditary  empire, 
taking  the  title  of  Emperor  of 
Austria.  The  days  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  were  over,  and 
the  Treaty  of  Pressburg  was 
followed  by  the  establishment 
of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine,  under  the  protectorate  of 
Napoleon. 

Till  the  overthrow  of  the 
French  domination  at  the  Bat- 
tle of  Leipzig  in  1813,  Germany 
was  practically  submerged.  In 
1809  Austria  did,  indeed,  make 
heroic  effort  to  recover  for  Ger- 
many its  independence,  and  the 
campaign  of  Aspern  and  Wa- 
gram  is  the  most  glorious  in  the 
Austrian  annals.  But  the  Peace 
of  Vienna  (1809),  which  closed 
the  war,  saw  Austria  deprived 
of  the  whole  of  Western  Galicia 
(which  the  minister  Thugut  had 
gained  for  her  at  the  second  par- 
tition of  Poland  in  1795),  Trieste, 
Carniola,  Istria,  and  most  of 
Croatia,  which  were  formed  into 
the  Illyrian  Provinces,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  of  the  Tyrol 
and  the  greater  part  of  Salzburg. 
Six  days  before  peace  was  signed 
Metternich  (q.  v.)  became  chief 
minister  in  Austria — a  position 
which  he  held  for  nearly  forty 
years. 

In  1810  Napoleon  married 
Marie  Louise,  daughter  of  the 
emperor  of  Austria,  and  war  with 
Russia  became  inevitable.  Dur- 
ing the  Moscow  campaign  (1812) 
Austria  joined  Napoleon,  but  on 
the  retreat  of  the  expedition 
Metternich  took  up  an  indepen- 
dent attitude.  When  Napoleon 
refused  to  accept  the  Austrian 
terms,  Metternich  joined  Russia 

Vol.  I. — Mar.  '26 


Austria 


491  A 


Austria 


and  Prussia  (Aug.  12.  1813)  in 
the  war  of  liberation.  The  over- 
throw of  Napoleon  and  the  recon- 
stitution  of  Germany  went  on 
simultaneously,  and  from  1815 
to  1848,  under  the  influence  of 
Metternich,  Austria  played  an 
important  part  in  German  poli- 
tics. Having,  at  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  recovered  her  lost  terri- 
tory, and  added  to  it  Lombardy, 
she  naturally  opposed  all  further 
revolutionary  movements,  and, 
with  Russia  and  Prussia,  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Holy  Alliance 
(1816). 

In  1835  Francis  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Ferdinand  i.  The 
revolutionary  movements  of  1848 
threatened  to  bring  about  the 
fall  of  the  Austrian  empire. 
Risings  took  place  in  Vienna, 
and  in  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and 
Italy.  The  Emperor  Ferdinand 
abdicated,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  nephew.  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph  I.  With  Russian  aid  the 
rising  in  Hungary  was  put  down, 
though  with  great  severity,  and 
gradually  the  insurrections  in 
other  parts  of  the  Austrian  em- 
pire were  suppressed. 

The  re-establishment  of  the 
Austrian  monarchy  was  followed 
by  a  movement  for  the  union  of 
Germany.  The  influence  of  Prus- 
sia was  steadily  increasing,  and 
in  1850  war  between  Prussia  and 
Austria  seemed  imminent.  But 
before  the  question  of  supremacy 
in  Germany  was  decided,  Aus- 
tria entered  upon  a  war  with 
Sardinia  and  France  in  Italy,  and 
was  beaten  in  the  Battles  of  Ma- 
genta and  Solferino  (1859).  In 
the  Peace  of  Villafranca  which 
followed,  Austria  gave  up  Lom- 
bardy, except  the  fortresses  of 
Mantua  and  Peschiera. 

In  1864  Austria  joined  Prussia 
in  wresting  Schleswig-Holstein 
and  Lauenburg  from  Denmark; 
but  in  1866  the  allies  fell  out  and 
went  to  war.  The  famous  Six 
Weeks'  War  settled  once  for  all 
the  question  of  Prussian  or  Aus- 
trian predominance  in  Germany. 
Beaten  at  the  Battle  of  Sadowa 
(q.v.),  Austria  was  compelled  to 
recognize  the  supremacy  of  Prus- 
sia. In  1867  the  emperor  wisely 
restored  to  Hungary  the  constitu- 
tion taken  from  her  in  1848, 
and  with  his  consort  was  crowned 
at  Pest  amid  great  public  rejoic- 
ings. At  the  same  time,  by  the 
Ausgleich  or  'Compromise,'  it 
was  agreed  that  the  common 
aflfairs  of  Austria  and  Hungary 
were  to  be  settled  by  delega- 
tions chosen  by  the  two  Houses. 
(See  Austria-Hungary.) 

After  the  Franco- Prussian  War 
of  1870-1,  Bismarck  established 
with  Austria  and  Russia  the  Alli- 
ance of  the  Three  Emperors,  to 
preserve  the  status  quo  in  Europe, 
and  to  oppose  all  revolutionary 
movements.  But  owing  to  the 
^^OT..  I.— Mar.  '2A 


events  in  the  Russo-Turkish  War 
of  1877-8,  the  friendship  of  Aus- 
tria and  Russia  came  to  an  end, 
and  in  1879  Bismarck  signed  a 
close  defensive  alliance  with 
Austria.  In  1882  Italy  joined 
it,  and  the  league  became  known 
as  the  Triple  Alliance.  (See 
Triple  Alliances.) 

The  Treaty  of  Berlin  (q.v.), 
in  1878,  gave  to  Austria  the  pro- 
tectorate over  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina, and  in  1908  these  prov- 
inces were  definitely  annexed  to 
the  empire,  while  the  sanjak  of 
Novi-Bazar,  which  had  been 
under  Austrian  military  occupa- 
tion, was  evacuated  and  restored 
to  Turkey.  This  precipitated 
another  Balkan  crisis.  Bulgaria 
declared  her  independence  of 
Turkey,  and  Servia  issued  a  call 
to  arms  and  appealed  to  the 
Powers  for  protection.  Turkey 
boycotted  Austrian  goods,  and 
demanded  compensation  for  the 
provinces,  and  peace  was  ar- 
ranged by  Austria's  offer  to  pay 
$10,800,000  as  compensation, 
which  Turkey  accepted. 

The  war  which  finally  broke 
out  between  Turkey  and  the  Bal- 
kan states  (see  Balkan  War), 
and  in  which  Austria  was  thus 
largely  implicated,  had  as  one  of 
its  results  the  fourth  tragedy 
of  the  Hapsburg  family  during 
the  reign  of  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph  (q.v.).  The  heir-appa- 
rent. Archduke  Francis  Ferdi- 
nand, and  his  wife,  the  Duchess 
of  Hohenberg,  were  shot  to 
death  by  a  native  of  Herzegovina 
on  June  28,  1914,  at  Sarajevo, 
the  capital  of  Bosnia. 

The  investigation  into  the  as- 
sassination of  Archduke  Francis 
Ferdinand  led  to  the  sending  of 
an  ultimatum  to  Servia  on  July 
23  which  practically  constituted 
an  indictment  of  that  country, 
and  which  demanded  a  reply 
within  forty-eight  hours.  The 
reply  of  Servia,  while  favorable 
in  other  respects,  disclaimed 
responsibility  for  unofficial  ac- 
tion by  newspapers  and  societies, 
and  conditionally  declined  the 
co-operation  of  Austria  in  her 
prosecution  of  the  group  of 
assassins. 

On  July  26  Austria  proclaimed 
martial  law  and  severed  diplo- 
matic relations  with  Servia;  both 
countries  mobilized  their  armies; 
the  Servian  government  was  re- 
moved from  Belgrade  to  Kraguie- 
vatz;  and  despite  the  ofifer  of 
Servia  to  submit  the  case  to  The 
Hague,  Austria  declared  war 
on  July  28,  and  the  next  day 
bombarded  Belgrade. 

Within  the  next  ten  days  the 
powers  of  Europe  were  drawn 
into  the  conflict.  Germany,  as  a 
member  of  the  Triple  Alliance, 
and  in  sympathy  with  the  policies 
of  Austria,  supported  the  latter 
in  her  attitude  toward  Servia; 


Russia,  to  whom  Servia  had  ap- 
pealed, began  mobilizing  her 
troops;  and  on  Aug.  1  Germany 
declared  war  against  Russia. 
German  troops  then  invaded 
France  and  Belgium,  drawing 
those  countries^  as  well  as  Great 
Britain,  into  the  strife.  On 
Aug.  6  Austria  declared  war 
against  Russia,  and  two  days 
later  Montenegro  declared  war 
against  Austria;  followed  by 
France,  Aug.  10,  and  Great 
Britain,  Aug.  12.  Austria  de- 
clared war  on  Japan,  Aug.  25. 

The  history  of  Austria  for  the 
next  four  years  is  closely  bound 
up  with  the  history  of  the  Great 
War.  Italy,  as  a  member  of  the 
Triple  Alliance,  while  refusing  to 
aid  her  fellow  members — Austria 
and  Germany — on  the  ground 
that  the  war  was  not  one  of 
defence,  hesitated  at  first  to  join 
their  enemies;  but  popular  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  the  Allies  and  a 
desire  to  wrest  from  Austria- 
Hungary  'Italia  Irredenta'  at 
length  prevailed,  and  on  May  23, 
1915,  Italy  joined  the  ranks  of 
the  Allied  Nations,  by  declaring 
war  on  Austria.  Roumania  de- 
clared war  Aug.  27,  1916;  and 
the  United  States  on  Dec.  7, 
1917,  being  followed  shortly  by 
Panama,  Cuba,  Greece,  Siam, 
and  Brazil. 

During  the  early  part  of  the 
war  the  Austrian  armies  were 
engaged  chiefly  in  Servia,  Galicia, 
Albania,  and  Montenegro.  In 
the  latter  half  the  main  Austrian 
activity  was  on  the  Italian  front. 
For  details  of  campaigns  and 
battles  see  the  article  Europe, 
Great  War  of. 

The  internal  history  of  Austria 
during  the  war  is  one  of  increas- 
ing political  and  social  unrest, 
growing  out  of  the  old  hostility 
between  the  diverse  elements  of 
the  population,  aggravated  by 
scarcity  of  food  and  by  the  arbi- 
trary methods  of  the  govern- 
ment. On  Aug.  21,  1916,  Count 
Karl  Stuergkh,  Premier  since 
1911,  was  assassinated  by  Dr. 
Friederich  Adler,  a  Vienna  editor, 
as  a  protest  against  the  former's 
refusal  to  convoke  Parliament. 
A  cabinet  was  thereupon  formed 
by  Dr.  Ernest  von  Koerber,  but 
was  dissolved  after  a  career  of  a 
few  weeks  and  succeeded,  Dec. 
20,  1916,  by  a  new  cabinet,  with 
Count  Clam  Martinez  as  Pre- 
mier. 

The  Emperor,  Francis  Joseph 
(q.v.)  died,  after  a  long  and 
tragic  reign,  Nov.  21,  1916,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  grand- 
nephew  Charles,  who  became 
Emperor  Charles  i.  of  Austria 
and  King  Charles  iv.  of  Hungary 
(see  Charles  i.).  Parliament 
was  convened  for  the  first  time 
since  the  war  began  on  May  30, 
1917,  but  accomplished  little. 
Another  cabinet  crisis  ensued, 


Austria 


491  B 


Aus  trla-Hungary 


and  in  June  Dr.  von  Seydler, 
Minister  of  Agriculture,  assumed 
the  premiership,  which  he  con- 
tinued to  hold  until  July  22, 
1918. 

In  the  meantime  food  riots, 
strikes,  and  peace  demonstra- 
tions became  frequent;  a  revo- 
lutionary movement  in  Bohemia 
assumed  serious  proportions;  and 
other  nationalist  movements 
gathered  strength.  Parliament 
was  reassembled  in  July  1918; 
and  a  new  ministry  was  formed 
with  Baron  von  Hussarek  as 
Premier;  but  by  this  time  disso- 
lution had  become  inevitable. 

The  rout  of  the  Austrian 
armies  on  the  Italian  front  in 
October  forced  Austria  to  sue 
for  peace,  and  on  Nov.  3,  1918, 
an  armistice  was  signed,  by 
which  she  surrendered  uncon- 
ditionally to  her  enemies.  At 
the  same  time,  internal  matters 
reached  a  climax.  The  Bohe- 
mian revolt  had  resulted  in  the 
proclamation  of  an  independent 
Czechoslovak  state  (see  Czecho- 
slovak Republic);  the  Jugo- 
slavs had  organized  a  Provisional 
Government  with  headquarters 
at  Zagreb  (see  Jugoslavs)  ;  and 
Hungary,  in  a  bloodless  revolu- 
tion, had  declared  itself  a  repub- 
lic (see  Hungary).  A  move- 
ment for  a  new  German  Aus- 
trian State  resulted  in  a  con- 
stituent German  National  As- 
sembly meeting  in  Vienna  and 
unanimously  declaring  it  to  be 
the  will  of  the  German  people 
in  Austria  to  be  independent. 
A  provisional  government  was 
set  up  and  a  republic  proclaimed. 
Emperor  Charles  abdicated  on 
Nov.  11. 

By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty 
of  St.  Germain,  signed  Sept.  20, 
1919,  establishing  peace,  Austria 
was  recognized  as  a  new  and 
independent  state  under  the 
name  of  the  Republic  of  Austria, 
about  one-fifth  its  former  size, 
losing  Galicia,  Bukowina,  Bo- 
hemia, Moravia,  Silesia,  South- 
ern Tyrol,  Carniola,  Croatia, 
Slavonia,  Bosnia,  Herzegovina, 
Dalmatia,  the  Adriatic  Coast- 
lands,  and  parts  of  Carinthia  and 
Styria.  She  was  required  to 
recognize  the  independence  of 
the  Czechoslovak  Republic  and 
of  the  Jugoslavs  and  to  accept 
the  frontiers  of  these  states,  as 
well  as  of  Bulgaria,  Greece,  Hun- 
gary, Poland,  and  Roumania,  as 
determined  by  the  Allies,  re- 
nouncing all  claim  over  terri- 
tories within  these  boundaries 
(see  Europe,  Great  War  of). 

On  Nov.  10,  1920,  the  new 
Austrian  constitution  (see  Gov- 
ernment) was  promulgated,  and 
on  Dec.  9,  1920,  Dr.  Michael 
Hainisch  was  elected  first  presi- 
dent of  the  republic.  A  period 
of  economic  chaos  ensued,  in 
which  the  very  existence  of  the 


fepublic  was  threatened.  An 
appeal  for  help  was  eventually 
made  to  the  League  of  Nations, 
of  which  Austria  had  become 
a  member  in  October  1920.  For 
the  action  of  that  body  and  the 
subsequent  improvement  in  con- 
ditions, see  Finance,  above.  A 
peace  treaty  with  the  United 
States  was  signed  Aug.  24,  1921, 
becoming  effective  Nov.  8. 

Of  international  difficulties 
during  this  period,  the  most 
serious  was  the  dispute  with 
Hungary  over  Burgenland  or 
West  German  Hungary,  which 
had  been  awarded  to  Austria 
by  the  terms  of  the  peace 
treaty.  The  province  was  the 
scene  of  serious  disorder  and  it 
was  not  until  Feb.  27,  1923,  that 
a  peaceful  settlement  of  the 
question  was  arrived  at  by 
arbitration,  and  Austria  was 
confirmed  in  her  possession  of 
this  territory. 

Dr.  Hainisch  was  re-elected 
president  in  December  1924. 

Bibliograph  y. — Consult 
Bryce's  The  Holy  Roman  Empire; 
Fisher's  The  MedicBval  Empire; 
Coxe's  House  of  Austria,  1218- 
1792;  Ward's  The  House  of  Aus- 
tria; Bright's  Maria  Theresa  and 
Joseph  II.;  Tout's  The  Empire 
and  the  Papacy;  Whitman's  Aus- 
tria ('Story  of  the  Nations' 
Series) ;  Leger's  History  of  Austro- 
Hungary  (Eng.  trans.);  Cold- 
stream's The  Institutions  of  Aus- 
tria; Colquhoun's  The  Whirlpool 
of  Europe:  Austria-Hungary  and 
the  Hapsburgs  (1907);  Drage's 
Austria-Hungary  (1909);  Hum- 
bold's  Franz  Joseph  and  His  Own 
Time  (1909);  Brailsford's  Across 
the  Blockade  (1919) ;  Bauer's  T^e 
Austrian  Revolution  (1925). 

Austria- Hungary,  officially 
the  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy 
{Oesterreichisch- U ngarische  Mon- 
archic) was,  prior  to  the  Great 
War,  a  dual  sovereignty  of 
Europe,  embracing  the  empire 
of  Austria  and  the  kingdom  of 
Hungary  comprised  between  lat. 
42°  and  51°  n.  and  long.  9°  30' 
and  26°  30'  e.  It  bordered  on 
Germany,  Russia,  Roumania, 
Servia,  Turkey,  Montenegro,  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  Italy,  and  Switzer- 
land. Its  area,  including  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina,  was  261,242 
square  miles;  and  after  Russia  it 
was  the  largest  political  division 
of  Europe.  The  total  popula- 
tion of  Austria-Hungary  in  1910 
was  51,390,223. 

Government. — The  two  halves 
of  the  monarchy  were  perfectly 
independent  of  each  other,  pos- 
sessing each  its  own  constitu- 
tion, legislature,  and  executive 
for  most  state  affairs.  The  bond 
of  union  was  a  common  dynasty, 
and  a  close  and  intimate  political 
alliance.  The  dual  agreement 
was  brought  about  by  the 
so-called  Ausgleich  (Agreement) 


of  1867.  The  monarch  was  Em- 
peror (Kaiser)  of  Austria  and 
King  (Kiraly)  of  Hungary,  and 
the  crown  was  hereditary  in 
the  Hapsburg-Lorraine  dynasty, 
passing  to  males  by  primo- 
geniture and  lineal  succession, 
and  on  failure  of  male  heirs  to 
females.  The  monarch  was 
obliged  to  be  a  Roman  Catholic, 
and  was  head  of  the  army  and 
the  executive. 

Affairs  common  to  the  two 
states  and  administered  by  com- 
mon ministries  were:  (a)  foreign 
affairs;  (b)  military  and  naval 
affairs  (excluding  army  legisla- 
tion) ;  (c)  common  finance.  Each 
state  provided,  assessed,  col- 
lected, and  transmitted  its  own 
contribution.  There  was  a 
common  system  of  weights  and 
measures,  and  up  to  1907  a 
Customs  Union,  in  addition  to  a 
joint  bank  of  issue,  common 
commercial  and  political  repre- 
sentation abroad,  and  common 
monopolies  of  salt,  tobacco, 
spirits,  beer,  sugar,  gunpowder, 
and  mineral  oil.  The  voting  of 
money  to  be  applied  to  joint  pur- 
poses, and  the  control  of  the 
common  ministries  (of  foreign 
affairs,  war,  and  finance),  were 
exercised  by  the  Delegations, 
which  consisted  of  two  bodies, 
each  of  sixty  members,  sum- 
moned annually  to  Vienna  and 
Budapest  alternately,  and  de- 
liberating separately — twenty 
being  chosen  from  each  of  the 
Upper  Houses  (viz.,  the  Austrian 
Herrenhaus  and  the  Hungarian 
Forendihaz),  and  forty  from 
each  of  the  Lower  Houses  (viz., 
the  Austrian  Abgeordnetenhaus 
and  the  Hungarian  Kepviselo- 
haz).  In  the  case  of  non- 
agreement,  the  delegates,  or  an 
equal  number  of  representatives 
from  each  delegation,  met  and 
voted,  without  discussion. 

Defence. — Military  service 
was  universally  compulsory, 
though  all  men  were  not  actually 
called  upon  to  serve  with  the 
colors.  On  a  peace  footing  the 
forces  amounted  to  about  385,000 
officers  and  men,  exclusive  of 
the  special  forces  of  Austria 
and  of  Hungary.  In  time  of 
war  these  forces,  by  drafting  in 
the  reserves,  amounted  to  1,600.- 
000  officers  and  men;  while,  in 
addition,  a  general  levy  of  all 
men  capable  of  bearing  arms 
might  be  made,  which  would 
enable  the  dual  monarchy  to 
place  3,500,000  men  in  the 
field.  During  the  Great  War 
Austria-Hungary's  mobilized 
strength  was  estimated  at  6,500,- 
000;  the  casualties  sustained 
were  5,211,000,  including  800,000 
dead,  3,200.000  wounded,  and 
1,211,000  prisoners  or  missing. 

The  navy  was  organized  chiefly 
for  coast  defence,  and  com- 
prised   ten   or    twelve  battle- 

VoL.  L— Mar.  '26 


Austria,  Lower 


492 


Autobiography 


ships,  twelve  cruisers,  and  seven- 
ty or  more  torpedo  boats.  In 
accordance  with  the  terms  of 
the  armistice  at  the  close  of  the 
Great  European  War,  the  fleet 
was  surrendered  to  Italy,  March 
2,  1919. 

Dissolution  of  the  Dual  Mon- 
archy.— The  multiplicity  of  races 
within  the  dual  monarchy  with 
their  rivalries  and  mutual  jeal- 
ousies long  rendered  the  task 
of  the  central  government  a  deli- 
cate and  difficult  one.  At  the 
same  time  it  was,  from  one 
point  of  view,  looked  upon  as 
something  of  an  advantage,  since 
the  principal  races  were  so 
scattered  over  the  area  of  the 
empire  as  to  make  concerted 
action  on  the  part  of  any  one 
of  them  an  apparent  impossi- 
bility. When  the  Great  War 
came,  however,  the  conflict  of 
race  interests  and  race  ideals 
made  internal  dissension 
inevitable.  The  subject  races 
broke  away  and  declared  their 
independence,  and  a  few  days 
after  the  armistice  was  signed, 
Nov.  3,  1919,  the  German- 
Austrians  set  up  a  provisional 
government  and  declared  Aus- 
tria to  be  a  republic  (see  Aus- 
tria: History).  Hungary,  in  the 
meanwhile,  after  a  bloodless 
revolution  in  the  latter  part  of 
October  1918,  declared  its  inde- 
pendence; and  the  peace  treaty 
recognized  the  two  nations  as 
independent  republics. 

See  Austria;  Hungary;  Eu- 
rope, Great  War  of. 

Austria,  Lower,  province,  Aus- 
tria, a  crown  land  of  the  former 
Austrian  Empire,  is  divided  by 
the  Danube  into  a  northern  and 
a  southern  half.  The  southern 
half  is  occupied  by  secondary 
ranges  and  foothills  of  the 
Eastern  Alps.  The  north  is  a 
tableland,  tilted  east  toward 
the  low  plain  of  Marchfeld.  The 
March  River  marks  the  eastern 
boundary  on  this  side  of  the 
Danube.  The  climate  is  moder- 
ate and  generally  healthful.  The 
people  are  engaged  chiefly  in 
agriculture  and  manufacturing. 
The  larger  number  of  factories 
and  mills  are  in  Vienna,  but 
outside  the  capital  there  is  also 
much  activity.  vSawmills  are 
everywhere,  and  weaving  and 
allied  industries  are  important, 
as  are  brewing  and  distilling, 
brick-making,  the  manufacture 
of  tobacco,  glass,  cottons,  haber- 
dashery, gold  and  silver  wire, 
wood  pulp,  chemicals,  sugar,  and 
leather.  The  total  area  of  the 
province,  exclusive  of  the  city  of 
Vienna,  which  constitutes  a 
separate  province,  with  its  own 
provincial  government,  is  7,451 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1923)  1,478,- 
697.  The  principal  towns  are 
Wiener  Neustadt  (36,935),  St. 
Polten  (31,626),  and  Modling 
(18,695). 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


Austrian  Succession,  War  of. 

See  Austria,  History. 

Austria,  Upper,  province,  Aus- 
tria, a  crown  land  of  the  former 
Austrian  Empire,  is  divided  into 
two  unequal  parts  by  the  Dan- 
ube. The  Inn  and  its  affluent, 
the  Salzach,  separate  it  from 
Bavaria.  The  Traun  and  Enns 
drain  the  southern  portion,  while 
the  part  north  of  the  Danube  is 
entirely  occupied  by  the  Bohmer- 
wald  and  its  tablelands.  South 
of  the  Danube  the  Alps  and  their 
subsidiary  chains  cover  almost 
the  whole  surface.  The  total 
area  of  the  province  is  4,626 
square  miles.  The  climate  varies 
with  the  altitude;  it  is,  however, 
too  cold  for  the  successful  culture 
of  the  vine. 

Nearly  37  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  surface  is  forest  land,  but 
agriculture  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry. Cattle  breeding  is  also 
extensively  carried  on.  The 
chief  mineral  is  salt  (a  state 
monopoly) ;  lignite,  gypsum,  mill 
stones,  whet  and  grind  stones, 
and  granite  are  also  obtained. 
Among  manufactures,  which  are 
less  developed  than  in  Lower 
Austria,  ironware  and  cutlery 
take  the  first  place,  chiefly  at 
Steyr.  There  are  also  manu- 
factures of  linens  and  cottons, 
rubber,  leather,  paper,  and  glass. 
The  population  in  1923  was 
873,702,  almost  entirely  of  Ger- 
man descent,  and  Roman  Catho- 
lic in  religion.  The  most  im- 
portant towns  are  Linz,  the 
capital  (pop.  101,347),  Steyr 
(22,123),  and  Wels  (16,409). 

Auteuil,  o-tu'y',  former  village 
of  the  department  of  Seine, 
France,  now  incorporated  in 
Paris.    See  Paris. 

Auttior  and  Publilstier.  See 
Copyright;  Publishing. 

Auto,  in  Spain  and  Portugal, 
a  kind  of  short  religious  play, 
analogous  to  the  miracle  and 
mystery  play  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Such  plays  were  in  vogue  from 
the  twelfth  to  past  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century;  but 
were  forbidden  in  Spain  in  1765, 
though  they  are  still  presented 
in  Portugal.  The  Spaniard 
Encina  (c.  1469-1534)  and  the 
Portuguese  Gil  Vicente  (c.  1475- 
1536)  wrote  several  of  these.  In 
Spain,  Lope  de  Vega  (1562- 
1635),  Calderon  (1600-81).  Ga- 
briel Tellez,  better  known  as  Tirso 
de  Molino  (c.  1585-1648),  and 
others,  wrote  a  number  of  opera- 
like Autos  Sacramentales,  which 
were  usually  presented  during 
the  great  processions  of  the 
festival  of  Corpus  Christi. 

Autol)iograpIiy,  the  record  of 
one's  life,  written  by  himself. 
It  may  take  the  conventional 
narrative  form,  or  it  may  con- 
sist of  letters,  as  those  of  Pliny 
in  ancient  times  or  of  Robert 
Louis  StevenvSon  in  our  own 
day.    Again,  it  may  be  in  the 


form  of  a  diary,  as  that  of  Pepys 
(q.v.),  which  stands  unique  in 
its  unconscious  self-revelation, 
or  of  Evelyn  (q.v.),  found  in  an 
old  clothes  basket  in  1817.  Both 
of  these  remarkable  diaries  throw 
a  vivid  light  upon  history,  char- 
acter, and  manners  in  England 
in  the  seventeenth  century. 
Scarcely  less  valuable  for  the 
eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth 
century  is  the  Diary  of  Mme. 
D'Arblay  (see  Fanny  Burney). 

Among  the  ancients  we  find 
few  examples  of  deliberate  auto- 
biography. In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  lyrical  element  appears 
in  the  Psalms  and  Solomon's 
Song.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment Paul  is  his  own  biographer. 
Xenophon  and  Caesar  wrote  of 
themselves  in  the  third  person, 
and  these  autobiographies,  like 
the  letters  of  Cicero  and  the 
younger  Pliny,  enable  us  to 
construct  vivid  pictures  of  the 
life  and  events  of  these  times. 

In  the  strictest  sense  of  the 
word  there  was  no  autobi- 
ography before  the  Christian 
Era,  the  first  truly  autobi- 
ographical work  being  the  Con- 
fessions of  St.  Augustine,  397 
A.D.  Its  modern  counterpart 
is  Newman's  Apologia  pro  Vila 
Sua.  Between  these  two  great 
names  lie  religious  autobiogra- 
phies almost  innumerable — Bun- 
yan's  Grace  Abounding  to  the 
Chief  of  Sinners,  simple  and 
touching;  the  self -revelations  of 
William  Huntington,  S.S.  {Sin- 
ners Saved),  vainglorious  and 
grotesque  (1745-1813).  The 
friend  of  Cowper,  the  Rev. 
John  Newton,  wrote  the  story 
of  his  own  conversion  and  the 
strange  vicissitudes  of  his  early 
hfe.  Cowper  himself  wrote  an 
autobiographical  fragment;  and 
we  have  also  the  'experiences' 
preserved  in  the  Journals  of 
Wesley  and  of  Whitefield. 

In  France,  Madame  Guyon 
(d.  1717)  the  Quietist,  whose 
verses  Cowper  translated,  was 
her  own  biographer.  Of  wider 
literary  interest,  and  the  record 
of  a  quiet  life  in  a  somewhat 
different  sense,  is  the  Journal 
of  Eugene  de  Guerin  (1834  seq.). 
French  literature  is  rich  also 
in  Memoires,  more  or  less  auto- 
biographical. Those  of  Sully, 
the  great  minister  of  Henry  iv., 
are  more  uniforml}^  personal  than 
those  of  Saint-Simon,  which 
throw  much  light  upon  the 
times  of  Louis  xiv.;  those  of 
De  la  Porte,  page  to  Anne  of 
Austria,  for  whose  sake  he  was 
sent  to  the  Bastille,  are  interest- 
ing, especially  in  connection 
with  Mazarin  and  the  early  life 
of  the  Grand  Monarque.  Per- 
haps the  English  counterpart  to 
Sully-  is  Clarendon,  whose  Life, 
written  by  himself,  is  a  sequel  to 
his  History  of  the  Rebellion. 
Montaigne  makes  no  secret  of 


Autobiography 


493 


Autographs 


the  fact  that  he  wrote  his 
Essays  about  himself.  Madame 
de  Sevigne's  letters,  mainly  to 
her  daughter,  are  the  best 
revelation  of  her  own  life  and 
character.  The  Memoir  es  of 
the  Baroness  de  Staal-Delaunay 
(d.  1750)  anticipated  in  interest 
and  vivacity  the  Diary  of  Ma- 
dame D'Arblay.  She  must  not 
be  confused  with  the  more 
famous  Madame  de  Stael-Hol- 
stein,  who  is  directly  auto- 
biographical in  her  Dix  Annes 
d'Exil,  and  indirectly  in  every- 
thing else  she  wrote. 

It  is  charitable  to  suppose 
that  the  most  morbid  aspects 
of  Rousseau's  remarkable  Con- 
fessions are  due  to  exaggeration; 
and  when  Goethe  wrote  his  far 
healthier  Aus  meinem  Leben, 
he  added  as  a  second  title, 
Dichtung  and  Wahrheit,  that  it 
might  be  understood  that  he  had 
given  imagination  a  certain 
range.  Similarly,  readers  of  De 
Quincey's  Confessions  of  an 
English  Opium  Eater  or  Borrow's 
Lavengro  will  allow  a  certain 
latitude. 

It  is  perhaps  a  reflection  on 
humanity  to  note  how  much 
autobiography  owes  to  the 
prison.  The  patriot  Silvio  Pel- 
lico  wrote  much,  but  is  remem- 
bered only  by  Le  mie  Prigioni. 
The  Prussian,  Trenck,  speaks  of 
many  books  of  his  which  no 
one  has  ever  read,  but  the  ac- 
count of  his  adventures  and  ten 
years'  imprisonment  in  Magde- 
burg is  still  amusing.  The  un- 
edifying  Casanova  de  Seingalt 
(d.  1798)  made  a  daring  escape 
from  the  piomhi  at  Venice,  and 
lived  to  write  his  cynical  story  in 
many  volumes.  Another  gifted 
rascal  among  autobiographers 
was  Benvenuto  Cellini,  whose 
autobiography  is  a  valuable 
historical  document,  descriptive 
of  the  life  and  manners  of  the 
period.  The  artist  life  is  seldom 
of  this  complexion,  although  it  is 
sometimes,  as  in  the  auto- 
biography of  Haydon,  a  story 
of  blighted  hopes,  and  in  the 
remarkable  journal  and  letters 
of  Marie  Bashkirtseff  (b.  1860; 
d.  1884)  of  brilliant  promise 
cut  short  by  death. 

The  strenuous  life  has  not 
often  much  leisure  or  inclination 
to  keep  its  own  record,  yet  a 
very  noteworthy  autobiography 
is  that  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 
Cobbett's  American  career,  coin- 
cident with  the  early  days  of 
American  Independence,  has  the 
same  historic  interest:  he  tells 
it  (1798)  in  the  Life  and  Ad- 
ventures of  Peter  Porcupine  (his 
nom  de  guerre).  Even  Nelson 
has  given  a  brief  and  frag- 
mentary account  of  himself  in 
manly,  sailorlike  fashion;  and 
the  autobiography  of  the  ill-used 
Lord  Dundonald  is  a  splendid 
record  of  brilliant  enterprise; 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


while  the  Two  Years  before  the 
Mast  of  Richard  Henry  Dana  is 
one  of  the  best  sea-books  ever 
written. 

Of  the  pursuit  of  knowledge 
under  difficulties.  Franklin,  al- 
ready cited,  may  pass  as  an  ex- 
ample; but  the  eighteenth  centu- 
ry supplies  us  with  two  others 
who  have  left  a  record  of 
their  struggles:  these  are  James 
Ferguson,  the  astronomer  and 
mechanician,  the  shepherd  boy 
who  mapped  the  stars  for  him- 
self by  means  of  a  stretched 
thread  strung  with  beads;  and 
William  Hutton,  the  historian 
of  Birmingham.  In  contrast 
with  these  are  Colley  Cibber's 
Apology  for  his  Life — by  far  his 
best  work— and  the  Memoirs  of 
Gibbon.  Walpole's  Short  Notes 
of  my  Life  are  a  chronological 
epitome  of  the  little  labors  of  a 
dilettantist.  A  pretty  record 
of  his  own  early  life  is  given  by 
Walter  Scott  (see  Lockhart's 
Life).  Wordsworth  has  left  his 
own  autobiography;  but  Words- 
worthians  will  set  more  value  on 
the  reminiscences  in  The  Prelude. 
The  valuable  Biographia  Liter- 
aria  of  Coleridge  is  to  the 
ordinary  reader  a  wilderness  of 
criticism  and  philology,  with 
oases  of  personal  history.  The 
autobiography  of  Leigh  Hunt 
(1850)  was  praised  in  the  highest 
terms  by  Carlyle. 

As  we  approach  the  present 
day,  selection  on  the  subject 
becomes  practically  impossible. 
Yet  there  emerge  very  distinctly 
Hugh  Miller's  story  of  his  early 
days,  in  My  Schools  and  School- 
masters, and  the  autobiographies 
of  John  Stuart  Mill  and  Carlyle. 
Harriet  Martineau's  autobiogra- 
phy delights  the  English  posi- 
tivists — '  fit  audience,  though 
few.'  Two  eminent  lawyers, 
Ballantyne  and  Montagu  Wil- 
liams, have  recorded  their  amus- 
ing experiences  of  the  seamy 
side  of  life;  amidst  public 
entertainers,  the  Bancrofts  have 
disclosed  in  the  most  interesting 
fashion  the  secret  history  of  the 
stage.  Ruskin's  Prceterita  and 
Huxley's  very  brief  autobiogra- 
phy present  in  effective  con- 
trast the  imaginative  and 
scientific  attitude  in  face  of 
the  great  problems  that  vex 
humanity. 

Of  more  recent  works  Gen. 
U.  S.  Grant's  Personal  Memoirs 
(1885);  Jacob  Riis'  The  Making 
of  an  American  (1901);  Hon. 
H.  M.  Stanley's  Autobiography 
(1909);  Theodore  Roosevelt's 
Autobiography  (1913),  and  Admi- 
ral Dewey's  A  M/o&zo^ra/) /?>'(!  9 13) 
are  worthy  of  mention,  as 
personal  records  of  busy,  useful 
lives.  Other  autobiographies  of 
special  interest  are:  Sir  Walter 
Besant's  Autobiography  (1903); 
Helen  Keller's  Story  of  My  Life 
(1903);    Senator  Hoar's  record 


of  a  life  of  seventy  years  (1903); 
\ndrew  D.  White's  Autobi- 
ography (1905);  Sarah  Bern- 
hardt's  Story  of  My  Life  (1907); 
James  B.  Angell's  Reminiscences 
(1913);  Brand  Whitlock's  Forty 
Years  of  It  (1914);  Anna 
Howard  Shaw's  Story  of  a 
Pioneer  (1915),  interesting  also 
for  its  history  of  the  woman 
suffrage  movement;  and  Dr. 
Edward  Trudeau's  Autobiogra- 
phy (1916). 

Auto  Car.  See  Motor 
Cars. 

Autochthones,  the  Greek 
name  for  the  original  inhab- 
itants of  a  country,  not  set- 
tlers, considered  as  having 
sprung  from  the  soil  itself. 
The  Latin  equivalent  term  was 
aborigines. 

Autoclave,  or  Digester,  is 
an  apparatus  for  heating  sub- 
stances under  pressure,  invented 
by  Dr.  Papin  about  1690.  It 
usually  consists  of  a  strong  iron 
or  steel  pot,  provided  with  a 
cover  that  can  be  bolted  on  air- 
tight, and  is  often  lined  with  an 
acid-resisting  material.  It  is, 
as  a  rule,  provided  with  a 
safety-valve,  and  is  often  swung 
on  trunnions  for  convenience. 
It  is  used  in  separating  gelatine 
from  bones;  in  slaughter  houses, 
to  obtain  lard  and  tallow  from 
carcasses  too  poor  for  marketable 
purposes;  and  in  extracting 
tannin  from  nut-galls. 

Autocles,  an  Athenian  general 
and  orator  of  the  fourth  century 
B.C.  In  371  he  negotiated  a 
peace  with  the  Spartans,  and  in 
362  conducted  an  expedition  into 
Thrace. 

Autocracy  (Gr.'sole  mastery,' 
'ruling  by  one's  self),  a  term 
signifying  that  form  of  govern- 
ment in  which  the  sovereign 
unites  in  himself  the  legislative 
and  the  executive  powers  of  the 
state,  and  thus  rules  uncon- 
trolled. 

Auto  da  Fe.  See  Inquisi- 
tion. 

Autodidactus.  The  ('Self- 
taught  man '),  an  Arabic  romance 
setting  forth  the  growth,  into 
knowledge  of  nature  and  God,  of 
a  child  cast  upon  a  desert  island; 
by  Abu-Bekr-ibn-Tofail.  (Lat. 
trans.,  Philosophus  Autodidacli- 
cus,  E.  Pocock,  1671;  Eng.,  The 
Improvement  of  Human  Reason, 
S.  Ockley,  (1711.) 

Autographs,  documents  of 
any  kind  in  the  handwriting  of 
their  authors  (Gr.  avToypd<t)a). 
Interest  in  autographs  dates 
back  to  antiquity.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  had  notable  collec- 
tions, as  did  also  the  Chinese, 
in  more  recent  times  interest 
was  first  shown  in  the  vogue  of 
the  album,  or  Liber  Amicorum, 
which  seems  to  have  begun  in 
Germany  as  early  as  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  has  con- 
tinued in  the  form  of  visitors' 


Auto-intoxlcatlon 


494 


Autrefois  Acquit 


books  to  the  present  day.  The 
British  Museum  contains  several 
of  these  albums,  with  signatures 
of  celebrities  of  the  reigns  of 
Elizabeth  and  James  i.,  in  whose 
time  they  were  especially  popu- 
lar. 

The  collection  of  detached 
autographs  is  said  to  have 
begun  in  France  as  early  as 
the  sixteenth  century;  in  Eng- 
land the  first  notable  collector 
was  the  antiquary  Ralph  Thores- 
by,  who  died  in  1725.  The 
finest  modern  collection  in  pri- 
vate hands  in  England  is  that 
formed  (1865-82)  by  Mr.  Al- 
fred Morrison,  of  which  a 
descriptive  catalogue,  in  six 
volumes,  with  facsimiles,  was 
printed  between  1883  and  1892. 
The  New  York  Public  Library 
contains  the  most  valuable  col- 
lection of  American  autographs, 
with  the  best  set  of  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence. 

Auto  -  intoxication,       s  e  1  f  - 

intoxication,  or  poisoning  by 
uneliminated  toxins  generated 
within  the  body.  While  broadly 
speaking  it  may  include  a  num- 
ber of  varieties  of  internal 
poisoning,  it  is  applied  usually 
to  toxaemias  which  arise  from 
the  intestinal  tract  owing  to 
faulty  digestion  and  elimination, 
and  the  putrefaction  of  the 
retained  waste  products  by 
intestinal  bacteria.  The  toxins 
thus  produced  circulate  through 
the  tissues,  producing  definite 
degenerative  changes. 

Causes. — Anything  which  in- 
terferes with  the  proper  digestion 
of  food  and  prevents  the  elimi- 
nation of  the  indigestible  residue 
is  a  potential  cause  of  auto- 
intoxication. Thus,  chronic  con- 
stipation (q.  V.)  is  one  of  the 
most  frequent  causes,  while 
dental  defects,  unsuitable  diet, 
gastric  disorders,  and  lack  of 
exercise  are  also  causative  fac- 
tors. 

Symptoms  include  loss  of 
appetite,  headache,  and  abdom- 
inal distress,  becoming  more  and 
more  marked  as  the  case  pro- 
ceeds, accompanied  by  nervous 
and  vasomotor  disturbances,  and 
sometimes,  by  skin  manifesta- 
tions and  disorders  of  the  vision. 
In  cases  of  long  standing  the 
functions  of  the  liver,  pancreas, 
and  other  organs  of  internal 
secretion  may  also  be  deranged. 

The  treatment  consists  large- 
ly in  dietetic  measures,  and  prop- 
er exercise. 

Autolycus,  an  ancient  Greek 
hero,  the  son  of  Hermes,  and 
father  of  Anticleia,  the  mother  of 
Odysseus.  He  was  famous  for 
his  craft  and  cunning,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  able  to  render  him- 
self and  his  stolen  goods  invisible. 
It  was  from  him  that  Odysseus 
was  held  to  have  inherited  his 
craftiness. 

Vol.  I— Oct.  '19 


Autolycus  OF  PiTAN'E  (c.  300 
B.C.),  Greek  astronomer,  wrote 
two  works  on  the  sun  and  stars, 
edited  by  Hultsch  under  the 
title:  Aulolycide  Sphcera  qucB 
movelur  de  Ortibus  et  Occasibus 
(1885). 

Automatic  Action,  a  term 
applied  in  physiology  to  instinc- 
tive or  involuntary  movements. 
It  is  impossible  always  to  dis- 
tingviish  them  from  reflex  action, 
though  theoretically  the  first  pro- 
ceeds from  an  internal  impulse, 
the  second  from  an  external. 
Sleep-walking  may  be  given  as 
an  example  of  automatic  action. 
The  involuntary  movement  of 
the  eyelid,  when  threatened  with 
a  blow,  is  reflex. 

Automatic  Macliines.  See 
Machines,  Automatic. 

Automatism,  the  doctrine  ac- 
cording to  which  all  the  actions  of 
living  beings,  including  the  vol- 
untary actions  of  man,  are  com- 
pletely explained  in  purely  physi- 
ological terms;  so  that  con- 
sciousness or  volition,  where  it 
occurs,  is  merely  a  concomitant 
of  the  bodily  movement  (or  the 
brain  change),  but  has  no  part  in 
bringing  it  about.  Consult 
Huxley's  essay  on  'The  Hy- 
pothesis that  Animals  are  Auto- 
mata'. 

Automaton  (Gr.'self-moving*), 
a  machine  contrived  to  imitate 
the  motions  and  actions  of  some 
living  creature.  In  ancient  his- 
tory many  automata  are  reported 
as  having  been  invented  by 
Archytas,  Hero,  and  others.  The 
most  famous  modern  invention 
was  Vaucanson's  flute-player, 
exhibited  in  Paris  in  1738,  which 
imitated  to  the  life  an  executant 
on  the  instrument.  Other  autom- 
ata in  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Hungary  were  also  musical,  and 
some  represented  persons  writ- 
ing words  and  sentences,  the 
best  known  being  the  chess- 
player of  the  Hungarian  Kem- 
pelen,  brought  to  London  in 
1783,  which  was  in  reality  no 
automaton,  but  was  found  to 
be  managed  by  a  clever  player 
of  diminutive  size  ingeniously 
concealed  in  the  interior.  All 
automata,  however,  were  sur- 
passed by  the  specimens  in- 
vented by  Mr.  Maskelyne,  and 
exhibited  at  the  London  Egyp- 
tian Hall— ^.g.  'Psycho'  (1875), 
a  figure  seated  on  a  glass  cylin- 
der, which  played  cards  against 
all  comers,  and  worked  arith- 
metical questions  of  great  dif- 
ficulty; 'Zoe'  (1877)  which  drew 
the  likeness  of  any  person 
selected  by  the  onlookers  from 
a  list  of  two  hundred  nota- 
bilities. 

Automobile.  See  Motor 
Cars. 

Autonomy,  in  political  econ- 
omy, is  a  polity  in  which  the 
citizens  of  any  state  manage  their 
own  government.    The  term  is 


used  specifically  of  states  and 
territories  which  combine  self- 
government  in  local  matters 
with  subordination  in  foreign 
relations. 

Autonomy,  in  its  philosophical 
sense,  a  term  used  by  Kant  to 
express  the  principle  that  the 
moral  reason,  or  conscience,  can- 
not recognize  as  binding  any 
law  which  is  not  affirmed  by  the 
moral  reason  itself,  but  merely 
imposed  from  without,  and  sup- 
ported by  an  appeal  to  non- 
moral  or  interested  motives 
(ultimately  pleasure  and  pain). 
A  law  thus  imposed  from  with- 
out is  termed  by  Kant  hetero- 
nomous. 

Autoplasty  (Gr.  'self-forma- 
tion'), a  surgical  operation  where- 
by a  diseased  or  injured  part  is 
replaced  by  tissues  taken  from 
the  same  body.  Thus  a  defi- 
ciency in  the  nose  is  supplied 
from  a  triangular  flap  of  skin  and 
subcutaneous  tissue  dissected  off 
the  forehead  immediately  above, 
with  the  apex  between  the  eye- 
brows. The  triangle  is  separated 
from  the  forehead,  except  at  the 
apex.  It  is  brought  down  and 
twisted  on  the  apex,  so  that  it 
has  still  the  right  side  out,  and 
its  raw  edges  fixed  to  a  raw  sur- 
face below.  The  nose  is  then 
shaped  and  moulded.  This  is 
called  rhinoplasty.  Skin-graft- 
ing is  another  example. 

Autopsy.  See  Post-mortem 
Examination, 

Auto  Suggestion,  or  Self- 
SuGGESTiON,  a  suggestion  con- 
veyed to  the  individual  without 
external  intervention.  Auto- 
suggestion may  be  voluntary  or 
involuntary.  The  subject  may, 
by  concentrating  his  thought 
upon  a  certain  line  of  action, 
induce  that  action,  or  he  may, 
unconsciously  act  upon  sug- 
gestions started  in  his  con- 
sciousness by  others;  that  is,  he 
may  start  in  himself  a  train  of 
thought  which  originated  from 
some  other  mind.  This  latter  is 
closely  related  to  hypnotism. 

Autotype,  a  photographic 
process  by  which  permanent 
prints  are  produced  in  a  carbon 
pigment.  A  sheet  of  paper 
coated  with  a  film  of  bichroma- 
tized  gelatin,  in  which  lamp- 
black or  other  permanent  pig- 
ment has  been  held  in  solution 
or  suspension,  is  exposed  to  the 
action  of  light,  in  a  printing- 
frame,  beneath  an  ordinary 
photographic  negative.  In  pro- 
portion as  the  light  is  admitted 
to  the  gelatin  film  or  'tissue,' 
through  the  negative,  it  be- 
comes hardened  and  insoluble  in 
water.  The  print  is  afterwards 
treated  by  washing  away  the 
unaltered  portions  of  the  film, 
and  the  result  is  a  permanent 
print. 

Autrefois  Acquit — Autrefois 
Convict.    Technical  pleas  in  bar 


Autumn 

of  a  second  prosecution  lor  one 
and  the  same  offence.  It  is  an 
ancient  principle  of  the  comrnon 
law  that  a  person  accused  of  crime 
shall  not,  after  one  conviction  or 
acquittal,  be  a  second  time  sub- 
jected to  the  hazard  of  a  trial  for 
the  identical  offence  for  which  he 
was  previously  tried.  If  so  in- 
dicted he  may  plead  verbally  or  in 
writing  autrefois  acquit  or  autrefois 
convict — i.e.  that  ne  has  already 
been  acquitted  or  convicted  on  the 
same  charge,  either  at  home  or 
abroad,  by  a  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction.  The  plea  is  equally 
valid  in  case  of  minor  and  of 
capital  offences.  The  provisions 
of  the  state  and  federal  constitu- 
tions in  the  United  States  respect- 
ing the  putting  of  a  person  '  in 
jeopardy  of  life  or  limb '  have 
reference  only  to  capital  crimes. 
See  Jeopardy. 

Autumn  is  that  season  of  the 
year  which  begins  astronomically 
in  the  northern  hemisphere  when 
the  sun  enters  the  zodiacal  sign 
Libra — viz.  about  Sept.  23.  In  the 
southern  hemisphere  this  is  the 
beginning  of  spring.  The  begin- 
ning of  the  sign  Libra  is  at  the 
intersection  of  the  equator  and  the 
ecliptic,  or  the  point  of  the  sky  at 
which  the  sun  crosses  from  north 
to  south  of  the  equator.  This  is 
known  as  the  autumnal  eguinox, 
and  day  is  then  equal  to  night  all 
over  the  world.  Autumn  ends 
and  winter  begins  on  Dec.  21, 
when  the  sun  has  reached  its  low- 
est position  south  of  the  equator. 

Autun  (anc.  Augustodunum), 
dist.  tn.  and  episc  see,  dep.  Saone- 
et-Loire,  France,  on  the  Arroux, 
51  m.  N.N.w.  of  Macon.  It  has 
Roman  remains,  such  as  a  theatre, 
and  the  Pierre  de  Couhard,  a  pyra- 
mid of  masonry  88  ft.  high.  The  ca- 
thedral, begun  1060,  dates  mainly 
from  the  12th  century,  and  has  a 
beautiful  spire  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury. Industries,  especially  tex- 
tiles, tanning,  paper-making,  and 
brewing,  are  important.  Orig- 
inally the  seat  of  a  Druidical 
school,  it  was  under  the  Romans 
famous  for  its  school  of  rhetoric. 
In  1870  Garibaldi  checked  the 
Germans  before  Autun.  Pop, 
(1901)  15,664. 

Auvsrers,  Arthur  (1838),  Ger- 
man astronomer,  born  at  Got- 
tingen;  director  of  the  new  ob- 
servatory at  Potsdam  (1881),  and 
conductor  of  expeditions  for  ob- 
servation of  transits  of  Venus 
(1874  and  1882).  His  works  in- 
clude Untersuchungen  Uber  verdn- 
derliche  Eigenbewegungen  der  Fix- 
sterne  (1862);  Katalog  von  9,789 
Sternen  (1896);  Determinations  of 
the  Solar  Parallax  (1896),  with 
Sir  D.  Gill  at  Cape  Town. 

Auxerre  (Rom.  Autissiodurum), 
tn.,  cap.  of  dep.  Yonne,  France, 
on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  rising  from 
the  1.  bk.  of  the  Yonne,  109  m.  s.e. 
of  Paris.  The  beautiful  cathedral 


495 

of  St.  Etienne  mainly  dates  from 
the  13th  to  the  15th  century,  and 
the  abbey  St.  Germain,  with  a 
tower  of  the  14th  century,  is  now 
a  school.  There  are  manufac- 
tures of  cloth,  and  a  trade  in 
wines  (Burgundy),  bricks,  leather, 
and  ochre.    Pop.  (1901)  18,901. 

Auxonne  (anc.  Assonum),  Siiort. 
dist.  tn.,  dep.  Cote  d'Or,  France, 
on  the  1.  bk.  of  the  Saone,  19  m. 
s.w.  of  Dijon.  It  contains  a 
church  of  Notre  Dame,  erected 
from  1309-60,  and  a  fortified 
chateau  in  the  Renaissance  style. 
Manufactures  of  cloth,  muslin, 
etc.    Pop.  (1901)  6,185. 

A.V.,  abbreviation  for  Author- 
ized Version. 

Ava.     See  Kava. 

Avalanche,  a  mass  of  snow  or 
ice  which  slides  or  rolls  from  the 
mountain  slopes  into  the  valleys, 
often  causing  great  damage  to 
villages  and  forests.  Avalanches 
occur  particularly  in  spring  and 
early  summer  when  the  snow  and 
underlying  soil  are  loosened  by 
melting.  Drifts  or  powder  ava- 
lanches which  frequently  take 
place  in  winter  consist  of  light 
snow  set  in  motion  by  the  wind. 
In  the  upper  courses  of  glaciers, 
masses  of  ice  may  become  de- 
tached from  the  main  body  and 
fall  down  the  slopes. 

Avalon,  peninsula,  S.E.  New- 
foundland, with  Trinity  Bay  to 
the  N.  and  Placentia  Bay  to  the 
s.;  contains  St.  John's,  the  cap. 

Avalon,  'the  island-valley  of 
Avilion'  of  Tennyson's  Morte 
d' Arthur,  is  the  paradise  of  the 
departed  heroes  of  Celtic  tradi- 
tion. Its/ magic  apples'  suggest 
a  connection  beween  Avalon  and 
the  garden  of  the  Hesperides.  The 
Celtic  legends  of  the  journey  to 
the  soul-kingdom  formed  one  of 
the  sources  of  Dante's  poem.  For 
one  of  the  most  perfect  of  them 
see  Whitley  Stokes's  trans,  of  Fis 
Adamnain. 

Avaris,  ancient  tn.  of  Lower 
Egypt,  on  the  isthmus  of  Suez, 
near  jPelusium,  headquarters  of 
the  invading  Hyksos,  or  shepherd 
kings.  These  j)eople  were  finally 
besieged  in  Avaris  by  Aahmes  I., 
founder  of  the  18th  dynasty,  and 
the  city  was  captured,  and  the 
Hyksos  driven  into  S.  Palestine. 

Avars.  (1.)  A  people  of  Ural- 
Altaic  race,  who  dwelt  on  the 
steppes  of  the  Don,  near  the  Sea 
of  Azov,  later  also  near  the  Cau- 
casus. In  558  A.D.  they  offered 
their  services  to  the  Byzantine 
emperor  Justinian,  who  commis- 
sioned them  to  subjugate  the 
Bulgarians,  who  had  invaded 
Mcesia  (now  Bulgaria).  Having 
performed  this  task,  they  settled 
in  Pannonia  (the  present  Hun- 
gary), and  in  566  helped  the  Lon- 
gobards  to  break  the  power  of 
the  Gepidae,  or  Goths.  Then  they 
extended  their  dominion  over 
Dacia  and  the  territories  between 


Avebury 

the  Alps  and  the  Black  Sea.  But 
they  were  very  troublesome  neigh- 
bors, and  made  frequent  incur- 
sions into  the  Byzantine  empire 
(581),  against  the  Franks  (596)  and 
against  the  Longobards  (610).  In 
619  they  plundered  the  country 
round  Constantinople.  After  the 
death  (630)  of  their  chief,  Bajan, 
their  downfall  was  rapid,  and 
the  peoples  under  their  domina- 
tion liberated  themselves  one  after 
the  other.  Nevertheless,  during 
the  8th  century  they  made  fre- 
quent incursions  into  Germany 
and  Italy,  until  Charlemagne  took 
the  field  against  them,  and  com- 
pletely destroyed  their  power  in 
796.  After  that  they  became 
merged  in  the  Bulgarians  and 
other  Slavic  peoples  of  the  Dan- 
ube region  ;  and  after  the  mid- 
dle of  the  9th _  century  scarcely 
anything  more  is  heard  of  them. 
(2.)  People,  allied  to  the  Lesghian 
stock,  dwelling  in  the  Khanate  of 
Avaria,  Daghestan. 

Avatar  (Sans.  '  descent '),  ap- 
plied to  the  'descent '(incarnation) 
of  the  principal  deities  in  Hindu 
mythology;  especially  applied  to 
Brahma,  Siva,  and  the  ten  incar- 
nations of  Vishnu. 

Avatcha,  or  Avacha,  bay,  tn., 
and  active  volcano  with  double 
peak  (8,500  and  10,000  ft.),  S.E. 
Kamchatka.  Petropaulovsk  is  on 
the  E.  shore  of  the  bay. 

Avebury,  or  Abury,  Wiltshire, 
England,  an  ancient  artificial 
mound  and  'Druidical  circle'  or 
'heathen  temple,'  now  almost  ob- 
literated. It  resembled  Stoner 
henge,  which  lies  17  m.  due  s.  of 
it.  A  plan  of  the  circle,  made 
by  Dr.  Stukeley  (Stonehenge  and 
Abury,  1740),  shows  it  as  then  al- 
rnost  complete,  while  two  smaller 
circles  were  still  traceable  within 
it.  The  great  circle  was  about  1,400 
ft.  in  diameter,  and  was  marked 
by  100  upright  stones,  of  which 
some  stood  20  ft.  above  the 
ground.  See  Sir  R.  Colt  Hoare's 
Ancient  Wiltshire  (1812-44). 

Avebury,  Sir  John  Lubbock, 
First  Baron  (1834-1913),  bank- 
er and  scientist,  was  born  in 
London,  and  was  educated  pri- 
vately and  at  Eton.  Entering 
his  father's  banking  business 
in  1848,  he  became  a  partner  in 
1856.  He  was  vice-chairman  of 
the  London  County  Council 
(1889-90)  and  chairman  (1890- 
92);  as  well  as  president 
of  the  Linnaean  Society  (1881- 
6).  He  served  in  Parliament 
in  1870-80  and  1886-1900.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Baron  Avebury.  His 
name  was  associated  with  many 
important  measures,  including 
the  Bank  Holidays  Act  (1871). 
He  was  most  distinguished, 
however,  for  his  anthropolog- 
ical researches  and  obser- 
vations of  insect  life,  more 
especially    of    bees    and  ants. 


A-veiro 

Among  his  numerous  works  are 
Prehistoric  Times  (1865;  new  ed. 
1900);  The  Origin  of  Civiliza- 
tion and  the  Primitive  Condition 
of  Man  (1870;  1902);  The  Origin 
and  Metamorphoses  of  Insects 
(1873);  On  British  Wild  Flowers 
(1873);  Monograph  on  the  Collem- 
bola  and  Thysanura  (1873);  Fifty 
Years  of  Science  (1882)j  Ants,Bees, 
and  Wasps  (1882),  which  has  run 


Lord  Avebury. 


{Photo  by  Eliot  &  Fry.) 

through  fourteen  editions;  The 
Pleasures  of  Life  (1891),  by  far  his 
most  popular  workj  The  Senses 
and  Instinct  of  Ammals  (1888V, 
Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves(lSSQ); 
On  Representation  (1890);  The 
Beauties  of  Nature  (1892);  The 
Use  of  Life  (1894);  The  Scenery  of 
Switzerland  (1896);  Buds  andStip- 
ules{\S9S) ;  The  Scenery  of  England 
(1902);  Short  History  of  Coins  and 
Currency  (1902). 

Aveiro,  dist.(area,  1,146  sq.  m.; 
pop.(1900)  302,181)  and  tn.(episc. 
see),  prov.  Beira,  Portugal,  at  the 
s.E.  corner  of  the  coast  lagoon  of 
Aveiro,  40  m.  by  rail  s.  of  Oporto. 
The  people  are  engaged  in  fish- 
ing (sardines  and  oysters),  and 
in  producing  salt.  In  the  16th 
century  it  sent  lar^e  fleets  to  the 
Newfoundland  fishing-grounds. 

Avellaneda,  Gertrudis  Go- 
mez DE  (1816-73),  Spanish  poet, 
who  often  published  under  the 
pen-name  of  '  Peregrina ' ;  born  in 
Cuba,  but  lived  in  Madrid  and 
Seville.  Besides  Poesias  Liricas 
(new  ed.  1850),  she  wrote  novels 
and  dramas.  Of  the  former  may  be 
mentioned  El  Mulato  Sab  (1841), 
Dos  Mujeres  (1842),  Espatolino 
(1842),  and  Dolores  (1843);  of  the 
latter,  Leoncia  (1840),  and  the 
Biblical  dramas  of  Saul  (1849)  and 
Baltasar  (1849). 

Avellino.  (1.)  Province,  for- 
merly Principato  Ulteriore;  area, 


496 

1,172  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901)  402,890. 
(3.)  Town  (episc.  see),  Italy,  cap. 
of  prov.,  59  m.  by  rail  E.  by  N.  of 
Naples;  has  for  centuries  been 
famous  for  its  hazel-nuts.  Linen, 
paper,  sausages,  and  hats  are 
manufactured.  Close  to  it  is  the 
famed  church  of  Monte  Vergine, 
with  a  wonder-working  image 
of  the  Virgin,  and  the  tomb  of 
Catherine  of  Valois.  Pop.  (1901) 
23,602. 

Ave  Maria,  or  Angelica  Salu- 
TATIO,  a  prayer  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  addressed  to  the 
Virgin  Mary.  It  first  consisted 
of  the  salutation  of  Mary  by  the 
angel  Gabriel  (Luke  1:28),  along 
with  EHsabeth's  greeting  to  Mary 
(Luke  1 :42).  The  addition,  *  Holy 
Mary,  Mother  of  God,  pray  for 
us  sinners,  now  and  in  the. hour  of 
our  death,'  dates  from  the  15th 
century,  but  was  first  authorized 
for  daily  use  in  the  breviary  by 
Pius  V.  in  1568. 

Avempace,  surnamed  Ibn-Say 
EG  or  Ibn-Badja  (d.  1138),  Arab 
philosopher,  physician,  astrono- 
mer, and  poet,  was  born  at  Sara- 
gossa._  He  is  said  to  have  written 
on  Aristotle,  on  medicine,  music, 
and  logic;  his  great  philosophical 
work.  The  Conduct  of  the  Indi- 
vidual, is  known  to  us  only  through 
its  mention  _  by  Averrhoes,  and 
notes  upon  it  by  Moses  of  Nar- 
bonne.  Avempace  travelled  to 
Fez,  where  he  is  said  to  have  been 
poisoned  by  a  rival  physician. 

Avenarius,  Ferdinand  (1856), 
German  poet  and  writer  on  art, 
was  born  in  Berlin,  from  which 
in  1871  he  moved  to  Dresden. 
Wandern  und  Werden,  his  first 
volume  of  poetry,  appeared  in  1881 
(new  ed.  1897);  in  the  following 
year  he  compiled  an  excellent  an- 
thology, Lyrik  der  Gegenwart  seit 
1850.  He  founded  in  1887  Der 
Kunsiwart,  and  wrote  the  critical 
work  Max  Klingers  Griffelkunst 
(1894).  He  has  also  written  vol- 
umes of  lyrical  poetry — Stimmen 
und  Bilder  (1897-  2nd  ed.  1903); 
Die  Kinder  von  Wohldorf  (1886; 
2nd  ed.  1896);  Lebe/  (1893;  4th 
ed.  1903) — showing  great  metrical 
skill. 

Avens,  plants  of  the  genus 
Geum,  or  their  allies. 

Aventine  Hill  (Aventinus 
Mons),  one  of  the  seven  hills  of 
ancient  Rome,  situated  on  the 
1.  bk.  of  the  Tiber,  and  s.w.  of 
the  Palatine  Hill.  _  Ancus  Mar- 
tius  colonized  it  with  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  conquered  Latin 
towns.  _  Servius  Tullius  brought 
it  within  the  fortified  part  of  the 
city,  and  built  upon  it  the  cele- 
brated temple  of  Diana.  After 
455  B.C.  it  was  the  special  plebeian 
quarter  of  Rome.  At  the  present 
time  it  is  almost  deserted,  being 
covered  with  gardens,  vineyards, 
and  a  few  old  churches. 

Aventinus,  Johannes  (1477- 
1534),  whose  proper  name  was 


Arereli 

TuRMAiR,  known  as  the  *  Bavarian 
Herodotus,'  a  German  historian, 
studied  under  Celtes  at  Ingo^- 
stadt  in  1495.  In  1517  he  was 
appointed  historiographer  of  Ba- 
varia. His  Annates  Boiorum  and 
its  German  edition  appeared  after 
his  death,  in  1554  and  following 
years.  His  Chronica  is  the  first 
important  work  on  German  his- 
tory based  on  a  critical  examina- 
tion of  the  sources.  The  Bavarian 
Academy  of  Sciences  issued  a  com- 
plete edition  of  his  writings  in  5 
vols.  (1881-6).  See  his  Hfe  by  Dol- 
linger  (1877)  and  Wegele  (1890). 

Average.    See  Statistics. 

Average,  in  law.  General 
average  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
rule  by  which  losses  or  sacrifices 
arising  on  a  voyage  are  recouped 
by  an  average  contribution  from 
all  parties  who  benefit  by  such 
loss  or  sacrifice.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  adventure  is  considered 
as  consisting  of  three  parts — ship, 
freight,  and  cargo.  Suppose  the 
ship  is  worth  $100,000,  the  freight 
{i.e.  the  money  being  earned  by  the 
ship  on  its  voyage)  $25,000,  and 
the  cargo  $50,000.  The  captain, 
in'  order  to  lighten  the  ship  in  a 
storm,  throws  overboard  $10,000 
worth  of  cargo.  This  loss  will  not 
fall  entirely  on  the  owners  of  the 
cargo,  but,  according  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  general  average,  will  be 
divided.  The  owners  of  the  ship 
will  pay  four-sevenths — i.e.  the 
proportion  of  the  value  of  the  ship 
to  the  value  of  ship  and  freight 
and  cargo;  the  owners  of  the 
freight  will  pay  one-seventh;  and 
onlv  the  remaining  two-sevenths 
will  fall  upon  the  owners  of  the 
cargo.  Of  course  the  principle  is 
the  same  if  the  loss  falls  on  the 
ship — e.g.  if  the  sails  are  cut  away 
to  save  the  ship;  or  if  it  falls  on 
the  freight — e.g.  if  the  freight  is 
lost  by  putting  into  a  port  to  refit. 
But  in  order  that  there  may  be  a 
general  average  contribution,  the 
following  conditions  are  neces- 
sary:— (1.)  The  loss  must  be  an 
intentional  one — i.e.  there  is  no 
general  average  for  cargo  washed 
overboard  or  captured  in  time  of 
war,  but  only  of  cargo  inten- 
tionally jettisoned.  (2.)  It  must 
be  for  the  benefit  of  all  parties— 
e.g.  an  extraordinary  expenditure 
of  coal  in  order  to  bring  the  ship 
to  port  in  time  will  not  be  a 
general  average,  for  it  benefits  the 
freight  alone,  and  not  the  ship 
and  cargo.  (3.)  It  must  be  incurred 
under  pressure  of  immediate  and 
unusual  necessity.  (4.)  It  must 
not  arise  from  the  negligence  of 
the  parties — e.g.  improper  stow- 
age or  navigation. 

Averell,  William  Woods  (1832 
-1900),  American  soldier,  born  in 
Cameron,  N.  Y.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1855,  and  was 
a  conspicuous  Federal  cavalry 
leader  in  the  Civil  War.  He  be- 
came a  brigadier-general  of  volun- 


\ 


Arernus 

teers  in  Sept.,  1862,  and  was  brev- 
etted  colonel  (Dec,  1863)  for  a 
cavalry  expedition  into  South- 
western Virginia,  resulting  in  the 
destr Action  of  militar}^  stores  at 
Salem,  Va.,  and  a  major-general 
(1865)  both  in  the  regular  and  in 
the  volunteer  service  for  'gallant 
and  distinguished  conduct  at  the 
battle  of  Moorfield.  Va.'  In  1865 
he  resigned  from  tne  service,  and 
subsequently  was  engaged  in  the 
asphalt  paving  business,  inventing 
an  asphalt  pavement. 

Avernus,  Lake,  Italy,  10  m.  w. 
of  Naples,  the  crater  of  an  ex- 
tinct volcano,  where  the  ancients 
placed  the  entrance  to  the  infer- 
nal regions.  (C/.  'Facilis  descen- 
sus Averno'  Virgil's  JEneid,  vi.), 
Agrippa,  at  the  command  of  Au- 
gustus, connected  the  lake  with 
the  sea,  and  built  a  naval  port, 
which  existed  down  to  1538,  when 
the  volcanic  uprising  of  Mount 
Nuovo  destroyed  it,  and  com- 
pletely altered  the  face  of  the 
adjacent  country.  Lake  Avernus 
is  21  ft.  deep,  but  only  4  ft.  above 
sea-level,  and  not  more  than  2  m. 
in  circumference. 

Averrhoes,  or  Averroes, 
whose  name  was  Abul-ibn-Roshd 
(1126-98),  Arab  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Cordova  in  Spain;  was 
judge  (from  1169)  in  Seville  and 
Cordova,  and  then  for  many  years 
was  court  physician  to  Yakub 
al-Mansur,  Almohade  sovereign 
of  Morocco  and  Cordova.  ^  Hav- 
ing an  unbounded  admiration 
for  Aristotle,  whom  he  regarded 
as  the  incarnation  of  all  human 
W^isdom,  he  was  for  ages  famous 
as  the  great  commentator  of 
his  master,  and  at_  Padua  his 
school  flourished  until  nearly  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century.  Ro- 
ger Bacon  and  John  Baconthorpe 
were  the  most  conspicuous  of  the 
English  Averrhoists.  _  Averrhoes 
drew  the  clearest  distinctions  be- 
tween human  science  (knowledge) 
and  religion,  and  discriminated 
sharply  between  this  last  and  the 
logic-chopping  subtleties  of  theol- 
ogy. One  of  the  central  features  of 
his  teaching  was  the  postulation  of 
a  universal  transcendent  intellect 
which  manifests  itself  eternally 
in  different  degrees  in  individual 
men.  By  substituting  the  con- 
ception of  the  human  soul  for  the 
intellect  in  this  doctrine,  the  theo- 
logical opponents  of  the  Aver- 
rhoist  school  accused  Averrhoes 
of  denying  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  The  best  Latin  edition  of 
his  commentaries  was  issued  at 
Venice  in  1552  and  following 
years.  See  J.  Miiller's  Philosophie 
und  Theologie  (1875);  Renan's 
Avr^ro'es  et  1' Averroisme  (3rd  ed. 
1869);  and  Mehren's  Etudes  sur  la 
Philosophie  d' Averrhoes  (1888). 

Avers,  Alpine  valley,  canton 
Grisons,  Switzerland,  ioining  the 
valley  of  the  Hinter-Rnein.  The 
lower  portion  (Ferrera  Glen),  be- 
VOL.  I.— 36. 


497 

tween  Caniciil  and  Cresta  (which 
stands  at  an  altitude  of  6,394  ft.), 
is  one  of  the  highest  inhabited 
places  in  Europe. 

Aversa,  tn.  and  episc.  see,  prov. 
Caserta,  Italy,  12  _m.  by  rail  N. 
of  Naples.  Wine  is  made  here; 
hemp  and  cotton  are  woven,  and 
furniture  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1901)23,189. 

Avery,  Elroy  McKendree 
(1844),  American  writer,  born  at 
Erie,  Mich.  He  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Michigan  in  1871, 
taught  school  for  several  years, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Ohio 
Senate  (1893-7).  He  became  well 
known  as  the  author  of  a  series  of 
text  books  on  physics  and  chem- 
istry which  were  used  in  public 
schools  throughout  the  country, 
and  subsequently  devoted  himself 
to  the  preparation  of  a  popular 
History  of  the  United  States  and 
its  People  from  their  Earliest 
Records  to  the  Present  Time,  to  be 
completed  in  15  vols.  The  first 
volume  appeared  in  1904,  and  is  in 
many  respects  one  of  the  best 
treatments  of  the  period  covered, 
an  unusual  degree  of  accuracy 
being  secured  through  the  cooper- 
ation of  eminent  specialists. 

Avesta.    See  Zend-Avesta. 

Aveyron,  dep.,  France,  on  s.w. 
slope  of  central  plateau,  roughly 
triangular  in  outline;  area,  3,376 
sq.  m.  Wholly  in  the  basin  of  the 
Garonne,  the  dep.  is  crossed  by  its 
tribs.,  the  Lot,  the  Aveyron,  and 
the  Tarn.  Much  of  the  sur- 
face is  barren,  the  agricultural 
districts  being  found  chiefly  in  the 
lower  valleys  of  the  Lot  and  Avey- 
ron (Basse  Marche).  Forests  are 
still  extensive,  and  round  Aubin 
coal,  iron  ore,  lead,  and  silver  are 
mined.  The  natural  beauties  of 
the  dep.  and  its  mineral  springs 
attract  tourists.  Pop.  (1901) 
382,074. 

Avianus,  Flavius,  a  Latin 
fabulist  of  the  4th  century-,  author 
of  forty-two  fables  in  imitation  of 
Phaedrus  and  Babrius,  still  extant, 
set  forth  in  elegiac  verse.  Ed. 
by  Lachmann  (1845).  See  The 
Fables  of  Avianus,  ed.  by  R. 
Ellis  (1887). 

Aviation.  See  Aeronautics; 
Balloon;  Flying  Machine. 

Aviary,  a  large  cage  or  en- 
closure for  keeping  birds.  Such 
structures  are  common  and  en- 
joyable in  mild  climates,  but  per- 
missible only  in  summer  in  most 
of  the  United  States,  and  hence 
are  uncommon  except  in  zoolog- 
ical gardens.    See  Cage  Birds. 

Avicebron,  or  Salomon-ibn- 
Gabirol  (1020-70),  Jewish  poet 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Malaga 
in  Spain.  _  He  is  the  author  of  the 
philosophical  work  Fons  Vitce,  or 
Fons  Sapientice,  written  in  Arabic, 
which  had  a  great  influence  on  the 
scholastic  writers  of  the  middle 
ages.  His  teaching  was  com- 
pounded of  Jewish  theology,  Aris- 


Avlgnon 

totelianism,  and  Neo-Platonism. 

His  writings  exercised  also  a  great 
influence  upon  the  development 
of  the  Cabbala.  He  composed 
numerous  poems  and  hymns,  sev- 
eral of  which  now  form  part  of 
the  synagogue  prayer-book.  See 
Kaufmann's  Studien  iiber  S.  Ibn 
Gabirol  (1899);  Geiger's5.  Gabirol 
und  seine  Gedichte  (1867);  Munk's 
Melanges  de  Philosophie  Juive  et 
Arabe  (1857). 

Avicenna,  or  Ibn-Sina  (980- 
1037),  Arabian  philosopher  and 

ghysician,  born  near  Bokhara; 
ied  at  Hamadan,  in  Persia.  For 
some  years  he  led  an  unsettled 
life,  living,  among  other  places, 
at  Rai,  near  Teheran;  then  he 
found  his  way  to  Hamadan,  where 
fcr  a  time  he  occupied  the  position 
of  grand- vizier  to  the  ruling  chief; 
and  finally  settled  in  Ispahan. 
His  principal  work  is  the  Canon 
of  Medicine,  written  in  Arabic, 
early  translated  into  Latin,  and 
for  centuries  (to  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century  in  some)  a  leading 
text-book  in  European  univer- 
sities. This  is  based  upon  Galen 
— i.e.  ultimately  upon  Hippocrates 
and  Aristotle.  In  philosophy  his 
most  important  work  was  Ash- 
Shafa,  an  encyclopaedia  of  the 
philosophical  sciences,  of  which 
an  extract,  Al-Nadjat,  contains 
his  logic,  metaphysics,  and  phys- 
ics. His  philosophical  doctrine 
is  mainly  Aristotelian,  adapted  in 
many  parts  to  the  religious  faith 
of  the  Koran.  His  works,  which 
were  translated  into  Latin  in  the 
12th  century,  appeared  in  1493  in 
Venice,  and  afterward  in  numer- 
ous editions.  See  Munk's  Melan- 
ges de  Philosophie  Juive  et  Arabe 
(1857),  Mehren's  Traites  Mys- 
tiques d'Avicenne  (1889-99),  and 
Carra  de  Vaux's  Avicenne  (1900). 

Avicennia,  or  White  Man- 
grove, a  genus  of  Verbenaceae, 
evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  indi- 
genous to  the  tidal  estuaries  and 
salt  marshes  of  most  tropical  coun- 
tries. The  astringent  bark  of  the 
A.  tomentosa  is  much  used  in  Rio 
Janeiro  for  tanning;  in  New  South 
Wales  the  wood,  being  hard  and 
durable,  is  used  for  mallets,  etc. 

A.vienus,  Rurus  Festus,  a 
Latin  poet  who  wrote  on  geogra- 
phical and  astronomical  subjects 
in  the  4th  century  a.d.  To  him 
are  ascribed  (1)  Descriptio  Orbis 
Terra;  (2)  Ora  Maritima,  a  de- 
scription of  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  from  Marseilles  to 
Cadiz;  (3)  Aratea  Phcenomena  and 
Aratea  Prognostica,  free  transla- 
tions from  the  Greek  author 
Aratus.  See  Wernsdorf's  Poeta 
Latini  Minores,  vol.  v.,  or  Hold- 
er's ed.  (1886). 

Avigliano,  tn.,  prov.  Potenza, 
Italy;  is  built  on  a  hill  (3,010  ft.) 
8  m.  N.w.  of  Potenza;  it  manu- 
factures explosives.  Pop.  (1901) 
18,481. 

Avignon  (X'aX.Avenio)^  tn.,  cap. 


A.vi)a 

ot  dep.  Vaucliise,  France,  on  1.  bk. 
of  Rhone,  143  m.  below  Lyons 
and  25  m.  above  the  apex  of  the 
delta.  The  city  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop.  The  citadel-like 
palace  of  the  popes,  built  1336-70, 
with  six  towers  and  walls  18  ft. 
thick,  is  the  chief  object  of  in- 
terest. The  metropolitan  church. 


498 

and  towers  stand  almost  intact. 
Avila  was  the  birthplace  of  Santa 
Teresa  (1515-82).  Pop.  (1900) 
11,885.  The  province  produces 
timber,  chestnuts,  and  olives;  its 
rich  mines  of  coal,  copper,  and 
lead  are  little  worked.  Pop.  (1900) 
97  694. 

Avila,  Juan  de  (1500-69),  the 


Avocets 

ins's  Hist,  of  Music  (1776)  and 
Browning's  Parleyings  with  Cer* 
tain  People  (1887). 

Avispoorty  an  opening  in  the 
mountains  m  Damara  Land, 
German  S.  W.  Africa,  close  to 
Little  and  Great  Windhoek, 

Avitus,  Marcus  M^cilius  (d. 
456  A.D.),  emperor  of  the  West 


The  Palace  of  the  Popes,  Avignon. 


Notre  Dame  des  Doms  (12th  cen- 
tury), perched  on  a  rock  (280  ft.), 
between  which  and  the  river  is 
the  well-known  Promenade  des 
Rocher  des  Doms,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  other  ecclesiastical  struc- 
tures, are  interesting  {la  ville 
sonnante  of  Rabelais).  A  continu- 
ous belt  of  walls  (1349-68)  encir- 
cles the  city.  Villeneuve,  on  the  r. 
bk.  of  the  river,  is  connected  with 
Avignon  by  the  famous  bridge 
built  in  1108,  and  partly  destroyed 
in  1669.  The  only  industries  of 
note  are  those  of  silk,  copper,  zinc, 
and  lead.  The  Popes  regularly 
resided  in  Avignon  from  1309  to 
1378,  and  at  intervals  up  to  1417, 
the  town  and  surrounding  dis- 
trict remaining  a  papal  posses- 
sion until  1791.  Petrarch  first 
saw  Laura  in  Avignon,  and  she 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  the 
Cordeliers,  now  destroyed.  In 
1873  John  Stuart  Mill  died  here. 
Pop.  (1901)  46,896.  See  Joudon's 
Avignon:  son  Histoire,  ses  Papes, 
ses  Monuments,  et  ses  Environs 
(1842);  and  Muntz's 'Za  CourPon- 
iificale  d' Avignon,'  in  Revue  des 
Questions  Historiques,  vol.  xxii. 
(1899). 

Avila  (anc.  Abula),  city  of  Spain 
cap.  of  prov.  of  same  name,  70  m. 
N.w.  of  Madrid,  on  main  N.  Ry., 
ancient  and  picturesque  decaying 
city  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
Guadarraraas.  The  Moorish  walls 


•apostle  of  Andalusia,'  born  in  La 

Mancha;  passed  twenty  years  as  a 
priest.  He  belonged  to  the  Span- 
ish mystic  school,  and  left  a  num- 
ber of  works  published  by  Ruiz 
de  Mesa  in  Viaa  y  Obras  de  Juan 
de  Avila  (1618).  . 

Avila,  Sancho  de,  a  Spanish 
general  who  served  under  the  Duke 
of  Alva  and  under  Requesens  in 
the  Netherlands.  He  defeated 
Louis  of  Nassau,  and  sacked  Ant- 
werp in  1576,  but  was  killed  at  the 
siege  of  Maestricht  in  1579.  See 
Brant ome's  Vies  des  Grands  Capi- 
taines  (1665). 

Avila  y  Zuniga,  Luiz  de  (c. 
1490-1560),  Spanish  historian  and 
diplomatist,  favorite  of  Charles 
V.  His  account  of  the  emperor's 
war  with  the  Protestant  princes, 
Comentarios  de  la  Guerra  de 
Alemana  (1548;  new  ed.  1852), 
has  been  translated  into  several 
languages. 

Aviles,  or  San  Nicolas  de 
AviLES,  tn.,  prov.  Oviedo,  Spain, 
15  m.  from  Oviedo,  on  ry.  to  Gijon. 
Port  on  Bay  of  Biscay.  Several 
foundries  and  textile  factories. 
Pop.  (1900)  12,763. 

Avison,  Charles  (?1710-70), 
English  musician,  of  Newcastle; 
is  known  by  his  Essay  on  Musi- 
cal Expression,  by  several  sets  of 
sonatas  and_  concertos,  and  by 
his  edition,  in  eight  volumes,  of 
Marcello's  Psalms.    See  Hawk- 


(455-456  A.D.J,  was  a  descendant 
of  a  noble  family  of  Auvergne.  As 
prefect  of  Gaul  he  defeated  the 
Huns  and  Vandals.  He  became 
ambassador  at  the  court  of  Theo- 
doric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  with 
whose  assistance  he  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  death  of  Maximus 
(455).  After  a  reign  of  fourteen 
months  he  was  deposed  by  Rici- 
mer,  and  appointed  bishop  of  Pla- 
centia. 

Aviz,  Order  of  St.  Benedict, 
a  Portuguese  military  and  reli- 
gious order  founded  in  1162  to  op- 
pose  the  Moors,  the  knights  being 
under  the  Cistercian  and  Bene- 
dictine discipline.  In  1211-23 
King  Alfonso  removed  the  order 
to  the  fortress  of  Aviz,  whence 
the  name.  It  is  now  (since  1879) 
simply  a  military  order,  with  three 
classes — grand  cross,  commander, 
and  chevalier.  See  Lawrence- 
Archer's  Orders  of  Chivalry. 

Avoca,  or  OvocA,  short  riv.,Co. 
Wicklow,  Ireland,  formed  by  the 
sub-tribs.  Avonmore  and  Avonbeg 
at  'the  meeting  of  the  waters,' 
and  famed  for  its  silvan  scenery 
and  for  Thomas  Moore's  well- 
known  lines  {Irish  Melodies, 117^). 

Avocado  Pear.  See  Alli- 
gator Pear. 

Avocets,  widely-distributed 
birds  belonging  to  the  genus  Re- 
curvirostra,  allied  to  the  plovers 
and  sandpipers,  and  characterized 


A.vogadro 


499 


Axis 


by  the  long  up-curved  beak.  The 
American  avocet  is  rather  com- 
mon west  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
breeding  on  the  ground  in  marshy- 
places,  and  migrating  to  the  gulf 
coast  in  winter.  It  has  a  reddish 
head  and  neck,  whitish  body  and 
black  and  white  wings. 

Avogadro,  Count  Amadeo 
(1776-1856),  professor  of  physics 
at  Vercelli  (1809),  of  mathematics 
at  Turin  (1820),  discovered  'Avo- 
gadro's  law' — that  equal  volumes 
of  different  gases,  at  the  same  tem- 
perature and  pressure,  contain  the 
same  number  of  molecules. 

Avoirdupois.  See  Weights 
AND  Measures. 

Avola,  tn.,  prov.  Syracuse, 
Sicily,  22  m.  by  rail  s.w.  of  Syra- 
cuse; produces  excellent  wine, 
almonds,  and  sugar.  Pop.  (1901) 
16,301. 

Avon,  Celtic  word  meaning 
'river';  a  common  name  for  Brit- 
ish streams,  of  which  the  following 
are  the  most  important: — (1.)  Up- 
per or  Warwickshire  Avon,  rising 
near  Naseby,  Northamptonshire, 
and  flowing  through  Warwickshire 
and  Worcestershire  to  join  the 
Severn  on  the  1.  bk.  at  Tewkes- 
bury,   passing    Stratford,  hence 


The  Avocet. 


Shakespeare's  designation  *Swan 
of  Avon.'  Its  length  is  nearly  100 
m.  (3.)  Lower  Avon,  or  Bristol 
Avon,  entering  the  Bristol  Chan- 
nel 6  m.  below  Bristol:  length,  70 
m.  It  is  subject  to  very  high  spring 
tides,  which  sometimes  rise  above 
40  ft.  (3.)  East  Avon,  in  Wilt- 
shire, flowing  through  Salisbury; 
length,  50  m.  (4.)  A  trib.  of  Spey, 
Banfifshire,  Scotland,  30  m.  long. 
(5.)  Trib.  of  Clyde,  Lanarkshire, 
Scotland,  28  m.  long. 

Avon,  vil.,  Livingston  co.,  N.  Y. 
on  the  Genesee  R.,  and  on  the  Erie 
R.  R.  The  mineral  springs  and 
beautiful  scenery  have  made  it  a 
popular  summer  resort.  Pop. 
(1910)   vil.  2,053;  town  3,432. 

Avondale,  par.,  9^  m.  s.w.  ot 
Hamilton,  W.  Lanarkshire,  Scot- 
land, with  the  battlefield  of  Drum- 
clog  (1679), immortalized  in  Scott's 
Old  Mortality. 

Avonmouth,  tn.  and  docks  at 
mouth  of  river  Avon,  Gloucester- 


shire, England,  6  m.  N.W.  of 
Bristol.  In  March,  1902,  the  first 
sod  for  the  extended  dock  works 
was  cut  by  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

Avulsion.  The  rapid  wearing 
away  or  separation  of  land  through 
the  action  of  the  sea  or  of  a  natural 
watercourse.  The  process  is  in 
legal  effect  opposed  to  accretion, 
whereby  the  shore  line  is  altered 
by  imperceptible  degrees.  In  the 
latter  case  the  title  to  the  new- 
made  land  belongs  to  the  riparian 
owner  to  whose  soil  it  has  been 
added,  whereas  the  title  of  the 
owner  of  land  severed  by  avulsion 
remains  unaffected  by  the  change. 
See  Accretion. 

Awaji,  island  of  Japan,  at  the 
eastern  entrance  of  the  Inland 
Sea,  two  hours  by  steamer  from 
Kobe.  Its  area  is  218  sq.  m.,  and 
pop.  some  170,000.  Its  scenery  is 
very  beautiful,  and  the  island  is 
much  visited  by  tourists. 

Award.  The  judicial  finding  of 
a  referee  or  arbitrator.  The  term 
is  sometimes  employed  to  describe 
a  judgment  or  decree  of  a  court 
assessing  the  damages  due  a  liti- 
gant, but  it  is  more  commonly 
used  in  connection  with  extra- 
judicial proceedings,  as  the  assess- 
ment of  damages  on  the  condem- 
nation of  land  for  public  use,  the 
determination  of  questions  in  dis- 
pute by  arbitrators,  and  the  like. 
It  is  also  properly  applicable  to 
the  findings  arrived  at  in  interna- 
tional arbitrations.  When  con- 
ducted under  authority  of  law  an 
arbitration  award  has  much  of  the 
effect  of  a  judicial  decision.  See 
Arbitration. 

Awe.  (1.)  River  of  Argyllshire, 
Scotland,  flowing  N.W.  from  loch 
of  same  name  into  Loch  Etive; 
a  famous  salmon  and  sea-trout 
stream  with  rugged  and  precipi- 
tous banks,  especially  in  the  Pass 
of  Brander.  (3.)  Loch  of  Argyll- 
shire, Scotland,  22  m.  E.  of  Oban, 
118  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  22f  m. 
long.  Ben  Cruachan  looks  down 
on  the  island-studded  N.  end,  and 
on  the  N.E.  shore  is  Kilchurn 
Castle  (built  1441),  mentioned  in 
'The  M'Gregors'  Gathering.' 

Awn,  a  bristle-like  growth, 
called  also  beard,  which  arises 
from  the  backs  or  apices  of  the 
outer  flowering  glumes  of  many 
species  of  grasses  and  cereals;  a 
prolongation  of  the  midrib. 

Awomori,  or  AoMORl,  tn.  and 
seapt.,  Japan,  with  a  fine  natural 
harbor,  at  N.  extremity  of  Nip- 
pon, 444  m.  by  rail  N.  of  Tokyo. 
Has  considerable  trade,  chiefly 
with  Hakodate.   Pop.  11,000. 

Ax,  or  Ax-les-Thermes,  tn., 
dep.  Ariege,  France,  on  Ariege  R., 
25  m.  s.E.  of  Foix,  at  2,350  ft.  alti- 
tude; famous  for  its  warm  sulphur 
springs,  sixty-one  in  number  (63- 
171°  F.)     Pop.  (1901)  1,503. 

Axe  (spelt  ax  in  the  Bible),  an 
instrument  used  for  hewing  and 
chopping  wood;  formerly  also  a 


weapon  of  war.  (See  Battle- 
axe.)  It  was  in  the  earlier  ages 
made  of  flint  or  bronze,  but  is  now 
made  of  iron  with  a  cutting  edge 
of  steel.  The  head  is  pierced  to 
allow  entrance  to  the  end  of  the 
handle,  haft,  or  helve.  The  cut- 
ting edge  is  in  the  same  plane  as 
the  handle,  and  not,  as  in  the  adze, 
at  right  angles  to  it. 

Axestone,  a  hard  variety  of 
mineral,  jade  or  nephrite,  of  a 
greenish  color;  so  called  from 
its  use  by  the  Maoris  and  the 
South  Sea  islanders  for  axe-heads. 
It  is  found  in  Cornv/all,  also  in 
Silesia,  Central  Asia,  and  China. 
See  Jade. 

Axholme,  or  Axholm,  Isle  of, 
a  dist.  in  Lincolnshire,  insulated 
by  the  Trent,  Don,  Idle,  and 
Torne;  about  17  m.  long  by  9  m. 
broad.  _  Epworth  and  Crowle  are 
the  principal  places  in  it.  The 
practice  of  'warping' — i.e  of  in- 
undating the  land  at  certain  times 
with  mud-laden  water — is  still 
pursued.  It  was  drained  and 
reclaimed  by  Vermuyden  (1625- 
34). 

Axil,  the  upper  angle  between 
a  leaf  and  the  stem  from  which 
the  leaf  arises.    It  is  the  normal 

gosition  for  the  origin  of  lateral 
uds,  which  are  therefore  termed 
axillary.    The  old  term  was  ala. 

Axilla  (Lat.  '  armpit ')  is, 
strictly  speaking,  the  armpit,  or 
any  other  part  of  the  body  which 
forms  a  similar  angle;  but  for 
practical  purposes  axilla  is  ap- 
plied to  the  armpit  only.  It  is 
the  pyramidal  space  which  lies 
between  the  inner  side  of  the 
upper  arm,  or  arm  proper,  and 
the  adjacent  part  of  the  chest 
wall.  The  apex  of  this  pyramid 
points  upward  and  inward  to- 
ward the  root  of  the  neck.  The 
large  nerves  and  vessels  for  the 
arm  pass  through  the  axilla,  and 
the  glands  there  are  a  common  seat 
of  abscesses  and  other  troubles. 

Axim,  seapt.  tn.,  W.  Africa,  on 
the  Gold  Coast,  w.  of  Cape  Three 
Points;  government  hospital. 

Axinite,  a  comparatively  rare 
mineral  composed  of  silica,  bo- 
ron, aluminium,  and  calcium.  It 
occurs  in  clove-brown,  triclinic 
crystals  with  acute  edges. 

Axinomancy,  an  ancient 
Greek  ordeal  for  the  discovery 
of  crime.    See  Divination. 

Axiom,  a  proposition  or  prem- 
ise which,  being  self-evident,  re- 
quires no  proof,  and  is  taken  for 
granted.  As  a  technical  term  the 
word  'axiorn'  is  now  restricted 
to  the  self-evident  premises  of  ge- 
ometry, the  corresponding  term  in 
philosophy  being  mtuition. 

Axis,  in  general,  an  imaginary 
line  about  which  any  solid  body 
rotates,  or  about  which  any  geo- 
metrical figure  or  organic  struc- 
ture is  symmetrical.  Thus,  we 
speak  of  the  axis  of  a  planet, 
running  through  the  sphere  from 


Axis  Deer 


500 


Aylmer 


pole  to  pole;  and  in  scientific  in- 
struments, machinery,  etc.,  the 
axis  is  represented  by  a  pin, 
bearing,  axle,  or  other  element, 
about  which,  as  the  centre  of  its 
rotation,  a  part  is  free  to  move. 
And  again,  we  speak  of  the  axis 
of  an  ellipse,  parabola,  cone,  etc.; 
and  the  stem  of  a  plant,  about 
which  the  leaves,  branches,  etc., 
are  disposed  in  a  radially  sym- 
metrical manner,  is  termed  the 
axis.  In  human  osteology  the 
name  is  appHed  to  the  second 
cervical  vertebra,  which  supports 
the  atlas,  or  highest  bone  in  the 
vertebral  column. 

Axis  Deer,  an  Indian  woodland 
deer,  profusely  spotted  with 
white  on  a  dark  background.  It 
is  about  the  size  of  the  European 
fallow  deer;  the  male  has  slen- 
der, sharp-pointed  horns,  little 
branched.  It  has  been  kept  in 
parks  in  Europe  and  occasionally 
in  America. 

Axminster,  mrkt.  tn.,  Devon, 
England,  on  the  L.  &  S.  W.  R.,  27 
m.  W.  of  Dorchester,  on  the  Axe. 
The  manufacture  of  carpets,  for 
which  it  was  formerly  noted,  has 
been  (1835)  transferred  to  Wilton. 
Tooth  and  nail  brushes  are  now 
extensively  made,  and  there  are 
corn,  flour,  and  saw  mills  and 
iron-founding.  About  1  m.  to 
the  S.  are  remains  of  Newenham 
Abbev,  a  Cistercian  foundation 
of  the  13th  century.  Pop.  (1911) 
12,343. 

Axolotl  (Amblystoma,  or  Sire- 
don  piscijormis),  a  Mexican  and 
N.  American  amphibian,  which 
resembles  a  newt  in  shape,  and  has 
a  powerful  tail  and  three  pairs  of 
simple  external  gills.  In  this  form 
it  breeds  freely,  both  under  natural 
conditions  and  in  aquaria,  the 
young  resembling  their  parents. 
Under  certain  conditions,  as  yet 
not  fully  understood,  this  gilled 


8   TO  lO  IN. 


Axolotl,  gilled  form  {above)  and 
adult  {below). 

stage  may  be  converted  into  an- 
other form  {Amblystoma),  in  which 
the  gills  and  the  membrane  of  the 
tail  are  lost;  these  forms  also  re- 
produce, but  their  young  are 
axolotls,  and  are  not  like  their 
parents.  These  facts  justify  us 
in  regarding  the  axolotl  as  a  pre- 
maturely sexual  larva,  and  the 
gill-less    form   {Amblystoma)  as 


the  adult.  This  amphibian  is 
eaten  by  the  Mexican  Indians. 

Axum,  AxouM,  or  Aksum, 
ruined  tn.,  Tigre,  Abyssinia,  113 
m.  s.w.  of  Massowah;  formerly 
the  capital  of  a  powerful  Ethio- 
pian kingdom.  (See  Ethiopia.) 
Axum  has  been  Christian  since  the 
4th  century,  and  is  now  regarded 
as  a  sacred  city  by  the  Abyssinians. 
There  are  numerous  remains  of 
Greek  architecture.    Pop.  5,000. 

Ayacucho,  tn.,  Peru,  cap.  of 
dep.  of  same  name,  in  lat.  13°  8' 
s.  In  1539  Pizarro  founded  the 
town  of  San  Juan  de  la  Vic- 
toria on  'the  site  of  the  Indian 
Huamanga  (Falcon  Rock);  and 
after  the  victory  of  General 
Sucre  over  the  Spaniards  (Dec. 
9,  1824) the  independence  of  Peru 
was  secured,  and  the  name  of  the 
town  was  changed  to  Ayacucho. 
Alt.  9,260  ft.   Pop.  20,000. 

Ayala,  Pedro  de,  the  ambas- 
sador of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of 
Spain  at  the  court  of  James  iv.  of 
Scotland  in  1498.  His  interesting 
account  of  Scotland  and  its  people 
is  given  in  Hume  Brown's  Early 
Travellers  in  Scotland  (1891). 

Ayala,  Pedro  Lopez  de  (1332- 
1407),  Spanish  poet  and  historian. 
A  noble  of  the  court  of  Peter  the 
Cruel,  he  fought  for  Henry  of 
Trastamare  at  the  battle  of  Na- 
jera  (1367).  He  afterward  occu- 
pied the  positions  of  councillor  to 
Henry  ll.  and  high  chancellor  to 
John  I.  His  great  work  is  the 
Cronicas  de  los  Reyes  de  Castilla, 
1350-96,  a  vivacious  and  brilhant 
work  (best  ed.  _  1780).  He  also 
translated  Livy  into  Spanish. 

Ayamonte,  fortified  tn.,  prov. 
Huelva,  Spain,  on  1.  bk.  of  the 
Guadiana,  about  2  m.  from  its 
mouth;  good  harbor,  and  fisheries 
of  cod,  sardines,  and  tunny. 

Aye-aye  {Chiromys  madagas- 
cariensis),  a  remarkable  lemur, 
nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  con- 
fined to  Madagascar,  where  it 
inhabits  the  dense  forests.  A 
notable  peculiarity  is  the  rodent- 
like structure  of  the  front  teeth. 
The  hands  are  also  very  remark- 
able, the  middle  finger  being 
exceedingly  long  and  very  slen- 
der; it  is  said  to  be  used  in  pick- 
ing out  wood-boring  insect  larvae. 
The  aye-aye  is  about  as  large  as  a 
cat,  and  has  large  naked  ears. 

Ayer,  vil.,  Middlesex  co.,  Mass., 
10  m.  E.  of  Fitchburg,  on  four 
branches  of  the  Boston  and  Me. 
R.  R.  Machinery,  leather,  boxes, 
°tc.,  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1910)  2,797. 

Ayeshah,  wife  of  Mohammed. 
On  his  death  (632)  she  secured  the 
caliphate  for  her  father,  Abu- 
Bekr,  against  the  prophet's  son- 
in-law,  Ali;  and  again,  at  the 
CaHph  Othman's  death,  she  tried 
to  exclude  Ali,  but  was  taken 
prisoner  (656).  She  died  at  Me- 
dina (677).    See  Mohammed. 

Aylesbury,  mrkt.    tn.,  Buck- 


inghamshire, England,  near  the 
Thame;  an  important  railway 
centre.    Some  of  the  interesting 

Sublic  buildings  are  due  to  the 
.othschild  family.  Outside  the 
town,  on  the  N.E.,  is  a  female  con- 
vict prison.  Large  printing  works; 
other  industries,  straw-plaiting 
and  lace-making.  Dairy-farming 
and  the  rearing  of  ducks  are  ex- 
tensively followed  in  the  district. 
Hartwell  House,  about  2  m.  N.  of 
Aylesbury,  was  the  residence  of 
Louis  XVIII.  during  his  exile 
(1810-14).  Pop.  (1911)  11,048. 

Aylesford  (anc.  Ailesforde,  Eyl- 
lesforde),  tn.  and  par.,  Kent,  Eng- 
land, 3  m.  N.N.w.  of  Maidstone, 
on  the  Medway.  Kits  Coity 
House,  a  remarkable  cromlech, 
'The  Countless  Stones,'  an  in-^ 
trenchment  on  Blue  Bell  Hill,  and 


The  Aye-aye  of  Madagascar. 


upright  stones  at  Horsted.  are  no- 
table.  Pop.  parish  (1911)  17,848. 

Aylesworth,  Allen  Bristol 
(1854),  Canadian  lawyer,  was 
born  at  Newburgh,  Ont.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Newburgh  High  School 
and  Toronto  University.  In  1903 
he  was  one  of  His  Majesty's  com- 
missioners for  the  settlement  of 
the  Alaska  boundary.  He  became 
Canadian  Postmaster-General  in 
1905,  and  Minister  of  Justice  in 
1906. 

Ayllon,  Lucas  Vasquez  de 
(c.  1475-1526),  Spanish  colonizer. 
In  1526  he  attempted  to  establish 
a  colony  on  the  North  America 
mainland,  the  site  of  which  has 
often  been  identified  with  that  on 
which  Jamestown,  Va.,  was  later 
founded.  Ayllon  died  in  1526, 
and  the  colony  was  abandoned. 

Aylmer,  John  (1521-94),  Eng- 
lish theologian,  tutor  to  Lady 
Jane  Grey,  was  appointed  arch- 
deacon of  Stow  (1553).  but  was 
expelled  for  his  disbelief  in  tran- 
substantiation  ;  took  refuge  in 
S^rassburg,  and  later  in  Zurich, 
where  he  acted  as  tutor,  and 
helped  John  Fox  in  the  transla- 
tion of  Acts  and  Monuments  into 
Latin.  When  Elizabeth  came  to 
the  throne  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  became  archdeacon  of 
Lincoln  (1562),  and  then  bishop  of 
London  (1577),  where  he  was  very 
unpopular.  His  reply  to  Knox's 
Monstrous  Regiment  of  Women,  en- 
titled An  Harhorowe  for  faithful 
and  trewe  Subjects,  etc.  (1559),  is 
the  best  known  of  his  works.  He 


Aylmer 


501 


Azalea 


is  said  to  have  been  the  original  of 
Spenser's  Morrell,  'the  proude 
and  ambitious  pastoure'  of  the 
Shepheard's  Calendar. 

Aylmer,  Matthew,  Lord 
(1643-1720),  British  admiral, 
was  born  in  County  Meath, 
Ireland.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1678  and  for  ten  years  served  on 
the  Algerian  coast.  In  the 
actions  off  Beachy  Head  (1690) 
and  Cape  Barfleur  (1692)  he 
commanded  the  Royal  Catherine, 
In  1709  he  became  admiral  of  the 
fleet,  in  1714  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Greenwich  Hospital,  and 
in  1718  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 

Ayloffe,  a'lof.  Sir  Joseph 
(1709-81),  English  antiquary, 
was  educated  at  Oxford  and 
early  manifested  an  interest  in 
antiquities.  In  1763  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  keepers  of 
state  papers.  He  was  vice- 
president  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  whose  charter  of 
incorporation  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  procuring.  His  chief 
work  is  Calendars  of  the  Ancient 
Charters  (1772).  He  edited  Le- 
land's  Collectanea  (6  vols.  1771). 

Aymaras,  I'ma-raz',  a  numerous 
and  formerly  powerful  South 
American  people  whose  terri- 
tory lay  chiefly  on  the  Bolivian 
plateau  round  Lake  Titicaca, 
and  thence  south  to  and  beyond 
Lake  AuUagas.  The  Aymaras, 
whose  proper  name  is  Colla, 
appear  to  represent  the  primitive 
stock  from  which  sprang  the 
Quichuas — i.e.  the  dominant 
people  of  the  Peruvian  empire. 
They  are  generally  undersized 
and  ungainly,  with  short,  thick- 
set, robust  figures,  arched  nose, 
small  extremities,  coppery  skin, 
and  highly  brachycephalic  (round) 
head.  Their  civilization  was 
antecedent  to  that  of  the  Incas, 
but  was  in  some  respects  more 
highly  developed,  judging  at 
least  from  the  stupendous  monu- 
ments of  Tiahuanaco  at  the  south 
end  of  Lake  Titicaca.  All  are 
now  nominal  Catholics.  Ayma- 
ras of  pure  stock  are  estimated  at 
about  500,000  and  the  Hispano- 
Aymara  half-breeds  at  100,000. 

Aymer  de  Valence,  a'mer  de  va- 
lohs'.  Earl  of  Pembroke  (d. 
1324),  was  the  son  of  a  half- 
brother  of  Henry  iii.  He  suc- 
ceeded to  the  earldom  in  1296, 
served  in  Flanders  and  in 
Scotland,  and  in  1306  became 
guardian  of  Scotland.  He  de- 
feated Bruce  at  Methven,  but 
was  in  turn  defeated  by  him  at 
Loudon  Hill.  He  sided  with 
Lancaster  against  the  court,  but 
was  afterward  reconciled  to  the 
king  and  in  1314  was  appointed 
lieutenant  of  Scotland  and  fought 
at  Bannockburn.  In  1322  he 
accompanied  the  king  in  an 
expedition  against  Scotland  and 
later  arranged  a  truce  of  thirteen 
years  with  the  Scots. 


Aymon,  a'mon,  or  Haimon,  of 
Dordogne,  the  father  of  four  sons 
— Renaud,  Guiscard,  Alard,  and 
Richard — whose  adventures  form 
one  of  the  most  popular  romances 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  attributed  to 
Huon  de  Villeneuve  (13th  cen- 
tury). Renaud,  or  Regnault,  the 
owner  of  the  famous  steed  Bay- 
ard, figures  in  romances  centering 
around  Charlemagne.  The 
brothers  appear  in  the  works  of 
Tasso,  Boiardo,  and  notably  the 
character  of  Rinaldo  (Renaud)  in 
Ariosto's  Orlando. 

Ayr,  town,  Scotland,  capital  of 
Ayrshire,  is  situated  on  the  river 
Ayr;  33  miles  southwest  of 
Paisley.  It  is  a  well  built  town, 
with  the  'Twa  Brigs'  of  Robert 
Burns'  poem  and  a  statue  to  the 
poet  who  made  the  place  famous. 
Other  features  of  interest  are  the 
old  church  of  St.  John,  the  Wal- 
lace tower,  and  the  county  hos- 
pital. The  harbor  is  protected 
by  a  breakwater  and  has  a 
patent  slip  dock.  Leading  in- 
dustries are  manufactures  of 
carpets,  lace,  woollen  and  leather 
goods,  boots,  shoes,  and  chem- 
icals. Nearby  is  the  cottage 
where  Robert  Burns  was  born. 
Pop.  (1921)  35,741. 

Ayrer,  i'r^r,  Jacob  (d.  1605), 
German  dramatic  poet,  was 
born  in  Nuremberg.  He  was  a 
notary  and  lawyer  by  profession 
but  was  a  prolific  writer  of  poems 
and  dramas,  somewhat  coarse 
and  pedantic,  but  not  without 
merit.  Opus  Theatricum  was 
published  in  1618.  In  his  early 
works  he  follows  Hans  Sachs,  but 
frequently  models  upon  Shake- 
speare, or  uses  the  same  sources. 

Ayrshire,  maritime  county  in 
the  southwestern  part  of  Scot- 
land, lying  along  the  Firth  of 
Clyde  and  the  North  Channel; 
area,  1,142  square  miles.  It  is 
undulating  and  hilly  and  is  pre- 
eminently an  agricultural  region, 
being  famous  for  its  high-grade 
dairy  products  and  its  fine  horses. 
It  is  rich  in  minerals,  coal,  lime- 
stone and  iron,  and  there  are 
valuable  fisheries.  There  are 
woollen  and  steam-engine  fac- 
tories, foundries,  tanneries,  chem- 
ical and  dynamite  works,  shoe, 
carpet,  and  bonnet  making,  and 
extensive  coal-mining.  Ayr  is 
the  capital;  other  important 
towns  are  Ardrossan,  Troon, 
Irvine,  and  Kilmarnock.  Pop. 
(1921)  299,254. 

Ayton,  a'ton.  Sir  Robert 
(1570-1638),  Scottish  poet,  was 
born  in  Kinaldie,  Fifeshire.  He 
travelled  in  France,  and  on  his 
return  was  successively  gentle- 
man of  the  king's  bedchamber, 
secretary  to  the  queen,  and 
master  of  requests.  His  poems 
have  been  edited  by  Sir  Charles 
Rogers  (1871;  2nd  cd.  1884). 
The  two  songs,  T  do  confess 
thou'rt  smooth  and  fair,'  and  the 


early  'Auld  Lang  Syne,'  printed 
in  Watson's  Collection  (1707), 
have  somewhat  questionably  been 
attributed  to  him. 

Aytoun,  a'toon,  William  Ed- 
mondstoune  (1813-65),  Scottish 
poet,  was  born  in  Edinburgh. 
He  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1840,  and  in  1845 
became  professor  of  rhetoric  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
He  married  a  daughter  of '  Pro- 
fessor Wilson  (Christopher  North) 
in  1849,  and  in  1852  was  ap- 
pointed sheriff  of  Orkney  and 
Shetland.  He  was  a  frequent 
contributor  to  Blackwood' s  Maga- 
zine. Aytoun,  who  was  a  staunch 
Jacobite,  is  best  known  for  his 
Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers 
(1848)  and  the  Bon  Gaultier 
Ballads  (1855),  the  latter  written 
in  conjunction  with  Sir  Theodore 
Martin.  His  tragedy  Firmilian 
(1854)  was  written  as  a  parody  of 
the  'spasmodic'  school  of  poetry, 
represented  by  Sydney  Dobell 
and  Alexander  Smith.  His  other 
works  include  Poland,  Homer, 
and  other  Poems  (1830);  Bothwell, 
a  poem  (1856) ;  a  collection  of  the 
Ballads  of  Scotland  (1858);  a 
translation  of  Poems  and  Ballads 
of  Goethe,  in  conjunction  with  Sir 
Theodore  Martin  (1858);  Nor- 
man Sinclair,  a  novel  (1861). 

Ayuntamiento,  a-ydbn-ta- 
myan'to,  the  Spanish  town 
council,  of  which  the  alcalde  is 
chairman.  Instituted  in  Roman 
times,  the  alcaldes  acquired  great 
political  and  municipal  authority, 
which  they  gradually  lost  under 
the  Bourbons.  From  1812  to 
1843  this  authority  was  partially 
restored,  but  in  1870  the  alcaldes 
were  deprived  of  their  political 
powers,  and  confined  to  the  or- 
dinary municipal  administration. 

Ayuthia,  a-yoo'thi-a,  town, 
Siam,  built  principally  on  piles, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Menam, 
42  miles  north  of  Bangkok.  A 
large  part  of  the  city  is  now  in 
ruins,  the  remains  of  the  castle 
and  many  temples  attesting  to  its 
former  glory.  Ayuthia  was  the 
first  capital  (from  the  middle  of 
the  14th  century  to  1767)  of  the 
present  Siamese  people  but  it 
was  taken  by  the  Burmese  in 
1767  after  a  two  years'  siege. 
Pop.  about  50,000. 

Aza'Iea,  a  genus  of  ornamental 
shrubs  of  the  order  Ericaceaj, 
differing  from  the  rhododendron 
in  having  only  five  stamens  and  a 
funnel-shaped  corolla.  The  hardy 
azaleas  are  all  deciduous,  and  are 
native  to  North  America  and 
South  Europe.  The  hybrids  are 
often  called  Ghent  azaleas,  from 
the  place  where  their  varieties 
were  first  cultivated.  The  com- 
monest azaleas  in  the  northern 
United  States  are  A.  nudiflora, 
the  wild  honeysuckle,  or  pinxter 
flowers,  and  the  white  azalea,  or 
swamp  honeysuckle  {A.  viscosa). 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '27 


Azamgarh 


502 


Azov 


The  former  inhabits  sandy  woods, 
and  has  tufts  of  odorous  flowers, 
of  various  shades  of  pink,  appear- 
ing with  the  leaves;  the  white 
azalea  is  more  fragrant,  and 
grows  in  swamps,  being  a  tall 
shrub  with  sticky,  ivory-colored 
flowers.  A  southern  species 
(A.  lutea),  the  flame  azalea,  has 
orange-red,  or  red  blossoms, 
which  make  the  shrub  a  favorite 
for  cultivation.     The  beautiful 


Azalea  kaempferi 


Asiatic  azaleas  (A.  indica)  are 
usually  grown  in  greenhouses, 
and  have  many  hybrids.  Azaleas 
are  prime  favorites  as  decorative 
plants  and  their  cultivation  in 
greenhouses  is  a  thriving  industry, 
particularly  in  Belgium  and 
Holland.  See  also  Rhododen- 
dron. 

Azamgarh,  a-zam-gur',  town, 
India,  in  the  district  of  Azam- 
garh.  United  Provinces;  52  miles 
northeast  of  Benares.  Pop. 
(1921)  town,  14,788;  district, 
1,528,657. 

Azan,  a-zan'  ('announcement'), 
the  Moslem  call  to  prayer, 
chanted  or  recited  five  times  daily 
by  the  muezzin,  with  his  face 
towards  Mecca. 

Azandeh,   or   Zandy.  See 

NiAM-NlAM. 

Azara,  a-tha'ra,  Felix  de 
(1746-1811),  Spanish  naturalist 
and  traveller,  was  a  native  of 
Aragon.  He  entered  the  Spanish 
marine  and  travelled  in  South 
America  for  several  years.  On 
his  return  to  Spain  in  1801  he 
published  his  Voyage  dans  VAme- 
rique  meridionale  (4  vols,  and 
atlas  1809),  and  Natural  History 
of  Paraguay  (Eng.  trans.  1838). 

Azariah.    See  IJzziah. 

Azazel,  a-za-zel',  formerly  sup- 
posed to  designate  the  goat 
chosen  to  carry  away  the  sins  of 
the  Israelites  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement  (hence  rendered 
'scapegoat'  in  A. V. ;  see  Lev.  xvi.  7 
/.),  but  now  univervsally  taken  as 
the  name  of  a  desert-spirit  or 
fallen  angel,  for  whom  the  goat 
was  destined. 


Azeglio,  a-dza'lyo,  Massimo 
Taparelli,  Marchese  d'  (1798- 
1866),  Italian  statesman,  artist, 
and  author,  scion  of  a  noble 
Piedmontese  family.  At  fifteen 
years  of  age  he  went  to  Rome 
with  his  father,  who  was  ambas- 
sador at  the  papal  court.  There 
he  studied  art  and  music,  ex- 
celling as  a  landscape  painter. 
On  his  father's  death  in  1830, 
Azeglio  went  to  Milan,  and  turn- 
ing to  literature,  produced  two 
novels,  Etlore  Fieramosca  (1833) 
and  Niccold  de  Lapi  (1841), 
which  roused  so  much  enthusiasm 
among  the  patriotic  party  that 
he  traversed  the  country,  stirring 
up  nationalistic  aspirations  while 
discountenancing  the  extreme 
propaganda  of  Mazzini.  In  1846 
he  wrote  a  pamphlet  entitled 
Degli  Ultimi  Cast  di  Romagna 
('On  the  Recent  Events  in  the 
Romagna'),  in  which  he  satirized 
the  papal  government,  and  dem- 
onstrated to  the  Italian  princes 
the  necessity  of  a  national  policy. 
Two  years  later  he  joined  the 
patriotic  army  against  Austria, 
and  was  severely  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Vicenza  (1848).  When 
Victor  Emmanuel  ii.  ascended 
the  throne,  he  appointed  Azeglio 
president  of  the  council  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs;  but  in 
1852  he  resigned  in  favor  of 
Cavour.  In  July,  1859,  he  was 
sent  to  the  Roman  states  as 
military  commissioner. 

Azerbaijan,  a-zer-bi-jan,  or 
Aderbaijan,  a  fertile  and  moun- 
tainous province  in  the  northern 
part  of  Persia;  area  about 
40,000  square  miles.  Mount 
Savalan  (15,820  feet)  lies  towards 
the  east,  and  Mount  Ararat 
(16,000  feet)  rises  in  the  north- 
western corner.  Lake  Urumiah 
lies  in  the  west;  and  the  river 
Aras  (Araxes)  forms  the  northern 
boundary,  its  tributary,  the  Kara 
Su,  being  the  only  other  im- 
portant stream.  Wheat,  maize, 
cotton,  hemp,  and  tobacco  are 
grown  in  considerable  quantities 
and  there  is  much  mineral  wealth. 
The  chief  towns  are  Tabriz  (the 
capital),  Urumiah,  Khoi,  Ardebil, 
and  Maragha.  Pop.  estimated  at 
over  2,000,000. 

Azerbaijan,  a  Transcaucasian 
Soviet  Republic  stretching  along 
the  shore  of  the  Caspian,  south 
of  Daghastan,  north  of  Persia 
and  east  of  Armenia  and  Georgia; 
area  33,640  square  miles.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  the  two  former 
Russian  provinces  of  Baku  and 
Yelisavetpol.  Baku,  the  capital, 
is  the  centre  of  a  great  petroleum 
industry.  Other  industries  include 
cotton,  fisheries,  cattle  breeding, 
sericulture,  and  cereals.  Pop. 
2,096,973,  of  whom  nearly  75  per 
cent,  are  Mohammedans. 

In  1917  the  inhabitants  of 
Georgia,  Armenia,  Transcaucasia, 
and  Azerbaijan  united  to  form  a 


federation  of  republics  under  one 
government,  but  the  federation 
was  soon  dissolved  and  in  May, 
1918,  Azerbaijan  declared  itself 
an  independent  republic  and 
received  de  facto  recognition.  In 
1920  the  Russian  Soviet  army 
entered  Baku,  deposed  the  Re- 
publican government  and  estab- 
lished in  its  place  a  Soviet 
government  in  alliance  with 
Moscow. 

Azevedo,  a-za-va'do,  Manoel 
Antonio  Alvares  de  (1831-52), 
Brazilian  poet,  who  died  in  his 
twenty-first  year.  His  Lyra  dos 
VinteAnnos  (1851;  5th  ed.  1884), 
written  in  the  Byronic  style, 
shows  undeniable  genius  and 
for  many  years  he  was  widely 
read  in  his  own  country. 

Azimutli,  the  angular  distance 
of  a  celestial  object  from  the 
northern  or  southern  point  of  the 
horizon,  or  the  angle  comprised 
between  the  meridian  and  a 
vertical  plane  passing  through  the 
object.  In  the  northern  hemis- 
phere it  is  usually  reckoned  from 
the  south  point  of  the  horizon 
through  the  west  from  0°  to  360°. 
See  Altazimuth. 

Azincourt.    See  Agincourt. 

Azo  Dyes.  See  Coal-Tar 
Dyes. 

Azores,  a-zorz'  (Portuguese 
Acores  or  'Hawk  Islands'),  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  about  900  miles  west  of 
the  coast  of  Portugal,  of  which 
they  form  a  constituent  part. 
The  principal  islands  are  Sao 
Miguel,  or  St.  Michael  (300 
square  miles),  Terceira  (163 
square  miles),  Pico  (173  square 
miles),  Fayal  (69  square  miles), 
Sao  Jorge,  or  St.  George  (94 
square  miles),  Graciosa  (24 
square  miles),  and  St.  Mary, 
Flores  and  Corvo;  total  area, 
922  square  miles.  They  are  of. 
volcanic  origin,  have  steep,  rocky 
coasts  and  a  mountainous  interior 
(7,700  feet),  seamed  with  glens. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  salubri- 
ous, making  the  islands  popular 
as  a  winter  resort.  Mineral 
springs  occur  in  the  vicinity  and 
the  soil  is  fertile,  producing 
oranges,  pineapples,  grapes,  ba- 
nanas, sugar,  coffee  and  tea.  The 
leading  industries  are  fishing  and 
the  manufacture  of  pottery, 
cotton,  linen,  hats,  butter  and 
cheese,  soap,  baskets,  lace  and 
bricks.  The  best  harbor  is  at 
Horta  on  Fayal  Island.  Pop. 
(1920)  232,012,  mainly  of  Por- 
tuguese descent. 

The  Azores  were  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  navigator  Cabral 
in  1431.  They  suffered  from 
volcanic  outbursts  in  1591,  1638, 
1719  and  1841,  in  1908  were 
visited  by  a  destructive  plague, 
and  in  1926  by  a  serious  earth- 
quake, followed  by  plague. 

Azotus.    See  Ashdod. 

Azov,  Sea  of  (anc.  Palus  Mceo- 


Vol,  I.— Oct.  '27 


AZTEC  REMAINS. 

1.  Terra-cotta  fanciful  bust  covorin^  sciuare  box  or  liollow  pedestal,  probably  to  contain  jewels  or  incense  ;  found  near  Zachila. 
2.  Aztec  representation  of  Tonatisli,  the  substance  of  the  sun.   3^  Pyramid  near  Tehuauteuec.   4.  Temple  near  Palenque. 


Azpeitla 

lis),  is  a  sea  which  penetrates  into 
the  s.  of  Russia,  and  is  connected 
s.  through  the  Strait  of  Kerch 
or  Yenikale  with  the  Black  Sea. 
From  the  shore  of  the  Crimea,  in 
the  S.W.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Don, 
in  the  n.e.,  it  measures  220  m.  It 
covers  an  area  of  14,515  sq.  m., 
and  is  everywhere  very  shallow, 
the  maximum  depth  being  only 
53  ft.  At  the  S.W.,  along  the 
Crimean  shore,  it  forms  a  long 
narrow  lagoon,  separated  by  a 
ribbon  of  sand,  and  known  as  Si- 
vash,  or  the  Putrid  Sea;  and  a 
further  series  of  irregularly  shaped 
lagoons  stretch  across  the  N.  of  the 
Crimea  to  the  isthmus  of  Perekop. 
Navigation  of  the  Sea  of  Azov  is 
beset  with  great  difficulties,  ndt 
only  because  of  its  extreme  shal- 


504 

1847.  The  membership,  of  227, 
is  now  limited  to  participants  in 
the  Mexican  War  or  their  male 
blood  relatives.  The  latter  are 
associate  members  and  taken  into 
full  membership  only  on  the  death 
of  original  members  by  whom 
they  were  nominated. 

Aztecs,  one  of  the  chief  cul- 
tured peoples  of  the  New  World; 
so  called  from  Aztlan,  the  fabu- 
lous land  of  the  'Seven  Caves'  in 
the  north,  whence  they  migrated 
southwards,  and  founded  a  power- 
ful empire  in  the  valley  of  Mexico, 
some  tnree  or  four  hundred  years 
before  the  discovery  of  America. 
Here  they  had  been  preceded  by 
the  Chichemecs  and  other  con- 

auering  tribes,  all  belonging  to  the 
'ahua  race,which  had  overthrown 


Azurite 

with  5  intercalaries;  named  each 
day  by  consecutive  hieroglyphic 
signs  (the  day  counts");  and  cal- 
culated annual  periods  of  4,  13, 
52,  and  some  sav  even  52+52  =  104 
cycles.  But  the  writing  system 
was  mainly  pictorial,  with  few 
phonetic  elements,  and  in  this  re- 
spect was  greatly  inferior  to  the 
Maya,  which  approximated  to  a 
true  phonetic  syllabary.  The  Az- 
tec monuments  also— ^mainly  teo- 
calli,  i.e.  truncated  pyramids  sur- 
mounted by  temples— were  not  to 
be  compared  with  those  of  Yuca- 
tan, while  the  finest  in  Mexico 
itself  (Teotihuacan,  Colula,  Pa- 
pantla)  were  the  work  of  their 
Toltec  predecessors.  Before  the 
overthrow  of  their  empire  by 
Cortes  in  1520,  the  Aztecs  had 
reduced  the  civilized  peoples  of 
Oaiaca  (Lapotecs,  Mixtecs,  etc.), 
and  had  founded  settlements  far  to 
the  s., where  their  descendants,  the 
Pipils  of  Guatemala,  Salvador, 
and  the  Niquirans  of  Nicaragua, 
still  speak  a  corrupt  form  of  the 
Nahua  stock  language,  which  has 
long  been  cultivated,  and  is  now 
spoken  by  about  1,000,000  full- 
blood  Aztecs,  and  perhaps  500,- 
000  half-breeds,  on  the  Anahuac 
table-land.  See  Penafiel's  Monu- 
ments of  Ancient  Mexican  Art 
(1891);  Payne's  History  of  the 
New  World,  vol.  i.  (1892);  Ban- 
delier's  Rept.  Peabody  Museum 
(vol.  ii.  1876-79);  Bancroft's  Na- 
tive Races  of  the  Pacific  States 
(1875);  also  works  cited  under 
Mexico. 

Azuaga,  tn.,  prov.  Badajoz, 
Spain,  17  m.  from  _  Llerena. 
Centre  of  silver-lead-mining  dis- 
trict. Important  Roman  ruins. 
Pop.  (1900)  14,192. 

Azuni,  DoMENico  Alberto 
(1749-1827),  Italian  historian  and 
jurist,  was  born  and  died  in  Sar- 
dinia, but  held  judicial  ofl&ces  in 
Nice  and  Genoa,  and  was  placed 
by  Napoleon  on  the  commission 
which  drew  up  the  commercial 
code.  The  Sistema  Universale  dei 
Principi  del  Diritto  Marittimo 
deir  Europa  (1795),  Dizionario 
della  Giurisprudenza  Mercantile 
(1786-8'),  and  Histoire  de  Sar- 
daigne  (1802)  are  his  chief  works. 

Azurite,  or  blue  copper  ore, 
so  called  from  its  deep-blue  color, 
and  also  known  as  chessylite, 
from  its  abundance  in  beautiful 
crystals  at  Chessy,  near  Lyons.  It 
is  a  basic  carbonate  of  copper,  and 
like  malachite,  which  it  often  ac- 
companies, is  found  chiefly  where 
copper  ores  have  been  exposed 
to  water  containing  carbonic  acid. 
It  was  formerly  much  used  by 
painters,  but  is  liable  to  change 
to  malachite  and  become  green: 
this  is  believed  to  be  the  origin 
of  the  green  skies  in  some  old 
paintings.  As  an  ore  of  copper, 
azurite  is  chiefly  important  in  the 
copper  mining  region  of  south- 
eastern Arizona. 


Sea  of  Azov. 


lowness,  but  also  because  of  the 
storms  to  which  it  is  always  liable, 
while  in  winter  it  is  generally  ice- 
bound. Its  surface  lies  at  about 
the  same  level  as  the  surface  of 
the  Black  Sea.  Its  waters,  which 
are  less  salt  than  those  of  the  Black 
Sea,  teem  with  fish.  In  1902  the 
construction  of  a  dike  12  m.  long, 
at  the  entrance  to  the  sea,  was  sanc- 
tioned for  facilitating  communica- 
tion with  the  Black  Sea.  The  cost 
of  the  whole  work,  including  locks, 
is  estimated  at  $25,000,000. 

Azpeitia,  tn.,  prov.  Guipuzcoa, 
Spain,  20  m.  s.w.  of  San  Sebas- 
tian; the  birthplace  of  Ignatius 
Loyola,  the  founder  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus  (Jesuits).  There  are 
pilgrimages  (July)  to  the  monas- 
tery in  which  his  house  is  pre- 
served. Pop.  (1900)  6,066. 

Azrael,  or  Asrael,  the  'Angel 
of  Death,'  is  a  figure  in  Jewish 
mythology  as  far  back  as  the  days 
of  King  Solomon.  He  has  been 
recognized  by  the  Mohammedans 
as  one  of  the  servants  of  Allah. 

Aztec  Club  of  1847.  A  society 
founded  in  the  City  of  Mexico  in 


the  still  earlier  empire  of  the  Tol- 
tecs,  and  borrowed  much  of  their 
culture.  The  relations  are  very 
obscure,  but  much  light  has  been 
thrown  on  them  by  E.  Seler's 
commentaries  on  the  Mexican 
pictorial  codices  of  the  Aubin, 
Fejervary-Mayer,  and  Vatican 
collections  (English  editions  by 
A.  H.  Keane,  1901,  1902,  1903), 
from  which  the  Aztecs  would  seem 
to  have  been  northern  barbarians, 
who  developed  their  political  and 
social  systems  under  the  influence 
of  the  Toltec  (Maya)  civilization 
which  they  had  destroyed.  Their 
polytheistic  religion  was  largely 
their  own,  and  was  characterized 
by  the  worship  of  the  sun  and 
human  sacrifices.  Their  as- 
tronomy was  mainly  astrological, 
or  used  for  astrological  purposes 
— the  determining  of  good  and 
evil  days,  divination,  the  taking 
of  horoscopes,  and  the  like. 
Yet  they  could  take  accurate 
observations,  not  only  of  luna- 
tions, but  also  of  the  periods 
of  Venus;  divided  the  solar  year 
into  18  months  of  20  days  each. 


B.     This  letter  represents  a 

sound  which  di£fers  very  slightly 
in  different  languages.  Before 
utterance  the  stream  of  breath 
is  stopped  by^  the  lips,  hence  the 
modern  classification  of  B  as  a 
stop  consonant;  it  is  the  voiced 
labial  stop.  Like  other  stop  con- 
sonants, it  tends  to  change  into 
the  corresponding  spirant,  v  In 
this  way  the  letter  may  come  to 
represent  the  sound  v.  It  did  so 
partially  in  Latin  from  the  2nd 
century,  and  the  usage  passed  to 
Britain  also  In  modern  Greek, 
has  the  value  of  v.    In  Irish, 


B 

Hence  Hebrew  p  is  the  lower  part 
of  English  B,  in  Arabic  reduced 
to  .  The  Semitic  name  beth 
means  *  house';  Greek  beta  is  the 
same  word. 

B,  in  music,  is  the  seventh  de- 
gree or  'leading  note'  of  the 
natural  scale  of  C.  In  French 
and  Italian  it  is  called  si;  in 
German,  H  {Ha),  with  B  for  our 
B[>.  The  key  of  B  natural  has 
five  sharps;  that  of  B^  has  two 
fiats. 

Baader,  Franz  Xaver  von 
(1 765-1841), GermanRomanCath- 
olic  mystic  and  philosopher,  pro- 


(Baal-berith),  a  baal  of  flies 
(Baal-zebub),  etc.  The  theory 
which  makes  Baal  the  proper 
name  of  a  god  typifying  the  sun  is 
not  consistent  with  this  multi- 
plicity of  local  baals  (Heb.  pi. 
baalim)  and  lacks  corroborative 
evidence.  The  baalim  were 
rather  local  deities  each  of  whom 
gave  fertility  to  his  district  and 
thus  became  an  object  of  worship. 
The  Israelites  found  the  cult 
everywhere  when  they  entered 
Canaan  and  naturallv  adopted  it, 
calling  Yahweh  their  baal  (c/.  Hos. 
2:16,  where  *Baali'='my  baal,' 


B  is  ft  mutated — ie.  v  or  iv. 
Similarly,  Hebrew  3  is  B,  H  v.  In 
English,  b  has  shown  a  tendency 
to  become  silent  before  t  and 
after  m  ('  debt,'  'lamb').  B  is  the 
Greek  form  of  the  sign,  and  be- 
came the  Latin  also.  Except  as 
a  'capital,'  it  is  now  supplanted 
by  other  forms.  ^  b  is  a  Roman 
modification,  which  perhaps  origi- 
nated when  the  loops  of  B  were 
written  from  the  bottom.  JZi-  is  a 
cursive  variation  of  b  (14th  cen- 
tury). /3  and  S  are  the  principal 
Greek  minuscule  variants.  The 
Semitic  original,  ^ .  was  open  at 
the  bottom  on  tne  left.  The 
Aramaic  alphabet  opened  the  top 
loop,  and  nnally  lost  it  entirely. 


Temple  of  Jupiter,  Baalbek. 

fessor  of  philosophy  and  theology 
at  Munich  (1826),  was  a  spiritual 
follower  of  Boehme,  with  whose 
works  he  became  acquainted  when 
travelHng  in  England  (1792-6^. 
His  works,  with  Life  (vol.  xv.), 
were  published  in  16  vols.  (1850- 
60);  and  a  selection,  with  Life^ 
ed.  Claassen,  in  2  vols.  (1886-7). 

Baal,  a  word  found  in  all 
Semitic  languages  meaning  'own- 
er, proprietor.'  When  used  of  a 
god  the  article  is  often  prefixed 
and  a  word  is  added  expressing 
the  place  or  thing  possessed,  or 
indicating  a  characteristic.  Thus, 
there  was  a  baal  of  Tyre  (whose 
name  was  Melkart),  a  baal  of  Mt. 
Hermon,  a  baal  of  the  covenant 


and  proper  names  like  Ishbosheth 
=Isnbaal,  see  below).  _  As  the 
baalim  were  gods  of  fertility,  the 
rites  of  the  baal  worship  degener- 
ated into  sensuality  and  thus  the 
Yahweh  cult  was  corrupted  {cf.  1 
Kings  18  for  a  description  of  the 
baal  rites).  The  prophets  in- 
veighed against  it  and  to  the  later 
Jews  the  name  was  so  offensive 
that  they  substituted  bosheth, 
'shame,'  for  it.  See  Saycc,  Hib- 
bert  Lectures  (1887);  Baethgen, 
Beitrage  zur  semitischen  Religions- 
geschichte  (1888);  Robertson 
Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites 
(1894). 

Baalbek  (Gr.  Heliopolis,  *city 
of  the  sun';  Scrip.  Baalath)^  an- 


Baalbek 

cient  city  of  Syria,  on  the  pla- 
teau (alt.  4,500  ft.)  of  El  Bekaa, 
at  the  foot  of  Anti-Libanus,  35  m. 
N.  by  w.  of  Damascus;  chiefly  re- 
markable for  the  magnificence 
of  its  ruins,  which  occupy  a  site 
analogous  to  that  of  the  Acrop- 
olis of  Athens.  The  temple  of 
Jupiter,  or  the  Sun  (Little  Tem- 
ple), stands  to  the  s.  of  the  Great 
Temple.  A  third  ruin  is  known  as 
the  Circular  Temple.  Elsev/here 
are  numerous  columns,  altars,  and 
the  remains  of  the  city  walls  (2  m. 
in  circuit).  The  older  portions  of 
the  acropolis  wall  are  probably 
of  Phoenician  or  kindred  origin, 
and  date  from  a  time  when  the 
worship  of  Baal  was  supreme. 
The  early  history  of  Baalbek  is 
lost  in  the  mists  of  antiquity; 
but  as  it  stood  on  the  route  be- 
tween Tyre  and  Palmyra,  it  early 
became  a  great  entrepot  of  Ori- 
ental commerce.  Under  Alex- 
ander the  Great  it  rose  to  a  high 


degree  of  prosperity,  and  Augus- 
tus made  it  a  Roman  colony. 
Antoninus  Pius  erected  the  Great 
Temple,  which  Theodosius  con- 
verted into  a  Christian  church. 
The  Arabs  conquered  Baalbek  in 
636,  after  a  stubborn  resistance; 
in  1139,  and  again  in  1260,  it  was 
captured  by  the  Mongols;  and 
Timur  Beg  (Tamerlane)  utilized 
the  temple  as  a  fortress  (1400). 
From  this  period  the  decline  of 
Baalbek  was  rapid,  and  an  earth- 
quake (1759)  CO]  ipleted  the  devas- 
tation begun  by  Tartars,  Turks, 
and  Damascene  pashas.  During 
the  Crusade?  the  city  was  fre- 
quently the  centre  of  warlike 
operations.  It  is  now  a  poverty- 
stricken  little  village,  with  about 
a  hundred  mean  houses.  The 
Germans  excavated  the  site  of  the 
acropolis  iu  1900-2.  See  V/ood's 
The  Ruins  c}  Balbcc  (1757;  new 
ed.  1827);  Lortet's  La  Lyrie  d'au- 
iourd'hui   (1884);    Belle  w  (two 


506 

articles)  in  Temple  Bar  (1861); 
Frauberger's  Die  Akropolis  von 
Baalbek  (1891). 

Baaslia,  a  man  of  humble 
origin,  who,  having  slain  Nadab, 
son  of  Jeroboam  i.,  ascended  the 
throne  of  Israel  about  914  B.C. 
He  massacred  all  the  descendants 
of  Jeroboam  and  vmdertook  a 
long  war  with  Asa,  king  of 
Judah,  who,  in  self-defence,  had 
to  seek  the  help  of  Syria.  See  1 
Kings  15:16-16:7. 

Baba.  Turkish  word,  title  of 
respect='papa';  applied  to  ec- 
clesiastic and  secular  dignitaries 
in  Western  Asia. 

Baba  (Slav,  'old  woman'),  the 
name  of  a  fantastic  being  who 
plays  a  great  role  in  the  folk-lore 
of  the  Slavonic  peoples,  especi- 
ally the  Russian,  wnere  she  is 
called  laga-Baba.  See  Ralston's 
Russian  Folk-tales  (1873). 

Babbage,  Charles  (1791-1871), 
a   scientific   mechanician,  who. 


with  Herschel  and  Peacock,  gave 
the  first  impulse  to  an  English 
mathematical  revival.  He  is 
famous  for  his  unfinished  calcu- 
lating machines.  BabbagewasLu- 
casian  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Cambridge  University  (1828- 
39),  and  wrote  a  good  little  book 
called  Economy  of  Machinery 
(1833),  also  Tables  of  Logarithms 
(1827;  new  ed.  1889).  See  Weld's 
Hist,  of  Roy.  Soc.^  vol.  ii.  ch.  11 
(1848). 

^  Babel,  Tower  of.  The  narra- 
tive of  (jen.  11:1-9  is  obviously 
intended  to  explain  the  different 
varieties  of  race  and  la.iguage, 
and  th?  name  Babel  (Aram  balbel, 
'confound')  seemed  to  the  writer 
a  corroboration  of  the  story.  But 
it  ic  probable  that  the  legend 
arose  from  the  name,  whicn  is 
really  Bdb-tli,  'gate  of  God,'  and 
has  no  connection  whatever  with 
the  Aramaic  word  for  'confound.' 
Recent   scholarship   is  disposed 


Babl 

to  identify  the  'Tower  of  Babel' 
with  the  zikkurrat  of  the  temple 
E-sagilla,  the  extensive  ruins  of 
which  are  now  known  as  Amran, 
in  Babylon  itself.  See  Sayce's 
Fresh  Light  from  the  Ancient 
Monuments  (1884),  and  his  edi- 
tioti  of  G.  Smith's  Chaldeean 
Account  of  Genesis  (1880). 

Bab-el-Mandeb,  strait  unit- 
ing the  Red  Sea  with  the  Indian 
Ocean  (14^  m.  wide).^  The  island 
of  Perim  divides  it  into  two  un- 
equal channels  (the  western  12^ 
m.  and  the  eastern  2  m.  wide). 
The  cape  of  the  same  name  is  on 
the  Arabian  side  of  the  strait. 

Babel  und  Bibel,  the  title  of 
a  series  of  lectures  delivered  in 
Berlin  before  the  emperor  of 
Germanv  in  1902-3  by  Friedrich 
Delitzscn,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  Assyriologists,  in  which  he 
expounded  the  relations  between 
the  Bible  and  the  results  of  the 
recent  excavations  at  Babylon 
and  the  ancient  Mesopotamian 
centres  of  culture. 

Baber  (the  Tiger),  Zehir  ed- 
DiN  Mohammed  (1483-1530),  first 
Mogul  emperor  in  India,  and 
founder  of  the  Mogul  dynasty, 
which  lasted  to  the  beginning  of 
uhe  19th  century,  was  a  descendant 
of  Timur-Beg  (Tamerlane),  and 
succeeded  his  father.  Sheikh 
Mirza,  at  the  age  of  twelve  on  the 
throne  of  Andijan  in  Ferghana. 
In  1504  he  conquered  Kandahar 
and  Kabul,  and  thence  made  four 
expeditions  against  India  between 
1508  and  1525.    In  1526  he  ap- 

g eared  in  the  Punjab,  ^  defeated 
is  opponents  near  Delhi,  and  oc- 
cupiecl  Delhi  and  Agra,  and  in  the 
following  year  pushed  his  con- 
quests as  far  as  Bengal.  He  made 
Agra  his  favorite  residence. 
Baber  was  also  a  poet,  writing  in 
both  Turkish  and  Persian;  but 
the  most  important  of  his  literary 
works  is  his  Autobiography  or 
Memoirs,  which  he  wrote  in  Turk- 
ish, at  the  end  of  his  life:  trans, 
into  English  by  J.  Leyden  and 
Erskine  under  the  title  Memoirs 
of  Zehir  ed-Din  Mohammed  Ba- 
ber,  Emperor  of  Hindustan  (1826). 
See  Lane  Poole's  Baber  (1899). 

Babeuf,  Francois  Noel  (1760- 
97),  a  French  revolutionist  who 
formed  a  plot  against  the  French 
Directory.  Babeuf  was  executed. 
See  Advielle's  Histoire  de  Babeuf 
(1884). 

Babl  and  Babiism.  The  term 
Babiism  denotes  the  tenets  of  a 
school  of  religious  refori  lers  who 
arose  in  Persia  in  the  middle  of 
the  19th  centurj.  'i  he  founder 
was  a  young  sayid.  Mirza  Ali,  son 
of  Monammed,  who  was  born  at 
Shiraz  in  1819,  and  who,  while 
resident  near  Bagdad,  in  1844, 
began  to  preach  a  faith  which 
differed  in  many  respects  from 
the  orthodox  Sufism  of  Persia. 
Regarding  himself  as  the  latest 
prophet   of   God,   he  took  the 


4 


Babington 

title  of  Bab  al-Din  ('gate'  or  in- 
termediary between  the  Twelfth 
Imam  and  the  faithful),  whence 
he  became  known  as  'the  Bab  'and 
his  disciples  as 'Babis.'  Later  he 
styled  himself  the  Nuqta  ('point,' 
'centre/  or  'focus'),  believing 
that  in  him  all  previous  dis- 
pensations centred.  Mohammed, 
Christ,  and  Moses  he  revered  as 
prophets,  but  as  his  forerunners. 
The  doctrine  which  he  preached 
was  largely  _  a  healthy  protest 
against  the  ideas  of  the  Persian 
hierarchy.  He  forbade  polyg- 
amy and  concubinage  as  de- 
grading to  womanhood,  and  he 


507 

in  himself.  The  preaching  of 
doctrines  such  as  these  quickly 
aroused  he  antagonism  of  the  or- 
thodox mullahs.  It  was  in  1843-4 
that  the  Bab  distinctly  declared 
himself.  By  the  year  1848  he  and 
his  followers  were  in  open  rebel- 
lion against  their  persecutors;  but 
after  a  brave  resistance  they  were 
defeated  and  dispersed,  and  the 
prophet  himself  was,  on  July  8, 
1850,  put  to  death  at  Tabriz.  An 
attempt  against  the  life  of  Shah 
Nasr  ed-Din  in  1852,  attributed  to 
the  Babis,  led  to  renewed  severi- 
ties; and  they  were  deported  (1863) 
to   Constantinople,  and  shortly 


Babirusa 

Mary  of  Scotland,  to  whom  he  was 
devoted.  Having  been  selected  by 
an  association  of  youths  for  the 
purpose,  he  led  the  conspiracy 
to  kill  Elizabeth  and  release 
Mary.  Babington  confided  their 
plot  to  Mary,  who  wrote  her  ap- 
proval (July  17,  1586)  in  the  letter 
which  brought  her,  Babington, 
and  the  other  conspirators  to  the 
scaffold.  See  W.  D.  Cooper's 
Notices  of  Anthony  Babington 
(1862),  repr.  from  the  Reliquary 
for  April,  1862;  State  Trials,  vol. 
i.;  Turnbull's  Letters  of  Mary 
Stuart  (1845);  and  Froiide  and 
Lingard's  Hists.  of  England. 


Babirusa. 


f)laced  woman  on  the  same 
evel  as  men.  Asceticism  and 
mendicancy  he  equally  con- 
demned; and  although  disap- 
proving of  the  use  of  intoxicat- 
ing liquors,  he  advocated  a  life 
of  generosity  to  oneself  as  well 
as  to  one's  neighbors.  But  his 
creed  was  also  strongly  tinctured 
with  Gnostic,  Pantheistic,  and 
Buddhist  ideas.  The  numbers  7 
and  19,  for  example,  are  regarded 
as  of  great  significance.  The 
latter  number,  indeed,  expressed 
the  name  of  the  Deity,  wnoin^  he 
believed  to  be  incarnate  in  him- 
self and  his  eighteen  fellow- 
prophets  or  colleagues^  but  chiefly 


after  to  Adrianople,  and  again  in 
1868  to  Famagusta  in  Cyprus. 
Since  1868  Acre  has  been  the  home 
of  a  section  led  by  Baha,  who  now 
number  between  half  a  million 
and  a  million.  A  new  schism 
ensued  upon  the  death  of  Baha. 
There  are  some  3,000  Babis  in  the 
United  States.  See  E.  G.  Browne, 
A  Traveller's  Narrative,  written 
to  illustrate  the  Episode  of  the 
Bab  (1891),  and  The  New  History 
of  the  Bab  (^1893);  and  Khayru'llah 
and  H.  MacNutt,  Beha'u'llah 
(Chicago,  1900). 

Babington,  Anthony  (1561- 
86),  English  Roman  Catholic  con- 
spirator, served  as  page  to  Queen 


Babington,  William  (1756- 

1833),  English  physician  and  min- 
eralogist; was  the  founder  of  the 
British  Geological  Society,  and 
author  of  A  Systematic  Arrange- 
ment of  Minerals  reduced  to  the 
Form  of  Tables  (1795),  and  A 
New  System  of  Mineralogy 
(1799). 

Babirusa,  a  wild  pig  of  Celebes 
and  Buru,  in  the  East  Indies. 
Its  special  peculiarity  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  canine  teeth 
in  the  male  go  on  growing 
throughout  life,  and  form  huge, 
curved,  hornlike  structures  arch- 
ing over  the  snout.  The  upper 
canines  do  not  enter  the  mouth 


BaYK>on 

at  all,  but  perforate  the  skin  of 
the  face,  ana  arch  backwards  over 
the  forehead.  See  A.  R.  Wallace's 
The  Malay  Archipelago^  (1890). 

Baboon,  a  name  which  should 
strictly  be  applied  only  to  Afri- 
can monkeys  of  the  genus  Cyno- 
cephalus.  These  monkeys  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  fact  that  the 
fore  and  hind  limbs  are  nearly 
equal,  and  that  the  animals  are 
thus  adapted  for  quadrupedal 
progression  on  the  ground,  rather 
than  for  arboreal  life  like  other 
monkeys.  The  face  and  jaws  are 
large,  and  the  brain-case  rela- 
tively small,  giving  rise  to  the 
name  dog-faced  monkeys  (Cyn(h 


508 

library  by  Knoll  in  1877;  and  yet 

others  on  wax  tablets  at  Pal- 
myra by  Von  Assendelft  in  1891. 
Nmety-five  other  fables  brought 
forward  by  Minas  in  1857  have 
been  pronounced  forgeries  by 
Conington  and  others.  The  best 
editions  are  those  of  Rutherford 
(1883)  and  Cruzius  (1897).  See 
feentley's  Dissertation  on  the 
Fables  of  Msop  (1776);  Tyrwhitt's 
Dissertatio  de  Babri  (1776'>;  Con- 
ington's  Miscellaneous  Writings^ 
vol.  ii.  (1872). 

Babu,  a  native  of  India  who 
possesses  a  superficial  education 
m  English;  though,  strictly  speak- 
ing, the  term  is  equivalent  to 


Chacma  Baboon. 


cephalus).  The  baboon  which  was 
sacred  to  the  ancient  Egyptians 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
hamadryad.  For  examples,  see 
Mandrill,  Chacma,  Drill. 

Babrius,  a  Greek  poet,  prob- 
ably before  the  time  of  Augus- 
tus. His  work,  called  Fables,  in 
ten  books,  was  a  version  of  JEsop's 
Fables,  and  seems  to  have  been 
the  base  of  all  the  various  ^so- 
pean  fables  which  have  come 
down  to  us.  In  1842  a  Greek 
named  Minas  discovered  123  fresh 
yEsop's  Fables,  under  the  name 
of  Babrius,  in  a  MS.  at  Mount 
Athos;  and  others  were  dis- 
covered in  Mss.  in  the  Vatican 


'Mr.*  For  an  admirable  travesty 
of  *Babu'  English,  see  Anstey's 
Baboo  Jabber jee,  B.A.  (1897). 

Babul  Tree,  of  India  (Acacia 
arabica),  30  to  40  feet  high,  yields 
a  transparent  gum  which  is  used 
medicinallv  and  also  as  food. 
The  wood  is  used  for  railway 
sleepers,  and  the  bark  yields  a 
brown  tanning  dye. 

Babuyanes,  fertile  island 
group,  largely  volcanic,  Philip- 
pines, N.  of  Luzon,  and  the  N.  ex- 
tremity of  the  Philippine  Archi- 
pelago. The  most  important  are 
Claro,  which  has  a  volcano  noted 
for  its  eruptions,  Babuyan,  Ca- 
layan,   and   Camiguin,   one  of 


Babylonia 

the  largest  (54  sq.  m.),  which  yields 
large  supplies  of  sulphur.  Prod- 
•ucts:  tobacco,  rice,  maize,  and 
tropical  fruits.  Area,  212  sq.  m. 
Pop.  (1899)  about  9,500. 

Baby,    See  Infant. 

Babylon,  vil.,  Suffolk  co.,  N.  Y., 
on  Long  Island  R.  R.,  37  m.  from 
New  York  city.  There  is  a  ferry 
over  Great  South  Bay  to  Fire 
Island.  A  popular  summer  resort. 
Pop.  (1910)  2,600. 

Babylonia.  This  name  is  de- 
rived, through  the  Greek  BajSuAw- 
vta,  from  the  native  Bdb-tli  (rarely 
Bdb-tldni),  'gate  of  God*  (or  *of 
the^  gods'),  the  name  of  the  city 
which,  after  the  accession  of  the 
royal  house  known  as  the  first 
dynasty  of  Babylon,  became  the 
capital  of  the  country.  The  his- 
tory of  the  name  Bab-ili  is  un- 
known, but  it  is  not  improbably 
due  to  a  folk  etvmology,  as  is 
suggested  by  the  fact  that  Nebu- 
chadnezzar the  Great  often  gives 
the  name  as  Babilam  (a  form  end- 
ing^ with  a,  and  provided  with  the 
|mimmation'),  a  way  of  writing 
it  which  bears  a  likeness  to  a  city 
name  read  as  Babalam,  mentioned 
in  an  inscription  of  King  Gaddas. 
Both  form  and  meaning,  however, 
are  of  sufficient  antiquity,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  it  was  at 
an  early  date  translated  into  the 
primitive  language  of  the  countrv 
under  the  form  of  Ka-dingira,with 
the  same  rneaning. 

In  its  widest  extent  the  coun- 
try stretched  from  about  the  31st 
degree  N.  lat.  in  a  s.e  direction 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  having  on 
the  w.  the  Arabian  desert,  on  the 
N.  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria,  and 
on  the  E.  the  plains  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountains  of  Elam.  It  was 
anciently  divided  into  different 
districts,  which  were  inhabited  by 
various  tribes,  in  some  cases  speak- 
ing languages  of  a  widely  diver- 
gent nature.  On  the  N.  were  the 
two  districts  of  Sumer  and  Akkad, 
called  by  the  non-Semitic  inhab- 
itants Kingi-Ura,  corresponding 
with  the  Shinar  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  is  derived  either  from 
Sumer,  or  from  a  dialectic  form  of 
Kingi-Ura,  by  the  change  of  K  into 
S.  In  Gen.  14:1,  9,  the  tract  of 
which  Ellasar  CLarsaj  the  modern 
Senkara)  was  capital  is  mentitmed 
as  if  it  did  not  form  part  of  Shinar, 
or  Babylonia  proper.  The  tract 
in  the  extreme  s.  was  called  m.^ 
Tdmtim,  'the  country  of  the  sea,' 
and  had  its  own  native  governors 
until  a  comparatively  late  date. 
In  addition  to  the  above  names, 
the  district  immediately  border- 
ing on  Assyria  was  called  Kar- 
Dunias:  and  at  least  a  portion  of 
this,  where  Sippar  and  the  city 
of  Babylon  lay,  bore  the  name  of 
Edina,  or  the  plain'  (c/  Gen. 
10:2),  and  was,  according  to  Fried. 
Delitzsch,  the  original  of  the  Eden 
of  Gen.  2:8,  etc. 

Besides  the  city  of  Babylon, 


Babylonia 

which  was  the  capital  of  the  coun- 
try in  later  days,  Babylonia  con- 
tained a  number  of  other  cities  of 
the  most  remote  antiquity,  equal- 
ling, or  perhaps  exceeding,  in  that 
respect,  Babylon  itself.  These 
were  Sippar  and  Akkad,  the  Ac- 
cad  of  Gen.  10:10;  Uriwa  or  Ur, 
identified  by  ancient  writers  and 
modern  scholars  with  the  'Ur  of 
the  Chaldees'  of  Gen,  11:29,  now 
Muqayyar  or  Mugheir;  Nippuru, 
stated  by  the  rabbins  to  be  the 
Calneh  of  Gen.  10:9,  now  Niffer; 
Unuga  or  Uruk,  the  Erech  of  Gen. 
10:9,  now  Warka;  Larsa=Ellasar 
(see  above);  Lagas,  now  Tel-loh 
(Tello),  from  which  some  very  fine 
sculptures  of  ancient  date  have 
been  obtained;  Kis,  now  Hymer, 
near  Babylon;  Borsippa,  now 
represented  by  the  ruins  of  Birs- 
Nimrud,  the  celebrated  tower 
identified  (probably  incorrectly) 
with  the  Biblical  Tower  of  Babel; 
the  sacred  city  of  Eridu;  Nisin 
or  Isin;  Dur-ili;  Aratta;  Marad; 
and  many  others. 

This  fertile  region  is  watered 
by  two  great  rivers  which,  rising 
in  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  run 
through  extensive  districts  before 
entering  Babylonia,  and  fall  ulti- 
mately into  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Flowing  through  many  hundreds 
of  miles  of  territory,  they  have,  in 
the  course  of  centuries,  brought 
down  with  them  extensive  allu- 
vial deposits,  of  which  a  consider- 
able stretch  of  country  at  the 
upper  extremity  of  the  gulf  is 
formed.  Indeed,  so  great  has 
been  the  addition  of  territory 
that  a  proper  understanding  of 
the  statements  referring  to  this 
part,  in  legend  and  in  history,  is 
only  possible  by  bearing  the  fact 
in  mind. 

Numerous  inscriptions  found  in 
the  ruins  of  the  cities  testify  to 
the  success  of  the  ancient  Baby- 
lonians as  agriculturists.  The 
plain  is  still  covered  with  a  net- 
work of  old  canals,  some  of  them 
of  considerable  extent,  which  an- 
ciently not  only  irrigated  but  also 
drained  the  land,  keeping  the  in- 
undation *within  due  limits,  and 
rendering  healthier  and  more  cul- 
tivable what  is  at  present  in  too 
many  cases  a  marsh.  The  digging 
of  a  new  canal  was  considered, 
2000  B.C.,  as  being  of  sufficient 
importance  to  date  by. 

As  is  indicated  by  the  tablets 
and  the  sculptures,  at  least  two 
races  anciently  inhabited  the 
country,  each  speaking  its  own 
language,  and  living  side  by  side, 
until,  in  the  course  of  centuries, 
they  became  one  people.  These 
two  races  were  the  Semitic  Baby- 
lonians, who  spoke  a  language 
akin  to  Hebrew  and  Arabic; 
and  the  non-Semitic  population, 
speaking  an  agglutinative  tongue 
generally  regarded  as  Turanian, 
and  akin  to  Finnish,  Tartar,  and 
Chinese.    Which  nationality  was 


509 

the  first  to  enter  the  country,  and 

whether  the  entry  of  those  who 
were  not  the  aborigines  was  a 
peaceful  one  or  not,  is  unknown. 
It  is  probably  not  without  sig- 
nificance in  this  connection,  how- 
ever, that  Nimrod  or  Merodach, 
the  founder  (according  to  Gen. 
10:10  and  the  bilingual  account 
of  the  creation)  of  the  great  cities 
of  Babylonia,  is  described  in  Gen. 
10:8  as  a  son  of  Cush,  and  there- 
fore not  of  Semitic  race,  as  his 
name  likewise  indicates.^  The  great 
majority  of  the  archaic  inscrip- 
tions of  the  country  are,  more- 
over, in  the  non-Semitic  language 
of  the  country,  often  called  in  Brit- 
ain Akkadian,  and  generally,  on 
the  Continent,  Sumerian.  There 
were  at  least  two  dialects  of  this 
language,  which  was  finally  su- 
perseded by  Semitic  Babylonian 
about  2000  B.C.,  though  isolated 
compositions  in  it  of  a  later 
date  are  known.  The  earlier  bas- 
reliefs  of  Babylonia  also  show 
types  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
time  which  are  certainly  not  Sem- 
itic. 

The  beginnings  of  Babylonian 
history  are  lost  in  obscurity,  but 
were  certainly  of  considerable  an- 
tiquity. According  to  the_  Amer- 
ican explorers,  the  rubbish  ac- 
cumulations of  the  ancient  city 
Nippuru  (Niffer)  go  back  no  less 
than  10,000  years — that  is  to  say, 
as  far  as  8000  B.C.  Naturally  this 
is  disputed,  though  the  site  is 
certainly  one  of  the  most  ancient 
in  the  land,  as  were  also  the  Babel 
(Babylon),  Erech,  and  Accad  of 
Gen.  10:10,  together  with  others 
less  renowned.  In  the  earliest 
period  of  which  any  record  has 
been  preserved.  Babylonia  was 
divided  into  a  number  of  small 
states  of  varying  extent  and 
power.  These  were  Kis,  Girsu 
or  Lagas  (Tel-loh),  Upe  or  Opis, 
Uriwa  or  Ur  (Muqayyar),  Unuga 
or  Uruk  (Erech),  Ararrna  or  Larsa 
(Ellasar),  Agade,  Nisin  or  Isin, 
Babylon,  and  Asnunna  or  Es- 
nunna,  with  one  or  two  others. 
The  earliest  king  is  one  whose 
monuments  have  been  found  at 
Niffer,  and  who  calls  himself  'lord 
of  Kengi' — i.e.  Sumer,  or  the 
south.  He  bore  the  name  of  En- 
sag-kus-anna,  and  is  regarded  as 
having  reigned  before  4500  B.C. 
The  one  historical  event  of  his 
reign  which  is  known  is  that  he 
attacked  the  city  of  Kis,  and 
dedicated  the  spoils  which  he 
captured  to  the  god  Ellila  or  Bel. 
Naturally,  the  small  kingdom  of 
Kis,  against  which  En-sag-kus- 
anna  fought,  was  of  as  great  an- 
tiquity, and  a  state  not  without 
influence,  as  may  be  judged  from 
the  fact  that  its  conquest  was  a 
thing  worth  boasting  about,  and 
that,  at  a  later  date,  it  attained  to 
considerable  power — its  king,  Me- 
silim  (about  4000  B.C.),  triumph- 
ing over  a  district  whose  name 


Babylonia 

has  not  yet  been  read  with  cer- 
tainty, but  which  seems  to  have 
lain  near  Opis.  Equally  glorious 
with  the  other  states  of  Baby- 
lonia, however,  was  the  little  ter- 
ritory of  which  Lagas  (Tel-loh) 
was  the  capital.  Beginning  with 
Uru-ka-gina,  about  4500  B.C.,  this 
district  possessed  a  line  of  rulers, 
sometimes  called  kings,  but  gen- 
erally bearing  the  title  of  patesi 
or  issaku  (headman),  who  ruled 
the  district  wisely  and  well  for  a 
long  series  of  years,  until,  as  with 
the  other  states  of  Babylonia,  the 
little  kingdom  was  absorbed  in- 
to the  great  Babylonian  empire. 
Whilst  they  reigned,  however, 
they  watched  over  the  welfare  of 
their  subjects,  and  at  the  same 
time  gained  glory  by  foreign  con- 
quest. Thus  Gudea,  who  reigned  * 
about  2700  B.C.  or  earlier,  and  who 
was  one  of  the  most  renowned  of 
the  issaku,  says  that  the  god  E- 
girsu  (Nin-girsu),  the  patron  deity 
of  Lagas,  *  delivered  ail  things  un- 
to him  from  the  upper  sea  to  the 
lower  sea'  (the  Meaiterranean  and 
the  Persian  Gulf).  From  Amalum 
(regarded  as  Amanus,  in  N.  Syria) 
he  brought  cedar  and  other  trees 
of  large  size;  stone,  among  other 
places,  from  Musalla  or  Supsalla, 
in  the  mountains  of  Martu  (the 
land  of  the  Amorites) .  From  Tida- 
lum,^  a  mountain  in  the_  same 
district,  he  brought  a  kind  of 
limestone;  from  Melahha,  identi- 
fied with  the  peninsula  of  Sinai, 
gold  dust;  and  from  Til-Barsip, 
now  Bir  or  Birajik,  a  material  the 
nature  of  which  is  uncertain.  Be- 
sides this,  he  claims  to  have  smit- 
ten the  city  of  Ansan,  in  Elam, 
with  the  sword,  and  to  have  dedi- 
cated its  spoils  to  his  deity  E-girsu. 

Exceedingly  interesting  is  the 
history  of  the  northern  kingdom  of 
Akkad.  As  far  as  can  at  present 
be  ascertained,  it  was  the  state 
in  which  Semitic  influence  pre- 
dominated, and  seems,  therefore, 
to  have  given  to  Babylonia  its 
first  dynasty  of  Semitic  kings.  • 
Of  these,  the  now  celebrated  ruler 
Sargani-sar-ali,  known  as  Sargon 
of  Agade  (Akkad),  son  of  Itti-Bel, 
was  the  most  renowned.  Accord- 
ing to  a  tablet  of  omens  referring 
to  his  reign,  he  carried  the  arms 
of  Akkad  as  far  as  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Cyprus,  in  which  isl- 
and he  seems  to  have  set  up  an 
image  of  himself.  To  do  this,  he 
had  to  subjugate  the  land  of  the 
Amorites.  This  is  the  ruler  of 
whom  it  is  recorded  that  his 
mother  placed  him  in  a  little 
ark  on  the  Euphrates,  and  he  was 
brought  up  by  a  canal  overseer(?) 
who  found  him.  Notwithstand- 
ing his  popularity,  he  had  on  one 
occasion  to  put  down  a  revolt 
which  took  place  among  all  the 
elders  of  the  land.  His  son, 
Naram-Sin,  was  no  less  renowned 
than  he  was,  it  being  stated  of  him 
that  he  conquered  Apirak  and  Ma- 


Babylonia 

ganna.  The  little  recorded  by 
this  omen-tablet  concerning  the 
reign  of  Sargon  is  supplemented 
by  recent  French  excavations  at 
Susa,  which  show  that  he  invaded 
Elam,  an  old  Semitic  colony. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  though 
Sargon  of  Agade  came  into  con- 
tact with  Babylon,  that  city  does 
not  appear  as  a  place  of  impor- 
tance until  a  comparatively  late 
date;  and  that  when  it  does  come 
to  the  front,  its  kings  gradually 
reduce  all  the  other  petty  states 
to  subjection,  and  the  latter  are 
not  heard  of  afterward  except 
as  integral  parts  of  the  Babylo- 
nian empire.  Yet  the  city  of 
Babylon  must  have  had  a  past 
as  glorious  as  any  of  the  others. 
As  is  well  known,  the  patron 


510 

makes  the  total  of  their  reigns 
245  years.  Taking  these  rulers 
in  order,  the  native  records  in- 
form us  that  Sumu-abu,  the  first 
king,  built  or  rebuilt  various  tem- 
ples and  fortifications,  and  de- 
stroyed Kazallu;  Sumu-la-ilu  or 
Sumu-le-el  dug  the  'canal  of  the 
Sun,'  smote  Halambu  with  the 
sword,  destroyed  the  city  of  Kis, 
drove  out  Ya'zar-ilu  from  Kazal- 
lu, 'smote  him  with  the  sword' 
a  few  years  later,  and  carried 
out  several  _  useful  and  defen- 
sive works,  including  the  wall  of 
Babylon.  The  next  king,  Zabu, 
among  other  things,  restored(?) 
the  great  temple  of  Belus  at 
Babylon,  rebuirt(?)  the  walls  of 
Kazallu,  and  inaugurated(  ?)  an 
image  of  himself.    Apil-Sin  per- 


Babylonia 

inscriptions  which  apparently  re- 
fer to  Kudur-Lagamar,  or  Che- 
dorlaomer,  one  of  them  being  in 
the  form  of  a  poetical  legend.  In 
the  thirty-first  year  of  his  reign 
Hammurabi  captured  Rim-Sin 
(supposed  to  be  the  same  as 
Arioch,  with  which  name  it  agrees 
sufficiently  well  in  meaning),  thus 
putting  an  end  to  the  last  of 
the  principalities  independent  of 
Babylon. 

Hammurabi  was  succeeded  by 
Samsu-iluna,  his  son,  who  also 
had  a  very  successful  reign.  To 
all  appearance  he  employed  him- 
self in  consolidating  the  newly- 
formed  kingdom,  and  to  this  end 
fortified  certain  cities.  ^  His  other 
works  were  the  restoration  of  tem- 
ples (notably  that  of  Belus  at 


MTRoihll,-  JiMcattt(H^o/vi  ancient  JIfarah  y 

/       A     the  (]rdund  M  eovered       '  '  -      A*  \ 


divinity  of  Babylon  was  Mero- 
dach,  called,  in  Gen.  10:8  and 
elsewhere,  Nimrod,  who,  as  the 
reputed  founder  oi  the  great 
cities  of  Babylonia,  was  in  all 
probability  the  first  really  re- 
nowned king  of  the  city  and  its 
district.  But  a  German  mission 
is  at  the  present  time  excavat- 
ing the  ruins. 

The  city's  history  practically 
begins  with  the  royal  house  called 
the  dynasty  of  Babylon,  consist- 
ing of  eleven  kings,  who  reigned, 
in  all,  about  290  years,  beginning 
about  2200  B.C.  Although  this 
dynasty  is  called  'the  dynasty  of 
Babylon,'  it  was  certainly  not  a 
Babylonian  one.  To  all  appear- 
ance it  corresponds  with  what 
Berosus  calls  the  Arabian  dy- 
nasty, though  he  gives  the  num- 
ber of  the  kings  as  nine,  and 


formed  several  pious  works,  in- 
cluding the  setting  up  of  a  'su- 
preme throne'  for  the  sun-god  at 
Babylon;  and  Sinmubalit  occu- 
pied himself  largely  with  the  dig- 
ging of  canals,  building  the  de- 
fences of  the  chief  towns,  and 
other  things  of  a  similar  nature. 
It  is  to  Hammurabi,  his  son  and 
successor,  however,  that  the  prin- 
cipal interest  attaches.  This  ruler, 
whom  a  later  text  calls  Ammu- 
rapi,  is  the  Amraphel  of  Gen. 
14.  As  there  recorded,  he  took 
part,  with  Chedorlaomer  of  Elam, 
Arioch  of  Ellasar  (Larsa),  and 
Tidal,  king  of  nations,  in  an 
attempt  to  reduce  again  to  sub- 
jection the  king  of  Sodom  and 
his  allies.  There  is  no  record  in 
the  inscriptions  of  Babylonia  of 
any  expedition  of  Hammurabi  to 
Palestine,  though  there  are  three 


Babylon),  the  dedication  of 
thrones,  etc.,  to  the  gods,  and 
the  digging  of  canals.  In  the 
mutilated  list  of  colophon  dates 
there  is  a  reference  seemingly  to 
the  destruction  of  the  city  Eres; 
but  as  this  place  was,  to  all  ap- 
pearance, on  Babylonian  soil, 
warlike  operations  are  doubtful. 
Of  the  other  kings  of  the  dyn- 
asty of  Babylon  little  is  known. 

The  names  of  many  kings  occur, 
but  very  little  history,  until  the 
time  of  the  Kassite  dynasty,  the 
first  ruler  of  which  was  named 
Gandas  or  Gaddas  (c.  1800  B.C.). 
This  ruler  calls  himself  'king  of 
the  four  regions,  king  of  Sumer 
and  Akkad,  king  of  Babalam ' 
(for  this  last  name  see  the  first 
paragraph).  Seven  reigns  later 
we  have  the  name  of  the  cele- 
brated king  Agu  or  Agu-kak-rime 


Babylonia 

who  states  his  titles  at  length 
thus:  'King  of  Kassu  and  Ak- 
kadu  (Accad),  king  of  the  wide 
land  of  Babylon  {mcLt  Bdb-tli), 
colonizer  of  Asnunnak,  an  ex- 
tended people,  king  of  Padan 
(Padan-aram)  and  Alman,  king 
of  the  land  of  Guti,  a  rebel- 
lious(?)  people,  the  king  who  has 
quieted(?)  the  four  regions,  the 
obedient  one  of  the  great  gods, 
am  I '  He  then  goes  on  to  state 
that  he  had  sent  and  fetched  (the 
images  of)  Merodach  and  his  con- 
sort, Zir-panitum  from  the  land 
of  Hani,  and  describes  with  what 
state  they  were  replaced  in  shrines 
at  Babylon. 

In  the  time  of  Kallima-Sin  and 
Burna-buriasli.(c  1430-1380  B.C.) 
Babylonia  had  relations  with 
Egypt,  and  a  daughter  of  the 
former  was  given  in  marriage  to 
Amenophis  ill.  A  tragic  passage 
in  the  history  of  Babylonia  is 
that  in  which  Kadasman-Murus 
(about  1370  B.C.),  after  deporting 
the  numerous  Suti  (nomads  of  the 
west),  and  building  fortresses  in 
the  land  of  Amurru  (Amorites), 
was  killed  by  Kassites  in  Baby 
Ionia.  This  brought  down  upon 
the  country  the  vengeance  of 
the  Assyrian  king  Assur-ubal- 
lit,  whose  grandson  he  was,  and 
Suzigas  (otherwise  Nazi-bugas), 
whom  they  had  raised  to  the 
throne,  was  deposed — Kuri-galzu 
II.,  a  youth,  son  of  Burna-burias, 
being  installed  in  his  place.  A 
great  deal  of  space  is  devoted,  in 
the  Babylonian  chronicle,  to  this 
ruler  (there  is  just  the  possibility 
that  the  text  speaks  of  two  kings 
bearing  the  same  name),  who 
seems  to  have  had  a  very  glorious 
reign.  Among  other  things  re- 
corded of  him  is  that  Hurba-tila, 
king  of  Elam,  sent  him  a  chal- 
lenge to  battle,  and,  as  a  result, 
was  defeated  by  him  at  Dur- 
Dungi. 

Another  notable  ruler  was  Neb- 
uchadnezzar I.,  son  of  Ninib- 
nadin-sumi,  who  warred  in  Elam 
and  the  east  generally,  and  in 
Syria  (Amurru).  He  is  said  to 
have  been  defeated  in  battle  by 
the  Assyrian  king  Assur-res-isi. 
(See  Assyria.)  How  fortune 
varied  for  the  Babylonians  is 
illustrated  by  this,  and  also  by 
the  fact  that  during  the  reign 
of  Simmas-Sihu,  about  1040  B.C., 
the  Sutu  nomads  invaded  Baby- 
lonia, and  carried  ofif  as  spoil 
the  property  of  the  temple  of 
the  sun-god  at  Sippara. 

About  the  year  892  B.C.  the 
kingdom  fell  under  the  dominion 
of  Tukulti-Ninip  ii.,  king  of  As- 
syria ;  but  native  rule  was  re- 
stored seven  years  later,  when 
he  met  his  death  in  a  rebellion. 
(See  Assyria.)  The  result  of 
this  was  that  Babylonia  had  a 
great  advantage;  for  Assyria  not 
being  in  a  position  to  make  a 
Tigorous  resistance,  the  Babylo- 


511 

nians,  to  all  appearance,  occupied 
and  devastated  a  large  part  of 
the  country.  The  next  two  kings 
mentioned  by  ^  the  chronicle  are 
Bel-nadin-sumi  and  Ram-manu- 
sarra-iddina,  in  whose  reigns  the 
country  suffered  apparently  on 
account  of  the  invasions  of  an 
Elamite  king  named  Kidin-hut- 
rudas.  This  in  all  probability 
weakened  ^  the  country,  enabling 
the  Assyrians  to  defeat  a  later 
king,  Nabu-abla-iddina,  who  had 
allied  himself  with  the  Shuites. 
Peace  was  concluded  between  the 
two  powers  in  the  reign  of  the  As- 
syrian king  Shalmaneser  ii.  (See 
Assyria.) 

In  747  B.C.  Nabonassar  came  to 
the  throne,  but^  all  that  is  stated 
of  his  reign  is  that  a  revolt 
occurred  in  Babylon  and  Bor- 
sippa,  _  but  was  quelled.  As  to 
his  reign  having  commenced  a 

1 


Babylonia 

the  district  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
mounted  the  throne,  and  had  a 
great  many  conflicts  with  the 
Assyrians.  He  was  captured  by 
them  about  711  B c,  and  Sargon 
of  Assyria  became  king  of  Baby- 
lonia On  the  death  of  Sargon, 
in  705  B.C.,  his  son,  Sennacherib, 
becarne  king  of  Babylon,  but  was 
repudiated  by  the  Babylonians  in 
703  B.C.,  when  Marduk-zakir-sumi 
was  placed  on  the  throne.  This 
king,  however,  reigned  only  two 
months;  for  Merodach-baladan, 
having  escaped  from  prison,  killed 
him;  and  once  more  resumed  the 
reins  of  government.  He  was  soon 
again  deposed  by  Sennacherib, 
and  fled.  _  The  Assyrian  king 
thereupon  installed  Bel-ibm,  the 
Belibos  of  Ptolemy.  The  rule  of 
this  last,  however,  not  being  satis- 
factory, he  was  removed  by  the 
suzerain,  who  placed  his  own  son, 

2 


Obverse  of  an  unbaked  Babylonian  Tablet. 


Edge  of  same. 


1.  Mentions  Dur-makh-ilani,  son  of  Eri-Aku,  probably  Arioch,  king  of 'Ellasar; 
Tudkhula,  probably  Tidal,  king  of  nations ;  and  Kudur  Laganiar.  king  of  Elam, 
probably  Cnedorlaomer,  king  of  Elam.  (Gen.  14:1.)  Now  in  the  British  Museum. 
2.  Shows  the  characters  '  -Aku '  (the  last  two  characters  of  Arioch)  written  '  round 
the  corner,'  in  continuation  of  line  9. 


historical  era,  there  is  no  trace 
of  that  in  the  inscriptions.  Per- 
haps the  true  explanation  is  that 
systematic  astronomical  observa- 
tions were  recor_ded  in  his  time. 

Nabu-nadin-zeri  or  Nadinu  (Na- 
dios),  his  son,  reigned  two  years, 
meeting  his  death  at  the  hands 
of  Nabu-sum-ukin  or  Sum-ukin, 
who  reigned  two  months.  Ukin- 
zer  (Chinziros),  chief  of  the  tribe 
of  Bit-Amukkan  (731  B.C.),  was 
taken  prisoner  by  Tiglath-pileser 
III.  of  Assyria,  after  a  reign  of 
three  years.  The  Assyrian  king, 
having  seized  the  throne, _  ruled 
under  the  same  name  as  in  As- 
svria,  though  he  is  called  Pulu 
(Pul,  cf.  2  Ki.  15:19)  in  the 
Babylonian  canon.  He  reigned 
in  Babvlonia  two  years,  and  was 
succeed.ed  by  Ululaa  (Elulaeus), 
as  the  canon  calls  the  Assyrian 
king  Shalmaneser  iv.  (See  As- 
syria.) On  his  death,  in  721  B.C., 
Merodach-baladan  ii.,  a  native  of 


Assur-nadin-sumi,  on  the  throne. 
Whilst  Sennacherib  was  engaged 
in  the  south  against  Merodach- 
baladan,  Nergal-usezib,  whom  he 
had  once  defeated,  seized  Baby- 
lon, and  taking  Sennacherib's  son 
prisoner,  sent  him  to  Elam.  The 
Assyrian  army  returning,  Nergal- 
usezib  was  defeated  and  captured. 
Sennacherib  next  turned  his  at- 
tention to  Elam,  and  whilst  he 
was  engaged  there,  Musezib-Mar- 
duk  mounted  the  Babylonian 
throne.  Later,  the  Elamite  king, 
Umman-menanu,  seems  to  have 
become  the  friend  of  the  As- 
syrians; for  he  invaded  Babv- 
lonia, and  having  taken  Musezib- 
Marduk  prisoner,  sent  him  to  the 
Assyrian  king.  Babylonia  now 
fell  under  the  rule  of  the  As- 
svrians  for  twenty-one  years  (688- 
6G9  B.C.). 

Sennacherib  was  assassinated  in 
680  B.C.,  and  his  son,  Esarhaddon, 
who  ruled  Babylonia  with  mod- 


Babylonia 


512 


Babylonia 


eration,  and  tried  to  repair  the 
ravages  which  his_  father  had 
made,  succeeded  him.  On  his 
death,  in  669  B.C.,  his  son,  Samas- 
sum-ukin  (Saosduchinos),  came  to 
the  throne  of  Babylonia,  appar- 
ently in  accordance  with  his 
father's  wish.  During  his  reign 
the  country  was  invaded  by  the 
Elamite  king  Urtaku,  who  per- 
suaded Bel-ikisa,  with  some  other 
Babylonian  chiefs,  to  join  him  in 
attacking  _  Samas-sum-ukin  and 
Assur-bani-apli,  his  brother,  the 
king  of  Assyria.  The  result  was 
the  deposition  of  the  Elamite 
king.  Samas-sum-ukin,  however, 
did  not  like  being  regarded  as  his 
brother's  vassal,  and  therefore 
bribed  Umman-igas,the  newElam- 
ite  king,  to  join  him  in  throw- 
ing off  the  Assyrian  yoke.  The 
result  was  disaster,  for  in  648 
B  c.  the  Assyrian  army  entered 
Babylon,  and  Samas-sum-ukin, 
setting  fire  to  his  palace,  was 
burnt  to  death.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Kandalanu  (Kinela- 
danos),  who  is  regarded  by  some 
as  the  same  as  Assur-bani-apli. 


ried  away  the  Jews  into  captivity. 

He  captured  Tyre  after  a  siege  of 
thirteen  years  (573  B  c  ),  and  de- 
feated and  deposed  Hophra,  kmg 
of  Egypt,  setting  on  the  throne 
Amasis,  who,  however  seems  to 
have  revolted  against  his  suze- 
rain later  on,  necessitating  an- 
other expedition  to  Egypt  to  re- 
duce him  again  to  subjection 
Nebuchadnezzar  is  renowned  as 
the  restorer  or  rebuilder  of  all, 
or  nearly  all,  the  great  temples 
and  palaces  of  Babylon.  He  died 
in  562  B  c  ,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Evil-merodach,  who, 
after  a  short  reign  of  only  two 
years,  was  assassinated  by  his 
brother-in-law,  Neriglissar,  who 
then  mounted  the  throne.  The 
record  of  the  marriage  of  the 
daughter  of  Neriglissar  with  the 
high  priest  of  Nebo  at  E-zida 
exists,  and  is  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum.  Neriglissar  was 
advanced  in  years  when  he  came 
to  the  throne,  and  only  reigned 
three  years,  being  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Labasi-Marduk  (Labaro- 
soardochos),  who  was  assassinated 


cally  king,  and  he  seems  to  have 
been  killed  on  the  night  of  the 
11th  of  Marcheswan,  539  B.C.,  in 
an  attack  made  by  Gobryas.  The 
next  year  the  king  of  Anzan,  as 
Cyrus  is  called,  found  himself 
completely  master  of  Babylonia, 
and  assumed  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment. Babylonia  had  thereafter 
no  separate  existence.  From  time 
to  time  she  tried  to  revolt,  but 
always  without  success.  The 
inhabitants  saw  with  grief  their 
ancient  glories  disappearing;  and 
the  foundation  of  Seleucia  on  the 
Tigris  by  Seleucus  Nicator  (312- 
280  B  c  )  completed  the  ruin  of 
the  city  The  Semitic  Babylonian 
language,  however,  continued  to 
be  spoken  and  used  in  contracts 
almost,  if  not  quite,  until  the 
Christian  era,  and  the  worship  of 
their  deities  is  said  to  have  been 
carried  on  at  the  Birs-Nimrud 
(the  temple  known  as  E-zida)  until 
the  4th  century  of  the  Christian 
era. 

Though  it  is  uncertain  whether 
the  ancient  Babylonians  were 
more  civilized  than  their  Egyptian 
contemporaries  there  is  but  little 
doubt  that  they  were  the  pioneers 
of  civilization  in  the  whole  of 
Western  Asia  before  Greece  and 
Rome  came  to  the  front.  Four 
thousand  years  B.C.  their  system 
of  writing  had  already  been  de- 
veloped, and  applied  also  to  the 
Semitic  Babylonian  tongue.  Four- 
teen hundred  years  B.C.,  as  the 
Tell-el-Amarna  tablets  testify, 
its  use  extended  over  the  whole 
of  Western  Asia  as  far  as  the 
Mediterranean  and  Egypt.  (See 
Cuneiform.)  Though  not  a  war- 
like people,  the  Babylonians  pos- 
sessed more  than  once  what 
might  have  been  described  at  the 
time  as  a  world-wide  empire. 
They  were  energetic,  intelligent, 
polished  in  their  way  and  fond 
of  letters.  From  4000  B.C.  on- 
wards excellent  sculptures  and 
engravings  on  hard  stone  exist 
to  testify  to  their  skill  and  artis- 
tic instincts.  Representations  of 
musical  instruments  imply  alsc 
that  the  art  of  harmony  was 
not  altogether  unknown  to  them. 
To  this  must  be  added  agricul- 
ture, mensuration,  and  mathe- 
matics, such  as  they  were;  and 
their  legal  enactments,  codified 
apparently  by  Hammurabi,  are, 
in  their  way,  noteworthy  produc- 
tions. In  the  matter  of  litera- 
ture we  owe  to  them  no  less 
than  three  accounts  of  the  crea- 
tion, two  accounts  of  the  flood, 
one  of  them  put  into  the  mouth 
of  the  Babylonian  Noah  (Ut- 
napistim  or  Atra-hasis),  who  is 
represented  as  relating  it  to  the 
semi-mythical_  Gilgames  (Gilga- 
mos),  a  primitive  King  of  Erech 
(Uruk-suhuri).  To  these  must  be 
added  a  number  of  other  legends, 
such  as  the  story  of  Ura  (the 
pestilence),  Etanna,  the  horse  and 


Fragment  of  a  Clay  Seal  of  Hammurabi. 


The  rule  of  this  king  lasted 
twenty-two  years,  and  he  was 
apparently  succeeded  (625  B.C.) 
by  the  Assyrian  king  Assur-etil- 
ilani,  who  occupied  the  throne  for 
at  least  four  years.  His  succes- 
sor was  Sinsarra-iskun,  the  Sara- 
cos  of  Syncellus,  whose  general, 
Nabopolassar,  having  been  sent 
to  drive  back  certain  barbarians 
who  were  said  to  be  invading  the 
country,  revolted  against  his  mas- 
ter, and  allying  himself  with  the 
Medes  and  others,  succeeded  with 
them  in  overthrowing  the  Assyrian 
empire.    (See  Assyria.) 

Nabopolassar  took  for  his  share 
of  the  spoils  the  kingdom  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  made  the  country  the 
richest  and  most  influential  in  the 
then  known  world  He  and  his 
son  attacked  the  Egyptians  and 
defeated  them;  but  the  son  learn- 
ing, whilst  on  this  expedition,  that 
his  father  had  died,  hastened 
back  to  Babylonia  to  assume  the 
reins  of  government  The  glory 
of  the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar  ll., 
rightly  called  'the  Great,'  is  well 
known  He  overran  the  states 
of  Palestine,  and  having  cap- 
tured Jerusalem  in  587  B.C.,  car- 


after  he  had  been  on  the  throne 
only  nine  months, Nabo-na'id  (Na- 
bonidos  or  Labynitus)  being  there- 
upon made  king  (556  B  c.) 

Much  has  still  to  be  discovered 
ere  we  know  all  about  this  re- 
markable ruler,  to  whom  students 
of  Babylonian  history  owe  so 
much.  The  son  of  a  princely 
family  of  Babylon,  he  was  to  all 
appearance  learned,  well  read, 
and  an  antiquarian.  The  ac- 
counts of  his  researches  in  the 
foundations  of  the  ancient  tem- 
ples for  records  of  his  prede- 
cessors are  of  the  highest  value. 
He  seems  to  have  given  over  the 
direction  of  the  military  affairs  of 
the  kingdom  into  the  hands  of  his 
son  Belshazzar.  During  his  reign 
the  renown  of  Cyrus  began  to  be 
spread  abroad,  and  the  Baby- 
lonian chronicle  records  that  this 
conqueror  attacked  a  petty  ruler 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Arbela. 
In  the  year  539  B.C.  he  began 
the  subjugation  of  Babylonia,  and 
Gobryas,  his  general,  entered  the 
capital  on  the  16th  of  Tammuz  of 
the  following  year.  At  this  time, 
to  all  appearance,  Belshazzar  was 
at  the  head  of  affairs,  and  practi- 


Babylonia 

the  ox,  with  many  others — one 
at  least,  the  story  of  Sargon  of 
Agade,  being  historical. 

It  is  difficult  to  judge  which 
was  the  more  predominant  charac- 
teristic of  the  Babylonians,  their 
trading  instinct  or  their  reverence 
for  their  gods,  for  both  are  equally 
marked.  They  had  intercourse  by 
means  of  trade  with  Elam  on  the 
east,  Syria  on  the  west,  and  many 
,  other  places  on  the  north  and 
south  whose  names  are  not  re- 
corded. Slavery  was  common,  and 
contracts  concerning  the  buying, 
selling,  and  hiring  of  slaves  are 
frequently  met  with.  'Fair  Gu- 
tian  slaves'  are  spoken  of  at  an 
early  date;  and  in  the  time  of 
Cambyses  a  Babylonian  soldier 
speaks  of  an  Egyptian  slave 
woman  and  her  child,  the  spoil  of 
his  bow.'  The  Babylonians  seem 
at  all  times,  but  especially  at  the 
earlier  period,  to  have  been  very 
prone  to  litigation,  and  the  large 
number  of  tablets  of  this  class 
which  exist  show  that  though  the 
men  had  generally  only  one  wife, 
a  second  was  at  times  taken,  often 
to  wait  upon  the  first.  Whether 
a  man  had  children  or  not,  he 
would,  if  it  seemed  good  to  him, 
adopt  sons  or  daughters,  to  whom 
he  was  then  under  legal  obliga- 
tion to  give  part  of  his  property. 
These  foster  children  could  not 
deny  him,  except  under_  penalty 
of  loss  of  all  claim  to  his  estate, 
and  some  punishment,  perhaps 
slavery.  A  husband  could  divorce 
his  wife  by  paying  a  fine;  and  in 
addition  to  this  she  might  take 
away  the  amount  of  her  dowry. 
If,  however,  a  woman  denied  her 
husband,  the  penalty  was  death, 
generally  by  drowning,  at  least 
in  earlier  times. 

In  common  with  all  Semites, 
the  Babylonians  were  exceedingly 
religious,_  and  v/ere  consequently 
greatly  in  the  power  of  their 
priests,  through  whom  tithes  and 
offerings  to  their  numerous  gods 
were  made.  Their  earliest  chief 
*..ivinity  was  apparently  the  god 
Ea,  lord  of  the  deep,  possessor  of 
unsearchable  wisdom,  and  creator 
of  all  things.  When,  however, 
Babylon  became  the  chief  city  of 
the  united  states  of  Babylonia, 
Merodach,  the  god  of  that  city, 
assumed  the  first  place.  He  was 
a  reflection  of  the  sun,  or  the 
light  of  day,  and  was  worshipped 
as  he  who  constantly  sought  to 
do  good  to  mankind.  His  chief 
title  was  Bel,  'the  lord.'  Other 
divinities  were  Samas,  the  sun- 
god;  Sin,  the  moon-god;  Nebo. 
the  prophet  or  teacher;  Nergal 
(Ura),  tne  god  of  death  and  the 
grave;  Beltu  (Beltis),  consort  of 
Joel  or  Merodach;  Istar,  the  god- 
dess Venus,  consort  of  Tammuz; 
Eres-ki-gala,  goddess  of  Hades; 
and  many  others.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  names  of  most  of 
the  deities  of  Babylonia  are  not 

Vol.  I— 37. 


513 

Semitic,  but  in  the  language  of  the 
early  Sumero-Akkadian  inhabit- 
ants of  the  country.  See  Hom- 
mel's  Geschichte  Babyloniens  und 
Assyriens  (1885);  Delitzsch's  simi- 
lar title  (1891);  Geo.  Smith's  and 
A.  H.  Sayce's  Hist,  of  Babylonia 
(1877);  Maspero's  The  Dawn  of 


Babylonish  Captivity 

Susiana;  M'Curdy's  History, 
Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments 
(1894,  1896);  Radau's  Early 
Babylonian  Hist.  (1900);  Pinches' 
The  O.  T.  in  the  Light  of  the  Rec- 
ords, etc.  (1902);  and  tor  trans- 
lations, The  Records  of  the  Past, 
1st  ser.,  ed.  by  Birch,  vols,  i.,  iii.. 


Image  of  the  Sun-God. 
Stone  tablet  recording  the  Restoration  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun-God  at  Sippara 
by  Nabu-pal-iddina,  about  900  B.C.  ' 


Civilization,  ed.  by  Sayce  (1896), 
and  The  Struggle  of  the  Nations, 
ed.  by  the  same  (1897);  Hilprecht, 
University  of  Pennsylvania  Expe- 
ditions to  Babylonia,  Bulletins 
(Philadelphia,  1898-1901);  History 
of  Art  in  Chaldea  and  Assyria 
(London,  1884);  Loftus's  Travels 
and  Researches  in  Chaldosa  and 


v.,  vii.,  ix.,  xi.;  2nd  ser.,  ed.  by 
Sayce,  vols,  i.-vi.  (1888-92);  and 
from  time  to  time,  in  the  Proc. 
of  the  Soc.  of  Bib.  ArchceoL,  the 
Jour,  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Soc, 
and  the  Trans,  of  the  Victoria 
Institute. 

Babylonish  Captivity.  See 
Israel,  History  of. 


Babyroussa 

Babyroussa.     See  Babirusa. 

Baca,  The  Valley  of,  through 
which  the  pilgrims  march  towards 
Zion  (Ps.  84:6). 

Bacarra,  tn.,  3  m.  N.  of  Laoag, 
prov.  Ilocos  Norte,  N.W.  of  Luzon, 
Philippine  Is.  It  is  in  a  fertile  agri- 
cultural district.  Est,  pop.  (1906) 
over  15,000. 

Bacau,  tn.  Rumania,  cap.  of 
district  of  same  name,  on  the 
Bistritza,  station  on  the  Bucha- 
rest-Jassy  Ry.  It  has  paper 
works  and  a  brisk  trade.  Pop. 
(1900)  16,187,  of  whom  half  are 
Jews. 

Baccarat.  The  origin  of  the 
game  of  baccarat,  or  baccara — 


called  more  familiarly  bac — is  not 
known.  It  became  the  French 
gambling  game  par  excellence 
during  the  latter  portion  of  the 
reign  of_  Louis  Philippe,  and 
still  retains  its  pre-eminence  in 
France.  There  are  two  forms 
of  the  game — baccarat  a  bangue 
(sometimes  called  baccarat  a  deux 
tableaux)  and  baccarat  chemin  de 
}er. 

Baccarat,  tn.,  Meurthe-et-Mo- 
selle  dep.,  France,  16  m.  s.E.  of 
Luneville.  It  possesses  one  of 
*he  most  celebrated  artistic  glass 
factories  in  Europe,  founded  in 
1765,  and  employing  over  2,000 
men.    Pop.  (1900)  7,014. 

Bacchae,  also  called  Masnade 


514 

and  Thyiades,  the  female  attend- 
ants of  Bacchus.  The  na-me  was 
also  applied  to  the  priestesses  in 
the  Dionysian  festivals. 

Bacchantes,  male  and  female 
devotees  of  Bacchus  in  his  fes- 
tival processions. 

Bacchus.  See  Dionysus. 
Bacchylides  (c.  510-450  B.C.) 
of  Ceos,  one  of  the  great  lyric 
oets  of  Greece,  was  a  nephew  of 
imonides.  He  lived  for  some 
time  at  the  court  of  Hiero  at 
Syracuse.  Until  1896  only  frag- 
ments of  his  poetry  were  extant,^ 
but  in  that  year  the  British^ 
Museum  obtained  from  Egypt  a 
papyrus  which  contained  twenty 


of  his  poems,  of  which  six  are 
practically  perfect.  Fourteen  of 
these  poems  commemorate  victo- 
ries in  the  games;  of  the  others, 
two  are  paeans,  one  a  dithyramb, 
and  two  hymns.  Bacchvlides's 
poetry  is  distinguished  by  elegance 
and  smoothness;  he  does  not  pos- 
sess the  depth  and  magnificence 
of  Pindar,  nor  his  difficulty  of 
thought  and  language.  Editions: 
Kenyon  (1897),  the  editio  princeps; 
Blass  (1898),trans.  by  Poste(1898). 

BacciochijMARiA  Anna  Elisa 
Bonaparte.  See  Bonapartes, 
The. 

Baccio  della  Porta.   See  Bar- 

TOLOMMEO,  FrA. 

Bach,    Alexander  Anton 


Bach 

Stephen,  Baron  von  (1813-93), 
Austrian  statesman-  became  min- 
ister of  Justice  (1848),  and  minister 
of  the  interior  (1849).  After  the 
death  of  Schwarzenberg  (1853)  he 
became  the  most  powerful  poli- 
tician in  Austria,  an  advocate 
of  reactionary  absolutism,  and  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  the  Slavs 
and  Hungarians.  He  was  ambas- 
sador at  Rome  (1859-67).  ^ 
Bach,  JoHANN  Christian 
-(1735-82),  the  youngest  son  of 
Sebastian;  after  the  death  of 
his  father  he  went  to  Berlin, 
and  studied  the  piano  under  his 
brother  Emanuel.  In  1754  he  be- 
came organist  at  Milan,  whence 
he  removed  to  London  in  1759, 
and  was  appointed  conductor  to 
the  queen.  He  wrote  many  com- 
positions for  the  piano;  several 
operettas,  of  which  Orione  (1763) 
had  a  great  success,  and  another, 
La  Clemenza  di  Scipione,  was 
played  as  late  at  1805.  His  wife, 
Cecilia  Grassi,  an  Italian,  was 
prima  donna  at  the  London  opera 
from  1767. 

Bach,  Tohann  Sebastian 
(b.  Eisenach,  Mar.  21,  1685;  d. 
Leipzig,  July  28,  1750),  musical 
composer.  Johann  Ambrosius 
(1645-95),  the  father  of  Sebastian, 
was  court  and  town  musician  at 
Eisenach,  and  gave  his  son  lessons 
on  the  violin.  Sebastian,  after 
having  been  a  violinist  for  a 
short  time  in  the  orchestra  of 
Prince  Johann  Ernst  at  Weimar, 
held  successively  the  posts  of 
organist  in  Arnstadt  (1704),  in 
Miihlhausen  (1707),  at  the  court 
chapel  of  Weimar  (1708),  and 
of  capellmeister  to  Prince  Leo- 
pold at  Kothen  (1717).  In  1723 
he  was  appointed  cantor  at  the 
school  of  St.  Thomas,  Leipzig, 
where  he  also  served  as  director 
of  music  at  the  university  and  at 
the  churches  of  St.  Thomas  and 
St.  Nicholas.  These  appoint- 
ments he  held  until  his  death. 
Bach's  development  of  all  forms 
of  composition  marks  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  music.  His  orches- 
tral works  and  chamber  music 
gave  a  great  stimulus  to  those 
branches  of  art,  and  his  solo 
sonatas  for  violin  and  for  vio- 
loncello hold  a  unique  position 
among  compositions  for  these  in- 
struments. Bach  was  perhaps  the 
greatest  organist  of  his  genera- 
tion, and  his  numerous  produc- 
tions for  the  instrument  are  still 
unsurpassed.  Among  his  many 
vocal  compositions  may  be  in- 
stanced his  magnificent  Mass  in 
B  minor,  and  the  Passions  of  St. 
Matthew  and  St.  John.  His  valu- 
able compositions  for  the  clavier, 
and  his  introduction  of  a  new 
system  of  fingering,  which  made 
each  finger  of  equal  importance, 
have  exerted  an  enormous  influ- 
ence upon  the  modern  art  of  piano 
playing;  but  of  still  greater  mo- 
ment was  the  fact  that  Bach,  who 


-mm 


Account  of  the  Delude. 
(From  the  Library  of  Assur-banl-apli  at  Nineveh.) 


Bach 


515 


Backgammon 


tuned  his  own  claviers,  invented 
our  present  system  of  equal  tem- 
perament. His  Wohllemperirtes 
Clavier — forty-eight  preludes  and 
fugues  in  all  keys — exemplifies 
the  necessity  of  his  method  of 
tuning  for  keyboard  instruments, 
and  as  a  musical  and  technical 
work  is  considered  indispensable 
to  the  trained  pianist.  The  most 
complete  edition  of  his  works  is 
that  issued  at  Leipzig  by  the 
Bach  Society  between  1850  and 
1900,  in  59  folio  volumes. 

The  various  biographies  of  J. 
S.  Bach  by  Forkel,  Hilgenfeldt, 
Bitter,  and  others  were  super- 
seded by  J.  A.  P.  Spitta's  ex- 
haustive work  (Eng.  trans,  by 
Bell  and  Fuller-Maitland,  1899). 
Among  English  books  on  the  sub- 
ject, consult  the  Lives  by  Miss 
Kay  Shuttleworth,  R.  Lane 
Poole,  C.  F.  A.  Williams,  Rut- 
land Boughton  (1907),  Sir  Hu- 
bert Parry  (1909),  and  Schweit- 
zer (Eng.  trans.  1911). 

Bach,  baK,  Karl  Philip 
Emanuel  (1714-88),  third  son  of 
J.  S.  Bach  (q.  v.),  studied  music 
under  his  father,  and  law  at  the 
University  of  Leipzig  and  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder,  where  he  found- 
ed a  musical  academy  for  the  pro- 
duction of  his  own  compovsitions. 
In  1738  he  went  to  Berlin,  where 
he  became  private  pianist  to  the 
king;  and  in  1767  as  musical  di- 
rector to  Hamburg,  where  he  re- 
mained for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
Among  his  many  compositions 
are  sonatas,  fantasias,  and  vari- 
ous pieces  for  the  piano  and  or- 
chestra, melodies  for  the  Psalms, 
and  the  oratorio  The  Israelites  in 
the  Wilderness.  He  wrote  also  a 
didactic  book  of  considerable 
value,  Versuch  iiber  die  Wahre 
Art,  das  Klavier  zu  Spielen  (1753, 
1763,  2  vols.). 

Bach,  Wilhelm  Friedemann 
(1710-84),  eldest  and  most  tal- 
ented son  of  J.  S,  Bach  (q.  v.), 
studied  under  his  father.  He  be- 
came organist  at  Dresden  (1733) 
and  at  Halle  (1746-64).  After 
resigning  the  latter  appointment 
he  led  an  irregular  bohemian 
life,  giving  concerts  and  lessons, 
and  died  in  Berlin  in  poverty. 

Bacharach,  bag'a-rag,  town, 
provmce  Rhineland,  district  Ko- 
blenz, Prussia,  on  the  Rhine;  22 
miles  southeast  of  Koblenz.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  it  was  the  staple 
market  for  the  wines  of  the  Rhein- 
gau.    Pop._(1910)  1,835. 

Bache,  bach,  Alexander  Dal- 
las (1806-67),  American  physi- 
cist, grandson  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, was  born  in  Philadelphia,  and 
was  graduated  from  the  U.  S. 
Military  Academy  (182.5)  at  the 
head  of  his  class.  In  1828-36  he 
was  professor  of  natural  philos- 
ophy and  chemistry  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania;  in  1836- 
VOL.  I.— Mar.  '16 


42  president  of  the  trustees  of 
Girard  College;  and  from  1843  to 
1867  superintendent  of  the  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey,  serving  also  as 
member  of  the  Lighthouse  Board 
and  other  departments  in  Wash- 
ington. He  made  valuable  inves- 
tigations in  physics  and  chemis- 
try; and  he  gave  $42,000  to  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  to 
promote  scientific  research.  He 
published  Observations  at  the  Mag- 
netic and  Meteorological  Obser- 
vatory at  Girard  College  (3  vols., 
1840-7). 

Bache,  Rene  (1861),  American 
author  and  journalist,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  was  ed- 
ucated at  Yale  and  Harvard  Uni- 
versities. Since  1889  he  has  de- 
voted himself  to  literature.  Many 
ot  his  popular  scientific  articles 
have  been  published  in  The  Tech- 
nical World,  The  Scientific  Amer- 
ican, Harper's  Weekly,  and  The 
Cosmopolitan. 

Bache,  Sarah  (1744-1808), 
American  philanthropist,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia,  the  only 
daughter  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 
In  1767  she  married  Richard 
Bache,  who  was  Postmaster- 
General  of  the  United  States  in 
1776-82.  During  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  she  was  prominent 
in  the  work  of  the  ladies'  Phila- 
delphia Society  in  furnishing 
clothing  and  other  supplies  to  the 
American  soldiers;  and  she  also 
attended  the  wounded  in  the 
Philadelphia  hospitals. 

Bach'eller,  (Addison)  Irving 
(1859),  American  author,  was 
born  in  Pierrepont,  N.  Y.,  and 
was  graduated  from  St.  Lawrence 
University  (1882).  From  1884  to 
1898  he  directed  the  Bacheller 
Newspaper  Syndicate,  for  sup- 
plying literary  matter  to  the  Sun- 
day newspapers  of  the  United 
States;  and  in  1898-1900  he 
served  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
New  York  World.  Since  1900  he 
has  devoted  his  time  to  fiction 
writing.  His  publications  in- 
clude: The  Master  of  Silence 
(1890) ;  The  Still  House  of  O'D ar- 
row (1894);  Eben  H olden  (1900); 
D'ri  and  I  (1901);  Barrel  of  the 
Blessed  Isles  (1903);  Candlelight 
(1903);  Vergilius  (1904);  Silas 
Strong  (1906);  The  Hand-Made 
Gentleman  (1909^;  In  Various 
Moods  (1910);  The  Master  (1910); 
Keeping  Up  with  Lizzie  (1911); 
Charge  It  (1912);  Turning  of 
Griggsby  (1913);  The  Marryers 
(1914). 

Bachelor,  bach'e-kr,  in  its 
Latin  form,  baccalarius,  signified 
first  of  all  a  cowherd  or  farm 
servant.  Then  it  was  applied  to 
the  cultivators  of  certain  lands 
(called  baccalaria)  held  in  fief  of  a 
religious  body;  and  then  it  came 
to  mean  novices  in  monasteries, 
and  persons  passing  through  the 


probationary  stages  of  knight- 
hood (q.  v.).  On  the  institution 
of  universities  it  was  popularly 
used  _  to  denote  those  who  had 
just  entered  on  their  academic 
career;  and  subsequently  the 
Bachelor  s  Degree  came  to  be  con- 
ferred as  the  lowest  academical 
degree  in  universities  and  colleges 
(see  Degrees).  The  term,  as 
commonly  used  at  the  present 
day,  signifies  simply  an  unmar- 
ried man. 

Bachelors*  Buttons,  the  popu- 
lar name  for  the  double-flowered 
3^ellow  or  white  varieties  of  but- 
tercup; sometimes  applied  also  to 
the  double  daisy,  cornflower,  cam- 
pion, burdock,  scabious,  etc. 

Bachelor's  Degree.  See  De- 
grees. 

Bachian.    See  Batjan. 

Bachmut.  See  Bakhmut. 

Bacho.   See  Baconthorpe. 

Bachtold,  bec/z'tolt,  Jakob 
(1848-97),  Swiss  man  of  letters, 
was  professor  of  German  lan- 
guage and  literature  at  Zurich 
(1888).  He  wrote  a  useful  Ge- 
schichte  der  Deutschen  Litteratur 
in  der  Schweiz  (1887-90);  a  good 
biography  of  Gottfried  Keller 
(1892-6);  and  edited  Morike's 
Briefwechsel  and  Goethe's  Gotz 
von  Berlichingen  and  Iphigenia 
auf  Tauris. 

Bacillus  (late  Latin,  'little  rod,' 
diminutive  of  baculus,  'stick'), 
properly  the  name  of  the  rod- 
shaped  Bacteria,  but  often  inac- 
curately used  in  the  same  sense  as 
bacterium.    See  Bacteria. 

Back,  Sir  George  (1796- 
1876),  English  admiral  and  Arc- 
tic explorer,  was  born  in  Stock- 
port, and  entered  the  British  navy 
as  midshipman  in  1808.  He 
served  with  Sir  John  Franklin  in 
Arctic  expeditions  to  the  Spitz- 
bergen  Seas  (1818),  the  Copper- 
mine River  (1819-22),  and  the 
Mackenzie  River  (1824-7).  In 
1833  he  took  command  of  an  ex- 
pedition in  search  of  Sir  John 
Ross  (q.  v.),  and  discovered  Artil- 
lery Lake  and  the  Great  Fish 
(q.  V.)  or  Back  River  (1834).  He 
made  other  voyages  to  the  Arctic 
regions  in  1836  and  1837.  He 
was  knighted  in  1839,  and  raised 
to  the  rank  of  admiral  in  1857. 
He  published:  Narrative  of  the 
Arctic  Land  Expedition  .  .  .  in 
1833-3  (1836) ;  Narrative  of  an  Ex- 
pedition in  the  'Terror'  (1838). 

Back  Bay,  popular  name  for  a 
fashionable  residential  section  of 
Boston  (q.  v.),  Mass. 

Backbone.  See  Spinal  Col- 
umn. 

Backergunge.  See  Bakarganj. 

Back'gam'mon,  a  game  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  known  to  the 
French  as  tric-trac.  The  game  is 
played  by  two  persons.  The 
backgammon  board  is  divided 
into  two  equal  compartments  by 


Backsammon 


616 


Bacon 


a  raised  border  called  the  'bar,* 
and  is  marked  with  twelve  points 
(or  fleches)  in  alternate  colors  at 
either  end.  These  points  are  of 
such  length  that  five  pieces  will 
rather  more  than  cover  them. 
Fifteen  pieces,  like  those  used  for 
draughts,  are  placed  on  each  side 
of  the  bar,  the  one  set  dark,  the 
other  light  in  color.  A  box  and  a 
pair  of  dice  complete  the  appa- 
ratus. The  arrangement  of  the 
game  at  its  beginning  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  diagram.  The 
numbers  are  used  only  for  sim- 
plifying the  present  article. 

The  object  of  the  game  is  for 
each  player  (l)  to  move  all  his 
men  into  his  own  home  table,  and 
then  (2)  to  remove  them  from  the 
board,  under  conditions  to  be  ex- 
plained. The  line  of  movement 
for  all  pieces  is  in  the  direction 


on,  by  alternate  throws  of  the 
dice. 

Thus,  White,  beginning,  throws 

4,  3:  he  may  then  move  one  piece 
from  point  White  8  to  White  4, 
and  another  piece  from  White  6 
to  White  3.    Black  then  throws 

5,  1:  he  may  move  a  piece  from 
Black  8  to  Black  3,  and  the  same 
piece  from  Black  3  to  Black  2.  If 
a  point  at  which  a  player  aims  has 
a  hostile  piece  on  it,  it  is  'un- 
guarded,' and  the  hostile  piece 
(called  a  'blot')  is  removed,  and 
placed  on  the  dividing  border, 
while  the  player  occupies  the 
point.  A  point  on  which  two  or 
more  pieces  are  standing  is 
'guarded,'  and  cannot  be  occu- 
pied. If  the  player  has  no  vacant 
or  unguarded  point  to  take,  he 
loses  the  move  for  that  half  of  his 
throw,   A  player  who  has  lost  a 


BLACK 

Black's  Home,  or  Inner  Table.     Black's  Outer  Table. 


White's  Home,  or  Inner  Table.   White's  Outer  Table. 
WHITE 

The  Game  of  Backgammon. 


of  their  own  home  table,  from 
their  own  outer  table,  the  enemy's 
outer  table,  and  the  enemy's  home 
table,  those  standing  in  the  last 
named  having  to  pass  through  the 
others  in  the  order  named.  The 
two  sides,  therefore,  march  in  con- 
trary directions. 

The  first  move  is  decided  by  a 
throw  of  the  dice.  The  first 
player  then  throws  the  two  dice, 
and  moves  his  pieces  according 
to  the  numbers.  If  he  throws 
6,  3,  he  can  move  one  piece  to 
the  sixth  point  in  the  author- 
ized direction,  and  another  three 
points;  or  he  can  move  one  piece 
nine  points.  He  can  take  the  six 
or  the  three  move  first,  as  he 
pleases.  He  must  move  as  the 
dice  decides;  but  if  the  point  at 
which  he  aims  is  occupied,  then 
he  cannot  move  for  that  half  of 
his  throw,  which  is  lost.  The 
other  player  then  casts  the  dice, 
and  moves  accordingly;  and  so 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


piece  this  way  cannot  move  any 
of  his  other  pieces  until  he  has 
'entered'  this  piece — i.e.,  returned 
him  to  the  game.  To  do  this  he 
throws  the  dice:  if  either  die 
shows  the  number  of  a  vacant  or 
unguarded  point  in  the  enemy's 
home]table,  he  places  his  captured 
man  upon  it,  and  uses  the  number 
of  the  other  die  for  an  ordinary 
movement.  He  cannot  move 
while  a  'blot'  is  'hit'  (captured); 
and  till  the  dice  allow  him  to  en- 
ter the  piece,  his  throws  are  lost. 
Meanwhile  his  opponent  is  stead- 
ily moving  on.  If  a  player  throws 
doublets,  or  both  dice  of  one  num- 
ber, double  the  number  of  dots  is 
reckoned. 

When  a  player  has  brought  all 
his  pieces  into  his  own  home 
table,  he  then  has  to  'bear  them 
off' — i.e.,  to  remove  them  from 
the  board.  On  each  throw  of  the 
dice  he  may  either  move  one  or 
two  pieces  forward  as  usual,  or 


may  remove  from  the  board  one 
or  two  of  his  own  pieces  that  are 
on  points  corresponding  with  one 
or  both  of  the  dice,  or  may  move 
one  and  remove  another  from  the 
board.  If  he  throws  a  larger 
number  than  that  of  the  largest 
point  occupied  by  a  piece,  he 
may  remove  a  piece  that  is  on 
his  highest  occupied  point.  Thus, 
throwing  a  6,  and  his  highest 
occupied  point  being  5,  he  may 
remove  the  piece  on  point  5.  The 
player  who  first  'bears  off'  all 
his  pieces  wins  the  game.  Consult 
Berkeley's  Draughts  and  Back- 
gammon. 

Backhaus,  bak'hous,  Wilhelm 
(1884),  German  pianist,  was  born 
in  Leipzig.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  Conservatory  of  Leipzig 
(1898),  and  continued  his  studies 
under  Eugen  d'Albert  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main.  From  1902  to 
1905  he  made  a  concert  tour  of 
the  Continent  and  England,  and 
in  1912  he  first  appeared  in  Amer- 
ica as  soloist  with  the  New  York 
Symphony  Orchestra. 

Backhuysen,  or  Bakhuisen, 
LuDOLF  (1631-1708),  Dutch 
painter,  was  born  at  Emden  in 
Hanover.  He  studied  under  Ev- 
erdingen  and  Dubbels,  and  be- 
came famous  as  a  painter  of  sea 
pieces. 

Backlash,  the  shock  which  oc- 
curs in  cog  wheels  or  other  such 
gearing  when  reversed  suddenly 
from  forward  running  to  back- 
ward; also  the  lost  motion  in 
screw  threads  and  gearing  caused 
by  wear  or  imperfect  fitting. 

Back  River.  See  Great  Fish 
River. 

Bacolor,  ba'ko-lor,  pueblo,  cap- 
ital of  Pampanga  province,  Lu- 
zon, Philippines,  on  the  Betis 
River;  40  miles  northwest  of 
Manila.  It  is  an  important  trade 
centre.    Pop.  15,000. 

Ba'con,  the  back  and  sides  of  a 
pig,  cured  or  preserved  for  eat- 
ing by  salting  and  drying.  See 
Pork;  Meat. 

Ba-c6n,  pueblo,  Luzon,  Philip- 
pines, on  the  Gulf  of  Albay;  20 
miles  southeast  of  Albay  town. 
Pop.  13,000. 

Ba'con,  Alice  Mabel  (1858), 
American  author  and  educator, 
was  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn. 
She  served  on  the  teaching  staff 
of  the  Hampton  Institute  at 
Hampton,  Va.  (1883-8,  1890), 
where  she  founded  the  Dixie  Hos- 
pital for  training  colored  nurses. 
She  also  served  on  the  teaching 
staff  of  the  Peeresses'  School 
(1888-9)  and  the  Girls'  High 
School  (1900-02)  at  Tokyo,  Ja- 
pan. She  published:  Japanese 
Girls  and  Women  (1891);  A  Jap- 
anese Interior  (1893) ;  In  the  Land 
of  the  Gods  (1905);  and  edited 
Human  Bullets,  a  Soldier's  Story 
of  Port  Arthur  (1907). 


Bacon 


617 


Bacon 


Bacon,  Augustus  Octavius 
(1839-1914),  American  public  of- 
ficial, was  born  in  Bryan  county, 
Ga.,  and  was  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Georgia  (1859),  and 
from  its  law  school  (1860).  He 
served  as  adjutant  and  captain  in 
the  Confederate  Army  during 
the  Civil  War,  and  subsequently 
(1866)  began  the  practice  of  law 
in  Macon,  Ga.  From  1870  to 
1882,  and  again  in  1892-3,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Georgia 
legislature  (speaker  in  1874-82). 
From  1894  until  his  death  he  was 
U.  S.  Senator  from  Georgia;  and 
in  that  office  served  on  the  Judi- 
ciary, Railroad,  Foreign  Rela- 
tions, and  other  important  com- 
mittees. 

Bacon,  Benjamin  Wisner 
(1860),  American  theologian,  was 
born  in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  and  was 
graduated  from  Yale  (1881)  and 
Yale  Divinity  School  (1884).  He 
has  been  pastor  of  Congregational 
churches  in  Old  Lyme,  Conn. 
(1884-9),  and  Oswego,  N.  Y. 
(1889-96) ;  and  instructor  in  New 
Testament  Greek  (1896-7),  and 
professor  of  New  Testament  crit- 
icism and  exegesis  (since  1897),  at 
Yale  Divinity  School.  In  1905- 
06  he  was  director  of  the  Ameri- 
can School  of  Archaeology  at 
Jerusalem.  His  publications  in- 
clude: The  Genesis  of  Genesis 
(1891);  Triple  Tradition  of  the 
Exodus  (1894);  Introduction  to 
the  New  Testament  (1900);  The 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  (1902) ;  The 
Story  of  St.  Paul  (1904) ;  The  Be- 
ginnings of  Gospel  Story  (1909); 
The  Founding  of  the  Church 
(1909);  The  Fourth  Gospel  in  Re- 
search and  Debate  (1909);  Com- 
mentary on  Galatians  (1909);  Je- 
sus the  Son  of  God  (1911);  The 
Making  of  the  New  Testament 
(1912);  Theodore  Thornton  Mun- 
ger  (1913);  Christianity  Old  and 
New  (1913). 

Bacon,  Delia  Salter  (1811- 
59),  American  author,  was  born 
in  Tallmadge,  O.,  sister  of  Leon- 
ard Bacon  (q.  v.).  She  taught 
school  for  several  years,  and  was 
a  lecturer  and  story  writer.  Her 
fame  rests  on  her  having  set  in 
motion  the  theory  that  the  plays 
of  Shakespeare  were  written  by 
Bacon,  propounded  in  her  book. 
The  Philosophy  of  the  Plays  of 
Shakespeare  Unfolded  (1857).  (See 
Bacon  -  Shakespeare  Contro- 
versy.) She  died  insane.  Con- 
sult Theodore  Bacon's  Life. 

Bacon,  Fr^-vncis  (1561-1626), 
Baron  Verulam  and  Viscount 
St.  Albans,  English  lawyer, 
statesman,  man  of  science  and 
letters,  was  born  in  London.  He 
was  a  younger  son  of  Sir  Nicholas 
Bacon  (q.  v.)  by  the  daughter  of 
Sir  Anthony  Cooke,  tutor  to  Ed- 
ward VI.  At  the  age  of  twelve 
Bacon  entered  Trinity  College, 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


Cambridge,  where  he  remained 
for  three  years,  returning  to  Lon- 
don in  1576  to  take  up  the  study 
of  law  at  Gray's  Inn.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  went  to  France  in 
the  suite  of  Sir  Amyas  Paulet,  the 
English  ambassador,  but  was 
shortly  recalled  to  England  by 
the  death  of  his  father  (1579), 
slender  of  purse  and  health. 

Through  the  favor  of  Lord 
Burleigh,  his  uncle,  Bacon  was 
made  an  utter  barrister  after  only 
three  years'  study;  was  given 
other  advantages;  and  was  em- 
ployed by  Elizabeth  in  queen's 
counsel  business.  In  1593  he  sat 
in  Parliament  for  Middlesex, 
where  he  at  once  boldly  took  the 
popular  side  on  a  subsidy  bill; 
and  refusing  to  placate  the  gov- 
ernment's anger  by  receding  or 
apologizing,  was  long  held  by 
Elizabeth  too  uncertain  for  reli- 
ance. In  1594  and  1595  he 
sought  successively  the  vacant 
Attorney-Generalship  and  Solic- 
itor-Generalship; but  despite  Bur- 
leigh's influence  they  went  to 
older  and  more  reputed  lawyers 
without  political  ideas.  That  he 
could  Jiope  and  be  pushed  for  them 
in  his  early  thirties,  however, 
proves  that  he  was  working  hard 
enough  at  the  study  and  practice 
of  law  to  fill  the  time  of  most  law- 
yers; and  he  was  specially  utilized 
by  the  Earl  of  Essex  (q.  v.),  who 
did  not  put  himself  in  the  hands 
of  literary  danglers.  Besides  this, 
he  was  in  active  and  zealous  Par- 
liamentary service,  studied  sci- 
ence, meditated  on  a  great  work 
to  revolutionize  philosophy  by 
turning  its  material  from  specu- 
lative metaphysics  to  experimen- 
tal science;  and  wrote  somewhat, 
including  some  of  his  famous  £5- 
says. 

Essex  fell  into  treasonous  ways, 
and  drew  away  from  Bacon,  who 
had  been  over-frank  in  his  warn- 
ings; and  in  1601  attempted  a 
rising  to  master  the  Queen.  On 
,her  command  Bacon  was  given  a 
leading  part  in  the  prosecution 
which  sent  Essex  to  the  block, 
and  in  preparing  the  government's 
justification.  Because  Bacon  did 
not  defy  the  Queen's  orders,  ruin 
his  career,  and  refuse  his  country 
a  just  service  for  friendship's  sake 
was  then  and  still  is  held  to  dis- 
credit his  conduct. 

But  Bacon,  though  or  because 
patient,  conciliatory,  and  loyal, 
was  no  proficient  in  the  arts  of 
rising.  He  remained  poor  and 
out  of  office,  and  gained  his  posi- 
tions late  and  hard  by  sheer  abil- 
ities. Elizabeth's  death  made 
little  change  for  years,  though  in 
1603  he  was  knighted  in  a  crowd 
of  three  hundred.  But  he  grat- 
ified James  by  Parliamentary 
help  on  subsidies  and  the  Union; 
and  at  last,  in  1607,  became  So- 


licitor-General; in  1613  Attorney- 
General;  in  1616  Privy  Council- 
lor; in  1618  Lord  Chancellor  and 
baron;  and  In  1620  viscount. 

As  Chancellor,  Bacon  was  a 
great  and  sound  judge,  and  al- 
most none  of  his  decisions  were 
reversed.  But  as  the  greatest 
Crown  officer,  and  first  man  in 
the  kingdom  next  to  the  King  and 
his  favorite,  he  had  necessarily  to 
be  a  leading  political  figure  also. 
He  was  chief  Parliamentary  man- 
ager, and  was  involved  in  several 
most  unpleasant  public  and  pri- 
vate matters,  as  James'  subsidy 
'benevolences,'  the  Peachum  and 
Raleigh  treason  trials,  the  Coke 
marriage,  the  Overbury  murder, 
the  Suffolk  peculations,  the  Yel- 
verton  ultra  vires,  etc.  A  firm  up- 
holder of  royal  prerogative,  his 
•judgment  is  not  always  ours,  but 
does  not  therefore  dishonor  him. 
James  took  his  labors,  but  not  his 
admirable  suggestions  on  polit- 
ical vscience;  Buckingham  over- 
rode his  judgment. 

While  his  rise  had  been  cruelly 
slow,  his  fall  was  swift  and  ir- 
revocable. In  1620  a  Parliamen- 
tary assault  on  monopolies  and 
corruptions  involved  the  Chan- 
cellor's office.  He  had  not  re- 
formed a  bad  old  custom,  then 
tolerated,  of  taking  or  letting  his 
underlings  take  presents  from 
suitors  for  speedier  hearings;  but 
once  faced  with  it,  he  frankly 
owned  its  viciousness  and  his 
wrong.  T  had  rather  be  a  briber 
than  a  taker  of  bribes,'  he  said; 
and  deprived  of  his  office  and 
ruinously  fined,  he  wrote:  T  was 
the  justest  judge  that  was  in 
England  these  fifty  years;  but  it 
was  the  justest  censure  that  was 
in  Parliament  these  two  hundred 
years.'  There  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  either.  The  fine  was  re- 
mitted, and  he  was  pensioned, 
and  in  1624  recalled  to  the  House 
of  Lords;  but  his  public  career 
was  ended. 

The  world  was  the  gainer 
thereby.  Bacon  was  a  devoted 
and  conscientious  public  servant, 
but  inferiors  in  plenty  could  re- 
place his  allowed  work;  while 
drudgery  for  bread  and  position 
had  left  little  time  for  work  no 
one  else  could  approach.  True, 
he  had  published  several  aug- 
mented collections  of  the  incom- 
parable Essays,  written  on  law, 
political  science,  and  other  sub- 
jects; in  1605  issued  the  Advance- 
ment of  Learning;  by  1617  wrote 
the  New  Atlantis;  and  in  1620, 
just  before  the  crash,  published 
the  immortal  Novum  Organum. 
Thenceforth,  however,  his  whole 
energies  went  to  turning  long- 
time thought  and  reading  into 
literary  form.  In  March,  1622, 
he  produced  his  still  valuable 
History  of  Henry  VII.;  in  Novem- 


Bacon 


518 


Bacon 


ber,  Historia  Ventorum;  in  Janu- 
ary, 1623,  Historia  VilcB  et  Mor- 
tis; in  October  his  magnum  opus, 
De  Augmentis  Scientiarum,  a 
Latin  version  of  the  Advance- 
ment, much  enlarged  and  recast; 
in  December,  1624,  the  Apoph- 
thegms, a  collection  of  short  sto- 
ries and  jokes,  still  capital  read- 
ing; in  1625  his  Translations  of 
Some  of  the  Psalms,  which  show 
that  so  far  from  wishing  to  con- 
ceal his  being  a  poet,  he  wished 
to  prove  himself  one,  and  only 
proved  amply  that  he  was  not 
one.  Sylva  Sylvarum  and  The 
New  Atlantis  appeared  posthu- 
mously together. 

Lord  Bacon's  mighty  fame  as 
head  of  English  science  and  phi- 
losophy seems,  at  first  sight,  un- 
intelligible. His  'inductive'  meth- 
od— as  Jevons  says,  'a  kind  of 
scientific  bookkeeping,  where 
facts  are  entered  in  a  ledger,  and 
truth  emerges  as  a  balance' — has 
been,  and  must  be,  futile  for  dis- 
covery. Yet  his  position  is  de- 
served: it  is  the  triple  one  of 
prophet,  vast  vital  influence,  and 
literary  architect.  More  than 
any  other,  he  determined  the 
channels  in  which  English  intel- 
lectual effort  and  its  outside  prog- 
eny were  to  flow;  he  pointed  out 
the  line  of  march,  though  his 
tools  were  impotent  to  level  the 
road;  and  his  best  prose,  in  rich- 
ness of  knowledge  and  thought 
and  suggestive  metaphor,  with  a 
style  now  unsurpassedly  pregnant 
and  compact,  now  splendid  and 
majestic,  is  a  leading  glory  of 
English  literature. 

The  foremost  authority  is 
James  Spedding,  who  edited  his 
Works  (7  vols.,  1857-9),  and  Let- 
ters and  Life  (7  vols.,  1862-74); 
and  whose  Evenings  with  a  Re- 
viewer (2  vols.,  new  ed.  1881),  a 
minute  refutation  of  Macaulay's 
essay  on  Bacon,  is  of  high  value 
and  charm.  The  ablest  short  life, 
though  as  harsh  in  moral  judg- 
ment as  Macaulay,  is  Dean 
Church's  in  the  'English  Men  of 
Letters'  series.  Other  lives  are 
by  Fowler,  Abbott,  and  Nichols. 

Bacon,  Henry  (1866),  Ameri- 
can architect,  was  born  in  Wat- 
seka.  111.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  IlUnois,  and  in  Europe. 
From  1888  to  1897  he  was  associ- 
ated with  the  architectural  firm 
of  McKim,  Mead  &  White,  in 
New  York  City;  and  in  1897  es- 
tablished the  firm  of  Brite  &  Ba- 
con, from  which  he  withdrew  in 
1903.  He  is  the  designer  of  the 
Lincoln  Memorial  (Washington, 
D.  C),  and  of  many  prominent 
buildings. 

Bacon,  John  (1740-99),  Eng- 
lish sculptor,  a  native  of  London. 
His  best-known  works  are  his 
monuments  to  the  elder  Pitt  in 
Westminster  and  the  Guildhall, 
Vol.  L— Mar.  '16 


London;  his  statues  of  Dr.  John- 
son and  John  Howard  in  St. 
Paul's,  and  of  Blackstone  at  All 
Souls  College,  Oxford. 

Bacon,  John  Mackenzie 
(1846-1904),  English  balloonist. 
After  taking  part  in  three  eclipse 
expeditions  on  behalf  of  the  Brit- 
ish Astronomical  Association — to 
Vadso  in  Lapland  (1896),  to  In- 
dia (1898),  and  to  Wadesboro, 
North  Carolina  (1900) — he  de- 
voted himself  to  investigations  in 
acoustics,  meteorology,  etc.,  large- 
ly in  connection  with  ballooning. 
He  published:  By  Land  and  Sky 
(1900);  The  Dominion  of  the  Air 
(1902).  Consult  Gertrude  Ba- 
con's The  Record  of  an  Aeronaut 
(1907). 

Bacon,  Josephine  Dodge 
Daskam.    See  Daskam. 

Bacon,  Leonard  (1802-81), 
American  clergyman,  was  born  in 
Detroit,  Mich.,  and  was  gradu- 
ated from  Yale  (1820)  and  Ando- 
ver  Theological  Seminary  (1824). 
From  1825  until  his  death  he  was 
pastor  and  pastor  emeritus  of  the 
Center  Congregational  Church, 
New  Haven,  Conn.  He  also 
served  as  acting  professor  of  re- 
vealed theology  (1866),  and  lec- 
turer on  American  church  history, 
at  Yale  Divinity  School  (1871). 
He  was  the  editor  of  The  Chris- 
tian Spectator  (1826-38),  and  a 
founder  and  co-editor  of  The  In- 
dependent (1847-63).  He  pub- 
lished: Thirteen  Historical  Dis- 
courses (1839) ;  Christian  Self- 
Culture  (1863) ;  The  Genesis  of  the 
New  England  Churches  (1874). 

Bacon,  Leonard  Woolsey 
(1830-1907),  American  clergy- 
man, was  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  a  son  of  Leonard  Bacon 
(q.  v.).  He  was  graduated  from 
Yale  (1850),  and  subsequently 
studied  medicine  at  Yale,  and 
theology  at  Yale  and  Andover, 
He  occupied  Congregational  pul- 
pits at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  and  Stamford,  Conn.; 
travelled  and  studied  in  Europe 
(1872-7);  and  served  Presbyte- 
rian churches  at  Philadelphia, 
Savannah,  Ga.,  and  Assonet, 
Mass.  His  works  include:  Me- 
morials of  Emily  Bliss  Gould 
(1878);  Sunday  Observance  and 
Sunday  Law  (1881);  Irenics  and 
Polemics  (1895) ;  History  of  Amer- 
ican Christianity  (1897);  Young 
People's  Societies  (with  C.  A. 
Northrop,  1900);  The  Congrega- 
tionalists  (1904). 

Bacon,  Nathaniel  (1648-76), 
American  colonist,  emigrated 
from  England  to  Virginia  in  1673, 
where  he  became  a  leader  of  the 
more  democratic  element  in  the 
colony.  In  1675-6,  in  violation 
of  the  orders  of  Governor  William 
Berkeley  (q.  v.),  he  led  a  force 
against  the  Indians;  and  his  at- 
tempted arrest  for  this  led  to  a 


revolt  of  the  entire  colony.  See 
Bacon's  Rebellion. 

Bacon,  Sir  Nicholas  (1509- 
79),  English  lawyer,  father  of 
Francis  Bacon  (q.  v.),  was  born 
at  Chislehurst,  and  was  educated 
at  Cambridge.  On  the  accession 
(1558)  of  Elizabeth  he  was  ap- 
pointed Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great 
Seal,  an  office  which  he  held  for 
more  than  twenty  years. 

Bacon,  Robert  (1860),  Ameri- 
can public  official,  was  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  and  was  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  (1880).  He 
travelled  in  Europe,  and  then  en- 
tered the  banking  house  of  Lee, 
Higginson  &  Co.,  Boston.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  firm  of 
E.  Rollins  Morse  &  Brother  in 
1883-94,  and  of  J.  P.  Morgan  & 
Co.  of  New  York  City  in  1894- 
1903,  becoming  prominent  as  a 
financier.  From  1905  to  1909  he 
served  as  assistant  Secretary  of 
State  (acting  Secretary  of  State, 
January  to  March,  1909);  and 
from  1909  to  1912  he  was  the 
American  Ambassador  to  France. 
In  1913  he  visited  South  America 
as  the  representative  of  the  Car- 
negie Endowment  for  Interna- 
tional Peace,  of  which  he  is  a 
trustee.  He  has  been  a  member 
of  the  board  of  overseers  of  Har- 
vard University(1889-1901,  1902- 
08),  and  a  Fellow  of  Harvard 
University  (since  1912). 

Bacon,  Roger  (c.  1214-94), 
English  philosopher  and  scientist, 
is  said  to  have  been  born  in  II- 
chester,  Somersetshire,  though 
neither  the  date  nor  place  of  his 
birth  is  certainly  known.  He 
studied  at  Oxford  and  at  the 
University  of  Paris;  and  early 
turned  from  the  philosophical 
disputes  and  verbal  controversies 
of  the  day  to  the  study  of  lan- 
guages, experimental  research, 
and  the  quest  for  truth  through 
the  observation  of  nature.  He 
entered  the  Franciscan  order 
about  1250,  and  shortly  after- 
ward returned  to  Oxford. 

In  exploring  the  secrets  of  na- 
ture Bacon  made  discoveries  and 
inventions  which  were  looked 
upon  by  many  as  the  work  of 
magic.  In  1257  he  was  forbidden 
to  lecture  at  Oxford,  and  was 
banished  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
imprisoned.  In  1266  Pope  Clem- 
ent IV.  desired  to  see  his  works, 
and  Bacon  accordingly  drew  up 
his  Opus  Majus,  Opus  Minor,  and 
Opus  Tertium.  These  reached 
Clement  at  Rome  shortly  before 
his  death,  but  of  their  reception 
nothing  is  known.  Bacon  re- 
gained his  liberty,  and  about  1271 
issued  his  Compendium  Studii 
Philosophice,  vigorously  attacking 
both  church  and  clergy.  In  1278 
the  general  of  the  Franciscan  or- 
der, Jerome  of  Ascoli,  forbade  the 
reading  of  Bacon's  books,  and 


Bacon  Beetle 


519 


Bacon's  Befoeilioii 


issued  an  order  for  his  imprison- 
ment, which  lasted  until  about 
1292.  He  then  returned  to  Ox- 
ford, and  prepared  his  last  work. 
Compendium  Studii  Theologian. 

Although  a  believer  in  astrol- 
ogy and  the  philosopher's  stone. 
Bacon  was  far  in  advance  of  his 
time  as  a  scientist  and  philoso- 
pher. He  is  credited  with  the  in- 
vention of  the  magnifying  glass; 
with  the  discovery  of  important 
chemical  facts,  as  that  explosions 
may  be  produced  with  sulphur, 
saltpetre,  and  charcoal;  with  the 
preparation  of  a  corrected  calen- 
dar; and  with  a  number  of  new 
and  ingenious  theories  in  optics. 

Ck)nsult  Bacon's  Opera  Inedita 
(edited  by  Brewer) ;  Lives  by  E. 
Charles,  in  French,  and  by 
Schneider  and  Held,  in  German; 
J.  H.  Bridges'  The  Life  and  Work 
of  Roger  Bacon  (1914). 

Bacon  Beetle  (Dermestes  lar- 
darius) ,  a  hairy  bettle  that  some- 
times causes  much  damage  in 
storehouses  and  libraries.  See 
Dermestes. 

Bacon- Sbakespeare  Contro- 
versy, the  generic  popular  term — • 
not  always  accurate,  for  Bacon  is 
absent  in  some,  and  partial  in 
others — for  the  many  theories  of 
non-Shakespearean  authorship  of 
Shakespeare's  works:  i.e.,  that 
those  works  were  written  either 
singly  by  Francis  Bacon  (q.  v.), 
or  by  a  person  unknown,  or  by 
a  group;  Shakespeare,  in  any 
case,  being  a  mere  ignorant  actor 
who  fathered  them.  The  last 
idea,  first  broached  by  Joseph 
C.  Hart,  U.  S.  consul  at  Santa 
Cruz,  in  his  Romance  of  Yacht- 
ing (1848),  was  elaborated  by 
Delia  Bacon  (q.  v.)  on  the  group 
theory  in  1857.  Scouted  gen- 
erally as  a  crazy  conceit,  its 
amazing  growth  and  tenacity  had 
two  deep  roots:  (1)  a  feeling  that 
the  known  Shakespeare  did  not 
explain  the  works;  and  (2)  as  fur- 
nishing an  easy  and  exhaustless 
field  of  scholarship  in  item-wise 
mystery  and  conjecture.  In  1884 
H.  H.  Wyman's  Shakespeare- 
Bacon  Bibliography  showed  255 
entries;  in  1911  Jaggard's  Shake- 
speare Bibliography  gave  over  500 
volumes,  mostly  negative,  with 
countless  pamphlets  and  maga- 
zine articles. 

Of  the  writers  supporting  the 
theories,  most  of  those  worth  con- 
sidering are  lawyers.  James 
Greenwood  (Shakespeare  Problem 
Restated,  1908,  and  three  volumes 
since)  upholds  not  Bacon,  but  an 
unknown;  E.  J.  Castle  (Shake- 
speare, Bacon,  Jonson,  and  Greene, 
1897)  thinks  Shakespeare  was 
coached,  not  by  Bacon,  but  by 
Coke;  Edwin  Reed  (Bacon  and 
Shakespeare,  2  vols.,  1902)  is  mod- 
erate and  dubious.  Bormann 
(Das  Shakespeare-Geheimniss, 
1894)  tries  to  prove  that  Bacon 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


was  idle  just  when  the  plays  were 
coming  out.  A  number  of  per- 
sons have  worked  out  cipher 
schemes  by  which  the  author  re- 
veals himself.  The  most  ambi- 
tious of  these  is  the  Great  Crypt- 
ogram of  Ignatius  Donnelly  (q. 
v.),  making  the  entire  set  of 
printed  works  one  vast  cipher  in- 
terlaced from  title  page  to  colo- 
phon. 

For  obvious  reasons,  the  replies 
are  far  fewer,  and  none  of  them 
more  than  touch  the  real  answer. 
Andrew  Lang's  Shakespeare,  Ba- 
con, and  the  Great  Unknown 
(1912)  is  excellent,  as  far  as  it 
goes.  Mrs.  C.  C.  Stopes  wrote  a 
small  good  book.  The  Shake- 
speare-Bacon Question  (1888;  rev. 
ed.  1889).  Canon  H.  C.  Beech- 
ing's  Reply  to  Greenwood  (1908) 
is  commendable. 

The  sceptical  contentions,  with 
endless  details,  reduce  in  the 
main  to  four,  at  bottom  only  one: 
that  the  works  evidence  vast 
scholarship,  and  Shakespeare  was 
illiterate;  display  profound  law, 
and  Shakespeare  could  know  lit- 
tle. Bacon  being  a  master  in  both; 
show  fine  feeling  and  taste,  and 
Shakespeare  was  a  vulgar  boor; 
exhibit  deep  human  sympathies, 
and  Shakespeare  was  a  greedy 
man  and  a  bad  husband.  To 
sum  up,  they  were  written  by  a 
very  great  man,  and  their  reputed 
author  was  a  very  small  one. 

The  answer  by  points  is  partly 
a  traverse  of  the  facts,  partly  a 
'general  demurrer'  that  they  are 
irrelevant:  that  no  scholarship  is 
evinced  beyond  what  a  clever 
man  could  easily  gain  from  acces- 
sible books,  talk,  and  travellers; 
that  competent  lawyers  declare 
the  law  unequal  and  second  hand ; 
that  our  only  evidence  of  his 
quality  is  the  works  themselves; 
that  there  is  no  proof  of  his  being 
a  bad  man,  and,  considering  his- 
tory, it  would  have  no  bearing  on 
the  authorship  if  he  were;  and 
that,  as  Reed  frankly  admits,  it 
is  absurd  to  'take  Shakespeare 
away  from  Shakespeare,  and  then 
say  that  the  rest  of  him  could  not 
have  written  Shakespeare.'  As 
to  Bacon,  he  and  Shakespeare 
each  did  a  man's  great  lifework 
in  unrelated  lines;  and  to  find 
time,  strength,  and  genius  for 
both  in  one  would  transcend  hu- 
manity. But  the  broad  reply  is 
that  the  imposture  is  a  chimera: 
that  only  a  great  writer  and  re- 
puted man  would  be  plausible  as 
a  mask,  and  he  could  not  be 
hired;  that  an  ignorant  actor 
would  render  it  a  farce,  breaking 
down  at  once  in  a  storm  of  ridi- 
cule; and  that  a  group  could  not 
be  got  together,  nor  kept  at  work 
in  common,  nor  the  pieces  fit.  nor 
the  secret  be  kept.  No  one  has 
ever  suggested  any  workable  plan 
of  effecting  the  imposition. 


Bacon*s  Rebellion,  in  Ameri- 
can colonial  history,  an  uprising 
in  Virginia  in  1675-6,  under  the 
leadership  of  Nathaniel  Bacon 
(q.  v.).  The  navigation  laws  of 
1651,  1660,  giving  English  trad- 
ers a  colonial  monopoly  to  sell 
high  and  buy  low,  at  once  bled 
the  colonists  and  destroyed  the 
value  of  their  chief  purchasing 
medium,  tobacco.  This  being 
also  currency  for  taxes,  the  poorer 
planters  for  years  leagued  to  re- 
fuse payment.  In  addition,  the 
Restoration  governor.  Sir  Wil- 
liam Berkeley  (q.  v.),  headed  an 
oligarchy  of  the  richer  planters 
and  Charles  ii.'s  placemen  quar- 
tered on  the  Virginia  civil  service; 
kept  the  Assembly  of  1662  in 
office  for  fourteen  years  to  sup- 
port all  he  did;  and  substituted 
property  suffrage  for  universal, 
thereby  driving  some  weighty 
men  into  opposition. 

Berkeley  was  also  growing  rich 
on  the  Indian  fur  trade;  and 
when,  in  1675,  the  savages  began 
a  fiendish  war,  massacred  hun- 
dreds, and  reduced  a  large  dis- 
trict to  wilderness,  he  dissolved 
the  colony's  one  force;  and  again 
and  again,  backed  by  his  legisla- 
tive tools,  refused  to  form  another 
for  defence,  or  let  the  citizens  do 
so.  At  last  a  border  county  de- 
fied him,  raised  300  men,  and  for 
leader  chose  Nathaniel  Bacon, 
a  young  English  planter  of  Berk- 
eley's own  council.  He  vainly 
ordered  dispersal,  and  attempted 
Bacon's  arrest;  but  the  entire 
colony  revolted  and  occupied 
Jamestown;  and  he  had  to  replace 
his  Assembly  with  one  heavily 
against  him,  including  Bacon, 
whom,  when  arrested,  he  dared 
not  hold.  The  new  Assembly  re- 
stored universal  suffrage,  and 
voted  a  regiment  for  Indian  ser- 
vice. 

Bacon,  warned  of  treachery, 
fled,  and  gathered  600  men; 
forced  Berkeley  to  commission 
him  major-general,  and  memori- 
alize the  king;  and  crushed  the 
Indians  at  Bloody  Run.  Mean- 
time, Berkeley  proclaimed  the 
party  rebels,  and  Bacon,  return- 
ing, organized  a  rising  which  vir- 
tually deposed  him  till  the  king's 
reply.  The  aristocracy,  which 
was  really  aimed  at,  clove  to 
Berkeley;  was  promised  the  reb- 
els' confiscated  estates;  and  was 
winning  when  Bacon,  the  Indians 
bridled,  came  back,  drove  out 
Berkeley,  and  burned  James- 
town. Bacon  shortly  died  of 
malaria,  however;  the  rebellion 
collapsed;  and  Berkeley  hanged 
the  leaders  wholesale  with  ghoul- 
ish insult.  The  good-natured 
Charles  ii.  exclaimed:  'The  old 
fool  has  put  to  death  more  people 
in  that  naked  country  than  I  did 
here  for  the  murder  of  mv  father.' 
Consult  John  Fiske's  Old  Vir- 


Baconthorpe 


Sl9A 


Bacteria 


ginia;  Edward  Eggleston's  'Na- 
thaniel Bacon'  (Century  Maga- 
zin,e,  vol.  xl.,  1890). 

Ba'conthorpe,  Ba'con,  or  Ba- 
CHO,  ba'k5,  John  (d.  1346),  Eng- 
lish philosopher,  'the  Resolute 
Doctor,'  was  educated  at  Oxford 
and  Paris,  and  in  1329  was 
elected  head  of  the  Carmelite 
order  in  England.  He  advocated 
the  soundness  of  the  doctrines  of 
Averrhoes  (q.  v.),  and  anticipat- 
ing Wycliffe,  held  that  the  priest- 
ly power  should  be  subordinate 
to  the  kingly.  He  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  the  Scriptures  and 
on  Aristotle,  treatises  on  Anselm 
and  Augustine,  and  many  other 
works. 

Bacoor,  ba'ko-6r,  town,  Cavite 
province,  Luzon,  Philippines,  on 
Cavite  Bay;  9  miles  south  of 
Manila.  Industries  are  weaving 
and  fishing.   Pop.  12,000. 

Bacsanyi,  bo'chan-ye,  Janos 
(1763-1845),  Hungarian  poet, 
was  born  in  Tapolcza.  In  1796 
he  came  to  Vienna,  where  he  later 
married  the  German  poetess,  Ga- 
brielle  Baumgarten — an  unhap- 
py match.  In  1809  he  translat- 
ed Napoleon's  proclamation  to 
the  Hungarians,  and  was  after- 
ward obliged  to  take  refuge  in 
Paris.  After  the  Peace  of  Paris 
he  lived  till  his  death  at  Linz. 
Bacsanyi  has  exerted  a  strong  in- 
fluence on  Hungarian  literature 
through  his  writings.  His  Com- 
plete Works  were  published  at 
Budapest  in  1865. 

Bacs-Bodrog,  bach-bo'drog, 
county,  Hungary,  lying  between 
the  Theiss  and  Danube  Rivers, 
and  forming  part  of  the  great 
Hungarian  plains.  Capital,  Zom- 
bor.  Area,  4,300  square  miles. 
Pop.  800,000. 

Bacteria  and  Bacteriology.  The 
Bacteria  are  microscopic  plants, 
of  minute  size  and  simple  struc- 
ture. Among  the  smallest  of  living 
things,  they  are  also  among  the 
most  abundant,  swarming  in  soil 
and  dirty  water,  and  in  all  sub- 
stances in  which  organic  decom- 
position is  going  on.  Their  mul- 
tiplication is  so  rapid  and  their 
physiological  activity  so  great 
that  they  set  up  far-reaching 
chemical  changes  in  the  surround- 
ing media.  The  results  of  their 
activity  are  often  of  much  prac- 
tical importance  to  man,  the  chem- 
ical changes  which  they  produce 
being  sometimes  useful  and  some- 
times prejudicial;  and  many  mem- 
bers of  the  group  which  live  as 
parasites  in  the  human  body  are 
the  inciting  causes  of  some  of  the 
most  serious  diseases  to  which 
mankind  is  subject. 

The  bacteria  were  first  clearly 
described  and  figured  by  a  Dutch 
microscopist,  Anton  von  Leeu- 
wenhoek  (q.  v.),  in  1683.  During 
the  next  century  and  a  half  these 
minute  objects,  looking  like  dots, 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


dashes,  and  spirals,  which  could 
be  seen  moving  about  in  decom- 
posing fluids,  remained  only  curi- 
osities for  the  naturalist.  They 
were  studied  by  O.  F.  Miiller  in 
1786,  and  by  C.  G.  E.hrenberg 
(q.  V.)  in  1838;  but  the  recogni- 
tion of  their  practical  importance 
dates  from  the  investigations  of 
the  great  French  chemist  and 
founder  of  bacteriology,  Louis 
Pasteur  (q.  v.).  Pasteur  showed 
that  fermentations  of  all  sorts 
were  not  due,  as  had  been  sup- 
posed, to  the  action  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  air,  but  were  caused  by 
the  activity  of  living  microbes. 
Further,  he  proved  that  each  par- 
ticular decomposition  was  the 
work  of  a  particular  microbe ;  and, 
finally,  he  correlated  the  phenom- 
ena of  fermentation  and  commu- 
nicable disease  by  demonstrating 
that  these  diseases,  too,  are  the 
result  of  the  action  of  microbes. 
On  the  basis  of  Pasteur's  early 
work  Joseph  Lister  (q.  v.),  the  Eng- 
lish surgeon,  founded  our  modern 
practice  of  antiseptic  and  aseptic 
surgery;  while  the  German  phy- 
sician, Robert  Koch  (q.  v.),  in  1882 
devised  the  method  of  cultivating 
bacteria  on  solid  culture  media, 
and  in  1884  discovered  the  bacillus 
of  tuberculosis,  probably  the  most 
important  of  all  our  microbic  ene- 
mies. 

Place  of  the  Bacteria  in  Nature. 

— The  Bacteria  constitute  the 
simplest  groupof  the  Fungi  (q.  v.), 
or  plants  that  lack  chlorophyll, 
and  must  therefore  get  their  food 
ready  made,  instead  of  building 
it  up  under  the  action  of  the  sun- 
light. The  technical  name  of  the 
group  is  Schizomycetes  (Fission 
Fungi) ;  and  its  members  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  higher  fungi 
(moulds,  rusts,  smuts,  toadstools, 
etc.)  by  the  fact  that  the  bacteria 
reproduce  by  the  direct  splitting 
of  one  cell  into  two  (fission  fungi), 
and  not  by  the  formation  of  spe- 
cial reproductive  spores.  The 
bacteria  are  also  simpler  in  struc- 
ture than  the  higher  fungi,  most 
of  them  showing  no  differentiated 
nucleus.  The  bacteria  are  uni- 
cellular organisms,  the  individual 
cells  living  an  independent  exist- 
ence, either  freely  separated  from 
each  other  or  in  chance  growth 
aggregates. 

The  term  microbe  (little  living 
thing)  includes  not  only  the  bac- 
teria, but  certain  of  the  higher 
fungi  (yeasts  and  moulds),  uni- 
cellular animal  forms  (the  Pro- 
tozoa), and  a  group  of  sub-micro- 
scopic disease-producing  organ- 
isms of  unknown  nature  which 
will  pass  through  the  pores  of  a 
Pasteur  filter,  and  are  therefore 
designated  as  filterable  viruses. 

The  yeast  microbes  (Blastomy- 
cetes  or  Budding  Fungi)  are  of 
great  importance  in  connection 
with  brewing,  bread  making,  and 


other  fermentation  industries,  be- 
cause they  have  the  power  of  pro- 
ducing the  alcoholic  fermentation 
in  which  sugars  are  changed  to 
alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  The 
moulds  (Hyphomycetes  or  Thread 
Fungi)  play  a  part  in  the  spoiling 
of  foods,  and  are  of  use  in  the 
flavoring  of  certain  cheeses  and  in 
other  industrial  processes.  A  few 
human  and  animal  diseases  are 
due  to  yeast  and  mould  microbes. 
(See  Moulds;  Yeasts.) 

The  Protozoa,  or  unicellular  ani- 
mal microbes,  include  many  im- 
portant disease-producing  organ- 
isms, such  as  those  which  cause 
malaria,  amoebic  dysentery, 
sleeping  sickness  and  other  Try- 
panosome  diseases,  and  Texas  fe- 
ver of  cattle.    (See  Protozoa.) 

Form  and  Structure  of  the  Bac- 
teria.— The  bacteria  range  in  size 
from  a  sphere  less  than  one  mi- 
cron (I'l.ooo  mm.,  or  about  1/25,000 
inch)  in  diameter  to  a  large  spiral 
form  about  40  microns  in  length. 
Some  400,000,000  bacteria  of  av- 
erage size  could  be  packed  into 
a  grain  of  granulated  sugar  like 
logs  of  wood  in  a  woodpile.  The 
shape  of  the  bacterial  cell,  as  a  rule, 
is  either  spherical  (coccm^)  ,  rod-like 
{bacillus),  or  ranges  from  slightly 
curved  to  spiral  {spirillum) ;  so 
that  bacteria  look  very  much  like 
tiny  balls,  sticks,  or  corkscrews. 
The  bacteria  reproduce  by  simply 
splitting  in  half,  and  sometimes, 
instead  of  separating,  the  new 
cells  thus  formed  may  remain  at- 
tached to  each  other.  Thus  we 
get  pairs  of  spherical  cells  (diplo- 
cocci),  chains  of  spherical  cells 
{streptococci),  masses  of  spherical 
cells  {staphylococci),  regular  pack- 
ets of  spherical  cells  {sarcince), 
chains  of  bacilli,  or  long  convo- 
luted spirals. 

The  bacterial  cell,  as  a  rule, 
shows  no  internal  structure  except 
the  ordinary  granular  network 
characteristic  of  protoplasm.  In 
certain  forms,  however,  special 
areas  give  a  differential  stain  with 
aniline  dyes  {metachromatic  gran- 
ules). The  chromatin  or  nuclear 
material  is  usually  distributed  in 
a  finely  divided  condition  through- 
out the  bacterial  cell,  but  in  a 
few  cases  it  apparently  becomes 
localized  in  a  more  or  less  definite 
nucleus  at  the  time  of  cell  division 
or  spore  formation. 

The  cell  wall  of  many  bacteria 
may  swell  up  to  form  a  capsule 
surrounding  the  organism;  and  in 
some  species  a  jelly-like  mass,  or 
zoogloea,  is  formed,  in  which  the 
individual  cells  are  embedded. 
Mother  of  vinegar  and  the  jelly- 
like growth  that  sometimes  devel- 
ops in  drip  pipes  and  pans  under 
refrigerators  are  examples  of  this 
phenomenon. 

Many  bacteria  go  through  an 
actively  motile  stage,  in  which 
they  may  be  seen  to  swim  about 


Bacteria 


519  B 


Bacteria 


more  or  less  vigorously  in  an  ap- 
propriate liquid  medium.  This 
locomotion  is  effected  by  means 
of  long  lashes  or  Jlagella,  which 
may  grow  out  singly  or  in  groups 
from  one  or  both  poles  of  the  cell, 
or  may  extend  in  various  direc- 
tions from  its  surface.   (See  Fla- 

GELLUM.) 

Bacteria  do  not  form  true  re- 
productive spores,  but  certain 
forms  have  the  power  of  going 
into  a  resting-spore  stage,  in  which 
they  can  tide  over  unfavorable 
conditions.  At  the  time  of  spore 
formation  the  protoplasm  gathers 
at  one  part  of  the  cell,  and  a  thick, 
highly  refractive  wall  forms  about 
it.  The  spores  of  bacteria  are 
highly  resistant  to  heat  and  poi- 
sons and  other  harmful  physical 
and  chemical  conditions.  The 
spores  of  certain  species,  for  ex- 
ample, may  survive  boiling  for 
many  hours.  Fortunately,  only 
a  very  few  of  the  disease-produc- 
ing bacteria  possess  this  power  of 
spore  formation. 

Physiological  Activities  of  Bac- 
teria.— While  the  bacteria  .  are 
comparatively  simple  in  physical 
structure,  their  physiological  ac- 
tivity is  complex  and  diversified. 
At  one  extreme  are  prototrophic 
organisms,  capable  ot  securing 
their  life  energy  by  the  oxidation 
of  such  simple  substances  as  me- 
thane, carbon  monoxide,  nitrites, 
and  ammonia.  Many  of  these 
forms  are  hampered  in  their  devel- 
opment by  small  amounts  of  the 
organic  matter  which  is  so  essen- 
tial to  the  life  of  other  types.  At 
the  other  end  of  the  scale  are 
paratrophic  bacteria,  which  have 
become  so  closely  adapted  to  life 
in  the  fluids  of  the  animal  body 
that  they  cannot  grow  under  nat- 
ural conditions  anywhere  outside 
of  it.  Between  these  two  ex- 
tremes are  the  great  mass  of 
metatrophic  forms,  which  thrive 
upon  non-living  organic  matter 
of  various  sorts.  Even  among  the 
metatrophic  species  there  is  a 
wide  range  in  metabolic  power. 
Some  organisms  are  able  to  get 
their  nitrogen  from  ammonia, 
others  require  amino  acids,  others 
asparagin,  others  peptones,  while 
some  break  up  native  protein. 
The  carbon  requirement  may  be 
met  by  a  wide  variety  of  sugars, 
organic  acids,  and  alcohols,  the 
power  to  utilize  a  particular  car- 
bohydrate frequently  constitut- 
ing a  definite  specific  character. 
Among  the  larger  bacteria  whose 
cells  commonly  occur  in  threads 
or  chains  are  peculiar  forms  which 
oxidize  sulphur  and  iron  com- 
pounds. 

Many  of  the  activities  of  the 
bacterial  cell  are  effected  by 
means  of  soluble  ferments  or  en- 
zymes, substances  which  stimu- 
late definite  chemical  changes 
without  being  themselves  used  up 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16 


in  the  process.  The  action  of  the 
bacterial  enzymes  is  in  most  cases 
a  hydrolytic  one,  as  in  the  inver- 
sion of  sugars  and  the  change  of 
gelatin  to  peptone,  although  other 
types  of  enzymes  are  known  to 
occur.    (See  Enzyme.) 

As  a  result  of  rapid  multiplica- 
tion (under  favorable  conditions 
bacteria  may  reproduce  by  fission 
every  twenty  minutes),  and  as  a 
result  of  the  production  of  soluble 
enzymes,  the  bacteria  produce 
rapid  and  profound  changes  in 
the  media  in  which  they  grow. 
The  decay  of  meat  and  other 
nitrogenous  substances,  or  putre- 
faction, is  due  to  the  bacterial  de- 
composition of  protein  and  pro- 
tein derivatives  with  the  forma- 
tion of  indol,  mercaptans  (qq.  v.), 
and  other  ill-smelling  compounds. 
The  souring  of  milk  and  other 
carbohydrate  -  containing  media 
is  the  result  of  fermentation,  or 
the  decomposition  of  sugars  with 
the  formation  of  acids  (see  Fer- 
mentation). The  energy  liber- 
ated by  vigorous  bacterial  growth 
may  produce  an  appreciable  rise 
of  temperature,  as  in  the  'heating' 
of  manure  piles  or  damp  hay. 
Some  forms  produce  phosphores- 
cence, as  seen  on  decaying  fish  or 
meat.  In  the  life  of  certain  bac- 
teria, particularly  those  which  are 
parasitic  on  man  and  the  higher 
animals,  specific  complex  sub- 
stances are  formed  which  are 
highly  poisonous,  and  are  known 
as  toxins  (q.  v.). 

Effect  of  Physical  and  Chemical 
Conditions  upon  Bacterial  Life. — 
As  in  the  case  of  all  other  living 
things,  the  life  of  the  bacteria  is 
conditioned  upon  the  mainte- 
nance of  a  narrowly  limited  range 
of  environmental  conditions,  and 
their  existence  is  strikingly  influ- 
enced by  light,  moisture,  oxygen, 
temperature,  and  the  presence  of 
chemical  poisons. 

Light  is  inimical  to  bacterial 
development,  even  diffuse  day- 
light hindering  growth,  while  di- 
rect sunlight  is  quickly  fatal,  the 
blue  and  violet  rays  being  the 
most  deadly  ones. 

Moisture  is  essential  to  the 
growth  and  multiplication  of  bac- 
teria. When  dried  they  gradu- 
ally perish:  although  it  is  prob- 
able that  their  destruction  is  due 
to  internal  katabolic  changes 
which  prove  fatal  in  the  absence 
of  a  compensating  anabolism, 
rather  than  to  any  directly  harm- 
ful effect  of  dryness  se.  In  fact, 
bacteria  are  more  resistant  to  heat 
and  to  chemical  poisons  in  the 
dry  than  in  the  moist  condition. 

The  reaction  of  bacteria  to 
oxygen  varies  widely  in  different 
groups;  for  while  most  bacteria 
thrive  best  in  the  presence  of  free 
oxygen,  many  of  them  (facultative 
anaerobes)  can  get  their  oxygen, 
if  necessary,  by  the  preliminary 


reduction  of  organic  compounds, 
while  others  (obligate  anaerobes) 
get  their  oxygen  only  in  this  way, 
and  cannot  develop  at  all  in  the 
presence  of  atmospheric  oxygen. 

Temperature  is  one  of  the  most 
important  of  all  factors  in  con- 
trolling bacterial  growth  and  de- 
velopment. There  is  a  minimmn 
temperature,  below  which  growth 
will  not  occur,  which  varies  from 
0°  c.  for  some  of  the  phosphores- 
cent bacteria  to  42°  c.  for  forms 
that  develop  in  fermenting  ma- 
nure heaps.  Below  this  minimum 
(even  down  to  the  temperature 
of  liquid  hydrogen,  about  -250° 
c.)  the  bacteria  are  not  killed  off 
promptly,  but  gradually  die  off 
as  a  result  of  internal  chemical 
changes,  just  as  they  do  when 
dried.  Above  the  minimum,  an 
increase  of  temperature  causes  a 
regular  and  progressive  increase 
in  bacterial  growth  and  activity 
until  an  optimum  temperature  is 
reached,  which  varies  for  differ- 
ent species  from  20°  c.  to  70°  c. 
Shortly  above  the  optimum  is  a 
maximum  temperature,  above 
which  growth  ceases,  and  a  still 
higher  temperature  destroys  bac- 
terial life  entirely.  The  thermal 
death  point  for  the  ordinary  veg- 
etative cells  of  most  bacteria  in 
the  presence  of  moisture  lies  at 
about  55°-60°  c.  for  ten  minutes, 
while  certain  spores  are  killed  in 
the  same  time  only  by  exposure 
to  a  temperature  of  125°  c. 

Many  chemichl  substances  exert 
a  powerfully  poisonous  action  up- 
on bacteria.  In  dilute  solution 
such  substances  merely  check 
growth  (antisepsis).  In  stronger 
concentration  they  destroy  bac- 
terial life  (disinfection  or  steriliza- 
tion) .  Among  the  more  common- 
ly used  disinfectants  are  the  salts 
of  the  heavy  metals  (corrosive 
sublimate),  lime  salts,  the  halo- 
gens (particularly  chlorine  com- 
pounds) ,  ozone  and  peroxides,  al- 
cohol, iodine,  formaldehyde,  car- 
bolic acid,  and  various  coal  tar 
derivatives. 

Methods  of  Studying  Bacteria. 
— The  study  of  the  morphology 
of  the  bacteria  is  greatly  facili- 
tated by  the  use  of  various  coal 
tar  dyes  (q.  v.),  which  react  with 
various  elements  in  the  bacterial 
cell,  and  bring  out  a  differentia- 
tion between  them  when  seen  un- 
der the  microscope.  Thus,  spores, 
capsules,  flagella,  metachromatic 
granules,  etc.,  may  all  be  differ- 
entially stained  by  the  use  of  ap- 
propriate dyes. 

The  more  important  character- 
istics of  the  bacteria,  however, 
are  physiological,  and  can  be 
studied  only  by  cultivating  the 
bacteria  in  various  media,  and 
observing  the  physical  and  chem- 
ical effects  that  they  produce.  On 
solid  culture  media  like  gelatin  or 
sliced  potato  the  bacteria  form 


Bacteria 


6i9C 


fiacteria 


visible  colonies,  masses  of  millions 
of  microbes,  having  a  more  or 
less  characteristic  size  and  struc- 
ture, and  sometimes  colored  red 
or  yellow  or  blue  by  characteristic 
pigments.  The  ability  of  a  giv^en 
type  to  utilize  the  food  sub- 
stances present  in  a  particular 
medium,  its  relation  to  tempera- 
ture and  oxygen  and  to  the  reac- 
tion of  the  medium.,  are  of  funda- 
mental importance;  and  the  kind 
and  amount  of  the  acids  or  other 
end  products  formed  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  bacteria  upon  a  par- 
ticular food  substance  must  be 
more  or  less  accurately  deter- 
mined in  order  to  place  an  un- 
known type.  In  the  case  of 
pathogenic  forms,  the  reaction  of 
an  animal  to  the  injection  of  the 
living  bacteria  is  often  highly 
characteristic. 

The  number  of  bacteria  present 
in  water  or  milk  or  any  other 
medium  may  be  determined  ac- 
cording to  the  method  devised  by 
Koch,  by  mixing  a  portion  of  the 
substance  with  a  liquefied  nutri- 
ent jelly  and  allowing  the  jelly  to 
harden.  Each  bacterium  will  be 
imprisoned  at  a  definite  point  in 
the  jelly,  and  if  conditions  are 
favorable  will  divide  and  multi- 
ply until  it  produces  a  visible 
colony,  when,  by  counting  the  col- 
onies, one  may  determine  the 
number  of  individual  germs  orig- 
inally present. 

Classification  of  Bacteria. — The 
older  classifications  of  bacteria, 
according  to  their  form,  are  ex- 
ceedingly unsatisfactory,  and  the 
more  recent  physiological  studies 
have  not  yet  been  systematized 
into  a  thoroughly  satisfactory 
basis  of  classification.  The  most 
promising  attempt  along  this 
line  is  the  classification  suggested 
by  Jensen  of  Copenhagen.  He 
recognizes  two  orders  of  bacteria, 
the  Cephalotrichinae  and  the  Peri- 
trichinae.  The  Cephalotrichinae 
(flagella,  when  present,  polar), 
with  a  few  exceptions,  are  water  or 
earth  forms  that  derive  their  life 
energy  mainly  from  oxidative 
processes,  grow  badly  or  not  at 
all  on  organic  media,  and  never 
form  spores.  This  order  includes 
seven  families,  extending  from 
extreme  paratrophic  forms  up 
through  the  Actinomyces  and 
tuberculosis  group,  the  sulphur 
bacteria,  the  iron  bacteria,  the 
thread-forming  bacteria,  and  the 
phosphorescent  bacteria,  to  de- 
nitrifying organisms  which  in- 
clude the  cholera  vibrio  and  form 
a  connecting  link  with  the  higher 
order. 

The  PeritrichincB  (flagella,  when 
present,  grouped  all  around  the 
cell)  include  the  more  specialized 
bacteria,  in  whose  metabolism 
the  splitting  of  carbohydrates  or 
amino-acids  plays  a  primary  role, 
rather  than  oxidation  or  denitri- 
VOL.  I.— Mar.  '16 


fication.  Here  are  found  airthe 
commoner  putrefactive  and  para- 
sitic types,  except  the  germs  of 
tuberculosis  and  cholera.  This 
Order,  according  to  Jensen,  is 
made  up  of  four  families,  one  of 
which  includes  the  non-spore- 
forming  carbohydrate-fermenting 
types  (cocci  and  colon-typhoid 
group),  a  second  the  non-spore- 
forming  types  that  actively  de- 
compose protein,  and  the  third 
and  fourth  the  strict  anaerobes. 

Distribution  of  Bacteria. — Food 
supply,  moisture,  and  a  favorable 
temperature  are  the  three  condi- 
tions which  chiefly  govern  bac- 
terial life,  and  wherever  these  are 
present  bacteria  will  be  abundant. 
In  the  surface  layers  of  the  soil 
and  in  the  intestines  of  man  and 
the  higher  animals  these  condi- 
tions are  found  in  the  highest  de- 
gree, and  the  soil  and  the  ali- 
mentary tract  are  therefore  the 
home  of  the  bacteria  par  excel- 
lence. 

In  the  soil  itself  the  amount  of 
bacterial  life  naturally  varies 
with  the  amount  of  organic  food 
and  moisture.  In  uncultivated 
sandy  soils  there  may  be  only 
100,000  bacteria  per  gram,  while 
garden  soils  may  contain  several 
millions  per  gram,  and  sewage- 
contaminated  or  heavily  ma- 
nured soils  several  hundred  mil- 
lions. The  upper  six  inches  of 
the  soil  are  generally  richest  in 
bacteria,  and  the  numbers  fall  off 
as  one  passes  downward,  organ- 
isms being  rather  rare  below  four 
or  five  feet. 

In  water  the  number  of  bacteria 
varies  with  the  extent  of  recent 
soil  washings  and  of  sewage  pol- 
lution. Sewage  itself  contains 
millions  of  bacteria  per  cubic  cen- 
timetre, and  small  streams  after 
a  rain,  hundreds  of  thousands. 
In  larger  streams  the  bacteria 
settle  to  the  bottom  and  die  out, 
so  that  we  may  find  only  a  few 
thousands  per  cubic  centimetre, 
while  in  lakes  and  reservoirs  the 
numbers  fall  to  hundreds.  Well 
and  spring  waters  usually  show  a 
bacterial  flora  of  less  than  a  hun- 
dred, and  sometimes  less  than  ten 
per  cubic  centimetre. 

Bacteria  are  present  in  the  air 
only  as  they  have  been  dried  and 
carried  away  by  wind  currents 
and  the  like.  As  a  rule,  even  in 
inhabited  places  we  find  only  one 
to  four  bacteria  per  litre,  while  in 
remote  mountain  regions,  and 
over  the  ocean,  germs  can  be 
found  only  by  the  examination  of 
many  litres  of  air.  When  a  strong 
wind  or  other  agitation  stirs  up 
a  considerable  quantity  of  dust, 
bacteria  may  be  locally  present 
for  a  time  in  large  numbers. 

On  the  surfaces  of  the  hu- 
man body  bacteria  are  present  in 
abundance,  even  on  the  outer 
skin.    On  the  warm,  moist  mu- 


cous membranes  of  the  mouth 
they  are  still  more  numerous  and 
in  the  food  debris  between  un- 
cared-for teeth  they  rise  to  enor- 
mous numbers.  In" the  intesti- 
nal contents  conditions  are  ideal 
for  bacterial  multiplication.  Hu- 
man fa?ces  may  contain  33  millions 
of  millions  of  bacteria,  per  gram. 

Bacteria  and  Agriculture. — 
Among  the  most  important  prac- 
tical applications  of  bacteriology 
are  those  which  concern  the  ni- 
trogen cycle  and  the  fertility  of 
the  soil. 

Animals  build  up  the  protein 
matter  of  their  bodies  out  of  or- 
ganic food  derived  from  the  bod- 
ies of  other  animals  or  plants. 
The  green  plants,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  the  power  of  synthe- 
sizing protein  from  nitrates  and 
other  simple  nitrogenous  bodies; 
and  it  is  by  the  absorption  of 
such  substances  by  plants  that 
nitrogen  usually  passes  from  the 
inorganic  to  the  organic  world. 
Nitrogenous  matter  is  given  off 
by  plants  and  animals,  in  their 
excretions  and  in  their  dead  bod- 
ies, in  complex  forms  not  readily 
suitable  for  assimilation  by  the 
green  plants.  It  is  bacteria  which 
first  of  all  break  up  the  more  com- 
plex organic  waste  products  of  the 
higher  forms  of  life  into  ammonia- 
cal  compounds;  and  it  is  another 
group  of  bacteria  (the  nitrifiers) 
which  change  these  ammonia 
compounds,  first  to  nitrites  and 
then  to  nitrates,  in  which  form 
they  may  readily  be  utilized  as 
food  by  the  green  plants. 

Most  modern  processes  of  sew- 
age disposal  depend  on  the  ac- 
tivity of  one  or  both  of  these 
groups  of  bacteria  to  change  the 
decomposable  organic  matter, 
which  would  otherwise  putrefy 
and  create  a  nuisance,  into  a  harm- 
less mineral  form;  while  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  is  constantly  be- 
ing enriched  by  the  action  of  the 
nitrifying  bacteria  upon  the  prod- 
ucts of  organic  decomposition. 
(See  Sewage.) 

There  is  an  even  more  important 
service  rendered  to  the  agricultur- 
ist by  still  other  groups  of  bac- 
teria which  possess  the  remark- 
able power  of  absorbing  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  and 
storing  it  in  organic  form.  Green 
plants,  for  the  most  part,  would 
quickly  die  of  nitrogen  starvation 
in  a  poor  soil,  in  spite  of  the  80 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen  in  the  at- 
mosphere surrounding  them.  It 
has  long  been  known,  however, 
that  certain  leguminous  crops  can 
grow  in  poor  soils  and  enrich 
them  in  the  process.  This  is 
accomplished  by  the  action  of 
nitrogen-fixing  bacteria,  which 
grow  in  knots  or  nodules  on  the 
roots  of  these  plants;  and  there 
are  other  bacteria  which  can  fix 
nitrogen  while  growing  freely  in 


Comparative  Growth  of  Peas, 
Grown  With  and  Without  In- 
oculation of  Soil  with  Nitrogen- 
Fixing  Bacteria. 

{From  Bulletin  No.  71,  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry.) 


THE  FOOT  OF  THE  FLY  ,  .  .      ^,    _  , 

Living  Fly  Tracks. 

Each  of  the  dots  on  the  round 
dish  of  culture  jelly  is  a  colony  of 
Relative  Size  of  Bacteria  and  Foot  of  Fly.  bacteria  developed  from  a  single 
{From  Public  Health  Hall,  American  Museum    germ,  planted  there  by  a  fly  as  it 
of  Natural  History,  New  York  )  walked  over  the  surface. 


—  i 


Fig.  1 


Flo-.  2 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4  Fig.  5  Fig.  6 


PHOTO-MICROGRAPHS  OF  BACTERIA. 
Fig.  1.  Streptococcus  from  pus.    Fig.  2.  Large  micrococci  from  air.    Fig.  3.  Spore-bearing  bacilli 
(malignant  oedema).    Fig.  4.  Large  spirilla.    Fig.  5.  Typhoid  bacilli  (showing  flagella).    Fig.  6.  Anthrax 
bacilli.    (From  Alias  der  Baklerienkiinde,  Fraenkel  and  Pfeijff'er.) 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '16  Vol.  I.— at  Page  519  C 


Bacteria 


519  D 


Bactris 


the  soil.  The  inoculation  of  fields 
with  the  desired  type  of  nitrogen- 
fixing  bacteria  has  often  proved 
of  much  practical  value  in  in- 
creasing the  yield  of  crops.  (See 
Nitrogen,  Fixation  of.) 

Bacteriology  in  the  Arts  and  In- 
dustries.— When  the  products  of 
bacterial  activity  happen  to  be 
of  value  it  is  frequently  of  ad- 
vantage to  grow  the  organisms  in 
question  in  pure  culture,  or  at 
least  to  take  pains  to  provide  the 
proper  conditions  for  their  most 
vigorous  growth  and  develop- 
ment. Thus,  cream  for  butter 
may  be  ripened  by  the  use  of 
pure  cultures  or  'starters,'  and 
buttermilk  is  made  by  pasteuriz- 
ing milk  and  inoculating  it  with 
the  Bulgarian  bacillus.  Certain 
cheeses  are  made  by  the  use  of 
pure  cultures  of  the  particular 
bacteria  and  moulds  which  im- 
part their  peculiar  flavors  to  the 
products.  Vinegar  is  made  from 
alcohol  by  the  acetic  acid  bac- 
teria; and  lactic  acid,  and  other 
compounds  used  in  tanning  for 
the  neutralization  of  lime,  are 
formed  by  the  action  of  bacteria 
of  various  types.  The  curing  of 
tobacco  is  believed  to  be  in  part  a 
bacterial  process;  and  bacteria 
play  an  important  part  in  the 
decomposition  of  cellulose  and  in 
the  retting  of  flax  and  hemp. 

When,  on  the  other  hand,  bac- 
teria decompose  our  foods  or 
other  materials  that  we  do  not 
want  destroyed,  they  become  our 
enemies,  and  must  be  diligently 
combated.  The  souring  of  milk 
and  the  spoiling  of  foods  are  all 
due  to  the  activity  of  bacteria  or 
moulds,  and  can  be  controlled  by 
cleanliness,  which  keeps  out  the 
germs  of  decomposition,  by  anti- 
sepsis (cold,  drying,  smoking, 
weak  antiseptics  such  as  salt, 
sugar,  pickling  solutions),  which 
checks  their  development,  or  by 
sterilization  (destruction  of  germ 
life  by  heat  as  in  canning  and 
preserving). 

Bacteria  and  Disease. — The 
bacteria  with  which  we  are  unfor- 
tunately most  familiar  are  those 
which  have  become  adapted  to  a 
parasitic  existence,  so  that  they 
grow  on  the  surfaces  or  in  the 
fluids  of  the  body  and  produce 
disease.  Man  is  not  alone  the 
victim  of  these  pathogenic  mi- 
crobes. Pear  blight;  wilt  disease 
of  cucumbers, melons,  and  squash- 
es; brown  rot  of  tomato,  egg- 
plant, and  potato;  stem  rot  of 
potato;  black  rot  of  cabbage  and 
allied  plants;  stem  blight  of  al- 
falfa; yellowing  of  hyacinths;  co- 
coanut  bud  rot  and  olive  knot 
and  crown  gall  of  various  plants, 
are  familiar  examples  of  bacterial 
diseases  aff^ecting  the  plant  world; 
while  glanders,  tuberculosis,  and 
many  other  bacterial  maladies 
afflict  the  higher  animals. 

Among  human  diseases  the  fol- 


lowing have  been  definitely  traced 
to  specific  bacterial  causes:  an- 
thrax, Asiatic  cholera,  bacillary 
dysentery,  diphtheria,  epidemic 
cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  food 
poisoning,  glanders,  gonorrhoea, 
influenza,  leprosy,  plague,  pneu- 
monia, staphylococcus  infections 
(boils,  suppurations,  joint  dis- 
eases, etc.),  streptococcus  infec- 
tions (erysipelas,  scarlet  fever, 
tonsillitis,  rheumatism,  endocar- 
ditis, blood  poisoning,  etc.), 
syphilis,  tetanus,  tuberculosis, 
typhoid  fever,  typhus  fever, 
whooping  cough,  and  wound 
sepsis  due  to  gas  bacilli.  Amoebic 
dysentery,  malaria,  and  many 
tropical  diseases  are  caused  by 
Protozoa;  measles,  epidemic  po- 
liomyelitis, rabies,  yellow  fever, 
mumps  and  smallpox  by  filter- 
able viruses,  the  causative  organ- 
ism of  which  latter  has  not  yet 
been  isolated. 

In  practically  all  the  bacterial 
diseases  of  man  the  infective 
agent  is  discharged  in  one  or 
other  of  the  excretions  of  the 
body;  and  the  germs  being 
adapted  specifically  to  the  fluids 
of  the  body,  die  out  more  or  less 
rapidly  in  the  world  outside. 
These  diseases  are  therefore 
spread  by  a  more  or  less  direct 
transfer  of  excretal  material  from 
one  person  to  another  (or  in  some 
cases  from  one  of  the  higher 
animals  to  man).  In  most  in- 
stances the  germs  enter  their  new 
victim  by  way  of  the  nose  and 
mouth.  The  control  of  these  dis- 
eases lies  therefore  in  breaking 
the  chain  of  contact,  the  isolation 
of  infected  individuals,  the  dis- 
infection of  excreta,  the  protec- 
tion of  foods  against  pollution, 
and  the  protection  of  the  portal 
of  the  mouth. 

Bacteriology  is  of  supreme  im- 
portance in  the  control  of  com- 
municable diseases,  because  it  is 
by  bacteriological  methods  that 
cases  of  disease  and  carriers  are 
identified,  and  that  the  sanitary 
quality  of  water,  milk,  and  foods 
is  determined.  The  use  of  vac- 
cines and  sera,  which  produce  an 
artificial  immunity  against  spe- 
cific diseases,  is  an  important  aid 
in  the  prevention  and  cure  of  dis- 
ease, based  upon  the  results  of 
bacteriological  and  clinical  ex- 
perimentation. 

vSee  Public  Health;  Serum 
Therapy;  Vaccine  Therapy; 
and  the  articles  on  the  specific 
diseases  mentioned  herein. 

Bibliography. — Consult  G.  C. 
Frankland's  Bacteria  in  Daily 
Life;  G.  Newman's  Bacteriology 
and  the  Public  Health;  E.  F. 
Smith's  Bacteria  in  Relation  to 
Plant  Diseases  (Carnegie  Insti- 
tution of  Washington);  C.  E. 
Marshall's  Microbiology;  A.  C. 
Abbott's  Principles  of  Bacteri- 
ology; W.  H.  Park  and  A.  W. 
Williams'    Pathogenic  Micro-or- 


ganisms (1914);  P.  H.  Hiss  and 
H.  Zinsser's  Text  Book  of  Bac- 
teriology (1914);  E.  O.  Jordan's 
Text  Book  of  General  Bacteriology 
(4th  ed.  1914);  Hodge's  Civi'c 
Biology  (1918) ;  Buchanan's  Agri- 
cultural and  Industrial  Bacteri- 
ology (1921) ;  Cunningham's  Prac- 
tical Bacteriology  (1924). 

Bacterioids,  bak-te'ri-oids, 
Bacteroids,  involution  forms  of 
bacteria  which  produce  the  tu- 
bercles on  the  roots  of  legumi- 
nous plants.  They  form  and 
accumulate  free  nitrogen,  enrich- 
ing the  soil;  hence  peas,  and 
similar  crops,  whose  roots  abound 
with  these  growths,  are  planted 
and  ploughed  into  soil  prepara- 
tory to  other  crops.  See  Fer- 
tilizers. 

Bac'tria,  or  Bactriana,  an- 
cient territory  in  Central  Asia, 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the 
Hindu-Kush  Mountains,  and  on 
the  north  by  the  River  Oxus.  Its 
exact  limits  in  ancient  times  are 
now  unknown,  but  probably  cor- 
responded closely  with  those  of 
the  modern  Balkh  (q.v.).  The 
southern  part  included  rich  pas- 
tures, and  was  famous  for  its 
horses  and  camels. 

The  early  history  of  Bactria 
is  lost  in  antiquity.  It  was  con- 
quered by  Cyrus  the  Great,  and 
made  a  part  of  Persia;  and  in  the 
time  of  Darius  it  was  the  twelfth 
satrapy.  In  327  B.C.  Alexander 
the  Great  married  Roxana  (q.v.), 
daughter  of  the  Bactrian  chief- 
tain, and  made  Bactria  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidae. 
About  the  middle  of  the  third 
century  B.C.  the  Greek  kingdom 
of  Bactria  was  founded,  which 
extended  to  the  Indus.  The 
kingdom  was  subsequently  over- 
thrown by  Scythian  tribes  (c.  150 
B.C.);  and  after  being  in  the 
hands  of  the  Parthians  and  Sa- 
sanians  in  640  a.d.  the  country 
came  under  Mohammedan  rule. 
The  inhabitants  of  ancient  Bac- 
tria were  closely  related  to  the 
Persians  (see  Arya),  and  from 
this  region  probably  sprang  Zo- 
roastrianism  (see  Zoroaster). 
Consult  Rawlinson's  Bactria,  the 
History  of  a  Forgotten  Empire 
(1912;. 

Bactrian  Camel.  See  Camel. 

Bac'tris,  a  genus  of  tropical 
American  palms,  characterized 
by  their  slender  stems,  which 
spring  from  the  roots,  and  which 
may  be  solitary  or  fasciculate, 
ringed,  smooth,  or  spiny.  The 
Marajah  palm  (B.  maraja)  of 
Brazil  is  the  largest  species,  some- 
times attaining  a  height  of  50 
feet,  and  bearing  agreeable, 
succulent,  acidulous  fruit.  Bac- 
tris minor  reaches  only  12  or  15 
feet  in  height,  and  its  stems,  sel- 
dom more  than  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, are  frequently  made  into 
walking  sticks.  Other  species 
yield  a  fibre  used  for  cordage. 

Vol.  I. — March  '28 


Bactrites 


520 


Baden 


Bactrites,  bak-tri'tez,  a  genus 
of  fossil  Ammonites  (q.v.),  with  a 
straight  shell,  and  indented  but 
not  ramified  septa.  The  genus 
ranges  from  the  Lower  Silurian 
to  the  Devonian. 

Baculites,  bak'u-li'tez,  a  genus 
of  the  family  of  Ammonitidae,  dif- 
fering from  the  true  Ammonites 
(q.v.)  in  the  perfectly  straight 
form  of  the  shell,  which  tapers  to 
a  point,  and  is  either  round  or 
compressed.  The  species,  like 
the  other  Ammonitidae,  are  all 
fossil. 

Bacup,  bak'up,  town  and  mu- 
nicipal borough,  England,  in 
Lancashire,  20  miles  northeast  of 
Manchester  by  rail.  The  leading 
industries  are  coal  mining,  iron 
founding,  and  cotton  spinning  and 
weaving.    Pop.  (1921)  21,256. 

Badajoz,  ba'da-hos',  the  larg- 
est province  of  Spain,  adjoining 
Portugal  on  the  west;  area,  8,451 
square  miles.  The  Guadiana 
River  traverses  the  province; 
the  surface  is  generally  undulat- 
ing. Mineral  resources  include 
copper  and  lead;  manufactures 
comprise  soap,  cork,  oils,  wool- 
lens, and  cottons.  Stock  raising 
is  important.  The  capital  is 
Badajoz  (q.v.).  Pop.  (1920) 
645,658. 

Badajoz,  city,  Spain,  capital 
of  Badajoz  province,  on  the 
Guadiana  River,  and  on  the  rail- 
way from  Lisbon  to  Madrid;  315 
miles  southwest  of  Madrid,  175 
miles  east  of  Lisbon,  and  5  miles 
from  the  Portuguese  frontier.  A 
fine  Roman  bridge  of  32  arches 
spans  the  river  at  this  point,  and 
a  ruined  Moorish  castle  overlooks 
the  town,  which  is  strongly 
fortified.  Notable  edifices  are  the 
ancient  Cathedral,  with  a  splen- 
did organ,  and  paintings  by  Ce- 
rezo  and  Morales;  the  Military 
Hospital,  and  the  Arsenal.  The 
principal  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  pottery,  hats, 
soap,  linens,  woollens,  and 
leather. 

Badajoz  was  the  Pax  Augusta 
of  the  Romans,  and  the  Bathaljus 
of  the  Moors.  The  fortress  was 
beleaguered  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1660;  by  the  Allies,  in  the  War  of 
the  Spanish  Succession,  in  1705; 
and  by .  the  French  during  the 
Peninsular  War,  in  1808,  1809, 
and  in  1811,  when  the  Spanish 
commander  surrendered  to  Mar- 
shal Soult.  The  British  be- 
sieged it  in  1811,  and  again  in 
1812,  when  it  was  captured  by 
the  Duke  of  Wellington.  Pop. 
(1920)  37,967. 

Badakhshan,  bii'dak-shan', 
or  Badaksiian,  district,  Afghani- 
stan, in  the  province  of  Turkes- 
tan, bordered  l)y  the  chain  of  the 
Hindu-Kush  on  the  south,  and 
the  Amu  Daria  on  the  north  and 
west;  area,  about  8,500  s(iuare 
miles.  It  is  a  mountainous 
region,  varying  from  500  to  15,- 

VoL.  L— March  '28 


600  feet  above  sea  level,  and  is 
drained  by  the  River  Pamir  and 
its  tributaries,  the  Kokcha  and 
Kundua.  The  country  is  ex- 
ceedingly fertile  and  agriculture 
is  the  chief  industry.  Iron,  gold, 
silver,  salt,  rubies,  and  lapis 
lazuli  are  mined.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  largely  Tajiks  (q.v.), 
Turks,  and  Arabs  of  Moham- 
medan faith. 

The  government  of  Badakh- 
shan has  usually  been  in  the 
hands  of  native  rulers,  subject  to 
some  great  kingdom.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  it  formed  a 
part  of  the  Persian  empire.  Af- 
ghan supremacy  was  established 
in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  capital  is  Faizabad 
(q.v.).    Pop.  150,000. 

Badalona,ba'da-l5'na  (ancient 
Betiilo),  seaport,  Spain,  in  Barce- 
lona province,  Catalonia,  6  miles 
northeast  of  the  city  of  Barcelona 
(q.v.),  of  which  it  is  a  suburb. 
It  produces  wine,  and  has  ship- 
yards, sugar  factories,  petroleum 
refineries  and  glass  works.  Pop. 
(1920)  29,361. 

Baddeck',  village,  Nova  Sco- 
tia, capital  of  Victoria  County, 
Cape  Breton  Island,  on  Lake 
Bras  d'Or.  It  is  a  summer  resort, 
popularized  in  Baddeck  and  That 
Sort  of  Thing,  by  Charles  Dudley 
Warner.    Pop.  1,500. 

Badeau,  ba-do',  Adam  (1831- 
95) ,  American  soldier  and  author, 
was  born  in  New  York  City.  He 
entered  the  Union  army;  was 
aide-de-camp  on  Gen.  W.  T. 
Sherman's  staff  (1862-4);  mili- 
tary secretary  to  Gen.  U.  S. 
Grant  (1864-9);  and  retired  in 
1869  with  the  brevet  rank  of 
brigadier  general.  From  1870  to 
1881  he  was  United  States  consul 
general  at  London,  during  which 
time  (1877-8)  he  accompanied 
Grant  on  part  of  his  world  tour; 
and  in  1882-4  was  consul  general 
at  Havana.  His  published  works 
include  Military  History  of  U.  S. 
Grant,  1861-5  (3  vols.,  1868-81); 
Conspiracy,    a   Cuban  Romance 

(1885)  ;  Aristocracy  in  England 

(1886)  ;  Grant  in  Peace  (1887). 
Baden,  ba'den,  a  state  of  the 

German  Republic,  bounded  by 
the  River  Rhine  on  the  south 
and  west,  by  Wiirtemburg  and 
Hohenzollern  on  the  east,  and  by 
Bavaria  and  Hesse-Darmstadt 
on  the  north.  It  comprises  5,888 
square  miles,  including  a  portion 
of  Lake  Constance,  which  it 
shares  with  Bavaria  and  Switzer- 
land. 

Physically,  Baden  falls  into 
two  divisions:  the  western  plain, 
lying  along  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  and  occupying  about  a 
sixth  of  the  area;  and  the  east- 
ern highlands,  including  the 
Schwarzwald  or  Black  Forest 
(q.v.),  which  attains  a  maximum 
altitude  of  4,900  feet,  the  Neckar 
highlands,  the  Odenwald  to  the 


north,  and  the  extensive  plateaus 
of  the  German  Jura  to  the  south. 
It  is  drained  by  the  Rhine  and  its 
tributary,  the  Neckar,  and  by  the 
Danube,  which  has  its  sources  in 
the  Schwarzwald. 

Nearly  60  per  cent,  of  the  state 
is  under  cultivation,  the  principal 
crops  being  hay,  potatoes,  oats, 
barley,  wheat,  rye,  and  the  vine. 
Forests  cover  41  per  cent,  of  the 
area,  and  are  largely  under  state 
and  communal  ownership.  There 
are  extensive  tracts  of  meadow 
land  and  pasture,  and  large  chest- 
nut plantations.  Salt  and  build- 
ing stone  are  mined,  and  mineral 
springs  are  abundant.  Tiles, 
jewelry,  machinery,  toys,  clocks, 
musical  instruments,  ribbons, 
cotton  textiles,  hats,  paper,  and 
cardboard,  woodenware,  leather, 
brushes,  and  cigars  are  manufac- 
tured. Education  is  general,  free, 
and  compulsory.  There  are 
universities  at  Heidelberg  and 
Freiberg-im-Breisgau,  polytech- 
nic, art,  and  music  schools  at 
Karlsruhe  and  a  commercial  high 
school  at  Mannheim. 

The  constitution  of  Baden, 
adopted  in  1919,  makes  it  a 
republic  and  a  component  pitate 
of  Germany.  There  is  direct 
and  universal  suffrage  and  all 
privileges  of  birth,  religion  or 
caste  are  abolished.  There  is  one 
chamber  whose  members  are 
elected  for  four  years.  The 
cabinet  consists  of  5  members  and 
3  state  councillors  elected  by  the 
Landtag  (the  legislature).  The 
president  of  the  cabinet  is  known 
as  the  state  president.  The 
capital  is  Karlsruhe  (q.v.).  Pop. 
(1910)  2,141,832;  (1919)  2,208.- 
503. 

History. — The  present  state  of 
Baden  is  a  development  of  the 
ancient  duchy  of  Swabia  or 
Alemannia,  principally  through 
the  dynasties  of  the  margraves 
of  Baden-Baden  and  Baden-Dur- 
lach.  The  two  lines  were  united 
in  1771  under  Charles  Frederick, 
who,  by  favoring  the  policy  of 
Napoleon,  and  joining  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine,  doubled 
his  possessions  in  extent  and  pop- 
ulation, and  acquired  successive- 
ly the  dignity  of  elector  (1803) 
and  the  title  of  grand  duke 
(1806).  In  1811  he  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  grandson,  Charles  Louis 
Frederick,  who  after  the  Battle 
of  Leipzig  seceded  from  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and 
in  1815  joined  the  German  Con- 
federation. 

In  1867  Baden  entered  the 
North  German  Confederation, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  became  a  part  of 
the  German  Empire.  In  1918 
the  grand  duke  abdicated  and  the 
provisional  government  pro- 
claimed Baden  a  nipublic. 

Baden,  or  Baden-Baden, 
town  and  famous  health  resort, 


Baden 


521 


Badge 


Germany,  in  the  state  of  Baden, 
on  the  Oos  River,  at  the  edge  of 
the  Black  Forest  (q.v.);  23  miles 
southwest  of  Karlsruhe.  It  is 
mainly  celebrated  for  its  mineral 
springs  and  baths,  which  are  vis- 
ited annually  by  over  75,000  peo- 
ple. The  waters  have  a  tempera- 
ture of  115°  F.  to  153°  F.,  and  are 
recommended  for  rheumatism, 
gout,  and  renal  and  skin  diseases. 
Notable  buildings  are  the  ruins  of 
the  Old  Castle,  crowning  the 
summit  of  the  Schlossberg,  above 
the  town;  the  New  Castle,  for- 
merly used  as  the  summer  resi- 
dence of  the  grand  dukes;  the 


('Baden  near  Vienna'),  city.  Low- 
er Austria,  on  the  Schwechat 
River;  17  miles  southwest  of  Vi- 
enna. It  is  situated  among  the 
outliers  of  the  Wiener  Wald,  and 
is  much  frequented  for  its  warm 
mineral  springs  (sulphurous,  with 
carbonic  acid  gas;  80°  to  100°  f.). 
It  was  known  to  the  Romans  as 
ThermcE  Pannonicce.  Pop.  (1920) 
14,083. 

Baden,  town,  Switzerland,  in 
canton  Aargau,  on  the  Limmat; 
13  miles  by  rail  northwest  of 
Zurich.  It  is  an  ancient  town, 
and  has  celebrated  hot  springs 
(temperature  as  high  as  117°  f.). 


deni,  and  his  retirement  from 
active  political  life. 

Badenoch,  ba'den-ok.  High- 
land district,  Scotland,  in  Inver- 
ness-shire, 45  miles  long,  by  19 
broad,  traversed  by  the  River 
Spey. 

Baden-Powell,  Sir  Robert. 
See  Powell, 

Badenweiler,  ba'd^n-vl'l^r, 
town,  Germany,  in  the  state  of 
Baden,  on  the  west  edge  of  the 
Schwarzwald,  1,395  to  1,477  feet 
above  sea  level;  18  miles  north- 
east pf  Basel.  Its  warm  springs, 
equable  temperature,  forest 
walks,  and  whey  cures  attract. 


@  tlwing  Galloway,  i\ .  y 


Baden,  Germany,  famous  as  a  Watering  Place 


Parish  Church,  dating  from  the 
fifteenth  century;  the  Conversa- 
tionhaus;  the  Trinkhalle;  the 
Theatre;  the  Anglican  and  Greek 
Churches;  and  the  luxuriously 
equipped  bathing  establishments. 
Wood  carving  is  the  chief  indus- 
try of  the  people. 

Baden  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Hadrian  in  the  second 
century  a.d.  It  was  known  to 
the  Romans  as  Civilas  Aurelia 
Aquensis,  and  numerous  Roman 
antiquities  have  been  found  in 
the  neighborhood.  From  1808  to 
1872  it  was  popular  for  its  public 
gaming  tables,  then  the  most  re- 
nowned in  Europe.  Pop.  (1919) 
25,444. 

Baden,  or  Baden  bei  Wien 


known  to  the  Romans  as  Aqu(^ 
Helvelicce.  From  1426  to  1712 
Baden  was  practically  the  capital 
of  the  Swiss  Confederation.  Pop. 
(1920)  9,215. 

Badeni,  ba-den'ye,  Casimir 
Felix,  Count  (1846-1909),  Aus- 
trian statesman,  was  born  in 
Surochowo,  Galicia,  and  studied 
law  at  Cracow.  In  1888  he  be- 
came governor  of  Galicia,  and  in 
1895  premier  of  Austria.  In  the 
latter  office  he  promulgated  the 
Ordinance  of  Languages  of  1897, 
which  placed  the  C'zech  language 
on  a  par  with  German  in  the 
provinces  of  Bohemia  and  Mora- 
via. This  measure  was  bitterly 
opposed  by  the  Germans,  and  re- 
sulted in  the  resignation  of  Ba- 


some  7,000  visitors  annually. 
Pop.  1,000. 

Badge,  any  device  used  as 
an  emblem,  a  token,  or  a  decora- 
tion. As  a  cognizance  of  no- 
bility, badges  form  no  part  of 
armorial  bearings*  though  inti- 
mately associated  with  them;  nor 
is  their  use  governed  by  the  laws 
of  heraldry.  The  badge  is  fre- 
quently, though  erroneously,  con- 
founded with  the  crest,  or  even 
with  the  coat  of  arms;  but  though 
it  may  partake  of  the  form  of  a 
charge  or  of  a  crest,  it  is  not  borne 
upon  a  shield  or  a  wreath.  Fam- 
ily badges,  which  originated  in 
the  infancy  of  heraldry,  often 
bore  allusion  to  the  owner's 
name,  estate,  or  office,  and  were 


Vol.  I. — March  '28 


Badger 


522 


Bad  Lands 


embroidered  on  the  sleeve, breast, 
or  back  of  retainers.  The  fleur- 
de-lis  (q.v.),  the  badge  of  the 
kings  of  France,  dates  back  to  the 
reign  of  Louis  vii.  ( 1 137-80) .  Of 
the  famous  rival  cognizances  of 
the  houses  of  York  and  Lan- 
caster, the  red  rose  was  first 
adopted  by  Henry  iv.,  and  the 
white  rose  by  Edward  iv.  Royal 
badges  now  in  use  are  a  white 
rose  within  a  red,  crowned,  for 
England ;  a  thistle  proper,  crown- 
ed, for  Scotland;  a  harp  for 
Ireland. 

The  term  badge  is  also  applied 
to  the  distinctive  decoration  of 
an  order  of  knighthood,  and  to 
society  emblems.  See  Cockade; 
Fraternities,  College;  Her- 
aldry. 


Badges 

1.  The  Red  Hand  of  Ulster.  2.  Tudor  Rose. 
3.  Fleur-de-Lya. 


Badger,  bajVr,  a  genus  of  car- 
nivores of  the  Mustelidae  or  wea- 
sel family,  including  the  Euro- 
pean Badger,  the  American  Bad- 
ger, the  Sand  Badger  of  India, 
arid  the  Ratel  (q.v.)  and  Honey 
Badger  of  Africa  and  India. 

The  feet  of  the  badger  are 
plantigrade,  thus  bringing  the 
body  nearer  to  the  ground.  The 
lower  jaw  is  locked  into  its  socket 
in  a  remarkable  way,  giving  a 
very  tenacious  grip.  The  head  is 
long,  with  a  pointed  muzzle;  the 
tail  short;  the  skin  very  thick, 
loose,  and  tough;  the  hair  long. 
Ears  and  eyes  are  both  small. 
The  gait  is  slow,  and  the  habits 
nocturnal.  There  are  five  toes  on 
each  of  the  fore  and  hind  feet, 
which  are  peculiarly  adapted  for 
digging.  Another  characteristic 
is  the  possession  of  a  bag  beneath 
the  tail,  for  the  secretion  of  a 
peculiar  substance,  of  a  disagree- 
able odor,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
of  use  in  directing  the  sexes  to 
each  other. 

The  true  badger  or  European 
badger  (Meles  taxus),  known  also 
as  the  brock  and  gray,  stands 
about  10  or  12  inches  from  the 
ground,  and  weighs  from  22  to  25 
pounds.  The  color  is  grayish 
brown,  verging  to  red  above  and 
black  beneath;  the  head  white 
with  a  longitudinal  black  band 
on  each  side;  the  body  long  but 
robust;  the  hair  coarse  and  reach- 
ing to  the  ground.  The  animal 
haunts  the  gloomy  recesses  of 
woods,  or  thick  plantations  on 
the  sides  of  hills,  digging  for  itself 
a  deep  subterranean  retreat, 
where  it  sleeps  by  day  and  hiber- 
nates during  the  winter  months. 

Vol.  I.— March  '28 


Fruits,  roots,  beechmast,  eggs, 
young  birds,  small  quadrupeds, 
frogs,  snails,  worms,  and  insects 
constitute  its  natural  food. 

The  American  badger,  or  taxus 
(Taxidea  americana),  is  a  dis- 
tinct, more  carnivorous  form, 
differing  in  dentition  and  in  its 
broad,  massive  head.  Its  pre- 
vailing color  is  hoary  gray  in 
winter,  and  yellowish  brown  in 
summer  with  the  under  parts 
generally  yellowish  white;  a 
white  stripe  runs  from  the  nose 
over  the  forehead  to  the  neck. 
The  hair  grows  very  long,  and  is 
woolly  in  winter.  The  American 
badger  is  possessed  of  extraordi- 
nary burrowing  powers,  and 
preys  on  small  animals,  such  as 
marmots,  which  it  pursues  into 
their  holes  in  the  sandy  plains 
near  the  Missouri  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains, 

The  sand  badger  or  balisaur  of 
India  is  larger  than  the  true 
badger,  while  the  closely  related 
ratel  and  honey  badger  differ  from 
the  common  species  in  color, 
their  upper  parts  being  ashy  gray 
and  the  under  parts  black 


Badger 


Badgers  were  formerly  much 
hunted  for  sport  in  England, 
badger  baiting  being  a  common 
practice.  Their  pelts  are  valu- 
able as  furs,  and  the  hair  is  used 
for  artist's  brushes.  Consult 
Blakeborough  and  Pease's  The 
Life  and  Habits  of  the  Badger 
(1914). 

Badger,  Charles  Johnston 
(1853-  ),  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  in  Rockville, 
Md.,  and  was  graduated  from  the 
U.  S.  Naval  Academy  (1873). 
In  1907-9  he  was  superintendent 
of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy;  and 
in  1909-11  commanded  the 
battleship  Kansas.  In  1911  he 
was  made  rear  admiral,  and  was 
appointed  to  command  the  sec- 
ond division  of  the  Atlantic 
fleet;  and  in  1911  he  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Atlan- 
tic fleet.  He  was  retired  in 
August,  1915. 

Badger,  Oscar  Charles 
(1823-99),  American  naval  of- 
ficer, was  born  in  Windham, 
Conn.  In  1841  he  became  a  mid- 
shipman in  the  U.  S.  Navy,  and 
in  the  Mexican  War  served  on  the 
Mississippi,  participating  in  the 
attack  upon  Alvarado  (1846). 
During  the  Civil  War  he  com- 
manded the  Anacostia  of  the 
Potomac  flotilla  (1861-2),  and 
the  ironclads  Patapsco  and  Mon- 


tauk  in  engagements  against  the 
fortifications  of  Charleston  Har- 
bor (1863);  and  acted  as  fleet 
captain  in  the  attack  upon  Fort 
Sumter  (1863),  being  severely 
wounded  on  board  his  flagship, 
the  Weehawken.  He  became 
commander  in  1866,  captain  in 
1872,  commodore  in  1881,  and 
was  retired  in  1885. 

Badger  Dog.  See  Dachshund. 

Badger  State,  a  popular  name 
for  Wisconsin  (q.v.),  where  the 
badger  is  found. 

Badghis,  bad-gez',  or  Bad- 
GHiz,  a  region  in  Northwestern 
Afghanistan,  comprising  the  ter- 
ritory between  the  Murghab  and 
Hari-Rud  Rivers,  east  and  west, 
and  extending  north  and  south 
from  the  Kara-Kum  desert  to  the 
Hindu-Kush  Mountains.  Jam- 
shidis  and  Hazaras  comprise  the 
population. 

Badia  y  Lablich,  ba-de'a  e 
la-blech'  (Leblich),  Domingo 
(1766-1818),  Spanish  traveller, 
was  born  in  Barcelona.  In  1803 
he  crossed  to  Africa,  disguised  as 
a  Mussulman,  under  the  name 
Ali-Bei,  and  travelled  through 
Morocco,  where  his  tact  and  tal- 
ents gained  for  him  such  esteem 
that  he  was  invited  to  the  court 
of  the  Emperor.  From  1805  to 
1807  he  travelled  through  Bar- 
bary,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Syria 
on  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  being 
the  first  Christian  to  visit  that 
city  since  the  institution  of  Islam. 
Later  in  the  same  year  he  went  to 
Constantinople,  but  his  disguise 
was  suspected,  and  he  was  obliged 
to  flee.  On  his  return  to  Spain 
he  joined  the  French  party, 
attached  himself  to  King  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  and  was  appointed 
prefect  of  Cordova  (1812); 
but  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
he  was  compelled  to  leave 
the  country  (1814).  He  died  in 
Syria  while  on  another  journey 
to  India.  He  published  Voyages 
d'Ali  Bei  en  Afrique  et  en  Asie 
pendant  les  annees  1803-07  (1814) 

Bad  Lands,  a  term  designat- 
ing certain  rough  and  barren 
tracts  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States,  developed  by  the 
action  of  occasional  rains  upon 
arid  plateaus  of  soft,  incoherent 
rock.  These  plateaus  become 
deeply  trenched  by  erosion,  re- 
sulting in  the  formation  of  dry 
gullies  or  arroyos  that  extend  in 
all  directions.  In  extreme  cases 
much  of  the  area  is  reduced  to 
base  level,  leaving  only  isolated 
table  lands  or  mesas  from  200  to 
400  feet  high  (see  Mesa).  Typi- 
cal Bad  Lands  are  those  on  the 
White  and  Cheyenne  Rivers,  and 
the  Lower  Yelk  wstone  and  Little 
Missouri.  Smaller  tracts  occur 
in  Arizona,  Texas,  and  New 
Mexico.  A  remarkable  series  of 
mammalian  fossils  of  the  Eocene 
Age  has  been  found  in  the  Bad 
Lands  of  South  Dakota. 


Badminton 


523 


Baeyer 


Bad'ininton,  a  game  resem- 
bling lawn  tennis  (q.  v.) ,  but  differ- 
ing from  it  in  one  essential  point 
— the  use  of  a  shuttlecock  instead 
of  a  ball.  As  this  shuttlecock 
must  be  played  before  it  touches 
the  ground,  any  fairly  level  piece 
of  turf,  any  large  public  hall  or 
gymnasium  will  serve.  The 
number  of  players  varies  from 
two  to  eight,  but  four  is  the  best 
number.  The  players,  four  or 
two  in  number,  place  themselves 
and  carry  on  the  game  as  in  lawn 
tennis.  The  rules  of  scoring  are 
practically  the  same  as  in  rac- 
quets (q.v.),  the  game  being  15. 


15  feet. 
Right  Court. 

Left  Court. 

Service  Line. 

*^            15  feet. 
^§o  o  S 

o(S              Net.  (2 

Service  Line. 

t 

s 

Right  C< 

lOfeet. 

10  fee*. 

Diagram  of  Badminton  Court 


Badminton, village,  England, 
in  Gloucestershire.  It  is  near  the 
estate  of  the  Duke  of  Beaufort, 
also  called  Badminton,  which 
has  given  its  name  to  the  game 
(q.v.),  to  the  Badminton  Sport- 
ing Library,  edited  by  the  Duke 
of  Beaufort,  and  to  a  London 
club  of  sporting  men.  Pop.  about 
550. 

Badoc,  ba-dok',  pueblo,  Lu- 
zon, Philippine  Islands,  in  the 
province  of  Ilocos  Horte;  21 
miles  southwest  of  Laoag.  Pop. 
(1918)  17,598. 

Badrlnath,  ba-dre-niit',  peak 
in  Garhwal  district.  United  Prov- 
inces of  Agra  and  Oudh,  India 
(30°  44'  N.  lat.  and  79°  31'  E. 
long.).  It  is  23,210  feet  above 
the  sea  and  on  one  of  its  slopes  is 
a  shrine  of  Vishnu,  which  annu- 
ally attracts  some  50,000  pil- 
grims. 

Bseda.   See  Bede. 

Baedeker,  ba'de-ker,  Karl 
(1801-59),  German  author  and 
publisher,  the  son  of  a  bookseller, 
was  born  in  Essen.  Starting 
business  in  Koblenz  in  1827,  he 
issued  in  1839,  a  small  guide 
book  on  the  Rhine,  the  first  of  an 


admirable  series  of  handbooks  in 
German,  French,  and  English. 
In  1872  the  business  was  moved 
to  Leipzig  and  the  series  now 
includes  almost  every  country  in 
the  world  and  is  famed  for  reli- 
ability and  excellence. 

Bael,  ba'el,  Bhel,  or  ^gle,  a 
plant  of  the  orange  order,  native 
to  India,  where  the  fruit  is  used 
as  a  remedy  in  diarrhoea  and 
dysentery.  The  rind  yields  a  per- 
fume,as  well  as  a  yellow  dye,  and 
a  cement  is  made  of  the  seeds. 

Baena,  ba-a'na,  town,  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Cordova;  30 
miles  southeast  of  Cordova.  It 
is  the  site  of  an  old  Roman  town 
and  has  manufactures  of  soap, 
silk,  and  flour.  Pop.  (1920) 
18,361. 

Baer,  bar,  George  Frederick 
(1842-1914),  American  lawyer 
and  railroad  president,  was  born 
in  Somerset  County,  Pa.  He  was 
educated  at  Somerset  Academy 
and  Franklin  and  Marshall  Col- 
lege. In  the  Civil  War  he  took 
part  in  the  chief  engagements  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from 
the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run  to 
Chancellorsville,  when  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  adjutant 
general.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1864;  was  counsel  and 
director  for  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  Railroad  Company,  and 
took  a  prominent  part  in  its 
reorganization  in  1893.  In  1901 
he  became  president  of  the  Phil- 
adelphia and  Reading  Railroad 
Company,  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  Coal  and  Iron  Com- 
pany, and  the  Central  Railroad 
Company  of  New  Jersey.  He 
was  active  in  the  negotiations  for 
the  railroad  anthracite  operators 
in  connection  with  the  coal  strike 
of  1902. 

Baer,  John  Willis  (1861- 
),  American  business  man, 
was  born  near  Rochester,  Minn. 
He  was  educated  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio  and  in  1879  engaged  in 
journalism  at  Cedar  Rapids,  la. 
In  1881  he  went  to  Minneapolis 
and  entered  business  life  and 
some  years  later  was  appointed 
national  secretary  of  the  Young 
People's  Society  of  Christian 
Endeavor,  becoming  assistant 
secretary  of  the  Presbyterian 
Board  of  Home  Missions  (1900- 
5).  In  1906-16  he  was  president 
of  the  Occidental  College  at  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.,  and  since  then  has 
been  engaged  in  banking. 

Baer,  Karl  Ernst  von  (1792- 
1876),  Russian  zoologist  and  em- 
bryologist,  was  born  in  Esthonia. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Dor  pot  and  in  1817  was 
appointed  professor  of  zoology  at 
Konigsberg,  in  1834  becoming 
librarian  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  St.  Petersburg. 
Founder  of  the  science  of  com- 
parative embryology,  he  ex- 
ploded the  'animalculist  theory. 


by  his  discovery  of  the  true  laws 
of  embryonic  development  of 
man  and  the  vertebrates,  the 
results  of  his  investigations  being 
expounded  in  De  Ovi  Mammalium 
el  Hominis  Genesi  (1827).  Next 
to  this,  the  book  which  had  most 
influence  with  his  contempora- 
ries was  Ueber  Entwickelungs- 
geschichte  der  Thiere  (1828-37),  to 
which  the  Untersuchungen  iiber 
die  Enlwickelungsgeschichte  der 
Fische  (1835)  may  be  regarded  as 
a  supplement. 

Baer,  William  Jacob  (1860- 
),  American  miniature  paint- 
er, was  born  in  Cincinnati,  O. 
He  attended  the  common  schools, 
and  studied  art  while  working  as 
a  lithographer.  Subsequently 
for  five  years  he  was  a  pupil  at 
the  Munich  Royal  Academy, 
where  he  received  numerous 
medals.  In  1884  he  established 
his  studio  in  New  York  City  and 
engaged  in  genre  work  until  1892, 
when  he  took  up  miniature  paint- 
ing, for  which  he  received  medals 
at  all  important  exhibits.  He  is 
an  officer  of  the  American  Society 
of  Miniature  Painters.  Among 
his  best  known  works  in  minia- 
ture are  The  Golden  Hour;  Auro- 
ra; Daphne;  Nymph;  Madonna 
with  the  Auburn  Hair;  Primavera; 
The  Smiling  Woman.  In  the  past 
few  years  he  has  been  a  regular 
contributor  to  current  exhibi- 
tions as  a  painter  of  portraits  and 
ideal  subjects  on  canvas. 

Bsetica,  be'ti-ka,  old  name  of 
Southern  Spain,  called  after  the 
river  Baetis  (now  the  Guadal- 
quivir) ,  which  traversed  it.  Dur- 
ing the  Roman  occupation  it 
contained  Hispalis  (Seville),  Cor- 
duba  (Cordova),  Gades  (Cadiz). 
Before  the  Roman  conquest  it 
was  occupied  by  the  Phoenicians 
and  Carthaginians.  After  they 
abandoned  it,  it  fell  into  the 
possession  of  the  Vandals,  whence 
is  derived  the  name  of  Andalusia 
(q.v.). 

Baeyer,  ba'yer,  Johann 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  Adolph 
VON  (1835-1917),  German  chem- 
ist, was  born  in  Berlin.  He 
studied  under  Bunsen  and  Ke- 
kule;  taught  in  the  Gewerbe- 
akademie  in  Berlin  (1860-72); 
was  professor  extraordinarius  of 
the  University  in  Berlin  (1866- 
72);  became  professor  at  Strass- 
burg  (1872);  and  in  1875  was 
made  professor  at  Munich,  where 
he  succeeded  Liebig.  In  1905  he 
received  the  Nobel  Prize  (q.v.) 
for  chemistry,  and  in  the  same 
year  an  edition  of  his  collected 
works  was  published  by  his 
friends  in  honor  of  his  seventieth 
birthday.  He  was  an  authority 
on  the  chemistry  of  indigo,  which 
he  was  the  first  to  prepare  syn- 
thetically (1878);  and  author  of 
important  contributions  to  theo- 
retical chemistry,  especially  in 
connection  with  lienzol  isomer- 

VOL.  I. — March  '28 


Baez 


524 


Bagatelle 


ism.  the  assimilation  of  carbonic 
acid  by  plants,  and  fermentation. 

Baez,  bii'as,  Buenaventura 
(c.  1810-84),  Dominican  political 
leader,  a  mulatto,  was  born  in 
Azua,  Hayti.  With  Don  Pedro 
Santana  (q.v.)  he  bore  the  prin- 
cipal part  in  the  founding  of  the 
Dominican  Republic  (1844),  of 
which  he  was  four  times  presi- 
dent (1849-53,  1856-8,  1865-6, 
1869-73),  being  deposed  each 
time  by  insurgents.  During  his 
last  term  he  proposed  the  an- 
nexation of  Santo  Domingo  to 
the  United  States,  and  negoti- 
ated with  President  Grant  an 
annexation  treaty,  which  was 
rejected  by  the  U.  S.  Senate.  He 
gained  a  high  reputation  for  his 
dignified  and  manly  conduct  of 
public  affairs. 

Baeza,  ba-a'tha,  (ancient  Be- 
atia),  town,  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Jaen;  20  miles  northeast  of 
Madrid.  It  is  an  ancient  walled 
town  with  a  university  formerly 
famous  (1533),  now  disestab- 
lished. Features  of  interest  are 
the  cathedral,  the  town  hall  and 
a  ruined  Franciscan  monastery. 
Pop.  (1920)  15,326. 

Baffa,  Baffo.    See  Paphos. 

Baffin,  William  (1584-1622), 
British  navigator  and  discoverer 
of  the  sea  which  bears  his  name, 
was  born  in  London.  He  went  to 
the  whale  fisheries  off  Spitz- 
bergen  (1613-14),  and  joined 
Captain  Robert  Bylot  in  1615  on 
board  the  Discovery,  to  search  for 
the  Northwest  Passage  by  Davis 
Strait.  Unsuccessful  in  this,  he 
discovered  and  charted  Baffin 
Bay.  His  observations,  dis- 
credited during  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  were 
verified  by  Sir  John  Ross  in  1818, 
and  were  used  by  the  Franklin 
expedition.  Baffin  was  killed  in 
the  British  service  at  the  siege 
of  Ormuz.  Consult  Markham's 
Voyages  of  William  Baffin. 

Baffin  Bay,  or,  more  correctly, 
Baffin  Sea,  lies  between  Green- 
land and  Baffin  Land,  with  the 
Arctic  Circle  for  its  southern 
limit  and  77°  30'  N.  lat.  for  its 
northern.  Long.  51°  to  80°  w. 
On  the  south  it  communicates 
with  the  Atlantic  Ocean  through 
Davis  Strait,  and  on  the  north 
with  the  Arctic  through  Smith 
Sound,  Kennedy  Channel,  and 
Robeson  Channel.  Lancaster 
Sound  and  Jones  Sound  both  lead 
out  of  it  at  the  northwest  into  the 
Arctic.  It  is  about  825  miles 
long;  about  275  miles  wide  and 
its  greatest  depth  is  about  6,900 
feet.  It  is  a  resort  for  whalers 
and  seal  hunters.  William  Baffin 
(q.v.)  discovered  and  explored  it 
in  1616. 

Baffin  Land,  an  island  of 
British  North  America,  lying 
between  lat.  62°  and  72°  N.,  with 
Lancaster  Sound  on  the  north, 
Baffin  Bay  and  Davis  Strait  on 

Vol.  I. — March  '28 


the  east,  the  Gulf  of  Boothia 
and  Fox  Channel  on  the  south. 
It  is  about  1,000  miles  long,  and 
from  200  to  500  miles  wide,  and 
is  largely  composed  of  rocks 
partly  covered  with  ice.  Grasses 
and  Arctic  flowers  are  found  in 
the  interior.  In  the  southern 
part  are  the  lakes  Amadjnak  (120 
by  40  miles)  and  Nettilling  (140 
by  60  miles) .  On  the  eastern  side 
is  an  ice-capped  plateau,  reaching 
an  elevation  of  from  5,000  to 
8,000  feet.  The  principal  ani- 
mals are  the  reindeer,  wolf,  fox, 
and  polar  bear,  on  land;  the 
walrus,  narwhal,  Greenland 
whale,  and  seal,  in  the  surround- 
ing waters.  The  island  is  in- 
habited by  a  few  Eskimos. 

Bafulabe,  French  military 
post  (founded  in  1879)  in  West 
Africa,  on  the  Senegal  River,  120 
miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Bakel. 
Cattle,  millet,  and  kola  nuts  are 
produced  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
6,000. 

Bagalkot,  town,  India,  in 
Bijapur  district,  Bombay,  on  the 
Ghatprakka  River,  44  miles 
south  of  Bijapur.  There  are 
manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton 
goods.    Pop.  (1921)  19,471. 

Baga  moyo,  ba'ga-mo'yo, 
maritime  district,  Tanganyika 
Territory,  East  Africa.  It  pro- 
duces fruits  (mangoes,  oranges, 
lemons,  guava,  citrons,  and 
papaws)  and  copra.  Pop.  about 
75,000. 

Baga  moyo,  seaport  town,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Kingani  River, 
Tanganyika  Territory,  East  Afri- 
ca, opposite  Zanzibar,  with  which 
it  is  in  direct  communication.  It 
is  an  important  trading  centre, 
the  starting  point  of  caravans, 
and  the  centre  of  the  telegraph 
system  of  the  colony.  Pop.  about 
20,000. 

Bagara.   See  Baggara. 

Bagasse,  ba-gas',  a  by-product 
of  sugar-cane,  being  the  sugar- 
cane stalk  after  the  juice  has 
been  pressed  out  for  sugar  mak- 
ing. It  is  about  half  vegetable 
fiber  and  half  pith,  the  latter 
being  an  undeveloped  form  of 
cellulose.  For  a  long  time  it  was 
considered  only  fit  to  use  as  a 
fuel  and  as  such  was  auite  exten- 
sively employed  but  the  last 
decade  has  seen  a  remarkable 
extension  of  its  use  and  today, 
besides  its  use  as  fuel,  it  is  suc- 
cessfully utilized  in  making  book 
and  writing  paper  and  celotex 
board,  a  synthetic  lumber  suit- 
able for  almost  any  purpose  for 
which  wood  is  used,  but  mainly 
used  as  sheathing,  as  insulating 
material  and  as  a  corrective  of 
improper  acoustics  and  a  sound 
absorber.  The  United  States 
produces  about  450,000  tons  of 
bagasse  a  year,  which  is  sufficient 
for  the  manufacture  of  some 
10.000,000  feet  of  celotex.  Aus- 
tralia also  produces  large  quanti- 


ties of  bagasse.  In  the  beginning 
paper  made  from  bagasse  was  too 
brittle  to  be  commercially  suc- 
cessful but  careful  experimenting 
has  developed  a  process  by  which 
this  brittleness  is  eliminated  and 
a  high  grade  pulp,  suitable  for 
book  paper,  can  be  produced. 

Bagatelle,  bag-a-tel',  a  game 
played  on  an  oblong  table,  vary- 
ing in  length  from  6  to  10  feet, 
and  in  breadth  from  1>2  to  3  feet. 
At  the  semicircular  upper  end  of 
the  table  are  nine  holes  or  cups, 
numbered  from  1  to  9,  into  which 
it  is  the  object  of  the  player  to 


Bagatelle  Table 


drive  by  means  of  a  cue  the  nine 
balls — eight  white  and  one  red — 
that  enter  into  the  game.  Each 
white  ball  driven  into  a  hole 
counts  to  the  score  of  the  player 
a  number  of  points  corresponding 
to  the  number  of  the  hole;  the  red 
ball  counts  double.  The  red  at 
the  beginning  of  each  round  is 
placed  on  the  spot  about  a  foot 
nearer  the  balk  spot  at  the  end  of 
the  table  than  the  nearest  hole;  ^ 
the  white  balls  are  played  from 
balk,  and  each  player  in  turn 
plays  all  the  balls,  the  object 


Bagaudse 


525 


Bagdad 


being  to  lodge  a  ball  in  every 
hole.  The  playing  of  all  the  balls 
by  a  player  is  a  round,  and  any 
agreed-upon  number  of  rounds 
may  be  played  for  the  game.  In 
cannon  bagatelle  three  balls  only 
are  used,  and  the  holing  of  a  ball 
counts  only  when  it  is  preceded 
by  a  cannon.  The  striker's  break 
ends  when  he  fails  to  cannon. 

Cockamaroo,  or  Russian  baga- 
telle, is  the  game  in  which  the 
ball  is  driven  through  and  among 
an  arrangement  of  pins,  holes, 
arches,  and  bells.  Other  forms 
of  bagatelle  go  by  the  names  sans 
egaZ  (or  French  game),  Irish  can- 
non game,  Mississippi,  and  trou- 
madame. 

Bagau'dse,  Bagaudi,  or  Ba- 
GAUDS,  a  name  applied  to  the 


the  Southern  Literary  Messenger 
(1859-64),  and  subsequently 
State  librarian  of  Virginia  (1870- 
8).  He  gained  considerable  repu- 
tation as  lecturer  and  humorist, 
his  pen  name  being  'Mozis  Ad- 
dums.' 

Bagdad,  bag-dad'  or  bag'- 
dad,  or  Baghdad,  vilayet 
of  Iraq  (Mesopotamia),  in  the 
basin  of  the  Lower  Euphrates 
and  Tigris  Rivers.  The  surface 
is  a  fiat  alluvial  plain,  once  one 
of  the  granaries  of  the  world, 
now  steppe  land.  Grain  and 
fruit,  bitumen,  naphtha,  and 
petroleum  are  produced.  Wool, 
carpets,  mohair,  and  skins  are 
exported.  There  is  a  mixed 
population  (1,360,304  in  1920) 
of  Persians,  Armenians,  Turks, 


houses.  The  Western  section  is 
about  one-fourth  the  size  of  the 
Eastern,  and  constitutes  the 
principal  Persian  quarter.  Pon- 
toon bridges  across  the  Tigris 
join  the  two  sections.  Just  be 
yond  Western  Bagdad,  to  the 
north,  lies  Kazemain,  an  impor- 
tant shrine  of  the  Shiite  Moslems, 
Within  a  circle  of  35  miles  radius 
are  ruins  of  Babylon,  Seleucia, 
Ctesiphon,  and  Kerbela. 

Features  of  interest  in  the  city 
are  the  Citadel,  the  minaret  of 
Suk  el-Ghazl  (thirteenth  cen- 
tury), the  traditional  tomb  of 
Zobeida,  favorite  wife  of  Haroun 
al-Raschid,  the  bazaars  and 
coffee  houses,  and  the  numerous 
khans  or  caravansaries.  The 
climate  is  dry  and  invigorating, 


coloni  (or  serfs)  and  peasants  of 
Gaul  who  in  the  third  century 
a.d.  revolted  against  Roman  op- 
pression. A  series  of  petty  re- 
volts culminated  in  287  in  a  gen- 
eral insurrection.  Several  cities 
were  sacked,  and  after  a  seven 
months'  siege  Autun  was  cap- 
tured and  destroyed.  The  two 
leaders,  ^Emilianus  and  Aman- 
dus,  were  declared  emperors. 
The  Emperor  Maximian  put 
an  end  to  the  general  insurrec- 
tion. 

B  a  g  b  y ,  George  William 
(1828-83),  American  journalist, 
was  born  in  Buckingham  county, 
Va.,  and  was  educated  at  Prince- 
ton and  in  medicine  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  He  was 
Washington  correspondent  of 
Southern  journals,  and  editor  of 


Jews,  Arabs,  and  Kurds.  The 
area  is  54,540  square  miles.  The 
capital  is  Bagdad  (q.  v.). 

Bagdad,  or  Baghdad,  city, 
capital  of  Iraq  (Mesopotamia), 
and  of  the  vilayet  of  Bagdad, 
is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
Tigris  River,  500  miles  from  its 
mouth  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
Eastern  section  of  the  city  covers 
an  area  of  about  600  acres,  and 
was  formerly  enclosed  by  a  semi- 
circular wall  of  brick,  now  mostly 
in  ruins.  The  ancient  moat  is 
represented  by  a  deep  ditch,  and 
the  fortified  gates  of  the  city, 
with  one  exception,  have  been 
destroyed  or  sealed  up.  Here 
are  located  the  Governor's  Pal- 
ace, the  European  consulates, 
the  principal  bazaars,  and  the 
more     important  commercial 


but  with  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold.  Modern  sanitation  is  un- 
known. 

While  the  trade  of  Bagdad  is 
still  considerable,  the  city  has 
declined  in  commercial  impor- 
tance since  the  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal  (q.  v.)  and  the  diver- 
sion of  the  Persian  trade  through 
Trebizond  on  the  north  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  on  the  south.  Com- 
munication with  Basra,  the  port 
of  transshipment  to  ocean  steam- 
ers, is  by  the  Tigris.  Exports 
are  wool,  grain,  gum,  galls,  skins 
and  hides,  opium,  carpets,  and 
dates.  Imports  include  cotton 
goods,  oil,  sugar,  coffee,  indigo, 
and  tobacco.  Silk  and  other 
textiles,  copper  utensils,  and 
leather  goods  are  manufactured. 

The    population    is  250,000 


Vol.  I. — March  '25 


Bagdad  Railway 


526 


Bagdad  Railway 


(1920),  largely  Mohammedan. 
The  Western  city  is  occupied 
chiefly  by  Persians  and  Arabs; 
Turks,  Arabs,  Jews,  Chaldeans, 
Syrians,  Armenians,  and  Per- 
sians make  up  the  Eastern  city. 

History. — In  1848  Rawlinson 
discovered  bricks  at  Bagdad 
bearing  the  name  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (604-561  B.  c);  but  the 
historical  city  dates  from  764 
A.D.,  when  it  was  founded  by  Al- 
Mansur  (q.  v.).  It  became  the 
capital  of  the  Abbaside  califate; 
was  enlarged  and  improved  in 
the  ninth  century  by  Haroun  al- 
Raschid,  immortalized  in  the 
Arabian  Nights;  and  under  the 
latter's  son,  Al-mamun,  became 
the  seat  of  Arabian  learning,  lit- 
erature, and  romance.  The  city 
was  sacked  in  1258  by  Hulaku, 
grandson  of  Jenghiz  Khan,  and 
again  by  Timur  Beg  (Tamerlane) 
about  1400.  After  many  vicis- 
situdes it  came  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turks  in  1638.  It  suffered 
from  plague  in  1773,  and  again 
in  1831,  when  the  population  was 
reduced  two-thirds. 

Bagdad  formed  an  important 
objective  in  the  campaign  against 
Asiatic  Turkey  during  the  World 
War.  On  Nov.  22,  1915,  the 
first  British  expedition  against 
the  city,  under  Major-General 
Townshend,  ended  disastrously 
after  reaching  Ctesiphon.  18 
miles  to  the  south.  The  second 
British  expedition,  under  Gen- 
eral Maude,  occupied  the  city  on 
March  11,  1917,  after  a  desperate 
battle  that  lasted  three  days  (see 
Europe,  Great  War  of).  The 
occupation  was  of  special  impor- 
tance because  of  the  city's  re- 
lation to  the  Bagdad  Railway 
(q.  v.),  whereby  Germany  plan- 
ned to  open  a  route  from  Berlin 
to  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Bagdad  Railway.  The  rail- 
way from  Constantinople  across 
the  Anatolian  Peninsula  and 
down  the  Mesopotamian  Valley 
to  Bagdad  re-opened  to  the  loco- 
motive and  the  steamship  the 
last  of  the  three  great  mediaeval 
trade  routes  over  which,  before 
the  discovery  of  the  all-water 
route  to  India,  was  carried  on 
the  trade  between  Europe  and 
the  East.  The  southern  route 
had  been  re-opened  by  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869: 
the  northern  route  was  to  be 
opened  by  the  construction  of 
the  Russian  Transcaucasian, 
Trans  -  Caspian,  Trans  -  Persian, 
and  Trans-Siberian  Railways. 
The  Bagdad  Railway — which, 
because  of  its  connection  with 
the  Austrian  railways  and  be- 
cause of  the  predominant  posi- 
tion of  German  capitalists  in  its 
ownership  and  control,  came  to 
be  popularly  called  the  Berlin- 
to-Bagdad  line — was  intended  to 
open  up  the  potential  wealth  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  particu- 
larly in  oil  and  minerals;  to  bring 
the  trade  of  the  Near  and  Middle 
Vol.  I. — March  '25 


East  in  more  direct  and  more 
rapid  touch  with  Europe;  and 
to  strengthen  the  political  and 
military  position  of  Turkey  in 
the  Near  East.  Because  of  the 
great  strategic  importance  of 
the  railway,  it  early  came  into 
prominence  as  a  source  of  Russo- 
German  and  Anglo-German  im- 
perialistic rivalries. 

As  early  as  1857  a  trans-Meso- 
potamian  railway,  from  the  Gulf 
of  Alexandretta  to  the  head  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  was  projected 
by  British  capitalists  with  the 
support  of  Lord  Palmerston  and 
with  consent  of  the  Sultan,  but 
lack  of  funds  caused  the  aban- 
donment of  the  enterprise.  Some 
years  later  it  was  revived,  only 
to  meet  with  failure  because  of 
the  completion  of  the  Suez  Canal 
and  the  purchase  of  the  Canal 
by  the  British  Government. 
In  1888,  however,  the  establish- 
ment of  direct  rail  communica- 
tion between  Constantinople  and 
the  capitals  of  Europe  stimulated 
interest  in  the  construction  of 
railways  in  Asiatic  Turkey  and 
caused  the  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid 
to  grant  concessions  for  the 
construction  of  several  important 
lines.  Among  these  concessions 
were  those  for  extensions  to  the 
existing  French-owned  Smyrna- 
Cassaba  line  and  to  the  British- 
owned  Smyrna-Aidin  line;  con- 
cessions for  the  construction  of 
Franco- Belgian  lines  in  Syria 
and  Palestine;  and  the  important 
authorization  of  the  line  to 
Angora,  the  forerunner  of  the 
Bagdad  Railway. 

Although  the  possibility  of  a 
line  from  Constantinople  to 
Bagdad  had  been  discussed 
between  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment and  an  Anglo-American 
syndicate  in  1886,  the  plan  fell 
through  because  of  lack  of  funds. 
In  1888,  however,  a  German 
syndicate  brought  the  Sultan's 
dream  into  the  realm  of  reality 
by  taking  up  the  concession 
which  the  British  were  unable  to 
finance.  Under  the  leadership 
of  the  Deutsche  Bank,  German 
bankers  took  over  the  former 
British  line  from  Haidar  Pasha 
(across  the  Bosporus  from  Con- 
stantinople) to  Ismid  and  im- 
mediately began  construction 
of  an  extension  to  Angora  (later 
to  become  the  capital  of  the 
Nationalist  Government  of  the 
Turkish  Republic).  The  Angora 
line  was  understood  to  be  the 
first  of  a  comprehensive  system 
of  railways  to  be  constructed  by 
the  Anatolian  Railway  Company, 
as  the  German  corporation  was 
called.  In  1895,  in  recognition 
of  its  successful  completion  of  the 
railway  to  Angora,  the  Anatolian 
Railway  Company  was  given  a 
concession  to  build  a  branch  from 
Eski  Shehr  to  Konia,  which  it 
completed   within   three  years. 

During  these  years,  German 
prestige  in  Turkey  was  noticeably 


on  the  increase,  and  in  1898  it 
was  still  further  enhanced  by 
the  visit  of  the  German  Emperor, 
who,  at  Damascus,  proclaimed 
himself  to  be  the  true  friend  of 
the  Turks  and  other  Moslem 
peoples.  Up  to  this  time,  how- 
ever, French  capital  far  exceeded 
German  in  railway  enterprises  in 
Asiatic  Turkey. 

Competition  to  build  the  line 
to  Bagdad  was  keen  between 
Russian,  English,  French,  and 
German  banking  groups;  but  in 
1899  the  Sultan  granted  the  con- 
cession to  the  Anatolian  Railway 
Company,  which  alone  of  all  the 
competitors  agreed  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment and  the  Ottoman  Public 
Debt  Administration  that  the 
line  must  be  a  continuation  of 
the  existing  Anatolian  lines 
rather  than  a  new  railway  from  a 
Syrian  port  to  Bagdad.  The 
German  project  called  for  a  line 
from  Konia  across  the  mountains 
to  Aleppo  (in  Syria),  to  Mosul, 
and  down  the  Tigris  to  Bagdad, 
Basra,  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  For 
political  and  strategic  reasons, 
also,  the  Sultan  was  more  dis- 
posed to  grant  the  concession  to 
German  concessionaires  than  to 
Russian,  British,  or  French 
capitalists. 

When  the  concession  was  defi- 
nitely awarded  on  March  18, 
1902,  the  Ottoman  Government 
agreed  to  furnish  a  kilometric 
guarantee  to  the  Bagdad  Rail- 
way, together  with  grants  of 
public  lands,  the  use  of  mines, 
quarries,  and  timber,  and  other 
subventions  not  unlike  those 
granted  by  Congress  to  the 
American  transcontinental  lines. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Bagdad 
Railway  Company  was  prohib- 
ited from  granting  preferential 
treatment  to  any  shipper,  regard- 
less of  nationality  or  other  con- 
sideration; it  promised  not  to 
encourage  German  or  other 
foreign  colonies  or  settlements 
along  the  railway;  it  agreed  that 
within  five  years  of  the  opening 
of  each  section  of  the  line  the 
operating  staff,  except  the  higher 
officials,  should  be  Ottoman 
subjects;  at  the  expiration  of  the 
concession  it  was  to  surrender  all 
of  its  rights  to  the  Ottoman 
Government. 

The  Bagdad  Railway  Com- 
pany was  incorporated  in  Con- 
stantinople in  March  1903,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Deutsche 
Bank  and  the  Imperial  Ottoman 
Bank.  Almost  immediately  an 
invitation  was  extended  to  Brit- 
ish capitalists  to  participate  in 
the  enterprise,  and  under  the 
watchful  eyes  of  their  respective 
foreign  offices  German,  British, 
and  French  bankers  discussed  the 
details  of  the  proposed  inter- 
nationalization of  the  line.  It 
was  agreed  that  the  three  groups 
were  to  share  equally  in  owner- 
ship and  control  of  the  railway. 


Bagdad  BaHway 


527 


Bagdad  Railway 


under  conditions  which  were  ac- 
ceptable to  the  British  bankers 
and  the  British  foreign  office. 
The  hostile  attitude  of  the  Eng- 
lish press,  however,  compelled 
the  Balfour  Government  to  with- 
draw its  consent,  and  interna- 
tionalization of  the  line,  at  least 
as  far  as  British  capital  was 
concerned,  had  to  be  abandoned. 
The  financing  of  the  road  was 
undertaken  as  follows:  10  per 
cent,  by  the  Ottoman  Govern- 
ment, 10  per  cent,  by  the  Ana- 
tolian Railway  Company,  and 
the  rest  by  an  international  syn- 
dicate headed  by  the  Deutsche 
Bank.  French  interests  were 
said  to  have  contributed  30  per 
cent,  of  the  capital  secured  by 


and  British.  Trade  between 
Germany  and  Turkey  showed  a 
marked  increase,  although  Brit- 
ish trade  continued  to  hold  its 
leadership  and  Italian  trade  grew 
rather  faster  than  the  German. 
German  shipping  lines  estab- 
lished regular  and  efficient  service 
to  Near  Eastern  ports.  Follow- 
ing the  generally  accepted  tactics 
of  European  imperialism,  the 
German  Foreign  Office  took  a 
gradually  increasing  interest  in 
the  fortunes  of  the  country  in 
which  the  capital  of  so  many  of 
its  nationals  was  invested,  and 
substantial  economic  foundations 
were  laid  for  a  subsequent  politi- 
cal and  military  alliance  between 
Turkey  and  Germany.  Through 


Northeastern  Anatolia  except  by 
Russian  capitalists,  or  with  the 
consent  of  the  Russian  Foreign 
Office.  The  Anatolian  and  Bag- 
dad railways  were  hardly  a 
menace  to  Russian  economic 
interest,  but  they  certainly 
would  have  strengthened  Turk- 
ish military  resistance  against 
a  drive  from  the  Caucasus  along 
the  southern  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea  to  Constantinople.  Espe- 
cially did  the  Russians  look  with 
disfavor  upon  the  alarming 
growth  of  German  influence  at 
the  Sublime  Porte.  That  the 
Tsar  did  not  offer  more  serious 
opposition  to  the  construction 
of  the  Bagdad  Railway  was  due 
to  the  rise  of  complications  in 


CASPIAN 
SEA 


The  Bagdad  Railway 


the  international  syndicate.  Of 
the  twenty-seven  members  of  the 
board  of  directors,  eleven  were 
Germans,  eight  French,  four 
Ottoman,  two  Swiss,  one  AUvS- 
trian,  and  one  Italian.  Thus,  al- 
though the  railway  remained  in 
Turco-German  control,  it  was  by 
no  means  a  purely  German  proj- 
ect capable  of  being  manipulated 
at  will  by  the  German  Foreign 
Office. 

As  the  construction  of  the  Bag- 
dad Railway  progressed,  German 
economic  penetration  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire  became  more  po- 
tent. German  banks  opened 
branches  throughout  the  Near 
East,  a  field  which  had  hitherto 
been  preempted  by  the  French 


schools  and  religious  institutions, 
as  well  as  through  business  and 
banking,  German  influence  was 
spread,  and  the  Bagdad  Railway 
became  the  symbol  of  German 
prestige — das  JDeutschtum — in  the 
Near  East.  From  a  railway  it 
became  a  state  of  mind  and  one  of 
the  stakes  of  pre-war  diplomacy. 

Meanwhile,  the  Entente  Pow- 
ers had  come  to  consider  the 
Bagdad  Railway  less  a  private 
busincvss  undertaking  than  a 
matter  of  serious  international 
concern.  Russian  opposition  had 
been  pronounced  from  the  begin- 
ning; in  fact,  in  1900  the  Tsar 
had  practically  compelled  the 
Sultan  to  promise  that  no  rail- 
ways would  be  constructed  in 


the  Far  East,  the  crushing  defeats 
administered  by  Japan  in  1904- 
05,  friction  with  Great  Britain 
in  Persia  and  Central  Asia,  and 
the  outbreak  of  a  troublesome 
revolutionary  movement  at 
home.  The  Russian  press,  how- 
ever, called  upon  their  ally 
France  to  show  its  loyalty  by 
refusing  to  help  finance  the  proj- 
ect. 

Opposition  in  France  was  based 
upon  economic,  political,  and 
religious  grounds.  But  there  was 
a  considerable  group  of  French- 
men with  investments  in  the 
Near  East  who  believed  that  the 
railway  would  increase  Turkish 
prosperity  in  general  and  the 
value  of  their  own  securities  in 


Vol.  I. — March  '25 


Bagdad  Railway 


528 


Baggage 


particular.  For  some  time,  there- 
fore, the  French  Government 
was  disposed  to  maintain  an  atti- 
tude of  neutrahty  toward  the 
Bagdad  project.  In  October, 
1903,  however,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  French  Government,  the 
Paris  Bourse  excluded  all  Bagdad 
Railway  securities  from  the  pri- 
vileges of  the  exchange.  In  this 
action  the  hand  of  the  Govern- 
ment was  forced  by  the  insistence 
of  the  press  that  French  and 
Russian  interests  were  being 
menaced  by  the  Bagdad  Railway 
and  that  German  enterprises  in 
Turkey  should  be  obstructed  by 
every  means  possible.  In  spite 
of  the  Government's  attitude, 
however,  French  financiers  re- 
tained their  interests  in  the  Bag- 
dad Railway  Company,  and  it 
was  rumored  that  two  important 
cabinet  officers  were  purchasers 
of  stock  in  the  enterprise. 

British  objections  to  the  Bag- 
dad Railway  were  not  so  much 
directed  at  the  project  itseli  as 
at  the  rising  economic  and 
political  prestige  of  Germany. 
Before  1898,  British  statesmen 
had  been  inclined  to  encourage 
German  ventures  in  the  Near 
East  because  of  the  discomfort 
which  they  would  cause  France 
and  Russia.  But  after  the  Boer 
War  and  coincident  with  the 
great  German  naval  bills  of  the 
years  following  1898,  British 
opinion  gradually  came  to  be 
more  fearful  of  Germany  than 
of  the  traditional  rivals,  France 
and  Russia.  Only  a  year  after 
the  British  Government  rejected 
the  offer  for  internationalization 
of  the  Bagdad  Railway,  the 
entente  cordiale  was  negotiated 
with  France  and  the  way  was 
paved  for  agreement  with  Russia. 
After  1904,  and  more  particularly 
after  1907,  Britain's  policy  in 
the  Near  East  was  distinctly 
pro-French  and  pro-Russian; 
therefore  anti-German.  Further- 
more, the  proposed  linking  of 
the  Hedjaz  Railway  with  the 
Bagdad  line  led  many  nervous 
persons  in  England  to  believe 
that  German  interests  in  railway 
construction  in  Turkey  were 
chiefly  concerned  with  preparing 
for  an  attack  on  'the  jugular 
vein  of  the  British  Empire,'  the 
Suez  Canal.  In  spite  of  British, 
French,  and  Russian  opposition, 
however,  and  in  spite  of  the 
dislocations  occasioned  in  the 
Near  East  by  the  Young  Turk 
Revolution  of  1908-09,  theTurco- 
Italian  War  of  1910-11,  and  the 
tv/o  Balkan  Wars  of  1912-1.3, 
the  German  concessionaires 
pushed  forward  construction  of 
the  line  and  successfully  carried 
out  many  subsidiary  enterprises, 
as  the  irrigation  of  the  Konia 
plain.  Had  the  Great  War  not 
intervened,  the  German  railway 
lines  in  Turkey  would  have  l.^een 
a  powerful  factor  in  increasing 
security  and   prosperity  in  an 

Vol.  I. — March  '25 


Ottoman  Empire  which  was 
sadly  in  need  of  both. 

On  the  eve  of  the  Great  War 
the  international  animosities  aris- 
ing out  of  the  Bagdad  contro- 
versy had  been  almost  completely 
adjusted.  In  1910  Russia  and 
Germany  had  completed  the  so- 
called  Potsdam  Agreement,  by 
which  Russian  objections  to  the 
Bagdad  line  were  withdrawn  in 
return  for  German  recognition  of 
Russia's  sphere  of  interest  in 
Persia.  In  February  1914,  Fran- 
co-German differences  in  the 
Near  East  were  in  large  measure 
reconciled  by  an  agreement  of 
Paris  and  Berlin  bankers,  ap- 
proved by  their  respective  foreign 
offices,  by  which  French  diplo- 
matic resistance  to  the  Bagdad 
Railway  was  withdrawn  in  re- 
turn for  certain  specific  promises 
regarding  the  promotion  of 
Franco-German  economic  in- 
terests in  Northern  and  North- 
eastern Anatolia.  During  Feb- 
ruary and  March  1914,  German 
and  British  capitalists  interested 
in  railways,  navigation  enter- 
prises, and  oil  concessions  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire  carried 
on  a  series  of  successful  negotia- 
'tions  for  the  adjustment  of  over- 
lapping and  competitive  claims. 
These  agreements,  approved  by 
the  German  and  British  Govern- 
ments, led  directly  to  the  secret 
Anglo-German  Agreement  of 
June  15,  1914,  which  settled 
amicably  practically  every  out- 
standing question  between  Eng- 
land and  Germany  in  the  Near 
East.  Two  weeks  later,  however, 
the  murder  of  the  Archduke 
Francis  Ferdinand  at  Serajevo 
precipitated  a  crisis  which  was 
destined  to  throw  the  Near  East, 
along  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
into  the  melting  pot  of  the 
Great  War. 

Unsuccessful  attempts  were 
made  by  the  Allied  Governments 
during  and  after  the  Great  War 
to  divide  among  themselves  the 
Bagdad  Railway  and  other  Ger- 
man economic  rights  in  Turkey. 
By  a  series  of  secret  treaties  from 
1915  to  1917  and  by  the  secret 
Tripartite  Agreement  appended 
to  the  Treaty  of  Sevres,  1920,  the 
victors  sought  to  share  the  spoils 
according  to  their  several  appe- 
tites. In  this,  however,  they 
reckoned  without  Mustapha  Ke- 
mal  Pasha  and  the  Turkish 
Nationalists,  whose  resurgent 
power  led  to  the  striking  diplo- 
matic victory  of  Lausanne  which 
upset  all  pre-arranged  plans.  At 
present  (1925)  Turkey  herself 
retains  undisputed  control  of  the 
Anatolian  sections  of  the  Bagdad 
line,  while  the  British,  by  pur- 
chasing German  interests  in  the 
Bank  fur  orienlalischen  Eisenbah- 
nen,  a  holding  company  of  Swiss 
nationality,  appear  to  have  ac- 
quired ownership  of  the  Mesopo- 
tamian  sections.  Because  of  the 
reparations    provisions    of  the 


Treaty  of  Versailles,  however,  it 
doubtless  will  be  necessary  to 
arbitrate  the  question  of  the 
validity  of  the  British  and  Turk- 
ish claims. 

Consult  E.  M.  Earle's  Turkey, 
the  Great  Powers,  and  the  Bagdad 
Railway  (1923),  the  most  recent 
and  most  complete  account,  by 
an  American.  Consult  also  A. 
Cheradame's  Le  chemin  de  fer  de 
Bagdad  (1905),  by  a  Frenchman; 
P.  Rohrbach's  Die  Bagdadbahn 
(1902)  and  C.  A.  Schaefer's  Die 
Enlwicklung  der  Bagdadbahn- 
politik  (1916),  by  Germans;  D. 
Eraser's  The  Short  Cut  to  India 
(1909)  and  Sir  Valentine  Chirol's 
The  Middle  Eastern  Question 
(1905),  by  Englishmen. 

Bage,  ba-zha',  town,  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil,  175  miles 
west  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  city. 
It  is  the  commercial  centre  of  an 
extensive  district,  and  is  of  mili- 
tary importance  owing  to  its  loca- 
tion near  the  frontier  of  Uruguay. 
Pop.  25,000. 

B  a  g  e  h  o  t ,  baj  'ut,  Walter 
(1826-77),  English  economist, 
journalist,  and  critic,  was 
born  in  Langport,  in  Somerset- 
shire. He  was  graduated  with 
high  honors  from  the  University 
of  London  in  1846.  Though 
called  to  the  bar  in  1852,  he 
joined  his  father  in  the  business 
of  banker  at  Langport.  In  1855 
he  became  a  contributor  to  and 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  National 
Review,  and  from  1860  to  the  end 
of  his  life  he  was  also  editor  of  the 
Economist.  His  most  important 
works  on  economic  and  political 
subjects  are  Physics  and  Politics 
(1869);  Lombard  Street  (1873),  a 
fresh  and  lucid  description  of  the 
money  market;  and  The  English 
Constitution  (1867),  a  keen  analy- 
sis of  the  English  system  of  gov- 
ernment, widely  used  as  a  text- 
book. After  Bagehot's  death 
two  volumes  of  Literary  Studies 
(1879)  and  one  of  Economic  Stud- 
ies (1880)  were  published.  His 
literary  essays  are  brilliant  and 
humorous  in  style,  though  not 
without  technical  defects.  Their 
sanity,  breadth  of  view,  and 
keenness  of  insight  make  them 
valuable  contributions  to  English 
critical  literature.  Consult  Me- 
moir prefixed  to  Literary  Studies 
Birrell's  Miscellanies;  Duff's  Out 
of  the  Past ;  Stephen's  Studies  of 
a  Biographer. 

Bagelen,  bag'e-len,  a  residency 
of  Central  Java,  East  Indies,  on 
the  south  coast.  It  is  very  fertile, 
and  produces  rice,  sugar,  tobacco, 
coffee,  and  indigo.  Area,  1,323 
sq.  m.    Pop.  about  1,500,000. 

Bagelkhand.    See  Baghel- 

KHAND, 

Bag'gage  is  the  personal  prop- 
erty which  a  traveller  may  prop- 
erly carry  with  him  to  minister  to 
the  comfort  and  convenience  of 
his  journey.  As  usually  defined, 
the  term  comprehends  not  only 
the  clothing  of  the  traveller,  but 


Baggage  Military 


528  A 


Bagpipe 


a  reasonable  amount  of  jewelry 
and  money.  Innkeepers  and  com- 
mon carriers  of  passengers  are 
bound  to  receive  such  baggage  as 
the  traveller  brings  with  him,  but 
not  general  merchandise,  furni- 
ture, or  household  goods.  They 
are  liable  for  the  loss  of  baggage 
proper,  but  not  for  other  goods, 
unless  lost  or  injured  through 
their  negligence.    See  Carrier. 

Baggage,  Military.  See  Field 
Equipment. 

Bag'gara,  Arab  tribes  living 
chiefly  in  Southern  Kordofan,  in 
the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.  They 
are  hunters  and  herdsmen  and 
own  large  herds  of  humped  cat- 
tle, horses,  and  sheep.  They  are 
a  warlike  people  and  in  the 
Mahdi's  revolt  against  the  Egyp- 
tians (1882)  constituted  his 
greatest  strength. 

Baggesen,  bag'ge-sm,  Jens 
Emmanuel  (1764-1826),  Danish 
poet,  was  born  in  Korsor.  His 
early  poems  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Duke  of  Augusten- 
burg,  who  sent  him  to  study  and 
travel  in  France,  Switzerland, 
and  Germany,  where  he  met  the 
most  celebrated  poets  and  philo- 
sophers. From  1800  to  1811  he 
lived  in  Paris,  and  from  1811  to 
1813  he  was  professor  of  the 
Danish  language  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Kiel.  Upon  his  return  to 
Copenhagen  he  became  involved 
in  a  literary  feud  with  Oehlen- 
schlager  (q.  v.),  the  leader  of  the 
romantic  school,  and  in  1820  left 
Denmark  and  retired  to  Ham- 
burg, where  he  died.  Baggesen 
was  a  satirical  humorist  of  the 
first  rank,  and  a  perfect  master  of 
his  native  tongue.  His  best 
works  are  Komiske  Foflcellenger 
(1785);  Labyrinthen  eller  Digler- 
vandringer  (1792-3),  recounting 
his  impressions  as  a  traveller;  the 
polemical  poems,  Gjen  ganger  en 
and  Per  Vrdvler  (1816);  Parthe- 
nais  Oder  die  Alpenreise  (1804); 
a  humorous  epic,  Adam  und  Eve 
(1826).  His  collected  writings 
were  published  as  Danish  Works, 
German  Works,  and  Skrifter. 

Baghal,  ba-gal',  Bagul,  or 
Baghul,  a  hill  state  in  the  Pun- 
jab; area,  124  sci.  m.  The  capi- 
tal is  Arki,  20  miles  northwest  of 
Simla.    Pop.  26,000. 

Baghelkhand,  bag-el-kund', 
district  under  the  British  Central 
Indian  Agency.  Its  area  is 
14,706  square  miles,  of  which 
13,000  belong  to  the  native  state 
of  Rewa,  while  the  remainder  is 
divided  among  eleven  small 
holdings.  The  country  is  tra- 
versed by  the  East  Indian  Rail- 
way. There  are  said  to  be  ex- 
tensive ancient  remains,  but 
these  have  not  been  fully  ex- 
plored.    Pop.   (1921)  1,638,623. 

Bagheria,  ba-ga-re'a,  or  Ba- 
Garia,  town,  Sicily,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Palermo,  8  miles  by 
rail  southeast  of  Palermo,  and  2 
miles  from  the  north  coast  of 
Sicily.    It    contc^ins    the  now 


deserted  villas  of  many  Sicilian 
nobles.    Pop.  21,500. 

Bagbirmi,  ba-ger'me,  or  Bag- 
IRMI,  territory  (sultanate),  Cen- 
tral Africa,  in  the  Chad  Terri- 
tory, French  Equatorial  Africa, 
with  an  area  of  about  71,000 
square  miles.  It  is  a  fairly  fer- 
tile plateau,  about  1,000  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  Barmaghe 
(Mohammedan  negroes)  are  the 
dominant  race.  Pennisetum,  in- 
digo, and  cotton  are  cultivated. 
Checkna  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
about  1,000,000. 

Baghistan.    See  Behistun. 

Bagimont's  Roll,  baj'i- 
monts,  or  Bagimond's  Roll,  an 
assessment  roll  of  Scotch  bene- 
fices made  by  the  Italian  Baji- 
mont  de  Vicci,  who  was  sent  by 
Pope  Gregory  x.  to  Scotland,  to 
collect  a  tithe  for  the  Crusade. 
It  remained  the  basis  on  which 
Scottish  livings  were  taxed  until 
the  Reformation.  So  far  as  is 
known,  no  contemporary  copy 
is  in  existence.  There  is  a  late 
MS.  copy  in  the  Advocates'  Li- 
brary, Edinburgh. 

BagnacavallOjba-nya-ka-val'- 
y5  (anc.  Tiberiacum),  old  town, 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Emilia, 
about  11  miles  west  of  Ravenna, 
with  ancient  walls  and  a  fine 
cathedral.    Pop.  16,000. 

Bagnara  Calabra,  ban-ya'ra 
ka-la'bra,  town,  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Reggio  di  Calabria, 
Italy,  on  the  west  coast,  15  miles 
by  rail  northeast  of  Reggio.  It 
was  founded  by  Robert  Guiscard. 
It  suffered  from  an  earthquake 
in  1783.     Pop.  12,000. 

Bagneres  de  Bigorre,  ba-nyar' 
debl-gor'  (Latin  A  quensis  Vicus), 
town,  France,  in  the  department 
of  Hautes-Pyrenees,  on  the 
Adour  River;  12  miles  south  of 
Tarbes.  It  has  hot  mineral 
springs  (90°-124^  F.)  and  is  visited 
annually  by  some  25,000  persons. 
It  is  famous,  also,  for  its  fine 
scenery  and  its  winter  sports. 
Pop.  (1921)  14,341. 

Bagneres  de  Luchon,  '  lu- 
shoh'  (Latin  Aquoe  Onesios),  town, 
France,  in  the  department  of 
Haute-Garonne,  2,065  feet  above 
sea  level;  72  miles  southwest  of 
Toulouse.  It  has  sulphur  springs 
(62°-151°F.),  and  is  visited  by 
some  40,000  persons  annually. 
In  the  new  section  of  the  town 
are  handsome  buildings  and 
promenades.    Pop.  3,500. 

Bagnes,  ban  (French;  Italian 
bagno),  French  convict  prisons 
established  at  Toulon  (1748), 
Brest  (1750),  Rochefort  (1767), 
and  elsewhere,  on  the  abolition 
of  the  galleys.  They  were  done 
away  with  in  1852,  the  convicts 
being  thenceforward  transported 
to  French  Guiana  and  New 
Caledonia.  Consult  Zaccone's 
Histoire  des  Bagnes. 

Bagni  di  Lucca,  bii'nye  di 
luk'ka,  village,  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Lucca,  11  miles  north  of 
Lucca.    Its  springs,  impregnated 


with  sulphate  o.  magnesia  and 
carbonate  of  Hme  (100°-136°  F.), 
have  been  known  and  visited 
since  the  thirteenth  century;  they 
figure  in  Heine's  Reisebilder. 
Pop.  15,000. 

Bagni  di  San  Giuliano,  san 
joo-li-a'no,  mineral  baths  in  Italy, 
5  miles  northeast  of  Pisa.  They 
were  famous  in  antiquity,  and 
are  still  used  (temp.  80.5°-104° 
F.).    Pop.  22,000. 

Bagno  a  Bipoli,  ba'nyo  a 
re'po-li,  residential  suburb,  with 
baths,  of  Florence,  Italy.  Pop. 
17,000. 

Bagno  in  Bomagna,  ro-man' 
ya,  town,  Italy,  on  the  north 
slope  of  the  Etruscan  Apennines, 
in  the  province  of  Florence.  Its 
hot  springs  (105°-110  F.)  con- 
tain natron.  Pop.  10,000. 

Bag'ot,  Sir  Charles  (1781- 
1843),  British  diplomatist  and 
administrator,  was  first  in  the 
public  service  as  under-secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs  (1807). 
In  1814  he  became  minister  to 
France;  in  1816,  minister  to  the 
United  States;  in  1820,  ambassa- 
dor to  Russia;  and  in  1824,  am- 
bassador to  Holland.  While  he 
was  minister  to  the  United  States 
the  treaty  known  as  the  Rush- 
Bagot  Convention  (q.  v.)  was 
negotiated  (1817),  by  an  ex- 
change of  notes  with  Richard 
Rush  (q.  v.),  then  acting  Secre- 
tary of  State.  The  agreement, 
which  is  still  in  force,  placed  a 
limit  on  the  number,  size,  and 
equipment  of  war  vessels  which 
each  nation  should  maintain  on 
the  Great  Lakes.  In  1841, 
Lord  Bagot  succeeded  Lord 
Sydenham  as  governor-general 
of  the  Canadas. 

Bag'pipe,  a  musical  reed  wind 
instrument  of  unknown  origin,  is 
believed  to  have  been  in  existence 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  at 
various  times  has  been  in  use  in 
nearly  every  European  country. 
It  was  common  in  Germany  and 
England  as  early  as  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  is  referred  to  by 
Chaucer,  Spenser,  and  Shake- 
speare; and  is  still  used  in  Italy, 
in  Southern  France,  and  in  Great 
Britain  (Ireland,  Scotland,  and 
Northumberland).  The  High- 
land bagpipe,  which  is  now  the 
most  familiar,  consists  of  an  air- 
tight leathern  bag,  a  wind-tube 
for  blowing,  three  wooden  pipes 
called  drones,  and  the  chanter, 
a  pipe  with  notes,  which  produces 
the  melody,  the  compass  con- 
sisting of  nine  notes  only.  In 
playing,  the  drones  point  over 
the  left  shoulder,  the  bag  is  held 
under  the  left  arm,  the  blow-pipe 
is  taken  between  the  lips,  and  the 
fingers  manipulate  the  notes  of 
the  chanter.  Occasional  'flour- 
ishing- or  ornamental  notes  in- 
troduced by  a  player  are  known 
as  warblers.  The  Irish  bagpipe, 
with  a  much  more  elaborate 
chanter,  is  a  very  sweet-sounding 
instrument,  but  is  now  rarely  seen. 

Vol.  I.— March  '25 


Bagratldae 


528  B 


Bahamas 


Bagratldae,  ba-grat'i-de,  or 
Bagratides,  a  dynasty  of  Ar- 
menian rulers,  of  whom  the  first 
was  Ashod  i.  'the  Great,'  who 
was  recognized  as  sovereign 
prince  of  Armenia  by  Haroun 
al-Raschid  in  885  a.d.  The 
Bagratides  were  overthrown  by 
the  Seljuks  toward  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century,  though  a 
branch  line  ruled  over  Little 
Armenia  until  1375.  Another 
branch  ruled  in  Imeritia,  in 
Georgia,  down  to  1802,  when 
Georgia  was  annexed  to  the 
Russian  Empire. 

Bagration,  ba-gra-te-on', 
Peter  Ivanovitch,  Prince 
(1765-1812),  a  Russian  general, 
descendant  of  the  Bagratidae. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1782;  be- 
came colonel  at  the  siege  of 
Ochakov  (1788);  served  with 
Suvoroff  in  Poland  (1794),  and  in 
Italy  (1799),  when  he  captured 
Brescia;  and  fought  in  the  dis- 
astrous campaign  in  Switzerland. 
In  the  War  of  1805  he  covered  the 
retreat  of  Kutusoff's  army  before 
Murat,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  Austerlitz  (1805),  and  at  Eylau 
and  Friedland  (1807);  took  part 
in  the  war  in  Finland  (1808),  and 
in  Turkey  (1809).  In  1812  he 
was  commander  of  the  Russian 
army  of  the  west;  was  defeated 
at  Mohilev  (July  25),  and  was 
mortally  wounded  at  Borodino. 

Bagshot  Beds,  an  important 
group  of  rocks  found  in  the 
Eocene  of  the  Thames  basin, 
where  they  rest  upon  the  London 
clay,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
They  are  shallow  marine  and 
fresh-water  deposits,  consisting 
of  sands,  layers  of  flint  pebbles, 
and  occasional  thin  seams  of 
pipe-clay. 

Bagster,  Samuel  (1772-1851), 
English  publisher  of  Bibles,  chief- 
ly polyglot,  and  New  Testaments 
in  Syriac  and  Hebrew.  He  also 
issued  the  famous  English  Hex- 
apla  (1827).  The  firm  still  exists, 
under  the  title  of  Samuel  Bagster 
and  Sons,  London. 

Baguet,  ba-get',  or  Baguette 
(architectural),  a  small,  round, 
convex  moulding,  called  a  bead- 
when  plain,  and  a  chaplet  when 
carved  and  enriched. 

Bagul.    See  Baghal. 

Bag  worm,  Basketworm,  or 
Dropworm  (Thyridopleryx  ephe- 
meroeformis) ,  a  caterpillar  moth 
belonging  to  the  family  Psy- 
chidae,  common  throughout  the 
United  States,  particularly  in  the 
south.  As  a  protection  for  its 
body  the  larva  spins  a  bag  of  silk 
and  bits  of  leaves,  from  which 
only  the  head  projects.  After 
about  three  weeks  the  male 
emerges  as  a  small  black  moth. 
The  female,  which  is  wingless, 
never  leaves  the  bag  but  deposits 
in  it  from  10  to  200  eggs,  and 
these  hatch  the  following  spring. 
The  bagworm  feeds  on  a  variety 
of  trees,  including  the  maple, 
arbor  vitae,  and  cedar,  causing 

Vol.  I. — March  '25 


extensive  defoliation.  Removal 
of  the  bags  is  the  best  method  of 
destruction;  arsenate  of  lead 
used  as  a  spray  is  also  effective. 

Baha,  ba-ha',  Abdul,  or  Ab- 
bas Effendi  (1844-1921),  leader 
of  the  Babai  movement,  was 
born  in  Shiraz,  Persia,  the 
eldest  son  of  the  prophet  Baha- 
Ullah  (q.  v.),  upon  whose  death 
(1892)  he  became  the  leader  of 
the  Bahais.  He  was  proscribed 
by  the  authorities  and  spent  a 
great  part  of  his  life  in  exile  or 
prison,  but  was  released  in  1907 
and  thereafter  lived  in  Haifa.  In 
1921  he  visited  the  United  States. 
He  was  a  man  of  learning  and 
character  and  his  home  was  a 
sort  of  Mecca  for  Bahais  through- 
out the  world.  His  writings  in- 
clude many  letters,  known  as  the 
Tablets  of  Abdul  Baha,  which 
were  written  to  individuals  and 
assemblies,  and  translations  of 
his  teachings,  talks,  and  prayers. 

Bahadur,  ba-ha'aur.  Shah 
(Abu-l-MozafTar  Siradsch  ed-din 
Mohammed)  (1767-1862),  the 
last  of  the  Grand  Moguls  of  the 
House  of  Tamerlane,  and  leader 
of  a  Mohammedan  revolt  against 
the  British  (1857).  After  the 
British  capture  of  Delhi,  he  was 
taken  prisoner  in  the  tomb  of 
Humayun,  where  he  had  sought 
refuge.  He  was  tried  and  ban- 
ished to  Rangoon,  where  he  died. 
He  was  well  known  as  a  poet, 
some  of  his  verses  having  been 
pubUshed  under  the  title  Safar 
(Victory). 

Baha'ism,  or  Behaism,  a  de- 
velopment of  Babism  which  ac- 
knowledges Houssein  Ali  (1817- 
1892)  as  the  Baha  Ullah  (q.  v.) 
whose  coming  was  prophesied  by 
the  Bab.  The  basic  principles 
of  the  Bahai  religion  are  the  one- 
ness of  mankind,  the  independent 
investigation  of  truth,  the  accord 
of  religion  with  science  and  rea- 
son, the  unity  of  all  religions,  the 
equaUty  of  the  sexes,  universal 
peace,  universal  education,  an 
international  auxiliary  language, 
and  an  international  tribunal. 
The  followers  of  Baha  Ullah  in- 
creased so  rapidly  that  in  a  short 
time,  although  theirs  was  a 
peaceful  mission,  the  Mohamme- 
dan authorities  became  alarmed 
and  they  were  exiled  to  Acca  on 
the  shores  of  Syria.  Some  years 
before  his  death  Baha  Ullah 
declared  his  son  Abbas  Effendi 
(Abdul  Baha,  the  'Servant  of 
God ')  to  be  his  successor  (see 
Baha,  Abdul);  Abdul,  who  died 
in  1921,  named  his  grandson 
Shoghi  Effendi  as  head  of  the 
executive  work  of  the  cause. 

The  Bahai  movement  has 
spread  throughout  Persia  and 
other  Eastern  countries,  Europe, 
Canada,  and  the  United  States, 
and  numbers  over  1,000, 000  ad- 
herents. A  Bahai  temple,  stand- 
ing for  unity  between  all  races, 
creeds,  and  classes,  is  being 
erected  in  Chicago  by  voluntary 


contributions  from  all  over  the 
world;  its  cost  is  estimated  at 
over  a  million  and  a  half  dollars. 

Consult  Phelps'  Life  and 
Teaching  of  Abbas  Effendi; 
Chase's  The  Bahai  Revolution; 
Cheyne's  The  Reconciliation  of 
Races  and  Religions  (1914); 
Wilson's  Bahaism  and  Its  Claims 
(1915);  Browne's  Material  for 
the  Study  of  the  Bahai  Religion 
(1918);  UoWeys  Bahai,  The  Spirit 
of  the  Age  (1921). 

Baha' mas,  or  Lucayos,  the 
most  northerly  group  of  the  West 
Indies,  extending  780  miles 
between  Florida  and  the  east 
end  of  Santo  Domingo.  They 
comprise  29  inhabited  islands 
and  a  large  number  of  islets  and 
reefs  called  keys,  with  an  area 
of  4,404  square  miles.  The 
principal  inhabited  islands  are 
New  Providence,  Abaco,  Har- 
bour Island,  Eleuthera,  Mari- 
guana  (Mayaguana),  Ragged, 
Exuma,  Long,  Crooked,  Cat, 
Watling  and  Andros  Islands, 
and  Great  Bahama,  most  of  them 
ports  of  entry.  They  are  gener- 
ally long  and  narrow,  covered 
with  low,  rounded  hills  of  wind- 
blown shell  and  coral  sand.  The 
climate  is  agreeable  and  health- 
ful, and  the  islands  are  popular 
as  a  winter  resort.  From  Novem- 
ber to  May  the  temperature 
varies  from  60°  to  75°  f.  ;  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year  from  75° 
to  85°  F. 

The  Bahamas  contain  no 
mineral  deposits,  but  a  good 
variety  of  building  stone  is  pro- 
duced. The  soil  is  fairly  fertile, 
and  small  fruits,  vegetables, 
pineapples,  oranges,  cocoanuts, 
grapes,  and  tobacco  are  grown. 
Sisal  hemp  cultivation  is  of  im- 
portance, over  35,000  acres 
being  under  cultivation  in  1920. 
Other  leading  occupations  are 
sponge  and  pearl  fishing.  In 
1922  the  exports,  chiefiy  sponges, 
fibre,  ambergris,  and  shells,  were 
valued  at  more  than  £1,827,700, 
and  the  imports,  principally 
textiles  and  flour,  at  almost 
£2,000,000.  Nassau,  on  New 
Providence,  is  the  capital,  and 
the  only  town  of  importance. 
Pop.  (1921)  53,031. 

The  Bahamas  were  discovered 
by  Christopher  Columbus  in 
1492;  the  first  land  sighted  is 
a  matter  of  dispute  but  is  gener- 
ally conceded  to  have  been 
Watling's  Island.  An  English 
vsettlement  was  made  at  New 
Providence  in  1629,  but  was 
abandoned  in  1703.  In  1718 
the  islands  were  again  taken  by 
the  British,  whose  claim  has  been 
undisputed  since  1783.  During 
the  American  Civil  War,  Nassau 
was  the  headquarters  of  the 
blockade  runners  and  became 
exceedingly  prosperous.  The  Cai- 
cos  and  Turks  islands  were 
politically  separated  from  the 
Bahamas  in  1848  and  are  ad- 
ministered by  Jamaica. 


Baha  Ullah 


528  C 


Bahia  Honda 


Baha  Ullah,  or  MiRZA  Hous- 
SEiN  Ali  (1817-1892),  Persian 
prophet,  was  born  near  Teheran, 
Persia.  On  becoming  a  follower 
of  Babiism  (q.  v.).  he  was  im- 
prisoned (1852),  deprived  of  his 
property,  and  sent  to  Bagdad,  to 
Constantinople,  to  Adrianople, 
and  finally  (1868)  to  the  Turkish 
penal  colony  in  Acca,  Syria, 
where  he  remained  a  prisoner 
with  his  family  until  his  death. 

In  1862,  Houssein  Ali  declared 
himself  to  be  Baha  Ullah  ('He 
Whom  God  Should  Manifest'), 
predicted  by  the  Bab,  a  claim 
which  is  now  recognized  in  many 
lands.  Among  his  translated 
writings  are  the  Book  of  I^han 


Bahawalpur,  city,  capital  of 
the  native  state  of  Bahawalpur 
(q.  v.),  on  a  branch  of  the  Indus 
River  and  the  Northwestern 
Railway.  It  is  an  important 
trade  centre,  the  chief  industries 
being  gold-enamelling  and  the 
manufacture  of  silks,  chintzes, 
carpets,  and  pottery.  The  city 
has  two  hospitals,  the  Sadik 
Egerton  college,  an  orphanage, 
and  a  palace,  recently  con- 
structed.   Pop.  (1921)  18,494. 

Bahia,  ba-e'a,  mountainous 
state  of  Brazil,  stretching  inland 
from  the  Atlantic  and  occupying 
the  middle  and  northern  parts 
of  the  Sao  Francisco  valley,  with 
an  area  of  164,601  square  miles. 


has  been  extensively  improved, 
so  that  the  largest  ocean  liners 
can  come  up  to  the  docks.  The 
city  consists  of  two  parts,  an 
upper  and  a  lower,  connected 
by  means  of  hydraulic  elevators. 
The  lower  part,  or  business  sec- 
tion, has  narrow,  dirty  streets  and 
poor  sanitation,  but  the  upper, 
residental  section  is  clean  and 
cool,  with  well  paved  streets  and 
handsome  buildings.  It  con- 
tains the  cathedral,  the  finest 
ecclesiastical  building  in  Brazil, 
the  archbishop's  palace,  and  the 
public  library.  There  are  also 
a  university,  medical  college, 
normal  school,  school  of  fine 
arts,  and  a  museum.    Bahia  is 


I'hoto  from  PuOlisners  I'/ioio  iiervict. 


(1904);  Les  Preceptes  du  Be- 
ha'isme  (1906).    See  Bahaism. 

Bahawalpur,  ba-ha'wul-pobr', 
native  state  of  India,  1.5,003 
square  miles  in  area,  under  the 
political  control  of  the  Punjab 
government.  It  is  largely  desert, 
only  about  one-fifth  being  culti- 
vated. There  is  a  deficiency  of 
rain  and  of  streams,  but  in  the 
eastern  part  irrigation  canals 
make  possible  the  production  of 
wheat,  rice,  and  millet.  The 
manufacture  of  silk  is  an  im- 
portant industry.  The  North- 
western Railway  traverses  the 
state.  The  capital  is  Bahawal- 
pur (q.v.).  The  rulers,  Abbasi 
Daudputras,  claim  descent  from 
theAbbasid  khalifs  of  Egypt.  Pop. 
(1921)  781,191, 


The  Bahamas;  A  Street  in  Nassau 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupa- 
tion of  the  large  negro  popula- 
tion. Sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  cocoa, 
tobacco,  and  rubber  are  raised 
in  the  eastern  part,  and  grazing 
is  carried  on  in  the  west.  Dia- 
monds are  obtained  from  the 
mines  of  Sincora  and  Lenges. 
There  are  several  whaling  sta- 
tions along  the  coast.  Bahia 
is  the  capital.  Pop.  (1920) 
3,334,465. 

Bahia,  or  Sao  Salvador  da 
Bahia,  city,  Brazil,  capital  of 
the  state  of  Bahia  and  an  archie- 
piscopal  see,  is  situated  on  Bahia 
de  Todos  os  Santos  (All  Saints' 
Bay);  400  miles  southwest  of 
Pernambuco.  It  is  an  important 
railway  centre  and  has  a  fine 
deep  harbor,  which  since  1909 


the  centre  of  the  tobacco,  sugar, 
and  cocoa  trade,  and  exports, 
also,  rubber,  piassava,  and  tropi- 
cal fruits.  It  was  founded  in 
1510  and  from  1549  to  1763  was 
the  capital  of  the  country. 
Pop.  (1920)  283,422. 

Bahia  Blanca,  seaport,  Ar- 
gentina, in  the  province  of 
Buenos  Aires,  447  miles  by  rail 
southwest  of  Buenos  Aires.  It 
is  the  shipping  centre  of  the 
southern  part  of  the  province, 
being  known  as  the  'Liverpool 
of  the  South.'  Large  sums  have 
been  spent  on  the  harbor.  There 
is  traflfic  in  grain  and  wool.  Pop. 
(1914)  44,143. 

Bahia  Honda,  on'da  ('deep 
port'),  seaport  in  Pinar  del  Rio, 
Cuba,  53  miles  west  of  Havana. 

Vol.  I.— March  '25 


Bahnasa 


528  D 


BalleF 


It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  with 
a  depth  of  IS  to  36  feet.  There 
are  sugar,  tobacco,  and  mining 
industries.  It  is  a  U.  S.  Navy 
coaling  station.  Pop.  (1919) 
1,402. 

Bahnasa,  or  Behnesa.  See 

OXYRHYNCHUS. 

Bahr,  bar,  Arabic  term  con- 
noting river  or  lake — e.g.  Bahr- 
el  Abiad  (White  River). 

Bahr,  Hermann  (1863-  ), 
Austrian  critic,  journalist,  and 
dramatist,  was  born  in  Lin,  and 
studied  at  the  Universities  of 
Vienna,  Gratz,  Czernowitz,  and 
Berlin.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders 
during  the  nineties  of  the  revolt 
against  naturalism  in  German 
literature,  and  directed  with 
others  the  'Free  Stage'  in  Berlin. 
Among  his  plays,  novels,  and 
short  stories  are  Dora  (1893); 
Renaissance  (18  9  7);  Wiener 
Theater  (1899);  Bildung  (1900); 
Premieren  (1901);  Di  Krampus 
(1901);  Die  Andere  (1905);  Die 
Stimmen  des  Bluts  (1909);  Das 
Konzert  (1909);  O  Mensch  (1910); 
Inventur  (1912);  Josephine 
(1913);  Das  Phantom  (1913); 
Der  Querulant  (1914) ;  Die  Stimme 
(1917);  Der  Unmensch  (1919); 
Summula  (1921). 

Bahr,  Johann  Christian  Fe- 
lix (1798-1872),  German  philol- 
ogist, was  born  in  Darmstadt. 
He  was  educated  at  Heidelberg, 
and  became  professor  of  classical 
philology  there  in  1821.  He 
published  Geschichte  der  Rom- 
ischen  Litter atur  (2  vols.,  1828- 
32),  with  three  supplements 
(1836,  1837,  and  1840);  also  an 
edition  of  Herodotus  (1830-5). 

Bahraich,  ba-rich',  chief  town, 
Bahraich  district.  United  Prov- 
inces, India,  65  miles  northeast 
of  Lucknow.  The  shrine  of 
Masaud  is  visited  by  Moham- 
medans and  Hindus.  Pop.  30,- 
000. 

Bahrdt,  bart,  Karl  Fried- 
rich  (1741-92),  German  Protes- 
tant theologian,  was  successively 
professor  of  Biblical  philology 
at  Leipzig  (1766),  of  philOvSophy 
at  Erfurt  (1768),  and  of  theology 
at  Giessen  (1771).  The  first 
two  of  these  positions  he  was 
forced  to  relinquish  on  account 
of  his  profligacy,  and  from  the 
third  he  was  expelled  following 
the  publication  of  his  heretical 
Translation  of  the  New  Testament 
(1772-5).  In  1779  he  settled  in 
Halle,  and  there  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  J.  H.  Everhard, 
who  led  him  to  extreme  rational- 
ism. The  last  ten  years  of  his 
life  he  spent  as  an  inn  keeper. 
In  his  Letters  on  the  Bible  (1782) 
Bahrdt  anticipated  the  mythical 
theory  of  Strauss;  his  Letters  for 
Truth-Seeking  Readers  (10  vols., 
1784-6)  are  pervaded  by  a  low 
moral  tone.  Consult  his  Auto- 
biography. 

Bahrein  Islands,  bii-ran',  a 
group  of  islands  under  British 
protection,  in  the  Persian  Gulf, 


about  20  miles  off  the  coast  of 
Arabia.  The  largest,  Bahrein, 
is  27  miles  long  by  10  miles  broad 
and  contains  the  capital  Man- 
ameh  (Pop.  35,000).  Others  in 
the  group  are  Muharrek,  Nabi 
Seiek,  Jezcyra,  and  some  tiny  un- 
inhabited islets.  Pearl  fishing  is 
the  chief  industry,  engaging  over 
1,000  boats.  Dates  and  figs  are 
grown  and  a  fine  breed  of  white 
asses  is  raised.  Sail  cloth  and 
reed  mats  are  manufactured. 
The  chief  exports  are  rice,  wheat, 
pearls,  and  coffee;  the  imports 
are  specie,  rice,  sugar,  and 
tobacco.  The  islands  are  gov- 
erned by  an  Arab  sheik.  Pop. 
110,000,  chiefly  Mohammedans. 

Bahr-el-Abiad,  the  White 
Nile.    See  Nile. 

Bahr-el-Azrek,  the  Blue  Nile. 
See  Nile. 

Bahr-el-Ghazal,  bar'd-ga- 
zal',  a  river  rising  in  the  Sudan 
and  flowing  into  the  White  Nile 
in  about  lat.  9°  25'  n.  It  is  the 
main  source  of  the  floating  vege- 
tation of  the  Nile.  Its  chief 
tributaries  are  the  Bahr-el-Arab 
and  the  Bahr-el-Dschur. 

Bahr-el-Ghazal,  an  arm  of 
Lake  Chad,  Africa,  appearing 
periodically  on  the  eastern  side. 
It  was  formerly  thought  to  be 
an  outlet  or  inlet  of  the  lake. 

Baise,  bi'e,  ancient  town  in 
Campania,  Italy,  on  a  bay  west 
of  Naples.  It  was  the  favorite 
watering-place  of  the  Romans 
under  the  late  republic  and  em- 
pire. It  was  at  Baiee  that  Caesar, 
Pompey,  and  Crassus  formed 
their  famous  triumvirate  (60 
B.C.) ;  here  also  the  Emperor 
Hadrian  died  (13^  a.d.). 

Baiburt,  bi-boort',  or  Baibut, 
town,  Armenia,  70  miles  north- 
west of  Erzerum.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  carpets,  arms,  and 
cutlery.  Russian  troops  occupied 
the  town  in  1916.  Pop.  about 
10,000. 

■  Baidyabati,  bid-ya-ba'te, 
town,  Bengal,  India,  on  the  Hugli 
River,  in  the  Hugli  district;  15 
miles  northwest  of  Calcutta.  It 
has  manufactures  of  jute  and 
hemp  rope.    Pop.  20,000. 

Baikal,  bi-kal',  the  third  larg- 
est lake  in  Asia,  and  the  deepest 
fresh  water  lake  in  the  world,  is 
situated  in  Southern  Siberia  in 
the  government  of  Irkutsk.  It 
is  400  miles  long,  from  18  to  56 
miles  wide,  and  covers  an  area  of 
13,185  square  miles.  It  lies 
1,500  feet  above  sea  level  and  is 
surrounded  by  rocky  mountains 
over  4,600  feet  high.  Its  depth 
in  places  is  nearly  5,000  leet.  It 
contains  several  islands,  the 
largest  of  which  is  Olkhon.  The 
waters  of  the  lake  are  remarkably 
clear  and  cold  and  abound  in 
several  varieties  of  fish,  notably 
salmon,  sturgeon,  and  a  fat  oily 
fish  known  as  golomynka,  which 
is  indigenous.  The  lake's  surface 
is  frozen  from  December  to  April. 
The  Trans-Siberian  railway  pas- 


ses around  the  southern  end,  and 
the  most  important  lake  port  is 
Lisvinichnoe. 

Baikie,  ba'ki,  William  Bal- 
four (1825-64),  Scottish  ex- 
plorer, was  a  native  of  Orkney. 
He  served  as  surgeon-naturalist 
with  the  Pleiad  expedition  (1854) 
up  the  Niger  River.  On  a  second 
expedition  (1857)  his  ship  was 
wrecked,  and  he  remained  up 
country  for  seven  years,  studying 
the  Hausa  and  Fulfulde  lan- 
guages. He  translated  parts  of 
the  Bible  and  the  Prayer  Book 
into  Hausa,  and  wrote  a  Narra- 
tive of  an  Exploring  Voyage  up 
the  Rivers  Kwora  and  Binue. 

Bail,  the  process  of  surren- 
dering a  person  in  legal  custody 
to  a  competent  person  who  un- 
dertakes to  become  responsible 
for  the  production  of  the  former 
in  court  when  wanted.  The  char- 
acter and  amount  of  security 
sufficient  to  procure  the  release  of 
a  prisoner  is  sometimes  fixed  by 
statute,  but  is  more  often  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  court.  The 
term  bail  is  equally  applicable 
whether  the  person  released  is 
held  on  a  civil  or  a  criminal 
charge,  though  bail  is  not  gener- 
ally allowed  in  cases  of  capital 
crime.  In  other  cases  the  amount 
of  security  exacted  is  determined 
by  the  gravity  of  the  offence 
charged.  A  prisoner  accused  of 
crime  may  be  bailed  in  the  inter- 
val between  the  arrest  and  the  ar- 
raignment and  again  between  the 
arraignment  and  the  trial,  but 
not  after  conviction.  The  surety 
must  produce  the  prisoner  for 
arraignment  and  trial,  and  he 
may  at  any  time  discharge  him- 
self of  further  liability  by  surren- 
dering the  latter  into  the  custody 
of  the  law.  The  requiring  of  ex- 
cessive bail  is  prohibited  by  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

Bailen,  bi-lan',  town,  Spain, 
province  of  Jaen,  22  miles  by  rail 
north  of  Jaen.  It  has  mines  and 
foundries  of  galena,  and  is  fa- 
mous for  its  breed  of  Andalusian 
horses.  Here  the  French  general, 
Dupont,  surrendered  to  the 
Spaniard  Castaflos  in  1808.  Pop. 
9,000. 

Bailey,  Florence  (Merriam) 
(1863-  ),  American  author, 
was  born  in  Locust  Grove,  N.  Y. 
On  leaving  Smith  College,  she 
devoted  herself  to  the  study  of 
birds,  of  which  she  is  a  sympa- 
thetic and  accurate  observer. 
Her  published  works  include,  in 
addition  to  numerous  magazine 
articles:  Birds  Through  an  Opera 
Glass  (1889);  My  Summer  in  a 
Mormon  Village  (1895);  A-Bird- 
ing  on  a  Bronco  (1896)  ;  Birds  of 
Village  and  Field  (1898);  Hand- 
book of  Birds  of  Western  United 
Stales  (1902,  9th  ed.  1924);  Wild 
Animals  of  Glacier  National  Park 
(Birds,  1918);  Birds  Recorded 
from  the  Santa  Rita  Moun- 
tains in  Southern  Arizona  (1923). 

Bailey,  Gamaliel  (1807-59), 


Vol.  I. — March  '25 


Bailey 

American  antislavery  journalist, 
was  born  in  Mount  Holly,  N.  J. 
He  was  a  practising  physician  for 
some  time,  and  about  1834  be- 
came a  zealous  abolitionist.  He 
was  editor  (1836-47),  first  with 
James  G.  Birney  and  after  Sep- 
tember, 1837,  alone,  of  The 
Philanthropist,  an  antislavery 
journal  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and 
in  1847  became  editor  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  of  the  National 
Era,  in  which  Mrs.  Stowe's 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  first  appeared 
(1852). 

Bailey,  Jacob  Whitman  (1811- 
57),  American  naturalist,  was 
born^  in  Ward  (now  Auburn), 
Mass.,  and  was  graduated  (1832) 
from  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy. 
He  served  as  an  officer  in  the 
artillery  until  1834,  when  he 
became  a  member  of  the  teaching 
staff  of  the  academy,  and  was 
professor  of  chemistry,  miner- 
alogy, and  geology  until  he  died. 
He  made  valuable  investigations 
with  the  microscope,  for  which  he 
invented  various  appliances.  He 
was  president  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  in  1857,  wrote  many 
papers  for  scientific  journals,  and 
published  Microscopical  Sketches, 
containing  more  than  3,000  orig- 
inal drawings. 

Bailey,  James  Montgomery 
(1841-94),  American  journalist, 
was  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.  He 
bought  the  Danbury  Times,  with 
which  he  combined  another  local 
paper  in  1870,  naming  the  new 
paper  the  Danbury  News.  His 
humorous  contributions  gave  the 
paper  a  national  reputation,  and 
he  became  widely  known  as  the 
'Danbury  News  man.'  He  was 
active  in  local  charities,  was  a 
lecturer,  and  published,  among 
other  books,  Life  in  Danbury 
(1873),  England  from  a  Back 
Window  (1878),  and  The  Dan- 
bury Boom  (1880). 

Bailey,  Joseph  (1827-67), 
American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Salem,  Ohio.  He  served  in  the 
Union  army  throughout  the  Civil 
War,  rising  from  the  rank  of 
captain  (1861)  to  that  of  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  (April, 
1865,  to  date  from  Nov.  10,  1864). 
As  acting  engineer  of  the  19th 
Army  Corps  he  rendered  'dis- 
tinguished and  meritorious  ser- 
vices' in  projecting  and  con- 
structing a  temporary  dam  at  the 
lower  falls  of  the  Red  River, 
thereby  enabling  the  flotilla 
under  Admiral  D.  D.  Porter  to 
reach  the  waters  of  the  Missis- 
sippi in  safety. 

Bailey,  Joseph  Weldon 
(1863),  American  legislator,  was 
born  in  Copiah  county.  Miss. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1883;  removed  to  Gainesville, 
Tex.,  in  1885;  and  was  represent- 
ative in  Congress  in  1891-1901, 
being  leader  of  the  Democratic 
minority  in  1897-9.  He  served 
in  the  United  States  Senate  for 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '18. 


the  terms /fcf  1901-13.  He  was 
known  din-ing  his  Congressional 
career  for  his  conservatism,  his 
eloquence,  and  his  knowledge  of 
constitutional  law. 

Bailey,  Liberty  Hyde  (1858), 
American  agriculturist  and  au- 
thor, was  born  in  South  Haven, 
Michigan.  He  was  graduated 
from  Michigan  Agricultural  Col- 
lege in  1882  (m.  s.  1886);  and 
was  assistant  to  Asa  Gray  (q.  v.) 
at  Harvard  University  (1882-3). 
He  was  professor  of  horticulture 
and  landscape  gardening  at 
Michigan  Agricultural  College 
(1883-8),  and  professor  of  horti- 
culture (1888-1903)  and  director 
of  the  College  of  Agriculture 
(1903-13),  Cornell  University. 
He  has  given  special  study  to  the 
subjects  of  botany  and  horti- 


culture and  to  rural  problems, 
was  chairman  of  the  Roosevelt 
Commission  on  Country  Life  in 
1908,  and  has  written  numerous 
works  on  agriculture,  rural  affairs, 
nature,  and  kindred  subjects. 
Among  them  are:  Survival  of  the 
Unlike;  Evolution  of  Our  Native 
Fruits;  Beginners'  Botany;  Prin- 
ciples of  Fruit  Growing;  Principles 
of  Vegetable  Gardening;  Plant 
Breeding;  Farm  and  Garden  Rule- 
Book;  Principles  of  Agriculture; 
Nursery  Book;  Forcing  Book; 
Pruning  Book;  Practical  Garden 
Book;  The  Nature  Study  Idea; 
Outlook  to  Nature;  The  Training 
of  Farmers;  Manual  of  Garden- 
ing; The  State  and  the  Farmer; 
The  Country-Life  Movement;  The 
Holy  Earth;  Universal  Service; 
Wind  and  Weather  (verse). 

He  has  edited  also:  Cyclopedia 
of  American  Horticulture  (4  vols.) ; 
Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture  (4 
vols.);  Standard  Cyclopedia  of 
Horticulture    (6    vols.);  Rural 


Bailey 

Science  Series;  Rural  Text  Book 
Series;  Rural  Manual  Series; 
Rus,  a  Rural  Who's  Who. 

Bailey, Nathan  (d.l742),  Eng- 
lish lexicographer,  and  master  of 
a  boarding  school  at  Stepney, 
London.  He  wrote  the  Universal 
Etymological  English  Dictionary, 
(1721-7;  30th  ed.  1802),  used  by 
Johnson  in  preparing  his  more 
famous  dictionary,  and  The  An- 
tiquities of  London  and  West- 
minster (1726),  and  edited  the 
Dictionarium  Britannicum  (1730). 

Bailey,  Philip  James  (1816- 
1902),  English  poet,  was  born  at 
Nottingham  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1840,  but  never  prac- 
ticed. His  reputation  rests  wholly 
upon  Festus,  a  poem  which  was 
published  in  1839.  It  contains 
some  fine  passages,  but  is  some- 


what marred  by  its  striving  for 
rhetorical  effect. 

Bailey,  Samuel  (1791-1870), 
English  economic  and  philosoph- 
ical writer,  was  born  in  Sheffield. 
After  giving  up  his  cutler's  busi- 
ness, he  twice  contested  Sheffield 
unsuccessfully  as  a  philosophi- 
cal Radical  (1832,  1834).  His  writ- 
ings are  chiefly  (1)  economic,  in 
one  of  which — on  Value  (1825) — 
he  criticises  Ricardo  and  others 
for  confusing  intrinsic  value  with 
exchange  value;  and  (2)  philo- 
sophical, the  most  valuable  being 
Letters  on  the  Philosophy  of  the 
Human  Mind  (1856-63)  and 
Theory  of  Reasoning  (1851). 
Bailey  was  a  determinist,  utili- 
tarian, and  nominalist. 

Bailey,  Solon  Irving  (1854), 
American  astronomer,  was  born 
in  Lisbon,  N.  H.  He  was 
graduated  from  Boston  Uni- 
versity (1881;  A.M.,  1884),  and 
from  Harvard  (a.m.,  1888), 
founded  a  branch  of  the  Harvard 


Lake  Baikal. 


Bailey 


530 


Bailment 


observatory  in  the  southern 
hemisphere,  at  Arequipa,  in 
Peru,  1889,  and  in  1893  estab- 
Hshed  on  the  summit  of  Misti 
(19,000  ft.)  the  highest  scientific 
station  in  the  world.  He  was 
successively  assistant  professor 
(1893-8),  associate  professor 
(1898-1913)  and  Philips  professor 
(after  1913)  of  astronomy  at 
Harvard.  In  1908  and  1909  he 
carried  on  special  astronomical 
investigations  in  South  Africa. 

BaUey,  Theodorus  (1805-77), 
American  naval  officer,  was  born 
at  Chateaugay,  N.  Y.  He  became 
a  midshipman  in  the  U.  S.  Navy 
in  1818,  and  as  a  lieutenant  (com- 
missioned in  1827),  took  part  in 
the  conquest  of  California  (1847), 
during  the  Mexican  War.  He  is 
remembered  particularly  for  his 
services,  on  the  Federal  side, 
during  the  Civil  War.  As  captain 
(commissioned  1855)  he  cooper- 
ated with  Gen.  Harvey  Brown  in 
defending  Pensacola  (1861),  and 
later  (1862)  was  second  in  com- 
mand, under  Farragut,  of  the 
fleet  which  captured  New  Orleans. 
As  commodore  (commissioned 
1862)  he  commanded  the  Eastern 
Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  and 
captured  numerous  blockade  run- 
ners. He  became  a  rear-admiral 
in  July,  1866. 

Bail 'iff,  in  Great  Britain  an 
official  exercising  a  delegated 
authority.  A  private  bailiff,  or 
steward,  is  an  agent  in  the  care  of 
property,  real  or  personal,  and  is 
liable  to  his  principal  not  only  for 
the  profits  actually  derived  by 
him  from  the  management  of  the 
property  entrusted  to  him  but  for 
such  additional  profits  as  with 
proper  diligence  he  might  have 
made.  Official  or  public  bailiffs 
are  of  two  kinds:  (1)  Sheriffs' 
bailiffs,  who  are  charged  with  the 
execution  of  writs  and  processes, 
and  summoning  juries,  and  (2) 
county  court  bailiffs  for  executing 
processes  issuing  from  the  court. 

In  the  United  States  sheriffs 
have  as  in  England  bailiffs, 
usually  called  deputy-sheriffs, 
constables,  or  tipstaffs,  who  are 
under  the  orders  of  their  superior 
or  of  the  court.    See  vSheriff. 

Bairiwick,  the  district  over 
which  the  jurisdiction  of  a  bailiff 
or  sheriff  extends. 

BaiUeul,  ba-yul',  town,  France, 
department  of  Nord,  north  of  the 
River  Lys;  18  miles  northwest  of 
Lille.  Manufactures  include  beer, 
leather,  lace,  linen,  and  soap. 
Baillcul  was  the  scene  of  violent 
fighting  in  the  Great  War 
1914-  ).  It  was  taken  by  the 
Germans  (April  15)  in  their  great 
offensive  in  the  spring  of  1918, 
and  retaken  in  the  Allied  offen- 
sive the  following  summer. 

Bail'lie,  Lady  Grisell  (1665- 
1746),  Scottish  poet,  eldest 
daughter  of  Sir  Patrick  Hume, 
afterward  first  Earl  of  March- 
mont,  was  born  at  Redbraes 
Castle  (now  Marchmont  House), 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '18 


Berwickshire.  She  is  remembered 
chiefly  for  her  pathetic  lyric, 
Werena  my  heart  Ucht  I  wad  dee, 
and  the  fragment,  The  ewe- 
buchtin's  honnie. 

Baillie,  Joanna  (1762-1851), 
Scottish  dramatist  and  poet,  was 
born  at  Bothwell,  Lanarkshire. 
She  went  to  London  in  1784,  and 
in  1790  published  anonymously  a 
volume  of  miscellaneous  poems, 
entitled  Fugitive  Verses.  Her 
first  series  of  Plays  on  the  Passions 
was  issued  in  1798,  followed  by 
a  second  in  1802,  and  a. third  in 
1812.  These  and  The  Family 
Legend,  produced  in  Edinburgh 
in  1810,  constitute  her  chief  works 
as  a  dramatist.  Some  of  her  songs 
as,  Woo'd  an'  married  an'  a'; 
Up,  quit  thy  bower;  and  Saw  ye 
Johnnie  comin'?  also  became 
popular.  Her  Collected  Works 
appeared  in  1851,  with  a  prefa- 
tory memoir. 

Baillie,  Matthew  (1761-1823), 
Scottish  physician  and  anatomist, 
brother  of  Joanna  Baillie,  was 
born  at  Shotts,  Lanarkshire,  and 
studied  medicine  in  London,  un- 
der his  uncle,  William  Hunter, 
the  great  anatomist,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded (1783)  as  lecturer  on  anat- 
omy. He  was  appointed  physi- 
cian to  George  iii.  about  1810. 
His  Morbid  Anatomy  (new  ed. 
1833)  was  a  standard  work. 

BaUlie,  Robert  (1599-1662), 
Scottish  theologian,  was  born  in 
Glasgow.  In  1622  he  received 
episcopal  ordination,  and  was 
shortly  after  presented  to  the 
parish  church  of  Kilwinning.  In 

1637  he  refused  to  preach  in  favor 
of  Laud's  service-book;  and  in 

1638  he  sat  in  that  famous  Gen- 
eral Assembly  which  met  in 
Glasgow  to  protest  against  the 
thrusting  of  Episcopacy  on  an 
unwilling  people.  In  1840  he  was 
selected  by  the  Scottish  leaders 
to  go  to  London,  with  other  com- 
missioners, and  draw  up  charges 
against  Archbishop  Laud.  In 
1649  he  was  chosen  by  the  church 
to  proceed  to  Holland,  and  to 
invite  Charles  ii.  to  accept  the 
Covenant  and  crown  of  Scotland. 
After  the  Restoration  he  was 
made  Principal  of  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity. Consult  his  Letters  and 
Journals,  edited  by  Laing  for  the 
Bannatyne  Club. 

Baillot,  ba-y5',  Pierre  Marie 
Francois  de  Sales  (1771-1842), 
French  violinist,  was  born  at 
Passy,  near  Paris.  He  received 
his  musical  training  at  Paris  and 
at  Rome  and  was  professor  of 
violin  in  the  Paris  Conservatoire 
from  1795  until  he  died. 

Bailly,  ba-y"',  Jean  Sylvain 
(1736-1793),  French  astronomer, 
was  born  in  Paris.  He  was  early 
admitted  to  the  Acad'mie  des 
Sciences,  and  he  justified  his 
honors  by  a  succession  of  learned 
astronomical  treatises,  which  cul- 
minated with  his  Histoire  de 
I'Astronomie  (5  vols.  1775-87). 
Elected  president  of  the  National 


Assembly  June  17,  1789,  and 
mayor  of  Paris  on  July  15,  he 
conducted  himself  in  these  capa- 
cities with  great  integrity  and 
purity  of  purpose;  but  at  last  lost 
his  popularity  by  allowing  the 
National  Guard  to  fire  on  the 
masses  who  were  assembled  in 
the  Champ  de  Mars,  on  July  17, 
1791,  to  demand  the  dethrone- 
ment of  the  king.  He  was 
accused  of  being  a  royalist  con- 
spirator, and  was  condemned, 
and  executed  by  the  Jacobins. 
From  his  papers  were  published 
his  Essai  sur  I'Origine  des  Fables 
et  des  Religions  Anciennes  (2  vols., 
1799),  and  Memoires  d'un  Temoin 
de  la  Revolution  (3  vols.,  1804). 

Bairment.  The  deposit  of  per- 
sonal property  with  a  person  not 
the  owner  so  as  to  confer  on  the 
depositary  a  definite  right  to 
the  possession  thereof.  It  is  of 
the  essence  of  a  bailment  that  the 
title  or  'general  property'  in  the 
goods  shall  remain  in  the  bailor, 
and  on  the  other  hand  that  the 
bailee  shall  acquire  a  possessory 
interest,  or  'special  property' 
therein  which  the  law  will  protect. 
A  conditional  sale  or  a  mortgage, 
therefore,  notwithstanding  the 
temporary  character  of  the  inter- 
est created,  is  not  a  bailment,  the 
legal  title  to  the  property  having 
passed  to  the  mortgagee  or  ven- 
dee; nor  is  the  custody  of  goods 
by  a  servant  a  bailment,  his 
possession  being  in  fact  that  of 
his  master  or  employer. 

Among  the  more  common  forms 
of  bailment  are  the  pawn  or 
pledge,  the  common-law  lien,  the 
custody  of  goods  by  a  common 
carrier,  an  innkeeper  or  a  ware- 
houseman, the  hiring  and  the 
loaning  of  chattels,  and  the  like. 
The  ordinary  classification  of 
bailments  is  derived  from  the 
Roman  law.  It  comprehends 
(1)  bailments  for  the  sole  benefit 
of  the  bailor;  (2)  bailments  for 
the  sole  benefit  of  the  bailee,  and 
(3)  bailments  for  the  benefit  of 
both  parties.  In  the  first  case  the 
gratuitous  bailee  is  held  to  only  a 
slight  degree  of  diligence  in  caring 
for  the  property  entrusted  to  him; 
in  the  second'  case  the  bailee  is 
required  to  exercise  a  high  degree 
of  care,  and  in  the  third  case  he 
must  display  the  diligence  of  an 
ordinarily  prudent  person.  Only 
in  the  case  of  the  common  carrier 
and  innkeeper  is  the  bailee  abso- 
lutely liable  for  any  injury  sus- 
tained by  the  property  in  his 
custody  irrespective  of  negligence 
on  his  part.  (See  Carrier;  Inn- 
keeper.) 

In  general  any  wilful  miscon- 
duct of  the  bailee  with  refer- 
ence to  the  bailed  property  not 
only  subjects  him  to  an  action 
for  breach  of  the  contract  of  bail- 
ment, but  puts  an  end  to  the  bail- 
ment and  restores  to  the  bailor  the 
immediate  right  to  the  possession 
of  the  property.  During  the  life 
of  the  bailment  the  bailee  is  enti- 


BaUy 


531 


Balrd 


tied  to  an  action  in  trover  or 
trespass  for  any  wrongful  inter- 
ference with  his  possession,  ei- 
ther by  the  bailor  or  a  stranger; 
whereas,  if  the  bailment  is  for  a 
definite  time  and  is  still  unexpired, 
the  bailor  himself,  not  being  in 
possession  nor  entitled  to  imme- 
diate possession,  cannot  maintain 
such  an  action  against  a  third 
party,  unless  the  act  be  such  as  to 
impair  the  value  of  the  property 
to  the  bailor  when  he  shall  resume 
his  possession.  Ordinarily,  the 
nature  of  a  bailment  is  clearly 
established  by  the  circumstances 
of  its  creation.  In  some  cases, 
however — e.g.,  the  deposit  of 
grain  in  an  elevator  to  be  mingled 
with  the  grain  of  other  depositors 
— a  transaction  which  is  on  its  face 
a  sale  or  barter  (mutuum)  has  the 
character  of  a  bailment  impressed 
upon  it  by  custom  or  by  special 
agreement  of  the  parties.  For  the 
rights  and  obligations  flowing 
from  the  various  forms  of  bail- 
ment, see  Hiring;  Lien;  Loan; 
Pledge. 

Bairy,  Edward  Hodges  (1788- 
1867),  English  sculptor,  a  native 
of  Bristol,  attracted  the  attention 
of  Flaxman,  in  whose  studio  he 
worked  for  seven  years  (1807- 
14).  For  his  Eve  at  the  Fountain 
(1818)  and  other  works  he  was 
elected  R.A.  in  1821.  His  work 
was  chiefly  on  domestic  subjects 
(e.g.,  Motherly  Love;  Group  of 
Children)  and  portrait  statues — 
e.g.,  those  of  Wellington,  Nel- 
son (Trafalgar  Square),  Byron, 
C.  J.  Fox,  and  Lord  Mansfield. 
To  him  are  also  due  the  sculp- 
tures on  the  Marble  Arch,  Lon- 
don. 

BaU'y,  Francis  (1774-1844), 
English  astronomer,  practised  as 
a  stock  broker  in  London  from 
1799  to  1825.  On  his  retirement 
from  business  he  devoted  himself 
to  astronomy;  discovered  Baily's 
Beads  (q.v.);  founded  the  Lon- 
don Astronomical  Society  (1820) ; 
revised  the  star  catalogues  of 
Flamsteed,  Lalande,  Lacaille, 
and  others;  reformed  the  Nautical 
Almanac;  and  repeated,  in  his 
own  house,  the  'Cavendish'  ex- 
periments to  determine  the 
earth's  density.  He  wrote  a  bi- 
ography of  Flamsteed  (1835). 
Consult  Herschel's  Memoirs  of 
Francis  Baily. 

Baily's  Beads,  the  name  given 
to  a  phenomenon  in  connection 
with  eclipses  of  the  sun,  first  fully 
described  by  Francis  Baily  (q.v.). 
Just  before  the  beginning  and 
after  the  end  of  the  obscuration 
by  the  moon  of  the  sun's  disc,  the 
thin,  crescent-shaped  unobscurcd 
portion  of  the  sun  seems  usually 
to  become  suddenly  discontinu- 
ous, and  looks  Hke  a  belt  of  bright 
points,  varying  in  size  and  sepa- 
rated by  dark  spaces.  The  re- 
sulting appearance  has  been  com- 
pared to  a  string  of  beads.  The 
phenomenon  is  an  effect  of  irra- 
VOL.  L— Oct.  '15 


diation  and  the  inequalities  of  the 
moon's  edge. 

Bain,  ban,  Alexander  (1818- 
1903),  Scottish  philosopher,  was 
born  in  Aberdeen.  Educated  at 
the  university  of  his  native  city, 
he  lectured  there  as  deputy  pro- 
fessor for  a  few  years,  afterward 
taught  natural  philosophy  at  the 
Andersonian  University,  Glas- 
gow, filled  various  other  offices, 
and  was  appointed  in  1860  to  the 
chair  of  logic  in  Aberdeen.  He 
resigned  in  1881,  and  the  same 
year  was  elected  rector  of  his 
university.  His  chief  works  are: 
The  Senses  and  the  Intellect  (1855), 
and  The  Emotions  and  the  Will 
(1859).  Other  books  are:  JWm^a7 
and  Moral  Science  (1868);  Logic, 
Deductive  and  Inductive  (1870); 
The  Relation  of  Mind  and  Body 
(1873);  Education  as  a  Science 
(1879),  The  distinguishing  fea- 
tures of  Bain's  psychology  were 
that  he  eliminated  metaphysics, 
based  his  analyses  upon  physio- 
logical states  and  processes,  and 
made  subtle  use  of  the  mental 
laws  of  association,  and  thus 
largely  determined  the  direction 
and  methods  of  modern  British 
psychology.  He  knew  J.  S.  Mill 
well,  and  read  bis  Logic  in  manu- 
script, discussed  the  whole  work 
in  detail  with  him,  and  supplied 
him  with  many  illustrative  exam- 
ples drawn  from  the  experimental 
sciences.  Consult  his  Autobiog- 
raphy (1904). 

Bain'bergs,  plate  armor  for  the 
protection  of  the  legs,  introduced 
during  the  thirteenth  century; 
worn  over  chain  mail. 

Bain'bridge,  city,  county  seat 
of  Decatur  county,  Georgia,  on 
the  Flint  River,  and  the  Atlantic 
Coast  Line  and  the  Georgia,  Flor- 
ida, and  Alabama  Railroads;  235 
miles  southwest  of  Savannah. 
There  are  ironworks,  cotton-oil 
mills,  brickyards,  and  turpentine 
distilleries.  Pop.  (1900)  2,641; 
(1910)  4,217. 

Bainbridge,  William  (1774- 
1833) ,  American  naval  officer,  was 
born  in  Princeton,  N.  J.  After 
commanding  a  number  of  mer- 
chant vessels,  he  entered  the  U.  S. 
Navy  as  a  lieutenant  in  1798.  The 
same  year,  while  in  command  of 
the  schooner  Retaliation,  he  was 
captured  by  the  French  frigates 
Volontier  and  Insurgente  off 
Guadaloupe;  and  his  report  of  the 
affair,  after  his  release  some 
weeks  later,  caused  the  enactment 
of  the  'Retaliation  Act,'  directed 
against  French  subjects  captured 
on  the  high  seas.  In  1800  he  be- 
came a  captain,  and  while  in  com- 
mand of  the  George  Washington 
was  despatched  with  tribute  to 
the  dey  of  Algiers,  who  forced  him 
to  convey  an  Algerian  embassy 
to  Constantinople.  In  the  War 
with  Tripoli  (1801-05)  he  com- 
manded the  frigate  Philadelphia, 
which  on  Aug.  26,  1803,  captured 
the  frigate  Meshboa,  but  which 


later  in  the  same  year,  having  run 
aground  off  Tripoli,  was  obliged 
to  surrender;  and  Bainbridge 
and  her  crew  of  300  were  held  as 
prisoners  until  the  close  of  the 
war.  His  next  important  service 
was  in  the  War  of  1812,  when  he 
was  made  a  commodore,  and 
placed  in  command  of  a  squadron. 
On  Dec.  29,  1912,  his  flagship  the 
Constitution  (q.v.)  captured  the 
British  frigate  Java.  In  1815  he 
commanded  a  squadron  sent 
against  Algiers;  but  peace  was 
declared  before  he  reached  Carta- 
gena, and  he  returned  to  America. 
Subsequently,  he  was  occupied  in 
important  service  on  shore,  in 
command  of  the  navy  yards  at 
Boston  and  Philadelphia,  and  as 
a  member  of  the  board  of  navy 
commissioners  in  Washington. 
Consult  Life  by  Harris  and  by 
Barnes. 

Baiocco.   See  Bajocco. 

Bairaktar,  bi-rak-tiir',  or  Bai- 
rakdar  (1755-1808),  grand  vi- 
zier of  the  Ottoman  empire,  en- 
tered the  army,  and  became  pasha 
of  Rustchuk.  After  the  revolt 
of  the  Janissaries  in  1807,  by 
which  Selim  iii.  (see  Turkey) 
was  deposed  in  favor  of  Mustapha 
IV.,  Bairaktar  marched  his  troops 
to  Constantinople,  executed  all 
those  who  had  taken  part  in  the 
murder  of  Selim,  deposed  Mus- 
tapha IV.,  and  proclaimed  the 
brother  of  this  prince,  Mahmud 
II.,  sultan  on  July  28,  1808.  Bai- 
raktar was  appointed  grand  vi- 
zier. His  chief  object  was  the 
annihilation  of  the  Janissaries; 
but,  favored  by  the  fanatical 
people,  these  rebelled,  and,  with 
the  support  of  the  fleet,  attacked 
the  seraglio  on  Nov.  15,  1808,  and 
demanded  the  restoration  of 
Mustapha  iv.  Bairaktar  de- 
fended himself  to  the  last,  and 
then  died  by  his  own  hand. 

Bairam,  bl-ram'  or  bi'ram,  or 
Beiram,  the  Persian  and  Turkish 
name  for  a  Mohammedan  festival 
analogous  to  Easter.  It  com- 
mences immediately  after  the 
fast  of  Ramadan  or  Ramazan, 
which  corresponds  in  its  absti- 
nence to  Lent.  The  festivities 
are  generally  protracted  over 
three  days.  Seventy  days  after, 
the  Moslems  celebrate  the  second 
Bairam  ('the  festival  of  the  sacri- 
fices'), instituted  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  offering  up  of  Isaac  by 
Abraham,  when  all  the  faithful 
of  Islam  must  sacrifice  victims. 
The  second  Bairam  usually  lasts 
four  days. 

Baird,  Sir  David  (1757-1829), 
British  general,  was  born  at  New- 
byth,  Scotland.  In  1779  he 
sailed  to  India  as  captain  in  a 
Highland  regiment,  and  in  July, 
1780,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Hyder 
Ali,  whose  prisoner  he  remained 
until  1784.  In  1799,  then  a  ma- 
jor-general, he  signalized  him- 
self at  the  victorious  assault  of 
Seringapatam.    He  commanded 


Balrd 


531  A 


Bajocco 


an  expedition  sent  to  Egypt  in 
1801  for  the  expulsion  of  the 
French.  In  1805  he  commanded 
an  expedition  against  the  Dutch 
settlements  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope;  in  1807  commanded  a  divi- 
sion at  the  siege  of  Copenhagen; 
and  in  1808  was  sent  to  Spain, 
with  an  army  of  10,000  men,  to 
assist  Sir  John  Moore.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Battle 
ofCorunna(Jan.  16, 1809).  Onthe 
death  of  Moore  he  succeeded  to 
the  command,  and  was  created  a 
baronet.  Consult  his  Life  by 
Theodore  Hook. 

Baird,  Henry  Carey  (1825- 
1912),  American  publisher  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Bridesburg, 
Philadelphia,  Pa.  In  1841  he 
entered  the  publishing  house  of 
his  uncle,  Edward  L.  Carey,  and 
in  1849  established  the  firm  of 
Henry  C.  Baird  &  Co.,  the  first 
house  in  the  United  States  to 
make  a  specialty  of  the  publish- 
ing of  technical  works.  He  also 
became  widely  known  as  a  polit- 
ical economist;  supported  the 
cause  of  free  silver  and  of  protec- 
tion; and  was  one  of  the  organ- 
izers of  the  Greenback  Party  in 
1875-6.  He  published  works  on 
banking,  money,  and  other  eco- 
nomic subjects. 

Baird,  Henry  Martyn  (1832- 
1906),  American  educator  and 
historian,  was  born  in  Philadel- 
phia. He  was  graduated  from 
New  York  University  (1850), 
studied  at  Athens  (1851-2),  and 
was  graduated  from  the  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  (1856). 
From  1859  until  .  his  death  he 
was  professor  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage and  literature  in  New  York 
University.  He  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  foremost  authorities 
on  the  history  of  the  Huguenots. 
His  works  include:  Rise  of  the 
Huguenots  in  France  (1879) ;  The 
Huguenots  and  Henry  of  Navarre 
(1886);  The  Huguenots  and  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  (1895). 

Baird,  Spencer  Fullerton 
(1823-87),  American  naturalist, 
was  born  in  Reading,  Pa.,  and 
was  graduated  from  Dickinson 
College  (1840).  He  was  profes- 
sor of  natural  sciences  at  that 
college  from  1845  to  1850,  and 
became  the  friend  of  Audubon, 
Agassiz,  and  other  well-known 
naturalists.  In  1850  he  was  made 
assistant  secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  where  his 
special  work  was  the  develop- 
ment of  the  National  Museum, 
which  made  its  beginning  under 
his  direction  in  1850;  in  1878  he 
became  secretary.  In  1874  he 
was  appointed  the  first  U.  S. 
Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fish- 
eries, and  in  that  capacity  organ- 
ized the  science  of  fish  culture  in 
the  United  States. 

Second  only  to  Louis  Agassiz, 
natural  history  in  America  is 
perhaps  most  indebted  to  .S.  F. 
Baird.  He  was  a  born  organizer 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


of  men  and  of  methods,  efficient, 
hard  working,  modest,  and  lov- 
able. G.  Brown  Goode  compiled 
a  bibliography  of  his  writings  up 
to  1882  (published  as  Bulletin 
No.  20  of  the  National  Museum) , 
which  contains  1,063  titles,  and 
to  which  the  product  of  his  later 
years  should  be  added.  He 
edited  the  Annual  Reports  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  from 
1878  to  1887,  and  published  a 
Catalogue  of  North  American 
Reptiles  (1853).  He  translated 
from  the  German  and  edited  the 
Iconographic  Encyclopcedia,  and 
published  Report^  on  the  collec- 
tions in  natural  history  made  by 
Stansbury,  Gilliss,  Marcy,  and 
others  in  the  Government  explo- 
rations. In  connection  with  John 
Cassin  he  published  The  Birds  of 
North  America  (2  vols.,  1860),  and 
The  Mammals  of  North  America 
(1859);  and  with  Brewer  and 
Ridgway,  History  of  the  Birds  of 
North  America  (5  vols.,  1870- 
84).  Consult  Life  by  his  son; 
W.  H.  Dall's  Spencer  Fullerton 
Baird  (1915). 

Baireuth,  bi'roit.    See  Bay- 

REUTH. 

Bait  Fishing  ranks  next  to 
fly  fishing  as  a  sportsmanlike 
branch  of  angling  (q.v.),  and  may 
be  divided  into  spinning  and  live 
baiting.  Spinning  is  usually 
accomplished  with  an  artificial 
bait,  the  object  being  to  present 
to  the  predatory  fish  a  colorable 
imitation  of  one  of  the  smaller 
species  swimming  away  from  it. 
Artificial  baits  are  made  of 
silvered,  gilt,  or  painted  metal, 
gutta  percha,  etc.,  and  revolve 
upon  a  swivel.  The  best  foot  Hne 
for  spinning  baits  is  of  twisted 
or  single  salmon  gut,  with  at 
least  two  swivels;  and  when  leads 
are  necessary  they  should  be 
colored  green.  Many  anglers  fail 
in  spmning  through  not  sinking 
the  bait  deep  enough,  and  through 
spinning  too  rapidly.  Spinning 
baits  are  best  worked  against 
stream. 

Live  baits,  in  the  parlance 
of  anglers,  are  small  fish,  shrimps, 
or  frogs.  They  must  be  vigorous, 
and  should  be  used  with  snap 
tackle,  that  is  to  say,  with  hooks 
so  arranged  that  they  enter  the 
mouth  of  the  fish,  and  may  be 
extracted  to  enable  undersized  or 
ill-conditioned  specimens  to  be 
returned  to  the  water.  They  are 
fastened  to  the  foot  line  by  gut 
strands,  and  the  hooks  being 
baited,  the  apparatus  sinks  to  the 
bottom  by  means  of  a  weight  at 
the  end.    See  Angling. 

Baitul.    See  Betul. 

Baize  (Old  French  baies),  a 
coarse  woollen  cloth  with  a  long 
nap  on  one  side,  used  mainly  for 
coverings,  curtains,  and  linings, 
but  in  some  countries  for  cloth- 
ing also. 

Baja,  bo'yo,  town,  county 
Bacs-Bodrog,  Hungary,  on  the 


Danube;  90  miles  south  of  Buda- 
pest. It  has  an  imposing  castle, 
manufactures  of  alcohol  and 
shoes,  and  a  large  trade  in  fruit, 
grain,  and  swine.    Pop.  21  000. 

Baja  (ancient  Baice),  coast 
town,  Italy,  10  miles  west  of 
Naples.   See  Bai^. 

Bajan.    See  Bejan. 

Bajaur,  or  Bajaor,  district 
(area,  375  square  miles)  under 
British  protection.  Northeast 
Afghanistan,  north  of  Kabul 
River  and  west  of  the  Swat  River. 

Bajazet  I.,  bii'ye-zed',  or  Ba- 
YAziD  (1347-1403),  sultan  of  the 
Turks,  succeeded  his  father, 
Murad  i.,  in  1389,  and  began  his 
reign  by  murdering  his  younger 
brother  Yakub.  In  three  years 
he  conquered  Bulgaria,  with  parts 
of  Servia,  Macedonia,  and  Thes- 
saly;  and  his  swift  subjugation  of 
Asia  Minor  gave  him  the  name 
of  Ilderim,  or  'Lightning.'  He 
blockaded  Constantinople  for  ten 
years,  thinking  to  subdue  it  by 
famine.  To  rescue  this  city,  King 
Sigismund  of  Hungary  (after- 
ward emperor  of  Germany)  as- 
sembled a  large  army,  including 
2,000  French  nobles,  and  laid 
siege  to  the  Bulgarian  city  of 
Nikopolis,  on  the  Danube.  Ba- 
jazet hastened  to  meet  him,  and 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
allied  Hungarians,  Poles,  and 
French  (1396).  Bajazet  would 
now  have  entirely  destroyed  the 
Greek  empire,  if  he  had  not  been 
prevented  by  Timur,  who  at- 
tacked his  possessions  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  completely  defeated 
him  (1402)  near  Angora.  Bajazet 
was  captured,  and  travelled  in  a 
litter  with  Timur's  camp;  which 
gave  rise  to  the  traditional  story, 
used  by  Marlowe  and  others,  that 
he  was  imprisoned  in  a  cage. 

Bajazet  II.,  or  Bayazid  (1447- 
1512),  son  of  the  Sultan  Moham- 
med II.,  the  conqueror  of  Con- 
stantinople, ascended  the  Otto- 
man throne  after  his  father's 
death  in  1481.  His  reign,  which 
lasted  thirty-two  years,  was  a 
succession  of  uninterrupted  wars 
against  Hungary,  Poland,  Ven- 
ice, Egypt,  and  Persia,  which 
served  on  the  whole  to  establish 
the  Ottoman  power.  The  sub- 
mission Bajazet  always  showed 
to  the  wishes  of  the  Janissaries 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  later 
importance  of  that  body.  He 
abdicated  in  favor  of  his  youngest 
son,  Selim,  but  died  before  he 
could  reach  the  place  of  his  volun- 
tary exile,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Adrianople.  He  was  a  patron  of 
learning,  and  the  builder  of  many 
fine  mosques  and  bridges. 

Bajimont.  See  Bagimont's 
Roll. 

Bajmok,  boi'mok,  town,  prov- 
ince Bacs-Bodrog,  Hungary;  13 
miles  southwest  of  Maria  There- 
siopel.    Pop.  8,000. 

Bajocco,  ba-yok'ko,  or  Bai- 
occo  (plural,  Bajocciii),  prior  to 


Bajus 


531  B 


Baker 


1870  a  copper  coin  in  the  Papal 
States,  Central  Italy,  value 
nearly  one  cent. 

Bajus,  ba'jus,  or  De  Bay, 
Michael  (1513-89),  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  was  born  at 
Melin,  in  Hainault.  He  studied 
at  Louvain;  and  as  professor  of 
theology  there  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Council  of  Trent 
(1563).  A  disciple  of  Augustine, 
he  was  taxed  with  heresy;  eigh- 
teen of  his  propositions  were  cen- 
sured by  the  Sorbonne  (1560), 
and  seventy-six  condemned  by 
Pius  V.  (1567).  Bajus  made  a 
public  apology,  but  did  not  re- 
nounce his  opinions,  which  even- 
tually developed  into  Jansenism 
(q.  v.). 

Bakacs,  bo'koch,  Thomas  (d. 
1521),  Hungarian  statesman,  the 
son  of  a  peasant,  was  born  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. He  held  several  bishoprics, 
and  was  successively  secretary  to 
King  Matthias  Corvinus,  chan- 
cellor to  Ladislaus  ii.,  cardinal 
primate  of  Hungary  (1500),  and 
papal  legate. 

Bakarganj,  ba-kur-gunj',  dis- 
trict, Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam, 
India,  in  the  Ganges-Brahmapu- 
tra delta.  Area,  3,645  square 
miles.   Pop.  2,300,000. 

Bakau,  ba-kow'.    See  Bacau. 

Bakchiserai.  See  Bakhchi- 
sarai. 

Bakcl,  ba-kel',  fortified  town 
of  West  Africa  (fort  built  1820), 
in  the  French  colony  of  Senegal, 
on  the  Senegal  River;  260  miles 
southeast  of  St.  Louis.  It  has 
trade  in  dates,  rice,  beef,  ivory, 
and  gold  dust.    Pop.  3,000. 

Ba'kelite  (oxybenzyl-methyl- 
en-glycol  anhydride),  a  substance 
produced  from  the  chemical 
union  of  phenol  and  formalde- 
hyde. It  is  an  amber-like  prod- 
uct, characterized  by  electrical 
insulating  properties,  great 
strength,  insolubility  in  all  known 
solvents,  and  resistance  to  most 
chemicals.  It  does  not  melt  at 
300°  c.  or  over,  but  at  higher 
temperatures  chars  and  then 
burns  with  difficulty. 

In  one  of  its  preliminary  con- 
ditions bakelite  is  a  liquid  which 
solidifies  by  the  application  of 
heat,  enabling  impregnation  of 
coils  for  dynamos  or  motors,  and 
the  hardening  of  wood  and  other 
porous  bodies.  Compounded 
with  asbestos,  wood  pulp,  and 
similar  fillers,  it  furnishes  strong 
and  accurately  moulded  articles. 
Transparent  bakelite  is  suitable 
for  pipe  stems,  jewelry,  and  other 
fancy  articles,  formerly  made  of 
amber,  over  which  it  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  greater  strength,  more 
pleasing  appearance,  and  lower 
price.  It  is  not  so  flexible  as  hard 
rubber  or  celluloid,  but  answers 
better  certain  special  purposes 
on  account  of  its  greater  resist- 
ance to  heat  and  solvents.  It  is 
used  also  as  a  varnish  or  enamel, 
and  as  a  protective  coating;  and 


serves  many  purposes  now  filled  by 
the  inflammable  celluloid.  Bake- 
lite is  the  invention  of  Dr. 
Leo  Baekeland. 

Ba'ker,  city,  Oregon,  county 
seat  of  Baker  county,  on  the 
Powder  River,  and  the  Sumpter 
Valley  and  the  Oregon- Washing- 
ton and  Navigation  Company 
Railroads;  357  miles  southeast  of 
Portland.  It  exports  gold  and 
silver  from  the  neighboring 
mines,  wool,  live-stock,  and  lum- 
ber. Industries  include  saw. 
planing,  and  flour  mills,  iron 
works,  brickyards,  creameries, 
milk  condensery,  and  clay  and 
stone  quarries.  The  city  has  the 
commission  form  of  government. 
Pop.  (1910)  6.742;  (1920)  7,729. 

Baker,  Sir  Benjamin  (1840- 
1907),  English  civil  engineer, 
joint  designer  (1882)  "  with  Sir 
John  Fowler  of  the  Forth  Bridge 
(see  Bridges),  and  joint  engineer 
of  the  Assuan  Dam  (see  Dams). 
He  designed  the  ship  that 
brought  the  obelisk  Cleopatra's 
Needle  from  Egypt  to  New  York 
City,  and  assisted  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Blackwall  Tun- 
nel, the  Tower  Bridge,  and  the 
Metropolitan  Railway  system  of 
London.  He  was  also  the  in- 
ventor of  the  pneumatic  shield 
for  tunnelling  under  rivers. 

Baker,  Charles  Fuller 
(1872-  ),  American  botanist 
and  zoologist,  was  born  in  Lan- 
sing, Mich.,  and  was  graduated 
from  the  Michigan  Agricultural 
College  (1892).  After  teaching 
biology  and  botany  for  several 
years,  he  became  botanist  of  the 
H.  H.  Smith  exploring  expedi- 
tion in  Colombia  (1898-9),  and 
later  headed  field  explorations  in 
Nicaragua,  Cuba,  Brazil,  and  the 
Western  United  States.  From 
1904  to  1908  he  served  suc- 
cessively as  chief  of  the  depart- 
ment of  botany  at  the  agronomi- 
cal station  of  Cuba,  and  as  cura- 
tor of  the  botanical  garden  and 
herbarium  in  Para,  Brazil.  He 
was  assistant  professor  (1903-04) 
and  professor  (1908-12)  of  biol- 
ogy in  Pomona  College,  Cali- 
fornia, and  after  1912  professor 
of  agronomy  in  the  University 
of  the  Philippines.  He  published: 
Invertebrala  Pacifica;  Economic 
Plants  of  the  World  (with  others) . 

Baker,  Edward  Dickinson 
(1811-61),  American  soldier  and 
legislator,  was  born  in  London, 
England.  He  was  brought  to 
America  by  his  father  in  1815; 
practised  law  at  Springfield,  111.; 
served  in  both  houses  of  the  Illi- 
nois legislature;  was  a  member  of 
Congress  (1845-6,  1849-51);  and 
served  as  colonel  in  the  Mexican 
War  (1846-7),  commanding  a 
brigade  at  the  Battle  of  Cerro 
(iordo.  In  1851  he  removed  to 
California,  and  subsequently  to 
Oregon,  being  U.  S.  Senator  from 
the  latter  vState  (I860  1).  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he 
entered  the  Federal  Army  as  a 


colonel,  and  in  September,  1861, 
was  appointed  a  major-general 
of  volunteers.  He  was  killed  in 
the  Battle  of  Balls  Bluff  (Oct. 
21.  1861). 

Baker,  Frank  (1841-1918), 
American  anatomist,  was  born 
in  Pulaski,  N.  Y.  He  served  in 
the  Civil  War  (1861-3),  and  was 
graduated  in  medicine  from 
Columbian  University  (1880) 
and  from  Georgetown  Univer- 
sity (PH.D.  1890;  LL.D.  1914). 
From  1883  to  his  death  he  was 
professor  of  anatomy  at  George- 
town University,  and  from  1890 
to  1916  superintendent  of  the 
National  Zoological  Park  at 
Washington.  He  served  as  vice- 
president  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  (1890),  and  as  president 
of  the  Association  of  American 
Anatomists  (1897).  From  1891 
to  1898  he  was  editor  of  the 
American  Anthropologist. 

Baker,  Frank  Collins 
(1867-  ),  American  zoologist, 
was  born  in  Warren,  R.  I.  He 
was  educated  at  Brown  Univer- 
sity and  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences,  Philadelphia,  and  was 
sent  (1890)  by  the  latter  institu- 
tion on  an  exploring  expedition 
into  Mexico.  In  1894  he  was 
made  curator  of  zoology  at  the 
Field  Columbian  Museum,  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  was  curator  of  the 
Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences 
(1894-1915),  zoological  investi- 
gator. New  York  State  College 
of  Forestry  (1915-17),  and  cura- 
tor of  the  Natural  History 
Museum,  University  of  Illinois, 
after  1918.  He  published:  A 
Naturalist  in  Mexico  (1895); 
Mollusca  of  the  Chicago  Area 
(1898-1902);  Shells  of  Land  and 
Water  (1903);  The  LymnceidcB  of 
North  and  Middle  America  (1911); 
Relation  of  Mollusks  to  Fish  in 
Oneida  Lake  (1916);  Life  of  the 
Pleistocene  (1920). 

Baker,  George  Pierce  (1866- 

),  American  educator,  was  born 
in  Providence,  R.  I.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1887,  and  was  associ- 
ated with  that  university  as  in- 
structor, assistant  professor 
(1895-1905),  and  professor  (after 
1905)  of  English.  He  published 
Principles  of  Argumentation  (with 
H.  B.  Huntington;  new  ed.  1905), 
The  Development  of  Shakespeare 
as  a  Dramatist  (1907),  and  Dra- 
matic Technique  (1919);  and 
edited  the  following  works:  Speci- 
mens of  Argumentation  (1893); 
Forms  of  Public  Address  (1904); 
Some  Unpublished  Correspondence 
of  David  Garrick  (1907);  Corre- 
spondence of  Charles  Dickens  and 
Maria  Beadnell  (1906);  and  a 
number  of  Elizabethan  plays. 
He  also  wrote  and  produced  a 
number  of  pageants. 

Baker,  Henry  (1698-1774), 
English  scientist  and  poet,  was 
born  in  London.  He  instituted  a 
successful  method  of  instructing 
Vol.  I. — March  '24 


Baker 


532 


Baking  Powder 


deaf  mutes,  studied  natural  sci- 
ence and  the  writing  of  verses, 
and  was  associated  in  journalism 
with  Defoe.  He  wrote  The  Mi- 
croscope Made  Easy  (1743)  and 
Employment  for  the  Microscope 
(1753),  and  in  1744  was  awarded 
the  Copley  Medal  for  experi- 
ments on  the  crystallization  of 
salt.  He  founded  the  Bakerian 
lecture  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Baker,  Moses  Nelson  (1864- 
),  American  editor  and  writer 
on  engineering  and  municipal 
subjects,  was  born  in  Enosburgh, 
Vt.  He  was  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Vermont  (1886), 
and  in  1887  joined  the  editorial 
staff  of  the  Engineering  News, 
now  Engineering  News-Record, 
New  York,  starting  the  engineer- 
ing literature  section  in  1902,  and 
editing  it  after  that  time.  He  is 
a  recognized  authority  on  munici- 
pal government,  engineering,  and 
sanitation,  and  has  contributed 
to  Nelson's  Perpetual  Loose 
Leaf  Encyclopedia  on  those 
subjects.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  board  of  health  of  Montclair, 
N.  J.,  from  1894  to  1915  (presi- 
dent 1904-15);  and  vice  presi- 
dent of  the  New  Jersey  State 
Board  of  Health  (1915-16).  He 
edited  the  Manual  of  American 
Water  Works  (new  ed.  1897)  and 
Municipal  Year  Book  (1902),  and 
wrote  numerous  works  on  sani- 
tary and  municipal  engineering. 
Baker,  Newton  Diehl  (1871- 
),  American  Cabinet  officer, 
was  born  in  Martinsburg,  W.  Va. 
He  was  graduated  from  Johns 
Hopkins  University  (1892),  stud- 
ied law  at  Washington  and  Lee 
University,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  West  Virginia  Bar  (1894). 
In  1899  he  removed  to  Cleveland 
Ohio,  where  he  served  four  terms 
as  city  solicitor  (1902-12),  and 
was  active  in  Mayor  Tom  L. 
Johnson's  campaign  for  a  three- 
cent  trolley  fare  (see  Cleve- 
land). From  1912  to  1915  he 
was  mayor  of  Cleveland,  during 
which  time  he  built  a  municipal 
electric  light  plant  and  generally 
continued  the  progressive  poli- 
cies of  his  former  chief,  maintain- 
ing the  reputation  of  Cleveland 
as  one  of  the  best  governed  cities 
of  the  country.  In  March,  1916, 
he  was  appointed  Secretary  of 
War  to  succeed  Lindley  M.  Garri- 
son, resigned,  which  office  he 
held  until  the  end  of  the  Wilson 
administration,  when  he  re- 
turned to  the  practise  of  law  at 
Cleveland. 

Baker,  Ray  Stannard  (1870- 
),  American  author,  known 
also  by  the  pseudonym  'David 
Grayson',  was  born  in  Lansing, 
Mich.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  Michigan  Agricultural  Col- 
lege (1889;  ll.d.,  1907),  and 
studied  law  and  literature  in  the 
University  of  Michigan.  He  was 
on  the  staff  of  the  Chicago  Record 
(1892-7);  managing  editor  of  the 
McClure  Syndicate  (1897-8); 
Vol.  I. — March  '24 


associate  editor  of  McClure's 
Magazine  (1899-1905);  and  one 
of  the  editors  of  The  American 
Magazine  (1906-15).  During 
1918  he  was  sent  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  State  as  special 
commissioner  to  Great  Britain, 
France  and  Italy,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  he  acted  as  director  of 
the  Press  Bureau  of  the  American 
Commission  to  Negotiate  Peace, 
at  Paris.  He  published:  The 
Boys'  Book  of  Inventions  (1899); 
Our  New  Prosperity  (1900);  Seen 
in  Germany  (1901);  Second  Boys' 
Book  of  Inventions  (1903);  Fol- 
lowing the  Color  Line  (1908); 
New  Ideals  in  Healing  (1909); 
The  Spiritual  Unrest  (1910); 
What  Wilson  Did  at  Paris  (1919); 
The  New  Industrial  Unrest  (1920) ;  ■ 
Woodrow  Wilson  and  World  Set- 
tlement (3  vols.  1922).  Under  his 
pseudonym  appeared:  Adventures 
in  Contentment  (1907);  Adven- 
tures in  Friendship  (1910);  The 
Friendly  Road  (1913);  Hempfield 
(1915);  Great  Possessions  (1917). 

Baker,  Sir  Samuel  White 
(1821-93),  English  author  and 
explorer,  who,  after  exploring  the 
Blue  Nile  and  tracing  the  course 
of  the  White  Nile,  in  1864  reached 
the  great  fresh-water  lake  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  Al- 
bert Nyanza.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  was  knighted.  In 
1869-73  he  commanded  an  expe- 
dition organized  by  the  Khedive 
of  Egypt  for  the  suppression  of 
the  slave  trade  and  the  annexa- 
tion of  the  equatorial  regions  of 
the  Nile  basin.  He  subsequently 
(1879)  made  a  thorough  explora- 
tion of  Cyprus.  He  was  author 
of:  The  Rifle  and  the  Hound  in 
Ceylon  (1854);  Eight  Years'  Wan- 
derings in  Ceylon  (1855;  new  ed. 
1890) ;  The  Albert  Nyanza  (1866) ; 
The  Nile  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia 
(1867);  Ismailia  (1874);  Cyprus 
as  I  Saw  It  in  1879  (1879); 
Wild  Beasts  and  Their  Ways 
(1890).  Consult  Life  by  Murray 
and  White. 

Baker,  Valentine  (1827-87), 
known  also  as  Baker  Pasha, 
British  soldier,  brother  of  Sir 
Samuel  Baker  (q.  v.),  joined  the 
army  in  1848,  and  served  in  the 
Kafifir  War  (1852-3),  in  India, 
and  in  the  Crimea  (1855).  He 
became  a  major-general  in  the 
Turkish  army  in  1877,  and  served 
in  the  Russo-Turkish  Wai.  He 
organized  and  commanded  (1882- 
7)  the  Egyptian  gendarmerie  for 
the  Khedive,  and  was  routed  at 
the  first  battle  of  El  Teb  (1884) 
by  the  tribesmen  of  Osman 
Digna. 

Baker,  Mount,  volcano,  What- 
com county.  Northwest  Wash- 
ington, in  the  Cascade  Range,  a 
continuation  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains; 20  miles  from  the  Canadian 
frontier.  It  is  in  eruption  from 
time  to  time,  and  was  active  in 
1843  and  1880.  Altitude,  10,827 
feet. 

Bakersfleld,   city,  California, 


county  seat  of  Kern  county,  on 
the  Kern  River,  and  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe, 
and  the  Southern  Pacific  Rail- 
roads; 125  miles  northwest  of 
Los  Angeles.  It  has  a  public 
library  and  fine  county  build- 
ings. In  1919  industrial  estab- 
lishments numbered  73,  with  a 
capital  of  $3,971,755,  and  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $5,699,051.  These 
include  oil  refineries,  machine 
shops  and  foundries,  planing  and 
flour  mills,  and  packing  houses, 
largely  operated  by  electric  power 
generated  at  the  Kern  River. 
Fruit,  meat,  live-stock,  hides, 
and  wool  are  exported.  Pop. 
(1900)  4,836;  (1910)  12,727; 
(1920)  18.638. 

Baker  University,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  of  learning  at 
Baldwin,  Kans.,  founded  in  1858 
by  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  The  University  com- 
prises the  College  of  Liberal 
Arts,  Musical  Conservatory,  De- 
partment of  Fine  Arts,  prepara- 
tory professional  courses,  and 
Summer  School.  There  is  a 
campus  of  sixteen  acres,  a  fine 
athletic  field,  and  a  library  of 
about  45,000  volumes.  For  re- 
cent statistics  see  College. 

Bakhchi-Sarai,  bak'che-sa-ri', 
or  Bakchiserai,  town,  Crimea, 
Russia,  once  capital  of  the  khan- 
ate of  Krim,  in  the  valley  of  Cho- 
ruk;  20  miles  southwest  of  Sim- 
pheropol.  It  contains  the  an- 
cient palace  (1519)  of  the  Tartar 
khans.  In  1854  it  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Russian  army  for 
the  relief  of  Sebastopol.  Pop. 
15,000. 

Bakhmeteff,  George,  Russian 
diplomat,  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Oxford,  England. 
He  was  Master  of  the  Imperial 
Court  of  Russia,  and  privy  coun- 
cillor; and  from  1911  to  1917 
represented  his  country  as  Am- 
bassador Extraordinary  and  Pleni- 
potentiary to  the  United  States. 

Bakhmut,  bak-moot',  or  Bach- 
MUT,  town,  Ekaterinoslav  govern- 
ment, Russia;  125  miles  east  of 
Ekaterinoslav  city.  It  produces 
coal,  salt,  alabaster,  and  quick- 
silver, and  manufactures  steel 
rails.   Pop.  20,000. 

Bakhtegan,  bak'te-giin',  or 
Niris,  a  salt  lake  in  the  Persian 
province  of  Farsistan,  50  miles 
east  of  Shiraz.  Area,  about  400 
square  miles. 

Baking.  See  Cookery. 

Baking  Powder,  a  compound 
used  in  cooking  in  the  place  of 
yeast,  consisting  of  an  acid  and 
an  alkali.  Bicarbonate  of  soda 
is  the  alkali  generally  used,  and 
cornstarch  is  the  usual  filler,  but 
the  acid  constituent  varies,  be- 
ing tartaric  acid  in  tartrate 
powders,  aluminum  sulphate  in 
alum  powders,  and  some  form  of 
phosphoric  acid  in  phosphate 
powders.  When  the  powder  is 
moistened,  carbonic  acid  gas  is 
generated   and    this    blows  or 


Bakony  Wald 


533 


Balseniceps 


pufifs  up  the  doughy  mass.  See 
Bread. 

Bakony  Wald,  bok'o-ne,  a 
broad,  hilly  region  (alt.  2,000- 
2,340  feet)  of  Hungary,  stretch- 
ing southwest  from  the  elbow  of 
the  Danube  above  Budapest,  par- 
allel to  Lake  Balaton,  for  50  miles, 
and  forming  a  division  between 
the  great  pusztas  (plains)  on  the 
east  of  the  Danube  and  the  plain 
of  the  Raab.  Large  herds  of 
swine  are  annually  driven  hither. 
The  swineherds  were  formerly  the 
robbers  celebrated  in  the  ballads 
of  the  Hungarian  people. 

Bakshish,  bak'shesh,  or  Back- 
shish (Persian  'a  gift'),  a  word 
used  throughout  the  East  for  a 
gratuity  or  'tip'  for  services  ren- 
dered; though  it  is  demanded, 
often,  with  threats. 

Bakst,  bakst,  Leon  Nikola- 
jEwiTSCH  (1868),  Russian  deco- 
rator and  designer,  was  born  in 
Petrograd  of  Jewish  parentage. 
He  studied  at  the  Academy  of 
Arts  in  Petrograd,  and  in  Paris. 
He  resided  in  Moscow  until  1906, 
when  he  removed  to  Paris.  He 
has  become  distinguished  for  his 
elaborate  stage  settings,  espe- 
cially in  connection  with  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  Imperial  Russian 
ballet — e.g.,  Cleopatra  and  Sche- 
herazade. Other  notable  works 
by  him  were  the  Egyptian  set- 
tings for  Salome;  the  Greek  set- 
tings for  A  Faun's  Afternoon, 
Narcisse,  and  Daphne  and  Chloe; 
the  Byzantine  settings  for  the 
opera  Boris  Godounoff;  and  the 
mediaeval  settings  for  D'Annun- 
zio's  Saint  Sebastien. 

Baku,  ba-koo',  Russian  govern- 
ment of  the  Eastern  Caucasus, 
including  the  plains  of  the  lower 
Kura  and  Aras,  and  the  Talish 
Mountains.  Its  greatest  impor- 
tance arises  from  its  oil  wells, 
mostly  located  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  city  of  Baku  (q.v.).  The 
chief  crops  are  wheat,  millet, 
maize,  and  rice;  saffron,  madder, 
and  cotton  are  also  grown,  and 
silk  is  produced.  The  coast  fish- 
eries are  important,  but  the  main 
industries  are  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Baku  city.  Area,  15,060 
square  miles.    Pop.  1,050,000. 

I  Baku,  city,  seaport,  and  ad- 
ministrative centre  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Baku  (q.v.),  Russia,  is 
situated  on  the  Apsheron  penin- 
sula, and  has  a  fine  natural  har- 
bor on  the  Caspian  Sea.  Since 
1883  it  has  been  the  eastern  ter- 
minus of  the  railroad  connecting 
the  city  with  Tifiis,  and  with  Poti 
and  Batum,  on  the  Black  Sea,  561 
miles  distant;  since  1887,  the 
North  Caucasus  Railway  has  con- 
nected Baku  with  Novorossiisk, 
on  the  Black  Sea. 

The  soil  around  Baku  is  satu- 
rated with  petroleum,  and  oil 
refining  constitutes  the  chief  in- 
dustry of  the  town.  The  larger 
number  of  the  3, 000  wells  are  sit- 
uated on  the  Balakhani  Peninsula, 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '15 


8  miles  north  of  the  town,  and 
lines  of  pipe  carry  the  oil  into 
the  'black  town'  to  the  refineries, 
where  it  is  prepared  for  exporta- 
tion. The  Baku  output  of  6,700,- 
000  tons  in  1912  was  nearly  four- 
fifths  of  Russia's  total  supply, 
notwithstanding  the  Baku  output 
had  decreased  nearly  1,000,000 
tons  since  1910.  Geologists  claim 
that  the  Baku  field  is  far  from  ex- 
hausted, but  that  the  oil  must  be 
secured  from  greater  depths. 

Shipbuilding  yards  and  tobacco 
factories  are  also  located  at  Baku. 
Cotton,  silk,  opium,  saffron,  rice, 
and  salt  are  exported  from  Persia 
via  Baku.  Pop.  (1897)  112,2.53; 
(1914)  200,000,  largely  Tartars 
and  Armenians. 

The  earliest  mention  of  Baku 
is  by  the  Arabian  historian  Masu- 
di,  about  943.  The  ancient  Par- 
sees  or  fire  worshippers  made 
Atesh-Ga  (q.v.)  (the  'place  of 
fire')  an  object  of  pilgrimage,  as 
there  natural  gas,  or  naphtha, 
issued  from  the  ground  and  ig- 
nited spontaneously.  The  Per- 
sians possessed  Baku  from  1509 
to  1723,  when  the  Russians  cap- 
tured it.  After  twelve  years  it 
was  restored  to  Persia,  but  Rus- 
sia finally  took  possession  in  1806. 
In  1901  a  disastrous  fire  visited 
the  city.  Labor  riots  occurred  in 
January,  1905,  during  the  prog- 
ress of  which  some  hundreds  of  oil 
towers  were  burned,  a  loss  of 
$13,500,000  incurred,  and  many 
persons  killed  and  wounded. 
Consult  Marvin's  The  Region  of 
Eternal  Fire;  Henry's  Baku,  an 
Eventful  History  (1906). 

Bakunin,  ba-koon'yen,  Mich- 
ael (1814-76),  Russian  revolu- 
tionist and  anarchist,  was  born 
near  Moscow.  After  serving  for 
a  short  time  in  the  Imperial 
Guard,  he  studied  philosophy  at 
Berlin  (1841),  thence  went  to 
Dresden,  and  later  (1847)  to 
Paris,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  George  Sand  and 
the  socialist  Proudhon.  A  little 
later  he  took  an  active  part  iiji 
the  revolutionary  movements  at 
Prague  and  Dresden,  and  being 
arrested  in  Saxony  (1849),  was 
condemned  to  death.  He  was, 
however,  given  up  to  Russia, 
where  he  spent  several  years  in 
prison.  He  was  sent  to  Siberia  in 
1855,  but  managed  to  escape  in 
an  American  ship  to  Japan, 
and  arrived  in  England  in  1861, 
In  1865  Bakunin  was  in  Italy 
diffusing  his  socialistic  views.  In 
1869  he  founded  the  Alliance  of 
the  Social  Democracy,  which 
soon  joined  the  International 
Workingmen's  Association.  As 
the  leader  of  militant  anarchism, 
Bakunin  was  in  the  International 
the  opponent  of  Karl  Marx.  In 
1872  he  was  expelled  from  the 
International,  and  retired  to 
Switzerland.  He  wrote  a  large 
number  of  works,  the  chief  being: 
L'Empire  Knouto-Germanique  et 


la  Revolution  Sociale;  La  Theol- 
ogie  Politique  de  Mazzini  et  1' In- 
ternationale; Dieu  et  I'Etat. 

Ba'laam,  a  prophet,  seer,  or 
soothsayer,  who,  according  to 
Num.  xxii.-xxiv.,  was  summoned 
by  Balak,  king  of  Moab,  to  pro- 
nounce a  curse  upon  Israel,  and 
thereby  arrest  the  march  of  that 
people  toward  Canaan.  On  the 
way  from  his  home  in  Pethor, 
or  Pitru,  a  city  of  Mesopotamia, 
near  the  Euphrates,  the  angel  of 
the  Lord  met  him.  The  proph- 
et's ass  saw  the  apparition  and 
turned  aside  in  terror;  but  Ba- 
laam, not  perceiving  the  angel, 
beat  the  animal  three  times, 
whereupon  the  beast  'spake  with 
man's  voice,  and  stayed  the  mad- 
ness of  the  prophet.' 

Three  times  Balak  prepared 
the  sacrifice  for  the  ceremony  of 
execration  upon  Israel,  the  first 
at  Bamoth-Baal,  'the  high  places 
of  Baal,'  the  second  at  Pisgah, 
and  the  third  at  Peor;  but  instead 
of  the  desired  curse,  Balaam  ut- 
tered a  series  of  oracles  or  predic- 
tions, prophetic  of  Israel's  future 
greatness.  However,  Balaam 
succeeded  in  assisting  Balak  by 
his  evil  counsel  to  the  Israelites, 
and  for  a  time  caused  the  latter 
to  forfeit  the  favor  of  Jehovah  by 
leading  them  into  sin  through  the 
Moabitish  women.  He  was  slain 
while  fighting  on  the  side  of  the 
Midianites  against  Israel  (Num. 
xxxi.  8,  16;  Micah  vi.  5-8;  Rev. 
ii.  14,  etc.). 

Nearly  all  the  references  to 
Balaam  in  Scripture,  particularly 
in  the  New  Testament,  speak  of 
him  with  opprobrium,  and  hold 
him  up  as  a  warning  example  of 
those  who  love  the  hire  of  un- 
righteousness. Probably  the  sig- 
nificance of  Balaam's  prophe- 
cies lies  in  the  fact  that  a  Gentile 
at  that  time  should  foretell  Is- 
rael's greatness,  which  had  the 
effect  of  encouraging  the  people 
against  their  enemies.  Consult 
N.  Schmidt's  Messages  of  the 
Poets  (p.  327,  1911). 

BaMa  Beds.  The  rocks  of  the 
Bala  district,  North  Wales,  con- 
tain two  limestones,  separated  by 
some  1,400  feet  of  arenaceous  and 
slaty  strata.  The  lower  lime- 
stone (25  feet)  is  called  the  Bala 
limestone,  and  has  been  followed 
over  a  considerable  area;  the 
upper,  or  Hirnant  limestone,  is 
local.  Bala  beds  form  a  group 
of  the  Lower  Silurian.  In  the 
Snowdon  region  they  attain  great 
thickness,  and  show  intercalated 
sheets  of  felsitic  lava  and  tuff. 
See  Silurian. 

Barachong,  a  condiment  used 
in  China  for  eating  with  rice. 
It  is  made  of  shrimps  or  small 
fish  pounded  with  salt  and  spices 
and  then  dried. 

Baliena,  ba-le'na.  See  Whale. 

Bala^niccps,  ba-le'ni-seps 
('whale- headed'),  or  .Shoe- Billed 
Stork,  a  gigantic  grallatorial  bird 


Balsenoptera 


534 


Balance 


found  only  on  the  Upper  Nile. 
It  has  a  large,  hooked,  very  broad 
and  flat  bill,  resembling  that  of 
the  boatbill  (q.v.). 

Bal'senopHera.  See  Fir^ 
Whale. 

Balaghat,  ba-la-got'  ('above 
the  Ghats'),  the  elevated  table 
land  of  Berar,  India,  which  lies 
between  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Ghats. 

Balaguer,  ba-la-gar',  Victor 
(1824-1900) ,  Spanish  administra- 
tor, poet,  and  historian.  He  be- 
came an  active  Radical  leader  and 
advocate  of  the  rights  of  Cata- 
lonia; fled  to  France  in  1866,  and 
threw  himself  into  the  Provencal 
literary  movement.  In  1868  he 
became  a  leader  in  the  Cortes, 
and  minister  of  colonies  in  1886. 
He  is  chiefly  known  by  his  Cata- 
lan poems  (Poesias  Covipletas, 
1874,  and  Obras  Poeticas,  1880), 
more  particularly  the  collection 
known  as  Trovador  de  Montser- 
rat  (1850),  and  tragedies  (Trage- 
dias,  6th  ed.  1891),  his  Historia 
de  los  Trovador es  (1878-80),  and 
especially  his  Historia  de  Catalun. 

Balak-hissar.    See  Balikesri. 

Balakireff,  ba-la'ker-yef,  Mili 
Alexeievitch  (18.37-1910),  Rus- 
sian musical  composer,  was  born 
at  Nizhni  Novgorod.  He  appeared 
with  great  success  as  a  pianist  in 
St.  Petersburg  in  1855;  was  con- 
ductor of  the  Russian  Musical 
Society  in  1867-70;  and,  later, 
director  of  the  imperial  orches- 
tra. His  works  include:  King 
Lear;  Tamara  and  Russia,  both 
symphonies;  Islamey,  an  Oriental 
fantasia  for  the  piano;  an  inter- 
esting collection  of  Russian 
popular  songs  (1866);  and  many 
overtures  with  Russian,  Spanish, 
and  Czech  (Bohemian)  themes. 
He  edited  a  selection  of  Tausig's 
pianoforte  pieces  in  1908. 

Balaklava,  ba-la-kla'va,  or 
Balaclava,  port  and  health  re- 
sort, southwest  coast  of  Crimea, 
Russia,  in  44°  .30'  n.  lat. ;  8  miles 
southeast  of  Sebastopol,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  rocky 
peninsula.  The  harbor,  which 
affords  secure  anchorage  for  the 
largest  ships,  till  1860  was  a  naval 
station.  Pop.  village,  2,000.  In 
1854-6  Balaklava  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  British  force  dur- 
ing the  Crimean  War;  and  it  is 
chiefly  memorable  for  the  action 
of  Oct.  25,  1854,  and  the  charge 
on  the  Russian  guns  by  the  Light 
Brigade  (the  'Six  Hundred').  (See 
Crimean  War.)  Consult  King- 
lake's  Invasion  of  the  Crimea; 
Paget's  The  Light  Cavalry  Bri- 
gade in  the  Crimea. 

Balalaika,  bal'a-li'ka,  a  musical 
instrument  very  much  used  in 
Russia  for  the  accompaniment  of 
popular  songs.  It  is  a  stringed 
instrument,  with,  generally,  two 
strings,  and  resembles  a  guitar. 

Balamban,  ba'Iam-ban',  pueb- 
lo, Ccbu,  Philii)pines,  on  the 
Strait  of  Tanon;  25  miles  north- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  '15 


west  of  Cebu  town.  It  has  a  good 
harbor,  and  an  active  trade.  Pop. 
13,000. 

Balance,  an  instrument  for  de- 
termining the  relative  weights  or 
masses  of  bodies,  usually  by  ref- 
erence to  certain  standard  units 


that  the  beam  shall  be  able  to 
oscillate  freely  on  its  support,  the 
fulcrum  consists  of  a  steel  or 
agate  prism,  or  'knife  edge,'  with 
its  sharp  edge  at  right  angles  to 
the  direction  of  the  beam,  and 
resting  on  a  plane  of  polished 


Common  Form  of  Balance. 

Fig.  1.  Or  linarv  balance — a,  knife  edge,  and  h,  polished  plane,  of  steel  or  agate;  c, 
pointer.  Fig.  2.  Steelyard.  Figs.  3  and  4.  Spring  balance,  interior  and  front  view — a, 
spring;  h,  case;  c,  hook;  d,  scale  pan;  e,  index-finger;  /,  scale. 


(pounds,  ounces,  grams,  etc.). 
There  are  many  varieties  of  bal- 
ance. The  ordinary  balance  con- 
sists of  a  lever  of  the  first  kind, 
called  the  beam,  which  is  sup- 
ported on  a  fulcrum  in  the  middle, 
and  from  the  extremities  of  which 
are  hung  two  scale  pans,  one  for 
the  weights,  the  other  for  the 
object  to  be  weighed.    In  order 


steel  or  agate,  thus  reducing  fric- 
tion to  a  minimum.  Further,  to 
insure  that  the  arms  of  the  beam 
keep  at  absolutely  the  same 
length  irrespective  of  their  move- 
ments, the  scale  pans  are  hung 
from  hooks  containing  planes, 
which  rest  on  similar  knife  edges 
at  the  ends  of  the  beam.  Fre- 
quently a  needle  or  pointer  is 


Balance 

fixed  to  the  centre  of  the  beam 
in  such  a  way  that  one  end  oscil- 
lates along  the  arc  of  a  circle,  and 
comes  to  rest  in  the  line  of  direc- 
tion from  the  fulcrum  to  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  beam,  or  swings 
evenly  on  each  side  of  that  line, 
when  the  balance  is  horizontal. 

The  following  are  the  require- 
ments of  a  good  balance: — (1.) 
The  two  arms  of  the  beam  must 
be  precisely  the  same  length, 
otherwise  unequal  weights  in  the 
scale-pans  will  be  necessary  to 
produce  equilibrium  of  the  lever. 
(2.)  The  balance  should  be  in 
equilibrium  when  the  scale-pans 
ar^  empty.  (3.)  The  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  beam,  when  hori- 
zontal, should  be  in  the  same 
vertical  line  with  the  knife-edge 
of  the  fulcrum,  and  a  short  dis- 
tance underneath  the  latter,  in 
order  to  insure  that  the  beam, 
when  at  rest,  shall  assume  a  posi- 
tion of  stable  equilibrium.  (4.) 
The  balance  should  be  delicate — 
i.e.  should  answer  to  the  least 
alteration  of  the  weights  in  the 
scale-pans.  This  is  effected  (a) 
by  making  the  arms  of  the  bal- 
ance long,  while  their  weight  is 
reduced  as  far  as  the  necessary 
rigidity  will  permit;  (b)  and  by 
having  the  centre  of  gravity  but 
little  below  the  knife-edge  of  the 
fulcrum;  while  (c)  due  attention 
must  be  given  to  d.iminishing  fric- 
tion by  having  the  knife-edges  of 
the  supports  as  sharp,  and  the 
bearings  as  hard,  as  possible. 

A  balance  to  be  used  in  the  pro- 
cesses of  chemical  analyses  must 
possess  extraordinary  delicacy, 
even  to  one  ten-thousandth  of  a 
gram  or  one  one-thousandth  of 
a  grain.  In  order  to  prevent  the 
wearing  away  of  the  knife-edges  of 
the  fulcrum  and  of  the  scale-pans 
as  much  as  possible,  the  wnole 
beam,  and  the  pans  from  the  beams 
are  raised  off  tneir  bearings,  when 
not  in  use,  by  means  of  a  screw; 
and  to  protect  the  balance  from 
dust,  moisture,  air  currents,  or 
other  disturbance  of  conditions,  it 
is  invariably,  even  when  in  use, 
kept  within  a  glass  case,  one  side 
of  which  is  movable. 

Of  the  numerous  special  modi- 
fications of  the  balance  only  two 
require  separate  notice — the  Ro- 
man balance  and  the  spring  bal- 
ance. The  Roman  balance,  or 
steelyard,  consists  of  a  bar  of  steel 
suspended  near  one  of  its  ends, 
from  which  hangs  the  object  to 
be  weighed,  while  along  the  longer 
arm  moves  a  weight  used  as  a 
counterpoise.  As  the  counter- 
poise is  on  the  longer  arm,  a  much 
smaller  weight  can  balance  a  heavy 
object,  and  thus  its  use  obviates 
the  necessity  of  heavy  weights — 
an  advantage  which  leads  to  its 
employment  in  cases  when  it  is 
necessary  to  move  the  weighing 
apparatus  from  place  to  place,  or 
when  the  objects  to  be  weighed 


535 

(carts,   wagons,   etc.)   are  very 

heavy.  Tne  spring  balance  has 
for  its  essential  part  a  cylindric 
coil  of  spring  wire  in  a  vertical 
case.  From  the  lower  end  of  the 
coil  depends  a  hook  supporting  a 
scale-pan,  and  on  the  front  of  the 
case  is  an  index-finger,  which 
moves  up  and  down  a  slot  accord- 
ing to  the  strain  put  on  the  spring 
by  the  varying  weights  in  the  pan. 
A  graduated  scale  is  placed  along 
the  side  of  the  slot,  and  the  index 
at  once  shows  the  weight  of  any 
object  put  in  the  scale-pan.  The 
spring  balance  becomes  unreli- 
able when  frequently  used.  See 
Glazebrook  and  Shaw's  Practical 
Physics  (1893) 

Balance  of  Power,  a  political 

Erinciple  implying  such  a  distri- 
ution  and  opposition  of  forces 
among  the  nations  forming  part 
of  one  system  that  no  state  or 
combination  of  states  shall  en- 
danger the  rights  or  independence 
of  any  other  state.  It  was  this 
that  Henry  iv.  of  France  and  his 
great  minister  Sully  had  in  view 
when,  in  1603,  they  proposed  the 
establishment  among  the  Euro- 
pean states  of  a  Republique  tres 
Chretienne:  it  underlay  the  ar- 
rangements of  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia (1648,  closing  the  Thirty 
Years'  War),  which  curtailed  the 
power  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg; 
and,  again,  it  led  to  the  European 
coalition  against  the  aggressions 
of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  which 
received  their  final  check  in  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713).  For  the 
same  reason  Napoleon  met  with 
the  desperate  opposition  of  Eu- 
rope, led  by  Britain;  and  the 
settlement  effected  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  (1815)  was  based 
on  calculations  of  the  balance  of 
power.  To  it  also  was  due  the 
coalition  of  Britain,  France,  Sar- 
dinia, and  Turkey  against  Russia, 
which  resulted  in  the  Crimean  War 
(1854).  The  influence  of  the  same 

f)rinciple  was  operative  in  the  Ber- 
in  Congress  oi  1878  j  and  it  may 
be  traced  in  recent  international 
arrangements,  in  which  the  power 
of  the  Triple  Alliance  (Germany, 
Austria,  and  Italy)  has  opposed 
to  it  that  of  the  Dual  Alliance 
(France  and  Russia) ;  in  the  grow- 
ing movement  towards  an  Eng- 
lish-speaking confederacy  for  the 
mutual  protection  of  its  members 
against  foreign  interference,  and 
in  the  alliance  of  Britain  and 
Japan  for  reciprocal  support  in 
the  Far  East.  See  Dilke's  The 
Present  Position  of  European  Pol- 
itics (1887);  Hume's  Essays,  ii.  7. 
Balance  of  Trade.  See  Trade. 
Balance  Spring.  See  Horol- 
ogy. 

Balancing  of  Machinery.  In 

most  machines  the  inertia  of  the 
moving  parts  originates  forces 
which  tend  to  cause  the  frame  of 
the  machine  to  vibrate  as  a  whole. 
Such  a  machine  is  said  to  be  un- 


Balancing  of  Machinery 

balanced,  and  in  the  case  of  high- 
speed machinery  it  is  often  nec- 
essary to  balance  these  forces 
wholly  or  partially  by  means  of 
suitably    disposed    weights.  A 

gerfectly  balanced  machine,  if 
ung  up  and  set  in  motion,  would 
not  vibrate  as  a  whole.  Machines, 
such  as  dynamos,  turbines,  and 
centrifugal  pumps,  whose  moving 
parts  consist  of  rotating  masses 
symmetrically  situated  about  the 
axis  of  rotation,  are  naturally  in 
balance,  and  only  require  adjust- 
ing for  errors  due  to  slight  lack  of 
symmetry  in  the  different  parts; 
but  in  machines  such  as  the  steam- 
engine,  having  unbalanced  recip- 
rocating masses,  it  is  impossible  to 
obtain  perfect  balance  as  regards 
all  the  forces,  and  in  practice  a 
compromise  has  to  be  arrived  at. 

(1.)  Balance  of  Rotating  Masses. 
— Suppose  it  is  required  to  balance 
a  single  weight  w  rotating  about 
a  shaft  XY,  and  at  a  distance  r 
from  it.  This  cannot  be  done  hy 
a  single  weight,  since  in  practice  it 

A 
I 

r  I 
I 


B 


could' not  be  placed  opposite  to  w. 
Two  weights,  Wi  and  W2,  will  be 
required  in  the  plane  of  w  and 
XY,  and  placed  so  that  (a)  the  cen- 
tre of  gravity  of  w  Wi,  and  W2,  is 
on  the  axis  xy;  (b)  the  moments 
of  the  centrifugal  forces  of  the 
three  weights,  about  any  axis  per- 
pendicular to  XY,  must  balance. 
The  first  of  these  conditions  in- 
sures that  there  shall  be  no  re- 
sultant centrifugal  force  parallel 
to  AB,  and  is  fulfilled  if  Wiri-|- 
Wor^—wr.  The  second  condition 
insures  the  absence  of  a  centrif- 
ugal couple  tendi  ig  to  twist  the 
machine  about  an  axis  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane  of  the  paper. 
Taking  moments  about  AB  as  a 
convenient  axis  (any  axis  perpen- 
dicular to  XY  will  do),  the  second 
condition  will  be  fulfilled  if  Wi^ja 
—W2r-^b.  It  is  obvious  that  this 
condition  could  not  be  satisfied 
by  a  single  weight  unless  it  were 
placed  opposite  to  w. 

(2.)  Bala,ncing  of  Reciprocating 
Parts. — It  is  impossible  to  balance 
completely  the  reciprocating  parts 
of  an  engine  by  means  of  revolv- 
ing weights.  If  the  connecting 
rod  were  infinitely  long,  then  it 
would  be  possible,  by  means  of 


Balanga 

revolving  weights,  to  balance  the 
piston  rod,  crosshead,  and  con- 
necting rod,  so  far  as  regards 
forces  in  the  plane  of  the  engine; 
but  the  weights  required  to  do 
this  would  produce  an  unbalanced 
centrifugal  force  in  a  plane  per- 
pendicular to  the  plane  through 
the  cylinders  and  crank  shaft. 
In  practice  a  compromise  has  to  be 
effected,  only  from  a  half  to  three- 
quarters  ol  the  reciprocating  mass 
being  balanced  in  many  cases. 

In  locomotives  it  is  usual  to 
balance  the  horizontal  forces  and 
couples.  The  balancing  of  the 
first  prevents  the  engine  from  ex- 
erting a  tugging  action  on  the 
train,  and  balancing  the  second 
prevents  oscillation ;  but  the 
effect  of  the  unbalanced  vertical 
forces  is  to  produce  a  hammer 
below  on  the  rails,  which  has  to 
be  endured,  as  being  the  lesser 
evil.  Some  locomotive  engineers 
balance  the  whole  of  the  horizon- 
tal forces  in  this  way,  but  often 
in  order  to  reduce  the  hammer  be- 
low on  the  rails,  only  three-fourths 
of  the  reciprocating  masses  are 
balanced.  The  balance  weight  is 
usually  cast  on  the  driving  wheels. 

In  outside  cylinder  engines, 
where  one  end  of  the  coupling  rod 
is  connected  with  the  crank-pin, 
the  rod  has  to  be  considered  as 
part  of  the  reciprocating  masses. 
In  inside  cylinder  engines,  of  the 
type  found  in  Europe,  especially 
in  England,  the  coupling  rods  may 
be  made  to  exert  a  considerable 
balancing  effect  by  placing  them 
in  the  proper  position. 

Balanga,  pueb.,  on  the  w.  side 
of  Manila  Bay,  Luzon,  Philippine 
Is.;  cap.  of  Bataan  prov.  Pop. 
(1898)  9,000. 

Balanoglossus,  a  small  (1-6") 
worm  found  in  sand  and  mud  in 
various  seas,  of  much  zoological 
importance  from  the  fact  that  it  is 


Young  Balanoglossus 
{showing  rudimentary  gill-slits). 


found  to  possess  distinct  gill-slits, 
like  those  of  the  lower  vertebrates, 
and,  more  doubtfully,  some  other 
vertebrate  characters.  It  has  been 
placed  in  a  class  by  itself — Hemi- 


536 

chorda  or  Enteropneusta — and  has 
been  regarded  as  near  the  line  of 
vertebrate  ancestry.  See  Parker 
&  Hawell's  Text-book  of  Zoology 
(189S). 

Balanophoraceae,  an  order  of 
fungus-like  leafless  plants  in  the 
sub-class  Apetalae,  found  in  the 
equatorial  zone,  consisting  of 
about  forty  species,  all  of  them 
parasitic  on  the  roots  of  trees. 

Balaoan,  or  Balaoang,  pueb., 
prov.  of  La  Union,  Luzon  I., 
Philippine  Islands,  on  main  high- 
way, 21  m.  from  San  Fernando, 
where  there  is  a  garrison  and  a 
telegraph  station.  Pop.  (1903), 
10,008. 

Balasinor,  trib.  Mohammedan 
state,  Gujarat,  Bombay,  India. 
Area,  189  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1901) 
32,618. 

Balasor,  dist.  at  the  n.e.  angle 
of  the  Orissa  div.,  Bengal,  India; 
produces  rice,  and  salt  is  manufac- 
tured by  a  crude  process.  Area, 
2,068  sq.m.  Pop.(1901)  1,071,197. 
The  chief  town  and  port,  Balasor, 
118  m.  s.w.  of  Calcutta,  was  one 
of  the  earliest  English  settle- 
ments in  E.  India  (1642).  Pop. 
(1901)20,880. 

Balas  Ruby,  or  Precious 
Spinel,  a  precious  stone,  consist- 
ing of  alumina  and  magnesia, 
which  ^  occurs  in  small  crystals 
with  eight  triangular  faces  (octa- 
hedra),  and  is  a  little  softer  than 
the  true  ruby.  The  color  is  red 
of  various  shades,  the  deeper  be- 
ing sometimes  known  as  ruby 
spinel,  and  the  lighter  as  balas 
ruby,  though  blue,  violet,  yel- 
low, and  colorless  varieties  are 
known.  Burma,  Afghanistan  and 
Ceylon  are  the  principal  sources 
of  supply.  See  Streeter's  Precious 
Stones  (1898);  Kunz's  Gems  and 
Precious  Stones  of  N.  America 
(1892). 

Balata,  a  substance  resembling 
gutta-percha,  of  a  dirty  reddish- 
brown  color,  with  a  rather 
greasy  feel,  and  obtained  as  an 
exudation  from  a  tree  in  Vene- 
zuela and  Guiana.  It  is  some- 
times made  a  substitute  for 
gutta-percha,  but  is  mainly  used 
in  conjunction  with  it,  especially 
for  driving-belts  for  machinery, 
composed  of  strong  canvas  coated 
with  balata  and  gutta-percha.  See 
Brannt's  India  -  Rubber,  Gutta- 
percha, and  Balata  (1900). 

Balaton,  Lake,  or  Platten- 
SEE,  the  largest  lake  in  Hungary, 
47  m.  long  (n.e.  to  s.w^.)  and  7  m. 
to  9  m.  broad;  alt.  426  ft.;  depth, 
13  ft.  to  36  ft.  The  lake  has  been 
thoroughly  studied  in  every  aspect 
— ph)^sical,  biological,  and  anthro- 
pological— by  the  Hungarian  Geo- 
graphical Society. 

Balayan,  pueb.  and  bay,  Ba- 
tangas  prov.,  on  S.W.  coast  of 
Luzon  L,  Philippine  Islands.  The 
town  is  a  port  of  entry,  a  telegraph 
and  military  station  at  the  mouth 
of  R.  of  same  name.     It  has  an 


Balboa 

anchorage,  the  bar  having  3  ft.  of 
water.  It  is  on  a  wagon  road  to 
Tuy,  prov.  of  Cavite,  bad  in  wet 
season  on  account  of  clay  soil. 
Pop.  pueb.  (1903)  8,493. 

Balbi,  Adriano  (1782-1848), 
Italian  geographer,  a  native  of 
Venice,  visited  (1820)  Portugal, 
and  published  Essai  Statistique 
sur  le  Royaume  de  Portugal  et 
d'Algarve  (1822;  3rd  ed.  1850), 
L' Atlas  Ethnographique  du  Globe 
(1826),  and  an  Abrege  de  Geogra- 
phic (1832;  8th  German  ed.  1893), 
which  summarized  all  the  geo- 
graphical knowledge  of  his  time. 

Balbi,  Gasparo,  a  Venetian 
jewel-dealer  of  the  16th  century; 
travelled  frequently  to  Aleppo, 
and  once  to  India,  where  he  re- 
mained from  1579  to  1588.  He 
published  (Viaggio  nelle  Indie 
Orientali,  1590)  the  first  descrip- 
tion of  India  beyond  the  Ganges. 

Balbinus,  Decimus  C^lius, 
Roman  emperor  (prob.  238-239), 
was  an  aged  senator  who,  along 
with  Maximus,  was  appointed  em- 
peror on  the  death  of  Gordian  and 
his  son  in  Africa.  The  Praetorians 
put  them  both  to  death. 

Balbo,  Cesare,  Count  (1789- 
1853),  Italian  statesman  and  au- 
thor, born  at  Turin.  After  acting 
under  Napoleon  as  auditor  of  the 
Council  of  State,  Paris,  he  entered 
the  Piedmontese  army,  and  took 
an  active  part,  as  a  moderate 
liberal,  in  the  establishment  of  a 
monarchy  under  the  house  of  Sa- 
voy, his  chief  opponent  being  the 
republican  Mazzini.  He  published 
Storia  d'ltalia  (1830),  Vita  di 
Dante  (1839);  but  his  reputation 
as  an  author  rests  on  his  Speranze 
d' Italia  (1843;  5th  ed.  1855),  in 
which  he  advocated  the  unity  of 
Italy.   See  Life  by  Riccoti  (1856). 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de 
(1475-1517),  Spanish  explorer, 
born  at  Xeres  de  los  Caballeros. 
He  accompanied  Rodrigo  Bas- 
tidas  to  America  in  1500,  remain- 
ing on  the  island  of  Hispaniola 
(Santo  Domingo) ;  accompanied 
Enciso's  expedition  (1510)  for  the 
relief  of  San  Sebastian  (on  the  Gulf 
of  Darien),  then  besieged  by  In- 
dians, and  suggested  the  founding 
of  Santa  Maria  del  Antigua  del 
Darien  (directly  across  the  bay), 
of  which  he  was  soon  made  an 
alcalde  (with  Zamudio).  He  was 
commissioned  governor  or  captain- 
general  of  Darien  by  Diego 
Columbus  in  1513;  in  Sept.  he 
crossed  the  isthmus  to  verify  the 
reported  existence  of  a  great  ocean 
on  the  other  side  of  the  mountains, 
and  on  the  25th,  from  a  high  peak, 
saw,  first  of  Europeans,  the  east- 
ern waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
On  the  29th  he  entered  the  waters 
of  the  Pacific  (which  he  called  the 
Mar  del  Sud  or  South  Sea)  and 
took.formal  possession  of  it  and  of 
all  shores  washed  by  it  for  the 
kings  of  Castile,  the  name,  Gulf  of 
San  Miguel,  which  he  gave  to  the 


Balbriggan 


537 


Baldwin 


arm  of  the  ocean  that  he  discov- 
ered being  still  retained.  On  his 
return  to  Santa  Maria  he  found 
himself  superseded  by  Pedrarias 
Davila,  who  sent  him  to  explore 
the  South  Sea.  After  transport- 
ing materials  for  ships  across  the 
isthmus  and  preparing  for  his 
expedition,  he  was  arrested  by 
Davila,  tried  on  an  apparently 
unfounded  charge  of  treason, 
convicted,  and  executed  at  Ada. 

Balbrig'gan  ('town  of  Bre- 
can'),  seaport  and  market  town, 
Ireland,  county  Dublin;  21  miles 
northeast  of  Dublin.  It  has 
manufactures  of  hosiery,  linen, 
and  cotton  fabrics.  'Balbriggan 
hose,'  of  fine  unbleached  cotton, 
take  their  name  from  the  town, 
though  now  manufactured  else- 
where as  well.  It  is  a  popular 
summer  resort.    Pop.  2,300. 

Bal'bus,  Lucius  Cornelius,  a 
Spaniard  of  Gades  (Cadiz),  who 
served  under  Pompey  the  Great 
against  Sertorius,  and  received 
from  him  the  Roman  citizenship. 
In  56  B.C.  he  was  prosecuted  for 
having  assumed  the  rights  of  a 
citizen  contrary  to  law;  was  de- 
fended by  Cicero,  whose  speech 
on  the  occasion  is  extant;  and 
was  acquitted.  Caesar  entrusted 
him  with  his  affairs  at  Rome 
during  the  civil  war,  and  in  40 
B.C.  he  was  made  consul,  the  first 
of  foreign  birth  to  be  so  honored. 

Balcarres.  See  Crawford 
AND  Balcarres,  Earls  of. 

Balcescu,  bal-chesh',  Nicole 
(1819-52),  Rumanian  author, 
who  greatly  promoted  the  study 
of  Rumanian  history  in  the  Maga- 
zinul  Istoric  pentru  Dacia.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1848,  and  died  an 
exile  at  Palermo.  His  chief  work 
is  Istoria  Romdnilor  sub  Mihaiu- 
Vileazul  (1887). 

Batch,  George  Beall  (1821- 
1908),  American  naval  officer, 
was  born  in  Tennessee.  He  be- 
came midshipman  in  the  U.  S. 
Navy  in  1837  and  took  part  in 
the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz  during 
the  Mexican  War.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  was  in  command  of 
the  Pocahontas  and  later  of  the 
Pawnee  in  the  vSouth  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  and  took 
part  in  various  engagements  with 
South  Carolina  batteries,  espe- 
cially along  the  Keowah  and 
Stono  Rivers  and  Togoda  Creek. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1866,  a 
commodore  in  1872,  and  a  rear- 
admiral  in  1878.  He  was  super- 
intendent of  the  U.  S.  Naval 
Academy  from  1879  to  1881. 

Balchcn,  Admiral  Sir  John 
(1670-1744),  British  naval  offi- 
cer, was  probably  born  in  Go- 
dalming,  Surrey.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1685,  was  made  cap- 
tain in  1697,  was  in  command  of 
the  Chester  in  1707,  when  she  was 
captured  while  protecting  a  fleet 
of  merchant  ships  and  of  the 
Gloucester  in  1709  when  sh^  was 


seized  by  Duguay  Trouin's  squad- 
ron. He  was  in  command  of  the 
Shrewsbury,  at  Cape  Passaro,  in 
1718.  In  1728  he  was  made 
rear-admiral,  and  in  1731  went  to 
the  Mediterranean.  In  1733  he 
became  vice-admiral  and  in  1743, 
admiral.  He  was  lost  when  the 
Victory  (110  guns),  with  about 
1,200  souls,  went  on  the  Casquet 
rocks,  off  Alderney,  Oct.  4,  1744. 

Bal'cony,  a  platform  outside  a 
window  or  windows,  enclosed  by 
balustrade  or  parapet,  and  usu- 
ally supported  on  consoles  or 
brackets.  The  balcony  became 
popular  in  Southern  Europe  dur- 
ing the  middle  ages,  and  formed 
a  feature  of  Renaissance  archi- 
tecture. Italian  balconies  are 
usually  of  stone  or  marble  and  in 
most  cases  are  uncovered,  but 
those  of  France  are  sometimes 
canopied. 

Baldachin,  bal'da-kin,  a  can- 
opy of  silk  cloth  borne  over  the 
head  of  a  dignitary  (e.g.  the 
Pope),  especially  in  the  East, 
sometimes  also  over  the  euchar- 
ist  when  carried  processionally. 
From  this  original  significance 
the  term  has  been  extended  to 
the  canopy  of  metal  or  stone, 
sometimes  called  ciboriuni,  sup- 
ported by  pillars  or  suspended 
over  the  high  altar,  in  the  East- 
ern and  Roman  Churches,  from 
which  is  suspended  a  vessel  con- 
taining the  host. 

Bald  Eagle.    See  Eagle. 

Balder,  bal'd^r,  or  Baldr,  the 
central  figure  of  one  of  the  most 
significant  of  the  Scandinavian 
myths,  and  the  personification  of 
purity  and  innocence,  was  the 
son  of  Odin  and  Frigg,  the 
brother  of  Thor,  and  the  husband 
of  Nanna.  When  Balder  com- 
plained to  his  mother  that  he 
suffered  from  evil  dreams,  she 
exacted  an  oath  from  all  nature, 
animate  and  inanimate,  not  to 
harm  him,  but  failed  to  require 
this  pledge  from  the  mistletoe, 
which  was  too  young  to  take  the 
oath.  As  Balder  was  now  im- 
mune from  harm,  the  gods 
amused  themselves  by  throwing 
their  darts  at  him.  But  the  evil 
Loki,  having  discovered  that  the 
mistletoe  was  not  bound  by  the 
oath,  persuaded  Hod,  the  blind 
god  of  war,  to  shoot  a  dart  made 
from  that  plant.  The  arrow 
pierced  the  heart  of  Balder,  and 
he  fell  dead. 

Baldness.  See  Hair,  Dis- 
eases OF. 

Bald'pate',  an  American  gun- 
ner's name  for  the  widgeon  (q.  v.) . 
Some  other  white-headed  birds, 
as  a  variety  of  domestic  pigeon, 
are  also  called  baldpate  or  bald- 
head. 

Baldric,  bal'drik,  a  belt  worn 
from  either  shoulder,  and  crossing 
the  body  diagonally;  used  as  an 
ornament,  or  to  sustain  a  sword, 
dagger,  or  horn. 

Baldung,  bal'doong,  Hans  {c. 


1476-1545),  called  also  Grun  or 
Grien,  German  painter  and  en- 
graver, was  bom  in  Weiersheim, 
near  Strassburg.  Little  is  known 
of  his  life,  but  he  probably  stud- 
ied and  worked  under  Diirer. 
His  best  works  are  designs  for 
woodcuts  marked  by  exaggera- 
tion and  fantastic  ornament.  Of 
his  paintings,  in  Vv'hich  the  in- 
fluence of  Diirer  is  discernible, 
the  chief  are  his  Coronation  of 
the  Virgin,  The  Crucifixion  and 
others  (1513-16),  which  form  the 
altar-piece  of  Freiburg  Cathe- 
dral; the  Adoration  of  the  Magi 
(1507),  now  in  Berlin;  Death  and 
A  Woman,  in  Basel;  Portrait  of  a 
Young  Man,  in  Vienna;  Heavenly 
and  Earthly  Love,  in  Frankfort; 
and  Noli  me  Tangere,  in  Darm- 
stadt. 

Baldwin,  the  name  of  nine 
counts  of  Flanders  of  whom  the 
most  important  are  Baldwin  i. 
(d.  879),  surnamed  Bras  de  fer 
('Iron  Arm'),  who  founded  the 
countship;  Baldwin  v.  (d.  1067), 
Le  Debonnaire,  who  founded  sev- 
eral collegiate  churches,  was  re- 
gent of  France  during  the  minor- 
ity of  Philip  (1060-7),  and  as- 
sisted William  of  Normandy  in 
his  conquest  of  England;  and 
Baldwin  ix.,  who  as  Baldwin  i. 
was  the  first  Latin  emperor  of 
Constantinople.  He  took  part 
in  the  fourth  crusade,  assisted 
Alexius  to  recover  Constantino- 
ple from  the  usurper  Alexius  An- 
gelus  (1202),  and  was  proclaimed 
emperor  (1204)  by  the  Latins. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  by  John, 
king  of  Bulgaria,  while  besieging 
Adrianople  (1205),  and  died  in 
captivity  the  following  year. 

Baldwin,  the  name  of  a  number 
of  Latin  kings  of  Jerusalem. 
Baldwin  i.  (1058-1118),  having 
taken  part  in  the  first  crusade 
with  his  eldest  brother,  Godfrey 
of  Boulogne,  succeeded,  on  the 
death  of  the  latter  in  1100,  to  the 
government  of  Jerusalem,  as  the 
first  Latin  king.  He  was  de- 
feated by  the  Egyptians  near 
Rama  in  1102,  but  in  1109  cap- 
tured Beirut  and  gradually  added 
all  the  strongholds  on  the  coast 
of  Palestine  to  his  kingdom.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  cousin, 
Baldwin  ii.,  who  reigned  from 
1118,  and  who,  before  his  death, 
had  brought  nearly  all  of  Syria 
under  his  sway.  Baldwin  iii., 
grandson  of  Baldwin  ii.,  who 
reigned  from  1143-1162,  was 
known  as  the  pattern  of  all 
knightly  graces.  Baldwin  iv., 
the  Leper,  son  of  Amalric,  who 
reigned  from  1173  to  1183,  re- 
signed in  favor  of  his  nephew, 
Baldwin  v.,  a  child  six,  who  was 
poisoned  by  his  mother  in  1187 
to  make  way  for  her  second 
husband.  The  following  year 
Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Saladin. 

Baldwin,  Abraham  (1754- 
1807),  American  political  leader 
and  educator,  was  born  in  Guil- 
VOL.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Baldwin 

ford,  Conn.  He  was  graduated 
from  Yale  in  1772,  served  as  a 
chaplain  in  the  American  army 
during  the  latter  part  of  the 
Revolutionary  War  (1779-83), 
and  removed  to  Savannah,  Ga. 
(1784),  where  he  practised  law. 
He  did  more  than  anyone  else  to 
bring  about  the  founding  of  the 
University  of  Georgia,  and  was 
its  first  president  (1786-1801). 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Confed- 
eration Congress  (1785-8),  of  the 
Constitutional  Convention  at 
Philadelphia  (1787),  of  the  Na- 
tional House  of  Representatives 
(1789-99),  and  of  the  U.  S.  Sen- 
ate (1799-1807),  serving  as  presi- 
dent pro  tempore  of  the  last  body 
in  1801-2.  After  the  formation 
of  parties  he  became  a  Demo- 
cratic-Republican. 

Baldwin,  Evelyn  Briggs 
(1862-  ),  American  explorer, 
was  born  in  Springfield,  Mo.  He 
was  graduated  from  Northwest- 
ern College,  Naperville,  111.,  and 
after  a  trip  to  Europe,  was  as- 
sociated with  the  Kansas  schools 
(1887-91).  He  was  appointed 
observer  in  the  U.  S.  Weather 
Bureau  in  1892,  and  afterward 
inspector-at-large,  U.  S.  Signal 
Corps.  He  accompanied  Peary's 
North  Greenland  expedition  as 
meteorologist  in  1893-4,  and  the 
Wellman  polar  expedition  to 
Franz-Josef  Land  as  meteorolo- 
gist and  second  in  command 
in  1898-9.  He  was  the  organ- 
izer and  commander  of  the  Bald- 
win-Ziegler  polar  expedition  of 
1901-2. 

Baldwin,  James  (1841-  ), 
American  author  and  editor,  was 
born  in  Hamilton  county,  Ind. 
He  received  a  common-school 
education  but  was  for  the  most 
part  self-educated.  He  was  en- 
gaged in  educational  work  in  In- 
diana from  1865  to  1887,  joined 
the  editorial  department  of  Har- 
per &  Brothers,  New  York,  in 
1887,  and  was  assistant  editor  of 
Harper's  Magazine  from  1890  to 
1893.  In  1894  he  became  an  edi- 
tor of  schoolbooks  with  the 
American  Book  Company.  He 
is  the  author  of  Harper's  and 
Baldwin's  Readers,  and  many 
literary  text-books.  Among  his 
original  writings  are:  The  Book- 
lover  (1884);  The  Discovery  of  the 
Old  Northwest  (1901);  The  Con- 
guest  of  the  Old  Northwest  (1901); 
Hero  Tales  Told  in  School  (1904); 
Abraham  Lincoln,  a  True  Life 
(1904);  An  American  Book  of 
Golden  Deeds  (1907);  The  Golden 
Fleece  (1912);  Fifty  Famous  Peo- 
ple (1912);  The  Sampo  (1913); 
The  Story  of  Liberty  (1919). 

Baldwin,  James  Mark  (1861- 

),  American  psychologist,  was 
born  in  Columbia,  S.  C,  and  was 
educated  at  Princeton  and  at  the 
Universities  of  Leipzig,  Berlin, 
and  Tubingen.  He  was  in- 
structor in  French  and  German 
at  Princeton  (188G);  professor  of 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


538 

philosophy  at  Lake  Forest,  111. 
(1887-9),  and  at  the  University 
of  Toronto  (1889-93);  professor 
of  psychology  at  Princeton  (1893- 
1903) ;  processor  of  philosophy 
and  psychology  at  Johns  Hopkins 
(1903-9)  and  at  the  National 
University  of  Mexico  (1909-13); 
Herbert  Spencer  lecturer  at  Ox- 
ford Umversity  (1916);  professor 
in  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes 
Sociales,  Paris  (1918-20).  He 
is  a  chevalier  of  the  French 
Legion  of  Honor.  He  founded 
the  Psychological  Review  (1894) 
and  edited  the  Dictionary  of  Phi- 
losophy and  Psychology  (3  vols. 
1901-4).  His  publications  in- 
clude Handbook  of  Psychology  (2 
vols.  1889-91);  Mental  Develop- 
ment (2  vols.  1895-7);  Story  of 
the  Mind  (1898) ;  Development 
and  Evolution  (1902);  Thoughts 
and  Things  of  Genetic  Logic  (3 
vols.  1906-11);  Darwin  and  the 
Humanities  (1909);  History  of 
Psychology  (2  vols.  1913);  Genetic 
Theory  of  Reality  (1915);  France 
and  the  War  (1915);  American 
Neutrality  (1916);  The  Super- 
State  (1916). 

Baldwin,  Joseph  G.  (1815- 
64),  American  humorist,  was 
born  near  Winchester,  Va.  He 
practised  law  in  Mississippi  and 
Alabama,  and  was  a  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  California, 
1857-63,  and  chief  justice,  1863- 
4.  He  published  Flush  Times  in 
Alabama  and  Mississippi  (1853) 
and  Party  Leaders  (1854).  A 
volume  of  humorous  legal  sketches 
was  published  posthumously. 

Baldwin,  Robert  (1804-58), 
Canadian  statesman,  was  born 
in  Toronto.  He  studied  law, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1825. 
In  1829  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Upper  Canada  Assembly,  in 
1840  was  solicitor-general,  and  in 
1842-3  and  again  in  1848-51  was 
premier  and  attorney-general  of 
Upper  Canada.  Baldwin  is  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  the  Re- 
form party.  He  inherited  the 
liberal  principles  of  his  father  and 
was  untiring  in  his  efforts  to  se- 
cure a  system  of  responsible  gov- 
ernment. 

Baldwin,  Simeon  Eben  (1840- 

),  American  jurist,  was  born  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.  He  was 
graduated  from  Yale  in  1861,  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  of  Connecticut 
in  1863,  and  practised  his  pro- 
fession at  New  Haven  until  1893, 
when  he  was  appointed  associate 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Errors  of  Connecticut.  In  1907 
he  became  chief  justice,  and  in 
1910  retired  from  the  bench  and 
became  Democratic  candidate 
for  governor.  He  was  elected 
and  served  for  two  consecutive 
terms  (1911-1915).  He  was  an 
unsuccessful  candidate  for  U.  S. 
Senator  in  1914,  and  his  name 
was  presented  as  presidential 
candidate  by  the  Connecticut 
State  delegation  in  1912.  He 


was  assotigft:ed  with  the  Yale  Law 
School  from  1869  to  1919,  served 
on  several  State  commissions, 
and  as  officer  of  various  legal  or- 
ganizations. He  is  a  member  of 
the  National  Institute  of  Arts 
and  Letters.  Besides  his  strictly 
legal  writings,  he  published  Mod- 
ern Political  Institutions  (1898); 
American  Railroad  Law  (1901); 
American  Judiciary  (1905);  The 
Relation  of  Education  to  Citizen- 
ship (1912);  Life  and  Letters  of 
Simeon  E.  Baldwin  (1919);  The 
Young  Man  and  the  Law  (1919). 

Baldwin,  Stanley  (1867-  ), 
British  statesman,  was  educated 
at  Harrow  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  He  entered 
Parliament  from  Worcestershire 
in  1908,  was  financial  secretary 
of  the  Treasury  from  1917  to 
1921,  and  in  1922  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 
In  January,  1923,  he  visited 
America  on  a  successful  mission 
regarding  the  funding  of  the 
British  debt.  In  May  1923  he 
succeeded  Andrew  Bonar-Law  as 
premier  of  Great  Britain. 

Baldwinsville,  village.  New 
York,  Onondaga  county,  on  the 
Seneca  River,  the  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal,  and  the  Del- 
aware, Lackawanna  and  Western 
Railroad.  It  has  large  foundry 
and  mill  interests.  Pop.  (1910) 
3,099;  (1920)  3,685. 

Bale,  bal,  or  Basel,  canton  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  Swit- 
zerland, including  Bale-Stadt  and 
Bale-Land,  with  a  total  area  of 
177  square  miles.  It  is  watered 
by  the  Rhine  and  its  tributaries. 
Pop.  (1920)  223,098. 

Bale,  or  Basel,  city,  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  Bale-Stadt,  is 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
Rhine,  here  crossed  by  four 
bridges,  the  newest  of  which  has 
six  spans  and  a  small  chapel  in 
the  middle.  In  Great  Bale,  on 
the  left  bank,  are  a  picturesque 
14th  century  minster,  a  museum 
with  a  fine  picture  gallery  rich  in 
works  of  Hans  Holbein  the 
Younger,  a  16th  century  town 
hall,  the  University,  the  Church 
of  St.  Paul,  and  a  large  zoological 
garden.  Little  Bale,  on  the 
right  bank,  contains  numerous 
manufacturing  plants,  including 
ribbon  factories,  paper,  silk, 
and  thread  mills,  and  dye  works. 

Anciently  called  Robur,  the 
town  took  the  name  of  Basilia  in 
374  A.D.  It  was  almost  totally 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
1356.  Here  were  signed  in  1795 
two  treaties  of  peace — one  (April 
5)  whereby  Prussia  ceded  to 
France  all  her  territories  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine;  and  the 
other  (July  22)  whereby  France 
restored  the  status  quo  of  Spain, 
and  received  part  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo. The  Bale  Confession  of 
Faith  of  the  Swiss  Reformed 
Church  was  promulgated  here  in 
1534.    The  Council  of  Bale  (see 


B&Ie 


539 


Balfour 


below)  sat  in  the  choir  of  the 
minster.     Pop.  (1910)  132,577. 

Bale,  bal,  Council  of  (1431- 
49),  the  last  of  the  three  reform- 
ing church  councils  held  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  met  in  Bale, 
or  Basel.  It  was  summoned  by- 
Pope  Martin  v.,  but  met  under 
his  successor,  Eugenius  iv.,  its 
chief  object  being  to  find  some 
common  ground  for  reconcilia- 
tion with  the  Hussites,  by- 
promoting  internal  reforms  in 
the  church.  Its  reforming  zeal 
was  obnoxious  to  Eugenius,  who 
ordered  it  to  dissolve,  and  it 
eventually  came  into  such  bitter 
opposition  to  the  Pope  that  it 
voted  his  suspension  from  the 
functions  of  his  ofiice  in  1438, 
declared  him  a  heretic  in  1439, 
and  later  in  the  same  year 
elected  a  rival  pope,  Felix  v. 
In  1449  the  Council  was  dis- 
solved, and  the  schism  was  ended 
by  the  general  acceptance  of  Pope 
Nicholas  v. 

Bale,  John  (1495-1 563), bishop 
of  Ossory,  Ireland,  was  born  at 
Cove,  near  Dunwich,  in  Suffolk, 
England.  He  was  educated  as 
a  Roman  Catholic  monk  but 
later  adopted  extreme  Protestant 
views,  and  held  the  living  of 
Thornden,  in  Suffolk.  Under 
Edward  VI.  he  was  made  rector  of 
Bishopstoke,  and  in  1552  bishop 
of  Ossory.  On  the  accession  of 
Mary  he  fled  to  Bale,  where  he 
lived  till  1559,  when  he  returned 
to  England  as  a  prebendary  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Canterbury. 
He  wrote  the  first  literary 
history  of  England,  Scriptorum 
Illustrium  Majoris  Britannics 
Caialogus  (1548-59),  and  a  num- 
ber of  interludes  and  morality 
plays,  the  most  important  being 
the  historical  play  of  King  John. 

Balearic  Islands*  bal-e-ar'ik 
('Slingers'  Islands'),  a  group 
of  islands  belonging  to  Spain, 
lying  in  the  Mediterranean, 
about  125  miles  ofif  the  eastern 
Spanish  coast.  The  group  con- 
sists of  Majorca,  Minorca,  Iviza, 
Formentera,  and  several  smaller 
islands,  with  a  total  area  of 
1,936  square  miles.  The  islands 
are  for  the  most  part  rocky,^ 
with  precipitous  coasts,  but 
with  a  number  of  excellent  har- 
bors, that  at  Mahon  being 
strongly  fortified  and  one  of 
the  best  in  the  Mediterranean. 
The  climate  is  delightful;  the 
soil  is  generally  fertile;  and 
vines,  olives,  almonds,  and  many 
varieties  of  fruit  are  raised. 
There  is  some  manufacturing, 
majolica  and  silver  filigree  work 
being  especially  made.  The 
export  trade  is  active  and  there 
is  constant  communication  by 
steamer  with  Barcelona  and 
Valencia.  Palma  is  the  capital. 
The  population  was  estimated  in 
1917  at  332,756,  mostly  Spanish. 

The  Balearic  Islands  were 
subdued  by  the  Carthaginians 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


in  the  sixth  century  B.C.  and 
the  inhabitants  rendered  valu- 
able service  in  th^fihfc|j|||ginian 
armies;    in  123  BjflHnP^^^^ 

conquered  by  ^hflBQKH^^n 

the  eighth  centur^^oI'Dy  the 

Moors;  and  in  1229-32  by 
King  Jayme  I.  of  Aragon,  who 
constituted  them  a  separate 
kingdom  for  his  son.  In  1349 
they  were  incorporated  with  the 
kingdom  of  Aragon.  See  Ma- 
jorca; Minorca. 

Consult  Bidwell's  The  Balearic 
Islands;  Markham's  The  Story 
of  Majorca  and  Minorca;  Cal- 
vert's Catalonia  and  the  Balearic 
Isles  (1910). 

Baleen.    See  Whalebone. 

Balestier,  bal-es-ter', 
Charles  Wolcott  (1861-91), 
American  novelist  and  journalist, 
was  born  in  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  novels — 
notably  Benefits  Forgot  (1894) — 
and  collaborated  with  Rudyard 
Kipling,  his   brother-in-law,  in 


The  Naulahka  (1892),  a  tale  of 
Indian  life. 

Balfe,  half,  Michael  William 
(1808-70),  British  composer,  was 
born  in  Dublin,  and  in  his  ninth 
year  made  his  debut  as  a 
violinist,  having  begun  to  com- 
pose at  least  two  years  earlier. 
In  1823  he  went  to  London, 
and  during  1825-6  studied  in 
Italy  under  Paer,  Galli,  Frede- 
rici  and  Roisini.  In  1826  he 
wrote  the  music  for  a  ballet. 
La  Perouse,  performed  at  Milan; 
and  in  1827  he  sang  in  the 
Italian  Opera  at  Paris.  In 
1833  he  returned  to  England, 
and  in  1846  was  appointed  con- 
ductor of  the  London  Italian 
Opera.  Of  his  numerous  operet- 
tas and  other  compositions,  the 
most  successful  have  been  The 
Bohemian  Girl  (1843),  The 
Rose  of  Castile  (1857),  and  // 
Talismano  (1874). 

Balfour,  bal'-foor,  Arthur 
James  (1848),  English  states- 
man,  son  of  James  Maitland 


Balfour  of  Whittinghame,  Had- 
dingtonshire, Scotland,  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
was  made  an  honorary  fellow  in 
1902.  He  entered  the  House  of 
Commons  as  member  for  Hert- 
ford at  the  general  election  of 
1874,  and  continued  to  repre- 
sent that  constituency  until 
1885,  serving  also  as  private 
secretary  (1878-80)  to  his  uncle, 
Lord  Salisbury,  whom  he  ac- 
companied to  the  Berlin  Con- 
gress. At  the  general  election  of 
1885,  which  placed  the  Con- 
servative party  in  power,  he  was 
returned  as  member  for  East 
Manchester,  which  he  continued 
to  represent  until  1905.  He  was 
made  President  of  the  Local 
Government  Board  when  the 
Marquis  of  Salisbury  formed  his 
first  government;  fourteen 
months  later  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  for  Scotland,  and 
when  Sir  Michael  Hicks-Beach, 


Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland, 
retired,  because  of  ill-health,  in 
March,  1887,  Mr.  Balfour  suc- 
ceeded to  the  office,  applying 
himself  to  the  task  of  'restoring 
the  reign  of  law  and  order,'  as 
he  expressed  it,  with  a  vigor  and 
resolution  that  provoked  the 
bitter  hostility  and  resentment 
of  Mr.  Parnell  and  his  followers. 
He  secured  the  passage  of  the 
Light  Railways  Act  (1889),  and 
the  act  creating  the  Congested 
Districts  Board  (1890);  while 
his  organization  and  adminis- 
tration of  the  Zetland  Relief 
Fund  (1891)  extorted  grateful 
recognition  even  from  his  bit- 
terest political  opponents. 

In  1891-2  Mr.  Balfour  was 
first  lord  of  the  treasury;  in 
'^ord  Salisbury's  third  adminis- 
tration (1895-1902)  he  resumed 
the  leadership  of  the  House  of 
Commons;  and  he  was  con- 
tinued in  this  office  when, 
in  October,  1900,  the  general 
election    was    fought    on  the 


Balfour 


540 


Baliol 


question  of  the  South  African 
War.  On  July  12,  1902,  on  the 
retirement  of  Lord  Salisbury, - 
Mr.  Balfour  became  prime  min-1 
ister  and  Lord  Privy  Seal,  withl 
the  office  of  First  Lord  of  th^ 
Treasury.  He  was  the  prin" 
cipal  minister  in  charge  of  the 
English  Education  Bill  of  the 
session  of  1902,  and  of  the 
London  Education  Bill  of  1903. 
In  the  latter  year,  when  Mr. 
Chamberlain  resigned  and  raised 
the  fiscal  question,  Mr.  Balfour 
expressed  agreement  with  his 
proposals,  but  held  that  the 
country  was  not  ripe  for  the 
taxation  of  food.  In  the  winter 
of  1905,  the  opposition  to  the 
administration  having  become 
increasingly  apparent  and  ef- 
fective, Mr.  Balfour  resigned 
the  premiership,  Dec.  4,  and 
Sir  Henry  Campbell-Banner- 
man,  the  Liberal  leader,  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him. 

Having  failed  of  re-election  in 
Manchester,  Mr.  Balfour  re- 
entered Parliament  in  1906  as 
representative  of  the  City  of 
London,  assuming  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Unionist  Party, 
which  he  retained  until  1912, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  Bonar 
Law.  Upon  the  formation  of 
Mr.  Asquith's  Coalition  Cabinet 
in  May,  1915,  Mr.  Balfour 
became  head  of  the  Admiralty. 
He  was  made  Secretary  of 
State  for  Foreign  Affairs  in 
December,  1916,  and  in  that 
capacity  headed  the  British 
War  Mission  to  the  United 
States  in  the  spring  of  1917  and 
served  as  delegate  to  the  Peace 
Conference  at  Versailles  in  1919. 
He  is  the  author  of  A  Defence  of 
Philosophic  Doubt  (1879);  Es- 
says and  Addresses  (1893);  The 
Foundations  of  Belief  (1895); 
Economic  Notes  on  Insular  Free 
Trade  (1903);  Speeches  on  Fiscal 
Reform  (1906);  Criticism  and 
Beauty  (1909);  Theism  and 
Humanism  (1915). 

Balfour,  Francis  -Maitland 
(1851-82),  Scottish  embryolo- 
gist,  brother  of  Arthur  James 
Balfour  (q.  v.),  was  born  in 
Edinburgh.  He  was  educated 
at  Harrow  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  in  1876  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  animal 
morphology  at  Cambridge.  In 
1882  a  special  professorship  was 
instituted  for  him,  but  an  Alpine 
accident  cut  short  his  promising 
career.  His  fame  rests  on  his 
work.  Comparative  Embryology, 
(1878-83). 

aalfour,  Gerald  William 
(1853),  British  public  official, 
younger  brother  of  Arthur  James 
Balfour  (q.  v.),  was  born  in 
Edinburgh.  He  entered  Parlia- 
ment at  the  general  election  of 
1885,  for  the  central  division  of 
Leeds,  which  he  represented 
until  1906;  was  private  secre- 
tary to  A.  J.  Balfour  (1885-6); 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '19 


Chief    Secretary    for  Ireland 
(1885-1900);    President  of  the 
MjyyMKrade    (  1 900-05 ) , 
^^^^^^^^^Hftt  the 
^^^^^^^^Bard 
^^^^^^H^^e  t  ar  y  sh  i  p 
^^^^^^HR^was    extended  to 

Balfour,  Isaac  Bayley 
(1853),  Scottish  botanist,  was 
born  in  Edinburgh.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh;  was  professor  of 
botany  at  Glasgow  (1879-84)  and 
at  Oxford  (1884-8);  and  in  1888 
was  called  to  Edinburgh  to 
occupy  the  chair  previously  held 
(1845-79)  by  his  father,  John 
Hutton  Balfour.  He  published 
monographs  on  the  flora  of  Rod- 
riguez (1879)  and  of  Socotra 
(1888),  and  edited  the  Annals  of 
Botany. 

Balfour,  Sir  James  (d. 
c.  1583),  of  Pittendreich,  Scottish 
lawyer  and  politician.  In  early 
life  he  was  implicated  in  the 
plot  against  Cardinal  Beaton 
(q.  v.),  and  in  1547  was  sent  with 
John  Knox  to  the  French  gal- 
leys. On  his  return  (1549)  he 
became  one  of  the  most  shameless 
political  intriguers  of  his  time, 
frequently  betraying  both  Queen 
Mary's  party  and  that  of  her  op- 
ponents. He  succeeded  in  secur- 
ing the  execution  of  Morton  for 
the  murder  of  Darnley,  in  which 
he  himself  was  almost  as  deeply 
involved  as  Bothwell.  In  1561  he 
was  appointed  lord  president  of 
the  Court  of  Session. 

Balfour  of  Burleigh,  Sixth 
Baron  (1849),  Alexander  Hugh 
Bruce,  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Oxford.  He  was  parlia- 
mentary secretary  to  the  Board 
of  Trade  (1889-92);  Secretary 
for  Scotland,  with  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet  (1895-1903);  chairman 
of  the  Committee  on  Com- 
mercial and  Industrial  Policy 
after  the  War  (1916-^17). 

Balfrush,  bal-froosh',  Bala- 
FRUSH,  or  Barfrush  (Pers. 
Barfurush),  town,  Persia,  prov- 
ince of  Mazanderan,  is  situated 
on  the  river  Bhawal;  12  miles 
from  its  mouth.  It  is  an  im- 
portant commercial  (provincial) 
centre,  with  a  considerable  trade 
in  silks  and  cotton.  Pop.  50,000 
to  60,000. 

Bali,  ba'le,  or  Little  Java, 
island  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
belonging  to  the  Lesser  Sunda 
group,  lies  immediately  east  of 
Java.  It  is  about  75  miles  long 
by  50  miles  broad,  and  has  a 
total  area  of  2,100  square  miles. 
A  chain  of  mountains  crosses  the 
island  from  east  to  west,  rising 
in  the  volcanic  peak  of  Gunun- 
gagung  to  10,500  feet.  The 
climate  and  vegetation  are  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  East  Java. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  employ- 
ment, rice,  indigo,  cotton,  fruits, 
maize,  and  edible  roots  being 
raised.    The  natives  are  a  super- 


ior race,  excelling  as  sculptors 
and  metal  workers. 

Dutch  rule  was  established  in 
1849.  The  Siboga  expedition 
(1899)  ascertained  that  a  sub- 
marine threshold,  only  1,020  feet 
from  the  surface,  connects  BaH 
with  Lombok,  thus  disposing  of 
the  well-known  'Wallace's  line' 
(q.  v.).     Pop.  525,000. 

Bali,  or  Bally,  town,  Ben- 
gal, India,  on  the  Hugh  River; 
4  miles  north  of  Howrah.  Pop. 
19,000. 

Balikesri,ba-le-kes-re'  Balak- 
Hissar,  or  Balik-Shehr,  town, 
Asia  Minor,  is  situated  on  a  fer- 
tile plain;  75  miles  southwest  of 
Brusa.  It  has  a  large  annual 
fair.    Pop.  15,000  to  20,000. 

Balin  and  Balan,  in  Arthur- 
ian legend,  two  brothers,  knights, 
who  came  to  Arthur's  court. 
Balan  went  away  on  an  adven- 
ture; but  Balin,  rem.aining  be- 
hind, overheard  a  love  passage 
between  Lancelot  and  the  queen, 
and  rode  away,  mad  with  the 
discovery.  The  two  brothers 
met  abroad,  and,  not  recognizing 
one  another,  fought,  and  slew 
each  other. 

Balinag,  ba-le-nag',  pueblo, 
former  capital  of  the  province  of 
Bulacan,  Luzon,  Philippine  Is- 
lands; 7  miles  from  Malolos. 
Pop.  12,000. 

Baliol,  ba'li-ul  or  bal'yul, 
The  Family  of,  an  Anglo- 
Norman  family  that  played  a 
prominent  part  in  Scottish  his- 
tory. GuiDO  DE  Baliol,  who 
crossed  from  Normandy  with 
William  i.,  received  from  Wil- 
liam Rufus  large  estates  in  Dur- 
ham and  Northumberland,  and 
his  successors  took  an  active 
part  in  Border  warfare. — John 
DE  Baliol  (d.  1269)  was  regent 
of  Scotland  during  Alexander 
iii.'s  minority,  and  founded 
Balliol  College  (see  Oxford). — 
John  de  Baliol  (1249-1315), 
king  of  Scotland,  was  third  son 
of  John  de  Baliol.  On  the  death 
(1290)  of  Margaret,  the  Maid  of 
Norway,  grandchild  of  Alex- 
ander III.,  he  claimed  the  throne 
of  Scotland  in  right  of  his 
maternal  grandmother,  Mar- 
garet, eldest  daughter  of  David, 
brother  of  William  the  Lion. 
Edward  i.  of  England,  a  self- 
nominated  arbiter,  adjudged  the 
throne  to  Baliol,  and  he  was 
crowned  at  Scone  (1292).  The 
allegiance  that  he  swore  to 
Edward  as  overlord  soon  became 
intolerable,  and  after  a  revolt  he 
was  compelled  to  abdicate,  and 
was  imprisoned  (1296),  but  was 
liberated  (1299).  He  died  at 
Castle  Gailiard,  Normandy 
(1315). — HiS  son,  Edward  de 
Baliol  (d.  1363),  king  of  Scot- 
land, invaded  Scotland  at  the 
head  of  the  barons  displaced  by 
Bruce.  Having  landed  at  King- 
horn,  Fife,  he  defeated  and 
slew  the  regent  Mar  at  Dupplin 


Balistes 


541 


Balkan  Peninsula 


Moor  (1332),  and  was  crowned  at 
Scone;  did  homage  to  Edward 
III.,  to  whom  he  subsequently 
surrendered  ancient  Lothian ; 
compelled  to  take  refuge  in  Eng- 
land from  Scottish  patriots  un- 
der Sir  Andrew  Murray  and  Earl 
of  Moray  (1334) ;  restored  by  Ed- 
ward iii.'s  aid  (1335);  surren- 
dered the  kingdom  of  Scotland 
to  Edward  iii.  (1356)  in  return 
for  a  pension  of  £2,000;  and 
died  at  Doncaster  (1367),  the 
last  of  his  race. 

Balistes.    See  File-Fish. 

Baliuag,  market  town,  prov- 
ince Bulacan,  Luzon,  Philippine 
Islands,  on  a  branch  of  the  Rio 
Grande  de  la  Pampanga;  25 
miles  northwest  of  Manila.  It 


Balkan  Peninsula,  or  Illyr- 
lAN  Peninsula, 
erly  of  the  thrt 
ranean  peninsi 
Europe.  It  strt 
from  the  Danube' 
tributary,  the  Save, 
quadrilateral  of  nearly  200,000 
square  miles,  having  the  Black 
Sea  on  the  east,  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora and  the  ^gean  Sea  on 
the  southeast  and  south  respec- 
tively, and  the  Ionian  Sea  and 
the  Adriatic  on  the  west.  The 
Bosporus  connects  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  with  the  Black  Sea, 
and  the  Strait  of  the  Dardanelles 
continues  the  waterway  to  the 
^gean  Sea.  The  peninsula  of 
the  Chalcidice  is  mountainous 


plain  of  the  Danube  on  the  south. 
The  section  which  traverses 
:^  Eastern  Servia  consists  of  lime- 
'  stone  ridges  rising  to  6,500  feet, 
alternating  with  ranges  of  crys- 
talline schist  yielding  iron,  lead, 
and  copper  ore.  The  Central 
Balkans  form  a  long  and  nearly 
uniform  ridge  running  easterly, 
with  dome-like  summits,  reach- 
ing in  Yumrukchal  7,790  feet, 
and  clad  on  the  flanks  with  for- 
ests of  oak,  beech,  and  fir.  Bor- 
dering this  central  ridge  on  the 
north,  and  continuing  the  moun- 
tain region  eastward  after  the 
main  ridge  has  disappeared,  are 
the  East  Balkans,  with  gradual 
slopes  to  the  north,  but  steep 
declivities  to  the  south,  sinking 


is  located  at  the  junction  of 
seven  roads,  in  the  centre  of  a 
fertile  and  populous  district. 
It  manufactures  hats,  and  fab- 
rics of  silk,  cotton,  and  dyed 
Manila  hemp.  It  was  the  first 
place  in  the  Philippines  to  re- 
ceive municipal  government  at 
the  hands  of  the  Americans  after 
their  occupation.    Pop.  21,000. 

Balize.    See  Belize. 

Balkan  Mountains,  Great 
and  Little,  a  calcareous  chain 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  south  of  Aji  Daria  Bay,  be- 
tween 39°  and  40°  n.  lat.  Start- 
ing from  the  northern  shores  of 
Balkan  Bay,  the  double  chain 
runs  southeasterly  with  a  broad 
plain  between,  through  which 
passes  the  Transcaspian  Rail- 
way. The  highest  point,  toward 
the  southeastern  extremity  of 
the  range,  is  about  5,310  feet. 


and  deeply  indented.  The  coasts 
of  the  secondary  peninsula  formed 
by  the  Greek  extension  are  lofty 
and  mountainous,  and  deeply 
cleft  by  long  indentations,  form- 
ing good  harbors.  The  Adriatic 
coast  is  flat  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Drin;  thence  north  to  Fiume  it 
is  mountainous,  and  scalloped 
into  a  complicated  series  of 
peninsulas,  with  an  outlying 
fringe  of  islands. 

The  term  Balkan  Mountains 
(ancient  Hcemus;  cf.  Cape  Emine) 
is  loosely  applied  to  the  whole 
mountain  region  of  the  north, 
but  specifically  to  the  range 
(Turkish,  Khoja  or  Koja)  which 
sweeps  round  from  the  Iron  Gates 
of  the  Danube,  where  it  is  con- 
tinuous with  the  Transylvanian 
Alps,  first  south,  then  curving 
easterly  to  Cape  Emine,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  bordering  the  lower 


to  a  series  of  intramontane  ba- 
sins, the  most  important  being 
that  of  Sofia,  from  which  the 
River  Isker  flows  north  to  the 
Danube,  breaking  through  the 
Balkans  in  a  narrow  gorge. 
South  of  these  basins  are  several 
mountain  masses,  such  as  the 
Anti-Balkans,  which  overlook 
the  valley  of  the  Maritsa,  the 
most  considerable  stream  of  Tur- 
key proper.  On  its  way  to  the 
iEgean  Sea  this  river  circles 
round  the  eastern  foothills  of  the 
gigantic  mass  of  the  Rhodope 
Balkans,  buttressed  by  the 
peaks  of  Muss-Alla  (9,615  ft.) 
and  Rila  Dagh  (8,700  ft.),  be- 
tween which  rises  the  great 
syenite  mass  of  Vitosa  (Vitosha), 
7,515  feet. 

Important  factors  in  the  polit- 
ical, social,  and  economic  devel- 
opment of  the  peninsula  are  the 


Balkan  Peninsula 


541 A 


Balkan  War,  1913-13 


passes,  many  of  which  afford 
mere  tracks  for  baggage  animals. 
The  great  historic  highway 
('Diagonal  Furrow')  from  Bel- 
grade, on  the  Danube,  to  Con- 
stantinople, follows  the  valley 
of  the  Servian  river  Morava  to 
the  basin  of  Sofia,  and  then  pro- 
ceeds along  the  valley  of  the 
Maritsa.  At  one  point  near  the 
basin  of  Sofia  the  mountains 
approach  so  closely  that  the  Ro- 
mans were  able  to  barricade  it 
with  a  thick  wall  (Trajan's  Gate). 
The  modern  railway  which  fol- 
lows this  route  avoids  the  gorge 
by  ascending  a  side  valley. 
Communication  with  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Nisava  (Nishava), 
the  principal  tributary  of  the 
Morava,  is  facilitated  by  the 
Pass  of  Dragoman  (2,380  ft.). 
The  Pass  of  Vladaja  (2,980  ft.) 
gives  access  to  the  valley  of  the 
Struma;  the  Pass  of  Giiveshevo 
to  the  valley  of  the  Vardar;  the 
Pass  of  Ginci  (Gintsi)  to  the 
Danube  at  Lorn  Palanka;  the 
Baba  Konak  Pass  to  Plevna. 
The  Shipka  Pass,  strategically 
important,  crosses  the  Balkans, 
and  connects  Kazanlik  with  Tir- 
nova.  The  two  highest  passes 
over  this  range  are  the  Rabanica 
(6,285  ft.)  and  the  Rosahta 
(6,160  ft.). 

In  the  west  the  peninsula  is 
occupied  by  the  broad  folds  of 
the  Dinaric  Alps,  the  main  chain 
of  which  (northwest  to  southeast) 
separates  Dalmatia  from  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina.  The  chains 
show  the  peculiar  features  of  the 
karst  region,  the  loftiest  peak 
being  Mount  Dinara  (6,010  ft.), 
a  dazzling  mass  of  hippurite 
limestone. 

Owing  to  the  proximity  of  the 
mountains  to  the  west  coast,  the 
rivers  on  that  watershed  are 
short,  rapid,  and  useless  for 
transport.  On  either  side  of  the 
Chalcidice  peninsula  are  the 
Vardar  and  the  Struma,  which 
flow  to  the  -^gean  Sea,  and 
which  have  built  up  deltas. 
They  are  of  little  use  for  navi- 
gation, however,  the  Maritsa 
being  the  only  navigable  stream. 
The  only  river  of  size  entering 
the  Black  Sea  is  the  Danube. 

The  centre  and  the  east  coast, 
as  far  south  as  the  Bosporus, 
have  a  climate  intermediate  be- 
tween that  of  Central  Europe 
and  the  south  of  Germany — the 
winter  temperature  often  falling 
below  zero  f.;  the  summer  tem- 
perature resembling  that  of  the 
south  of  France.  June  is  the 
month  of  greatest  precipitation, 
but  rain  is  fairly  distributed 
throughout  the  year.  The 
iEgean  coast  has  the  Mediterra- 
nean climate;  and  the  Adriatic 
coast,  with  its  heavy  rainfall, 
has  a  January  temperature  7°  f. 


higher  than  that  of  the  east  coast. 
The  higher  inland  parts  have  a 
semi-continental  climate,  with 
extremes  of  -6°  to  120°  F.  be- 
tween summer  and  winter. 

In  the  regions  of  summer  rains 
the  hills  are  covered  with  dense 
forests  of  oak  and  beech,  in 
which  roam  large  herds  of  swine; 
while  the  lowlands  yield  exten- 
sive crops  of  corn.  The  soil  is 
poor  on  the  exposed  uplands,  but 
rich  and  productive  in  the  pro- 
tected river  valleys.  Sheep  and 
goats  thrive  on  the  treeless  slopes 
of  the  southern  hills.  In  Servia, 
two  crops  of  hay  and  grain  are 
harvested  every  year.  In  Bos- 
nia, snowfalls  and  frosts  may 
occur  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
May  at  an  elevation  of  1,500  feet. 

The  wolf  and  bear  are  found 
in  the  mountains;  the  deer  and 
wild  pig  in  the  forests;  the  jackal, 
buffalo,  and  Oriental  fat-tailed 
sheep  in  the  southern  plains; 
vast  flocks  of  water  fowl  along 
the  Danube;  and  pheasants  and 
partridges  everywhere. 

People. — The  population  of 
the  Balkans  is  extremely  hetero- 
geneous. It  cannot  be  classified 
by  racial  differences  nor  relig- 
ions, still  less  by  political  boun- 
daries. The  earliest  historical 
inhabitants  were  the  Illyrians, 
Greeks,  and  Dacians.  The 
Thracians  preceded  them,  but 
that  fact  is  all  that  is  definitely 
known  about  the  latter  people. 
The  Illyrians  are  now  repre- 
sented by  the  Albanians,  and  the 
Dacians  by  the  Roumanians. 
The  Bulgars  were  the  first  Slav 
invaders,  coming  probably  from 
the  Volga  districts  of  Finland 
from  about  the  third  century 
onward.  The  Vlachs  are  de- 
scendants of  the  Roman  refugees 
of  the  third  century.  -The  Serbs 
and  Croats  came  into  the  Penin- 
sula from  the  Carpathian  Moun- 
tains, beginning  with  the  seventh 
century.  The  Turkish  invasion 
began  with  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. There  are  also  consider- 
able numbers  of  Jews,  Arme- 
nians, and  Hungarians  (Mag- 
yars) . 

Previous  to  the  Balkan  War 
(q.  V.)  of  1912,  the  Turkish  pop- 
ulation was  scattered  throughout 
the  peninsula,  except  in  the 
northeastern  section  of  Bulgaria, 
in  the  territory  westward  from 
Constantinople  to  Adrianople, 
and  from  the  Black  Sea  south 
to  the  Sea  of  Marmora.  There 
were  none  in  Greece,  and  few 
in  Servia.  Numerically,  they 
constituted  about  one-tenth  of 
the  population  of  the  Peninsula. 

The  latest  (1912)  estimates 
of  the  several  peoples  in  the 
Peninsula  are  as  follows:  Serbo- 
Croats,  5,500,000;  Greeks,  4,500,- 
000;  Bulgars,  4,500.000;  Turks, 


2.000,000;  Albanians,  1,500,000; 
Vlachs,  500,000;  others,  500,000. 

For  further  particulars,  see 
the  articles  on  Albania;  Bosnia 
AND  Herzegovina;  Bulgaria; 
Croatia-Slavonia;  Dalmatia; 
Greece;  Illyria;  Macedonia; 
Montenegro;  Servia;  Turkey. 

Consult  Wyon's  The  Balkans 
from  Within  (1904);  Durham's 
Through  the  Land  of  the  Serb 
(1904);  Villari's  The  Balkan 
Question  (1905);  Lyde's  Military 
Geography  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula (1905);  Durham's  Burden  of 
the  Balkans  (1905);  De  Windt's 
Through  Savage  Europe  (1907); 
Singleton's  Turkey  and  the  Bal- 
kan States  (1908);  Holbach's 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  (1908); 
Trevor's  My  Balkan  Tour  (1911). 

Balkan  War,  1912-13.  In 
February,  1912,  the  four  Chris- 
tian States  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula— Bulgaria,  Servia,  Greece, 
and  Montenegro — after  long  en- 
deavor on  the  part  of  some  of 
their  far-seeing  rulers  and  states- 
men, formed  an  alliance  for  the 
promotion  of  their  common  in- 
terests and  the  improvement  of 
their  standing  in  the  family  of 
nations.  The  chief  of  these  in- 
terests was,  at  the  moment,  the 
enforcement  of  Article  23  of  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin  (q.  v.),  by 
which  the  great  Powers  guaran- 
teed, and  Turkey  promised, 
local  self-government  for  the 
Bulgar-Serb  communities  in 
Macedonia. 

Their  condition  was  indeed 
deplorable,  and  it  was  one  of  the 
reproaches  of  the  civilized  world. 
But  the  Powers,  with  the  idea 
of  hastening  the  day  when  the 
European  dominions  of  the  Porte 
would  become  their  legitimate 
prey,  found  it  better  to  their 
purpose  to  let  massacre,  extor- 
tion, and  other  outrages  go  on 
than  to  insist  on  a  proper  ad- 
ministrative regime  for  the  Mace- 
donian Christians,  which  might 
lead  to  a  prolonged  continuance 
of  Turkish  rule.  So  the  Powers 
formed  ententes  to  keep  matters 
as  they  were;  and  after  thirty- 
four  years,  Bulgaria  and  Servia, 
which  in  the  meantime  had  been 
growing  more  cultivated  and 
humane,  realized  that  only  by 
joint  action  could  the  wretched 
status  quo  be  destroyed. 

Military  preparations  went  on 
quietly  during  the  spring  and 
summer  of  1912,  and  by  Sep- 
tember the  war  spirit  was  so 
strong  among  the  Balkan  peoples 
that  Turkey,  under  the  guise  of 
autumn  manoeuvres,  began  to 
assemble  a  large  force  near  Adri- 
anople —  against  which  move 
the  great  Powers  successfully 
protested.  An  imperative  ulti- 
matum for  administrative  re- 
form was  presented  to  the  Porte 


Balkan  War,  1913-13 


541  C 


Balkan  War,  1913-13 


by  Servia  and  Bulgaria,  and  it 
was  rejected. 

The  Powers  labored  in  vain  to 
avert  a  conflict;  and  on  Oct.  8, 
Montenegro,  apparently  acting 
on  instructions  from  Bulgaria,  de- 
clared war  upon  Turkey.  Servia 
and  Bulgaria  held  back  in  the 
hope  that  this  move  might  result 
in  a  peaceful  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culty, or  at  any  rate  that  the 
Powers  would  immediately  define 
their  attitude.  But  neither  end 
was  accomplished.  Turkey  would 
listen  to  no  proposition  involving 
the  league's  interference  in  her 
internal  affairs,  and  on  Oct.  17  she 
declared  war  on  Servia  and  Bul- 
garia, which  immediately  ac- 
cepted the  challenge. 

Turkey  at  that  time  had  about 
200,000  regular  troops  in  Europe; 
but  at  least  150,000  more  were 
available  in  the  Asiatic  provinces, 
and  they  were  moved  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  Nazim  Pasha,  the 
War  Minister,  was  generalissimo 
of  the  forces.  Four  Nizam  (ac- 
tive army)  corps,  under  Abdullah 
Pasha,  were  in  Thrace.  The  force 
in  Macedonia  was  commanded  by 
Tahsin  Pasha.  Army  corps  were 
stationed  at  Salonica,  Monastir, 
and  Uskub,  while  the  smaller 
towns,  including  the  stronghold 
of  Scutari,  capital  of  Albania, 
were  garrisoned  chiefly  by  Alban- 
ian and  Macedonian  volunteers 
under  Riza  Pasha.  The  total 
Macedonian  force  (including  vol- 
unteers) was  estimated  at  200,- 
000. 

The  Montenegrin  Advance. — 
The  Montenegrin  army  was  about 
40,000  in  strength,  commanded 
by  Crown  Prince  Danilo.  It  was 
divided  into  three  parts — the 
Northern  army,  headed  by  Gen- 
eral Vukovitch;  the  Eastern,  or 
Central,  by  General  Lazovitch; 
and  the  Westerrf,  by  General 
Martinovitch,  the  War  Minister. 
The  last  two  made  Scutari  their 
objective;  the  Northern  army  set 
out  across  the  vilayet  of  Kossovo 
to  join  one  of  the  Servian  columns. 
All  three  moved  from  Podgoritza 
without  delay — Martinovitch 
marching  straight  upon  Scutari, 
while  Lazovitch's  task  was  to  re- 
duce a  number  of  Turkish  fortres- 
ses between  the  Montenegrin 
frontier  and  the  Albanian  cap- 
ital. The  nearest  one  was  on 
Mount  Planinitza;  and  upon  it, 
from  Goritza  hill,  Prince  Peter,  a 
captain  of  artillery,  fired  the  first 
gun  on  the  morning  of  Oct.  9. 
King  Nicholas,  seventy-one  years 
of  age,  was  with  the  troops.  Lazo- 
vitch quickly  captured  Planinitza, 
Detchitch,  and  Shiptchanik  (Oct. 
11);  but  Tuzi,  offering  stout  re- 
sistance, did  not  fall  until  Oct.  14, 
when  the  garrison  surrendered. 
Lazovitch  had  now  cleared  the 
way,  and  went  forward  by  the 


north  shore  of  Lake  Scutari.  He 
met  with  but  little  opposition, 
and  his  batteries  silenced  the  fire 
of  a  few  small  Turkish  vessels  on 
the  lake. 

The  chief  defence  of  Scutari, 
which  Martinovitch  reached  with 
slight  difficulty,  was  Tarabosch 
Mountain,  6  miles  distant  on  the 
southwest,  and  not  more  than 
1,200  feet  in  height.  Its  four 
forts  had  been  admirably  built 
by  German  military  engineers; 
but  they  had  overlooked  a  spur 
of  the  mountain,  and  by  Oct.  23 
this  was  in  possession  of  Martin- 
ovitch's  forces,  which  had  hastily 
blasted  a  road  to  the  top  with 
dynamite.  The  two  Montenegrin 
columns  now  began  the  siege  of 
Scutari  on  the  north,  west,  and 
east.  The  city  was  garrisoned  by 
12,000  volunteers,  and  had  been 
reinforced  by  a  division  of  6,000 
regulars  under  Essad  Pasha,  who 
took  charge  of  the  defence. 

Meanwhile  Vukovitch  was 
making  his  way  through  the  vil- 
ayet of  Kossovo.  He  drove  the 
Turks  from  Berane  and  Bielo- 
polie,  and  captured  several  other 
towns,  and  on  Oct.  25  joined  the 
Western  Servian  column  at  Sien- 
itza.  His  successes  brought  him 
6,000  prisoners  and  a  large  quan- 
tity of  arms  and  provisions. 

The  Serbs  Invade  Macedonia. — 
Before  the  formal  declaration  of 
war  a  body  of  3,000  irregular 
Turkish  and  Albanian  troops  en- 
tered Servia  through  the  Morava 
Valley,  and  came  in  contact  with 
the  Servian  cavalry  near  Risto- 
vatz  (Oct.  14).  Three  days  later 
war  was  on.  The  Servian  army 
numbered  about  200,000  troops. 
General  Putnik  was  commander- 
in-chief,  and  the  force  operated  in 
four  separate  columns — the 
First,  or  Central  army  (3  divi- 
sions), under  Crown  Prince  Alex- 
ander; the  Second,  or  Eastern 
(2  divisions),  under  General  Ste- 
fanovich;  the  Third  (3  divisions), 
under  General  Zankovich;  and 
the  Fourth,  or  Western  (2 
divisions),  under  General  Ziev- 
kovich.  The  objective  point 
of  the  first  two  armies  was 
Uskiib;  while  Zievkovich,  in  the 
west,  was  to  operate  with  the 
Northern  army  of  Montenegro. 
Alexander  marched  down  the 
Morava;  Stefanovich  approached 
by  way  of  Kustendil  in  Bulgaria, 
and  captured  Egri  Palanka.  The 
advance  of  the  two  columns  was 
opposed  at  Kumanovo  by  the 
Sixth  Corps  under  Zekki  Pasha. 
The  battle  raged  for  two  days  on 
a  fog-hung  plain.  There  was 
fierce  close-range  fighting,  and 
the  Servian  artillery  made  fright- 
ful havoc  among  the  Turks,  who 
were  completely  routed  (Oct.  24), 
with  a  loss  of  5,000  men  and  60 
pieces  of  artillery.    The  Servian 


casualties  were  about  2,500.  The 
remnants  of  the  Sixth  Corps  fled 
to  Uskiib,  whence  they  were  driv- 
en (Oct.  26)  by  the  victorious 
Serbs.  Zekki  now  found  himself 
in  danger  of  envelopment.  He 
evacuated  Krupiilu,  which  the 
Serbs  entered  on  Oct.  29,  and  re- 
tired upon  Monastir. 

Zievkovich,  in  the  meantime, 
after  seizing  Prishtina  and  Mit- 
rovitza,  and  acting  in  concert 
with  the  Montenegrins,  had  ef- 
fectively ridded  Kossovo  of  its 
garrisons.  The  last  of  the  Turk- 
ish soldiers  fled  from  Novibazar 
into  Austrian  territory,  while 
Servia  proceeded  methodically  to 
occupy  the  conquered  territory. 
The  Eastern  column  now  joined 
the  Bulgarian  army  in  Thrace. 

The  Bulgars  in  Thrace. — The 
Bulgarian  army  numbered  about 
340,000,  under  the  chief  com- 
mand of  General  Savoff,  and  was 
divided  into  three  .  parts,  with 
some  independent  divisions.  The 
First  Army,  or  Corps  (5  divisions) , 
under  General  Kutincheff, 
marched  down  the  Tundja  Val- 
ley. The  Second  Army  (3  divi- 
sions), consisting  of  second-line 
troops  (about  55,000),  under  Gen- 
eral Ivanoff,  seized  the  town  of 
Mustafa  Pasha  (Oct.  18),  which 
became  Bulgarian  headquarters, 
and  advanced  down  the  Ma- 
ritza  upon  Adrianople  (Oct.  20). 
The  Third  Army  (5  divisions), 
under  General  Dimitrieff,  pro- 
ceeded by  way  of  the  Tundja 
to  Kirk  Kilisseh. 

Abdullah's  original  line  north 
of  Adrianople  was  forced  back  by 
the  Bulgarian  advance,  and  with 
250,000  men  he  occupied  a  forti- 
fied zone  with  the  two  strongholds 
of  Adrianople  and  Kirk  Kilisseh 
at  the  extremities.  His  right  wing 
— the  Third  (Nizam)  Corps,  at 
the  latter  place — was  commanded 
by  Mahmud  Mukhtar  Pasha; 
while  he  himself,  on  the  centre 
and  left,  directed  the  movements 
of  the  leaders  of  the  three  other 
corps.  Kirk  Kilisseh  was  cap- 
tured by  Dimitrieff  on  Oct.  24, 
after  two  days  of  heavy  fighting. 
A  few  of  Mukhtar 's  officers  and 
men  started  a  panic,  and  the 
Third  Corps  retired  in  confusion 
upon  Viza. 

Leaving  a  garrison  of  40,000 
under  Shukri  Pasha  to  cope  with 
the  Bulgarian  bombardment  of 
Adrianople,  which  began  Nov.  1, 
Abdullah  fell  back  upon  Liile 
Burgas,  and  formed  a  new  line 
between  that  place  and  Viza. 
Savoff  left  Ivanoff,  with  forces 
composed  chiefly  of  the  Second 
Army,  to  invest  Adrianople,  and 
sent  the  body  of  the  First  Army 
forward  under  Kutincheff.  Dimi- 
trieff occupied  Bunar  Hissar  (Oct. 
28),  and  took  position  opposite 
Mukhtar  at  Viza.  Kutincheff 


Balkan  War,  1912-13 


541  D 


Balkan  War,  1912-13 


seized  Eski  Baba  (Oct.  27),  and 
after  reinforcement  by  three  bri- 
gades from  Ivanoff,  marched  on 
Lille  Burgas  and  captured  the 
town  on  Oct.  29. 

Abdullah's  army  had  been 
weakened  by  the  withdrawal  of 
about  100,000  men  for  the  de- 
fence of  Constantinople,  but  his 
remaining  160,000  successfully 
resisted  the  Bulgarian  attack,  and 
even  repulsed  Dimitrieff  at  Viza. 
Next  day  (Oct.  30)  Abdullah,  see- 
ing that  the  Bulgars  had  suffered 
severely,  advanced  about  8  a.m. 
His  troops  were  in  poor  condition, 
for  they  had  been  three  days 
without  food,  and  ammunition 
was  lacking  for  the  artillery.  Ab- 
dullah counted  on  an  energetic 
assault  by  Mukhtar  with  the 
Third  Corps,  seconded  by  the 
flank  attack  of  an  Ottoman  divi- 
sion which  had  just  debarked  at 
Midia,  on  the  Black  Sea.  But  at 
three  in  the  afternoon  the  Turk- 
ish commander  realized  that 
Mukhtar  was  too  hard  pressed  to 
render  him  assistance;  his  own 
troops  were  completely  exhausted ; 
and  he  had  to  abandon  all  his  po- 
sitions. This  move  rendered  nec- 
essary the  retreat  of  the  Third 
Corps  on  the  following  day  (Oct. 
31),  and  the  whole  army  fell  back 
in  complete  disorder,  without 
food,  transports,  or  ambulances, 
and  reached  the  Tchataldja  lines 
— the  land  defence  of  Constanti- 
nople, a  series  of  antiquated  fort- 
ifications crossing  the  Gallipoli 
peninsula  about  20  miles  from  the 
capital — on  Nov.  6.  The  losses 
at  Lille  Burgas-Viza  were  esti- 
mated at  15,000  allies  and  30,000 
Turks. 

Movements  of  the  Greeks. — 
Greece,  whose  attitude  had  been 
uncertain,  went  to  war  on  Oct. 
17,  after  the  Porte  had  refused  to 
release  some  Greek  vessels  de- 
tained in  Turkish  ports.  Her 
army  numbered  about  110,000 
— although  they  were  not  all  mo- 
bilized— under  the  command  of 
Crown  Prince  Constantine.  The 
bulk  of  these  had  Salonica  as  an 
objective;  while  one  division  of 
12,000,  under  General  Sapunza- 
kis,  was  sent  to  capture  the  fort- 
ress of  Janina  and  other  places  in 
Epirus.  The  main  army,  leaving 
Larissa,  forced  its  way  over  the 
Meluna  pass  and  captured  Elas- 
sona  (Oct.  19).  After  a  battle 
with  some  of  Tahsin's  troops  at 
Sarantaporu  the  next  day,  it 
marched  in  two  columns  upon 
Salonica,  occupying,  with  slight 
resistance,  Servia,  Verria,Vodina, 
Jenitza,  and  Catherini  on  the 
way.  At  Topsin  it  was  joined 
by  a  Servian  force  which  had 
marched  down  the  Vardar.  Mean- 
while a  separate  (ireek  division 
had  landed  in  Chalcidia,  and 
was  approaching  Salonica  from 


the  southeast.  A  Bulgarian  divi- 
sion, under  General  Todoroff,  al- 
so heading  for  Salonica,  had  al- 
ready captured  Drama  and  other 
towns;  but  it  found  itself  opposed 
at  Seres,  60  miles  northeast  of  the 
city,  by  Turkish  troops,  strongly 
posted  on  the  hills. 

Preparations  for  investment 
had  been  begun  on  the  night  of 
Nov.  1,  when  a  Greek  torpedo 
boat  drove  a  Turkish  cruiser 
from  the  harbor.  The  command- 
er at  Salonica,  Tahsin  Pasha, 
found  it  impossible  to  hold  out 
against  forces  at  least  three  times 
the  strength  of  his  own,  coming 
from  all  directions.  On  Nov.  8 
he  capitulated,  and  next  day  the 
Greeks  and  Serbs  entered  the 
town.  Todoroff,  who  had  dis- 
lodged his  opponents,  arrived  on 
Nov.  10.  The  allies  made  30,000 
of  the  Fifth  Corps  prisoners,  and 
captured  70  cannon,  30  machine 
guns,  2,000  horses,  and  75,000 
rifles.  After  Sarantaporu,  Prince 
Constantine  sent  a  division 
under  Colonel  Mathiopolu  to- 
ward Monastir.  Greece  was  the 
only  member  of  the  league  with 
an  adequate  navy,  and  her  fleet 
blockaded  Turkish  ports  and 
seized  a  number  of  islands  in  the 
northern  ^gean. 

Later  Events. — The  Bulgars  and 
Serbs  before  Adrianople  had  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  only  4  of  the 
30  permanent  works  of  the  fort- 
ress; but  the  city  was  completely 
isolated.  Scutari  still  held  out 
under  Martinovitch's  investment, 
and  Sapunzakis  was  struggling 
toward  Janina,  defended  by  a 
garrison  of  15,000.  Winter  with 
heavy  snow  storms  had  now  set 
in,  and  the  Montenegrins  were 
suffering  severely  from  exposure. 
Martinovitch  determined  to  stop 
supplies  from  reaching  Scutari; 
and  with  a  portion  of  his  army  he 
moved  upon  the  seaport  of  San 
Giovanni  di  Medua,  which  he 
reached  on  Nov.  16,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Luzari  in  a  hard  fight 
(Nov.  14)  had  driven  the  Turkish 
troops  from  the  neighborhood. 
From  San  Giovanni  the  Monte- 
negrins continued  down  the  Adri- 
atic coast,  driving  the  Turks  into 
Alessio.  Meanwhile,  a  Servian 
column  made  a  remarkable  forced 
march  from  Prizrend  across  the 
Albanian  Mountains,  pushing 
their  guns  through  the  snow. 
They  approached  Alessio  by  way 
of  the  Drin  Valley,  and  began 
shelling  the  town;  while  the  Mon- 
tenegrins opened  fire  from  the 
hills  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river.  In  less  than  four  hours  the 
garrison  had  surrendered  (Nov. 
18). 

After  his  flight  from  Uskiib, 
Zekki  Pasha  and  his  remaining 
troops  joined  Djavid  Pasha  and 
the  Seventh  Corps  at  Monastir. 


Djavid  was  successfully  resisting 
the  Greek  attack  from  the  south 
when  a  Servian  army  appeared 
from  the  north.  Monastir,  with 
over  40,000  troops,  surrendered 
on  Nov.  17;  but  the  generals  man- 
aged to  escape. 

The  Bulgars  made  a  rapid  flank 
movement  upon  the  Turks  in  their 
headlong  flight  after  Lille  Burgas, 
striking  the  rear  guard  a  savage 
blow  at  Tchorlu  (Nov.  6),  while 
the  cavalry  penetrated  as  far  as 
Rodosto,  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora. 
A  new  line  was  formed  opposite 
the  Turkish  position  at  Tchatal- 
dja, and  preparations  for  attack 
were  made  at  once.  After  some 
preliminary  fighting,  the  main 
battle  began  on  Nov.  17  and  con- 
tinued until  Nov.  19.  For  the 
first  time  the  Bulgars  found  them- 
selves outranged  in  artillery,  for 
the  Turks  had  heavy  siege  guns, 
and  a  number  of  others  had  been 
brought  up  from  the  fleet. 

But  Turkey  had  had  enough. 
Albania  had  declared  herself  in- 
dependent in  the  middle  of  No- 
vember, and  a  provisional  gov- 
ernment, with  Ismail  Kemil  Bey 
as  president,  was  set  up.  To  add 
to  the  disasters,  cholera  broke  out 
in  the  Turkish  camp.  The  Porte 
had  appealed  several  times  to  the 
Powers  to  stop  the  war,  and  now 
made  direct  overtures  to  Bulga- 
ria. A  truce  was  declared,  and 
this  led  to  an  armistice  on  Dec.  3. 
Meanwhile,  the  Serbs  were  com- 
pleting the  occupation  of  Mace- 
donia; Dibia  and  Ochrida  were 
taken,  with  many  prisoners  and 
stores. 

The  armies  were  to  remain 
where  they  were,  and  the  garri- 
sons were  not  to  be  revictualled. 
Greece  refused  to  sign  the  armis- 
tice, although  she  agreed  to  par- 
ticipate in  a  peace  conference, 
and  on  her  pact  the  war  went  on. 
It  was  confined  chiefly  to  the 
attempt  upon  Janina,  and  Sa- 
punzakis fought  a  battle  at  Pesta 
(Dec.  15).  The  conference  to 
arrange  terms  of  peace  met  in 
London  on  Dec.  16;  but  it  came 
to  nothing,  and  the  envoys  were 
recalled  on  Jan.  6,  1913.  Four 
weeks  went  by,  filled  with  threats, 
and  with  efforts  on  the  part  of  the 
great  Powers  to  prevent  a  reopen- 
ing of  the  war;  but  on  the  night  of 
Feb.  3  hostilities  were  resumed. 

The  Last  Phase.— Of  all  the 
allies,  Servia  had  up  to  this  time 
accomplished  most  in  the  way  of 
effective  conquest.  To  Bulgaria 
there  remained  the  tasks  of  reduc- 
ing Adrianople  and  piercing  the 
Tchataldja  line.  The  latter  was 
held  by  some  200,000  men,  under 
the  command  of  the  new  Turkish 
generalissimo,  Izzet  Pasha — Naz- 
im  Pasha  having  been  assassi- 
nated (Jan.  23,  1913),  after  the 
coup  d'etat  gf  the  Young  Turk 


Balkan  War,  1913-13 


541 E 


Balkan  War,  1913-13 


Party,  which  overthrew  the  Cab- 
inet. Fifty  thousand  more  troops 
were  on  the  GalHpoli  peninsula, 
and  the  advancing  Bulgars  were 
checked  by  these  at  Bulair,  after 
successful  engagements  at  Kava- 
keui  and  Hexamili  (Feb.  4  and  5). 
The  Bulgars  then  gradually  fell 
back  at  all  points,  in  the  hope  of 
drawing  the  Turkish  army  inland, 
and  forcing  a  general  action  at 
some  distance  from  its  base. 

The  siege  of  Adrianople  (with 
its  then  garrison  of  40,000)  was 
renewed  by  I vanofT 's  army,  assist- 
ed by  45,000  Serbs. 

Crown  Prince  Constantine  was 
now  directing  the  campaign  in 
Epirus,  which  had  not  been  affect- 
ed by  the  armistice;  and  the  gar- 
rison at  Janina  had  been  strength- 
ened, and  numbered  about  30,000. 

At  Scutari,  the  armistice  had 
been  ignored.  King  Nicholas  de- 
cided to  abandon  his  policy  of 
starving  out  the  city,  and  a  three- 
days'  assault — the  hardest  fight- 
ing the  Montenegrins  had  yet  ex- 
perienced— with  the  assistance  of 
15,000  Serbs  under  Colonel  Popo- 
vich,  was  begun  on  Feb.  6. 

The  first  real  victory  fell  to  the 
lot  of  the  Greeks.  On  March  6, 
Janina  surrendered  to  the  Crown 
Prince,  who  twelve  days  later 
became  King  of  the  Hellenes 
when  his  father.  King  George, 
was  shot  and  killed  by  a 
weak-minded  Greek  at  Salonica 
(March  18). 

On  March  24,  Djavid  Pasha 
and  15,000  men  yielded  up  their 
arms  to  the  Serbs  on  the  Skumbra 
River,  while  March  26  witnessed 
the  fall  of  Adrianople.  Shukri 
Pasha  capitulated  to  Ivanoff, 
after  the  eastern  front  of  the  city 
had  been  furiously  stormed  and 
most  of  the  batteries  captured. 
The  Bulgar-Serb  loss  was  about 
7,000;  the  Turkish  1,000,  with 
30,000  prisoners. 

Meanwhile,  the  Powers  had 
succeeded  in  determining  the  fron- 
tiers of  the  new  state  of  Albania, 
and  on  March  27  Nicholas  was 
invited  to  raise  the  siege  of  Scu- 
tari and  withdraw  from  Albanian 
territory.  The  Servian  allies  did 
so;  but  the  King  of  Montenegro 
replied  by  a  more  vigorous  attack 
upon  Tarabosch  Mountain.  A 
joint  naval  demonstration  of  the 
Powers  was  made  off  Antivari 
(April  4),  and  the  coast  block- 
aded, while  Austria  prepared  to 
use  military  pressure.  Essad 
f  Pasha  finally  surrendered  the  city 
on  April  23,  but  it  was  not  until 
May  4  that  Nicholas,  in  defiance 
of  his  ministers,  finally  yielded, 
and  in  return  for  financial  assist- 
ance relinquished  the  place  to 
the  Powers. 

Elsewhere  the  war  was  over. 
The  offer  of  mediation  by  the 
Powers,  so  constantly  requested 


by  Turkey,  was  accepted  at  last 
by  the  allies.  On  April  14  a 
truce  had  been  declared  between 
the  opposing  forces  at  Tchataldja. 
The  ambassadors  of  the  Powers 
met  in  London,  and  on  May  16 
representatives  of  the  five  states 
assembled  to  ratify  the  terms  of 
peace.  As  in  the  previous  winter, 
they  were  disposed  to  wrangle 
and  accuse  each  other  of  intrigue; 
but  the  British  government 
served  notice  that  no  delay  would 
be  tolerated,  and  on  May  30  the 
Treaty  of  London  was  signed. 

According  to  the  terms  of  the 
treaty,  Turkey  was  to  pay  no  in- 
demnity, but  her  entire  European 
continental  possessions  west  of  a 
line  drawn  between  Enos,  on  the 
Sea  of  Marmora,  and  Midia,  on 
the  Euxine,  together  with  the 
island  of  Crete,  were  handed  over 
to  the  allies.  The  future  of  Al- 
bania and  the  captured  ^gean 
Islands  was  left  to  the  Powers. 
Financial  questions  were  referred 
to  a  commission  sitting  in  Paris; 
other  points  were  regarded  as 
matters  for  settlement  by  the 
interested  parties  themselves. 

Disruption  of  the  League,  Sec- 
ond Balkan  War. — There  had 
been  much  scepticism  in  Western 
Europe  as  to  whether  the  links  in 
the  chain  that  bound  the  allies 
would  withstand  the  pressure  of 
self-interest,  and  the  progress  of 
events  soon  justified  the  doubt. 
After  the  conquest  of  Macedonia, 
the  bulk  of  the  Bulgarian  forces 
in  such  territory  as  would  natu- 
rally be  included  in  King  Ferdi- 
nand's dominions  was  sent  to 
Tchataldja,  and  many  towns 
were  occupied,  some  forcibly,  by 
Greek  troops.  Such  was  the  case 
at  Nigrita,  where,  on  March  5,  the 
Bulgars  made  great  slaughter  by 
bombarding  the  Greek  occupants. 
Servia  claimed  that  she  had  not 
been  given  due  credit  for  her 
share  in  the  capture  of  Adrian- 
ople, but  a  far  more  serious  diplo- 
matic quarrel  was  already  brew- 
ing with  Bulgaria.  In  September, 
1912,  these  two  governments  had 
concluded  a  secret  treaty,  fixing 
the  frontiers  of  any  territory  cap- 
tured from  Turkey;  but  Servia 
was  now  desirous  of  going  back 
on  the  terms  of  the  bargain,  since 
Albania  was  not  to  be  hers.  Bul- 
garia, on  the  other  hand,  was  in- 
sisting on  the  fulfilment  of  the 
treaty,  because  she  was  threat- 
ened with  loss  of  territory  in  an- 
other direction.  Rumania  had 
agreed  to  remain  neutral  in  the 
contest,  and  for  this  she  had  her 
price.  She  demanded  a  southern 
strategic  frontier,  and  to  this  the 
mediating  Powers  had  agreed.  It 
would  mean  the  cession  by  Bul- 
garia of  Silistria  and  territory 
south  of  Dobrudja;  and  Ferdi- 
nand, in  consequence,  w^s  loth  to 


yield  any  of  the  predetermined 
spoil  in  the  West. 

Even  while  the  delegates  in 
London  were  concluding  terms  of 
peace,  the  Greeks  and  Serbs  were 
forming  an  anti-Bulgar  alliance, 
and  frequent  conflicts  had  taken 
place  with  the  Bulgars  in  Mace- 
donia; but  now,  at  the  end  of 
June,  1913,  the  fighting  blazed 
into  real  warfare. 

On  June  29,  General  Savoff  or- 
dered a  general  advance.  One  Bul- 
garian column  marched  toward 
Servia;  another  was  sent  against 
the  Greeks;  while  a  third  force 
held  a  strong  line  between  Ishtip 
and  Kotchana.  Both  the  Greeks 
from  the  south  and  the  Serbs  from 
the  west,  in  spite  of  some  severe 
reverses,  made  steady  progress 
against  the  common  enemy,  until 
the  wedge  of  Bulgarian  occupa- 
tion in  Macedonia  was  almost 
forced  out  of  that  territory. 

King  Constantine  won  a  vic- 
tory at  Morfassa,  retook  Gye- 
vegli,  and  captured  Kukush  (July 
2),  Doiran,  Strumnitza  (July  10), 
Drama  (July  15),  and  finally 
reached  Nevrekop,  only  twenty 
miles  from  the  South  Bulgarian 
frontier.  A  fifty-two-hour  battle 
near  Ishtip  resulted  in  a  Servian 
victory  (July  2),  and  Krivolak 
was  retaken  (July  6),  after  it  had 
fallen  to  the  Bulgars.  King  Nich- 
olas made  formal  declaration  of 
war  on  July  10,  and  the  Monte- 
negrin army  went  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Servia. 

Bulgaria's  position  was  most 
critical,  and  the  Porte  was  em- 
boldened (July  2)  to  demand  the 
withdrawal  of  60,000  of  her  troops, 
which  were  encamped  near  Ro- 
dosto,  because  the  Turkish  army 
was  still  mobilized.  To  this  the 
Sofia  government  agreed  on  con- 
dition that  Turkey  remain  neu- 
tral in  the  present  conflict.  But 
now,  in  Bulgaria's  extreme  hour, 
the  opportunity  to  regain  the  la- 
mented Adrianople  was  more  than 
the  wisdom  of  the  Turks  could 
neglect,  or  human  nature  could 
resist.  On  July  12,  an  Ottoman 
force  under  Enver  Bey  started 
unopposed  across  Thrace,  and  re- 
captured Liile  Burgas,  Bunar 
Hissar,  Viza,  and  finally  Adrian- 
ople (July  22).  It  then  entered 
Bulgaria,  burned  many  villages, 
and  committed  other  outrages. 

On  July  10,  the  King  of  Ru- 
mania announced  that  he  was 
compelled  to  take  action.  His 
army  immediately  occupied  Silis- 
tria, and  three  flying  columns 
crossed  the  frontier  and  marched 
upon  Sofia.  To  this  invasion 
Bulgaria  offered  no  resistance, 
realizing  that,  in  her  inevitable 
defeat,  she  would  make  the  better 
terms  with  her  new  enemy.  She 
was  indeed  in  dire  straits,  and  the 
two  w^rs  haci  cpst  her,  in  killed 


Baikh 


541  F 


Ball 


and  wounded,  150,000  men.  A 
new  cabinet  quickly  promised 
the  strategical  frontier,  and  King 
Charles  now  threw  all  his  weight 
into  the  balance  in  behalf  of 
peace.  The  Bulgarian  premier 
sent  General  Paprikoff  (July  20) 
to  negotiate  with  Servia  and 
Greece  at  Nish. 

Meanwhile,  the  allies  contin- 
ued to  advance  until  the  Greeks 
touched  the  Servian  right  wing. 
The  Bulgars  fell  back  after  a  Ser- 
vian attack  at  Widin  (July  23), 
and  five  days  later  a  peace  con- 
ference opened  at  Bucharest.  The 
very  day  that  the  armistice  was 
concluded  (July  30) ,  there  raged  a 
hard  battle  for  possession  of  the 
southern  gateway  into  Bulgaria; 
the  Greeks  occupied  Gumuldjina, 
and  captured  Dedeagatch;  the 
Servians  continued  to  bombard 
Widin  until  Aug.  3. 

The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
at  Bucharest  on  Aug.  10.  It 
gave  to  Servia  the  whole  of  Mace- 
donia under  her  occupation,  and 
some  territory  east  of  the  old 
vilayet  of  Kossovo — over  15,000 
square  miles  in  all.  Her  area  was 
thusnearlydoubled.  Greece  made 
the  greatest  relative  advance  in 
political  importance.  Her  share 
(18,700  square  miles)  consisted 
of  parts  of  Macedonia,  Albania, 
and  even  a  small  portion  of 
Thrace.  Bulgaria  surrendered 
2,000  square  miles  of  her  north- 
eastern territory  to  Rumania,  and 
had  to  be  content  with  only  7,000 
square  miles  on  the  south  and 
west — a  much  smaller  area  than 
that  allotted  by  the  Treaty  of 
London.  Montenegro's  reward 
was  a  small  addition  on  the  south 
and  east,  corresponding  to  the 
aid  rendered  Servia  in  the  second 
war. 

Negotiations  between  Tui'key 
and  Bulgaria  over  Eastern  Thrace 
were  then  begun,  and  on  Sept. 
17  an  agreement  was  reached 
by  which  the  former  regained  a 
considerable  area,  including  De- 
motika,  Adrianople,  and  Kirk 
Kilisseh. 

The  good  grace  with  which 
Bulgaria  yielded  to  the  demands 
of  the  Porte  gave  rise  to  a  fear 
that  there  might  be  some  secret 
understanding  between  the  two 
defeated  countries  to  make  com- 
mon cause  against  the  Greeks. 
On  Nov.  13,  1913,  however, 
Greece  and  Turkey  came  to  an 
agreement  in  regard  to  their  un- 
settled differences,  and  a  new  era 
in  the  Balkans  may  be  said  to 
have  begun. 

BaIkh,  district  of  Afghan  Tur- 
kestan, the  most  northerly  prov- 
ince of  Afghanistan.  It  corre- 
sponds to  ancient  Bactria,  and 
lies  between  35°  and  37°  N.  lat., 
and  64°  and  69°  E.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the 


River  Oxus,  on  the  east  by  Bad- 
akhshan,  on  the  south  by  the 
Hindu-Kush,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  desert.  Offsets  of  the  Hindu- 
Kush  traverse  it  in  a  northwest- 
erly direction,  and  slope  down  to 
the  low  steppes  of  Bokhara.  Its 
length  is  250  miles;  its  breadth, 
120  miles.  The  soil  has  the  gen- 
eral characteristics  of  a  desert 
land;  only  a  few  parts  are  made 
fertile  by  artificial  irrigation.  The 
natives  are  Uzbegs,  whose  char- 
aracter  differs  in  different  dis- 
tricts. 

Balkh,  former  capital  and  chief 
town  of  Balkh  district,  is  situated 
in  a  region  intersected  by  canals 
and  ditches,  by  means  of  which 
the  waters  of  the  Balkhab,  or 
Dehas,  are  dissipated  and  pre- 
vented from  flowing  toward  the 
Amu  Daria,  only  45  miles  dis- 
tant. The  town  is  now  largely  in 
ruins.  It  is  a  place  of  great  an- 
tiquity, famous  as  the  cradle  of 
Zoroastrianism;  indeed,  Zoro- 
aster is  said  to  have  been  born 
and  to  have  died  at  ancient  Bac- 
tra.  Between  the  seventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  it  was  a  centre 
of  Buddhism,  and  seems  (from 
Sven  Hedin's  and  Stein's  discov- 
eries) to  have  extended  its  influ- 
ence as  far  as  the  now  sand- 
buried  cities  of  East  Turkestan. 
It  was  sacked  by  Jenghiz  Khan 
in  1220.  The  capital  was  re- 
moved to  Mazar-i-Sherif,  10 
miles  to  the  east,  in  1877, 

The  modern  city  occupies  but 
a  small  part  of  the  former  area, 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall. 
The  only  commercial  industry  of 
importance  is  the  weaving  of  silk. 
Pop.  15,000,  mostly  Uzbegs. 

East  and  west  of  Balkh  are 
several  small  Uzbeg  khanates  in 
the  basin  of  the  Amu  Daria, 
which,  together  with  Wakhan, 
east  of  Badakhshan,  constitute 
Afghan  Turkestan. 

Balkhash  (Kirghiz  Tengis  or 
Tenghiz;  Chinese  Sihai),  a  great 
inland  lake  near  the  eastern  bor- 
ders of  Russian  Central  Asia,  be- 
tween 45°  and  47°  N.  lat,  and  73° 
30'  and  79°  20'  E.  long.  Lying 
900  feet  above  sea  level,  it  ex- 
tends 340  miles  southwest;  its 
breadth  at  the  western  end  is  53 
miles,  at  the  eastern  from  4  to  9 
miles;  the  area  is  7,120  square 
miles.  The  water  is  clear, 
but  intensely  salt.  Its  principal 
feeder  is  the  River  Hi.  It  receives 
the  waters  of  several  streams, 
but  has  no  outlet.  Its  depth. is 
from  70  to  80  feet;  consequently, 
though  its  area  is  thirty-two 
times  that  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva, 
its  volume  is  only  twice  as  great. 
The  southern  shores  of  the  lake 
are  labyrinths  of  islands,  penin- 
sulas, low  sandhills,  and  strips  of 
shallow  water,  with  enormously 
tall  reeds,  in  which  wild  swine 


shelter.  The  lake  once  extended 
over  the  arid  plain  to  the  south. 
See  Asia, 

Balkis  or  Bilkis,  according  to 
Mohammedan  tradition,  thename 
of  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  who  vis- 
ited Solomon.  Her  story  is  re- 
lated (without  mention  of  her 
name)  in  Sura  27  of  the  Koran, 
and  has  been  elaborated  by  the 
commentators  into  an  interest- 
ing Oriental  tale. 

Ball.  Games  with  balls  were 
among  the  favorite  gymnastic 
exerciser  of  the  ancients.  The 
Greeks  prized  such  games  as  a 
means  of  giving  grace  and  elas- 
ticity to  the  figure.  The  balls 
were  of  various  kinds;  they  were 
generally  of  leather,  and  filled 
with  air;  others  were  stuffed  with 
feathers  or  hair  (pila).  There 
was  great  variety  in  the  kinds  of 
game,  each  having  a  name.  In 
one,  the  ball  was  thrown  up,  and 
the  players  strove  who  would 
catch  it  as  it  fell;  another  was 
similar  to  our  football;  in  a 
third,  a  number  of  persons  threw 
it  at  one  another,  either  with  a 
view  to  hit,  or  for  the  ball  to  be 
caught  and  returned;  in  a  fourth, 
the  ball  was  kept  rebounding 
between  the  earth  and  the  palm 
of  the  player's  hand  as  often  as 
possible. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  ball 
playing  was  in  great  favor  in  the 
courts  of  princes,  especially  in 
Italy  and  France;  and  it  is  still 
practised  by  the  people  in  Italy 
and  Spain,  nowhere  with  more 
enthusiasm  than  among  the 
Basques  at  the  base  of  the  Pyre- 
nees. Lawn  tennis  is  the  lineal 
descendant  of  the  jeu  de  paume, 
which  was  so  popular  an  amuse- 
ment at  the  French  court.  The 
American  game  of  lacrosse  origi- 
nated among  the  American  In- 
dians; and  football  is  so  wide- 
spread that  its  origin  is  impossible 
to  trace.  See  Baseball;  Basket- 
ball; Billiards;  Cricket;  Cro- 
quet; Football;  Golf;  Hand- 
ball; Lacrosse;  Lawn  Tennis; 
Polo;  Pushball. 

BaU,  John  (d.  1381),  an  Eng- 
lish priest  who  was  one  of  the 
leaders  in  the  rebellion  of  Wat 
Tyler,  and  was  in  several  respects 
a  precursor  of  Wycliffe.  Having 
been  repeatedly  in  trouble  for 
heresy  from  1366,  he  was  ulti- 
mately hanged,  drawn,  and  quar- 
tered. 

Ball,  Sir  Robert  Stawell 
(1840-1913),  British  astronomer, 
was  born  in  Dublin,  After  grad- 
uating from  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  applied  mathematics  at 
the  Royal  Irish  College  of  Sci- 
ence; and  in  1874,  astronomer 
royal  of  Ireland.  In  1892  he  was 
appointed  Lowndean  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Cambridge  Univer- 


Ban 


542 


Ballad 


sity  and  director  of  the  observa- 
tory, and  in  i897  he  became  pres- 
ident of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society.  He  also  served  as  presi- 
dent of  the  Mathematical  Associ- 
ation, and  of  the  Royal  Zoological 
Society  of  Ireland.  He  was 
knighted  in  1886.  Sir  Robert  be- 
came widely  known  for  his  ability 
to  popularize  science,  and  by  the 
publication  of  Time  and  Tide 
(1 889) ;  A  tlas  of  A  stronomy  ( 1 892) ; 
Story  of  the  Sun  (1893) ;  Star  Land 

(1893)  ;    In    the   High  Heavens 

(1894)  ;  Great  Astronomers  (1895) ; 
The  Story  of  the  Heavens  (1897); 
The  Earth's  Beginnings  (1901); 
Popular  Guide  to  the  Heavens 
(1905) ;  Natural  Sources  of  Power 
(1908);  Treatise  on  Spherical 
Astronomy  (1908). 

BaU,  Thomas  (1819-1911), 
American  sculptor,  was  born  in 
Charlestown,  Mass.  When  a 
boy  he  secured  a  position  in  the 
New  England  Museum,  where 
he  availed  himself  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  study  art.  After  meet- 
ing with  some  success  as  a  singer 
and  painter,  he  devoted  himself 
to  sculpture  about  1852.  He 
studied  in  Italy  from  1854  to 
1856,  and  on  his  return  was  oc- 
cupied with  portrait  busts  and 
statuettes  until  he  began  work 
on  the  famous  equestrian  statue 
of  Washington  in  the  Boston 
Public  Gardens  (1860-4).  From 
1865  to  1897  he  lived  in  Florence, 
Italy,  and  afterward  in  New 
York.  Some  of  his  best  known 
sculptures  are  Edwin  Forrest  as 
Coriolanus,  Eve  Stepping  into 
Life,  Emancipation  (at  Washing- 
ton), Daniel  Webster  (Central 
Park,  New  York),  and  a  bronze 
statue  of  Washington  (Boston). 
He  wrote  My  Threescore  Years 
and  Ten  (1891). 

Ballabgarh,  town,  India,  the 
former  capital  of  a  native  state  of 
the  same  name,  in  the  Punjab; 
21  miles  south  of  Delhi.  It  con- 
tains a  palace  and  several  tem- 
ples, and  has  trade  in  food  grains. 
Pop.  7,000. 

Ballad.  The  word  ballad  is 
derived  through  the  medium  of 
French  from  the  Late  Latin  bal- 
lare,  'to  dance,'  and  thus  meant 
originally  a  song  sung  to  the 
rhythmic  movement  of  a  dancing 
chorus — a  dramatic  poem  sung 
or  acted  in  the  dance,  of  which  a 
kind  of  survival  is  seen  in  the 
ring  songs  of  children's  games  at 
the  present  day.  The  name  is 
sometimes  applied  to  a  simple 
song,  usually  of  a  romantic  or 
sentimental  nature,  in  two  or 
more  verses,  each  sung  to  the 
same  melody.  But  in  literature 
the  name  Ballad  means  more 
particularly  a  simple,  spirited, 
narrative  poem  in  short  stanzas 
of  two  or  four  lines  (without 
counting  the  burden  or  refrain), 


in  which  a  story  is  told  in  straight- 
forward verse,  often  with  great 
elaborateness  and  detail  in  inci- 
dent, but  always  with  graphic 
simplicity  and  force.  Of  all  nar- 
rative and  lyrical  forms  it  is  the 
simplest  and  most  direct  in  its 
effect,  in  its  power  of  represent- 
ing to  the  imagination  with  vivid- 
ness and  truth  incidents  or  natu- 
ral emotions  which  it  attempts  to 
portray. 

It  is  obvious  that  such  a  form 
of  literary  expression  is  best  fitted 
to  a  simple  and  unlettered  age, 
and  it  is  equally  obvious  that  in 
an  age  of  greater  refinement  and 
complexity  in  the  conditions  of 
social  and  intellectual  life,  it  is 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for  an 
artist  so  to  divest  himself  of  the 
effects  of  his  environment  as  to 
reproduce  it  without  affectation 
and  unreality.  And  this  is  exactly 
what  we  find  when  we  turn  to 
contrast  our  traditional  ballad 
poetry  with  the  productions  of 
the  modern  imitative  school. 
Coleridge's  'Rime  of  the  Ancient 
Mariner,'  Tennyson's  'Revenge,' 
Browning's  'Herve  Riel,'  and 
Rossetti's  'King's  Tragedy'  have, 
however,  preserved  the  best  tra- 
ditions of  the  ballad. 

But  the  ballad  poetry  of  mod- 
ern versifiers  is  not  to  be  com- 
pared with  the  genuine  ballads 
of  old  times.  They  were  made  by 
the  people  for  the  people,  and 
they  went  straight  to  the  hearts 
of  their  hearers,  who,  if  they 
lacked  the  refinement  of  their 
successors,  were  not  less  quick  to 
feel  the  hot  human  emotions — 
love,  hate,  pity,  and  fear.  They 
were  versified  originally  by  un- 
lettered men  for  unlettered  audi- 
ences; and  passing  as  they  did 
from  mouth  to  mouth  and  gener- 
ation to  generation  of  reciters 
possessing  the  literary  sense  in 
very  varying  degrees,  it  is  not 
wonderful  that  many  changes  of 
omission  or  alteration  have  slipped 
in,  and  that  what  are  really  the 
same  ballads  are  found  in  versions 
differing  considerably  from  each 
other. 

We  are  acquainted  with  no 
race  more  primitive  than  the 
Australian  aborigines,  whose 
stone  implements  are  on  the  line 
between  the  Palaeolithic  and  the 
Neolithic.  This  people,  in  its 
corroborees,  magical,  religious,  or 
secular,  accompanies  the  dance 
with  song.  These  ditties,  if  ad- 
mired, are  transmitted,  as  part  of 
the  dance,  across  the  continent, 
reaching  tribes  to  whom  the 
words  of  the  song  are  partially  or 
wholly  unintelligible.  The  song 
also  accompanies  the  dance 
among  other  savage  peoples, 
American  and  African,  and  it 
holds  its  old  place  in  the  dance 
games  traditional  among  English 


children;  while  we  have  abundant 
mediaeval  evidence  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  dance  song  in  Scot- 
land, France,  and  Europe  gen- 
erally. The  ballad,  like  the  popu- 
lar tale  (mdrchen) ,  is,  as  a  dance 
song,  an  invention  of  the  folk, 
with  savage  origins  and  direct 
modern  survivals. 

The  word  'ballad'  has  long  lost 
the  special  sense  of  a  dance  song. 
As  early  as  1568  the  poems  in 
fourteen  lines  each,  said  to  have 
been  addressed  by  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots  to  the  Earl  of  Bothwell, 
were  spoken  of  indifferently  as 
'sonnets'  or  'fond  ballads.'  Knox 
talks  of  the  'ballatis'  made  against 
the  four  Marys;  and  if  the  famous 
ballad  of  The  Queen's  Marie,  or 
Mary  Hamilton,  be  a  survival  of 
one  of  these,  then  the  word  was 
used  on  this  occasion  (about 
1564)  of  a  popular  narrative 
poem,  whether  written  by  a  man 
of  the  people,  a  courtier,  or  a 
Puritan.  The  early  'gude  and 
godly  ballatis'  are  popular  songs, 
travestied  for  purposes  of  relig- 
ious edification  in  the  time  of 
Knox. 

The  ballad,  in  short,  is  a  pop- 
ular form  of  verse,  often  adapted 
— during  the  last  four  centuries 
at  least — to  the  purposes  of  edu- 
cated men  of  letters.  The  verse, 
as  a  rule,  runs  in  this  meas- 
ure: 

'The  king  he  writ  a  letter  then, 

A  letter  which  was  large  and  long; 
He  signed  it  with  his  own  hand, 
And  he  promised  to  do  him  no  wrong.' 

In  the  traditional  ballads  of 
England  and  Scotland  we  must 
not  look  for  exact  dates;  but 
there  is  ample  evidence  that  a 
large  part  of  that  poetry  existed 
in  much  the  same  form  as  now, 
more  than  three  hundred  years 
ago.  Many  of  the  themes,  of 
course,  are  much  older,  and  un- 
doubtedly many  of  the  versified 
ballads  also.  Already  in  The 
Vision  of  Piers  Plowman,  in  the 
second  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  we  find  Robin  Hood  a 
hero  of  popular  song. 

The  popular  poetry  of  the 
British  Isles  was  for  generations 
the  possession  of  the  people 
alone;  it  was  long  before  it  at- 
tracted the  notice  of  the  learned 
at  all.  Shakespeare  knew  the  old 
romantic  ballads  of  England,  and 
worked  snatches  of  them  with 
fine  eff'ect  into  his  dramas.  Sir 
Philip  Sidney  could  say:  'I  neuer 
heard  the  olde  song  of  Percy  and 
Duglas  that  I  found  not  my  heart 
mooued  more  then  with  a  Trum- 
pet: and  yet  is  it  sung  but  by 
some  blinde  Crouder,  with  no 
rougher  voyce,  then  rude  stile.' 
Ben  Jonson  used  to  say  he  would 
rather  have  been  the  author  of  it 
than  of  all  his  works;  and  Addi- 


BaUad 


543 


BaUad 


son  commended  the  'majestic 
simplicity'  of  the  same  ballad  in 
two  fine  papers  of  his  Spectator 
(70  and  74). 

Yet  the  ballads  continued  to 
be  neglected,  and  it  was  not  till 
Bishop  Percy  published  his  fa- 
mous Reliques  of  Ancient  English 
Poetry,  in  1765,  that  Englishmen 
awakened  to  the  fact  that  their 
popular  poetry  was  poetry  at  all. 
Among  the  ballads  in  this  collec- 
tion were  such  masterpieces  as 
'Childe  Waters,'  'Glasgerion,' 
'Edom  o'  Gordon,'  'Edward, 
Edward,'  'The  Jew's  Daughter,' 
'Old  Robin  of  Portingale,'  'Sir 
Aldingar,'  'King  Estmere,'  'Sir 
Patrick  Spens,'  and  'Gil  Morice.' 
Perhaps  no  book  ever  had  a 
greater  or  more  immediate  effect. 
'I  do  not  think,'  says  Words- 
worth, 'that  there  is  an  able 
writer  in  verse  of  the  present 
day  who  would  not  be  proud  to 
acknowledge  his  obligation  to  the 
Reliques.' 

A  similar  return  to  the  sim- 
plicity of  truth  and  nature  took 
place  about  the  same  time  in 
France  and  Germany,  and  ere 
long  showed  its  results  as  plainly 
in  the  lyrical  work  of  Andre 
Chenier,  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  and 
Heine.  From  the  Reliques  Scott 
drew  directly  the  inspiration  that 
made  him  a  poet  and  more.  In 
1802  appeared  at  the  provincial 
press  of  Kelso  the  first  two  vol- 
umes of  his  Minstrelsy  of  the 
Scottish  Border,  the  richest  single 
collection  of  popular  poetry  that 
has  ever  been  published.  Many 
of  the  poems  were  the  fruit  of 
raid  after  raid  into  Liddesdale, 
and  were  in  part  actually  taken 
down  from  the  lips  of  the  old  men 
and  women  who  still  knew  them 
by  heart.  Of  course,  in  many 
cases  it  is  impossible  now  to  say 
exactly  how  much  they  owe  to 
the  poetic  touch  of  Scott  him- 
self, and  we  know  that  it  was 
possible  for  him  to  be  taken  in  by 
ingenious  friends;  still  there  is 
proof  enough  that  here  we  have 
what  is  substantially  a  body  of 
traditional  poetry  that  fulfils  the 
strictest  conditions  of  the  ballad, 
and  is  yet  of  uncommonly  high 
poetic  value.  The  influence  which 
Percy's  and  Scott's  ballads  have 
had  on  poetry  is  enough  to  prove 
their  intrinsic  power. 

Nowhere  has  there  been  a 
richer  growth  of  really  popular 
ballads  than  in  Sicily,  where 
Pitre  tells  us  that  as  many  as 
seven  thousand  examples  have 
been  gathered.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  many  of  these  bal- 
lads have  the  same  tone,  the 
same  incidents,  the  same  itera- 
tion of  words  and  ideas  as  the 
traditional  ballads  of  England 
and  Scotland,  of  Scandinavia,  of 
Greece,  of  Germany,  of  Italy,  of 


France,  and  of  Spain.  This  dis- 
covery widens  our  interest  in  the 
question  enormously.  The  plots 
and  situations  of  many  of  our 
traditionary  folk  songs  are  the 
immemorial  inheritance  of  Celts 
and  Saxons,  of  Greek  and  Sla- 
vonic peoples — of  unknown  and 
prehistoric  antiquity.  They  do 
not  belong  to  one  nation  in  par- 
ticular, but  are  the  property  at 
least  of  all  the  peoples  of  the 
Aryan  family. 

'There  are  certain  incidents,' 
says  Andrew  Lang,  'like  that  of 
the  return  of  the  dead  mother  to 
her  oppressed  children;  like  the 
sudden  recovery  of  a  fickle  bride- 
groom's heart  by  the  patient  af- 
fection of  his  first  love;  like  the 
adventure  of  May  Colvin  with 
a  lover  who  has  slain  seven 
women,  and  tries  to  slay  her;  like 
the  story  of  the  bride  who  pre- 
tends to  be  dead,  that  she  may 
escape  from  a  detested  marriage, 
which  are  in  all  European  coun- 
tries the  theme  of  popular  song.' 
They  form  part  of  the  stock  of 
primitive  folk  lore,  and  a  study 
of  them  on  the  comparative 
method  may  be  expected  to  lead 
to  important  constructive  results 
in  the  hands  of  future  scholars. 
The  materials  for  such  study  were 
made  available  for  the  first  time 
in  Prof.  Francis  J.  Child's  monu- 
mental edition  of  the  English  and 
Scottish  Popular  Ballads,  with  its 
learned  and  luminous  introduc- 
tions to  each  ballad,  culled  from  a 
thousand  volumes  in  every  lan- 
guage of  Europe. 

Entirely  apart  from  questions 
of  origin,  the  popular  ballads  of 
the  English-speaking  peoples  will 
repay  the  most  diligent  study  on 
their  literary  side  alone.  The 
Robin  Hood  cycle  of  ballads  and 
the  north  country  and  Border 
ballads  are  the  two  largest  and 
richest  collections  of  ballad  po- 
etry that  remain  to  us;  the  latter 
is  infinitely  the  higher  in  lyrical 
quality.  The  Robin  Hood  bal- 
lads are  some  forty  in  number, 
but  include  much  repetition  both 
of  phrase  and  incident.  Of  all  our 
ballads,  the  palm  for  poetry  must 
undoubtedly  be  given  to  those 
especially  connected  with  Scot- 
tish and  English  Border  life  and 
story.  These  formed  the  richest 
part  of  Scott's  collection,  which 
contained  altogether  more  than 
forty  ballads  never  published  be- 
fore, among  them  such  master- 
pieces as  'Thomas  the  Rhymer,' 
'The  Dowie  Dens  o'  Yarrow,' 
'The  Wife  of  Usher's  Well.' 
'Annan  Water,'  'The  Douglas 
Tragedy,'  'The  Lament  of  the 
Border  Widow,'  'Clerk  Saunders,' 
'The  Sang  of  the  Outlaw  Mur- 
ray,' and  'Kinmont  Willie';  as 
well  as  good  fresh  versions  of 
'Lord  Randal,'  'Helen  of  Kirk- 


connell,'  'Tamlane,'  and  'The 
Lass  o'  Lochryan.'  'Kinmont 
Willie'  can  hardly  be  overpraised 
as  a  masterpiece  of  the  heroic 
ballad.  Fighting  ballads  like  this 
have  high  historical  as  well  as 
poetical  value,  for  they  reflect 
closely  and  accurately  the  man- 
ners and  life  of  the  particular 
people  who  produced  them;  and 
doubtless  they  had  their  influence 
on  the  rude  people  who  preserved 
them.  Above  all  our  ballads  in 
value  stand  those  that  have 
clustered  round  the  Yarrow — 
'fabulous  as  was  ever  Hydaspes.' 
Its  story  of  love  stronger  than 
death  has  been  one  of  the  most 
potent  charms  in  the  world  of 
English  poetry,  and  has  drawn 
some  of  the  finest  verse  that  has 
ever  been  written  from  Hamilton 
of  Bangour,  Logan,  and  Words- 
worth. 

The  best  collection  of  ballads, 
in  all  their  varying  versions,  i« 
Professor  Child's  great  work, 
English  and  Scottish  Ballads  (first 
published  in  5  vols,  in  1857-9); 
and  a  one-volume  edition,  edited 
by  Mrs.  Child  Sargent  and  Pro- 
fessor Kittredge  (1904),  contains 
all  but  five  of  the  305  ballads. 
Allingham's  is  a  good  anthology. 
Among  notable  collections  have 
been:  Percy's  Reliques  of  Ancient 
English  Poetry  (3  vols.  1765;  a 
beautiful  and  excellent  edition  by 
H.  B.  Wheatley,  3  vols.  1886); 
Herd's  Ancient  and  Modern  Scot- 
tish Songs,  Heroic  Ballads,  etc. 
(1769;  2  vols.  1776);  Johnson's 
Scots  Musical  Museum  (6  vols. 
1787-1803) ;  Ritson's  Robin  Hood: 
a  Collection  of  all  the  Ancient 
Poems,  Songs,  and  Ballads  now 
extant,  relative  to  that  celebrated 
English  Outlaw  (2  vols.  1795); 
Scott's  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish 
Border  (3  vols.  1802-3,  with  its 
admirable  introduction  and 
notes) ;  Robert  Jamieson's  Popu- 
lar Ballads  and  Songs  (2  vols. 
1806);  Kinloch's  Ancient  Scottish 
Ballads  (1827);  and  Motherwell's 
Minstrelsy,  Ancient  and  Modern 
(1827),  with  an  excellent  intro- 
duction. 

The  publications  of  the  Percy 
Society  embraced  30  vols.  (1840- 
1852),  a  few  of  them  pertaining 
to  ballads.  Indispensable  books 
are  Chappell's  Popular  Music  of 
the  Olden  Time  (1855-9;  new 
ed.  1893),  and  Hales  and  Furni- 
vall's  reprint  of  the  Percy  Folio 
Manuscript  (3  vols.  1867-8),  in 
which  we  see  why  the  bishop  de- 
served the  wrath  of  the  surly  but 
honest  Ritson.  It  was  a  surprise 
to  the  world  to  discover  that  of 
his  180  ballads,  there  were  only 
45  that  Percy  had  taken  from  his 
famous  manuscript.  In  1868  Mr. 
Furnivall  succeeded  in  founding 
the  Ballad  Society,  which  has 
since  published,  mainly  under  the 


Ballade 


544 


Ballater 


enthusiastic  and  untiring  editor- 
ship of  Mr.  Ebsworth,  the  Bag- 
ford  ballads,  the  Roxburgh  bal- 
lads almost  entire,  and  other  un- 
printed  collections.  The  great 
collection  of  ballads  made  by  the 
famous  Pepys  still  remains  buried 
in  the  library  of  Magdalen  Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 

For  comparative  study  may  be 
named  the  following  collections: 
For  France,  E.  RoUand's  Recueil 
de  Chansons  Populaires  (6  vols.) ; 
for  Denmark,  Svend  Grundtvig's 
Danmark's  Gamle  Folkeviser;  for 
Germany,  F.  K.  von  Erlach's  Die 
Volkslieder  der  Deutschen  (5  vols.) ; 
for  Italy,  Giuseppe  Pitre's  Canti 
Popolari  Siciliani  (2  vols.) ;  and 
for  Spain,  Francisco  Rodriguez 
Marin's  Cantos  Populares  Espano- 
las  (5  vols.).  Consult  also  Coun- 
tess Martinengro-Cesaresco's  Es- 
says in  the  Study  of  Folk  Songs 
(1886),  and  most  of  the  sixty- 
nine  books  named  in  her  list  of 
books  consulted.  Consult  also 
Andrew  Lang's  article  on  ballads 
in  The  Cambridge  History  of  Eng- 
lish Literature  (vol.  il.,  1908); 
Veitch's  History  and  Poetry  of 
the  Scottish  Border;  Geddie's  The 
Balladists  (1900);  Frank  Sidg- 
wick's  Popular  Ballads  of  the 
Olden  Time  (1905-07);  F.  B. 
Gummere's  The  Popular  Ballad 
and  The  Beginnings  of  Poetry 
(1901);  Gregory  Smith's  The 
Transition  Period  (1902);  Sir  A. 
T.  Quiller  Couch's  Oxford  Book  of 
Ballads  (1910). 

Ballade,  a  poem  divided  into 
one  or  more  triplets,  each  formed 
of  seven  or  eight  lined  stanzas, 
the  last  line  being  a  refrain  com- 
mon to  each  stanza.  In  the  bal- 
lade of  eight  lines  there  are  only 
three  rhymes,  thus — a,  b,  a,  b; 
B,  c,  B,  c.  An  envoi  is  usually  at- 
tached. Its  four  lines  repeat  the 
rhymes  of  the  last  four  lines  of 
the  stanza.  The  foregoing  is  the 
strict  application  of  the  term — 
it  is  now  frequently  used  some- 
what more  loosely  of  any  poem 
divided  into  stanzas  of  equal 
length.  This  form  was  almost 
predominant  in  French  litera- 
ture from  the  fourteenth  to  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  was  a 
favorite  of  Villon  and  many  of 
the  older  French  poets.  In  the 
nineteenth  century  it  was  the 
popular  medium  of  poets  like 
Verlaine,  Theodore  de  Banville, 
and  Baudelaire.  Modern  English 
poets  who  have  revived  the  bal- 
lade are  vSwinburne,  Austin  Dob- 
son,  W.  E.  Henley,  and  Andrew 
Lang. 

The  ballade  should  not  be  con- 
fused with  the  ballad.  The  two 
have  no  connection,  apart  from 
their  common  derivation  from 
che  Latin  ballare,  'to  dance.' 

Ballad  Opera.  See  Comic 
Opera. 


Ballanche,  Pierre  Simon 
(1776-1847),  French  philosopher, 
was  born  in  Lyons.  He  settled  at 
Paris  in  1814,  having  attracted 
some  notice  by  his  essays  and  a 
prize  poem,  Antigone.  His  great 
work  is  the  Palingenesie  Sociale 
(1828),  in  which  he  seeks  to  illus- 
trate the  workings  of  God  in 
history.  His  works  are  a  strange 
mixture  of  mysticism,  socialism, 
and  the  philosophy  of  history. 
His  Vision  d'Hebal  (1832)  is  a 
prophetic  forecast  of  the  world's 
history.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy.  Consult  Ampere's 
Life. 

Ballantine,  James  (1808- 
1877),  Scottish  artist  and  poet, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  to  revive 
the  art  of  glass  painting.  He  exe- 
cuted the  stained-glass  windows 
for  the  House  of  Lords,  and  in 
1845  published  a  treatise  on 
Glass  Staining.  Two  prose  vol- 
urnes.  The  Gaberlunzie's  Wallet 
(1843)  and  The  Miller  of  Dean- 
haugh  (1845),  contain  some  of  his 
best-known  songs  and  ballads. 
He  was  author  of  Poems  (1856 
and  1865) ;  One  Hundred  Songs 
with  Music  (1865);  Life  of  David 
Roberts,  r.a.  (1860);  Lilias  Lee 
(1871).  Two  of  his  best  lyrics  are 
'The  Castles  in  the  Air'  and  'Ilka 
Blade  o'  Grass.' 

Ballantrae,  a  fishing  village, 
Ayrshire,  Scotland,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Stinchar.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  southwestern 
fishery  district  of  Scotland.  Fish 
curing  is  largely  carried  on.  R.  L. 
Stevenson's  Master  of  Ballantrae 
has  immortalized  the  place.  Pop. 
of  parish  (1911)  1,080. 

Ballantyne,  James  (1772- 
1833)  and  John  (1774-1821), 
Scottish  printers,  were  the  sons  of 
a  merchant  of  Kelso,  Scotland, 
where  in  1783  they  were  both  at 
school  with  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
James  was  bred  for  the  law,  but 
in  1797  he  started  the  Tory  Kelso 
Mail;  and  in  1802,  having  already 
printed  some  ballads  for  Scott, 
he  produced  the  first  two  volumes 
of  the  Border  Minstrelsy.  The 
beauty  of  their  typography  es- 
tablished his  fame  as  a  printer; 
and  toward  the  close  of  that  year 
he  set  up  two  presses  near  Holy- 
rood.  In  1805  Scott  became  a 
secret  partner  in  the  business, 
which  in  1808  expanded  into  the 
printing,  publishing,  and  book- 
selling firm  of  John  Ballantyne 
&  Co.,  vScott  having  one-half 
share,  and  each  of  the  brothers 
one-fourth.  As  early  as  1813, 
bankruptcy  threatened  the  firm, 
and  though  its  unsaleable  stock 
(Scott's  own  rash  ventures  main- 
ly) was  disposed  of  to  Constable 
in  1818,  it  was  hopelessly  in- 
volved in  Constable's  ruin  (1826). 
John  had  died   bankrupt  five 


years  earlier;  and  James,  after 
the  settlement  of  affairs,  was  em- 
ployed by  the  creditors'  trustees 
in  editing  The  Weekly  Journal, 
and  in  the  literary  management 
of  the  printing  office.  Consult 
History  of  the  Ballantyne  Press. 

Ballantyne,  Robert  Michael 
(1825-94),  Scottish  author,  writer 
of  tales  for  boys,  nephew  of 
James  Ballantyne,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland.  His  first 
book  (1848)  was  a  record  of  per- 
sonal experiences  during  a  six- 
years'  residence  (1841-7)  in  the 
territories  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company.  In  1856  he  took  to 
literature  as  a  profession.  His 
first  tales  were  founded  on  his 
life  in  the  backwoods  of  Rupert's 
Land,  among  the  fur  traders  and 
Indians.  He  wrote  over  80  vol- 
umes. Consult  his  Personal  Rec- 
ollections: 

Ballarat,  or  Ballaarat,  city, 
Victoria,  Australia,  next  in  im- 
portance to  Melbourne.  Owing 
its  rise  to  the  discovery  of  gold 
there  in  June,  1851,  it  is  still  the 
centre  of  a  rich  goldfield.  It  is 
76  miles  northwest  of  Melbourne 
and  58  miles  northwest  of  Gee- 
long.  Ballarat,  or  Ballarat  West, 
and  Ballarat  East,  separated  by 
the  Jarrowee  Creek  River,  are  ad- 
joining municipalities.  Being 
1,440  feet  above  sea  level,  Bal- 
larat enjoys  an  exceptionally  cool 
and  healthy  climate.  There  are 
two  town  halls,  some  fifty 
churches,  several  colleges,  and 
grammar  schools.  Among  the  in- 
dustries are  iron  founding,  brew- 
ing, distilling,  flour  and  woollen 
mills.  The  'Welcome  Nugget,' 
discovered  in  1858  at  Bakery 
Hill,  weighed  2,217  oz.  16  dwt., 
and  was  sold  for  $52,500.  Since 
1851  the  output  of  gold  is  esti- 
mated at  over  $400,000,000.  The 
surrounding  district  is  well  adapt- 
ed for  farming  and  sheep  breed- 
ing. Pop.  45,000.  Consult 
Withers'  History  of  Ballarat. 

Ballast,  employed  to  give  a 
ship  sufficient  immersion  in  the 
water,  so  as  to  insure  her  safe 
sailing  with  spread  canvas,  when 
her  cargo  and  equipment  are  too 
light,  may  consist  of  iron,  stone, 
gravel,  sand,  or  water.  The  term 
is  also  used  of  the  broken  stone, 
cinders,  or  gravelly  material  laid 
as  a  packing  between  railroad 
ties. 

The  word  ballast  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  sand  which  is  carried 
in  a  balloon,  and  which  is  thrown 
out  from  time  to  time  in  order 
to  enable  the  balloon  to  ascend  to 
higher  altitudes. 

Ballater,  village,  Aberdeen- 
shire, Scotland,  on  the  River 
Dee;  43  miles  southwest  of  Aber- 
deen. It  owes  its  origin,  in  1770, 
to  the  Pannanich  mineral  wells  in 
the  vicinity.  The  bracing  air  of 


Ball  Bearings 


545 


Balllnger 


the  district  makes  it  a  favorite 
summer  resort.    Pop.  1,500. 

Ball  Bearings,  a  device  for  re- 
ducing friction,  usually  applied  to 
the  shaft  or  axle  of  a  rotating 
wheel  or  disc,  as  in  the  motor  car 
and  bicycle,  and  consisting  of  a 
series  of  hardened  and  perfectly 
true  steel  balls,  one-eighth  inch 
in  diameter  and  upward.  Each 


IT 

Ball  Bearings 
Hub  of  motor  car,  showing  two  outer 
rows  of  balls  taking  the  journal  bearing 
load,  and  two  inner  taking  the  end  thrust 
in  both  directions. 

ball  is  separate,  and  rotates  with 
the  shaft.  Sometimes  the  balls 
run  in  a  channel  or  'ball  race,' 
sometimes  between  coned  sur- 
faces. In  vehicles  for  heavier 
loads,  and  in  some  machines, 
rollers  are  used  in  place  of  balls. 
See  Bearing;  Friction. 

Ballenstedt,  bal'len-stet,  town, 
Germany,  in  Anhalt,  at  the  east 
end  of  the  Harz  Mountains;  13 
miles  by  rail  southwest  of  As- 
chersleben.  It  is  the  site  of  the 
summer  residence  of  the  Duke  of 
Anhalt,  formerly  a  Benedictine 
monastery,  surrounded  by  a 
wooded  park,  and  containing  a 
library,  picture  gallery  and  other 
collections  of  interest.  Pop.  6,000. 

Ballentyne.  See  Bellenden, 

Balleny  Islands,  bal-la'ne,  a 
group  of  five  small  islands  of 
volcanic  origin  situated  in  the 
Antarctic  Ocean,  in  latitude 
about  67°  s.  and  longitude  about 
163°  E.  They  were  discovered 
in  1839  by  Captain  John  Balleny. 
Peak  Freeman  on  Young  Island 
is  over  12,000  feet  high. 

Ballet,  ba-la'  or  bal'et,  a  series 
of  solo  and  concerted  dances  with 
mimetic  actions,  accompanied  by 
music  and  scenic  accessories,  tell- 
ing a  story.  The  ballet,  com- 
bined with  dialogue  and  vocal 
music,  was  introduced  as  a  court 
entertainment  into  France  from 
Italy  about  1850  by  Baltasarini, 
under  the  patronage  of  Cather- 
ine de'  Medici,  and  immediately 
became  popular.  Louis  xiii. 
and  Louis  xiv.  took  part  in  the 
court  ballets,  while  Cardinal 
Richelieu  interested  himself  in 
superintending  and  inventing 
new  stage  effects. 

As  an  exclusively  dancing  es- 


tablishment the  ballet  came  into 
being  with  the  foundation  in 
1669  of  the  Academie  Roy  ale  de 
Musi  que  el  de  Danse  in  Paris. 
Lulli,  director  of  the  opera,  paid 
great  attention  to  the  ballet, 
and  to  him  is  attributed  the  in- 
troduction of  rapid  dancing,  in 
opposition  to  the  solemn  and  de- 
liberate steps  favored  by  the 
court  in  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Louis  xiv.  Quinault, 
the  opera  poet  who  made  use  of 
dance  and  pantomime,  had  also 
much  to  do  with  making  the  inci- 
dental ballet  a  recognized  part 
of  opera  performance,  with  his 
great  ballets  Armida  and  The 
Triumph  of  Love  (1681)— the  lat- 
ter being  the  first  public  ballet  in 
which  women  took  part.  The 
ballet,  as  an  independent  enter- 
tainment, owes  its  origin  to  Jean 
Georges  Noverre,  who  wholly 
parted  it  from  opera  about  1776, 
and  set  it  very  high  on  its  own 
toes  as  a  five-act  play  of  music, 
dance,  and  pantomime  without 
words.  The  ballet  was  introduced 
into  England  from  France  about 
1734  by  two  female  dancers — De 
Subligny  and  Salle,  and  flour- 
ished especially  during  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
after  which  time  it  suffered  a 
serious  decline. 

Among  the  favorite  dancers 
of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
centuries  were  Gaetano  Vestris 
(1729-1808).  an  Italian  by  birth, 
Marie  Taglioni,  whose  triumph 
in  La  Sylphide  echoed  through- 
out Europe;  Fanny  Elssler,  an 
Austrian,  who  was  a  great  favo- 
rite in  America;  Carlotta  Grisi, 
Lucille  Grahn,  and  Fanny  Cerito. 
Of  more  recent  dancers,  mention 
may  be  made  of  Mile.  Genee  and 
Phyllis  Bedells. 

The  Russian  Ballel,  which  has 
risen  to  a  position  of  pre-emi- 
nence since  the  decline  of  the 
ballet  in  France,  was  instituted 
by  the  Empress  Anne  in  1735. 
It  was  encouraged  by  subsequent 
rulers  and  continued  under  im- 
perial control  and  maintenance 
for  more  than  a  century  and  a 
half.  Among  its  leading  recent 
exponents  are  Anna  Pavlowa, 
Waslaw  Nijinsky,  Mikail  Mord- 
kin,  Tamar  Karsovina  and  Lydia 
Kyasht.  Consult  Pougin's  Dic- 
tionnaire  His  tori  que  du  Theatre; 
Flitch's  Modern  Dancing  and 
Dancers;  Perugini's  The  Art  of 
Ballet. 

Ball-flower,  an  ornament  in 
Gothic  architecture  of  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries, 
in  which  the  petals  of  a  sculp- 
tured flower,  three  or,  rarely,  four 
in  number,  enclose  a  ball,  instead 
of  pistils  or  stamens. 

Balliet,  Thomas  M.  (1852- 
),  American  educator,  was 
graduated  from  Franklin  and 
Marshall  College  (1876),  and 
studied  at  Yale  and  Leipzig;  was 
superintendent    of    schools  in 


Springfield,  Mass.,  from  1888  to 
1904,  and  from  1904  to  1919  was 
professor  of  the  science  of  educa- 
tion and  dean  of  the  School  of 
Pedagogy,  New  York  University. 
He  was  associate  editor  of  the 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  and  pub- 
lished Some  New  Phases  of  Educa- 
tional Thought  and  several  mono- 
graphs. 

Ballin,  Hugo  (1879-  ), 
American  artist,  was  born  in  New 
York.  He  studied  at  the  Art 
Students'  League  in  his  native 
city,  and  in  Rome  and  Florence, 
and  devoted  much  time  to  mural 
painting,  in  which  he  attained 
some  striking  effects  through  his 
lavish  use  of  color.  His  decora- 
tions for  the  capitol  building  at 
Madison,  Wisconsin,  are  typical- 
ly American  in  spirit  and  concep- 
tion. He  has  also  painted 
numerous  pictures  for  private 
collections  and  has  produced  and 
mounted  many  feature  motion 
pictures.  He  is  an  associate 
National  Academician. 

Ballina,  bal-i-na',  town,  Ire- 
land, in  County  Mayo,  situated 
about  5  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Moy  River,  which  separates 
County  Mayo  from  County 
Sligo  and  the  town  of  Ballina 
from  the  town  of  Ardanaree.  It 
is  a  fishing  port.    Pop.  4,500. 

Ballinger,  bal'in-jer,  city, 
Texas,  county  seat  of  Runnels 
County,  situated  on  the  Colo- 
rado River  and  on  the  Abilene 
and  Southern,  and  the  Gulf, 
Colorado,  and  Santa  Fe  Rail- 
roads; 225  miles  west  of  Forth 
Worth.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  rich 
agricultural  section.  Pop.  (1910) 
3,536;  (1920)  2,767. 

Ballinger,  Richard  Achilles 
(1858-1922),  American  execu- 
tive, was  born  in  Boonesboro, 
la.  He  studied  at  Washington 
College,  Kans.,  and  at  Williams 
College,  from  which  he  was  grad- 
uated in  1884.  Engaging  in  the 
study  of  law,  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  was  U.  S.  Court  Com- 
missioner (1890-2),  and  later 
judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of 
Jefferson  County,  Washington. 
He  was  elected  mayor  of  Seattle 
in  1904.  His  active  and  thor- 
ough work  in  cleaning  up  that 
city  at  the  time  of  the  Alaska  gold 
rush  brought  him  to  the  atten- 
tion of  President  Roosevelt,  and 
in  1907  he  was  appointed  Com- 
missioner of  the  General  Land 
Office  at  Washington.  D.  C.  In 
1909  he  was  appointed  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  in  the  Cabinet  of 
President  Taft.  While  he  was 
occupying  this  position  an  in- 
vestigation by  a  committee  of 
Congress  was  instituted  respect- 
ing his  conduct  as  Commissioner 
of  the  General  Land  Ofiice  in 
previous  years,  and  as  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  in  connection 
with  certain  land  transactions 
(see  Conservation).  The  criti- 
cisms, after  investigation,  were 

Vol.  I. — March  '30 


Balliol  College 


545  A 


Balloons 


declared  unfounded.  On  March 
7,  1911,  Mr.  Ballinger  resigned 
as  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  law  in 
Seattle.  He  is  the  author  of 
Community  Property  (1895);  An- 
notated Codes  and  Statutes  of 
Washington  (1897). 

Balliol  College,  Oxford.  See 
Oxford. 

Ballis'ta,  or  Balista,  an  an- 
cient military  engine  in  the  na- 
ture of  a  catapult  (q.v.),  used  in 
throwing  large  stones  or  darts. 
At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century, 
each  centurion  in  a  legion  had 


(1)  Non-dirigible  balloons  in- 
clude (a)  free  balloons  and  (b) 
captive  or  kite  balloons.  Free 
balloons  are  used  in  the  training 
of  airship  pilots,  for  sport  and  for 
atmospheric  exploration.  Bal- 
looning is  a  splendid  means  for 
acquiring  first-hand  flying  knowl- 
edge of  atmospheric  structure 
and  characteristics.  Captive  or 
kite  balloons  afford  an  elevated 
platform  for  use  in  directing 
artillery  fire  and  for  general  war 
time  observation  work.  Such 
balloons  connected  in  groups  and 
put  up  at  various  high  levels. 


stat  and  is  the  simplest  of  all  air- 
craft. It  is  essentially  a  spherical 
bag  made  of  fabric,  cotton  for 
most  types  and  sometimes  silk  for 
racing  balloons,  rubberized  or 
varnished  to  minimize  diffusion 
of  the  contained  lifting  gas. 
Hydrogen  and  coal  gas  of  light 
density  are  the  gases  ordinarily 
used  for  the  inflation  of  free  bal- 
loons. A  cord  netting,  secured  at 
the  top  of  the  bag  and  spread 
over  it,  has  attached  to  it  well 
below  the  bag  a  load  ring  to 
which  a  basket  for  passengers 
and    instruments    is  attached. 


Courtesy  of  Flying. 

The  British  Dirigible  R.  34,  which  made  the  First  Non-stop  Trans- Atlantic  Flight  from  East  to.  West, 

July,  2-6,  1919. 


a  ballista,  drawn  on  wheels  by 
mules,  and  served  by  eleven  men. 

Ballis'ttc  Pendulum,  an  ap- 
paratus invented  (about  1740)  by 
Benjamin  Robins  to  ascertain  the 
velocity  of  projectiles  fired  from 
a  gun.  It  is  now  superseded  by 
other  contrivances,  as  the  elec- 
tro-ballistic chronograph.  See 
Chronograph. 

Ballistics.   See  Gunnery. 

Bal'listite,  a  smokeless  pow- 
der resembling  cordite  (q.v.) ,  con- 
tains equal  proportions  of  nitro- 
glycerin and  soluble  nitrocellu- 
lose. It  was  introduced  in  188G 
by  Alfred  Nobel  (q.v.). 

Balloons.  There  are  two 
classes  of  lighter- than-air  craft: 
(1)  non-dirigible  balloons;  (2) 
dirigible  balloons,  or  dirigibles, 
or  airships.  The  latter  term  (air- 
ships) applies  properly  only  to 
dirigible  balloons  and  not  to  all 
forms  of  aircraft  as  often  used. 


afford  a  low  visibility  measure  of 
protection  like  a  wall  against 
bombing  or  low-flying  airplanes. 
Peace  time  uses  include  advertis- 
ing and  other  utilitarian  pur- 
poses. 

Dirigible  balloons,  or  airships 
(non-rigid,  semi-rigid  and  rigid), 
have  been  used  extensively  for 
military  and  naval  purposes  and 
have  also  been  adapted  for  pas- 
vsenger,  mail  and  cargo  carrying, 
and  in  other  useful  ways. 

The  art  of  operating  lighter- 
than-air  craft  is  called  'Aerosta- 
tion' as  opposed  to  'Aviation', 
which  is  the  art  of  operating 
heavier-than-air  craft.  An  aero- 
stat is  a  lighter-than-air  craft. 

Free  BalLoons. — The  free  bal- 
loon, spherical  for  the  reason  that 
such  a  shape  affords  the  least  sur- 
face (and  conseciuently  least 
weight)  for  a  given  volume,  was 
naturally  the  first  successful  aero- 


Sometimes  patch  suspensions  re- 
place the  conventional  netting 
for  carrying  the  load  ring. 

A  balloon  rises  because  the 
contained  inflation  gas  is  lighter 
than  the  air  in  which  it  is  im- 
mersed and  the  total  weight  less 
than  that  of  the  volume  of  dis- 
placed air.  As  a  balloon  rises 
into  the  atmosphere  of  continu- 
ously decreasing  density,  its 
contained  gas  expands  under  the 
reduced  pressure.  In  order  to 
prevent  accumulation  of  interior 
gas  pressure  which  might  rupture 
the  balloon,  it  is  fitted  with  a 
fabric  sleeve  called  the  appendix 
which  leads  directly  from  the 
bottom  of  the  bag  to  the  atmos- 
phere and  automatically  affords 
an  exit  for  excess  gas  volume. 
The  appendix  also  serves  as  the 
means  of  inflating  the  balloon. 

To  permit  ready  and  deliberate 
reduction  of  buoyancy  by  loss  of 


Vol,  I, — March  '30 


Balloons 


545  B 


Balloons 


lifting  gas,  a  manoeuvering  valve 
is  fitted  at  the  top  of  the  envelope 
and  operated  by  a  cord,  white  in 
color,  leading  to  the  basket 
through  the  appendix.  When  a 
free  balloon  lands  in  a  strong 
wind  it  may  be  necessary  to  de- 
flate it  rapidly  in  order  to  prevent 
its  being  dragged  over  the  ground ; 
to  provide  for  this,  a  special  rip 
panel  is  sewed  or  otherwise  se- 
cured into  the  upper  surface  of 
the  envelope,  so  arranged  that 


^  Appendix. 


bar  or 
Conc&ntratfGn 
3u5pens«>n  f]:^  ring 
fines  ^'^jjjtA 


Free  Balloon 

when  the  pilot  pulls  the  rip  cord 
(colored  red)  attached  to  the 
upper  end  of  this  panel,  the 
stitching  rips,  thereby  opening  a 
considerable  area  of  the  envelope 
and  allowing  the  rapid  escape  of 
gas  and  collapse  of  the  spherical 
shape. 

A  free  balloon  is  equipped  with 
a  long  drag  rope  (or  trail  rope) 
which  may  be  used  when  sailing 
at  low  altitudes  as  automatic  bal- 
last, for  as  the  rope  touches  the 
ground  the  balloon  is  partly  re- 
lieved of  its  weight  and  when 
rising  again  must  pick  up  the 
weight  of  the  rope.  Sometimes 
an  anchor  is  carried  on  a  separate 
line.  The  navigating  equipment 
generally  consists  of  compass, 
altimeter,  thermometer,  stop 
watch,  charts,  recording  baro- 
graph, and  a  statoscope,  which  is 
a  sensitive  device  for  indicating 
changes  of  altitude  and  their 
rates.  The  basket  is  generally 
fitted  with  flotation  gear  for 
safety  in  case  of  a  landing  on 
water.  Ballast  consists  of  fine 
sand  carried  in  bags  of  about  30 
pounds  each  and  readily  dispos- 


able by  sifting  overboard  in 
measured  amounts.  Vertical 
control  is  afforded  by  discharging 
ballast  for  ascending  and  reduc- 
ing buoyancy  by  valving  gas  for 
descending.  Since  every  dirigi- 
ble becomes  a  free  balloon  when 
its  power  is  not  in  use  in  flight, 
the  great  value  of  balloon  train- 
ing for  airship  pilots  is  readily 
evident. 

The  first  historical  mention  of 
a  balloon  occurs  in  Ministre's  his- 
tory of  Lyons,  France,  in  which 
it  is  recorded  that  an  aerostat 
carrying  several  persons  de- 
scended into  that  city  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Charle- 
magne (742-814).  They  were 
charged  with  being  sorcerers,  and 
condemned  to  death.  It  is  gener- 
ally believed  that  a  balloon  of 
some  kind  was  sent  up  at  Peking, 
China,  at  the  coronation  of  the 
Emperor  Fo-Kien  in  1306.  The 
first  practical  success  was  that 
achieved  by  the  brothers  Mont- 
golfier  at  Annonay,  France  (June 
5,  1783),  when  their  large  paper 
balloon,  inflated  with  the  smoke 
and  gases  from  burning  straw, 
rose  to  a  height  of  1,000  feet. 

In  1766  Cavendish  discovered 
hydrogen,  the  lightest  substance 
known,  and  Dr.  Black  shortly 
after  suggested  its  use  in  bags  for 
lifting  heavy  bodies  from  the 
ground.  After  the  success  of  the 
Montgolfiers,  Prof.  Charles,  a 
French  scientist,  constructed  a 
balloon  of  silk  made  impervious 
by  a  varnish  of  rubber  prepared 
by  the  brothers  Robert  of  Paris; 
this  was  filled  with  hydrogen  and 
sent  up  in  Paris,  Aug.  29,  1783. 
The  Montgolfiers  then  came  to 
Paris,  and  sent  up  a  hot-air  bal- 
loon made  of  linen,  with  some 
animals  as  passengers.  These 
coming  safely  to  earth,  Pilatre  de 
Rozier  built  a  similar  balloon, 
but  added  a  furnace  to  keep  the 
air  hot  after  the  balloon  had  risen. 
Having  anchored  it  by  a  rope,  he 
ascended  (Oct.  15,  1783)  to  a 
height  of  80  feet,  remaining  for 
some  time,  feeding  his  fire  as 
needed.  On  Nov.  21,  with  the 
Marquis  d'Arlandes,  De  Rozier 
made  the  first  free  balloon  ascen- 
sion, coming  safely  to  earth  after 
a  voyage  lasting  twenty-five 
minutes.  On  Dec.  1,  1783,  Prof. 
Charles  with  one  of  the  brothers 
Robert  made  a  voyage  of  40 
miles  in  a  balloon  30  feet  in  di- 
ameter inflated  with  hydrogen. 
With  the  exception  of  the  ripping 
panel  afterward  invented  by  Wise 
and  the  drag-rope  devised  by 
Green,  the  Charles  balloon  was  a 
complete  model  of  those  now  in 
use. 

In  England,  Tytler  and  Lu- 
nardi,  a  few  weeks  later,  made  the 
first  ascensions  in  that  country; 
and  in  January,  1785,  the  French 
aeronaut  Blanchard,  with  Dr. 
Jeffries,  an  American  scientist, 
succeeded  in  crossing  the  English 


Channel  from  Dover  to  Calais  in 
a  hydrogen  balloon.  De  Rozier 
lost  his  life  soon  after  while  at- 
tempting to  cross  the  Channel 
from  France  to  England  in  a  com- 
bination of  gas  balloon  with  hot- 
air  receptacle  beneath.  The  appa- 
ratus exploded. 

At  that  time,  hydrogen  was  too 
costly  for  extensive  use;  but  in 
1818  the  English  aeronaut  Green 
began  successful  experiments 
with  coal  gas,  and  ballooning  re- 
ceived a  new  impetus.  Many 
long  journeys  have  been  safely 
accomplished  with  coal-gas  bal- 
loons— -in  the  international  race 
of  October,  1916,  a  voyage  of 
1,355  miles  having  been  made  by 
the  America  ii.,  piloted  by  Alan 
R.  Hawley,  which  remained  in 
the  air  over  forty-six  hours.  The 
International  Aeronautic  Federa- 
tion, consisting  at  one  time  of  one 
national  aero  club  of  each  of 
eighteen  nations,  represented  in 
the  United  States  by  the  Nation- 
al Aeronautic  Association,  holds 
an  international  free  balloon  con- 
test annually  for  the  Interna- 
tional Balloon  Trophy  known  as 
the  James  Gordon  Bennett  cup. 
Balloons  of  80,000  cubic  feet  gas 
volume  are  used  in  this  event. 
The  United  States  won  this  inter- 
national race  in  1906,  1909,  1910, 
1913,  1926,  1927,  1928  and  1929. 

The  first  scientific  observations 
made  during  ascensions  were 
those  of  Prof.  Charles,  in  1783. 
His  barometer  showed  that  he 
reached  a  height  of  11,360  feet, 
up  to  which  level  he  made  a 
series  of  thermometer  readings. 
The  first  solely  scientific  ascent 
was  made  by  Dr.  Jeffries  in  1784. 
The  first  important  balloon  ob- 
servations were  made  by  Gay- 
Lussac  and  Biot,  in  1804,  many 
atmospheric  conditions  being  in- 
vestigated. The  series  of  records 
made  by  Glaisher,  who  was  usual- 
ly accompanied  by  Coxwell  in  his 
28  ascensions,  from  1862  to  1866, 
were  for  a  long  time  standard. 
His  figures  were  modified  (1887) 
by  Assman  in  Germany,  who 
with  Berson  and  Gross  made 
several  ascents  for  meteorological 
facts,  with  the  substantial  aid  of 
the  Emperor  and  the  German 
government.  On  June  30,  1901, 
Berson  and  Suring  rose  to  a 
height  of  35,424  feet,  establishing 
many  records. 

Sounding  Balloons. — There  be- 
ing a  limit  to  which  a  manned 
balloon  can  rise  because  of  the 
rarefied  atmosphere  and  the  in- 
tense cold,  recourse  was  had  to 
small  unmanned  balloons  carry- 
ing only  a  set  of  recording  instru- 
ments. These  small  balloons  are 
usually  made  of  varnished  paper 
and  contain  but  a  few  cubic  feet 
of  hydrogen  gas.  Another  type  is 
made  of  sheet  rubber  and  tightly 
closed  after  inflation.  Upon 
reaching  a  certain  altitude  the 
rubber  bursts,  and  the  instru- 

VoL.  I.— March  '30 


Balloons 


545  C 


Balloons 


ments  float  down  gently  under  a 
parachute.  The  importance  of 
simultaneous  explorations  of  the 
air  was  soon  recognized,  and  in 
1900  scientific  men  of  several 
countries  agreed  to  send  up 
sounding  balloons  on  the  first 
Thursday  of  each  month.  Valu- 
able tables  have  been  constructed 
from  these  records  made  at  the 
same  time  at  widely  distant 
points.    One  of  these  sounding 


hausted  of  air,  and  fixed  in  an 
apparatus,  so  arranged  that  the 
necks  of  the  bulbs  were  broken  at 
the  desired  level,  and  immedi- 
ately sealed  again  by  electric 
action,  to  bring  down  any  cosmic 
dust  which  might  be  floating 
there.  When  opened,  no  such 
dust  was  found. 

Propaganda  Balloon. — A  type 
of  free  balloon  came  into  use  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  Great 


ventive  genius  toward  the  im- 
provement of  the  Charles  balloon, 
resulting  in  the  elongation  of  the 
gas  bag  and  the  invention  of  the 
indispensable  air  balloonet.  The 
first  use  of  the  balloon  in  warfare 
was  as  a  means  of  sending  de- 
spatches out  of  the  besieged  city 
of  Conde,  in  1793.  Small  un- 
manned balloons  were  used,  and 
most  of  them  fell  into  the  hands 
of    the    besieging   army.  The 


20 


23' 


3^' 


27 


25. 


139 


20 


31 


1 -  Air  duct 

2-  Air  opening  into  bollopef 

3 -  Air  scoop 
A-Appendix  mon/no/e 

5 -  Automatic  valve  rigging 

6 -  Ba  lionet 

7-  Ballonet  deflation  tiole 
6-Bollonet  dioptiragm  seam 
9 -Basket 

10 -Basket  suspension 
I /-Bonnet  (valve  cover) 

1 2-  Def lotion  sleeve 

1 3-  Gas  valve 

I ■4- Hand  valve  line 


,32^ 


^36  22 


5. 


17 


.■38: 


-37 


\\\ 


\22 


30 


^18 


'29- 


30 


40 


W 


\\\ 


\ 


IS' 


\\\ 


\ 


35 


15  -Handling  lines 

1 6-  Junction  piece 

17 -  Lobe,  lateraJ-.stabilizer 
le-L obe,  verticoi.stobilizer 

1 9-  Manometer  tube  atfactiment 

20-  Mooring  bonds 
21  -Mooring  ropes 

22 -  Nursing  tube 

23 -  Nursing  tube  check  valve 
2-4 -Nursing  tube  discharge  tube 

25-  Rip  cord 

26 -  Rip  cord  gland 

27-  Rip  panel 

26- Suspension  band 


29-Suspension  bar 
SO-Suspension  lines 

31-  Tie  patch  for  manometer  tube 

32-  Tie  patch  for  rip  cord  and  valve  line 

33-  Tie  patch  for  infernal  valve  line 

34 -  Toggle 

35 -  Towing  or  traction  cable 

36-  Tube  cover 

3  7-  Valve  adjusting  gland 

38 -  Val ve  cord  alt  ochment  pyr  amid 

39 -  Valve  gland 

40-  V" wires  (steel) 
41  -  Winch  suspension 


Kile  Balloon 


balloons  set  free  near  Brussels, 
Belgium,  on  Nov.  5,  1908,  rose  to 
a  height  of  18  miles,  registering  a 
pressure  of  0.4  inch  of  mercury. 
The  lowest  temperature  was 
— 89.7°  F.,  recorded  at  a  height  of 
8  miles.  During  the  solar  eclipse 
of  1905,  meteorological  observa- 
tions of  the  upper  air  were  made 
with  sounding  balloons  at  several 
stations  in  Europe.  At  the  time 
of  the  passing  of  the  earth 
through  the  tail  of  Halley's 
comet,  in  1910,  a  number  of  these 
balloons  were  sent  up  in  Ger- 
many, carrying  glass  bulbs  ex- 

VoL.  I. — March  '30 


War  for  the  purpose  of  distribut- 
ing propaganda  into  enemy 
territory.  The  arrangement  con- 
sists of  an  envelope  from  which  is 
suspended  a  device  for  auto- 
matically releasing  and  distribut- 
ing the  propaganda  over  a  wide 
area. 

Military  Observation  Balloons; 
Captive  Balloons. — With  the  ear- 
liest successful  ascensions,  the 
military  authorities  of  the  day 
recognized  the  advantages  of  the 
balloon  in  warfare;  and  it  was 
with  this  object  in  view  that 
General  Meusnier  turned  his  in- 


value  of  the  captive  balloon  for 
purposes  of  observation  was  rec- 
ognized, but  the  necessities  of 
war  demanded  that  the  available 
supply  of  sulphur  be  kept  for 
gunpowder,  which  prohibited  the 
manufacture  of  hydrogen  by  the 
method  then  in  use.  Under  this 
spur  the  French  chemist  Lavoi- 
sier invented  the  process  of  mak- 
ing hydrogen  by  passing  steam 
over  red  hot  iron;  and  thus  it 
became  possible  for  an  army 
corps  to  carry  with  it  a  complete 
outfit  for  the  rapid  inflation  of  a 
balloon.   The  first  military  use  of 


Balloons 


545  D 


Balloons 


the  observation  balloon  was  at 
the  battle  of  Fleurus,  in  1794,  by 
the  French  balloon  corps.  In 

1795  this  balloon  was  again  used 
at  the  battle  of  Mayence.  In 

1796  two  other  balloons  were 
used  by  the  French  army  at 
Andernach  and  Ehrenbreitstein. 
In  1798  the  French  aerostiers 
took  part  in  the  Egyptian  cam- 
paign, at  the  battle  of  the  Nile, 
and  at  Cairo.  In  the  year  follow- 
ing. Napoleon  ordered  the  bal- 
loon corps  disbanded.  In  1815 
an  observation  balloon  was  used 
at  the  siege  of  Antwerp. 

The  next  historical  record  of 
the  use  of  the  balloon  for  military 
purposes  is  credited  to  the  Aus- 
trians  in  their  campaign  against 
Venice  (1849).  Being  unable  to 
reach  the  city  with  their  guns 
they  loaded  small  balloons  with 
bombs,  with  fuses  so  tied  as  to 
drop  them  into  the  heart  of  the 


the  Boer  War  (1899-1902),  in- 
flated their  balloons  in  this  man- 
ner. During  the  Great  War  the 
Germans  devised  large-volume 
high-pressure  containers  mounted 
on  railroad  flat  cars,  thus  provid- 
ing a  highly  mobile  supply  of 
hydrogen. 

When  a  fesv  years  ago  the  aero- 
plane proved  to  be  successful, 
and  the  attention  of  practically 
all  students  of  aeronautics  was 
drawn  to  its  development  for 
military  purposes,  interest  in  the 
captive  balloon  as  a  means  of 
observation  waned,  not  only  in 
the  United  States,  but  abroad. 
In  the  United  States  the  lack  of 
sufficient  appropriations  for  the 
aeronautical  service  of  the  army 
was  also  largely  responsible  for 
failure  to  develop  this  valuable 
auxiliary. 

The  Great  War  of  Europe  dem- 
onstrated  that   the  aeroplane. 


One  observer  on  the  western 
battle  front  in  France  states  that 
he  was  able  to  count  twenty-six 
balloons  in  sight  at  one  time;  this 
is  convincing  testimony  of  their 
extensive  use.  It  is  an  interest- 
ing development  of  the  war  that 
battle-type  aeroplanes  were  as- 
signed for  the  protection  of  the 
captive  balloons,  and  for  this 
purpose  cruised  about  at  a  height 
of  several  thousand  feet  above 
the  balloon,  ready  to  swoop  down 
upon  any  enemy  aeroplanes  that 
attempted  to  destroy  it.  Anti- 
aircraft guns  were  located  sufifi- 
ciently  near  balloons  to  maintain 
barrage  fire  over  them  to  prevent 
hostile  aeroplanes  from  approach- 
ing within  range  with  their  in- 
cendiary rockets  or  bullets. 

The  spherical  type  of  captive 
balloons  was  abandoned  in  favor 
of  the  elongated  type,  often  re- 
ferred to  as  'sausage'  or  'drachen' 


Diagram  of  the  Forlanini  Representative  Semi-Rigid  Dirigible 
(F.  4  type;  15,000  cubic  metres  capacity;  two  motors,  160  h.  p.  each;  length,  280  feet;  speed  73  kilometres  per  hour) 


city.  A  few  reached  their  desti- 
nation, but  the  changing  winds 
in  some  cases  caused  them  to  re- 
turn and  fall  into  their  own 
ranks.  In  1859  Napoleon  iii. 
re-established  the  French  Bal- 
loon Corps,  equipping  it  with 
two  Italian  balloons.  In  the  Civil 
War  (1861-5)  the  United  States 
Army  made  extended  use  of  the 
balloon,  8  being  supplied  to  the 
several  divisions.  They  were 
used  not  only  for  observation  of 
the  enemy's  position,  but  also  as 
a  point  of  vantage  for  directing 
artillery  fire.  During  the  siege  of 
Paris  (1870-1),  64  balloons  were 
sent  out  of  Paris,  carrying  nine 
tons  of  despatches  and  3,000,000 
letters.  Of  these,  57  reached 
friendly  territory.  Gambetta 
left  the  city  by  one  of  these  bal- 
loons on  his  mission  to  raise  an 
army  of  relief. 

The  device  of  compressing 
hydrogen  gas,  so  that  many  cubic 
feet  may  be  transported  in  a 
small  cylinder,  has  facilitated  the 
use  of  the  balloon  in  military 
operations,  obviating  the  neces- 
sity of  making  the  gas  in  the 
field.  The  British  army  in 
Bechuanaland,  in  1884,  and  in 


while  of  the  greatest  value  for 
aerial  reconnaissance,  is  not  able 
to  replace  the  captive  balloon  for 
certain  purposes.  So  thousands 
of  kite  balloons  were  used  in  the 
war  for  directing  artillery  fire 
and  observation.  Captive  bal- 
loons were  carried  by  allied 
battleships  and  other  surface 
craft  but  handling  difficulties  on 
board  ship  reduced  their  utility. 

The  great  advantage  of  the 
captive  balloon  is  that  the  ob- 
server is  constantly  in  direct 
telephonic  communication  with 
the  artillery  commanders  in  his 
vicinity;  constant  and  thorough 
inspection  of  the  enemy's  posi- 
tion with  the  aid  of  powerful 
glasses  and  telescopes  reveals 
every  movement  of  bodies  of 
troops  or  anything  new  that  has 
appeared  during  the  previous 
night,  and  the  targets  thus  pre- 
sented can  be  immediately  taken 
under  fire.  Continuous  and 
searching  observation  of  the  same 
sector  enables  an  observer  to 
note  even  slight  changes  in  the 
color  of  the  earth  and  to  make 
important  deductions  therefrom. 
Changes  in  trench  construction 
can  thus  be  easily  detected. 


(German  for  kite)  balloon,  since 
the  latter  type  has  much  greater 
steadiness  in  the  wind;  the 
pressure  of  the  moving  air  against 
the  under  side  of  the  balloon 
holding  it  steady  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  case  of  a  com- 
mon paper  kite.  The  kite  bal- 
loon was  fitted  with  a  tail  con- 
sisting of  several  conical  canvas 
cups,  to  assist  in  maintaining  its 
stability,  with  the  same  result  as 
is  secured  by  affixing  a  tail  to  the 
toy  kite.  Captive  balloons  of  the 
latest  type,  named  'Caquot'  after 
the  inventor,  are  made  with 
streamline  shape  and  empanages 
so  that  the  kite-tail  cups  are  not 
required  for  steadiness. 

During  the  war  the  observa- 
tion balloons  were  placed  from 
two  to  four  miles  in  rear  of  the 
line  of  trenches,  and  were  sepa- 
rated by  intervals  depending 
upon  the  artillery  activity  in 
various  sectors.  The  altitude 
at  which  they  were  held  was 
dependent  upon  the  atmospheric 
conditions  and  upon  the  distance 
of  the  enemy's  artillery.  They 
were  usually  sent  up  at  daylight, 
and  remained  in  the  air  until 
dark,  being  drawn  down  every 

Vol.  I. — March  '30 


Balloons 


546 


Balloons 


few  hours  to  change  observers. 
Occasionally  they  remained  up  at 
night,  and  it  was  frequently 
found  that  enemy  guns  that  were 
not  visible  by  daylight  could  be 
located  at  night  by  their  flashes. 
Even  after  dark  it  was  found 
that  observers  who  had  studied 
every  feature  of  the  ground  for 
days  were  able  to  see  enough  to 
fix  accurately  the  position  of  the 
flashes.  The  strain  of  constant 
observation  with  high-power 
glasses  or  telescopes  made  it  ad- 
visable to  change  the  observers 
at  frequent  intervals. 

It  is  customary  to  have  two 
officers  in  the  basket  of  the  bal- 
loon, and  they  are  connected 
with  the  ground  by  telephone. 
One  method  is  to  have  an  iso- 
lated telephone  wire  in  the  centre 
of  the  cable  which  holds  the  bal- 
loon; another  method  is  to  drop 
a  strong,  light-weight  wire  from 
the  basket  of  the  balloon  to  con- 
nect with  the  telephone  circuits 
directly  underneath.  In  both 
cases  the  steel  wires  of  the  hold- 
ing cable  serve  to  complete  the 
electric  circuit  for  the  telephones. 
Balloon  companies  are  provided 
with  telephone  switchboards  so 
that  the  observer  in  the  basket 
can  communicate  directly  with 
any  battery  or  higher  artillery 
commander  in  his  vicinity. 

Buildings,  hills  or  specially 
constructed  towers  concealed  by 
the  trees  are  frequently  utilized 
in  conjunction  with  captive  bal- 
loons to  provide  an  auxiliary  ob- 
serving station,  so  that  the  two 
may  serve  as  the  end  stations  of 
a  base  line  for  the  accurate  loca- 
tion of  targets.  In  some  cases 
another  balloon  is  used  as  the 
second  observing  station. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war 
various  special  codes  of  signals 
were  experimented  with  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  observers  to 
report  the  error  in  the  fall  of 
shots,  but  these  were  discon- 
tinued in  favor  of  the  brief  an- 
nouncement of  'over,'  'short,' 
'right,'  and  'left.'  Field  glasses 
having  a  milled  scale  permit  of 
the  observer  reporting  in  degrees 
the  distance  of  shots  from  the 
target. 

For  service  with  the  mobile 
army  it  was  customary  to  have 
highly  trained  balloon  compa- 
nies, able  to  inflate  a  balloon  and 
have  it,  with  its  observers,  several 
thousand  feet  in  the  air  in  about 
twenty  minutes  after  the  organi- 
zation had  halted;  this  speed  was 
attained  by  using  compres.sed 
hydrogen  carried  in  special  vehi- 
cles. 

The  information  of  1915-10 
indicated  that  the  peace  strength 
of  the  balloon  companies  in 
Europe  averaged  about  60  men. 
The  arduous  service  that  was 
reciuired  during  the  war  necessi- 
tated an  increase  in  the  number, 
there  being  in  some  cases  as  many 

Vol.  I. — March  '30 


as  160  officers  and  men  assigned 
to  one  balloon;  this  number  pro- 
vides for  three  reliefs  for  the  cap- 
tive balloon,  the  observation 
tower  personnel,  the  telephone 
switchboard  operators,  and  de- 
tails for  the  manufacture  of 
hydrogen. 

Since  the  service  along  the 
Western  battlefront  was  in  the 
nature  of  siege  warfare,  it  was 
found  practicable  to  supply  hy- 
drogen from  portable  field  gener- 
ators, instead  of  furnishing  it 
compressed  in  cylinders.  The 
average  capacity  of  the  balloon  is 
from  30,000  to  50,000  cubic  feet. 
There  is  continuous  loss  of  hydro- 
gen due  to  leakage  through  the 
fabric  and  to  losses  from  expan- 
sion at  high  altitude;  these  losses 
are  ordinarily  replaced  at  night. 
A  common  method  of  replacing 
gas  is  to  fill  small  balloons  called 
'nurses'  at  the  nearest  field  gen- 
erating plant;  a  small  detach- 
ment of  men  can  easily  conduct 
this  supply  balloon  to  the  hangar 
and  transfer  hydrogen  from  the 
'nurse'  to  the  captive  balloon  as 
it  may  be  required. 

The  most  modern  type  of  wind- 
lass for  holding  captive  balloons 
consists  of  a  winding  drum  con- 
structed on  a  motor  truck. 
Whenever  enemy  aircraft  at- 
tempt to  destroy  a  captive  bal- 
loon, it  is  customary  to  haul  it 
down  rapidly  or  to  keep  it  mov- 
ing around  the  field  to  lessen  the 
chances  of  its  being  hit. 

Captive  balloons  inflated  with 
hydrogen  are  occasionally  set 
afire  and  destroyed  by  incendiary 
bullets;  bombs  from  airplanes  are 
sometimes  effective.  Destruc- 
tion in  this  manner  is  not  neces- 
sarily fatal  to  the  observers,  as 
they  are  usually  provided  with 
parachutes  attached  to  body  har- 
ness, which  permit  their  safe 
descent  to  the  ground.  The  use 
of  non-inflammable  helium  gas 
did  not  reach  the  front  before  the 
end  of  the  Great  War;  but  the 
substitution  of  the  safe  helium 
for  the  highly  inflammable  hy- 
drogen adds  materially  to  the 
value  of  captive  balloons  in  war- 
fare by  reducing  the  fire-hazard 
to  practically  nil. 

Barrage  Balloons. — This  class 
of  captive  balloon  resembles  the 
usual  type  in  shape  but  has  dilat- 
able or  expanding  gores  in  place 
of  an  air  balloonet,  is  smaller  and 
carries  no  passengers.  It  is  in- 
tended for  use  in  protecting 
cities  or  important  points  against 
attack  by  bombing  planes  in  time 
of  war.  Such  protection  by  bar- 
rage balloons  is  accomplished  by 
having  numerous  balloons  in  the 
air,  the  holding  cables  serving  as 
a  possil)le  means  for  the  fouling 
of  an  airplane  propeller  or  other- 
wise producing  such  damage  as  to 
bring  the  plane  down  out  of  con- 
trol and  short  of  its  objective. 
Another  system  tried  out  during 


the  war  consisted  of  connecting 
individual  balloons  with  cables 
from  which  additional  cables 
were  hung,  forming  a  curtain  of 
cables  and  thus  increasing  the 
effectiveness  of  the  system. 

Airships. — While  Santos-Du- 
mont  was  making  his  experi- 
ments Count  Zeppelin  was  build- 
ing his  first  great  airship  on  a 
plan  which  had  been  unsuccess- 
fully tried  by  Schwartz  in  1897, 
but  with  much  essential  modifica- 
tion. By  persistent  effort  which 
produced  many  ships  during  the 
Great  War,  and  the  Los  Angeles 
and  the  Graf  Zeppelin  more  re- 
cently, this  type  of  ship  has  be- 
come known  to  the  world  as  the 
Zeppelin.  The  first  ship  was  an 
aluminum  and  wire  framework 
construction  of  about  400,000 
cubic  feet  capacity,  being  416 
feet  long,  38  feet  in  diameter  and 
having  16  sides.  The  general 
shape  of  the  ship  was  that  of  a 
cylinder  with  a  spherical  nose 
piece  and  a  parabolic  tail  piece. 
The  ship  had  a  gross  lift  of 
approximately  25,000  pounds 
and  a  useful  lift  of  2,200  pounds 
with  a  top  speed  of  seventeen 
miles  per  hour.  It  was  powered 
with  two  16  H.p.  motors,  each 
located  in  a  car  suspended  under 
the  centreline  of  the  ship,  one 
forward  and  the  other  aft,  each 
driving  two  pusher  propellers 
through  a  system  of  shafting  and 
gearing.  There  were  16  gas  cells 
within  the  ship  made  of  rubber- 
ized cotton  fabric.  The  outer 
cover  was  a  light  cotton  fabric 
laced  to  the  structure  and  shrunk 
in  place  by  a  dope.  This  first 
ship  was,  of  course,  weak  for  its 
great  length,  the  gas  cells  were 
not  tight  and  the  engines  of  en- 
tirely too  little  power.  Its  first 
flight  was  made  July  2,  1900, 

Experimentation  and  construc- 
tion continued,  each  succeeding 
class  of  ships  representing  con- 
siderable improvement  in  speed 
and  performance  over  its  pre- 
decessors. From  1908  to  1911 
the  entrance  of  the  Schutte- 
Lanz  Company  had  a  marked 
effect  on  changing  the  trend  of 
the  Zeppelin  ships.  The  first 
Schutte-Lanz  ship  had  a  volume 
of  724,000  cubic  feet  and  a  useful 
load  of  10,000  pounds  with  a  re- 
ported speed  of  forty-two  miles 
per  hour  with  two  250  h.p.  en- 
gines. Even  though  this  was 
their  first  ship,  it  was  notably 
ahead  of  any  corresponding  Zep- 
pelin of  the  same  type.  Con- 
siderable progress  was  made  in 
the  Schutte-Lanz  type  as  well  as 
in  the  Zeppelin  type  but  in  1915 
the  resources  and  patents  of  these 
two  companies  were  combined 
and  resulted  in  the  production  of 
airships  of  composite  design  em- 
l)oclying  the  best  features  of  both. 
These  were  the  L-jo  class  of  a 
volume  of  1,940,000  cubic  feet 
and   were   referred   to   as  the 


Page  546  A 


Balloons 


546  B 


Balloons 


Super-Zeppelin.  Progress  in 
speed  and  performance  continued 
until  certain  classes  of  wartime 
Zeppelins  were  capable  of  reach- 
ing a  ceiling  of  23,000  feet;  a  top 
speed  of  75  miles  was  reached  in 
some  and  a  range  of  6,200  miles 
in  others.  Stressing  wartime 
quantity  production  of  ships 
rather  than  a  possibly  slower  out- 
put of  different  shaped  ships 
which  might  have  had  better 
aerodynamic  and  strength  quali- 
ties, it  was  left  to  the  post-war 
Zeppelin  type  to  bring  out  such 
improved  features.  The  infla- 
tion of  German  ariships  with 
hydrogen  of  course  made  them 
readily  susceptible  to  destruction. 


been  turned  over  to  the  United 
States,  is  a  splendid  ship  of 
2,600,000  cubic  feet  gas  capacity, 
and  is  still  in  active  operation. 
The  Los  Angeles  made  the  flight 
from  Friedrichshafen,  Germany, 
to  Lakehurst,  N.  J.,  in  81  hours, 
arriving  with  an  ample  margin  of 
fuel  and  was  turned  over  to  the 
United  States  Navy.  After  the 
lifting  of  the  Allied  restriction 
the  Graf  Zeppelin,  a  ship  of  about 
3,700,000  cubic  feet  capacity,  the 
largest  ship  that  could  be  built  in 
the  remaining  large  airship  shed 
in  Germany,  was  completed  in  the 
fall  of  1928,  and  is  the  outstand- 
ing modern  example  of  Zeppehn 
type.    It  includes  a  number  of 


was  completed.  It  consisted  of  a 
flexible  gas  envelope,  fastened 
firmly  to  a  rigid  floor  of  elliptical 
shape.  It  attained  a  speed  of  23 
miles  per  hour,  and  made  33  suc- 
cessful voyages.  In  1904  it  was 
lengthened,  and  in  that  year,  and 
1905,  it  made  thirty  voyages, 
carrying  195  passengers.  After 
extended  trials  it  was  purchased 
by  the  French  Government.  The 
rigid  framework  of  the  Lebaudy 
airship  made  its  transportation 
difficult,  and  this  objection  to  the 
type  led  to  the  invention,  by 
Major  von  Parse val,  of  a  collap- 
sible airship,  which  could  be 
packed  into  small  size  and  trans- 
ported readily  with  the  baggage 


,   Secfional  assembly  of 
intermediate  frans^^erse ' 
of  hull 


26-h<jll. 
Parts  numbered 
2.8.13.1^.27.28. 
-27  29.30.31.32.33. 

34. 40. -35. ^7. -^S 
50 


Sectional  assembly  of 
-main  transverse' 
of  hull 


I  ~ Automatic  valve  (gas) 
2' A^Hiaf  coble  .continuous  througt^ 
gas  cells  frorn  bow  to  stern 

3-  Balanced  surface 

4-  Ballast  bag  (water) 

5-  Ballost  bagiwater] emergency 
Bonnet  over  gas  outlet  trunk 

7~ Bonnet  over  maneuvering  valve 
8- Bow  cap 
9~  Cor ,  control 
I  O-Cor ,  poiver 

11-  Car .  suspension 

1 2-  Chord  wires 

I  3  -  Climbing  shaf  t 

I  4- Cord  netting  .between  gaS  cell 

and  wire  netting 
I  5~Clevator  (balanced) 
t&- field  tiondling  frarne 


At  first  the  climbing  capacity  of 
the  Zeppelin  greatly  exceeded 
that  of  airplanes  which  could 
attack  it,  but  late  in  the  war  the 
climbing  power  of  the  plane  had 
been  considerably  increased. 

The  post-war  construction  of 
German  airships  is  represented 
by  the  Bodensee  and  the  Nord- 
stern,  the  Los  Angeles,  and  the 
Graf  Zeppelin.  The  first  two  of 
these  were  of  about  1,000,000 
cubic  feet  capacity  for  commer- 
cial employment.  The  Nord- 
stern  had  to  be  delivered  to  the 
French  who  have  made  little,  if 
any,  use  of  her.  The  Bodensee 
established  a  fine  commercial 
record  before  her  enforced  deliv- 
ery to  the  Italians,  who  have 
made  practically  no  use  of  this 
splendid  ship.  The  Los  Angeles, 
built  as  a  rei)arations  ship  to  re, 
place  two  destroyed  wartime 
Zeppelins  which  were  to  have 


I  7-  rm.tiomonlof  35 

IB- fin. vertical  36 

1  9- Gangway  37 
20 -Gas  container  38 

2  I  -Gas  outlet  trunk  39 

22-  Gasoline  lank  40 

23-  Handling  lines  4  I 

24-  hand  rail  42 
2b- Horn  43 

26-  Hull  44 

27-  Intermediate  longitudinal  45 
26-  Intermediate  transverse  46 

25-  Keel  apex  girder  47 
30- King  post  48 
31  -  King  post  brace  49 

32-  Main  diagonal  wiring  5Q- 

33-  Main  longitudinal 

34-  Mam  transverse 

RIGID  AIRSHIP 

novel  features,  one  of  them  being 
the  employment  of  a  gaseous 
fuel  of  about  the  same  density  as 
air  instead  of  a  liquid  fuel.  With 
20  passengers  and  a  certain 
amount  of  freight  and  mail,  and 
with  splendid  accommodations 
for  passengers  and  crew,  the  Graf 
Zeppelin  can  cruise  for  9,000 
miles  at  a  speed  of  70  miles  per 
hour.  Her  top  speed  is  about  80 
miles  per  hour.  This  ship  in 
August,  1929,  completed  a  world 
flight  from  Friedrichshafen  to 
Friedrichshafen,  via  Japan,  Los 
Angeles  and  Lakehurst,  in  twenty 
days  and  four  hours.  The  Zeppe- 
lin Company  will  begin  the  con- 
struction of  their  next  ship  im- 
mediately upon  the  completion 
of  a  new  construction  hangar  of 
sufficient  size.  The  new  ship,  the 
LZ-128  will  be  of  5,000,000  cubic 
feet  volume. 

In  1902  the  Lebaudy  dirigible 


■  Mcneuvering  valve  iqos) 
■Mooring  cone 
'Mooring  cone  outrigger 
'Mooring  lines 
■Observation  platform 
■•Outer  co^er 
■Pneumatic  bumper 
■Radio  room 
■Radio  antenna 

■  Rudder  ^balanced) 
■Secondary  diagonal  wiring 
■5hid 

■  Top  center -line  girder 

■  Ventilatory 

-  Walk  -  r/ay  girder 

WirG  netting,  between  cord  netting 
and  metallic  framey^ork 


of  any  body  of  troops.  A  semi- 
rigid type  is  exemplified  in  the 
Gross  airships.  However,  Ger- 
man non-rigid  and  semi-rigid 
types  were  put  aside  during  the 
war  for  concentration  on  rigids. 

In  France  the  Ville-de- Paris  of 
M.  Henri  Deutsch  and  the  Cle- 
ment-Bayard dirigibles  have 
proved  successful. 

During  the  Great  War  many 
non-rigids  were  built  and  used  by 
the  French.  The  ex-German 
Zeppelin  L-72,  renamed  the  Dix- 
mude,  was  flown  for  awhile  by 
the  French  but  was  mysteriously 
lost  over  the  Mediterranean. 
Italian  experience  with  rigids  has 
been  practically  nil.  However, 
semi-rigids  of  the  Norge  and  Italia 
types  were  built  and  operated  by 
them. 

In  England  the  War  Office 
experimented  on  a  limited  vscale 
for    a    time    without  marked 


Vol. 


-March  '30 


Balloons 


547 


Balloons 


achievement.  On  October  16, 
1910,  its  new  Clement-Bayard 
dirigible  arrived  under  its  own 
power  from  Paris  with  seven  men 
on  board,  having  made  the  trip 
of  259  miles  at  a  rate  of  41  miles 
per  hour.  In  1911  the  British 
built  the  ship  called  the  Mayfly 
which  was  in  advance  of  its  Ger- 
man contemporaries.  On  her 
first  trials  she  was  moored  by  the 
nose  to  a  floating  mast  for  three 
days  but  soon  came  to  an  early 
end  by  crashing  against  a  hangar 
door.  Interest  in  England  lagged 
for  a  number  of  years  but  when 
the  German  airship  activities  of 
the  war  became  so  marked  the 
British  proceeded  with  feverish 
haste  to  make  up  the  lost  time, 
making  their  greatest  progress  in 
the  construction  and  the  opera- 
tion of  a  number  of  dirigibles 
during  the  years  1917-20.  How- 
ever, although  no  British  rigids 
were  completed  in  time  for  serv- 
ice in  the  war,  large  numbers  of 
non-rigids  rendered  splendid  war- 
time service  for  the  British.  At 
first  they  tried  wooden  construc- 
tion along  the  lines  of  the  Schutte 
Lanz  type,  but  realized,  after  in- 
specting the  German  L-33,  that 
their  rigid  ships  could  not  com- 
pare with  the  German  product 
and  accordingly  began  the  design 
of  the  R-33  class.  The  British 
R-34  made  the  first  East- West 
aerial  crossing  of  the  North  At- 
lantic in  1919.  The  R-38  repre- 
sented the  result  of  the  British 
war  experience  and  was  to  be 
sold  to  the  United  States.  How- 
ever, during  the  trial  flights  it 
came  to  grief,  thus  ending  the 
British  rigid  airship  programme 
for  that  time.  Later,  however, 
British  realization  that  airships 
can  do  much  towards  providing 
rapid  communication  with  her 
outlying  colonies  has  resulted  in 
the  design,  construction  and 
early  trials  of  the  R-ioo  and  R- 
loi  which  are  each  of  5,000,000 
cubic  feet  capacity.  These  ships 
have  not  yet  been  able  to  demon- 
strate their  commercial  value  be- 
cause of  certain  obstacles  to  be 
expected  in  the  first  of  a  new  and 
radical  design.  They  are  some- 
what overweight  structurally, 
the  compression-ignition  engines 
intended  for  use  are  not  yet  satis- 
factory, with  the  result  that  their 
performance  has  not  attained  the 
expected  proportions.  However, 
the  insertion  of  additional  length 
and  one  more  gas  cell  will  un- 
doubtedly improve  the  perform- 
ance qualities  of  these  ships,  as 
will  the  correction  of  other  un- 
satisfactory features  developed  in 
the  early  trials.  Just  as  in  any 
new  radical  engineering  endeavor, 
perfection  can  not  be  expected 
without  extensive  practical  re- 
search, experimentation  and 
actual  operation. 

Until  1915  the  United  States 
Government  possessed  but  one 


small  dirigible  purchased  in  1908. 
Popular  interest  was  aroused  by 
the  attempt  of  the  Wellman  air- 
ship to  cross  the  Atlantic  to  Eu- 
rope in  October,  1910.  Caught 
in  severe  gales,  the  airship  be- 
came unmanageable  and  was 
abandoned  by  its  crew  in  mid- 
ocean. 

Airships  have  been  built  and 
operated  in  the  United  States  by 
both  the  Navy  and  the  Army. 
However,  Army  activities  in  this 
branch  have  been  very  materially 
reduced  so  that  at  the  present 
time  the  Army  possesses  but  one 
semi-rigid,  the  RS-i,  and  a  num- 
ber of  non-rigids,  principally  of 
the  TC  class  of  about  200,000 
cubic  feet  capacity.  During  the 
Great  War,  the  Navy  began  the 
development  of  non-rigid  types 
and  continued  for  a  few  years 
thereafter.  Non-rigids  were  de- 
veloped from  single-motored 
ships  to  the  present  twin-motored 
ships  of  the  J  class  that  are 
practically  identical  with  the 
Army's  TC  class.  However,  the 
U.  S.  Navy  did  employ  a  number 
of  foreign  types,  principally 
French  and  English,  in  actual 
war  operations  in  Europe.  The 
semi-rigid  types  have  been  prac- 
tically neglected  as  there  does  not 
appear  to  be  any  definite  Ameri- 
can need  for  any  intervening 
sizes  between  the  non-rigid  and 
the  rigid  types. 

Rigid  airship  development  in 
the  United  States  has  been 
carried  on  almost  entirely  by  the 
Navy  Department.  The  ZR-i, 
named  the  Shenandoah  and  mod- 
elled after  the  German  war  type 
L-49,  was  built  by  the  Navy  and 
put  into  operation  in  September, 
1923.  Two  years  later  the  ship 
was  destroyed  in  a  severe  storm. 
The  ZR-2  was  the  R-38  which 
was  to  have  been  bought  from 
England  but  was  destroyed  there 
during  her  trial  flights.  The 
ZR-3,  named  the  Los  Angeles,  was 
received  from  Germany  in  Octo- 
ber, 1924,  and  is  still  in  operation 
by  the  U.  S.  Navy.  The  ZRS-4 
and  ZRS-5  were  contracted  for  in 
October,  1928,  and  are  being  con- 
structed by  an  American  com- 
mercial airship  organization 
which  includes  a  number  of  ex- 
perienced designers  and  con- 
structors from  the  Zeppelin  Com- 
pany. These  ships,  which  will  be 
used  for  naval  purposes,  are  of 
6,500,000  gas  capacity,  and  are 
larger  than  any  other  now  under 
construction. 

During  recent  years  sufficient 
experience  has  been  obtained  in 
the  construction  and  operation  of 
rigid  airships  to  enable  future  de- 
velopments to  be  forecast  with 
assurance.  In  view  of  a  miscon- 
ception widely  held  in  the  past 
that  the  large  airplane  will  ulti- 
mately displace  the  large  airship, 
it  is  necessary  to  investigate  the 
future  possibilities  of  both  types 


as  well  as  their  present  attain- 
ments. The  results  show  that  in 
each  case  certain  inherent  quali- 
ties govern  progress  and  that 
these  qualities,  being  widely  dif- 
ferent, will  cause  the  two  types  to 
cover  different  fields  of  utilities. 
It  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to 
make  a  fair  and,  at  the  same 
time,  simple  comparison  between 
two  types  of  transport  possessing 
widely  different  qualities.  The 
figures  for  rigids  are  compara- 
tively simple  as  they  are  few  in 
number  and  of  approximately  the 
same  class  compared  to  the  many 
different  classes  of  airplanes.  A 
study  of  expenditures  on  aero- 
nautical efforts  will  show  that 
there  have  been  fifty  dollars 
spent  on  airplanes  for  each  dollar 
spent  on  airships.  In  spite  of 
this  there  has  been'material  prog- 
ress in  airship  development  as 
can  be  shown  by  comparison  of 
the  modern  Graf  Zeppelin  with 
the  1914  Zeppelin  ship.  The  tes- 
timony of  scientists  and  compe- 
tent engineers  shows  conclusively 
that  there  are  inherent  limita- 
tions to  the  performance  of 
heavier- than-air  craft.  The  pres- 
ent maximum  performance  of 
heavier- than-air  craft  may  be  in- 
creased by  engine  development, 
adaptation  of  lighter  materials  to 
construction,  some  possible  im- 
provements in  aerodynamical 
characteristics  such  as  the  wing 
surfaces,  streamlines,  balance, 
controls,  etc.,  but  an  increase 
beyond  30  per  cent,  cannot  be 
foreseen  as  within  human  accom- 
plishment with  materials  so  far 
known.  On  the  other  hand,  on 
the  grounds  of  exhaustive  theo- 
retical investigation  and  of  exten- 
sive practical  experience,  it  can 
be  stated  positively  that  it  is 
possible  to  construct  rigid  air- 
ships of  any  size  which  may  be 
required  to  meet  any  transporta- 
tion problems  and  that  economy, 
with  regard  to  useful  load,  trans- 
portational  efficiency,  ton  mile- 
age, and  building  costs,  becomes 
more  favorable  with  increase  in 
size.  In  more  general  terms,  for 
example,  in  lighter-than-air  craft 
the  gross  lift  varies  as  about  the 
cube  of  the  mean  dimension 
while  the  air  resistance  and  horse- 
power required  varies  as  the 
square  of  the  linear  dimensions. 
In  a  heavier-than-air  craft,  the 
gross  lift  is  controlled  by  its  aero- 
foil surface  and  its  speed.  It  is 
evident  that  an  increase  in  lift 
can  be  obtained  more  easily  with- 
out a  proportionate  increase  in 
weight  by  augmenting  volume 
rather  than  by  increasing  area. 
The  result  is  that  the  useful  or 
disposable  load  per  horsepower  of 
the  airship  increases  very  rapidly 
with  volume,  while  in  the  air- 
plane the  useful  load  per  horse- 
power is  practically  a  constant 
shows  little  increase  with  size, 
and  actually  decreases  in  ex- 
VoL.  I.— March  '30 


Balloons 


548 


BaUot 


tremely  large  sizes.  It  is  appar- 
ent then  that,  contrary  to  popular 
opinion,  the  airplane  does  not 
increase  in  efficiency  with  very 
large  sizes  and  that  the  airship 
does. 

Improvements  in  designs,  ma- 
terials, machinery,  etc.  may  be 
expected  to  produce  advances 
both  in  airplanes  and  in  airships. 
It  may  be  assumed  also  that 
most  of  the  difficulties  now  ex- 
perienced such  as  the  landing  of 
large  airplanes  and  the  mooring 


water;  they  are  essentially  long- 
distance, weight-carrying  ma- 
chines, having  long  radii  of  ac- 
tion, ability  to  keep  in  the  air  for 
long  periods,  superior  habitabil- 
ity,  the  ability  to  operate  at  night 
successfully  without  the  neces- 
sity for  elaborate  lighted  airways, 
and  wide  range  of  speed  variation 
to  the  extent  of  being  able  to  stop 
all  engines  and  still  remain  aloft. 
Their  principal  naval  mission 
will  be  scouting  and  reconnais- 
sance, augmented  by  such  uses  as 


reduction  of  external  resistance 
by  the  installation  of  engines  in 
engine  rooms  within  the  hull  in- 
stead of  in  external  cars;  use  of 
tilting  propellers  turning  in  a  90- 
degree  arc  so  that  vertical  thrust 
upward  or  downward  may  be  ob- 
tained; the  substitution  of  at 
least  three  keels  or  longitudinal 
strength  members  for  the  former 
single  keel;  new  type  of  trans- 
verse members  or  ring  girders  of 
added  ruggedness  and  of  such 
depth  as  to  permit  ready  accessi- 


and  handling  of  large  airships  on 
the  ground  will  be  overcome  by 
various  means  to  a  similar  extent 
and  that  the  general  utility  of 
both  types  will  enormously  in- 
crease. The  principal  problems 
remaining  in  the  operation  of  air- 
ships are  those  of  providing  ade- 
quate terminal  facilities  and 
eliminating  the  large  manpower 
now  required  in  ground  crews, 
but  it  can  be  said  with  assurance 
that  solutions  to  these  problems 
may  be  expected  soon.  Neglect 
of  them  in  the  past  has  undoubt- 
edly retarded  airship  progress 
more  than  any  other  single  factor. 

The  outstanding  chaiacteris- 
tics  of  airships  will  therefore  be 
reasonably  high  speed,  very  long 
endurance,  considerable  weight 
carrying  capacity  for  mail, 
freight,  and  passengers.  The 
outstanding  characteristics  of 
airplanes  will  remain  as  at  pres- 
ent, high  speed,  low  range,  com- 


anti-submarine  operations,  con- 
voy work,  carrying  airplanes, 
transportation  of  and  communi- 
cation with  detached  units,  and 
under  certain  conditions,  bomb- 
ing. Observation  work  may  be 
facilitated  by  use  of  an  observer's 
basket  suspended  on  a  long  wire 
below  while  the  ship  remains 
obscured  in  clouds  above.  In  the 
case  of  a  large  airship  of  proved 
type  of  construction,  built  so  that 
interior  parts  are  accessible  for 
repair  during  flight;  filled  with 
non-inflammable  helium  gas; 
equipped  with  machine  guns  for 
defense  or  limited  offense,  and 
carrying  two  or  more  airplanes 
for  self- protection  vulnerability 
will  be  reduced  to  a  point  where 
it  will  not  militate  against  the 
airship  playing  an  influential  role 
in  military  operations. 

The  provision  of  proven  equip- 
ment for  attaching  planes  to  and 
detaching  them  from  airships  in 


bility  to  any  part  of  the  ship  for 
inspection  and  repair.  There  is  a 
distinct  tendency  to  smaller  fine- 
ness ratios,  or  ratio  of  maximum 
length  to  maximum  diameter. 
Modern  airships  will  be  decidedly 
stronger  aerodynamically  and  for 
handling  and  mooring  considera- 
tions. The  R-101  recently  on  her 
early  trials  safely  rode  out  a  gale 
at  her  mooring  mast  in  which 
wind  velocities  as  high  as  83 
miles  per  hour  were  experienced. 

The  first  modern  all-metal  air- 
ship, the  experimental  metalclad 
ZMC-2,  a  small  ship  of  but  200,- 
000  cubic  feet,  was  completed  for 
the  U.  S.  Navy  in  the  fall  of  1929 
and  is  now  in  operation.  Very 
ingenious  machinery  was  devised 
for  assembling  its  metal  shell. 
This  shell,  made  of  'Alclad  '  an 
aluminum-coated  duralumin 
sheet,  is  also  the  gas  container  as 
well  as  the  outer  cover  and 
strength  member. 


IlluslraLion  of  a  6,500,000  cubic  foot  Military  Airship 


parative  handiness,  and  moderate 
lift.  Summarizing,  therefore,  it 
would  appear  reasonable  to  de- 
velop the  airplane  for  aerial 
transport  over  distances  under 
1,000  miles  and  the  rigid  airship 
for  long  range  hauls  such  as 
transoceanic. 

From  a  naval  standpoint  the 
rigid  airship  undoubtedly  has  a 
definite  use.  Airships  of  ade- 
quate size  hold  unquestionable 
possibilities  as  adjuncts  to  a 
Fleet.  Large  airships  are  pecu- 
liarly naval,  as  their  sphere  of 
greatest  usefulness  lies  over  the 

Vol.  I. — March  '30 


flight,  and  their  storage  within 
the  hull  of  the  vship,  will  mean  a 
great  deal  to  commercial  airship 
development  as  well  as  to  naval 
uses.  The  commercial  equiva- 
lent of  the  American  naval  air- 
ship ZRS-Jf,  now  building,  and 
succeeding  larger  sizes,  will  be 
the  forerunners  of  the  helium  in- 
flated commercial  airships  cap- 
able of  economical  and  efficient 
employment  to  supplement 
steamer  transportation.  New 
features  that  can  and  will  be  in- 
corporated in  modern  large 
helium-inflated  airships  are-  +he 


See  Aeronautics;  Flying 
Machines. 

Consult  Moedebeck's  Handbook 
of  Aeronautics;  Berget's  Conquest 
of  the  Air;  Flying  (monthly); 
Vivian  and  Marsh's  A  History  of 
Aeronautics  (1921);  Scott's  The 
Commercial  Aspect  of  Airship 
Transport  (1923);  and  references 
given  under  Aeronautics. 

Bariot,  or  secret  voting,  is  a 
very  old  institution  practised 
both  in  Greece  and  in  Rome, 
principally  for  voting  at  criminal 
trials,  and  for  some  purposes, 
such  as  ostracism,  in  deliberative 


Ballot 

assemblies,  but  also,  in  Rome,  at 
the  election  of  magistrates  and 
certain  other  officials.  At  one 
time  secret  voting  in  Parliament 
was  advocated  in  England,  and 
it  was  used  in  the  Parliament 
of  Scotland  in  1662;  but  no  one 
asks  for  secret  voting  in  Parlia- 
ment now,  and  in  modern  times 
the  agitation  for  the  ballot  has 
been  confined  to  the  demand  for 
its  use  at  popular  elections.  In 
America  the  employment  of  the 
ballot  in  elections  dates  from 
early  colonial  times.  Since  the 
Revolution  voting  by  ballot  has 
been  the  general  practice.  With 
the  development  of  the  party 
system  the  simple  form  of  ballot 
first  used  became  an  instrument 
of  fraud  and  intimidation.  Pur- 
chasers of  votes  provided  corrupt 
voters  with  printed  ballots  which 
were  easily  identified;  employers 
who  wished  to  influence  the  votes 
of  their  employees  used  the  same 
device  to  ascertain  how  the  latter 
had  cast  their  votes.  In  recent 
years  a  majority  of  the  states  have 
adopted  the  so-called  Australian 
ballot.  By  this  system  the  voter  is 
furnished  with  an  officially  printed 
ballot,  which  he  is  required  to 
mark  in  a  specified  manner  and  to 
deposit  in  a  ballot-box  without 
permitting  examination  by  any 
other  person,  exception  being 
made  in  behalf  of  illiterates  and 
those  phvsically  incapable  of 
marking  their  ba'llots.  The  great- 
est diversity  in  the  form  of  the 
ballot  exists  in  the  various  states; 
in  some  states  the  form  of  ballot 
makes  it  exceedingly  difficult  to 
vote  for  persons  whose  names  are 
not  on  the  regular  party  tickets;  in 
other  states  it  encourages  inde- 
pendent voting.  A  ballot  which 
renders  it  easy  to  vote  independ- 
ently of  party  lines  is  at  present 
one  of  the  chief  demands  of  elec- 
tion reformers.  In  Great  Britam 
voting  by  ballot  was  advocated  by 
reformers  at  least  as  early  as  1817. 
It  was  used  at  the  first  election  of 
the  London  School  Board,  under 
the  Elementary  Education  Act 
of  1870.  The  Ballot  Act,  1872,  pre- 
scribed that  the  ballot  should  be 
employed  at  all  municipal  and 
parliamentary  elections,  except 
at  parliamentary  elections  for 
the  universities.  This  act  was 
temporary,  and  would  have  ex- 
pired on  Dec.  31,  1880,  but 
since  that  time  it  has  been  con- 
tinued by  the  Expiring  Laws 
Continuance  Acts.  Voting  by 
ballot  in  some  form  has  been 
introduced  into  nearly  every 
country  governed  in  accordance 
with  constitutional  methods.  For 
method  of  marking  the  ballot 
paper,  see  Elections,  and  for 
voting  machine,  see  Machines, 
Automatic. 

Ballot,  Buys  (1818-90),  Dutch 
chemist,  physicist,  and  meteorol- 
ogist, studied  at  Utrecht  Univer- 


549 

sity,  where  he  afterward  became 
professor  of  mathematics,  and 
subsequently  of  experimental 
physics — a  post  which  he  held 
till  1887.  He  was  also  appointed 
director  of  the  Royal  Meteorolo- 
gical Institute  of  the  Netherlands. 
The  *  law  '  by  which  he  is  rnost 
widely  known  defines  the  relation 
of  the  wind  to  the  isobars. 

Ballota.    See  Horehound. 

Ballou,  HoSEA  (1771-1852), 
American  clergyman,  was  born  at 
Richmond,  N.  H.,  educated  him- 
self, and  in  1794  became  pastor  of 
a  church  in  Dana,  Mass.  After 
several  other  charges,  he  was 
made  pastor  (1817)  of  the  second 
Universalist  church  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  and  filled  this  position  for 
over  thirty-five  years.  He  founded 
the  Universalist  Magazine  (1819) 
and  the  Universalist  Expositor 
(1831),  and  of  his  numerous  books 
may  be  mentioned  Notes  on  the 
Parables  (1804),  and  Examination 
of  the  Doctrine  of  Future  Retribu- 
tion (1834).  He  was  one  of  the 
most  active  founders  of  Univer- 
salism  in  the  United  States. 

Ballou,  HoSEA  (1796-1861), 
American  educator,  grand  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Halifax,  Vt.,  studied  for  the  min- 
istry, and  became  pastor  of  the 
society  in  Stafford,  Conn.,  1851. 
He  filled  other  pastorates,  gave 
lectures  at  the  Meadville,  Pa., 
Unitarian  Divinity  School,  and  in 
1853  was  elected  first  president  of 
Tufts  College,  which  he  helped  to 
organize,  assisted  his  great  uncle 
as  editor  of  the  Universalist  Maga- 
zine, and  was  the  author  of  The 
Ancient  History  of  Universalism. 

Ballou,  Maturin  Murray 
(1820-95),  American  journalist, 
son  of  Hosea  Ballou  the  younger, 
was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  and 
fitted  for,  but  did  not  enter,  Har- 
vard. He  held  post-office  and 
treasury  clerkships  in  the  govern- 
ment service  for  ten  years,  wrote 
for  the  weekly  Ohve  Branch, 
and  was  proprietor  and  editor 
of  Gleason's  Pictorial,  Ballou's 
Monthly,  and  other  periodicals. 
Through  these  enterprises  and 
real  estate  operations  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  he  became  wealthy,  and  he 
passed  much  time  in  travel.  In 
1872  he  was  a  founder  of  the 
Boston  Globe,  and  was  its  editor 
for  many  years.  Author  of  several 
books  of  travel.  Life  Story  of 
Hosea  Ballou  (his  father),  and 
various  miscellaneous  books. 

Balls  Bluff,  Battle  of,  a 
minor  engagement  of  the  Civil 
War,  fought,  Oct.  21,  1861,  at 
Balls  Bluff,  Va.,  on  the  Potomac 
River,  about  30  m.  n.w.  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  between  a  Federal 
force  of  about  2,000  under  Col. 
E.  D.  Baker  and  a  Confederate 
force  of  about  3,000  under  Gen. 
N.  G.  Evans,  the  Confederates 
being  victorious.  The  Federals 
lost  in  killed,  wounded,  and  miss- 


Balmaln 

11%  about  900,  including  Col, 
Baker,  who  was  killed;  the  Con- 
federates less  than  300.  This 
battle,  one  of  the  first  in  the  war, 
coming  as  it  did  soon  after  the  first 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  in  which,  also, 
the  Federals  were  defeated,  had  an 
effect  greatly  out  of  proportion  to 
its  military  importance,  consider- 
ably inspiriting  the  South  and 
depressing  the  North. 

Ballston  Spa,  vil.,  co.  seat  of 
Saratoga  co.,  N.  Y.,  6  m.  from 
Saratoga  Springs,  on  the  Saratoga 
div.  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
R.R.,  incorporated  in  1807.  It  has 
notable  mineral  springs  and  large 
wood  pulp  and  paper  mill  inter- 
ests. The  water-works  are  owned 
by  the  village.    Pop.  (1910) 4,138. 

Ballymena,  mrkt.  tn.,  co.  An- 
trim, prov.  Ulster,  Ireland,  23  m. 
N.W.  of  Belfast,  with  a  flourish- 
ing trade  in  brown  linens  (yearly 
average,  $5,000,000)  and  an  old 
linen  market  (manufacture  intro- 
duced 1732).  The  allied  indus- 
tries are  extensively  carried  on 
in  the  neighborhood.  Pop.  ( 1911 ) 
11,376. 

Ballynahinch  ('the  town  of  the 
island'), mrkt.  tn.,  co.  Down, prov. 
Ulster,  Ireland,  15  m.  s.  by  E.  of 
Belfast,  with  a  spa  (sulphur  and 
chalybeate  springs)  in  a  pictur- 
esque valley  2^  m.  away  (season, 
June  to  September). 

Ballyshannon,  mrkt.  tn.  and 
seapt.,  CO.  Donegal,  prov.  Ulster, 
Ireland,  25  m.  n.w.  by  w.  of  En- 
niskillen,  on  both  sides  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Erne,  and  8  m.  from 
Lough  Erne.  The  salmon  fishery 
is  important,  and  the  harbor  is 
accessible  for  vessels  drawing  10 
ft.    Pop.  (1901)  2,359. 

Balm.    See  Balsam. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  or  Mecca 
B.^LSAM,  an  aromatic  gum  or 
powder  with  supposed  medicinal 
equalities,  which,  if  not  produced 
in  Gilead,  was  at  least  a  well- 
known  article  of  commerce  in  that 
region.  It  is  generally  identified 
with  the  resin  of  Bals'amodendron 
gileadense. 

Balmaceda,  Jose  Manuel 
(1838-91^,  president  of  Chile 
(1886-91),  a  powerful  speaker  and 
bold  statesman.  Having  lost  the 
confidence  of  the  Congress,  he 
attempted  (Jan.  1,  1891)  a  coup 
d'etat,  refused  to  convene  the 
assembly,  and  constituted  himself 
dictator.  He  was  supported  hy 
the  army;  but  the  navy,  having 
remained  faithful  to  the  constitu- 
tional government,  landed  troops 
at  Coquimbo  in  August,  and 
routed  Balmaceda's  forces  in  the 
battles  of  Conchon  and  Placilla. 
Balmaceda  committed  suicide  on 
Sept.  18. 

Balmain,  populous  suburb  of 
Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia,  on  the  w. 
shore  of  Darling  harbor.  It  has 
several  docks  (one  the  largest 
in  the  s.  heniisphere),  chemical 


Balm  az-Uj  varos 

works,  a  large  cocoanut-oil  fac- 
tory, sawmiirs,  etc.  Pop.  (1901) 
30,881. 

Balmaz-Ujvaros,  tn.,  co.  Haj- 
du,  Hungary,  12^  m.  N.w.  of  De- 
breczin.    Pop.  (1900)  11,550. 

Balme,  Col  de,  famous  moun- 
tain pass  (7,231  ft.)  in  the  Pennine 
Alps,  between  the  valley  of  Cha- 
monix  and  Martigny  (Rhone  val- 
ley), Switzerland,  on  the  divid- 
ing line  between  France  and  Swit- 
zerland; commands  superb  views. 

Balmoral  Castle  (Gael,  'the 
majestic  dwelling'),  royal  resi- 
dence, W.  Aberdeenshire,  Scot- 
land, on  r.  bk.  of  the  Dee,  near 
Crathie,  9  m.  w.  of  Ballater;  pur- 
chased by  Queen  Victoria  in  1848. 
In  1853  the  present  red  granite 


550 

consisting  of  two  floats  so  joined 
as  to  form  a  platform  on  which 
people  and  goods  can  be  sustained. 

Balsam.  (1.)  Various  species  of 
the  order  Balsamineas,  which  is 
often  placed  under  Geraniaceae. 
The  principal  genus  is^  known  as 
Impatiens,  because  the  ripe  capsule 
bursts  spontaneously  or  when 
touched.  There  are  over  a  hun- 
dred species  of  Impatiens,  mostly 
annuals  or  biennials;  many  have 
been  introduced  from  the  East  for 
greenhouse  cultivation.  _  (2.)  I. 
Balsamina,  from  India,  is  a  com- 
monly cultivated  annual,  often 
called  'lady's  slipper.'  Balsam 
Bog  is  a  densely-tufted  xero- 
phyte  of  the  Falkland  Is.,  be- 
longing   to    the    order  Umbel- 


Balsam 

work  for  the  permanent  preserva- 
tion of  sections  on  glass  slides. — 
West  India  Balsam  is  obtained 
from  species  oi  Clusia. — Balsam 
OF  Copaiba  is  the  oleo-resiu  ob- 
tained from  the  trunks  of  various 
species  of  Copaifera,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Amazon  and  the  E.  and  W". 
Indies.  It  has  very  much  the 
appearance  of  olive  oil,  but  its 
odor  is  aromatic,  and  its  taste 
bitter.  Its  chief  constituent  is  a 
crystallizable  resin,  copaivic  acid. 
Oil  of  copaiva  is  got  Dv  distilla- 
tion, and,  administered  in  cap- 
sules or  as  an  emulsion,  acts  in 
the  stomach  like  other  oleo-resins 
as  a  stimulant  and  irritant,  and 
in  large  doses  as  an  emetic.  Its 
active  principles  are  absorbed, 


illi  I  1  i 


Balmoral  Castle,  the  Highland  Residence  of  the  British  King, 
(Photo  by  G.  W.  Wilson.) 


Scotch  baronial  castle  replaced  an 
old  one. 

Balnaves,  Henry  (d.  1579), 
Scottish  reformer,  was  appointed 
(1 538)alord  of  session  byjames  v.; 
depute-keeper  of  privy  seal  (1542- 
43).  He  helped  largely  in  getting 
the  Scriptures  printed  in  the  Scots 
vulgar  tongue.  For  his  ardent  Pro- 
testantism he  suffered_  attainder 
and  imprisonment,  being  trans- 
ported to  Rouen  in  154G;  but  in 
1563  his  estates  and  offices  were 
restored.  See  M'Crie's  Life  of 
John  Knox  (new  ed.  1889). 

Balsa,  a  raft  or  surf-boat,  made 
of  the  c-xtrcincly  light  balza-wood 
of  Peru  ;in(l  Brazil.  The  name  is 
also  employed  for  a  life  raft  used  in 
the  navy  and  on  merchant  vessels, 


liferae.  The  tufts  are  often  several 
feet  in  diameter.  A  gum-resin 
exudes  from  its  branches.  (See 
Hooker's  Flora  Antarctica,  1844- 
60.) — Balsam  Tree  of  Jamaica  is 
Clusia  jiava  of  the  order  Gutti- 
feree,  yielding  a  gum-resin  which 
is  used  as  pitch  in  the  W.  Indies. 
— Balsam  of  Acouchi  is  obtained 
from  Icica  heterophylla,  a  species 
of  the  order  Burseracese,  found  in 
Guiana. — Balsam  of  Umiri  is  an 
oleo-resin  obtained  from  Hunti- 
rium  foribundum,  related  to  the 
geraniums,  and  found  in  Brazil. 
Its  properties  resemble  those  of 
copaiba  balsam. — Canada  Bal- 
sam, obtained  from,  the  Canadian 
balm  of  Gilead  fir,  Abies  bal- 
sameQ.,  is  used  in  microscopic 


and  all  secretions  smell  of  it,  and 
are  increased  by  it.  It  acts  as  a 
stimulant  and  a  disinfectant  in 
the  genito-urinary  tract,  and  is 
chiefly  used  for  that  purpose,  al- 
though it  has  the  useful  effect  of 
oleo-resins  on  the  lungs  and  bron- 
chi, and  indeed  acts  better  there 
than  do  most  others,  but  is  avoided 
on  account  of  its  smell.  It  is  diu- 
retic, and  by  its  stimulating  action 
som.etimes  induces  a  rash. — Bal- 
sam of  Peru  is  taken  from  the 
trunk  of  Myroxylon  _  peruiferum, 
after  beating,  scorching,  and  re- 
moving the  bark.  Its  volatile  oil 
contains  cinnamic  and  benzoic 
acids,  which  give  its  fragrance.  It 
has  the  general  qualities  of  bal- 
sams, and  is  used  chiefly  as  a  di$- 


Balsam  Apple 

infectant  expectorant  in  bronchial 
affections. 

Balsam  of  Tolu  is  obtained 
from  New  Granada,  by  incisions 
in  the  trunk  of  Myroxylon  tolui- 
jexa.  Its  most  important  con- 
stituents are  benzoic  and  cin- 
namic  acids.  A  syrup  and  a 
tincture  are  prepared  from  it, 
and  it  is  present  in  several  com- 
pound drugs.  It  is  used  only  as 
an  expectorant. 

Balm-of-Gilead  is  a  fragrant 
Hquid  resinous  substance  ob- 
tained from  Commiphora  opohal- 
samum  or  Balsamea  meccanensis. 
The  finest  balsam,  called  opobal- 
sam,  or  balm  of  Mecca,  is  of  a 
golden  yellow  color,  and  of  a 
consistence  like  honey.  It  has 
an  irritating  effect  on  the  skin 
and  acts  internally  like  Balsam  of 
Copaiba.  In  the  United  States 
a  variety  of  Populus  balsamifera 
is  called  Balm-of-Gilead  Tree. 

Balsam  Apple.    See  Momor- 

DICA. 

Balsamo,  Giuseppe.  See 
Cagliostro. 

Balta,  bal'ta,  town,  Podolia 
government,  Russian  Poland,  on 
the  Kodema  River,  an  affluent  of 
the  Bug,  and  on  a  branch  of  the 
Moscow-Kiev-Odessa  Railway; 
130  miles  northwest  of  Odessa. 
It  has  brewing,  distilling,  and 
manufactures  of  soap,  candles, 
and  beer,  as  well  as  an  important 
trade  in  cereals  and  cattle.  It 
has  two  yearly  fairs.  Pop. 
24,000. 

Balta,  Jose  (1816-72),  Peru- 
vian statesman,  was  iDorn  in 
Lima.  He  took  part  in  military 
affairs  when  Peru  was  invaded  by 
President  Santa  Cruz  (1836), 
fought  in  nearly  all  the  revolu- 
tions, and  at  the  defeat  of  the 
Spaniards  (1866),  and  led  the 
revolt  against  President  Prado 
(1867).  Balta  was  president  of 
Peru  (1868-72),  and  was  shot  in  a 
military  mutiny  in  Lima. 

Baltchik,  bal-chek',  Baltzik, 
or  Balchik,  Roumania,  on  the 
Black  Sea;  24  miles  northeast  of 
Varna.  It  has  a  trade  in  agri- 
cultural products.  The  town 
was  ceded  to  Roumania  by  Bul- 
garia in  1913,  at  the  close  of  the 
Second  Balkan  War. 

Balthazar,  bal-tha'zgr,  one  of 
the  three  wise  men  (Magi)  of  the 
Nativity,  and  one  of  the  fabulous 
three  kings  shown  in  Cologne 
Cathedral. 

Bar  tic  Port,  town  and  seaport, 
Esthonia,  Russia,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  250  miles 
by  rail  west  of  Petrograd.  It  is 
important  as  being  the  terminus 
of  one  of  the  Baltic  railways. 
Pop.  1,000. 

Baltic  Provinces,  the  region 
which  includes  Esthonia,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Finland  and  the  Baltic 
Sea;  Livonia,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Riga;  and  Kurland  or  Courland, 
which  faces  both  the  Gulf  of 
Riga  and  the  open  Baltic,  and 
Vol.  I. —Oct.  '18. 


551  Baltic  ProTinces 


reaches  westward  to  the  Prus- 
sian frontier.  The  total  area  is 
36,614  square  miles.  The  popu- 
lation, which  numbers  2,687,400 
(1911),  consists  of  Esthonian  and 
Lettish  races,  with  a  considerable 
admixture  of  Germans  and  some 
Russians. 

Agriculture  and  manufactures 
are  important   industries,  and 


Germany  first  figures  in  the 
Baltic  Provinces  about  800  A.D., 
during  the  conquests  of  Charle- 
magne. In  1200,  German  Knights 
of  the  Sword  established  them- 
selves at  Riga,  but  the  Danes 
succeeded  in  gaining  general 
ascendancy  on  the  Baltic  at  this 
period,  as  a  result  of  King 
Canute's  previous  clever  states- 


Balsavis. 

1.  Impatiens  balsamina.    2.  Impatiens  noli-me-tangere.    3.  Balsam  Bos  (Bolax 
glebaria).   4.  Balsam  Tree  of  Jamaica  {Cluda  flava).   5.  Copaiba  Balsam 
{Copaifera  officinalis).    6.  Balsam  of  Peru  {Myroxylon  lohdf era). 


prior  to  the  Great  War  (1914) 
the  provinces  carried  on  a  con- 
siderable trade,  most  of  the 
Russian  transatlantic  traffic  pass- 
ing through  Libau.  Leading  ex- 
ports were  hides,  timber,  flax, 
cereals,  rubber  goods,  eggs,  Si- 
berian butter,  and  linseed.  The 
principal  imports  included  cot- 
ton, jute,  tea,  copra,  herrings, 
machinery,  and  rubber. 


manship  and  effective  conquests. 
Germany,  however,  successfully 
combated  Danish  influence  on 
land  and  sea,  and  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  establishment 
of  the  Hanseatic  League  (q.  v.) 
marked  a  German  domination  in 
the  Baltic  Provinces  which  in- 
creased, until,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  approxi- 
mately eighty  cities  were  mem- 


Baltic  Provlnoes 


552 


Baltic  Sea 


bers  of  the  League.  Commercial 
rivalry  of  other  nations,  how- 
ever, together  with  dissension 
among  the  members  of  the 
League  and  the  rise  of  PoHsh 
power,  brought  to  an  end  German 
control  of  the  Provinces  in  1410, 
when  the  larger  part  of  the  terri- 
tory passed  to  Poland. 

Sweden   obtained   the  major 


part  of  the  Provinces  during  the 
reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 
(1594-1632),  and  about  a  cen- 
tury later,  Peter  the  Great  of 
Russia  and  Frederick  of  Hohen- 
zoUern  contested  Sweden's  su- 
premacy, in  the  Northern  War 
(1700-21).  In  1721,  at  the  Peace 
of  Nystadt,  Sweden  ceded  Livonia 
and  Esthonia — including  Riga — 
to  Russia,  whose  frontier  was 
Vol.  L— Oct.  '18. 


thus  advanced  to  the  West  Dvina. 
The  first  of  the  partitions  of 
Poland,  about  fifty  years  later, 
ended  all  Polish  claims  to  power 
in  the  Baltic  Provinces,  while  the 
third  partition  (1795)  added  Kur- 
land  to  the  Russian  dominions. 
During  the  period  1867-89  the 
Provinces  became  largely  Rus- 
sianized and  the   people  were 


proselytized,  often  under  great 
pressure,  into  the  Greek  Church. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  year 
1918  Germany,  taking  advantage 
of  the  general  demoralization  in 
Russia,  caused  by  the  Bolsheviki, 
gained  control  of  the  Baltic 
Provinces  and  proceeded  to 
establish  herself  in  power,  though 
not  without  protest  on  the  part 
of  the  provinces,  especially  Es- 


thonia. See  Esthonia;  Livo- 
nia; KURLAND. 

Baltic  Sea,  or  East  Sea,  an 
inland  sea  of  Northern  Europe, 
surrounded  by  Denmark,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  Finland,  and 
Sweden,  and  communicating  with 
the  Atlantic  through  the  Skager 
Rak  and  the  Kattegat,  which 
leads  to  the  channels  of  the 
Sound  (Oresund),  the  Great  Belt, 
and  the  Little  Belt,  between  the 
Danish  Islands.  It  has  three  large 
arms — the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  Gulf 
of  Finland,  and  Gulf  of  Riga — 
and  several  smaller  bays,  as  the 
Bay  of  Danzig,  Neustadter  Bay, 
and  Kiel  Bay.  The  greatest 
length  from  southwest  to  north- 
east is  over  900  miles,  its  width 
is  45  to  140  miles,  and  its  area 
178,000  square  miles. 

The  southern  shores  of  the 
Baltic  Sea  are  low  and  sandy,  and 
in  places  lined  by  shallow  lagoons 
(Kurisches  Haff,  Frisches  Haff, 
and  Stettiner  Haff).  Several 
islands  stud  its  waters,  the  prin- 
cipal being  Sjaelland,  Fiinen, 
Langeland,  Laaland,  Falster, 
Moen,  Bornholm,  and  others  of 
the  Danish  group;  Alsen,  Feh- 
marn,  Riigen,  Usedom,  and 
Wollin,  belonging  to  Prussia; 
Oesel,  Dago,  Mohn,  Worms, 
belonging  to  Russia;  the  archi- 
pelagoes of  Aland  and  Quarken; 
the  large  Swedish  islands  of 
Gotland  and  Oland;  and  thou- 
sands of  small  rocky  skerries  (the 
Skargard)  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  Sweden  and  along  the 
western  and  southern  coasts  of 
Finland. 

The  Baltic  is  shallow  (20  to  100 
fathoms),  and  is  shut  off  from 
the  Kattegat  and  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  by  submarine  ridges; 
but  between  the  north  of  the 
Island  of  Gotland  and  the  Stock- 
holm skerries  there  is  a  depres- 
sion in  which  a  depth  of  420 
fathoms  has  been  sounded.  The 
sea  is  fed  by  numerous  streams, 
some  of  them  considerable  rivers, 
such  as  the  Neva,  Dvina,  Memel 
or  Niemen,  Vistula,  Oder,  Gota, 
Lulea,  and  Tornea.  In  winter 
the  smaller  bays  and  creeks, 
especially  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  sea,  invariably  freeze,  and 
so  suspend  navigation;  and  in 
severe  winters  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia 
becomes  frozen  from  side  to  side. 
*  The  tides  are  barely  perceptible 
east  of  the  Danish  islands. 

The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal 
(q.  v.),  more  commonly  called 
the  Kiel  Canal,  from  Kiel  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe,  has  since 
1895  afforded  a  short  cut  between 
the  Baltic  and  the  North  Sea. 
making  it  possible  for  vessels  ta 
avoid  the  long  trip  up  and 
around  the  peninsula  of  Den- 
mark. 

Prussia's  seizure,  1864-6,  of 
the  Danish  duchies  of  Schleswig 
and  Holstein,  made  her  very 
powerful  on  the  Baltic;  and  Id 


Baltimore 


553 


Baltimore 


1914,  the  opening  of  the  Kiel 
Canal  to  first-class  battleships 
placed  Germany  in  a  position  of 
naval  supremacy  there  by  mak- 
ing it  possible  for  the  German 
naval  power  to  be  concentrated, 
if  need  be,  in  the  Baltic,  while 
Russia  was  obliged  to  maintain 
separate  fleets  on  the  Baltic,  the 
Pacific,  and  the  Black  Sea. 

Germany's  principal  naval  base 
in  the  Baltic  was  at  Kiel  Harbor, 
at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Canal. 
From  this  base,  during  the  Great 
War  (1914-19),  German  vessels 
did  what  desultory  raiding  they 
could  in  the  North  Sea,  rushing 
back  to  the  shelter  of  the  Baltic 
to  avoid  a  clash  with  the  vigilant 
British  patrols. 

The  Aland  Islands  (q.  v.), 
which  originally  belonged  to 
Sweden,  were  ceded,  with  Fin- 
land, to  Russia  in  1809,  and  were 
made  a  powerful  Russian  naval 
base  protecting  the  passage  from 
the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia.  In  the  early  part  of 
1918,  the  islands  were  seized  by 
Germany,  who  thus  acquired  a 
point  of  great  strategic  value. 
They  were  neutralized  by  the 
Peace  Conference  (1919). 

Bal'timore,  largest  city  of 
Maryland,  an  important  port  of 
entry,  and  eighth  city  in  the 
United  States,  with  respect  to 
population,  is  situated  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  River  Patapsco, 
an  arm  of  Chesapeake  Bay;  250 
miles  by  ship  channel  from  the 
ocean,  96  miles  southwest  of 
Philadelphia,  and  40  miles  north- 
east of  Washington.  The  city  is 
on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Western 
Maryland,  the  Baltimore  and 
Annapolis,  the  Philadelphia,  Bal- 
timore, and  Washington,  and 
other  railroads.  The  city  proper 
covers  an  area  of  91.93  square 
miles,  while  the  suburbs  extend 
for  a  distance  of  about  ten  miles 
north  and  northwest. 

Baltimore  is  divided  into  two 
general  parts  by  a  stream  called 
Jones'  Falls,  which  is  covered  by 
the  Fallsway,  the  great  com- 
mercial highway  of  the  city.  On 
the  west  side  is  the  most  im- 
portant residence  section,  while 
on  the  east  is  the  'Old  Town,' 
with  many  of  the  principal  manu- 
facturing industries.  There  are 
65  public  squares  and  parks, 
comprising  2,375  acres  and  val- 
ued at  over  $25,000,000.  The 
most  celebrated  is  the  beautiful 
Druid  Hill  Park,  of  nearly  700 
acres,  purchased  by  the  city  at  a 
cost  of  about  $800,000.  Others 
include  Gwynn's  Falls,  351  acres; 
Clifton,  316  acres;  Wyman,  135 
acres;  Carroll,  177  acres,  in  which 
is  situated  the  old  Carroll  man- 
sion; Patterson,  128  acres;  Her- 
ring Run,  180  acres;  and  River- 
side, Latrobe,  Swann  and  Federal 
Hill.  There  are  also  65  play- 
grounds. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '21 


Baltimore  is  often  called  'The 
Monumental  City,'  from  its 
many  monuments.  Among  the 
more  widely  known,  are  the 
Washington  Monument  (1830), 
the  first  memorial  erected  by  city 
or  State  in  honor  of  the  country's 
first  president;  the  monuments 
to  George  Peabody,  philanthro- 
pist. Chief  Justice  Taney,  and 
Francis  Scott  Key;  Battle  Monu- 
ment in  memory  of  the  citizens 
who  fell  defending  the  city  against 
the  British  in  1814;  and  the 
memorials  to  the  Union  and  Con- 
federate soldiers. 

The  city  is  noted  also  for  the 
splendid  architecture  of  its  public 
buildings.  Among  the  finest  of 
these  are  the  Court  House  of 
white  marble.  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, the  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedral,  the  Customs  House, 
City  Hall,  Enoch  Pratt  Free 
Library,  Johns  Hopkins  Hos- 
pital, Post  Office,  Peabody  In- 
stitute, Maryland  Institute,  and 
the  Academy  of  Music.  There 
are  some  six  hundred  churches, 
among  the  best  known  being  St. 
Paul's,  Roman  Catholic  Cathe- 
dral, Mt.  Vernon  Place  Metho- 
dist-Episcopal Church,  First 
Methodist,  First  Presbyterian, 
Oheb  Sholom  Synagogue,  and 
First  Christian  Scientist. 

Educational  institutions  are 
many  and  prominent.  Johns 
Hopkins  University  (q.  v.),  en- 
dowed to  the  amount  of  $3,500,- 
000  by  a  Quaker  philanthropist 
of  that  name,  dates  from  1876. 
It  is  one  of  the  finest  universities 
in  the  country;  the  medical 
school  is  widely  famed,  and  all 
the  post-graduate  departments 
are  of  high  repute.  There  are, 
also,  the  Baltimore  City  College, 
Goucher  College,  Loyola  Col- 
lege (1852),  Morgan  College 
(1876),  St.  Mary's  University, 
Calvert  Hall  College,  the  Law 
and  Medical  Departments  of  the 
University  of  Maryland,  Balti- 
more College  of  Dental  Surgery 
(1839),  Peabody  Institute  (1876), 
which  has  a  large  library  and  a 
conservatory  of  music,  Mary- 
land Institute,  including  a  school 
of  art  and  design,  and  a  State 
normal  school.  In  addition, 
there  are  complete  systems  of 
graded  parochial  and  public 
schools.  The  Enoch  Pratt  Free 
Library  contains  about  355,000 
volumes  and  has  branches 
throughout  the  city. 

Among  the  many  charitable  in- 
stitutions are  the  Mercy  Hospi- 
tal, St.  Joseph's  Hospital  (Roman 
Catholic),  the  City  Almshouse, 
the  State  Asylum  for  the  Blind, 
and  the  Children's  Aid  Society. 

Industry  and  Commerce.— 
Baltimore  is  a  manufacturing 
city  of  the  first  importance.  In 
1914,  according  to  the  U,  S. 
Census  of  Manufactures,  it  had 
2,502  industrial  establishments, 
with  73,769  wage  earners,  $177,- 


301,000  capital,  and  products 
valued  at  $215,172,000,  of  which 
$94,639,000  represents  the  value 
added  by  manufacture.  Unoffi- 
cial figures  placed  the  number  of 
industrial  establishments  in  1920 
at  3,500,  with  150,000  wage  earn- 
ers, an  aggregate  investment  of 
$500,000,000,  and  an  annual  out- 
put valued  at  $700,000,000. 

The  leading  industries  are 
the  manufacture  of  clothing  and 
of  copper,  tin,  and  sheet  iron 
products,  slaughtering  and  meat 
packing,  and  the  making  of  fer- 
tilizer. The  city  leads  the  coun- 
try in  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
duck,  straw  hats,  men's  clothing, 
fertilizers,  copper,  tin  and  sheet 
iron  products,  and  the  canning 
and  preserving  of  oysters.  There 
are  immense  steel  works  at 
Sparrow's  Point,  nine  miles 
from  the  city,  and  shipbuilding 
is  a  leading  industry,  which  was 
given  an  additional  impetus  when 
the  United  States  entered  the 
war  against  Germany. 

The  location  of  Baltimore  near 
the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay, 
midway  between  the  North  and 
South,  makes  it  a  commercial 
centre  of  the  first  importance. 
A  canal  across  the  State  of  Dela- 
ware gives  it  connection  with 
Philadelphia,  and  an  inland 
waterway  system  reaches  south 
to  Newbern,  N.  C. 

During  1921  the  port  was 
served  by  49  regular  steamship 
liner  services  controlled  by  36 
companies  which  operated  160 
steamers  to  more  than  75  foreign 
ports.  The  port  was  also  served 
by  12  coastwise  steamship  lines. 

Baltimore  harbor  comprises 
127  miles  of  deep-water  frontage, 
45  miles  of  which  are  developed 
with  waterfront  warehouse  space 
of  1,081,755  square  feet,  covered 
pier  space  of  1,409,126  square 
feet,  open  pier  space  of  998,104 
square  feet,  and  a  terminal  stor- 
age capacity  of  1,909,920  square 
feet,  together  with  the  most 
modern  accommodations  for  the 
handling  of  grain,  coal,  oil,  sul- 
phur, fertilizer,  and  other  special- 
ized shipments.  The  ship  chan- 
nel is  35  feet  deep  and  600  feet 
wide;  the  mean  tidal  range  is 
but  14  inches. 

Baltimore  has  for  years  been 
one  of  the  leading  grain  exporting 
centres  of  the  United  States. 
Receipts  for  the  year  1920  were 
33,544,501  bushels  of  wheat, 
5,310,433  bushels  of  corn,  3,816,- 
077  bushels  of  oats,  20.933,270 
bushels  of  rye,  1,251,328  bushels 
of  barley,  and  363,560  bushels 
of  malt,  a  total  of  65,219,169 
bushels.  Exports  for  the  same 
year  totalled  54,412,798  bushels, 
made  up  as  follows:  wheat  29,- 
780,569  bushels;  corn,  1,909.- 
658  bushels;  oats  2,030,833 
bushels;  rye  19,835,779  bushels; 
barley  855,959  bushels.  Lead- 
ing articles  of  export,  besides 


Baltimore 


554 


Baluchistan 


grain  and  bread-stuflfs,  are  to- 
bacco, coal,  cotton,  naval  stores, 
iron,  steel,  meats,  and  canned 
fruit  and  oysters. 

The  city  has  an  extensive 
jobbing  trade.  The  leading 
items  are  dry  goods  and  notions, 
millinery,  clothing,  boots  and 
shoes,  hats  and  caps,  drugs, 
groceries  and  food  products. 
Bank  clearings  for  1920  were 
$4,896,046,381. 

Population. — The  population 
of  Baltimore  in  1920  was  733,826. 
The  growth  of  the  city  in  the 
past  120  years  may  be  seen  by 
the  following  figures :  Pop.  (1790) 
13,500;  (1800)  37,514;  (1810) 
46,555;  (1850)  169,054;  (I860) 
212,418;  (1870)  267,354;  (1880) 
332.313;  (1890)  434,439;  (1900) 
508,957;  (1910)  558,485. 

Government. — In  1796  Balti- 
more received  a  municipal  city 
charter,  which  underwent  many 
modifications  until,  in  1898,  the 
present  form  of  government  was 
instituted,  including  mayor,  city 
council  (bicameral),  and  supple- 
mentary boards,  commissions, 
and  departments.  The  municipal 
finances  are  mainly  in  the  hands 
of  a  board  of  estimates  consisting 
of  the  mayor,  the  president  of  the 
first  chamber  of  the  city  council, 
the  city  engineer,  the  comp- 
troller, and  the  city  solicitor. 

The  city's  total  receipts  in 
1920  were  $21,623,332;  the  net 
bonded  indebtedness  was  $62,- 
167,488;  the  assessed  valuation 
of  property  $1,129,112,032. 

History.  —  Baltimore,  which 
was  founded  in  1729,  took  its 
name  from  Lord  Baltimore 
(q.  v.),  the  founder  of  the  Mary- 
land (iolony.  It  was  incorpor- 
ated as  a  city  in  1796  and  early 
became  noted  for  its  commerce 
and  for  shipbuilding. 

In  the  War  of  Independence 
its  citizens  were  intensely  patri- 
otic, furnishing  much  of  the 
fervor  that  led  Maryland  to 
resist  the  British  so  strenuously. 
During  the  War  of  1812,  Balti- 
more successfully  withstood  a 
combined  military  and  naval 
attack  by  the  British,  in  1814. 
It  was  during  this  engagement, 
that  Francis  Scott  Key  (q.  v.), 
while  held  prisoner  on  a  British 
warship,  composed  the  words  of 
The  Star  Spangled  Banner.  The 
Civil  War  seriously  affected  the 
trade  of  Baltimore,  but  the  re- 
covery after  the  period  of  de- 
pression was  rapid  and  the  later 
development  remarkable. 

On  Feb.  7,  1904,  a  great  fire 
started  in  the  business  section, 
burning  for  thirty  hours,  and 
practically  wiped  out  that  part  of 
the  city,  with  an  estimated  loss 
of  $125,000,000.  Within  three 
years,  however,  all  the  burned 
district  had  been  rebuilt. 

The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop,  whose  see  is 
the  oldest  in  the  United  States. 
Vol.  I  —Oct.  '21 


Consult  Love's  Baltimore:  The 
Old  Town  and  the  Modern  City; 
Coyle's  The  Baltimore  Book; 
Baltimore  (published  monthly  by 
The  Merchants  and  Manufac- 
turers' Association) ;  Baltimore 
Municipal  Journal. 

Baltimore,  George  Calvert, 
FIRST  Baron  (?1580-1632),  Eng- 
lish statesman,  was  bom  at 
Kipling,  Yorkshire.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1609,  and  ten 
years  later  became  secretary  of 
state  (1619).  The  failure  of  the 
Spanish  marriage  scheme,  how- 
ever, made  him  very  unpopular, 
and  in  1624  he  resigned  office, 
at  the  same  time  declaring  him- 
self a  Catholic.  On  his  retire- 
ment he  was  created  (1625)  a 
baron,  and  was  granted  large 
estates  in  county  Longford,  Ire- 
land. 


Baltimore  Bird  or  Oriole.  See 

Oriole. 

Baltistan,  bal-te-stan',  Bulti, 
or  Little  Tibet,  mountainous 
division  of  Kashmir,  India, 
drained  by  the  Indus  in  its  course 
between  the  Himalayas  and  the 
Karakoram  Mountains.  It  con- 
tains many  lofty  peaks,  especial- 
ly Mt.  Godwin-Austen  (28,265 
ft.),  one  of  the  three  highest 
peaks  in  the  world.  Capital, 
Skardo  or  Iskardo.  Area,  13- 
000  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
50,000. 

Baltjik.  See^ALTCHiK. 

Baluba,  ba-loo'ba,  large  negro 
tribe  in  the  Congo  Free  State, 
living  between  the  head- waters  of 
the  rivers  Lomami  and  Sankum, 
in  6°  s.  lat.  and  2_3_°-25°  E.  long. 

Baluelii,  ba-loo'che,  an  Ira- 
nean  dialect  which  has  largely 


baluchistanI^* 

i  "Xi         TXZ.        Tin  ihrul 


A  settlement  in  Newfoundland, 
granted  by  Baltimore  to  some 
colonists  in  1621,  being  in  a  very 
unsettled  condition,  he  visited 
America  in  1627  to  restore  order, 
and  again  in  1629,  when  he  was 
accompanied  by  his  family.  The 
severe  climate  and  the  enmity  of 
the  French  resulted  in  his  apply- 
ing for  a  grant  of  land  (1632) 
which  was  named  'Maryland,' 
but  he  died  before  the  patent  was 
issued,  and  the  grant  descended 
to  his  son  Cecil. 

See  Maryland.  Consult 
Browne's  George  Calvert  and 
Cecilius  Calvert;  Wilhelm's  Life 
of  George  Calvert  (Md.  Histor. 
Soc.  monograph);  C.  C.  Hall's 
The  Lords  Baltimore  and  the 
Maryland  Palatinate;  Kennedy's 
Life  and  Character  of  George 
Calvert. 


borrowed  .from  the  language  of 
bordering  nations,  notably  Per- 
sian, Arabic,  Turkish,  and  Sind- 
hi.  It  is  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions, the  northern  and  the 
southern,  the  latter  being  the 
purer,  the  former  having  a  super- 
ior literature.   

Baluchistan,  ba-loo-chis-tan', 
a  country  of  Southern  Asia, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Afghan- 
istan, on  the  east  by  British 
India,  on  the  south  by  the  Ara- 
bian Sea,  and  on  the  west  by 
Persia.  The  province  has  an 
area  of  about  160,000  square 
miles,  and  the  whole  territory 
(except  British  Baluchistan)  is 
under  native  rule. 

The  mountains  of  Baluchistan 
are  a  continuationofthe  Sulaiman 
range.  The  southern  spur,  known 
as  the  Hala  Mountains,  reaches 


Washington  Monument. 

BALTIMORE. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '18.  Vol.  I.— at  Page  554 


Baluchistan 


555 


Balzac 


the  sea  at  Cape  Monze;  the  w. 
ridges  run  parallel  to  the  sea- 
coast,  and  merge  in  the  mountain 
system  of  Persia.  The  coast- 
Ime  stretches  E.  and  w.  for  600  m. 
There  are  no  harbors.  Forests 
are  sparse  and  stunted;  coal  is 
mined  at  Khelat.  The  railway 
from  Karachi  reaches  New  Cha- 
man,  65  m.  beyond  Quetta,  which 
is  connected  with  Sibi  by  two  lines, 
one  through  the  Harnai  Valley, 
and  the  other  through  the  Bolan 
Pass.  The  few  fertile  spots  in  the 
province  are  peopled  by  pastoral 
tribes,  chiefly  Brahui  and  Baluchi. 
Baluchistan,'  with  its  scanty  popu- 
lation and  products,  owes' its  im- 

Sortance  to  its  position  on  the 
ritish  Indian  frontier,  and  its 
command  of  the  trade  routes  be- 
tween Persia,  Afghanistan,  and 
India.  For  administrative  pur- 
poses _  it  is  divided  into_  six 
agencies — Quetta-Pishin,  Sinjawi, 
Zhob,  Khelat,  S.  Baluchistan,  and 
Chagai.  The  governor-general's 
agent,  who  is  also  chief  commis- 
sioner _  for  British  Baluchistan, 
supervises  the  work  of  the  politi- 
cal officers. 

Of  the  early  history  of  the 
province  we  have  little  authentic 
mformation.  Up  to  the  17th  cen- 
tury the  people  of  Khelat  were 
Hindus.  Threatened  by  Persia, 
they  invited  Kambar,  the  son  of 
a  Brahui  Mussulman  chief,  to 
be_  their  ruler;  and  under  this 
chief,  from  ^  whose  patronymic 
the  dynasty  is  still  called  Kam- 
barani,  the  state  became  Moham- 
medan. Abdullah  Khan,  who  be- 
came the  viceroy  of  the  famous 
Nadir  Shah  after  the  latter's  con- 
quest of  India,  was  soon  after- 
ward killed  in  battle.  The 
tyranny  and  licentiousness  of 
Abdullah's  son,  Mohammed,  led 
to  his  deposition  and  murder  by 
his  brother  Nasir,  who  was  khan 
of  Khelat  from  1755  to  1795.  To 
Nasir  is  due  the  formation  of  the 
Baluch  confederacy. 

In  1839  a  British  force  seized 
Khelat,  owing  to  the  supposed 
treachery  of  its  ruler.  In  the 
following  year  the  British  garrison 
was  overpov/ered,  and  in  1841, 
under  a  treaty  of  friendship,  they 
evacuated  the  country.  Through- 
out their  disasters  in  Afghanistan 
the  khan  of  Khelat  remained 
loyal*  and  fresh  treaties,  exe- 
cuted in  1854  and  1876,  have 
drawn  Baluchistan  into  closer 
and  more  cordial  relationship 
with  the  Indian  empire.  On 
Nov.  1,  1887,  the  Assigned  Dis- 
tricts— tracts  in  Pishin,  Shora- 
rud,  Kach,  Khawas,  Harnai,  Sibi, 
and  Tal  Chotiali— became  British 
Baluchistan.  In  1901,  over  an 
area  of  134,000  sq.  m.,  the  pop- 
ulation was  found  not  to  ex- 
ceed 810,746.  See  Floyer's  Un- 
explored Baluchistan  (1882); 
Hughes's  The  Country  of  Balu- 
chistan (1887);  MacGregor's  Wan- 


derings in  Baluchistan  (1882); 
MacMahon  and  Holdich's  'N.  W. 
Borderlands  of  Baluchistan,'  in 
Geog.  Jour.,  1877,  pp.  392-416. 

Baluster,  a  small  circular 
pilaster,  of  Italian  invention, 
supporting  a  hand-rail,  coping, 
balcony,  or  terrace.  A  row  of 
balusters  forms  a  balustrade.  A 
banister  is  one  of  the  vertical  sup- 
ports of  a  hand-rail  on  a  balcony 
or  stairs,  and  is  often  applied  to 
the  balustrade  itself. 


which  he  continued  to  send  out 
an  enormous  number  of  novels, 
some  historical,  but  mainly  illus- 
trative of  French  contemporary 
life  and  manners.  These  he  after- 
ward grouped  under  the  collect- 
ive title  of  the  Comcdie  Humaine, 
in  which  he  describes  the  mani- 
fold aspects  of  human  life.  Often 
gross  and  brutal,  Balzac  is  yet  one 
of  the  great  writers  of  the  world, 
being  the  father  of  the  realistic 
school  of  fiction,  as  well  as  the 


7^ 


Honors  do  Balzac. 


Balwearie  Castle,  ruined 
stronghold,  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  2 
m.  w.  of  Kirkcaldy,  is  traditionally 
the  birthplace  of  Michael  Scott. 

Balzac,HoNOREDE(i  799-1850), 
a  celebrated  French  novelist,  was 
a  native  of  Tours.  Educated  at 
Vendome,  and  at  the  Sorbonne, 
Paris,  for  some  years  he  lived  in 
a  state  of  penury.  Success  came 
\yhen.  in  his  thirtieth  year,  he  pub- 
lished, under  his  own  name,  Les 
Verniers   Chouans  0829),  after 


forerunner  of  the  novelist  of  char- 
acter analysis  and  portrayal. 
Balzac  is  one  of  the  closest  and 
shrewdest  observers  of  contem- 
porary life  and  manners,  and  one 
of  the  keenest  analysts  of  the 
human  heart;  and  few  have  ex- 
celled him  in  the  power  and  vivid- 
ness with  which  he  presents  the 
results  of  his  observations.  His 
death  occurred  at  Paris,  on  his 
return  from  his  wedding  trip,  his 
marriage  with  the  Polish  Coun- 


Balzac 

tess  Hanska  having  taken  place 
only  three  months  earlier.  Of  his 
works,  which  were  very  numerous, 
the  best  known  are  La  Peau  de 
Chagrin  (1831);  L'Auberge  Rouge 
(1831);  La  Femme  de  Trente  Ans 
( 1 83 1 ) ;  Eugenie  Grandet  ( 1 833 ) ;  Xa 
Recherche  de  PAbsolu  (1835);  Le 
Pere  Goriot  (1835);  and  Les  Pa- 
rents Pauvres  (1849).  A  collected 
edition  of  his  works  began  to  ap- 
pear in  1899.  Les  C antes  Drdla- 
tiques  (1831-8),  although  famcus, 
represents  the  weaker  side  of  Bal- 
zac's work.  Numerous  English 
translations  have  appeared,  of 
which  the  best  is  the  series  by 
Miss  Wormeley  (1890-3),  with  a 
memoir  of  Balzac.  See  also  Saints- 
bury '  s  i^rewc/i  Aroz;e/w/5  ( 1 89 1 ),  an  d 
Balzac's  Life,  written  by  his  sister 
(1858);  Lovenjoul's  Histoire  des 
CEuvres  de  H.  de  Balzac  (2nd  ed. 
1886);  Theophile  Gautier's  H.  de 
Balzac^  (1859);  Sainte-Beuve's 
Causeries  du  Lundi  (vol.  ii.)  and 
Portraits  Contemporains  (vol.  ii.); 
Taine's  Nouveaux  Essais  de  Cri- 
tique et  d' Histoire  (1865);  and 
Faguet's  Etudes  LittCraires  sur  le 
XIXe  Siecle  (1887).  See,  also,  for 
bibliography  S  a  1 1  u  s '  s  Balzac 
(1888). 

Balzac,  Jean  Louis  Guez  de 
(1594-1654),  a  French  author, 
whose  published  Letters  (1624), 
written  from  Rome,  brought  him 
the  friendship  and  patronage  of 
Cardinal  Richelieu.  By  the  polish 
of  his  style,  and  the  exactness  of 
his  epithets,  he  did  for  French 
prose  what  Malherbe  did  for  verse 
— purified  it  from  the  pedantries 
of  the  16th  century. 

Balzico,  Alfonso  (1825),  Ital- 
ian sculptor,  born  at  Cava  de* 
Tirreni,  near  Salerno.  He  exe- 
cuted several  works  for  King 
Victor  Emmanuel — e.g.  Cleopa- 
tra, The  Coquette,  and  Revenge. 
Among  his  other  works  are  Vin- 
cenzo  Bellini,  a  beautiful  statue, 
now  at  Naples;  Dujie  Ferdinand 
of  Genoa,  at  Turin;  and  Victor 
Emmanuel  (1897),  at  Naples. 

Bamangwato,  or  Ba-mang- 
UATO,  a  native  district  and  peo- 
ple in  the  Bechuanaland  Pro- 
tectorate, ruled  over  by  the  chief 
Khama.  The  Bamangwato  are 
a  branch  of  the  great  Bantu  race, 
and  opposed  the  fierce  Matabele 
clans  to  the  N.  The  country 
extends  E.  as  far  as  the  Mac- 
loutsie  R.,  and  across^  it  to  the 
confluence  of  the  Shashi  and  Tuli. 

Bambara,  or  B  ambarra,  people 
of  French  W.  Africa,  inhabiting  a 
region  drained  by  head-waters  of 
the  Joliba  or  Niger,  and  bounded 
on  s.  by  the  Mandingo  country. 
The  Bambara,  who  belong^  to  the 
Mandingorace.areworkers  in  gold, 
ivory,  and  iron,  besides  being  skil- 
ful agriculturists.  The  majority 
are  slaves  and  heathen,  the  upper 
classes  being  Mohammedans.  The 
chief  towns  are  Segu,  Bammako, 
and  Sansanding.      The  country 


556 

was  opened  up  to  French  trade 
by  treaty  in  1881. 

Bamberg,  tn.,  Bavaria,  dist. 
Upper  Franconia,  situated  on  the 
Regnitz,  2  m.  above  its  confluence 
with  the  Main,  partly  on  a  scries 
of  hills  (705  ft.),  partly  in  the 
valley  below.  The  chief  orna- 
ment of  the  town  is  the  cathedral 
(Late  Romanesque,  founded  10C4, 
but  rebuilt  in  the  13th  century, 
and  restored  1828-37),  enshrining 
the  tomb  and  relics  of  the  Em- 
peror Henry  ll.,  its  founder. 
Bamberg  has  recently  developed 
into  an  industrial  town,  manufac- 
turing cottons,  ropes,  beer,  tobac- 
co, etc.   Pop.  (19rc)  41,823. 

Bamberger,  Ludwig  (1823- 
99),  German  economist,  states- 
man, and  author;  studied  law; 
became  a  republican  leader  in 
the  revolution  of  1848;  was  con- 
demned to  death,  but  escaped 
from  the  country.  Returning  to 
Germany,  he  entered  (1868)  the 
Reichstag  as  a  National  Liberal, 
where  he  rose  to  eminence  as  a 
financial  authority,  monometallist, 
and  free  trader,  and  led  the  seces- 
sion of  1881  frorn  the  National 
Liberal  party  against  Bismarck's 
colonial  and  protective  policy. 
See  his  own  Ertnnerungen  (1899). 

Bambino  (Ital.  'The  Babe'), 
a  term  applied  to  the  wooden 
figure  of  the  child  J^esus  in  the 
church  of  Ara  Coeli  at  Rome. 
It  is  credited  with  miraculous 
healing  powers.  On  the  Epiph- 
any (Jan.  6)  occurs  the  festival 
of  the  Bambino,  when  the  image, 
in  swaddling  clothes  and  covered 
with  jewels,  is  exhibited  to  the 
people. 

Bamboo,  or  Bambusa,  a  genua 
of  grasses  with  woody  aerial  stems 
rising  from  branching  rhizomes, 
and  often  reaching  the  height  of 
ordinary  trees.     .They  are  most 

Plentiful  in  India,  China,  and 
apan,  and_  are  found  in  Africa 
and  America.  B.  vulgaris^  is 
found  both  in  Asia  and  America, 
and  is  widely  spread.  It  reaches 
a  height  of  over  100  ft.,  with  a 
diameter  of  1  ft.  at  the  base.  It 
flowers  only  at  _  long  intervals, 
and  produces  grain  which  is  used 
as  food  in  India.  Bamboos  are 
put  to  mzM'j  uses.  As  they  are 
solid  at  the  nodes  and  hollow 
between,  vessels  and  pipes  are 
made  of  them;  they  are  also 
used  for  building  purposes,  and 
for  furniture,  blinds,  etc.  In  the 
W.  Indies  the  young  shoots  are 
eaten  like  asparagus,  and  paper 
is  rnade  both  in  the  E.  and  W. 
Indies  from  the  young  stems. 
Over  two  hundred  species  of  these 
graceful  gigantic  grasses — for  the 
bamboos  belong  to  the  order 
Gramineae — have  been  distin- 
guished and  described.  They 
have  upright  perennial  woody 
stems.  No  bamboo  is^  native  to 
Europe,  but  many  species  do  well 
in  English  gardens,  ths  first  to  be 


Bampton 

so  grown  having  been  the  Hima- 
layan Thamnocalamus  Falconeri. 

Arundinaria  japonica  {Bam- 
busa metake)  is  one  of  the  hardiest 
and  most  vigorous  of  bamboos,  as 
it  is  also  one  of  the  most  commonly 
grown.  It  grows  to  a  height  of 
seven  or  eight  feet.  Phyllostachys 
nigra  is  characterized  by  the 
color  of  its  stems,  which  are  olive 
green  during  their  first  year,  sub- 
sequently changing  to  black.  It 
is  very  hardy  and  vigorous,  and 
attains  to  a  height  of  upwards 
of  twenty  feet.  Phyllostachys 
Castillonis  combines  considerable 
hardiness  with  extreme  beauty. 
Both  leaves  and  stems  are  subtly 
variegated — green,  yellow,  white, 
and  pink.  Bambusa  palmata  usu- 
ally grows  to  a  height  of  about  four 
feet.  The  leaves  are  bright  green 
above,  pale  and  slightly  hairy 
I  clow.  Arundinaria  macros perma 
forms  the  great  reed,  or  cane, 
brakes  of  the  Southern  States. 
Bambusa  tesselata  {B.  Ragamow- 
ski)  _  is  another  small-growing 
species.  The  plant  has  a  most 
interesting  and  graceful  manner 
of  growth.  Phyllostachys  Henonis, 
which  grows  to  a  height  of  about 
ten  feet,  is  perhaps  our  most  beau- 
tiful species.  See  Freeman-Mit- 
ford's  The  Bamboo  Garden  (1896); 
Gen.  Munro's  monograph.  Linn. 
Soc.  (1866);  Riviere's  Les  Bam- 
bous  (1878);  Routledge's  Bamboo 
....  its  Cultivation  and  Treat- 
ment (1875);  Stewart  and  Brandis's 
Forest  Flora  of  N.  W.  and  Cent. 
India  (1874). 

Bambuk,  mountainous  region 
of  W.  Africa,  in  the  French 
colony  of  Senegal,  between  the 
Faleme  and  the  Senegal  River. 
Cattle  and  sheep  are  reared,  and 
^ron,  gold,  ivory,  cereals,  palms, 
and  fruits  are  produced.  The  in- 
habitants are  Mandingoes. 

Bamian,  former  tn.  (alt.  8,350 
ft.),  80  m.  N.w.  of  Kabul,  Afghan- 
istan, on  N.  side  of  the  pass 
leading  from  that  country  into 
Afghan  Turkestan,  between  the 
Hindu  -  Kush  and  Koh  -  i  -  baba 
ranges;  peopled  by  Hazaras,  and 
noteworthy  for  its  five  colossal 
human  figures  sculptured  out  of 
the  conglomerate  of  the  valley 
wall,  and  described  about  630 
A.d.  by  a  Chinese  Buddhist 
monk,  Hwen  Thsang.  The  two 
largest  figures,  said  to  represent 
Buddha  (173  ft.  and  120  ft.  high 
respectively),  are  draped,  and  are 
prooably  the  work  of  Buddhist 
artists  from  India.  The  rocks  in 
the  vicinity  are  honeycombed  with 
caves,  domed  and  pictured  in  a 
similar  style.  See  article  in  Jour, 
of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Soc,  1886,  by 
Captains  Talbot  and  Maitland. 

Bampton,  John  (1689-1751), 
founder  of  the  Bampton  Lec- 
tures, was  (1718)  a  minor  canon  of 
Salisbury  Cathedral,  which  posi- 
tion he  "held  till  his  death.  See 
The  Oxjord  Ten-year  Book  (1882). 


Bampton  Lectures 

Bampton  Lectures,  a  course 
of  eight  divinity  lecture-sermons 
provided  for  by  the  will  of  John 
Bampton,  canon  of  Salisbury 
{d.  1751).  In  terms  of  the  will, 
these  lectures  are  to  be  given  at 
Oxford  on  eight  Sunday  morn- 
ings in  term  between  the  com- 
mencement of  the  last  month  in 
Lent  term  and  the  third  week 
in  Act  term,  upon  one  of  the 
following  subjects: — To  confirm 
and  establish  the  Christian  faith, 
and  to  confute  all  heretics  and 
schismatics;  upon  the  divine  au- 
thority of  the  Holy  Scriptures; 
upon  the  writings  of  the  primi- 
tive fathers:  the  divinity  of  the 
Saviour  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit; 
and  the  Creeds.  The  lecturer, 
chosen  by  the  heads  of  colleges, 
must  be  a  graduate  of  Oxford  or 
Cambridge.  The  first  lecturer 
was  appointed  in  1779.  Since 
then  the  lectures  have  been  given 
annually  with  rare  exceptions. 
They  have  been  published. 

Bamra,  native  state  in  Sam- 
balpur  dist.,  Central  Provinces, 
Inclia.  Area,  1,988  sq.  m.  Pop. 
(1901)  123,378. 

Ban.    See  Ban  at. 

Banana,  a  monocotyledonous 
plant  of  the  order  _  Musaceae. 
Though  some  have  distinguished 
many  species  in  cultivation,  De 
Candolle  (Origin  of  Cultivated 
Plants,  1884)  shows  that  there 
is  only  one,  Musa  sapientum  of 
Robert  Brown;  even  the  plan- 
tain, or  pisang  (M.  paradisiaca 
of  some  botanists),  is  merely  a 
sub  -  species  or  variety  of  M. 
sapientum.  The  original  home 
of  the  banana  is  doubtful,  but 
most  evidence  is  in  favor  of  the 
E.  Indies.  It  is  now  cultivated 
in  every  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
country,  where  its  nutritious  fruit, 
rich  in  starch,  sugar,  and  nitroge- 
nous matters,  forms  the  principal 
food  of  millions.  The  plant  has 
underground  stems  or  rhizomes, 
from  which  groups  _  of  leaves 
arise,  their  aerial  petioles  form- 
ing sheaths  which  are  rolled  con- 
centrically around  one  another  so 
as  to  form  a  vertical  hollow  struc- 
ture, wrongly  called  the  stem, 
which  grows  to  a  height  of  18  ft. 
From  the  crown  of  the  leaf- 
sheaths  the  blades  spread  out 
like  palm  leaves,  each  being  in 
one  broad  piece  from  6  to  10  ft. 
long.  A  strong  midrib  runs  down 
the  middle  of  each  blade,  and 
from  its  parallel  veins  run  out 
at  right  angles  towards  the  mar- 
gin. The  axis  of  an  inflorescence 
which  grows  up  the  center  of  the 
petiole-sheath  arises  from  the 
rhizome  until  it  emerges  among 
the  blades,  when  it  bends  over 
and  produces  its  flowers  on  a 
long  spike,  which  ripen  into 
fruit.  The  clusters  on  a  single 
tree  sometimes  weigh  more  than 
four  stones.  When  the  whole 
aerial    growth    decays    to  the 


557 

ground,  the  rhizome  continues 
growing  and  sending  up  new 
aerial  shoots.  Certain  varieties, 
however,  notably  Musa  coccinea, 
M .  superha,  M .  assamica,  and  M. 
enscte,  may  be  grown  for  decora- 


Banana  Plant. 


Inflorescence  of  the  Banana. 
1,  Flower ;  2,  fruit ;  3,  section  of  fruit. 


tive  purposes  without  the  applica- 
tion of  great  heat.  All  the  plan- 
tain-tree species  have  handsome 
foliage,  and  some  yield  a  fibre. 

The  variety  of  banana  which  is 
most  suitable,  as  it  is  most  fre- 
quently grown,  for  market  pur- 


.  Banbrldge 

j)Oses,  is  the  large  yellow  Mar- 
tinique or  Jamaica.  These,  when 
intended  for  export,  are  gathered 
green,  and  allowed  to  ripen  on 
the  voyage  and  after  reaching 
their  destination.  In  the  trop- 
ics the  banana  is  among  the 
most  important  articles  of  food. 
It  contains  about  five  per  cent, 
albumin,  twenty  per  cent,  sugar 
and  pectose,  and  about  seventy- 
four  per  cent,  water.  The  dried 
flour  of  ripe  bananas  may  be 
used  in  the  manufacture  of 
bread  and  cakes,  and  has  con- 
siderable nutritive  value.  The 
consumption  of  bananas  has  in- 
creased enormously  during  the 
last  few  years.  The  fruit  comes 
chiefly  from  the  West  Indies. 

Banana,  seapt.,  N.  side  of  riv. 
Congo,  near  mouth,  Congo  State, 
W.  Africa,  6°  1'  S.  and  12°  17'  e.; 
exports  ivory,  palm  oil,  palm 
nuts,  rubber,  and  gum.  Several 
European  steamer  lines  touch  this 
T)ort. 

Bananal,  or  Santa  Anna.  (1.) 
island  state  of  Matto  Grosso, 
Brazil,  13°  27'  to  10°  29'  S.,  250  m. 
long,  35  m.  broad,  enclosed  by 
two  arms  of  the  Araguav  R. 
(2.)  Town  (alt.  1,255  ft.)  and'R.  R. 
stn.,  prov.  Sao  Paulo,  72  m.  W. 
by  N.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Banana  -  quits,  small,  active, 
fly-catching  birds  of  the  'honey- 
creeper'  group  Certhiola,  so- 
calle^^d  in  the  West  Indies  because 
they  frequent  banana  orchards, 
where  they  are  welcome  for  their 
pretty  ways  and  melodious  notes. 
English-speaking  residents  in  the 
Tropics  call  'banana-birds'  va- 
rious more  or  less  related  birds  of 
similar  habits,  as  the  black, 
cuckoo-like,  African  plant-cutters 
(Musophaga). 

Banas,  or  Bunas,  riv.  in  E. 
Rajputana,  India;  after  a  course 
of  300  m.  from  the  Aravalli  Mts. 
falls  into  the  Chambal. 

Banat  (Hung.  Bdnsdg),  in 
its  general  signification,  a  fron- 
tier province  governed  by  a 
ban,  a  word  cognate  with  the 
Slav,  pan,  'lord.'  There  were 
several  banats — e.g.  Croatia,  Dal- 
matia,  Slavonia,  Bosnia;  but  when 
the  word  is  used  without  qualifi- 
cation, it  is  generally  meant  to 
indicate  the  Temesvar  banat — i.e. 
the  region  between  the  Danube, 
the  Theiss,  the  Maros,  and  the  Car- 
pathians, a  region  which  for  more 
than  one  hundred  and  sixty  years 
(1552-1717)  was  ruled  by  the 
Turks,  from  whom  it  was  deliv- 
ered by  Prince  Eugene.  It  was 
definitively  incorporated  with  the 
rest  of  Hungary  in  1860.  In 
Rumania  the  banat  of  Craiova 
existed  from  the  15th  century. 

Banbridgc,  mrkt.  tn.  in  co. 
Down,  Ulster,  Ireland,  on  R. 
Bann,_16  m.  n.e.  of  Newry  by 
rail;  is  an  important  centre  of 
the  linen  manufacture;  in  the 
vicinity  are  large  bleach-greens. 


Banbury 

Banbury,  munic.  bor.  and 
mrkt.  tn.  on  the  Cherwell,  15 
m.  N.  of  Bicester,  Oxfordshire, 
England,  with  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements,  sack- 
ing, ropes,  bricks,  and  tiles,  and 
malting  and  brewing  industries. 
There  are  nursery  gardens  in  the 
neighborhood.  The  celebrated 
Banbury  cake  has  had  a  reputa- 
tion since  1608.  The  castle,  built 
1125,  is  now  represented  by  a  few 
fragments-  and  the  cross,  im- 
mortalized in  the  nursery  rhyme, 
has  disappeared.  Roman  remains 
have  been  discovered.  Pop.  (1911) 
13,463. 

Banc,  Sittings  in.  The  ses- 
sions of  a  'bench,'  or  court  of  two 
or  more  judges,  usually  for  the 
purpose  of  hearing  appeals  from 
the  decisions  of  courts  of  first 
instance.  The  term  is  in  common 
use  in  England  and  the  United 
States. 

Banca,  Banka,  or  Bangka,  an 
isl.  of  the  Dutch  E.  Indies,  sepa- 
rated from  the  E.  coast  of  Su- 
matra by  the  Strait  of  Banca; 
7  to  16  m.  wide.  It  is  long  (157 
m.)  and  narrow,  hilly  (2,300  ft.) 
in  the  N.  and  s.,  and  has  a  moist 
climate,  with  a  heavy  rainfall — 
119  in.  at  Muntok,  the  capital. 
Principal  productions:  tin  (10,000 
to  13,000  tons  annually),  bananas 
and  other  fruits,  areca  nuts,  wax, 
and  drugs.  Banca  forms  a  resi- 
dency of  the  Dutch  E.  Indies,  and 
has  belonged  to  the  Netherlands 
since  1608.  Area,  4,475  sq.  m. 
Pop.  (1895)  93,600,  of  whom32,187 
were  Chinese. 

Banco,  in  finance,  equivalent 
to  'bank  value,'  or  the  standard 
money  in  which  certain  Euro- 
pean banks,  especially  the  banks 
of  Hamburg,  Genoa,  Amsterdam, 
and  Venice,  formerly  kept  their 
accounts. 

Bancroft,  Cecil  Franklin 
Patch  (1839-1901),  Amer.  educa- 
tor, born  at  New  Ipswich,  N.  H., 
and  graduated  (1860)  at  Dart- 
mouth. He  studied  theology  at 
Andover  and  the  Union  Theol. 
Seminary,  and  after  ordination 
was  principal  of  the  Lookout 
Mountain  Educational  Institutions 
in  Tennessee.  He  travelled  abroad 
1872-3,  and  in  1873  was  made 
eighth  principal  of  Phillips  Acad- 
emy, Andover,  Mass.  Member 
and  officer  of  several  educational 
societies,  and  author  of  various 
addresses  and  articles. 

Bancroft,  George  (1800-91), 
American  historian,  statesman, 
and  diplomat,  was  born  in 
Worcester,  Mass.,  the  son  of  the 
Rev.  Aaron  Bancroft,  a  Uni- 
tarian clergyman.  He  graduated 
(1817)  at  Harvard,  and  studied  for 
nve  years  at  the  universities  of 
Gottingen,  Leipzig,  Berlin,  and 
Heidelberg,  specializing  in  his- 
tory, and  meeting  Goethe  and 
other  distinguished  men.  On  his 
return  to  the  U.  S.  he  attempted 


558 

preaching  and  was  for  a  time  a 
tutor  at  Harvard.  At  this  period 
(1823)  his  first  book.  Poems,  was 
published;  and  shortly  afterward, 
in  partnership  with  Dr.  Joseph  G. 
Cogswell,  later  librarian  of  the 
Astor  Library,  he  established  the 
famous  Round  Hill  School  at 
Boston  which  was  successful 
from  the  start.  Bancroft  had 
begun  work  on  his  History  of  the 
United  States  (1834-76),  when,  in 
1835,  he  removed  to  Springfield, 
where  the  second  volume  was 
completed.  He  had  already  de- 
clined nominations  to  state  offices, 
although  active  as  a  Democratic 
politician,  when,  in  1838,  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Van  Buren 
collector  of  the  port  of  Boston. 
He  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  the  governorship  of  Massachu- 
setts in  1844.  The  next  year  he 
was  appointed  by  President  Polk 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  as  one  of 
the  party  supporting  the  annexa- 
tion of  Texas.  During  the  war 
with  Mexico  that  followed,  Ban- 
croft not  only  accomplished 
effective  service  with  the  navy  in 
Mexican  waters  and  secured  Cali- 
fornia to  the  Union,  but  was  in- 
strumental in  bringing  about  the 
Oregon  compromise  with  Great 
Britain;  and  during  his  brief 
term  of  office  (1845-6)  he  devel- 
oped the  Naval  Observatory  at 
Washington  and  established  the 
Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis. 
From  1846  to  1849  he  was  U.  S. 
minister  to  Great  Britain,  con- 
ducting his  historical  investiga- 
tions at  the  same  time  that  he 
performed  diplomatic  duties.  On 
his  return  he  took  up  his  residence 
in  New  York,  where  he  remained 
for  eighteen  years,  busily  occupied 
with  the  preparation  of  succeeding 
volumes  of  his  history.  In  1867 
he  was  appointed  U.  S.  minister  to 
Prussia,  his  credentials  being 
altered  in  1868  and  1871  to  cover 
the  North  German  Confederation 
and  the  German  Empire  respec- 
tively. He  retired  in  1874.  Dur- 
ing this  period  he  negotiated 
(1868)  with  Prussia  'the  first 
treaty  of  naturalization  ever  en- 
tered into'  (George  L.  Rives  in 
A  Memorial  of  George  Bancroft, 
1892),  which  was  followed  by 
similar  treaties  with  many  other 
states  of  Europe,  and  he  was  one 
of  the  commission  to  arrange  the 
Northwest  Territory  affair  with 
Great  Britain.  Mr.  Bancroft 
lived  in  Washington  after  his 
resignation  of  the  German  mis- 
sion. He  completed  the  tenth 
volume  of  his  History  proper  in 
1876.  Subsequently  he  prepared 
and  publishecl  the  History  of  the 
Formation  of  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  (1882).  The 
whole  series  was  revised  and  re- 
issued under  Mr.  Bancroft's 
supervision  as  History  of  the 
United  States  from  the  Discovery 
of  America  to  the  Inauguration  of 


Bancrofts 

Washington  (1884-5).  This  work- 
shows  much  diligent  and  skilful 
research,  and  remains  a  valuable 
repository  of  the  facts  of  Amer- 
ican history;  but  its  philosophical 
value  is  lessened  by  the  author's 
excessive  patriotism,  which  at 
times  led  him  into  misrepresenta- 
tion of  the  men  and  conditions 
he  was  describing.  Mr.  Ban- 
croft delivered  many  orations  and 
addresses  on  public  occasions 
which  were  printed.  He  held 
office  and  membership  in  numer- 
ous literary  associations.  He  was 
fond  of  out-of-door  life,  and  his 
venerable  but  erect  figure  on 
horseback  at  Washington  was 
always  an  object  of  interest  to 
visitors.  He  took  equal  pleasure, 
in  the  summer  time,  in  cultivating 
his  rosarium  at  Newport,  R.  I. 
See  West's  George  Bancroft  (1900). 

Bancroft,  Hubert  Hov^^e 
(1832),  American  historian,  born 
at  Granville,  Ohio;  established 
.a  book-shop  in  San  Francisco  in 
001852,  and  gathered  there,  by  per- 
Ivsonal   purchases,  the   library  of 
\  60,000  volumes   and  transcripts 
I  of  documents  (since  1905  in  posses- 
sion  of  the  Univ.  of  Cal.)  used  by 
J*  himself  and  his  staff  of  collabora- 
>  tors  in  writing  his  History  of  the 
X Pacific  Coast  of  N.  America  (40 
^vols.  1882-91).     His  other  works 
v»  are  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific 
\States  (5  vols.  1874-5);  Chronicles 
,vof  the  Builders  of  the  Common- 
Awealth  (7  vols.  1891-2);  and  Re- 
^ sources  and  Development  of  Mexico 
(1893). 

Bancroft,  Richard  (1544- 
1610),  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
In  1597  he  succeeded  Aylmer  as 
bishop  of  London.  He  attended 
the  Hampton  Court  Conference, 
and  in  1604  he  was  raised  to  the 
primacy.  See  Fuller's  Church 
Hist,  (new  ed.  1868). 

Bancrofts,  The.  Sir  Squire 
Bancroft  (1841),  one  of  the  most 
successful  comedians  of  the  Vic- 
torian stage,  was  born  in  London. 
In  1861  he  made  his  debut  at 
the  Theatre  Royal,  Birmingham. 
Maria  Wilton  attracted  the  notice 
of  Mr.  Charles  Dillon,  the  tra- 

fedian,  who  engaged  her  for  the 
.ondon  Lyceum  in  1856.  Having 
entered  into  partnership  with  H. 
J.  Byron,  she  opened  the  Prince  of 
•  Wales's  Theatre  in  1865,  Squire 
Bancroft  being  one  of  her  com- 
pany. This  success  was  followed 
by  the  production  of  Robertson's 
Ours,  Caste,  Play,  School,  and 
M.P.,  in  each  of  which  Miss  Wil- 
ton and  Mr.  Bancroft — who  were 
married  at  the  close  of  the  1867 
season — took  leading  parts,  as 
they  did  in  the  subsequent  pro- 
ductions of  Money,  The  Scnool 
for  Scandal,  Masks  and  Faces, 
Diplomacy,  and  Sweethearts.  In 
1879  the  Bancrofts  acquired  the 
Haymarket  Theatre,  which  they 
opened  in  1880  with  Money. 
They  retired  in  1885.      See  the 


Band 


559 


Bandage 


Bancrofts'  autobiography,  On  and 
off  the  Stage  (1888). 

Band,  in  architecture,  is  a  flat 
moulding,  smaller  than  a  fascia. 
The  word,  hovvever,  is  applied  to 
narrow  members  somewhat  wider 
than  fillets,  and  the  word  fascia  to 
broader  members.  The  cinctures 
sometimes  used  round  the  shafts 
of  rusticated  columns  are  called 
bands,  in  which  case  the  column 
is  styled  a  banded  column. 

Band,  Military.  The  earli- 
est record  of  regimental  bands 
is  contained  in  a  French  decree 
of  April  19,  1766,  assigning  a 
band  of  music  to  each  regiment, 
but  it  was  near  the  close  of  the 
century  before  the  institution  was 
thoroughly  established,  the  instru- 
mentation of  the  time  consisting 
of  drums  beaten  with  only  one 
.stick,  fifes,  flutes,  trumpets,  pan- 
dean  pipes  (in  Italy),  and,  a  little 
later,  oagpipes  and.  violins.  The 
average  military  band  instrumen- 
tation now  consists  principally  of 
the  following:  2  first,  2  second, 
and  1  third  B  flat  clarinets;  1  E 
flat  clarinet;  1  piccolo;  2  first,  1 
second  and  1  third  B  flat  cornets: 
1st,  2nd,  and  3rd  altos:  1st,  2nd 
and  3rd  trombones;  oboe,  saxa- 

Ehone,  glockenspiel,  barytone,  B 
at  bass,  E  flat  tuba;  bass  drum 
and  snare  drum. 

Individual  bandmasters  first 
began  to  attract  attention  about 
1850.  The  most  celebrated  in  the 
United  States  army  was 'Patrick 
Sarsfield  Gilmore,  who  served 
throughout  the  Civil  War  and  was 
world  famous  for  his  military 
music.  Someof  his  successors  were 
D.  W.  Reeves,  Victor  Herbert  and 
John  Philip  Sousa,  who  resigned 
from  the  U.  S.  Marine  Band  and 
developed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  the  highest  type  of 
military  concert  band  ever  known. 
Among  the  first  celebrated  band- 
masters of  Europe  may  be  men- 
tioned Neithardt  of  the  Kaiser 
Franz  Grenadier  Band  in  Ger- 
many, and  Charles  Godfrey  of  the 
Coldstream  Guards  Band  in 
England. 

There  are  58  bands  in  the 
regular  establishment  of  the 
United  States  Army:  one  belong- 
ing to  each  of  the  15  cavalry  and 
30  infantry  regiments;  ten  to  the 
artillery  corps;  one  to  the  Engi- 
neers; and  one  to  the  Military 
Academy.  The  organization  is 
practically  the  same  in  all  branches 
of  the  service  with  a  total  of  28  en- 
listed men  to  each  band,  under  the 
musical  direction  and  instruction 
of  a  chief  musician  as  bandmaster, 
and  under  military  control  of  the 
Regimental  or  District  adjutant 
assisted  by  a  drum  major.  The 
two  musicians  (buglers,  trumpet- 
ers) of  each  company  join  the  band 
when  it  turns  out  to  play  at  mili- 
tary formations.  Bandsmen  are 
regularly  enlisted  soldiers,  and  as 
such  subject  to  military  discipline, 


and  to  service  under  arms  in  case 
of  emergency.  They  are  supposed 
to  be  skilled  musicians  when  en- 
listed, but  their  instruction  con- 
tinues under  the  chief  musician. 
In  addition  to  those  of  the  regu- 
lar service,  each  regiment  of  the 
National  Guard  has  its  band, 
sometimes  enlisted  in  the  regiment 
but  generally  hired  for  the  occa- 
sions when  needed.  Many  fa- 
mous bands  are  thus  affiliated 
with  the  military. 

Some  of  the  most  celebrated 
foreign  military  bands  are  those  of 
the  Royal  Artillery,  Royal  Marine 
and  the  Guards,  in  England;  the 
Kaiser  Franz  Grenadier  Band,  in 
Germany;  the  Garde  Republi- 
caine  Band,  in  France;  the 
Bersaglieri  Band,  in  Italy;  the 
Imperial  Guards  Band,  in  Aus- 
tria; and  the  Czar's  Gtiards  Band, 
in  Russia.  For  further  details 
of  U.  S.  army  bands,  see  U.  S. 
Army  Regulations. 

Banda,  cap.  of  dist.  of  same 
name,  N.  W.  Provinces  (United 
Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh), 
India,  situated  on  the  r.  bk.  of 
the  Ken,  70  m.  s.  of  Cawnpur. 
Pop.  (1901)  22,565.  Dist.  area, 
3,061  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901)  631,058. 

Banda.  (1.)  A  group  of  islands 
in  the  Dutch  E.  Indies,  lying  some 
60  m.  s.  of  the  Moluccas,  rising 
independently  from  a  depth  of 
13,000  ft.;  total  area,  18  sq.  m. 
All  of  them  are  volcanic.  Mt. 
Gunung  Api  (2,000  ft.)  is  an  ac- 
tive crater.  The  chief  town  and 
centre  of  trade  is  Nassau  in 
Banda  Neira.  Sago,  cocoanuts, 
nutmegs,  and  mace  are  the  chief 
productions.  Up  to  1873  the  isl- 
ands enjoyed  a  monopoly  in 
the  production  of  nutmegs,  which 
still  form  the  chief  export.  Pop. 
8,000.  (3.)  Banda  Sea,  division 
of  the  Pacific  lying  between  the 
Moluccas  on  the  N.  and  the  e. 
islands  of  the  Java-Timor  chain 
on  the  s.;  depth,  over  2,000  fath- 
oms, except  between  the  Kei  Is. 
and  the  string  of  islets  extending 
from  the  E.  end  cf  Ceram.  Be- 
tween the  Kei  and  Aru  archipela- 
goes there  is  a  deep  trough  (5,684 
fathoms)  connecting  the  Banda 
Sea  with  the  Arafura  Sea. 

Bandage  and  Bandaging. 
The  bandage  may  be  used  to 
fix  splints  or  dressings,  to  pre- 
vent or  to  lessen  swelling,  to 
stop  haemorrhage,  to  drive  the 
blood  from  a  limb  before  opera- 
tion, to  support  a  limb,  or 
to  prevent  or  lessen  movement. 
It  is  made  of  muslin,  linen,  cheese 
cloth,  or  of  flannel.  When  applied 
to  a  wound  it  may  be  of  gauze, 
medicated  with  carbolic  acid, 
iodoform,  boracic  acid,  or  some 
other  antiseptic.  It  may  be  stif- 
fened with  starch,  plaster  of  Paris, 
or  water-glass,  when  it  is  intended 
to  replace  a  splint.  An  elastic  rub- 
ber bandage  (Martin's)  is  some- 
times used  in  cases  of  varicose 


veins  in  the  leg.  The  bandage  is 
wound  spirally  about  the  leg  be- 
fore the  wearer  rises  from  bed, 
and  is  taken  off  at  night.  It 
supports  _  the  walls  of  the  dis- 
eased veins  with  an  equal  pres- 
sure, which  must  not  be  uncum- 
fortably  great.  Because  of  the 
heat  it  produces,  the  Martin's 
bandage  must  be  kept  particu- 
larly clean  by  washing;  and  the 
limb  on  which  it  is  used  must 
be  washed  nightly,  and  then  dusted 
with  some  non-irritating  powder. 
Esmarch's  rubber  bandage  is  used 
to  drive  blood  from  a  limb  before 
any  serious  cutting  operation  that 
involves  risk  of  considerable  loss 
of  blood.  The  patient  being  laid 
flat,  the  arm  or  leg  is  raised  as 
high  as  possible.  This  of  itself 
helps  to  empty  the  limb  of 
blood,  and  firm  stroking  towards 
the  trunk  helps  further  still. 
The  Esmarch  bandage  is  then 
rolled  round  the  limb,  beginning 
at  fingers  or  toes,  and  covering 
the  whc)le  with  spiral  turns.  A 
thick  piece  of  rubber  tubing  is 
tied  tightly  round  the  limb  just 
where  the  bandage  stops,  and 
return  of  the  blood  being  thus 
prevented,  the  bandage  is  re- 
moved. An  amputation  may 
thus  be  rendered  practically 
bloodless.  The  ordinary  'roller' 
bandage  is  usually  18  ft.  long, 
and  from  2^  to  4  in.  broad.  As 
a  rule,  only  elastic  bandages  can 
be  applied  with  simple  spiral 
turns.  Bandaging  always  pro- 
ceeds from  below  upwards,  to 
help  the  blood  onwards,  and  to 
lessen  the  risk  of  stopping  cir- 
culation; and  the  gradually  in- 
creasing girth  of  the  average  arm 
or  leg  necessitates  reverses — i.e. 
half-turns  of  the  bandage  on  it- 
self, bringing  its  inner  face  out- 
wards. The  'spica'  and  the 
'figure  of  8,'  whereby  the  heel 
or  the  knee  is  passed,  are  more 
easily  explained  by  diagram  than 
by  words;  their  object  is  always 
to  make  the  bandage  lie  more 
closely,  and  therefore  more  se- 
curely. When  bandaging  an  arm 
or  a' leg  the  fingers  or  toes  are 
left  uncovered,  so  that  a  glance 
will  serve  to  show  whether  there 
is  any  swelling  or  discoloration, 
which  means  too  tight  a  bandage, 
and  consequent  risk  of  gangrene. 
A  roller  bandage,  properly  put  on, 
lies  snug  and  smooth,  with  about 
the  upper  third  of  each  turn  cov- 
ered by  the  turn  next  after  it. 
The  lower  end  is  fixed  by  the  first 
turn  or  two  covering  it.  The 
upper  end  is  fastened  off  with  a 
safety  pin;  or  the  bandage  is 
split  lengthways  for  as  far  as  is 
necessary,  the  two  divisions  are 
knotted  together  at  their  base,  to 
prevent  the  split  from  lengthen- 
ing, and  then,  the  split  ends  be- 
ing carried  in  opposite  directions 
around  the  limb,  they  are  tied 
together  in  a  reef  knot.  The 


Bandana 


560 


Bandiera 


finishing  off  of  a  bandage  must 
always  be  of  such  a  form  and  in 
such  a  position  that  it  shall  not 
inconvenience  the  patient.  Or- 
dinary pins  must  never  be  used. 
In  bandaging  for  sprains,^  and  in 
any  case  where  swelling  is  to  be 
feared,  the  four  chief  points  are: 
(1)  to  provide  elastic  pressure,  by 
means  of  cotton  padding;;  (2)  to 
apply  that  pressure  as  quickly  as 
possible;  (3)  to  bandage  hrmlv  but 
not  tightly;  and  (4)  to  examine  the 
bandage  without  fail  in  three 
hours,  to  see  whether  it  needs 
slackening. 

The  roller  bandage  is  the  one 
chiefly  used;  but  the  triangular 
bandage,  made  by  doubling  a 
handkerchief  diagonally,  is  use- 
ful for  covering  the  head  and 
for  making  a  sling;    while  the 


placed  upon  a  Turkey-red  or  dark 
ground. 

Banda  Oriental,  former  name 
of  Uruguay. 

Bandel,  Ernst  von  (1800-76), 
German  sculptor,  born  at  Ans- 
bach  in  Bavaria,  and  studied  at 
Munich,  Rome,  and  Hanover. 
His  Mars  Asleep  (1825)  estab- 
lished his  reputation.  His  chief 
works  are  his  colossal  statue  of 
Arminius,  near  Detmold,_  and 
busts  of  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  and 
the  poet  Grabbe.  See  Schmidt's 
Ernst  von  Bandel  (1892). 

Ban-de-la-Roche.  See  Stein- 

THAL. 

Bandelier,  Adolph  Francis 
Alphonse  (1840),  American 
archaeologist,  was  born  in  Berne, 
Switzerland,  and  came  to  the  U.  S. 
in  youth.     He  travelled  for  the 


a  poem  in  eleven  cantos  (1545). 
Proceeding  to  France,  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Agen  by  Henri 
II.  (1550).  He  died  at  Agen, 
after  a  life  full  of  strange  loves 
and  adventures.  Bandello's  no- 
velle,  written  between  1510  and 
1560,  were  published  in  1554 
(Lucca)  and  1573  (Lyons).  They 
are  based  on  the  tales  of  former 
collections,  and  on  contemporary 
events.  Though  in  many  ways  a 
disciple  of  Boccaccio,  Bandello  is 
devoid  of  humor.  His  charac- 
terization is  excellent,  and  his 
narrative  direct.  The  erotic  ad- 
ventures which  abound  are  told 
with  a  certain  restraint.  Good 
editions  of  the  novelle  are  those  of 
London  (1740),  Milan  (1813-14), 
and  Turin  (1853).  English  trans- 
lations by  G.  Fenton,  1567  (re- 
printed in  the  'Tudor  Transla- 
tions,' with  an  introduction  by  R. 
L.  Douglas,  1898),  and  by  John 
Payne  (for  the  Villon  Society, 
1890).  The  latter  version  only  is 
complete.  See  E.  Masi,  ' M.  B.,  o 
Vita  Italiana'  in  Un  Novelliere 
del  Cinquecento  (1900);  Morellini, 
M.  B.,  Studj  (1900);  and  V. 
Spampanato,  M.  B.  e  le  sue  No- 
velle (1896). 

Banderole.  (1.)  A  scroll  very 
common  on  engravings  of  the 
16th-18th  centuries,  containing 
a  motto,  or  title,  or  description 
of  the  picture.  (2.)  The  piece 
of  bunting  attached  to  a  fance 
or  spear,  and  formerly  often  de- 
corated with  the  crest  or  badge 
of  the  bearer. 

Bandicoot,  a  name  applied, 
to  various  small  Australian  mar- 
supial mammals  of  the  family 
Peramelidas.  The  hind  feet  re- 
semble those  of  the  kangaroo, 
while  the  fore  feet  have  two  or 
three  of  the  middle  toes  of  equal 
length,  with  strong,  sharp  claws, 


Common  Bandicoot. 


and  the  other  toes  rudimentary. 
All  are  either  omnivorous  or  insect- 
eating.  The  common  bandi- 
coots (Perameles)  are  small  ground 
animals  with  pointed  noses;  the 
rabbit-bandicoot  (Peragale)  is  a 
burrower;  the  native  rat,  or  rat- 
bandicoot  (Chceropus),  is  an  aber- 
rant form  with  very  long  hind 
feet. 

Bandiera,  Attilio  (1817-44) 
and  Emilio  (1819-44),  Neapoli- 
tans, sons  of  an  Austrian  admiral, 
who,  after  attempting  an  insur- 
rection in  Calabria  against  the 
Bourbon  tyranny  at  Naples,  were 
captured  and  executed  at  Cosenza^ 
(1844).    Their  letters  (from  Aug. 


Bandaging. 

1.  Rolling  the  bandage.  2.  Reversing.  3.  Figure  eight.  4.  Divergent  spica  of 
knee  joint.  5.  Many  tailed  bandage.  6  a  and  b.  Triangular  handkerchief  sup- 
porting elbow. 


'many-tailed'  bandage  is  useful 
for  the  trunk  or  a  leg,  when 
dressings  need  to  be  frequently 
changed  on  the  upper  surface 
without  change  of  position.  The 
part  lies  on  an  unsplit  piece  of 
material,  whose  long  axis  is  par- 
allel with  the  long  axis  of  the 
part.  Strips  are  sewn  on  either 
side  of  this  piece,  which  overlap 
one  another  when  brought  across 
the  limb  or  trunk,  where  they  are 
pinned  over.  See  Leonard's  Ban- 
daging. 

Bandana,  an  Indian  term  prop- 
erly applied  to  the  rich  yellow 
or  reef  silk  handkerchief,  with 
diamond  spots  left  white  by  ex- 
ceedingly great  pressure  applied 
to  prevent  their  receiving  the 
dye.  It  has  now  come  to  mean 
a  kind  of  calico  printing  in  which 
white  or  bright-colored  spots  are 


Archaeological  Institute  of  Amer- 
ica among  the  native  races  of 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Mexico, 
and  Central  America,  was  sent  by 
"^Henry  Villard  to  Ecuador,  Peru, 
V  and  Bolivia  for  scientific  investi- 
(J\  gation,  1892,  and  from  1897  was 
\^ occupied   in   Peru   and  Bolivia 
s,^  making   the    collections   in  the 
(^American   Museum   of  Natural 
/V  History.    Author  of,  among  other 
-^books,  Archceological  Reconnais- 
^sance  in  Mexico  (1881)  and  An 
^Outline  of  the  Documentary  His- 
tory of  the  Zuni  Tribe  (1892). 

Bandelkhand.  See  Bundel- 
khand. 

Bandello,  Matteo  (c.  1490- 
1561),  Italian  novelist,  was  born 
at  Castelnuovo  (Tortona);  en- 
tered the  Dominican  order,  and 
became  teacher  of  Lucrezia  Gon- 
zaga,  in  whose  honor  he  wrote 


Bandinelll 

15,  1842)  to  Mazzini,  opened  in 
London  by  the_  English  govern- 
ment, were  published  by  Mazzini, 
under  the  title  of  Ricordi  dei  Ban- 
diera(1844).  See  Ricciardi,  Storia 
dei  Fratelli,  B.  e  Cons  or  H  (1863). 

Bandinelli,  Baccio  (?1488- 
1560),  Florentine  sculptor,  son 
of  a  celebrated  silversmith;  a 
contemporary  of  Michael  Angelo 
and  Cellini,  whom  he  vainly  tried 
to  rival.  Among  his  masterpieces 
are  the  figure  of  Christ  at  the 
Tomb,  the  group  of  Adam  and 
Eve,  and  the  bas-reliefs  in  the 
Duomo  at  Florence.  See  Vasari's 
Lives,  vol.  iii.  Scott's  Sculpture, 
Renaissance  and  Modern  (1886) 
and  Symonds's  The  Renaissance 
in  Italy  (1885). 

Banditti.    See  Brigands. 

Band  of  Hope,  great  British 
children's  temperance  society, 
with  the  official  title  of  The  United 
Kingdom  Band  of  Hope  Union, 
founded  in  1855,  but  started  with 
local  unions  eight  years  previously. 
In  1904  it  had  29,189  Bands  of 
Hope,  with  a  membership  of 
3,36.3,973.  It  publishes  juvenile 
temperance  literature  and  the 
Band  of  Hope  Chronicle. 

Bandolier,  or  Bandoleer.  A 
cartridge  belt  woven  of  stout 
canvas  with  a  separate  pocket  for 
each  cartridge  or  clip  of  five  car- 
tridges, and  intended  to  be  worn 
over  the  shoulder.  In  the  U.  S. 
serrice  the  waist-belt  is  in  general 
use,  but  is  sometimes  worn  as  a 
bandolier  in  the  field.  The  bando- 
lier was  extensively  used  in  South 
Africa  by  the  British  colonial 
troops  in  1899-1902  during  the 
Boer  War.  It  dates  from  mediae- 
val times,  when  each  musketeer 
wore  a  bandolier  over  his  left 
shoulder  from  v/hich  were  sus- 

E ended  twelve  small  cylindrical 
oxes  of  wood,  tin  or  leather,  each 
containing  a  charge  for  the  match- 
lock with  which  he  was  armed. 

Bandoline,  a  gummy  substance 
produced  from  gum  tragacanth, 
quince  seeds,  Irish  moss,  or  Ice- 
land moss,  with  perfume  added, 
used  by  hairdressers  to  make  the 
hair  glossy,  or  to  fix  it  in  posi- 
tion. 

Bandon.  (1.)  Market  tn.  in  Co. 
Cork,  Munster,  Ireland,  on  riv. 
Bandon,  20  m.  s.w.  of  Cork;  has 
breweries  and  distilleries.  Pop. 
(1901)  2,830.  (2.)  River,  rises  m 
the  Carberry  Mts.,  Co.  Cork,  and 
flows  E.  into  Kinsale  harbor; 
navigable  for  barges  to  4^  m.  be- 
low the  town  of  Bandon. 

Bandong,  or  Bandung,  tn.,  w. 
of  Java,  Dutch  E.  Indies,  75  m. 
by  rail  s.E.  of  Batavia.  Pop.  c. 
21,200. 

Baneberry.  Two  members  o 
the  genus  Actaea,  belonging  to  the 
Ranunculaceae.  are  known  as  the 
red  and  white  baneberrics.  They 
are  very  similar  in  aspect,  being 
bushy  plants  about  2  ft.  high, 
found  in  shady  woods  with  ternate 


561 


leaves,  and  pinnate  divisions, 
large  and  wide-spread.  The  ra- 
cemes of  small  white  flowers  are 


European  Baneberry,  showing 
Root,  Flower  (part  removed), 
and  Fruit. 


terminal,  and  are  succeeded  by 
conspicuous  fleshy  berries.  In  A, 
alba,  the  berries  are  white  as  por- 


Bauffshire 

Baner,  Johan  (1596-1641), 

Swedish  general,  born  at  Djurs- 
holm,  near  Stockholm;  fought 
with  distinction  in  the  Russian 
and  Polish  campaigns  of  1626-9, 
and  accompanied  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  to  Germany  in  1630,  com- 
manding the  right  wing  at  the 
battle  of  Breitenfeld.  On  the 
death  of  Gustavus  he  was  made 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Swed- 
ish forces  in  Germany,  and  gained 
a  brilliant  victory  at  Wittstock  in 
1636,  defeated  the  Imperial  troops 
near  Chemnitz  in  1639,  and  occu- 
pied Bohemia  for  a  whole  year. 
He  was  a  born  strategist,  and  it 
was  primarily  to  him  that  Sweden 
owed  her  success  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War. 

Banff,  tn.,  prov,  of  Alberta, 
Canada,  80  m.  w.  of  Calgary,  and 
920  m.  w.  of  Winnipeg,  on  C.  P. 
R.  R.,  at  the  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mts.  It  is  included  in  a  national 
park  26  m.  long  n.e.  and  s.w.  by 
10  m.  wide,  embracing  parts  of 
the  valleys  of  the  Bow,  Spray,  and 
Cascade  Rs.,  and  several  moun- 
tain ranges.  The  scenery  here  is 
of  an  unusually  grand  and  im- 

gressive  character.  Fishing  and 
unting  attract  many  sportsmen. 
-The  tn.  contains  a  sanitarium,  a 
hospital  and  a  museum, 

Banffshire,  maritime  co.  of 
N.E.  Scotland, bounded  on  the  N. 
by  the  Moray  Firth,  E.  and  s.  by 
Aberdeenshire,  w.  by  Inverness 
and  Elgin  shires.  Area,  630  sq.  m. 
or  403,364  ac;  greatest  length,  59 
m.;  greatest  breadth,  32  m.;  aver- 


Banff,  Mount  Rundle  and  Banff  Hotel,  on  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway. 


celain,  and  are  generally  on  thick- 
ened coral-red  pedicels;  A.  rubra, 
the  •  herb-christopher.  has  oval 
scarlet  berries.  Both  kinds  of 
fruit  are  somewhat  poisonous. 


age  breadth  not  exceeding  12  m. 
The  countv  town  is  Banff.  In  the 
N.  the  land  is  low-lying  and  fertile; 
in  the  s.  mountainous.  ^  The  cli- 
mate is  dry  and  mild  in  the  N. 


Bdnffy 

wet  and  cold  in  the  s.  Agriculture 
is  extensively  carried  on,  cattle  are 
reared,  and  many  of  the  inhabit- 
ants are  engaged  in  the  fishery 
industry.  There  are  several 
large  distilleries,  including  Glen- 
livet.  The  chief  historic  event 
connected  with  the  county  is  the 
battle  of  Glenlivet  (1594),  between 
the^  forces  of  Huntly  and  Argyll. 
Ruins  of  mediaeval  castles  exist 
at  Balvenie,  Auchindoun,  Find- 
later,  Boharm,  and  Banff,  and 
of  old  ecclesiastical  buildings  at 
Mortlach  and  Gamrie.  Pop. 
(1911)61,402.  See 'Aberdeen  and 
Banff,'  by  W.  Watt,  in  County 
Hist,  of  Scot.  (1900). 

Banffy,  Desiderius,  Count 
(1843),  Hungarian  statesman,born 
at  Klausenburg,  Transylvania. 
In  1892  he  became  president  of 
the  Hungarian  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, and  in  1895  prime  minister 
of  Hungary.  In  this  capacity 
he  completed  the  passing  of  the 
ecclesiastical  ana  educational 
law,  but  failed  to  obtain  Parlia- 
ment's sanction  to  the  compro- 
mise (^W5-^/e?c/z.)  with  Austria,  and 
i-esigned  in  February,  1899._  In 
1902  he  published  a  new  national 
programme  for  Hungary. 

Bang,  Hermann  Joachim 
(1858),  Danish  novelist  and  jour- 
nalist, has  written  the  critical 
works,  Kritiske  Studier  (1879-80) 
and  Realisme  eg  Realister  (1879); 
and  the  novels,  Haablose  SlcBgter 
(1880),  Stuk  (1887),  Siille  Exis- 
tenser  (1886), DetHvideHus(1898), 
and  Liv  og  Dod  (1899). 

Bangalore,  cap.  of  native  state, 
Mysore,  India,  lies  about  150  m. 
due  w.  of  Madras,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  rail.  A  salubri- 
ous climate,  a  fertile  soil,  and 
an  excellent  water  supply  have 
attracted  a  colony  of  European 
settlers.  Situated  over  3,000  ft. 
above  sea-level.  Bangalore  com- 
mands the  province  of  Mysore, 
and  is  an  important  military  sta- 
tion. The  fort  was  stormed  by 
the  British  under  Lord  Cornwallis 
in  1791.    Pop.  (1901)  159,030. 

Bangar,  pueb.,  prov.  of  La 
Union,  Luzon  I.,  Philippine 
Islands,  on  the  main  road  along 
the  coast  of  the  China  Sea,  2  m.  s. 
of  the  boundary  of  Ilocos  Sur  and 
19  m.  N.  of  San  Fernando.  There 
is  trade  in  tobacco,  rice,  cotton 
and  sugar-cane  and  live-stock. 
Pop.  (1903)  9,851. 

Bange,  Valerien  de  (1833), 
French  artillerist,  the  inventor 
of  the  obturator  for  the  preven- 
tion of  gas  escape  in  the  breech 
mechanism  of  big  guns,  in  use 
in  the  British,  French,  and  other 
armies.  The  chief  feature  of  the 
invention  (about  1879)  is  a  canvas 

Ead  containing  a  mixture  of  as- 
estos  fibre  and  mutton  fat.  See 
Henncbert's  U  Artillerie  Krupp 
et  I' Artillerie  de  Bange  (1887). 
Bangka,  E.  Indies,  See  Banca. 
Bangkok,  the  cap.  of  Siam,  on 


562 

both  banks  of  the  Menam,  20  m. 
from  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  consists 
of  a  succession  of  towns.  The 
first  is  the  commercial  town,  with 
shipping,  sawmills  for  teak,  and 
rice-mills;  next  the  town  of  the 
Asiatics  (Malays,  etc.),  mostly 
built  on  bamboo  rafts  on  the 
river;  then  the  consular  district, 
with  verandahed  houses  and  flow- 
ering trees;  and  lastly,  the  Chinese 
Bangkok  and  the  native  Siamese 
town,  dominated  by  the  royal 
palace.  Steel  bridges  are  taking 
the  place  of  old  wooden  ones; 
tramways  traverse  the  streets, 
some  of  which  are  lighted  by 
electricity.  Bangkok  is  the  chief 
port  of  the  kingdom,  its  trade  be- 
ing chiefly  with  Hong-kong,  Singa- 
pore, Bombay,  and  Great  Britain. 
Chief  exports,  rice,  fish,  trepang, 
cattle,  and  pepper-  imports,  tex- 
tiles, bullion,  machinery,  opium, 
and  sugar.  The  annual  trade 
amounts  to  about  $29,000,000. 
Pop.  400,000.  See  Smyth's  Five 
Years  in  Siam  (1898). 

Bangor.  (1.)  City,  Maine,  the 
CO,  seat  of  Penobscot  co.,  situated 
on  the  Penobscot  R.,  60  m.  from 
its  mouth,  at  the  head  of  navi- 
gation, on  the  Maine  Central, 
Bangor  and  Aroostook,  and  the 
Penobscot  Central  R.  Rs.,  and  on 
the  line  of  the  Eastern  Steamship 
Co.,  and  Bangor  and  Bar  Har- 
bor Steamboat  Co.  Here  is  the 
Bangor  Theological  Seminary 
(1816).  Bangor  contains  the  East- 
ern Maine  Insane  Hospital,  the 
Eastern  Maine  General  Hospital. 
It  also  has  a  public  library.  The 
output  of  lumoer,  boots  and  shoes 
and  clothing  is  important  and 
there  are  many  factories,  foundries 
and  machine  shops,  the  value  of 
the  commerce  in  1901  being  c. 
$5,400,000.  Pop.  (1910)24,803. 
(3.)  City,  munic.  bor.,  and  seapt. 
tn.,  Carnarvonshire,  N.  Wales,  9 
m.  N.E.  of  Carnarvon,  on  Chester 
and  Holyhead  Ry.;  exports  slate 
from  the  Bethesda  quarries,  and 
contains  a  cathedral  (founded  525 
A.p.,  and  restored  1881),  a  con- 
stituent college  of  the  University 
of  Wales,  and  a  normal  school. 
Daily  steamers  Liverpool  to  Ban- 
gor insummer.  Pop. (1911)  11,237. 

Bangorian  Controversy  The, 
in  England,  arose  (1717)  from  a 
sermon  by  Bishop  Hoadly  of 
Bangor,  in  which  he  denied  that 
the  church  possessed  authority 
over  the  individual  conscience. 
This  led  to  a  many-sided  con- 
troversy. Hoadly's  principal  op- 
ponents were  Bishop  Sherlock  and 
William  Law. 

Bangs,  John  Kendrick  (1862), 
American  humorist,  was  born  at 
Yonkcrs,  N.  Y.,  and  graduated 
(1883)  at  Columbia.  He  studied 
but  clid  not  p-actise  law.  Was 
associate-editor  of  Life,  1884-8, 
was  a  member  of  Harper  & 
Brother's  editorial  sta<T,  1888- 
1900,  and  editor  of  Metropolitan 


Banim 

Magazine,  1902-3.  More  recently 
turned  his  attention  to  dramatic 
composition.  Published  over  forty 
books,  chiefly  of  a  humorous  char- 
acter, among  which  are  Nezt 
Waggings  of  Old  Tales  (1888), 
Coffee  and  Repartee  (1893),  The 
Idiot  (1895),  A  House-Boat  on  the 
Styx  (1895),  The  Bicyclers  and 
Other  Farces  (1896),  and  The  Idiot 
at  Home  (1900). 

Bangued,  pueb.,  cap.  of  prov. 
of  Abra,  N.w.  part  of  Luzon, 
Philippine  Is.  It  is  a  military  and 
telegraph  station.  A  good' road 
connects  it  with  the  highway  at 
Vigan.  The  language  is  llocano. 
It  is  on  the  Abra  R.,  15  m.  above 
its  mouth.   Pop.  (1903)  12,956. 

Bangweolo,  or  Bemba,  Lake, 
in  N.E.  of  Rhodesia,  3,800  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  lying  in  long. 
30°  E.,  not  far  from  s.E.  corner  of 
the  Congo  Free  State.  Area,  1,600 
'.o  1,700  sq.  m.,  but  variable.  Its 
waters  find  an  outlet,  at  the  s. 
corner,  to  Lake  Mweru  and  the 
Luapula,  a  tributary  of  the  Congo, 
Discovered  by  Livingstone  in  1868, 

Bania  (Banian),  a  Hindu  caste 
of  traders  (Vishnuites)  who  ab- 
stain from  eating  flesh.  They  are 
found  in  all  the  towns  of  W.  India, 
dealing  in  grain,  cotton,  and  dry 
goods,  and  are  distinguished  by 
thrift  and  commercial  acumen, 
especially  as  bankers  and  money- 
lenders at  a  high  rate  per  cent. 
They  carry  on  trade  witn  the  in- 
terior of  Asia  by  caravans,  and 
with  Africa  by  snips;  many  have 
settled  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa. 

Banian  Tree.    See  Banyan. 

Banim,  JOHN(1798-1842),Irish 
novelist,  was  the  younger  of  the 
two  brothers  who  wrote  Tales  of 
theO'Hara  Family  (1825-9).  Born 
at  Kilkenny,  he  was  at  first  a 
drawing  -  master;  but  ill-health 
caused  him  to  give  up  first  art, 
then  dramatic  literature,  although 
his  play,  Damon  and  Pythias, 
had  been  acted  with  success  at 
Drury  Lane  Theatre,  London.  Of 
the  O'Hara  Tales  John  Banim 
wrote  'The  Peep  o'  Day,'  'The 
Fetches,'  'The  Smuggler,'  'Peter 
of  the  Castle,'  'The  Nowlans,' 
'The  Last  Baron  of  Crana,'  and 
'The  Disovv^ned.'  His  chief  sepa- 
rate novels  were  The  Denounced 
(1830),  The  Sergeant' sWif e(1850), 
The  Smuggler  (1833),  The  CeWs 
Paradise  (1821),  The  Bit  o'  Writin' 
(new  ed,  1865),  The  Boyne  Water 
(1865),  The  Mayor  of  Windgap 
(new  ed,  1865),  The  Peep  o'  Day 
(new  ed.  1865),  Peter  of  the  Castle 
(new  ed.  1866);  though  to  many 
of  these  his  brother  Michael  wrote 
notes,  if  not  more.  See  P.  J, 
Murray's  Life  of  Banim  (1857), 
and  Miss  Mitford's  Recollections 
of  a  Literary  Life  (1859). 

Banim,  Michael  (1796-1874), 
elder  brother  of  the  above,  besides 
joining  in  the  O'Hara  Tales — e.g. 
'Crohoore  of  the  Bill  Hook' — 
wrote,  with  his  brother,  Father 


Bandjarmasin 


561 


Bangar 


15,  1842)  to  Mazzini,  opened  in 
London  by  the  English  govern- 
ment, were  pubHshed  by  Mazzini, 
under  the  title  Ricordi  dei  San- 
dier a  (1844). 

Bandjarmasin.     See  Banjer- 

MASSING. 

Band  of  Hope,  a  British  chil- 
dren's temperance  society,  with 
the  official  title,  The  United 
Kingdom  Band  of  Hope  Union, 
was  founded  in  1855,  though  the 
first  local  unions  had  been  organ- 
ized eight  years  earlier.  It  ar- 
ranges temperance  lectures  and 
publishes  temperance  literature. 

Ban'dolier',  or  Bandoleer,  a 
cartridge  belt  woven  of  stout 
canvas,  with  a  separate  pocket 
for  each  cartridge  or  clip  of  five 
cartridges,  intended  to  be  worn 
over  the  shoulder.  It  dates  from 
mediaeval  times,  when  each  mus- 
keteer wore  a  bandolier  over  his 
left  shoulder  from  which  were 
suspended  twelve  small  cylindri- 
cal boxes  of  wood,  tin,  or  leather, 
each  containing  a  charge  for  the 
matchlock  with  which  he  was 
armed. 

Ban'doline,  a  gummy  sub- 
stance produced  from  gum  traga- 
canth,  quince  seeds,  Irish  moss, 
or  Iceland  moss,  with  perfume 
added,  used  by  hairdressers  to 
make  the  hair  glossy. 

Ban'don,  market  town,  Ire- 
land, county  Cork,  on  the  River 
Bandon;  20  miles  southwest  of 
Cork.  It  is  an  agricultural  cen- 
tre and  has  breweries,  distilleries, 
tanneries,  and  manufactures  of 
hosiery.    Pop.  (1911)  3,122. 

Bandon,  river  of  Ireland,  rises 
in  the  Carberry  Mountains, 
county  Cork,  and  flows  east  into 
Kinsale  harbor.  It  is  navigable 
for  barges  to  4>2  miles  below  the 
town  of  Bandon. 

Ba'ndong,  ban'dong,  or  Ban- 
doeng, town,  Java,  capital  of 
Preanger  residency;  75  miles 
southeast  of  Batavia.  The  chief 
places  of  interest  are  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Resident  General, 
Government  House,  the  Moham- 
medan Mosque.  Javanese  Teach- 
ers' Institute,  and  the  racecour'^e, 
where  an  annual  race  meeting  is 
held.  Bandong  has  the  largest 
quinine  factory  in  Java.  Pop. 
48,000. 

Bandra,  a  residential  suburb 
of  Bombay,  India,  on  the  south- 
west shore  of  Salsette  Island. 
Pop.  24,000. 

Bane'berry,  a  name  given  to 
two  members  of  the  genus 
Actaea,  belonging  to  the  order 
Ranunculaceae.  They  are  hardy, 
herbaceous  plants,  about  2  feet 
high,  bearing  ternate  leaves  and 
racemes  of  small  white  flowers, 
which  are  succeeded  by  conspic- 
uous fleshy  berries,  often  some- 
what poisonous.  In  A.  alba,  the 
berries  are  white  and  are  gener- 
ally borne  on  thickened  coral-red 
pedicels;  A.  rubra  has  oval  scarlet 
berries,  and  A.  specata,  often 


known  as  Herb  Christopher, 
purplish  black  berries. 


European  Baneberry,  showing 
Root,  Flower  (part  removed), 
and  Fruit. 


Baner,  ba-nar',  Johan  (1596- 
1641),  Swedish  general,  was  born 
in  Djursholm,  near  Stockholm; 
fought  with  distinction  in  the 
Russian  and  Polish  campaigns 
of  1626-9,  and  accompanied 
Gustavus  Adolphus  to  Germany 
in  1630,  commanding  the  right 
wing  at  the  battle  of  Breitenfeld. 
On  the  death  of  Gustavus  he  was 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Swedish  forces  in  Germany,  and 
gained  a  brilliant  victory  at 
Wittstock  in  1636,  defeated  the 
Imperial  troops  near  Chemnitz 
in  1639,  and  occupied  Bohemia 
for  a  year. 

Banff,  bamf,  town,  province  of 
Alberta,  Canada,  on  the  Ca- 
nadian Pacific  Railroad;  80  miles 
west  of  Calgary,  and  920  miles 
west  of  Winnipeg.  It  is  the 
headquarters  for  the  famous 
Rocky  Mountains  Park  (2,751 
square  miles),  controlled  by  the 
Dominion  government,  and  em- 
bracing the  most  beautiful  parts 
of  the  Bow,  Spray,  and  Cascade 
River  valleys.  Mountain  climb- 
ing, riding,  fishing,  and  hunting 
attract  many  sportsmen.  The 
town  has  a  sanitorium,  hospital, 
hot  sulphur  baths,  a  zoo,  a  mu- 
seum, and  three  large  hotels.  A 
free  auto  camping  ground  is  op- 
erated here  by  the  government. 

Banff,  town  and  seaport,  Scot- 
land, county  town  of  Banffshire, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Deveron 
river;  64  miles  northwest  of 
Aberdeen.  Noteworthy  build- 
ings are  Banff  Castle,  the  town 


hall,  library,  and  Duff  House,  sit- 
uated in  a  fine  park,  a  little  to 
the  south.  Banff  is  the  head  of 
the  fishery  district  and  exports 
large  quantities  of  herring,  sal- 
mon, and  other  fish.  Manu- 
factures include  leather  and  iron 
goods  and  beer.  A  bridge  con- 
nects the  town  with  Macduff. 
Pop.  (1921)  3,517. 

Banffshire,  maritime  county, 
in  the  northeastern  part  of  Scot- 
land, with  an  area  of  630  square 
miles.  In  the  north  the  land  is 
low-lying  and  fertile,  and  the 
climate  dry  and  mild;  the  south 
is  mountainous  and  the  climate 
there  is  wet  and  cold.  Limestone, 
manganese,  cairngorm  stones  and 
serpentine  are  found  in  the 
mountains.  Agriculture,  cattle 
raising,  salmon  fishing,  and  dis- 
tilling are  the  leading  industries.' 
The  chief  towns  are  Banff, 
Buckie,  Keith,  and  Macduff. 
Pop.  (1921)  57.293. 

Banffy,  ban'fe,  Desiderius, 
Baron  (1843-1911),  Hungarian 
statesman,  was  born  in  Klausen- 
burg,  Transylvania,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  Leipzig  and  Berlin.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Hungarian 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  became  its 
president  in  1892,  and  three 
years  later  was  made  prime  min- 
ister of  Hungary.  In  this  ca- 
pacity he  completed  the  passing 
of  ecclesiastical  and  educational 
reform  laws,  but  failed  to  obtain 
Parliament's  sanction  to  his  ne- 
gotiations with  Austria,  and  re- 
signed in  February,  1899.  In 
1903  he  returned  to  public  life 
and  was  active  as  an  extreme 
Nationalist  until  1906. 

Bang,  bang,  Hermann  Joa- 
chim (1857-1912),  Danish  au- 
thor, was  born  in  Seeland,  and 
educated  in  Soro  and  in  Copen- 
hagen. He  wrote  many  novels, 
short  stories,  and  critical  works, 
among  which  are  Realisme  og 
Realister  (1879) ;  Haablose  Slcegter 
(1880);  Fddra  (1883);  S title  Ex- 
istenser  (1886);  Under  Aeget 
(1890);  Teatret  (1892);  Vad  Vejen 
(1898);  Liv  og  Dod  (1899);  Mi- 
kael  (1903) ;  Joseph  Kainz  (1910). 

Bangalore,  ban'ga-lor',  town, 
India,  capital  of  the  native  state 
of  Mysore;  150  miles  west  of 
Madras,  with  which  it  has  rail 
connection.  Features  of  interest 
include  the  Maharaja's  Palace, 
the  Science  Institute,  St.  An- 
drew's Church,  the  Bowring 
Hospital,  Lady  Curzon's  Wo- 
men's Hospital,  the  Army  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  Building,  St.  Mark's  Church, 
and  Cubbon  Park.  There  are 
manufactures  of  cotton  and  wool- 
len good^.  The  fort  was  stormed 
bv  the  British  under  Lord  Corn- 
wallis  in  1791.  Pop.  (1911) 
189,485. 

Bangar,  pueblo,  Luzon,  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  province  of  La 
Union,  on  the  main  road  along 
the  coast  of  the  China  Sea,  2 
miles  south  of  the  boundary  of 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Bang6 


662 


fianim 


Ilocos  Sur  and  19  miles  north  of 
San  Fernando.  There  is  trade 
in  tobacco,  rice,  cotton,  sugar- 
cane, and  live-stock.  Pop.  (1918) 
10,923. 

Bange,  banzh,  Valerand  de 
(1833-1914),  French  artillery  of- 
ficer, was  born  in  Balignicourt. 
After  being  connected  with  the 
Ecole  Polytechnique  at  Metz,  he 
became  director  of  the  atelier  de 
precision  in  Paris,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  inventing 
the  obturator  for  preventing  the 
escape  of  gas  in  the  breech  mech- 
anism of  big  guns,  and  the  gun 
which  bears  his  name.  From 
1882  to  1889  he  was  director  of 
the  ordnance  works  at  Grinelle 
and  Douai.  His  gun  was  adopted 
by  the  Serbian,  British,  Italian, 
and  Swedish  governments. 

Bangka,  East  Indies.  See 
Banca. 

Bangkok,  bang-kok',  city,  cap- 
ital of  Siam,  on  the  River  Menam, 
25  miles  from  its  mouth.  It 
covers  an  area  of  about  15  square 
miles  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
the  larger  and  more  important 
part  lying  on  the  east  bank. 
Until  1880  there  were  few  road- 
ways,communicationbeing  chiefly 
by  water,  but  since  that  time 
numerous  streets,  well-paved  and 
clean,  have  been  constructed, 
many  houses  of  brick  have  been 
erected,  and  tram  lines  now  run 
through  the  principal  streets. 
The  native  population,  however, 
still  live  mostly  in  houses  built 
on  tall  posts  firmly  planted  in  the 
stream  or  on  floating  pontoons 
moored  at  the  river  bank.  The 
palace  grounds,  which  are  beau- 
tifully laid  out,  are  surrounded 
by  a  wall  within  which  are  the 
palace,  official  buildings,  tem- 
ples, and  residences  of  attend- 
ants and  servants.  Many  other 
gorgeous  and  imposing  temples 
(Buddhist),  chief  among  which 
are  Wat  Phra  Keo,  Wat  Ben- 
chamabophit,  and  Wat  Sa  Ket, 
are  scattered  through  the  city. 
The  European  residential  quar- 
ter, containing  most  of  the  for- 
eign consulates,  is  at  the  south- 
eastern end  of  the  city.  Bang- 
kok is  the  chief  port  of  the  king- 
dom, and  trade  is  largely  in  the 
hands  of  Europeans  and  Chinese. 
Exports  are  rice,  teak,  pepper, 
and  fish;  imports  are  textiles, 
metal  and  machinery,  petroleum, 
and  spirits.  Pop.  (1910)  628,675. 

Ban'gor,  city,  Maine,  county 
seat  of  Penobscot  county,  situ- 
ated at  the  head  of  navigation  on 
the  Penol)scot  River,  60  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  on  the  Maine 
Central,  and  the  Bangor  and 
Aroostook  Railroads,  on  electric 
lines,  and  on  the  line  of  the 
Eastern  Steamship  Company, 
and  Bangor  and  Bar  Harbor 
Steamboat  Company;  135  miles 
northeast  of  Portland.  Public 
institutions  and  buildings  in- 
clude  the    Bangor  Theological 

Vol.  I. — Oct.  '23 


Seminary  (1816),  the  University 
of  Maine  School  of  Law,  Bangor 
Anti-Tuberculosis  Sanatorium, 
Bangor  State  Hospital,  Eastern 
Maine  General  Hospital,  Bangor 
Public  Librarj',  the  Hershey  Me- 
morial Building,  and  homes  for 
children  and  the  aged. 

The  output  of  potatoes,  lum- 
ber, boots  and  shoes  and  clothing 
is  important  and  there  are  many 
wholesale  houses,  factories,  foun- 
dries, and  machine  shops.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Federal  Census 
of  Manufactures  for  1919  the 
city  has  106  industrial  estab- 
lishments with  a  capital  of  $5,- 
389,581,  and  products  valued  at 
$5,544,940.  The  place  was 
founded  by  settlers  from  Massa- 
chusetts in  1769  under  the  name 
of  Sunbury.  In  1791  it  was  in- 
corporated as  the  town  of  Ban- 
gor, and  the  city  charter  was 
granted  in  1834.  Pop.  (1900) 
21,850;  (1910)  24,803;  (1920) 
25,978. 

Bangor,  borough,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Northampton  county,  on 
the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and 
Western,  and  the  Lehigh  and 
New  England  Railroads;  63  miles 
north  of  Philadelphia.  Silk  and 
slate  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1910)  3.535;  (1920)  5,402. 

Bangor,  city,  seaport,  and 
episcopal  see,  Wales,  in  Carnar- 
vonshire, on  the  Chester  and 
Holyhead  Railway;  9  miles 
northeast  of  Carnarvon  and  60 
miles  west  of  Chester.  The  city 
is  divided  into  two  parts.  Lower 
Bangor,  lying  along  the  south- 
eastern side  of  a  narrow  valley 
at  the  mouth  of  Menai  Strait, 
and  Upper  Bangor,  the  residen- 
tial quarter,  on  a  ridge  to  the 
north,  overlooking  the  strait. 
Notable  features  are  the  cathe- 
dral, originally  founded  in  the 
sixth  century;  the  municipal 
buildings,  the  free  library  and 
museum,  the  University  College 
of  North  Wales,  one  of  the  four 
constituent  colleges  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wales,  and  Penryhn 
Castle,  about  a  mile  east  of 
Bangor.  Large  quantities  of 
slate  from  Bethesda  quarries  in 
the  vicinity  are  exported.  Pop. 
(1921)  11,032. 

Bangor,  a  seaport  town  and 
sea-bathing  resort,  Ireland, 
county  Down,  on  Belfast  Lough; 
12  mil  s  northeast  of  Belfast. 
It  is  largely  a  residential  town 
but  has  fisheries  and  manufac- 
tures embroidered  muslins.  Pop. 
(urban  dist.)  7,800. 

Bangs,  John  Kendrick  (1862- 
1922),  American  humorist  and 
editor,  was  born  in  Yonkers, 
N.  Y.,  and  was  graduated  (1883) 
from  Columbia  University.  He 
was  associate-editor  of  Life 
(1884-8),  a  member  of  Harper 
&  Brother's  editorial  staff  (1888- 
1900),  editor  of  the  Metropolitan 
Magazine  (1902-3)  and  of  Puck 
(1904-05).    His  publications  in- 


clude over  forty  books,  chiefly  of 
a  humorous  character.  Amorj^ 
these  are  Ne2v  Waggings  of  Old 
Tales  (1885);  Coffee  and  Repartee 
(1893);  The  Idiot  (1895);  A 
House-Boat  on  the  Styx  (1895); 
The  Bicyclers  and  Other  Farces 
(1896) ;  The  Idiot  at  Home  (1900) ; 
Over  the  Plum  Pudding  (1902); 
The  Inventions  of  the  Idiot  (1907); 
The  General  Idiot  (1908);  Songs 
of  Cheer  (1910);  The  Foothills  of 
Parnassus  (1914);  From  Pillar 
to  Post  (1916);  The  Cheery  Way 
(1919). 

Bangued,  ban-ged',  pueblo, 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  Abra,  on 
the  Abra  river;  230  miles  north 
of  Manila.  It  is  a  military  sta- 
tion and  is  in  a  fertile  agricul- 
tural region.  Pop.  (1918)  13,892. 

Bangweolo,  bang'we-o'lo,  or 
Bemba,  Lake,  Africa,  in  North- 
ern Rhodesia,  3,800  ft.  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Its  area  is  about 
1,600  square  miles,  but  this  is 
practically  doubled  in  the  rainy 
season.  Its  waters  find  an  out- 
let, at  the  southern  corner,  to 
Lake  Mweru  and  the  Luapula,  a 
tributary  of  the  Congo.  It  was 
discovered  by  Livingstone  in 
1868. 

Banialuka.    See  Banjaluka. 

Banian,  ban'ya,  a  name  given 
to  the  merchant  class  in  India. 
The  banians  belong  to  the  Vaisya 
caste  and  are  worshippers  of 
Vishnu.  They  are  especially 
numerous  in  Western  India, 
where  they  are  engaged  in  bank- 
ing and  money  lending,  and  as 
dealers  in  all  sorts  of  commodi- 
ties. 

Banian  Tree.    See  Banyan. 

Ba'nim,  John  (1798-1842), 
Irish  novelist,  the  younger  of  the 
two  brothers  who  wrote  Tales  of 
the  O'Hara  Family  (1825-9),  was 
born  in  Kilkenny.  He  became 
a  drawing  master;  but  ill-health 
caused  him  to  give  up  first  art, 
then  dramatic  literature,  al- 
though his  play,  Damon  and 
Pythias,  had  been  acted  with 
success  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre, 
London.  Of  the  O'Hara  Tales 
John  Banim  wrote  'The  Peep  o* 
Day,'  'The  Fetches,'  'The  Smug- 
gler,' 'Peter  of  the  Castle,'  'The 
Nowlans,'  'The  Last  Baron  of 
Crana,'  and  'The  Disowned.' 
His  chief  separate  novels  were 
The  Denounced  (1830),  The  Ser- 
geant's Wife  (1850),  The  Smug- 
gler (1833),  The  Celt's  Paradise 
(1821),  The  Bit  o'  Writin'  (new 
ed.  1865),  The  Boyne  Water 
(1865),  The  Mayor  of  Windgap 
(new  ed.  1865),  The  Peep  o  Day 
(new  ed.  1865),  Peter  of  the  Castle 
(new  ed.  1866);  though  to  many 
of  these  his  brother  Michael 
wrote  notes,  if  not  more. 

Banim,  Michael  (1796-1874), 
elder  l)rother  of  the  above,  be- 
sides joining  in  the  O'Hara  Tales 
— e.g.  'Crolioore  of  the  Bill  Hook' 
— wrote,  with  his  brother,  Father 


Banishment 


563 


Banking 


Connell,  which  has  for  its  hero  a 
kind  of  Roman  CathoHc  Vicar  of 
Wakefield;  and  alone,  The  Croppy 
(1828),  The  Ghost  Hunter  (1863), 
Joe  Wilson's  Ghost  (1870),  and 
The  Town  of  the  Cascades  (1864). 
The  C haunt  of  the  Cholera  (1831) 
was  probably  written  by  both 
brothers. 

Banishment,  a  form  of  pun- 
ishment which  consists  in  send- 
ing a  person  out  of  a  country, 
district,  or  town,  under  penalties 
in  the  case  of  his  return.  Among 
the  Greeks  it  took  the  form  of 
ostracism  (q.v.).  The  Romans 
had  two  forms:  deportatio,  which 
carried  with  it  the  forfeiture  of 
the  rights  of  citizenship,  and 
relegatio,  in  which  case  the  person 
banished  was  merely  forbidden 
to  depart  from  certain  assigned 
limits. 

Banishment  was  first  inflicted 
as  a  punishment  in  England  by 
a  statute  of  Elizabeth,  but  the 
practice  did  not  become  com- 
mon till  the  reign  of  Charles  ii., 
when  offenders  began  to  be  sent 
to  the  American  plantations.  An 
act  of  George  i.  gave  the  Crown 
power  to  transport  offenders  to 
places  beyond  the  seas;  and  in 
accordance  with  statutes  passed 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, certain  penal  settlements 
were  founded  in  Australia  and 
neighboring  islands.  These  were 
discontinued  about  1847,  owing 
to  complaints  on  the  part  of  the 
colonists.  In  modern  times  ban- 
ishment for  political  offences  has 
been  practiced  by  Russia  (prior 
to  the  revolution)  and  Turkey. 

Abjuration  (q.v.),  in  the  old 
law,  was  an  oath  sworn  by  a  per- 
son who  had  taken  refuge  in  a 
sanctuary  to  leave  the  realm. 
See  Outlawry;  Transporta- 
tion. _ 

Banj  alalia,  ban-ya-loo'ka, 
town,  Bosnia,  in  the  district  of 
Banjaluka,  on  the  River  Vrbas; 
87  miles  northwest  of  Sarajevo. 
Features  of  interest  are  the 
citadel,  many  mosques  and 
monasteries,  the  remains  of 
Roman  baths  and  several  modern 
bathing  estabHshments.  In- 
dustries include  grain  mills, 
tobacco  factories,  and  breweries. 
Pop.  18,000. 

Banjermassing,  ban-yer-miis'- 
in,  or  Banjermasin,  capital 
of  Dutch  Borneo,  in  the  East 
Indies.  Built  on  piles,  it  stands 
near  the  southern  coast,  on  the 
Martapura,  a  few  miles  from  the 
Barito  River,  and  carries  on  a 
brisk  trade  in  spices,  gold,  canes, 
wax,  drugs,  and  diamonds  (ex- 
ported), and  in  cottons,  iron 
goods,  salt,  and  rice  (imported). 
Pop.  50,000. 

From  the  Middle  Ages  down  to 
1857  there  existed  an  independent 
Malay  state  of  the  same  name, 
its  capital  being  Martapura. 

Ban'Jo,  a  musical  stringed  in- 
strument made  popular  by  the 


American  negroes  and  colored 
minstrels.  It  consists  of  a  hoop 
of  wood  or  metal,  with  a  long 
neck  containing  the  tuning  pegs 
in  its  upper  part,  and  a  vellum 
drumhead  body.  The  strings, 
from  five  to  nine  in  number,  rest 
upon  a  bridge,  and  are  stopped 
with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand 
and  plucked  with  those  of  the 
right. 

Banjoemas.    See  Banyumas. 

Banka,  ban'ka,  or  Mengka, 
town.  North  Formosa,  on  the 
Tamsui  River,  a  few  miles  above 
the  port  of  Tamsui,  in  a  tea  and 
camphor  producing  district.  Pop. 
50,000. 

Banka,  East  Indies,  see  Ban- 

CA. 

Bankalan,  ban-ka-lan',  town, 
on  western  coast  of  Madura 
Island,  Java,  Dutch  East  Indies; 
20  miles  north  of  Surabaya.  Pop. 
14,500. 

Bankers'  Association,  Am- 
erican, an  organization,  founded 
in  the  United  States  in  1875,  'to 
promote  the  general  welfare  and 
usefulness  of  banks  and  financial 
institutions;  to  secure  uniformity 
of  action,  together  with  the  prac- 
tical benefits  to  be  derived  from 
personal  acquaintance  and  the 
discussion  of  subjects  of  impor- 
tance to  the  banks  and  commer- 
cial interests  of  the  country;  to 
secure  the  proper  consideration 
of  questions  regarding  financial 
and  commercial  usages,  customs, 
and  laws  affecting  the  banking 
interests  of  the  entire  country; 
and  to  furnish  protection  against 
loss  by  crime.' 

The  first  convention  of  the 
Association,  at  Saratoga,  1875, 
was  attended  by  three  hundred 
bankers.  Its  present  member- 
ship is  about  20,000. 

Banket'  (from  a  Dutch  word 
meaning  almond  candy).  South 
African  mining  term  to  describe 
the  gold-bearing  formation  of 
which  the  Rand  is  the  chief  in- 
stance. 

Bankhead,  John  Hollis 
(1842-1920),  American  legislator, 
was  born  in  Moscow  (nowSulli- 
gent) ,  Ala.  He  received  a  public 
school  education,  served  as  cap- 
tain of  the  16th  Alabama  Volun- 
teers throughout  the  Civil  War, 
and  was  wounded  three  times. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  State 
legislature  (1865-7,  1880-1), 
and  of  the  State  senate  (1876-7); 
warden  of  the  Alabama  Peniten- 
tiary (1881-5);  and  Member  of 
Congress  for  twenty  years  (1887- 
1907).  In  1907  he  was  elected 
U.  S.  Senator  (Democrat)  from 
Alabama,  and  in  1911  was  re- 
elected for  the  term  ending  in 
1919. '  He  was  conspicuous  as  a 
leader  in  the  work  of  the  Com- 
mittees on  Public  Buildings  and 
on  Rivers  and  Harbors.  In  1907 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Inland  Waterways  Commis- 
sion and  was  appointed  U.  S. 


Senator  to  fill  the  unexpired 
term  of  J.  T.  Morgan,  deceased 
(1907),  being  re-elected  in  1913 
for  two  succeeding  terms. 

Bank  Holidays,  certain  days 
on  which  the  business  of  banking 
is  suspended.  In  the  United 
States  generally,  Sundays  and  all 
public  holidays  are  bank  holidays ; 
in  some  of  the  States  Saturday 
has  also  been  made  a  bank  holi- 
day, in  whole  or  in  part.  In  Eng- 
land, the  bank  holidays  are  Sun- 
days, Good  Friday,  Easter  Mon- 
day, Monday  in  Whitsun  week, 
the  first  Monday  in  August, 
Christmas  Day,  and  Dec.  26. 
It  is  generally  provided  by  law 
that  notes  and  bills  of  exchange 
falling  due  on  such  holidays  shall 
be  payable  on  the  next  business 
day. 

Banking  .is  a  term  rather 
loosely  used  to  describe  the 
operations  of  almost  any  in- 
stitution whose  business  is  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  the  handling 
of  money  or  claims  to  money. 
The  term  bank  (French  'banque,' 
Italian  'banco')  is  a  word  of 
doubtful  derivation.  Most  au- 
thorities maintain  that  it  comes 
from  the  Italian  word  for  bench 
which  was  erected  in  the  market 
place  where  it  was  customary  to 
exchange  money.  These  benches 
were  established  by  the  Jews  in 
Lombardy  and  when  one  failed 
his  bench  was  broken  by  the 
populace,  and  the  word  'ban- 
corotto'  was  applied  to  him; 
hence  our  word  bankrupt.  As 
these  Jews  spread  far  and  wide, 
settling  later  in  London  and  giv- 
ing their  name  to  Lombard 
Street  (originally  Lumbard),  it 
seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
they  brought  with  them  their 
Italian  words  and  that  our  word 
'bank'  is  a  modernization  from 
'banco.' 

Historical. — ^While  very  little 
is  recorded  of  earliest  banking 
institutions  recognition  was  given 
even  in  the  ancient  civilization 
to  the  benefits  obtained  from  the 
organization  of  a  system  designed 
to  facilitate  pecuniary  trans- 
actions. It  is  known  that  com- 
mercial instruments  including 
promissory  notes,  bills  of  ex- 
change, and  transfer  checks  not 
unlike  the  modern  bank  check, 
were  used  in  Assyria,  Phoenicia, 
and  Egypt  long  before  they 
obtained  fuller  development  in 
Greece  and  Rome.  It  was  not 
until  after  the  ascendency  of 
Athens  and  Rome,  however,  that 
banking  came  under  official 
regulation.  In  its  earliest  forms 
banking  consisted  primarily  of 
money  changing,  and  this  func- 
tion was  most  important  where 
geographical  location  determined 
international  .trade  centres.  Lack 
of  uniform  coinage  handicapped 
the  financing  of  foreign  trade 
and  money  changers  arose  to 
overcome  this  difficulty. 

Vol.  I.— 030 


Banking 


563  A 


Banking 


The  second  inconvenience  in 
financing  foreign  trade  was  that 
of  transferring  funds.  The 
danger  of  loss  and  robbery  led 
traders  to  deposit  their  money 
with  money  changers  for  safe- 
keeping and  transfer.  Money 
changers  issued  receipts  and 
gave  transfer  orders  which  soon 
became  instruments  for  making 
international  trade  payments. 
These  were  the  forerunners  of 
the  modern  bills  of  exchange. 

Before  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  banking  had  attained  a 
development  which  in  many 
respects  resembled  that  of  finan- 
cial institutions  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  But  progress  seems  to 
have  been  checked  during  the 
Middle  Ages  when  property  be- 
came insecure  in  Western  Europe; 
trade  languished  and  metallic 
currency  was  withdrawn  from 
circulation,  thus  shutting  off  the 
chief  work  of  money  changers. 
With  the  revival  of  trade  in  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries, 
Europe  set  out  to  learn  again  the 
practice  of  banking.  Money 
changing  and  lending  had  been 
shifted  to  the  Jews  because  of 
the  attitude  of  the  church,  but 
now  the  Italians  began  to  emu- 
late these  people  and  we  find 
Italian  bankers  spreading  over 
Europe  during  the  next  two 
centuries. 

The  Bank  of  Venice,  formed  in 
1157  is  generally  given  as  the 
first  bank,  but  it  was,  in  the 
first  instance,  merely  a  transfer 
office  of  a  national  debt.  It  was 
not  until  after  an  experience  of 
several  centuries,  and  subse- 
quent to  the  loans  of  1480  and 
1510,  levied  in  the  same  manner 
as  that  of  1156,  that  the  Bank  of 
Venice  became  entitled  to  be 
called  a  bank  in  a  modern  sense. 
This  bank  was  destroyed  by  the 
French  invasion  of  1797. 

The  origin  of  modern  banking 
is  more  properly  attributable  to 
the  money  lenders  of  Florence, 
who,  in  the  middle  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  were  famous 
throughout  Europe,  especially 
the  houses  of  the  Acciajuoli, 
Bardi,  Peruzzi,  Pitti,  and  Medici. 
But  the  principal  function  of  a 
modern  bank — that  of  keeping 
depositors'  money  safe  but  acces- 
sible— was  perhaps  first  under- 
taken on  a  large  scale  by  the 
Bank  of  Amsterdam,  founded  in 
1609. 

General  Banking  Functions.— 

The  functions  of  banks  are  so 
complicated  and  have  changed 
so  much  in  different  countries 
and  in  the  various  stages  of  their 
history  that  a  general  description 
is  hardly  possible.  The  evolution 
of  banking  has  been  characteriz- 
ed by  the  same  division  of  labor 
that  dominates  the  rest  of  our 
economic  organization.  Credit 
institutions  have  become  sepa- 
rated from  merchandising  and 

Vol.  I.— 030  ^ 


industrial  institutions  and  have 
themselves  become  further  spe- 
cialized on  the  basis  of  functions. 
National  and  State  laws  provide 
for  at  least  two  dozen  different 
kinds  of  credit  institutions,  and 
new  subclasses  arise  when  special 
functions  or  combinations  of 
functions  are  called  for  by 
changes  in  methods  of  financing 
business.  In  their  competition  for 
business,  banks  have  adapted 
their  services  to  their  customers' 
present  and  prospective  needs 
until  the  large  modern  bank  is  a 
veritable  department  store  of 
financial  services.  Of  these  many 
services  three  merge  into  promi- 
nence and  banks  may  be  classi- 
fied according  to  the  predomi- 
nance of  one  or  the  other  of  these. 
(1)  Commercial  banking,  which 
has  as  its  main  function  the 
gathering  together  of  the  short- 
time  funds  of  the  community 
and  making  them  available  for 
current  use  in  business,  supplying 
in  the  process  a  form  of  credit 
which  serves  as  our  chief  medium 
of  exchange,  namely,  that  which 
is  called  deposit  currency.  (2)  A 
second  banking  function  deals 
with  more  permanent  types  of 
capital  and  includes  all  invest- 
ment institutions  such  as  saving 
banks,  bond  houses  and  invest- 
ment banks,  which  allocate  that 
portion  of  the  community's  in- 
come not  utilized  for  the  satis- 
faction of  current  wants  to  cor- 
porate and  governmental  units 
seeking  investment  funds.  (3) 
Trust  companies  which  engage  in 
fiduciary  operations  not  strictly 
of  banking  nature,  but  in  the 
course  of  which  it  is  found  ex- 
pedient to  add  banking  functions 
so  as  to  care  for  and  better 
manage  the  trusts  accepted. 
Today  trust  companies  carry 
on  most  complete  and  inclusive 
financial  operations. 

The  fundamentals  of  banking 
are  most  easily  understood  from 
the  point  of  view  of  commercial 
banking  operations.  A  general 
view  of  the  nature  of  these  may 
be  developed  by  describing  the 
sources  from  which  commercial 
banks  obtain  their  funds  and  how 
these  are  invested  or  applied  in 
their  business.  The  bank  balance 
sheet  stripped  of  all  non-essential 
items  illustrates  these  operations 
as  follows: 

Liabilities. — On  the  liability 
side  are  shown  two  classes  of 
obligations  which  the  bank  as  a 
corporation  owes:  (1)  those 
representing  the  equity  of  its 
stockholders  or  owners,  and  the 
claims  of  all  other  creditors. 
Capital  stock,  surplus,  and  un- 
divided profits  represent  amounts 
paid  in  by  shareholders  and 
amounts  saved  out  of  earnings 
and  kept  in  the  business,  which 
represent,  in  other  words,  what 
the  owners  of  the  business  an- 
nually contribute  or  have  con- 


tributed to  the  bank's  resources. 

(2)  The  second  group  of  bank 
liabilities  represents  amounts  due 
customers,  that  is,  depositors  and 
note-holders;  also,  other  banks, 
when  interbank  loans  have  been 
made,  and  miscellaneous  lia- 
bilities. 

There  can  be  no  constant  pro- 
portion between  the  capital 
subscribed  by  the  owners  and  the 
business  built  up  by  its  means, 
but  in  a  successful  bank  it  repre- 
sents only  a  small  proportion  of 
the  amount  of  the  liabilities. 
The  larger  the  business  that  can 
be  carried  on  with  safety  with  a 
given  amount  of  capital,  the 
larger  will  be  the  source  of  in- 
come and  higher  the  proportion 
that  profits  will  bear  to  the 
original  subscription.  Trading 
on  thin  equity  involves  risk; 
governments  have  recognized 
this  by  providing  laws  covering 
minimum  capitalization,  double 
liability  of  stockholders,  and 
establishing  or  building  up  a 
reasonable  surplus  before  any 
profits  can  be  taken  out  of  the 
business.  Laws  have  also  been 
passed  limiting  the  amount  of 
loans  or  deposits  to  fixed  pro- 
portions of  capital,  but  it  is  now 
the  general  practice  to  permit  the 
judgment  of  the  persons  most 
interested,  acting  under  the  law 
of  self-preservation,  to  govern 
this  relationship.  In  our  early 
banking  experience  the  propor- 
tion of  owners'  stock  to  custom- 
ers' claims  was  about  fifty-fifty, 
but  this  has  since  changed  to 
about  one  to  five.  This  relation, 
which  indicates  the  degree  of 
solvency  of  the  bank,  like  the 
reserve  ratio,  varies  with  the 
circumstances  peculiar  to  each 
bank,  the  character  of  business 
carried  on  by  the  customers,  and 
the  degree  of  mutual  confidence 
existing  in  the  community.  The 
proportion  of  the  bank  resources 
owned  by  shareholders  is  obvious- 
ly available  as  long  as  the  bank 
continues  in  business. 

Deposits. — Deposits  represent 
rights  to  draw  on  the  bank  for 
money.  Depositors  may  get 
such  rights  in  any  of  several 
ways:  (1)  By  deposits  of  cash  or 
cash  items,  or  time  items  for 
collection  and  credit;  (2)  by  the 
process  of  loan  and  discount; 

(3)  by  receiving  credit  as  pro- 
ceeds from  the  sale  of  securities 
or  other  property  to  the  bank. 

Banks  receive  money  on  cur- 
rent or  checking  account  and  on 
time  deposit  account.  The  de- 
positor's purpose  in  making  such 
lodgments  is  to  avail  himself  of 
the  convenience  and  economy  of 
the  bank's  services  for  safe- 
keeping and  transfer  of  funds. 
Such  transactions  create  a  debt- 
or-creditor relationship  in  which 
the  bank  assumes  the  obligation 
to  pay  and  the  customer  ob- 
tains the  right  to  demand  and 


Banking 


563  B 


Banking 


receive  repayment  of  the  money- 
deposited  in  whole  or  in  part  at 
his  pleasure,  or  at  the  expiration 
of  an  agreed  term  of  notice  of 
withdrawal.  Money  received  by 
a  bank  on  current  account  is  paid 
in  by  the  bank's  customer  on  the 
understanding  that  he  can  at  any 
time,  within  certain  fixed  hours  of 
business,  demand  the  repayment 
of  the  money  he  has  deposited,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  by  means  of  a 
written  order  to  pay,  known  as  a 
check,  signed  by  himself.  Checks 
may  be  made  payable  to  the 
bank's  customer  himself  or  to 
some  person  named  by  him. 
Money  received  by  a  bank  on 
deposit  account  is  paid  in  by  the 
customer  on  the  understanding 
that  he  can  only  demand  its 
return  at  the  expiration  of  an 
agreed  term  of  notice  of  with- 
drawal, such  as  a  fortnight,  one 
month,  or  longer.  Withdrawals 
from  savings  banks'  accounts 
are  subject  to  such  notice,  al- 
though savings  banks  usually 
waive  advance  notice  except  in 
time  of  stress. 

Some  banks  in  order  to  at- 
tract customers  allow  interest  on 
all  money  deposited  with  them; 
but,  as  a  rule,  except  in  the  case 
of  very  big  customers,  such  as 
wealthy  corporations  maintain- 
ing enormous  daily  balances  to 
their  credit,  banks  do  not  allow 
interest  on  money  deposited  on 
current  account.  On  the  other 
hand,  except  in  the  case  of  very 
small  accounts  with  a  very  small 
average  credit  balance,  they 
make  no  charge — in  no  case  is 
the  charge  other  than  nominal — 
for  work  involved  in  keeping  a 
customer's  account.  With  re- 
gard to  money  received  on  de- 
posit account,  all  banks  allow 
interest  varying  directly  with  the 
length  of  notice  necessary  to  the 
withdrawal  of  the  deposit.  Their 
funds  are  advanced  on  the  basis 
of  security  offered  by  the  borrow- 
er, security  which  either  itself 
becomes  liquidated  upon  matur- 
ity, or  which  guarantees  pay- 
ment by  virtue  of  its  saleability. 
What  the  borrower  wants  is  a 
convenient  form  of  purchasing 
power.  This  the  bank  provides 
by  advancing  cash,  bank  notes  or 
deposit  credit.  The  latter  two 
represent  forms  of  bank  credit, 
the  note  being  a  duly  certified 
promise  to  pay  money  on  de- 
mand, and  the  deposit  credit  pro- 
viding the  customer  with  a  right 
to  draw  his  own  orders  or  checks 
against  the  bank.  A  distinction 
between  notes  and  checks  is 
commonly  made  by  regulating 
laws,  due  to  the  fact  that  notes 
enjoy  wider  circulation  and  are 
deserving  of  special  protection, 
whereas  checks  are  employed 
between  business  associates 
whose  credit  conditions  are 
known.  Hence  the  principle  of 
'implied  warranties'  in  the  case  of 


notes,  and  'caveat  emptor'  in  the 
case  of  checks. 

Resources  or  Assets. — The  ap- 
plication or  use  of  the  funds 
obtained  largely  determines  the 
safety  and  liquidity  of  bank 
credit  as  well  as  the  earning 
capacity  of  the  business.  Clas- 
sified on  the  basis  of  liquidity, 
that  is,  with  respect  to  the 
degree  removed  from  cash,  the 
bank's  assets  may  be  ranked 
somewhat  as  follows  with  respect 
to  comparable  bank  liabilities. 


Character  of  Item 


A.  Primary  Reserve 

B.  Secondary  Reserve 


C.  Investment  Account 


D.  Slow  Assets,  Invest- 
ment Accounts. 


E.  Non-liquid  or  Fixed 
Assets. 


This  is  essentially  the  same 
kind  of  classification  which  the 
banker  makes  of  his  borrowing 
customer's  balance  sheet.  The 
purpose  is  to  get  evidence  of  the 
borrower's  ability  to  pay  a  short- 
term  loan  at  maturity.  So  the 
banker  compares  the  short  term 
assets  with  the  short  term 
liabilities  (including  the  pros- 
pective loan  he  is  contemplat- 
ing), to  see  if  the  former  are 
sufficiently  large  after  allowing 
for  possible  shrinkage  in  value. 
This  relationship  shows  the 
'current  condition.'  Since  the 
business  of  a  commercial  bank  is 
largely  a  cash  business  it  must 
protect  its  'cash  position,'  which 
is  shown  in  the  relation  of  re- 
serve to  cash  obligations.  In  the 
United  States  and  in  some  other 
countries  laws  prescribe  mini- 
mum reserve  requirements,  but 
in  England  and  elsewhere  this  is 
left  to  the  discretion  of  the  bank- 
ers themselves.  Experience  shows 
how  much  cash  is  needed  to  meet 
current  business  demands,  and 
peak  demands  during  periods  of 
credit  strain,  and  it  also  measures 
how  large  cash  holdings  must  be 
to  meet  maximum  needs. 

Cash  reserve  and  bank  pre- 
mises fall  into  the  non-earning 
class;  they  are  necessary  and 
contribute  to  the  earning  capac- 
ity of  the  business  and  are  pro- 
ductive in  that  sense,  but  since 
they  yield  little  or  no  direct  in- 
come they  may  be  considered  as 
over-head,  or  service  items.  In 
the  category  of  earning  assets 


come  all  loans  and  discounts  and 
investments.  Balances  on  de- 
posit with  correspondent  banks 
drawing  interest  are  earning 
assets,  but  rates  are  low  and  do 
not  fall  strictly  into  this  class. 
These  items  comprise  the  total 
advances  made  to  business  cus- 
tomers for  a  consideration.  The 
character  and  amount  of  these 
advances  depends  not  only  on 
the  bank's  resources  but  also 
upon  the  demands  of  business^ 
In   making   these   the  banker 


Comparable  Liability 


Demand  deposits,  and 
notes  if  issued. 

Demand  deposits,  and 
notes.  Due  to  banks,  and 
and  to  governments. 


Demand  and  time  de- 
posits. 


Time  deposits,  capital, 
surplus,  undivided  pro- 
fits. 

Capital,  surplus,  and  un- 
divided profits. 


should  recognize  the  common 
principles  of  sound  investments 
applied  to  his  situation,  e.g. 
cost,  yield,  marketability,  safety, 
diversification,  etc.  If  the  de- 
mands of  local  trade  and  com- 
merce are  heavy,  as  is  evidenced 
by  high  interest  rates  on  good 
commercial  risks,  the  banker 
will  increase  his  holdings  of 
local  loan  and  discount  paper. 
If  this  demand  is  relatively  light 
compared  to  the  bank's  resources, 
the  banker  will  shift  his  funds 
into  commercial  paper  and  ac- 
ceptances bought  in  the  open 
market  through  brokers  and 
dealers;  and  if  all  commercial 
demands  are  low,  the  banker 
seeks  an  outlet  for  his  funds  in 
security  investments.  Thus  the 
composition  of  the  bank's  portfo- 
lio changes  to  meet  sudden 
shifts  in  business,  from  season  to 
season,  and  during  phases  of 
business  cycles,  and  over  the 
banker's  periods  of  years.  His 
object  is  always  to  obtain  maxi- 
mum earnings  compatible  with 
service  to  his  customers  and 
with  regard  to  the  safety  of  the 
funds  entrusted  to  his  care. 

Commercial  banks  make  their 
loans  chiefly  through  the  pur- 
chase or  discount  of  commercial 
paper.  Strictly  speaking  banks 
discount  paper  for  their  custom- 
ers, and  they  buy  paper  from 
others,  commonly  through  note 
brokers.  When  a  manufacturer 
or  merchant  sells  goods  on  credit 
he  may  take  in  payment  his 
customer's  notes  or  trade  ac- 

VOL.  1.^30 


Assets 


Legal  reserve,  cash  in  vault,  due 
from  other  banks,  etc. 

Collection  items,  bank  accep- 
tances, prime  commercial  paper, 
gilt-edged  securities  maturing  or 
salable  in  twenty-four  hours 
without  shrinkage' in  value. 

Loans  and  discounts  maturing  in 
the  ordinary  course  of  business, 
investment  securities,  mortgage 
loans,  etc. 

Loans  and  discounts,  secured 
and  unsecured,  subject  to  re- 
newal, securities  unlisted,  etc. 

Bank  premises,  stock  in  Federal 
Reserve  bank,  etc. 


Banking 


563  C 


Banking 


ceptances  running  for  thirty, 
sixty,  or  ninety  days.  He  takes 
these  to  the  bank  for  discount  in 
order  to  get  the  use  of  the  pro- 
ceeds at  once,  or  he  may  borrow 
on  his  own  promissory  note  on 
the  basis  of  collateral  security, 
or  upon  the  financial  condition 
of  his  business.  The  terms  of 
sale  on  credit  and  business  cus- 
tom determine  the  methods  of 
settlement  of  business  trans- 
actions and  hence  the  form  of  the 
bank  borrower's  obligation. 
Wherever  security  is  conveni- 
ently available  the  banker  does 
not  hesitate  to  demand  it,  and 
if  repayment  of  the  loan  is  not 
forthcoming  he  will  take  any 
other  security  the  debtor  can 
give  him  in  order  to  avoid  making 
a  bad  debt.  In  those  cases  where 
trade  instruments  are  not  avail- 
able or  are  too  inconvenient  or 
expensive  to  employ,  banks 
commonly  make  advances  which 
are  unsecured,  that  is,  they  are 
not  based  upon  specific  collateral. 
The  chief  examples  of  these  are 
acceptances,  which  are  based 
directly  upon  specific  transac- 
tions, and  commercial  paper, 
which  is  more  often  negotiated 
on  the  basis  of  the  liquid  con- 
dition of  the  borrower's  business. 

Banks  are  making  advances  to 
brokers  and  others  on  the 
security  of  investment  stocks 
and  bonds  to  an  ever  increasing 
extent.  Such  securities  are 
deposited  as  a  pledge  or 
guarantee  that  the  loan  will  be 
paid  at  maturity;  if  not,  the 
security  may  be  sold  in  order  to 
reimburse  the  bank.  Merchan- 
dise and  real  estate  collateral 
loans  are  also  common.  Charac- 
ter loans  too  are  often  made  for 
short  periods  on  the  mere  note-of- 
hand  of  the  borrower  when  the 
bank  is  satisfied  of  the  ability 
and  willingness  of  the  borrower 
to  repay  the  money  at  maturity. 

Theory  of  Credit  Expansion 
and  the  Factors  Limiting  its 
Extension. — The  loan  and  in- 
vestment policy  of  the  individual 
bank  must  inevitably  be  based 
upon  the  condition  of  its  reserves 
since  borrowers  make  loans  at  the 
bank  because  they  need  more 
funds  than  they  already  possess. 
The  bank  must  be  prepared  to 
honor  checks  drawn  against  the 
balances  established.  If  the 
recipients  of  these  checks  are 
depositors  in  other  banks,  re- 
serves will  be  reduced  when 
remittances  are  made.  By  in- 
creasing its  outstanding  loans, 
therefore,  a  bank  increases  its 
cash  obligations  or  decreases  its 
cash  holdings.  The  relationship 
involved  in  the  operation  may  be 
summarized  as  follows:  the  bank 
lends  cash  or  a  claim  to  cash.  If 
the  borrower  prefers  credit  the 
bank's  cash  remains  intact  and 
loans  and  deposit  liabilities 
increase  pro  tanto.    If  the  bor- 

VOL.  I. — 030 


rower  utilizes  the  proceeds  of  the 
loan  by  cashing  checks  the 
bank's  liabilities  are  reduced  by  a 
corresponding  reduction  in  cash. 
If  the  borrower's  balances  are 
left  unused,  or  if  transferred  to 
another  depositor's  account  in 
the  same  bank,  the  reserve 
ratio  remains  unchanged.  In 
practice  the  bank  borrower 
does  withdraw  part  of  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  loan  and  yet  as  a 
rule  an  unused  balance  remains 
on  deposit.  The  net  result  is 
that  the  individual  bank  can 
expand  its  credit  more  or  less  in 
proportion  to  the  'free'  reserves, 
depending  upon  the  customary 
bank  balances  left  by  borrowers 
and  the  conventional  reserve 
found  to  be  safe  in  meeting  cur- 
rent demands  for  cash. 

Changing  Character  of  Com- 
mercial Bank  Assets. — Since  the 
cardinal  concept  of  commercial 
banking  is  that  of  liquidity  of 
assets  their  character  must  be 
constantly  re-examined.  The 
orthodox  theory  is  that  loans 
should  be  made  only  with  refer- 
ence to  financing  the  flow  of 
specific  goods  from  producer  to 
consumer  so  that  the  returns 
from  the  sale  of  the  goods  which 
were  the  object  of  the  financing 
will  enable  the  borrower  to  meet 
the  obligation  when  it  is  due. 
Such  loans  are  called  self-liquidat- 
ing  and  it  is  upon  their  use  that 
the  banking  philosophy  and 
legislation  in  both  England  and 
the  United  States  has  in  the  past 
been  based.  In  present  day 
banking  practice,  however,  such 
transactions  are  becoming  dis- 
tinctly in  the  minority,  and 
both  English  and  American 
bankers  are  coming  to  the  posi- 
tion long  since  taken  by  Con- 
tinental bankers,  that  it  is  the 
function  of  banks  to  finance  all 
legitimate  needs  of  industry  and 
commerce  and  to  provide  every 
type  of  financial  service  needed 
by  bank  customers.  The  ortho- 
dox ideas  of  liquidity  are  under- 
going material  changes  with  the 
development  of  a  financial  part- 
ner ship  with  business  and  with 
the  broadening  scope  of  banking 
activities  in  a  more  highly 
organized  money  market.  To- 
day the  banker  has  ceased  to 
rely  upon  the  proceeds  of  matur- 
ing paper  and  depends  for  the 
replenishment  of  his  cash  upon 
his  ability  to  sell  or  pledge  in- 
stantly loans  and  investments 
which  he  holds  in  his  portfolio  as 
secondary  reserve.  This  process 
has  been  immensely  facilitated 
by  virtue  of  the  following  facts: 
the  presence  of  a  highly  organized 
market  for  securities  provides  a 
channel  for  liquidating  long  term 
investments;  the  growth  of  broad 
commercial  paper  and  accept- 
ances markets  provides  means 
for  the  liquidation  of  prime  and 
eligible  paper.    Within  the  last 


few  years  the  relative  increase 
in  time  deposits  compared  to  the 
demand  deposits  means  that  the 
banker  has  more  opportunity  to 
convert  his  assets  before  cash 
demands  are  made.  Thus  we  are 
able  to  justify  a  decided  increase 
in  mortgage  loans  and  advances 
to  brokers  and  investors  dealing 
in  the  stock  and  commodity 
markets,  types  of  transactions  far 
removed  from  the  older  concep- 
tion of  bank  loans. 

The  proportion  of  the  bank's 
resources  to  be  employed  in  the 
various  categories  of  assets  de- 
pends not  only  on  general  market 
and  money  conditions  but  also 
upon  the  circumstances  surround- 
ing the  business  of  each  bank. 
No  fixed  rules  can  be  laid  down 
except  the  dictates  of  experience. 
The  test  of  a  good  banker  is 
largely  the  judgment  he  shows  in 
adapting  his  business  to  changing 
conditions  and  utilizing  the 
funds  entrusted  to  him  in  a  safe 
and  profitable  manner. 

Remittances  and  Other  Func- 
tions.— Bankers  perform  the  im- 
portant function  of  remitting 
money  from  one  place  to  another, 
by  setting  off  the  amount  of  the 
drafts  payable  in  one  place 
against  those  payable  in  the 
other.  They  also  often  receive 
plate  and  other  valuables  be- 
longing to  their  customers  for 
safe  custody  and  they  frequently 
issue  letters  of  credit  for  the 
transmission  of  money,  either 
within  the  country  or  abroad.  A 
letter  of  credit  is  an  authority 
from  the  banker  who  signs  it  to 
the  banker  or  other  person  named 
in  it,  and  who  produces  the  letter. 
He  alone  is  entitled  to  draw  the 
drafts  or  to  receive  payment,  and 
a  letter  of  credit  is  not  a  nego- 
tiable instrument.  (See  Bill  of 
Exchange;  Check;  Negotiable 
Instrument.) 

Inter- Bank  Relations. — In  a 
country  with  a  large  number  of 
banking  units,  if  financial  chaos 
is  to  be  avoided,  some  degree  of 
cooperation  and  coordination 
must  be  obtained  through  volun- 
tary agreements.  Originating 
locally  such  cooperation  spreads 
in  broader  concentric  circles 
through  the  bank  system  until 
district,  national  and  even  in- 
ternational bank  relationships 
have  been  established.  The  germ 
or  nucleus  of  a  real  banking 
system  has  begun  when  certain 
cooperative  institutions  and  prac- 
tices have  developed  to  knit  in- 
dependent banks  together  so 
that  all  act  in  unison  to  achieve 
a  given  aim  or  to  avoid  the  con- 
sequences of  a  crisis. 

Attempts  to  institutionalize 
the  relationship  between  banks 
started  with  the  development  of 
the  local  clearing  hoUvSe.  The 
first  of  these  originated  in  Lon- 
don in  1775.  Prior  to  that  ye^r 
each  banker  had  to  send  a  clerk 


Banking 


563  D 


Banking 


to  every  other  banker  in  London 
to  collect  the  sums  payable  by 
them  to  him.  In  1775  a  common 
centre  of  exchange  was  agreed 
upon  —  the  'clearing  house'  — 
where  the  clerks  employed  in 
this  business  ('clearers')  met 
daily  for  the  exchange  of  bills  and 
checks  and  the  settlement  of 
differences.  Subsequently  the 
clearing  house,  as  well  as  each 
bank  using  it,  opened  an  account 
at  the  Bank  of  England,  and  now 
the  balances  due  at  the  close 
of  each  day's  transactions  are 
settled  by  transfers  from  one 
account  to  another  on  the  books 
of  the  Bank  of  England.  The 
country  banks  are  represented 
by  the  London  Bank  which  is 
their  correspondent,  as  every 
bank  in  the  United  Kingdom  has 
an  agent  in  London.  The  larger 
provincial  towns  have  also  clear- 
ing houses  of  their  own.  The 
immense  utility  of  these  institu- 
tions can  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  the  total  of  the  checks 
passing  through  the  London 
Clearing  House  was  about  fifteen 
billion  pounds  a  year  before  the 
war;  now  (1930)  it  amounts  to 
approximately  forty-five  billion. 

In  the  United  States  beginning 
with  the  clearing  house  associa- 
tion founded  in  New  York  City 
in  1854,  clearing  houses  have 
been  established  in  nearly  every 
large  city.  At  first  established 
to  facilitate  the  clearing  and 
collection  of  checks,  these  in- 
stitutions took  on  new  functions, 
and  clearing  houses  formed  to 
facilitate  clearing  and  collection 
of  checks  between  banks  under 
panic  conditions,  resolved  them- 
selves into  protective  units  where 
reserves  are  pooled  and  con- 
served and  clearing  house  loan 
certificates  issued  for  settlement 
of  bank  balances.  Since  the  in- 
auguration of  the  Federal  Re- 
serve clearing  system  for  member 
and  non-member  banks  the  whole 
country  has  been  knitted  to- 
gether into  twelve  clearing  sys- 
te-Tis  and  one  large  district  clear- 
ing system. 

United  States. — In  early  days 
such  a  thing  as  a  banking  system 
hardly  existed  and  a  conception 
of  what  a  bank  should  be  and 
what  it  should  do  was  wholly 
unlike  that  now  prevailing.  A 
century  ago  deposits  were  un- 
known in  banking  operations; 
today  they  constitute  the  chief 
source  of  banking  funds.  Circu- 
lating notes  were  the  banks'  main 
earning  instrument;  today  only 
one  in  four  banks  issues  its  own 
notes.  Notes  were  formerly 
issued  on  the  basis  of  doubtful 
security  and  losses  were  large; 
today  there  are  no  losses  from 
note  issue.  Banking  was  then  a 
common  law  right  and  it  was  an 
easy  transition  for  any  merchant 
to  become  a  banker  since  he 
performed  in  some  fashion  bank- 


ing functions  when  he  made  ad- 
vances in  cash  as  well  as  selling 
goods  on  credit,  and  at  times  even 
issued  his  own  notes  to  meet  a 
scarcity  demand  for  currency. 

The  history  of  banking  in  the 
United  States  falls  into  five  more 
or  less  distinct  periods:  (1)  the 
Colonial  period,  dominated  by 
experiments  of  government  paper 
issues  rather  than  the  develop- 
ment of  banks;  (2)  1791-1836, 
during  which  two  attempts  were 
made  to  set  up  a  Federal  banking 
institution  modeled  after  the 
central  banks  as  they  had  de- 
veloped in  Europe;  (3)  1836- 
1863,  during  which  various  ex- 
periments were  tried  in  the 
several  States;  (4)  1836-1913, 
marked  by  the  establishment  of 
a  group  of  banks  under  Federal 
charter;  (5)  1914-to  date,  when  a 
final  attempt  was  made  to  unify 
the  whole  banking  system  under 
centralized  control. 

The  Colonial  Period. — The  ear- 
ly conception  of  banking  brought 
over  from  the  mother  country 
was  that  of  a  note  issuing  in- 
stitution. In  fact  the  word  bank 
as  first  used  in  this  country  meant 
the  issue  of  paper  money,  and  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts  re- 
sorted to  a  number  of  'banks'  in 
the  seventeenth  and  early 
eighteenth  centuries  to  pay 
soldiers  for  their  services.  Other 
colonies  followed  until  the  British 
government  undertook  to  put  a 
stop  to  the  trend  of  monetary 
chaos  which  might  result  from 
these  issues,  by  prohibiting  the 
emission  of  letters  of  credit  except 
for_  necessary  government  ex- 
penses. These  were  called 
'anti-bubble'  acts.  The  Revolu- 
tionary War  brought  further 
experiences  with  depreciating 
bills  of  credit.  Worthless  con- 
tinental currency  was  indeed 
partly  responsible  for  the  begin- 
nings of  sound  banking  in  the 
United  States.  In  1786  Robert 
Morris,  Superintendent  of  Fi- 
nance under  the  Continental 
Congress,  persuaded  that  body 
to  charter  a  bank  modelled  some- 
what after  the  Bank  of  England 
as  it  existed  at  that  time.  The 
Bank  of  North  America  rendered 
conspicuous  service  during  the 
last  years  of  the  wlar,  supplying 
funds  to  the  government  and 
aiding  in  correcting  currency  dis- 
orders. It  was  rechartered  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1787  and  still 
exists  today.  In  1784  two  more 
banks  were  established,  one  in 
Massachusetts,  the  other  in  New 
York.  These  three  banks  were 
the  only  ones  in  existence  at  the 
time  of  the  adoption  of  the  Con- 
stitution. 

1791-1836. — In  1791,  at  the 
instance  of  Alexander  Hamilton, 
Congress  established  the  First 
Bank  of  the  United  States  with 
branches  in  eight  cities,  its 
capital  being  fixed  at  $10,000,000, 


one- fifth  of  which  was  sub- 
scribed by  the  government. 
Though  not  positively  authorized 
to  issue  notes  this  function  was 
taken  for  granted.  These  were 
at  all  times  convertible  into 
cash,  were  receivable  for  all  pay- 
ments to  the  government,  and 
hence  circulated  freely  and  set  a 
high  standard  for  notes  of  other 
institutions.  The  bank  was  em- 
ployed as  an  agent  by  the  gov- 
ernment in  financial  transactions, 
and  deficits  in  public  revenues 
were  frequently  met  by  loans 
from  the  bank.  From  the  outset 
this  scheme  met  with  much 
opposition,  particularly  from 
Thomas  Jefferson  and  his  politi- 
cal adherents,  and  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  twenty  years  for 
which  the  charter  was  granted. 
Congress  refused  to  renew  it,  and 
the  institution  went  out  of  ex- 
istence. It  was  a  most  un- 
fortunate time  for  the  country, 
on  the  verge  of  a  war  with  Eng- 
land, to  be  deprived  of  the 
services  of  a  Federal  bank. 
State  banks  sprang  up  on  every 
hand  to  take  its  place.  Deprecia- 
tion and  suspension  of  specie 
payments  resulted,  with  only 
New  England  remaining  on  a 
sound  money  basis.  These 
conditions  led  to  a  strong  agita- 
tion for  the  reestablishment  of 
the  Federal  bank.  • 

The  Second  Bank  of  the  United 
States  received  a  twenty  year 
charter  in  1816.  It  was  capital- 
ized at  $35,000,000,  one-fifth  of 
which  was  subscribed  by  the 
government.  This  bank  was 
mismanaged  at  first,  and  its 
endeavors  to  control  the  issues 
of  State  banks  rendered  it  un- 
popular in  many  sections  of  the 
country.  In  1819  there  was  a 
change  in  the  administration 
of  the  bank,  and  in  the  following 
decade,  especially  under  the 
competent  management  of  Nich- 
olas Biddle,  it  became  a  powerful 
financial  institution  and  per- 
formed valuable  services  to  both 
government  and  business.  Un- 
fortunately the  bank  got  into 
politics  during  the  administra- 
tion of  President  Jackson.  The 
matter  of  charter  renewal  was 
made  the  chief  issue  of  1832. 
The  policies  of  the  bank  irritated 
the  President,  who  arbitrarily 
removed  government  deposits 
and  placed  them  in  'pet'  State 
banks.  The  Second  Bank, 
thereafter,  declined  in  impor- 
tance until  its  charter  expired  in 
1836.  •  The  Government's  ex- 
periences with  State  bank  de- 
positories was  most  unfortunate, 
and  finally  in  1846,  the  Govern- 
ment refused  to  place  any  further 
dependence  on  them  and  es- 
tablished its  own  'Independent 
Treasury'  for  the  custody  of 
public  funds. 

The  State  Banks  before  1863. — 
Some  28  State  banks  were  in  ex- 
istence at  the  beginning  of  the 


Vol.  I.— O30 


Banking 


564 


Banking 


nineteenth  century.  In  1811, 
when  the  charter  of  the  First 
United  States  Bank  expired,  the 
number  had  increased  to  88,  and 
during  the  period  prior  to  the 
chartering  of  ^the  Second  United 
States  Bank  it  is  estimated  that 
the  number  had  increased  to  246, 
with  an  aggregate  note  circula- 
tion of  approximately  $100,000,- 
000.  Eighty  more  banks  were 
chartered  prior  to  1829,  and  from 
that  date  onward  to  the  Civil 
War  their  growth  was  rapid. 

During  1811-1816  and  1836- 
1863  State  banks  grew  up  and 
carried  on  their  operations  un- 
hampered by  control  or  com- 
petition of  Federal  banks.  The 
creation  of  a  variety  of  types 
under  the  several  independent 
States  was  to  be  expected.  In  a 
young  country,  rich  in  natural 
resources,  and  peopled  by  an 
aggressive  and  ingenious  popula- 
tion, badly  in  need  of  circulating 
media,  due  to  the  scarcity  of 
specie,  banking  experiments  de- 
veloped chiefly  around  the  prob- 
lem of  economizing  specie  and 
producing  safe  credit  money. 
Throughout  this  period  bank 
notes  were  of  more  importance 
than  deposit  credit  (although 
statistics  indicate  the  growing 
importance  in  the  use  of  checks 
after  the  middle  of  the  fifties). 
The  'history  of  pre-Civil  War 
banking,  therefore,  is  largely  the 
story  of  successful  and  unsuccess- 
ful experiments  in  regulating  and 
controlling  the  issue  of  bank 
notes.  Wild  cat  banking  was 
profitable  to  the  issuers  who 
could  circulate  irredeemable 
notes,  but  noteholders  suffered 
great  loss  and  inconvenience  in 
those  cases  where  notes  were  at 
a  heavy  discount  in  terms  of 
specie,  and  where  high  rates  of 
exchange  were  charged  to  obtain 
remittances.  The  most  success- 
ful attempts  to  remedy  the  situ- 
ation were:  (1)  the  Suffolk 
System,  developed  in  Boston  in 
1818;  (2)  the  Safety  Fund  System 
(1829);  and  (3)  Free  Banking 
System  (1838),  both  contribu- 
tions of  New  York  experiences; 
and  (4)  certain  notable  experi- 
ments such  as  branch  banking  in 
Indiana  under  the  law  of  1834, 
and  the  well  regulated  system  in 
Louisiana  after  1842.  The 
Suffolk  contribution  to  banking 
practice  was  based  on  the  idea  of 
a  redemption  centre  at  which  the 
notes  of  all  banks  could  be  pre- 
sented for  payment,  deposits  of 
interior  banks  being  maintained 
as  reserve  for  the  purpose.  Notes 
were  immediately  sent  home  so 
that  the  solvency  of  the  issuing 
bank  was  constantly  tested. 
This  system  of  note  redemption 
still  exists  in  Canada,  and  is  the 
basis  of  check  clearings  and 
collections  at  the  present  time  in 
that  country.  Under  the  Safety 
Fund  System  the  banks  chartered 

Vol.  I.— 030 


under  the  act  contributed  to  the 
State  treasury  one-half  of  one 
per  cent,  of  their  annual  earnings 
until  they  had  paid  amounts 
equal  to  three  per  cent,  of  their 
capital.  Liabilities  of  failed  banks 
were  to  be  liquidated  out  of  this 
'insurance'  fund.  This  scheme 
was  not  wholly  successful  since 
both  note  and  deposit  liabilities 
were  originally  included,  and  the 
financial  crises  of  1837  rapidly 
exhausted  the  fund.  A  limited 
application  to  notes  alone  would 
probably  have  worked  success- 
fully. This  system  was  intro- 
duced in  other  States  with  vary- 
ing success,  and  exists  today  as  a 
characteristic  part  of  the  Cana- 
dian Banking  System.  The  Free 
Banking  System  (so  called  be- 
cause the  Act  of  1838  in  New 
York  abolished  the  practice  of 
chartering  banks  by  act  of 
legislature  and  instituted  a  gener- 
al law)  was  characterized  by  the 
issue  of  bank  notes  against  de- 
posits of  approved  bond  and  real 
estate  mortgage  securities.  The 
system  worked  well  in  New 
York  and  in  some  other  States 
where  adequate  safeguards  were 
imposed,  and  where  the  law  was 
well  administered,  but  in  other 
instances  it  proved  a  disastrous 
failure  because  of  poor  provisions 
and  administration.  The  prin- 
ciple of  bond-secured  note 
issues  was  later  adopted  in  the 
National  Banking  Act  and  to  the 
present  day  has  proved  absolute- 
ly safe. 

Other  experiments  in  com- 
munities with  highly  developed 
commercial  life,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  competent  men,  Have 
proved  adequate  and  successful, 
whereas  these  principles  men- 
tioned above  have  not  always 
worked  well  under  the  conditions. 
This  seems  to  indicate  that  no 
universal  or  absolute  principles 
of  bank  practice  can  be  laid  down 
and  that  business  morality  and 
honest  administration  and  public 
supervision  are  the  sine  qua  non 
of  successful  banking. 

National  Banks. — Prior  to  the 
Civil  War  State  bank  notes 
constituted  the  only  form  of 
paper  money  in  the  United 
States.  There  were  perhaps  ten 
thousand  od'd  varieties  of  these 
notes,  issued  by  some  sixteen 
hundred  banks  under  the  diverse 
provision  of  different  State  laws. 
Many  of  these  were  worthless 
because  counterfeited  or  because 
the  issuing  bank  had  failed.  The 
evils  of  a  decentralized,  hetero- 
geneous currency  condition  in- 
tensified financial  difficulties  when 
the  Civil  War  broke  out.  One 
paramount  need  of  the  govern- 
ment in  1860  was,  therefore, 
sound  and  uniform  currency, 
another  was  the  urgent  need  of 
public  revenue.  Taxation  proved 
inadequate  and  paper  rhoney 
issues    (greenbacks)    were  re- 


sorted to,  but  loans  were  neces- 
sary and  government  credit 
needed  support. 

The  Act  of  1863  was  'passed 
with  the  double  purpose  of  pro- 
viding a  uniform  currency  and  at 
the  same  time  creating  a  market 
for  Government  bonds;  but  not 
many  banks  entered  under  its 
provisions  so  a  revision  was  made 
in  1864,  which  remedied  many 
of  the  features  to  which  banks 
objected. 

As  the  law  stands  now  any 
number  of  citizens,  not  less  than 
five,  may  organize  a  National 
bank,  if  they  possess  the  neces- 
sary capital,  by  applying  to  the 
Comptroller  of  the  Currency  for  a 
charter.  It  is  not  mandatory 
upon  the  Comptroller  'to  grant 
such  applications,  and  in  practice 
charters  are  granted  only  in  those 
cases  in  which  a  survey  shows 
that  there  is  a  general  demand 
for  a  bank  and  that  it  is  well 
sponsored.  The  general  super- 
vision of  the  system  is  com- 
mitted to  a  separate  bureau 
established  in  the  Treasury 
Department  under  the  direction 
of  the  Comptroller  of  the  Cur- 
rency. The  Comptroller  ap- 
points examiners  who  'examine' 
all  National  banks.  These  banks 
are  also  required  to  report  at 
least  three  times  a  year.  Capital 
requirements  have  been  modified 
from  time  to  time,  the  amounts 
necessary  being  based  on  the 
size  of  the  communities  in  which 
the  banks  are  located.  The 
law  provided  for  double  liability 
of  shareholders  in  case  of  failure 
of  the  bank,  and  provision  is 
made  for  building-up  surplus  for 
additional  protection  to  the 
bank's  creditors.  One  chief  cause 
of  bank  losses  and  failures  has 
been  unsafe  and  non-liquid  loans 
and  advances.  Regulations  in 
this  matter  limit  the  advances  of 
National  banks  both  with  regard 
to  character  and  amount,  so  as  to 
insure  a  reasonably  safe  diversi- 
fication and  liquidity  of  assets. 
National  bank  notes  may  be 
issued  to  the  value  of  United 
States  bonds  deposited  with  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Be- 
fore 1913  every  bank  was  re- 
quired to  invest  a  part  of  its 
capital  in  Government  bonds 
whether  it  took  out  circulation  or 
not;  but  this  provision  was  re- 
pealed by  the  Federal  Reserve 
Act.  Notes  are  redeemable  at  the 
issuing  bank,  and  at  all  National 
banks,  and  at  the  Treasury  of  the 
United  States,  where,  since  the 
Act  of  1874.  there  has  been  kept  a 
five  per  cent,  redemption  fund 
contributed  by  the  banks  for  this 
purpose.  To  clear  the  way  for  the 
new  National  bank  notes  and  in 
order  to  abolish  the  chaotic 
circulation  of  State  banks  a 
prohibitory  tax  of  ten  per  cent, 
was  imposed  in  1865  on  all  notes 
issued  by  State  banks.  The  im- 


Banking 


565 


Banking 


mediate  result  of  this  provision 
was  a  rapid  decrease  in  number 
and  importance  of  State  banks, 
which  were  practically  wiped 
out  by  1873;  the  ultimate  result, 
however,  spelled  a  relative  de- 
cline in  the  importance  of  the 
bank  note,  and  the  increased 
use  of  deposit  currency  shifted 
the  competitive  advantage  of 
banking  to  State  and  private  in- 
stitutions enjoying  the  advantage 
of  more  liberal  laws.  The  Na- 
tional Bank  Act  was  liberal- 
ized in  1913  and  finally  in  1927 
the  McFadden- Pepper  Act  con- 
siderably broadened  National 
bank  powers.  The  development 
of  State  and  National  banks 
from  1864  to  1929  is  shown  in  the 
summary  table  below: 


was  to  study  the  whole  subject 
of  banking  reform  and  propose 
suitable  legislation.  The  Com- 
mission's official  programme  of 
currency  reform,  the  Aldrich 
Plan,  failed  of  passage  in  a 
Democratic  Congress,  but  the 
ground  was  prepared  for  the 
drafting  and  adoption  of  an  act, 
full  of  compromises,  but  in- 
corporating the  thought  of  a 
generation  of  students  who  had 
grappled  with  the  problem  of 
currency  and  banking  reform. 

Its  purposes  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows:  (1)  To 
furnish  an  elastic  currency;  (2) 
To  centralize  and  mobilize  re- 
serves and  to  afford  means  of 
rediscounting  commercial  paper; 
(3)  To  obtain  cheaper  and  more 


Development  of  State  and  National  Banking  Institutions  from  186^-1929 


(Amounts  in  Millions  of  Dollars) 


Year 


1864 
1865 
1866 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1910 
1914 
1917 
1920 
1926 
1928 
1929 


National  Banks 


Number 


139 
638 
1,582 
1,628 
2,052 
3,326 
3,602 
7,173 
7,571 
7,589 
8,019 
7,978 
7,691 
7,536 


Capital 


15 
136 
403 
419 
454 
618 
607 
1,003 
1,063 
1,082 
1,221 
1,413 
1,594 
1,627 


Deposits 


221 
552 
585 
766 
1,480 
2,461 
5,146 
6,079 
9,321 
13,672 
17,057 
19,300 
19,493 


Circu- 
lation 


67 
213 
293 
322 
126 
205 
675 
1,018* 
723 
688 
651 
649 
646 


State  Banks 


Number 


1,089 
349 
297 
325 
620 
2,101 
4,369 
12,166 
14,512 
15,968 
18,195 
16,493 
15,078 
14,437 


Capital 


312 
71 
66 
87 
91 
189 
237 
436 
501 
600 
920 
1,092 
1,051 
1,156 


209 
553 
1,267 
2,728 
3,227 
5,391 
10,873 
13,158 
13,357 
13,587 


*  Including  emergency  currency. 

Federal  Reserve  System. — The 
defects  of  the  National  Banking 
System  were  recognized  almost 
from  the  start,  but  monetary 
problems,  e.g.  greenbacks  and 
free  silver,  overshadowed  ques- 
tions of  banking  policy.  Practi- 
cally every  financial  crisis  was 
accompanied  by  money  panic 
due  to  the  rigid  provisions  and 
necessity  of  independent,  sauve 
qui  peut  action,  and  the  lack  of 
any  dependable  source  of  help. 
Nothing  resulted  from  the  ex- 
periences of  the  crises  of  1873 
and  1884,  but  the  distressing 
need  of  an  emergency  currency 
during  the  panic  of  1893  started 
an  agitation  which  resulted 
twenty  years  later  in  the  adop- 
tion of  the  revolutionary  changes 
embodied  in  the  Federal  Reserve 
Act.  Progress  was  slow  until  the 
collapse  in  the  panic  of  1907. 
In  the  following  year  Congress 
passed  the  Aldrich- Vreeland  Act, 
which  provided  for  temporary 
emergency  currency  until  per- 
manent measures  could  be  de- 
vised; and  also  for  a  National 
Monetary    Commission,  which 


effective  clearance  and  collection 
of  checks  and  a  more  efficient 
transfer  system ;  (4)  To  facilitate 
foreign  trade  financing;  (5)  To 
afford  a  satisfactory  depository 
and  fiscal  agent  for  the  govern- 
ment. 

A  dministrative  Organization 
and  Structure. — To  carry  out  the 
purposes  of  the  reform  the  organ- 
ization of  the  Federal  Reserve 
was  effected  in  the  following 
manner:  the  country  was  divided 
into  twelve  districts  (not  less 
than  eight  nor  more  than 
twelve)  and  a  Federal  Reserve 
bank  was  established  in  each. 
These  banks  were  superimposed 
upon  an  undisturbed  structure 
of  National  and  State  banks,  and 
an  attempt  was  made  to  obtain 
institutions  of  approximately 
equal  strength  by  adjusting  the 
size  of  geographical  areas  to  their 
respective  jurisdictions.  De- 
spite the  tradition  against  branch 
banking,  these  were  allowed,  and 
Federal  Reserve  banks  have  at 
the  present  time  (1930)  24 
branches  and  2  agencies,  most 
of  these  being  located  in  large 


districts  where  access  to  the 
Reserve  bank  is  difficult. 

In  order  to  give  cohesion  there 
was  established  in  Washington 
a  centralized  mechanism  in  the 
form  of  a  Federal  Reserve  Board, 
consisting  of  eight  members,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and 
the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency 
ex-officio,  and  six  others  appoint- 
ed by  the  President.  They 
rotate  in  office  and  have  a  ten- 
year  term  of  tenure.  They  have 
important  coordinating,  regu- 
lating, and  supervisory  powers 
over  the  Reserve  banks,  and 
exert  a  large  measure  of  control 
over  their  policies. 

Federal  Reserve  Banks  are 
incorporated  under  Federal  char- 
ter; each  bank  must  have  a 
capital  of  at  least  four  million 
dollars  subscribed  by  member 
banks,  one-half  of  subscribed 
capital  must  be  paid  up;  it  is 
thus  a  'bankers'  bank'  with 
regard  to  ownership.  This  stock 
carries  a  cumulative  dividend  of 
six  per  cent,  per  annum;  net 
profits  in  excess  of  this  amount 
go  to  build  up  surplus  until  it  is 
equal  to  the  subscribed  capital; 
thereafter  one- tenth  goes  to 
surplus  while  the  remaining 
ninety  per  cent,  is  paid  to  the 
Government  as  a  franchise  tax. 
On  the  criteria  of  return  these 
banks  are  quasi-public  in  char- 
acter, since  profits  to  owners  are 
distinctly  limited. 

With  regard  to  management 
each  Reserve  bank  is  controlled 
by  a  board  of  nine  directors, 
divided  into  three  classes — A, 
B,  and  C — representing  member 
banks,  business,  and  the  public, 
respectively.  Class  A  and  B 
directors  are  elected  by  member 
banks;  Class  C  by  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board.  An  ingenious 
method  of  proportional  as  well  as 
occupational  representation  char- 
acterizes the  election  of  the  six 
directors  by  large,  middle  sized, 
and  small  banks.  The  Federal 
Reserve  Agent,  a  Class  C 
director,  is  chairman  of  the  Board 
and  acts  as  liaison-officer  between 
the  bank  and  the  Federal  Re- 
serve Board.  The  executive 
officer  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
bank  is  a  trained  banker,  com- 
petent to  direct  the  operations 
of  the  bank,  hired  on  a  commer- 
cial basis  as  any  bank  president 
would  be  and  called  the  Gov- 
ernor. 

The  membership  of  the  system 
is  composed  of  all  National 
banks,  which  were  required  to 
become  members  or  relinquish 
their  Federal  charters,  and  all 
State  banks  and  trust  companies 
satisfying  certain  eligibility  con- 
ditions regarding  capitalization 
and  character  of  their  business. 
State  banks  hesitated  to  enter 
the  system  during  the  first  years 
of  its  existence  and  even  today, 
after    the    liberalizing  amend- 

Vol.  I.— 03Q 


Banking 


565  A 


Banking 


ments  of  1917  and  1927,  only 
one-third  of  the  commercial 
banking  institutions  of  the  coun- 
try are  members.  These,  how- 
ever, represent  the  larger  in- 
stitutions since  the  aggregate 
resources  of  the  members  of 
the  Federal  Reserve  system  are 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
country's  total.  The  chief 
operations  involved  in  taking  out 
Federal  Reserve  membership  are 
keeping  reserves  without  in- 
terest, paying  checks  through  the 
system  at  par,  investing  in 
Federal  Reserve  stock,  and  con- 
forming to  certain  restrictions, 
regulation  and  supervision,  and 
submitting  reports.  The  com- 
pensating services  derived  from 
membership  are  the  availability 
of  a  market  for  eligible  paper, 
clearings  and  transfer  facilities, 
and  the  protection  and  prestige 
involved. 

The  Federal  Advisory  Council, 
as  its  name  implies,  is  an  ad- 
visory council  only.  It  consists 
of  twelve  members  elected  by 
the  members  of  each  bank,  meet- 
ing at  least  quarterly  with  the 
members  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
Board,  and  making  recommenda- 
tions concerning  policy  which 
reflect  the  opinion  of  the  different 
geographical  districts. 

The  Functions  of  Reserve 
Banks. — The  Reserve  banks, 
like  ordinary  commercial  banks, 
receive  deposits,  extend  credit, 
furnish  a  medium  of  exchange, 
but  unlike  ordinary  commercial 
banks  their  operations  are  not 
dominated  by  considerations  of 
profits  but  are  governed  by 
principles  which  are  peculiar  to 
central  bank  practice,  namely, 
they  must  envisage  the  whole 
credit  and  economic  situation  of 
the  country  to  develop  their 
policies,  to  promote  the  general 
welfare  of  society  as  a  whole. 
Their  chief  functions  are,  there- 
fore, to  serve  member  banks  and 
the  government,  with  which  they 
deal  directly,  and  non-member 
banks  and  business,  with  which 
they  come  into  contact  through 
clearings  and  collections  and 
open  market  operations,  so  as  to 
best  promote  the  general  in- 
terests of  commerce  and  business. 
These  functions  may  be  enu- 
merated as  follows:  (1)  to 
hold  the  ultimate  reserves  of  the 
banking  system;  (2)  to  extend 
credit  to  member  banks;  (3)  to 
issue  notes  and  to  furnish  cur- 
rency; (4)  to  act  as  fiscal  agent 
for  the  government;  (5)  to  oper- 
ate a  clearings  and  collections 
system;  (6)  to  facilitate  foreign 
trade  financing;  (7)  to  control  the 
volume  of  credit  of  the  banking 
system. 

Reserves. — Under  the  old  bank- 
ing system  reserves  were  scat- 
tered among  thousands  of  in- 
dividual banks  and  laws  govern- 
ing reserves  were  so  inflexible 

Vol.  I. —030 


that  reserves  could  not  be  used 
in  times  of  emergency.  The 
Reserve  system  made  two  great 
changes  in  these  requirements; 
(a)  it  concentrated  the  reserves 
into  twelve  great  reservoirs  in- 
timately connected  in  order  to 
make  them  mobile  and  acces- 
sible; (b)  it  provided  a  plan  of 
credit  expansion  based  upon 
these  reserves.  This  concentra- 
tion and  greater  efficiency  in  the 
use  of  reserves  made  possible  a 
large  reduction  in  the  reserve 
requirements  of  each  member 
bank.  The  reduction  was  effected 
gradually,  and  since  the  amend- 
ment of  1917  has  remained 
as  follows:  member  banks  must 
maintain  all  of  their  reserve 
in  reserve  banks;  provisions 
against  demand  deposits  are  13, 
10,  and  7  per  cent,  for  banks 
located  respectively  in  central 
reserve,  reserve  cities,  and  else- 
where, whereas  only  3  per  cent, 
need  be  kept  against  time  de- 
posits (payable  in  thirty  days  or 
over).  Since  member  banks  can 
withdraw  currency  at  any  time 
they  keep  no  more  cash  in  their 
vaults  than  is  needed  as  till- 
money  for  the  daily  transaction 
of  their  business.  Any  excess  is 
loaned  or  invested;  they  uni- 
formly expand  their  credit  to 
the  practical  maximum  allowed 
by  the  law.  Credit  expansion  by 
member  banks  is  called  'primary' 
expansion  since  it  takes  place 
first  when  loanable  resources  in- 
crease. These  pooled  reserves 
may  be  augmented  in  times  of 
need  by  borrowing  from  the 
reserve  banks.  Advances  are 
received  and  reserve  credited  to 
the  account  of  member  banks  on 
the  basis  of  high  grade  short- 
term  commercial  paper,  or  gov- 
ernment security,  a  category  of 
items  now  called  'eligible'  paper. 
Such  a  credit  augments  member 
banks  reserve  just  as  effectively 
as  would  a  deposit  of  cash, 
enabling  the  member  bank  in  its 
turn  to  grant  new  loans  to  its 
customers.  Reserve  banks  ex- 
pand their  credit  on  the  basis  of 
eligible  paper  as  well  as  gold  and 
lawful  money;  it  is  called  'sec- 
ondary' credit  expansion,  since 
it  is  based  upon  the  assets  ob- 
tained through  member  banks. 
The  ultimate  limit  of  reserve 
expansion  is  determined  by  the 
legal  minimum  rcvserve  of  thirty- 
five  per  cent,  of  gold  and  lawful 
money  against  deposit  liabilities. 
This  is  not  absolutely  rigid 
since  it  may  be  allowed  to  fall 
below  this  amount  subject  to  a 
penalty  tax,  and  the  limit  may  be 
temporarily  suspended  by  the 
Federal  Reserve  Board.  This 
system  permits  pyramiding  of 
credit;  thus  thirty-five  dollars  of 
gold  or  lawful  money  in  the 
reserve  bank  may  form  the  basis 
of  one  hundred  dollars  reserve 
credit  to  members  who  in  turn 


may  utilize  this  as  7,  10,  or  13  per 
cent,  reserve  against  deposit 
liabilities,  or  3  per  cent,  against 
time  deposits.  Such  expansion  is 
adequate  for  almost  any  con- 
ceivable emergency.  The  chief 
problem  has  been  to  develop 
restraints  to  prevent  over-issue 
of  credit.  No  interest  is  paid 
against  reserve  balances,  hence 
no  incentive  is  given  for  carrying 
large  excessive  amounts.  This 
leaves  the  resources  of  the 
Reserve  banks  available  for 
emergencies. 

Prior  to  the  establishment  of 
the  Federal  Reserve  System 
four  kinds  of  paper  money  were 
in  general  use,  all  of  which  are 
still  in  circulation:  first,  gold 
certificates  covered  by  gold  and 
susceptible  of  increase  or  de- 
crease only  as  gold  in  the 
United  States  Treasury  is  in- 
creased or  decreased;  second, 
silver  certificates  secured  dollar 
for  dollar  by  silver,  the  amount 
of  which  is  limited  by  law;  third. 
United  States  notes  or  green- 
backs, still  limited  by  statute  to 
$346,000,000;  and  fourth.  Na- 
tional bank  notes,  limited  by  the 
amount  of  the  United  States 
bonds  carrying  the  circulating 
privilege.  None  of  these  forms 
of  currency  fluctuate  in  any 
relation  to  usual  or  abnormal 
changes  in  business  demands. 

The  Federal  Reserve  Act  in- 
troduced new  principles  by  pre- 
scribing business  paper  as  secur- 
ity behind  Federal  Reserve 
notes.  This  paper,  eligible  for 
rediscounting  or  as  collateral, 
originates  in  industrial,  com- 
mercial, and  agricultural  trans- 
actions with  a  maturity  of  ninety 
days,  except  in  the  case  of 
agricultural  paper,  which  may 
run  for  nine  months.  Short-term, 
fifteen-day,  member  bank  loans, 
collateraled  by  government  ob- 
ligations or  eligible  paper,  was 
provided  for  by  a  war  amend- 
nietit  in  1916,  and  these  still 
offer  convenient  forms  of  com- 
mercial bank  borrowing.  Con- 
traction of  note  issue,  ag  weil  as 
expansion,  is  semi-automatic  in 
its  operation.  When,  business 
becomes  less  active  the  com- 
mercial paper  security  shrinks  in 
volume  and  notes  are  retired, 
except,  however,  that  the  amount 
based  upon  gold  may  remain  out- 
standing. Another  form  of 
paper  created  by  the  Federal 
Reserve  Act,  the  Federal  Re- 
serve bank  note,  intended  to  re- 
place National  bank  notes  should 
these  institutions  wish  to  retire 
their  circulation,  is  of  little  im- 
portance today. 

The  presence  of  the  Reserve 
banks  relieves  the  Government 
Treasury  of  much  of  the  direct 
responsibility  which  it  formerly 
assumed  in  the  money  market. 
The  Reserve  banks,  in  constant 
touch  with  the  money  market, 


Banking 


565  B 


Banking 


and  with  ofifices  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  are  able  to  perform  the 
fiscal  operations  required  by 
government  business  with  ex- 
pedition and  effect.  Collections, 
remittances  and  transfers  are 
made  in  huge  amounts,  practical- 
ly without  charge.  During  the 
war  and  after  the  Reserve  banks 
proved  invaluable  in  aiding  the 
flotation  of  bonds,  and  by 
furnishing  machinery  for  secur- 
ing credit  expansion  made  war 
financing  possible. 

Credits  and  Collections. — Be- 
cause of  the  absence  of  any  other 
organization  in  the  United  States 
capable  of  operating  a  nation 
wide  clearings  and  collection 
system  the  Federal  Reserve  was 
compelled  to  establish  an  elabo- 
rate mechanism  which  has  united 
the  whole  country  into  a  single 
money  market.  What  the  local 
clearing  house  did  for  local  settle- 
ments the  reserve  clearing  system 
has  done  for  out  of  town  settle- 
ments. All  member  banks  are 
compelled  to  remit  checks  at  par, 
that  is,  they  may  not  charge  one 
another,  or  the  Federal  Reserve 
bank,  for  cashing  their  own 
checks.  Non-member  banks  are 
invited  to  become  members  of 
the  'par  list',  assuming  the 
obligation  of  paying  their  checks 
without  exchange  charges,  and  in 
return  benefiting  by  the  opera- 
tion of  the  system.  Clearings 
and  collections  within  the  single 
district  involve  a  simple  process 
of  settling  transactions  by  debit 
and  credit  entries  affecting  mem- 
bers' accounts  on  the  books  of 
the  Federal  Reserve  bank.  Inter- 
district  clearings  are  somewhat 
more  complicated,  and  involve 
transfer  of  funds  by  debit  and 
credit  entries  affecting  Reserve 
banks  upon  the  books  of  the 
'Gold  Settlement  Fund,'  a  fund 
created  by  deposits  of  the  twelve 
banks  with  the  Treasury  in 
Washington,  in  the  custody  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  Board.  The 
twelve  Reserve  banks  aud  twen- 
ty-four branches  provide  a 
mechanism  for  smooth  and  effec- 
tive settlements  between  distant 
points,  reducing  the  expenses, 
risks,  and  delays,  so  unprofitable 
under  the  old  system. 

Facilities  for  Financing  Foreign 
Trade. — The  bill  of  exchange 
was  used  in  the  United  States 
prior  to  the  Civil  War  but  its  use 
was  practically  discontinued  and 
the  law  did  not,  thereafter,  per- 
mit banks  to  accept  bills  until 
such  a  provision  was  incor- 
porated in  the  Federal  Reserve 
Act.  Prior  to  1914  a  small 
volume  of  American  foreign 
trade  was  financed  with  letters 
of  credit  by  private  bankers. 
Through  an  amendment  to  the 
Federal  Reserve  Act  in  1919  (the 
Edge  Law)  authority  was  given 
for  the  organization  of  corpora- 
tions for  the  purpose  of  engaging 


in  international  or  foreign  trade. 
These  organizations  were  also 
authorized  to  accept  bills  or 
drafts  drawn  upon  them.  Ac- 
ceptance business  has  therefore 
been  developed  by  three  groups. 
These  accepted  drafts  were  also 
made  eligible  for  purchase  by  the 
Reserve  banks,  and  thus  the 
necessary  foundation  was  laid 
for  a  discount  market. 

Year  by  year  the  numbers  and 
kinds  of  bills  have  been  increasing 
and  the  market  has  been  ex- 
panding. At  the  present  time 
bills  are  chiefly  used  to  finance 
exports  and  imports,  but  large 
amounts  are  also  drawn  against 
readily  marketable  staples  held 
in  warehouses  here  and  abroad, 
and  some  are  drawn  for  domestic 
movements  of  goods.  These 
types  of  paper  have  an  inter- 
national market  and  the  de- 
velopment of  an  American  bill 
market  is  a  favorable  factor  in 
encouraging  a  free  flow  of  funds 
between  this  and  other  coun- 
tries. Bankers  acceptances  out- 
standing have  in  late  years  been 
two  or  three  times  as  large  as  the 
volume  of  commercial  paper  out- 
standing. 

Mechanism  of  Credit  Policy 
and  Credit  Control. — Federal  Re- 
serve banks  supply  additional 
funds  by  expanding  credit  when 
more  funds  are  needed,  and 
curbing  the  use  of  their  credit 
when  contraction  is  desired. 
Controlling  this  flow  of  credit  is 
what  is  meant  by  credit  policy. 
Though  many  observers  have 
laid  out  a  large  order  for  the 
authorities  to  achieve  as  ob- 
jectives of  their  policy,  such  as 
stabilizing  interest  rates  and 
commodity  prices,  preventing 
bank  failures,  surpressing  specu- 
lation, and  eliminating  business 
fluctuations,  the  fixed  aim  set  by 
the  law  is  definitely  'to  accom- 
modate business  and  commerce.' 

Those  who  determine  the  Re- 
serve policy  consist  of  the  board 
of  nine  directors  of  each  of  the 
twelve  semi-autonomous  district 
banks,  a  board  of  eight  members 
representing  the  nation  at  large, 
and  the  Advisory  Council  of 
local  representatives  meeting 
with  the  Federal  Reserve  Board. 
Thus  we  have  a  compromise  of 
local  and  national  interests  by 
dual  control. 

A  distinction  now  commonly 
made  by  the  Reserve  authorities 
is  credit  policy  as  divStinct  from 
hank  policy.  The  latter  involves 
the  use  of  credit  advanced  by  the 
individual  banker,  whereas  the 
former  involves  questions  of  ad- 
justing the  country's  total  credit 
supply  to  the  volume  of  business. 
The  Federal  Reserve  is  directly 
responsible  for  the  latter  policy 
only. 

In  controlling  the  supply  of 
Federal  Reserve  bank  credit 
three  limitations  may  be  noted: 


(1)  Defining  eligibility  the  vol- 
ume of  reserve  credit  is  restricted 
to  those  who  possess  eligible 
paper  for  sale  and  rediscount. 

(2)  There  are  several  restraints 
which  check  the  use  of  reserve 
funds  by  member  banks,  chief 
of  which  is  the  discount  rate. 
Various  guides  are  used  in  chang- 
ing discount  rates  such  as  reserve 
ratio  (a  single  figure  obtained  by 
computing  the  ratio  of  gold  and 
lawful  money  to  notes  plus 
deposits),  market  rates  of  in- 
terest, member  bank  credit,  use 
to  which  credit  is  put,  employ- 
ment and  business  conditions, 
price  levels,  and  international 
conditions.  The  problem  is 
complicated  and  no  single  guide 
has  proved  adequate.  (3)  The 
open  market  operations  of  the 
Reserve  banks  are  under  the 
centralized  control  of  a  com- 
mittee located  in  New  York. 
Although  the  provisions  of  the 
Act  allow  Reserve  banks  to  buy 
and  sell  bills  and  government 
securities,  the  banks  assume 
a  passive  role  except  with 
regard  to  the  purchase  and  sale  of 
government  securities.  The 
immediate  effect  of  selling  se- 
curities is  to  take  funds  out  of  the 
market,  whereas  buying  puts 
funds  into  the  market.  When 
member  banks  are  borrowing,  the 
additional  funds  are  used  to 
repay  loans,  due  to  the  tradition 
against  borrowing,  but  when 
they  are  in  debt  such  additional 
funds  may  be  used  to  expand 
credit.  Member  bank  borrow- 
ings therefore  are  also  an  im- 
portant guide  to  money  con- 
ditions. When  heavily  in  debt, 
rates  will  be  high,  when  out 
of  debt,  discount  rates  will  be 
low. 

Present  Banking  Structure  and 
the  Concentration  of  Bank  Re- 
sources.— The  chief  problem  re- 
lating to  the  United  States 
composite  banking  structure 
seems  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that 
there  are  two  sets  of  banking 
corporations  performing  sub- 
stantially the  same  functions 
side  by  side,  but  under  the 
control  and  regulation  of  differ- 
ent authorities.  State  banks 
carry  on  under  the  provisions  of 
forty-eight  different  sets  of  laws, 
and  though  such  conditions  pro- 
vide for  a  certain  adaptability  to 
the  peculiar  credit  needs  of  local 
conditions  they  do  not  possess 
the  advantage  of  uniformity  of 
supervision  and  high  banking 
standards.  The  competition 
between  these  two  types  of 
banking  systems  has  resulted  in 
materially  extending  the  powers 
enjoyed  by  National  banks,  but 
the  question  of  branch  banking 
still  remains  one  provoking 
vigorous  controversy. 

The  origin  of  the  independent 
unit  banking  system  is  found  in 
the  early  abuse  of  special  char- 


VOL.  I. — 030 


Banking 


565  C 


Banking 


ters  and  banking  monopoly  and 
the  fear  of  financial  tyranny  by 
big  banks.  The  free  banking 
plan  in  New  York  and  the 
National  Banking  system  both 
had  the  effect  of  stimulating  the 
growth  of  many  unit  banks,  and 
the  Federal  Reserve  system 
though  encouraging  certain  co- 
operation has  forbidden  branch 
banking.  The  majority  of 
States  have  followed  the  lead  of 
the  Federal  government  and  have 
either  prohibited  or  limited 
branch  banking.  However  some 
States,  notably  California,  New 
York,  Ohio,  and  Michigan,  have 
permitted  ownership  of  one  bank 
by  another,  and  this  provision 
has  encouraged  National  banks 
to  give  up  their  charter  and  in- 
corporate under  the  State  laws. 
State  bank  resources  amounting 
to  fifty- five  per  cent,  of  the  total 
commercial  bank  resources  in 
1919  increased  to  sixty  per  cent, 
by  March  1929  with  a  corres- 
ponding decrease  in  the  case  of 
National  banks.  This  tendency 
soon  began  to  affect  the  Federal 
Reserve  system;  with  consequent 
liberalizing  provisions  allowing 
National  banks  to  have  branches 
where  State  laws  permit  them, 
but  restricting  them  within  city 
limits. 

During  the  past  ten  years  a 
business  revolution  has  been 
taking  place,  and  with  it,  a  trend 
away  from  the  multiplicity  of 
independent  banking  units.  Big 
business  has  been  accompanied 
by  big  banking.  This  movement 
has  been  characteristic  in  most 
commercial  countries.  In  Canada 
ten  banks  and  their  branches  do 
all  the  commercial  banking  in 
the  country.  In  England  the 
Big  Five  with  their  branches, 
control  about  four-fifths  of  the 
total  banking  resources,  and  the 
German  Big  Four  approximately 
seven-tenths.  Mergers  and  con- 
solidations have  been  the^order  of 
the  day,  especially  in  the  last  two 
years,  but  even  now  the  five 
largest  banks  in  the  United 
States  represent  less  than  ten 
per  cent,  of  the  total  banking 
resources  in  the  country.  The 
laws  restraining  branch  banking 
are  being  defeated  by  the  actual 
consolidation  of  banks,  and 
through  the  creation  of  holding 
companies  and  investment  trusts 
banking  'groups'  or  'chains' 
which  are  spreading  throughout 
the  land.  In  the  East  the 
consolidation  and  the  holding 
company  seem  to  be  most  in 
favor  as  methods  of  controlling 
banking  resources.  In  the  Middle 
West  and  South,  where  many 
State  laws  prohibit  trust  com- 
panies from  doing  commercial 
banking  business,  holding  com- 
panies, and  chains  or  groups  are 
formed,  such  as  the  Northwest 
Bancorporation,  the  First  Bank 
Stock  Corporation,  and  similar 

Vol.  I.— 030 


groups  in  Milwaukee,  Detroit, 
Buffalo,  and  Atlanta.  In  the 
far  West,  where  branch  banking 
is  permitted,  the  hugh  Bank  of 
Italy  and  the  Bank  of  California 
represent  the  movement. 

The  chief  objectives  of  bigger 
banks  are  larger  volume  of  busi- 
ness at  lower  costs,  larger  loans 
possible  to  big  business  units, 
extension  of  services  to  trust 
operations,  investments,  foreign 
departments,  or  to  acquire  par- 
ticularly profitable  going  con- 
cerns. These  advantages  have 
by  no  means  been  exhausted,  and 
it  seems  reasonable  to  expect 
that  a  few  bank  chains,  with  a 
head  office  in  New  York  City 
will  dominate  American  banking, 
and  that  these  institutions, 
singly,  or  through  groups  of 
affiliated  corporations  will  ex- 
emplify a  new  conception  of 
banking,  namely,  banks  which 
are  at  the  same  time  pure  com- 
mercial banks,  savings  banks, 
trust  operations,  bond  houses, 
insurance  companies,  safety  de- 
posit banks,  and  mortgage  houses 

England. — The  foundations  of 
banking  in  England  were  laid  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century  by  the  goldsmiths  of 
London.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  century  merchants  had  been 
accustomed  to  hoard  their  sur- 
plus coin,  bullion  and  other 
valuables,  or  to  deposit  them  in 
the  Tower  of  London  for  safe 
custody  under  government  pro- 
tection. This  latter  arrange- 
ment was  apparently  satisfactory 
until  1640  when  Charles  I.  seized 
£130,000  of  merchants'  gold  as  a 
drastic  method  to  raise  funds  for 
his  disheartened  army.  The 
mercantile  community  thereupon 
lost  confidence  in  government 
custody  and  sought  safer  meth- 
ods, finally  entrusting  their  funds 
to  goldsmiths  whose  integrity 
they  respected. 

The  goldsmiths  commenced 
their  banking  activities  by  re- 
ceiving money  on  deposit,  giving 
receipts  in  return.  These  receipts 
or  notes,  soon  passed  into  cir- 
culation in  place  of  the  specie 
they  represented,  first  by  en- 
dorsement, later,  as  currency, 
when  made  out  in  convenient 
round  denominations  and  pay- 
able to  bearer.  A  further  de- 
velopment of  this  'running  cash 
business'  involved  the  drawing  of 
checks  on  goldsmith  bankers  by 
the  merchant  himself.  The  first 
check  on  record,  dated  1675, 
bears  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
present  day  check.  Thus  lodg- 
ments of  customers  were  loaned 
with  the  goldsmiths'  own  funds 
to  other  merchants  needing  ac- 
commodation. By  gradual  steps, 
the  goldsmiths,  besides  dealing 
in  bullion,  began  to  engage  in  all 
the  operations  which  are  still 
regarded  as  the  chief  functions 
of  a  bank,  viz.  they  conducted 


exchange  operations,  opened  cur- 
rent accounts,  issued  notes 
against  these  deposits,  granted 
loans,  discounted  bills  of  ex- 
change. In  the  beginning  no  in- 
terest was  paid  on  deposits,  in 
fact  a  charge  was  exacted,  but 
the  high  rates  which  could  be 
obtained  for  loans  ultimately  led 
goldsmiths  to  attract  deposits  by 
offering  interest. 

The  goldsmiths  acted  to  some 
extent  in  the  capacity  of  govern- 
ment bankers.  Charles  iii.  had 
borrowed  £1,300,000  from  some 
of  them  at  from  8  to  10  per  cent., 
giving  as  security  a  lien  on  taxes. 
However,  he  followed  his  father's 
example  and  in  1672  took  the 
serious  step  of  stopping  all 
payments  from  the  Exchequer, 
and  the  goldsmiths  in  turn  were 
forced  to  suspend  payment  to 
their  merchant  customers. 
Though  interest  was  ultimately 
paid,  the  capital  was  never  re- 
paid, and  the  goldsmiths  in- 
volved either  failed  or  tended  to 
drift  back  to  their  original  call- 
ings. Those  not  involved  sur- 
vived as  private  bankers.  The 
shock  to  the  goldsmiths'  credit 
caused  by  the  'Stop  of  the 
Exchequer,'  led  to  proposals  of 
an  institution  which  would  give 
the  mercantile  community  great- 
er security  and  reasonable  terms 
of  interest.  The  scheme  adopted 
was  proposed  by  a  Scotchman, 
William  Patterson,  who  realized 
that  parliamentary  sanction 
could  best  be  assured  by  provid- 
ing for  a  loan  to  the  Government 
by  the  new  bank.  In  1694 
William  ill's,  government  grant- 
ed a  charter  to  'the  Governor  and 
Company  of  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land,' in  return  for  a  loan  of 
£1,200,000.  The  bank  was 
granted  the  power  to  deal  in 
bullion,  make  loans  to  the 
amount  of  its  capitalization,  but 
it  did  not  have  true  note-issuing 
powers,.  This  was  granted  by  the 
Act  of  1697.  'Banking'  at  this 
time  meant  note  issue;  and  since 
notes  are  really  a  part  of  the 
national  currency,  they  were  con- 
sidered public  instruments  sub- 
ject to  regulation.  Monopoly  of 
exclusive  banking  was  further 
defined  by  the  Acts  of  1709  and 
1742  which  'prohibited  note 
issues  to  any  but  partnerships  of 
six  or  less  members.'  This  pro- 
vision practically  gave  the  Bank 
of  England  a  monopoly  of  note 
issue  and  banking  in  general, 
until  the  Acts  of  1826  and  1833, 
which  allowed  the  establishment 
of  joint  stock  companies  with 
note  issuing  privilege,  first  out'- 
side  of  London,  later  within  the 
sixty-five  mile  radius.  Private 
bankers  increased  their  note 
issues,  especially  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
and  continued  to  do  so  without 
restriction  up  to  1844.  The 
vagueness  of  the  language  of  the 


Banking 


565  D 


Banking 


Acts  of  1697,  1709  and  1742  hurt 
general  banking  by  hindering  the 
establishment  of  joint  stock 
banks.  The  Acts  of  1826  and 
1833  were  designed  to  encourage 
joint  stock  banks  and  a  great 
extension  of  these  followed. 

Though  the  Bank  of  England 
enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  note 
issue  in  London  and  for  sixty- 
five  miles  around,  the  smaller 
and  weaker  provincial  banks 
continued  their  issues.  The 
causes  of  the  financial  crises  of 
1826  and  1837-9  were  inter- 
preted as  being  due  largely  to 
these  excessive  issues,  and  a 
movement  for  reform  ensued. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  the  great 
debate  arose  between  the  ad- 
vocates of  the  'currency'  versus 
those  of  the  'banking'  principle  of 
note  issue,  i.e.  whether  bank 
notes  should  be  based  on  specie 
or  on  liquidable  assets.  The 
currency  school  led  by  Sir 
Robert  Peel  won  out,  and  the 
Bank  Charter  Act  of  1844  was 
formulated  on  the  basis  of  the 
currency  principle.  The  pur- 
poses of  the  act  were  to  make  the 
Bank  of  England  notes  secure, 
and  to  limit  and  gradually  elimi- 
nate all  other  issues.  To  ac- 
complish these  purposes  the 
Bank  was  divided  into  two  parts: 
the  Issue  Department  and  the 
Banking  Department. 

The  Issue  Department  has  .to 
do  only  with  the  note  circula- 
tion, the  directors  merely  acting 
as  trustees  to  provide  for  the 
proper  securities  for  the  notes 
issued  to  the  public;  control  is 
thus  rendered  almost  automatic. 
A  fiduciary  issue  made  on  the 
credit  of  the  bank  and  secured 
by  the  standing  debt  of  the 
government  to  the  bank  was  fixed 
at  fourteen  million  pounds.  Any 
excess  issue  could  only  be  made 
against  the  deposit  of  an  equal 
amount  of  gold  with  the  issue 
department.  At  the  same  time 
the  issue  of  notes  by  country 
banks  was  restricted  to  those 
already  having  the  right  of  issue 
and  the  Bank  of  England  was 
allowed  to  increase  its  fiduciary 
issue  by  two-thirds  of  the 
amount  of  any  cancelled  country 
issue.  Through  amalgamation 
all  country  banks  have  now 
lost  the  right  of  note  issue,  the 
last  having  been  cancelled  in 
1923,  leaving  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land with  an  absolute  monopoly 
,  of  note  issue. 

On  the  whole  the  system 
worked  fairly  well  except  for 
one  great  fault,  namely:  it  was 
too  inelastic  to  meet  extreme 
financial  crises.  Sudden  runs 
upon  the  stock  of  gold  might 
have  depleted  the  reserves  had 
not  government  permission  been 
given  to  the  Bank  to  issue  notes 
beyong  the  legal  limit.  Such 
action  is  known  as  'suspending 
the  bank  act.'    During  the  last 


century  the  power  to  exceed  the 
legal  limit  of  the  fiduciary  issue 
was  given  on  three  occasions, 
1847,  1857,  1866;  the  last  oc- 
casion for  'suspending  the  act' 
was  on  the  outbreak  of  war  in 
August  1914.  The  action  of  the 
Prime  Minister  and  the  Chancel- 
lor of  the  Exchequer  authorizing 
suspension  was  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  the  Currency  and  Bank 
Notes  Act  of  191^  which  created 
a  new  form  of  currency  govern- 
ment notes  issued  through  a 
department  of  the  Treasury. 
These  'treasury  notes'  were 
issued  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Treasury  in  one  pound  and  ten 
shilling  denominations  with  no 
special  provision  for  gold  back- 
ing. Throughout  the  war  both 
bank  and  treasury  notes  were 
theoretically  convertible  into 
gold,  but  control  over  the  export 
and  use  of  gold  actually  effected 
an  abandonment  of  the  gold 
standard. 

In  January  1918,  before  the 
war  was  over,  a  parliamentary 
committee  was  appointed  to  in- 
vestigate and  recommend  meth- 
ods of  rendering  financial  stabil- 
ity. The  Cunliffe  committee 
recommended  a  reduction  of  the 
fiduciary  government  issues  and 
eventual  amalgamation  of  treas- 
ury notes  and  Bank  of  England 
notes,  and  a  minimum  gold 
reserve  of  one  hundred  fifty 
million  pounds.  The  report  of 
the  committee  appointed  in  1924 
to  consider  amalgamation  en- 
dorsed the  Cunliffe  proposals. 
In  April  1925  the  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer  announced  the 
lifting  of  the  embargo  on  gold, 
but  the  Bank  was  no  longer 
compelled  to  redeem  notes  in 
gold  coin  and  the  right  of  the 
holder  of  bullion  to  have  it  coined 
was  withdrawn.  Currency  notes 
had  reached  a  maximum  of  three 
hundred  seventy  million  pounds 
in  1920.  After  that  year  reduc- 
tion of  the  treasury  issue  was 
automatically  effected,  in  keep- 
ing with  the  policy  of  the  Treas- 
ury, recommended  by  the  Cun- 
liffe committee  in  1919  to  limit 
total  notes  uncovered  by  gold  or 
Bank  of  England  notes  each 
year  to  the  maximum  amount 
attained  in  the  previous  year. 

The  Currency  and  Bank  Notes 
Act  of  1928  provided  for  an 
amalgamation  of  government  and 
bank  issues  which  has  resulted 
in  increasing  the  Bank's  fidu- 
ciary issue  from  £19,750,000  (to 
which  it  has  grown  from  the 
original  £14,000,000)  to  £260,- 
000,000. 

The  effect  of  the  currency  note 
amalgamation  is  shown  in  the 
statements  of  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land (issue  Department  only), 
before  and  after  the  transition. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  post- 
amalgamation  return  includes  a 
few  additional  items  throwing 


slight  additional  light  on  the 
conditions  of  the  English  money 
market. 

We  find  that  the  statement  for 
November  21,  1928,  the  last  in 
the  old  form,  is  identical  with  the 
return  adopted  under  the  Bank 
Act  of  1844.  The  new  statement 
for  November  28,  indicates:  (1) 
the  amount  of  the  fiduciary  issue, 
and  the  nature  of  the  security 
behind  the  issue;  (2)  the  nature 
of  'other  deposits'  (those  of 
commercial  banks  comprising 
their  reserves),  and  those  of 
private  customers;  (3)  the  nature 
of  'other  securities' — the  amount 
of  discounts  and  advances  in- 
dicating the  extent  to  which  the 
market  is  'in  the  bank,'  and  the 
amount  of  securities  indicating 
the  extent  to  which  the  Bank  has 
participated  in  open  market 
operations  on  its  own  initiative. 

There  are  three  chief  reasons 
why  the  Bank  of  .England  is  the 
centre  of  Great  Britain's  money 
market:  (1)  it  is  the  only  issuer  of 
legal  tender  notes;  (2)  it  is  the 
banker  for  the  government; 
(3)  it  is  the  bankers'  bank.  Due 
to  the  third  mentioned  circum- 
stance the  reserve  of  the  Bank  of 
England  is  practically  the  only 
money  in  the  country  available 
for  any  sudden  demand  for  funds 
either  domestic  or  foreign.  Eng- 
lish banking  laws  do  not  require 
banks  to  maintain  prescribed 
reserves  against  deposits.  This 
matter  is  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  individual  bankers.  Joint 
stock  and  other  banks  maintain 
only  sufficient  cash  in  their  own 
vaults  to  meet  their  own  needs, 
keeping  the  larger  part  of  their 
reserves  as  a  balance  in  the  Bank 
of  England  even  though  no  in- 
terest on  such  balances  is  paid. 
This  reserve  is  maintained  in 
gold,  which  concentrated  and 
mobilized,  forms  the  basis  of  a 
high  degree  of  credit  expansion. 
In  times  of  commercial  activity 
banks  sell  their  notes  and  bills 
in  the  market  rather  than  re- 
discounting  at  the  central  bank 
as  is  done  in  the  American  sys- 
tem. The  methods  of  credit 
control  are  consequently  dif- 
ferent in  detail,  but  not  in  result. 
The  operation  of  credit  control 
by  the  Bank  is  briefly  as  follows: 
when  the  cash  reserve  of  joint 
stock  banks  is  reduced  through 
increased  loans  or  cash  with- 
drawals, they  have  recourse  to 
their  second  line  of  defense,  which 
is  their  short-term  loans  to  the 
discount  market,  chiefly  bill 
brokers,  who  occupy  a  unique 
position  in  London.  The  result 
is  a  rise  of  rates  for  short-term 
loans.  When  these  reach  the 
Bank  of  England  rate  the  bill 
brokers  will  be  'forced  into  the 
Bank',  which  makes  advances 
at  its  own  price,  but  which  is  an 
institution  always  prepared  to 
lend.     The  Bank  can  accelerate 


Vol.  1.-030 


Banking 


565  E 


Banking 


the  process  by  borrowing  at  the 
market  rate  or  by  selling  securi- 
ties, thus  mopping  up  the  cheap 
money  supply.  Higher  rates  stem 
the  outflow  of  gold  and  eventual- 
ly attract  an  influx  from  abroad 


sidered  the  authoritative  guide 
to  current  rates  of  bank  discount. 
The  Bank  of  England  is  privately 
owned  and  managed.  The 
stockholders  elect  the  board  of 
24   directors,   who   choose  the 


Notes  Issued: 


In  circulation.  . . 
In  banking  dept. 


BANK  OF  ENGLAND 
(Expressed  in  million  pounds) 

ISSUE  DEPARTMENT 
Nov.  21*  Nov.  28** 
I  II 


Nov.  21*  Nov.  28*' 
I  II 


181 


357 
52 


Government  Debt.  . . . , 
Other  Gov't  Securities. 

Other  Securities  

Silver  Coin  , 


11 

231 
10 
5 


Fiduciary  Issue   260 

Gold  Coin  and  Bullion. .      161  159 


181  419 

BANKING  DEPARTMENT 


Proprietors'  Capital  

Rest  

15 
3 

15 

99 

62 

7  Day  and  other  Bills 

132 


139 


Gov't  Securities  

Other  Securities  

Discounts  and  Advances 
Securities  

Notes  

Gold  and  Silver  Coin  


181 


132 


139 


*  The  last  statement  in  the  old  form. 
**  The  first  statement  in  the  new  form. 

due  to  the  increase  in  the  de- 
mand for  sterling  exchange. 
This  increases  reserve  balances 
in  the  Bank  of  England,  and 
enables  the  market  to  repay 
sums  borrowed,  and  the  money 
condition  tends  to  become  easy 
again.  Thus  the  bank  is  able  to 
save  the  market  from  the  more 
violent  effects  which  the  gold 
movements  might  cause.  The 
process  necessitates  frequent 
changes  in  the  Bank  rate  (in 
contrast  with  the  stability  of  the 
Bank  of  France  rates),  and 
though  the  resulting  instability 


governor  and  deputy-governor 
from  their  own  members.  The 
directors  are  not  as  a  rule  pro- 
fessional bankers,  but  are  chosen 
from  reliable  firms  in  the  city. 
While  the  bank  is  neither  owned 
nor  regulated  by  the  government, 
its  functions  of  fiscal  agent  to 
the  government,  sole  depository 
of  government  funds,  and  sole 
issuer  of  notes  give  it  great 
prestige.  Besides  keeping  the 
reserves  of  banks,  the  Bank  of 
England  also  has  private  ac- 
counts, so  that  it  is  a  combina- 
tion central  and  commercial  bank 


Banks 

PAID  IN 
(In  millions  of  pounds) 

Capita! 

Surplus 

Deposits 
in 

Number  of  Branches 

in  1929 
(In  England  &  Wales) 

15.8 

10.3 

335 

850 

15.8 

10. 

352 

1,750 

13.4 

13.4 

395 

2,000 

National  Provincial  

9.5 

9.5 

290 

1,260 

Westminster  

9.3 

9.3 

294 

985 

of  market  rates  is  disadvantage- 
ous to  trade  and  industry,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  great 
benefits  are  reaped  from  the 
position  occupied  by  London  in 
world  finance  and  from  the  sen- 
sitive elasticity  of  credit  changes 
thus  obtained.  The  increasing 
of  the  size  of  deposit  banks  and 
the  great  volume  of  treasury 
bills  outstanding  make  this  con- 
trol less  perfect  than  formerly, 
but  the  Bank  rate  is  still  con- 

VoL.  L— 030 


The  other  constituent  parts  of 
the  English  banking  system  con- 
sist of  a  few  large  joint  stock 
banks,  acceptance  houses  or  mer- 
chant bankers,  bill  brokers  and 
discount  houses,  over-seas  and 
foreign  banks.  Fifty  years  ago 
there  were  some  two  hundred 
separate  banks  in  the  British 
Isles.  Since  that  time  scarcely 
any  new  banks  have  been 
created  and  gradual  amalgama- 
tion into  large  banks  has  taken 


place.  At  the  present  time  the 
so-called  'Big  Five'  with  their 
four  thousand  branches  do  ap- 
proximately eighty-five  per  cent, 
of  the  total  deposit  bankin'i; 
business  in  England,  and  their 
branches  and  affiliations  extend 
to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The 
second  table  gives  a  summary 
of  the  chief  items  from  recent 
statements  of  these  five  banks, 
and  indicates  the  scope  of  their 
activity,  as  of  December  31, 
1928. 

Canada. — The  regulation  of 
banking,  the  incorporation  of 
banks,  and  the  issue  of  paper 
money  fall  exclusively  within  the 
legislative  authority  of  the  Do- 
minion parliament  and  are  not 
within  the  scope  of  provincial 
control.  The  Bank  Act  of  1871 
is  the  original  law  under  which 
the  regulation  takes  place,  and 
though  it  is  usually  revised  every 
ten  years  it  is  none  the  less  sub- 
ject to  amendment  by  parlia- 
ment at  any  time.  The  last 
general  revision  took  place  in 
1913.  The  1923  Act  embodied 
no  far  reaching  changes  and  the 
Amendment  of  1924  provided 
only  for  government  inspection 
by  an  official  known  as  the  In- 
spector General  of  Banks. 

Banks  incorporated  under  the 
Bank  Act  are  commonly  called 
'chartered  banks.'  They  are 
authorized  to  open  branches  and 
agencies,  to  deal  in  coin  and 
bullion,  to  discount  notes,  lend 
money  on  the  security  of  bills  of 
exchange  and  other  negotiable 
instruments,  and  to  carry  on 
generally  the  business  of  banking. 
They  are  prohibited,  however, 
from  direct  lending  of  money 
upon  the  capital  stock  of  any 
chartered  bank,  and  upon  the 
security  of  real  estate,  though 
they  may,  with  respect  to  the 
latter,  take  mortgages  or  title 
deeds  as  coUateraJ. 

The  Canadian  banking  system 
is  very  flexible  and  credit  con- 
trol is  highly  perfected  by 
virtue  of  the  fact  that  there  are 
but  ten  banks,  (not  including  the 
recently  established  Barclay's 
Bank),  with  some  4,650  branches, 
located  in  all  portions  of  the 
Dominion  and  Newfoundland, 
and  foreign  agencies  in  Great 
Britain  and  other  countries. 
Through  the  branch  system  a 
few  large  and  well  managed  in- 
stitutions keep  closely  in  touch 
with  all  parts  of  a  far-flung 
country  and  are  able  to  gauge 
accurately  the  needs  of  any  in- 
dustry or  borrower,  both  local 
and  general. 

Commercial  paper  instruments 
such  as  are  common  in  the 
United  States  are  little  used  in 
Canada  and  there  is  therefore  no 
field  for  the  bill  broker.  In  gener- 
al practice  drafts  are  usually 
drawn  by  the  seller  upon  the 
buyer,  and  are  then  either  dis- 


Banking 


565  F 


Banking 


counted  at  the  drawer's  bank,  or 
are  forwarded  through  a  bank 
for  collection,  and  after  accept- 
ance are  held  until  maturity. 

Canadian  Banks 


ASSETS 

Cash: 

Gold   88 

Dominion  Notes   172 

Other  Cash  Items   131 

391 


Other  Liquid  Assets: 

Call  and  Short  Loans  in  Canada . .  262 
Call  and  Short  Loans  outside 

Canada   245 

Securities   448 

955 

Other  Assets: 

Loans  and  Discounts   1 ,775 

Bank  Premises   75 

Bank  Circulation 

Redemption  Fund   6 

Other  Assets   137 

1  993 

Total  Assets   3,339 


In  the  absence  of  a  central 
reserve  bank  and  of  any  organ- 
ized money  market  such  as  a 
call  loan,  a  discount,  or  a  com- 
mercial-paper market,  there  has 
grown  up  a  practice  on  the  part 
of  commercial  banks  of  retaining 
large  balances  in  New  York,  and 
of  making  heavy  loans  there  in 
the  'call  money'  market  and  in 
the  acceptance  market.  Their 
balances  serve  as  a  secondary 
reserve  and  are  used  to  facilitate 
the  heavy  trade  financing  be- 
tween Canada  and  the  United 
States.  Another  practice  which 
is  unlike  that  followed  in  the 
United  States  is  the  custom  of 
dealing  only  with  one  bank, 
except  by  consent  in  case  of  large 
corporations  and  stock  exchange 
brokers.  Thus  the  lending  bank 
becomes  intimately  familiar  with 
the  business  of  the  borrower. 

In  Canada  the  principal  cir- 
culating medium  in  use,  apart 
from  Dominion  notes,  is  bank 
notes.  Branch  banks  are  allowed 
to  issue  notes  to  the  full  value  of 
their  unimpaired,  paid-up  capi- 
tal, and  are  permitted  to  issue 
additional  notes  during  crop 
moving  periods  (September  1  to 
the  end  of  February)  not  in 
excess  of  15  per  cent,  of  their 
combined  unimpaired  paid-up 
capital  and  'rest'  or  'reserve' 
funds,  i.e.  surplus  funds.  This 
additional  note  issue  is  subject 
to  a  tax  of  5  per  cent,  per  annum. 
They  may  further  increase  their 
circulation  by  depositing  an 
equivalent  amount  of  Dominion 
notes  or  gold,  in  a  central  gold 
reserve  controlled  by  trustees 
appointed  for  the  purpose,  and 
by  rediscounting  eligible,  com- 
mercial paper  with  the  Minister 


of  Finance.  Such  notes  may  be 
outstanding  during  the  entire 
year  and  are  subject  neither  to 
tax  nor  to  interest.     There  are 

(In  millions  of  dollars) 

LIABILITIES 


To  Public: 

Notes  in  Circulation   1 55 

Deposits  in  Canada   2,103 

Deposits  outside   442 

Due  other  Banks   123 

Rediscounts   82 

Other  Liabilities   127 

3,032 

To  Stockholders: 

Capital   143 

Rest   158 

Undiv.  Profits   6 


307 


Total  Liabilities   3,339 

penalties  for  issuing  notes  be- 
yond the  authorized  limits. 

The  notes  are  not  ordinarily 
legal  tender  (though  they  were 
made  so  during  the  war  and  post- 
war emergency),  but  they  are 
payable  on  demand,  and  the 
banks  are  required  to  insure 
parity  by  redemption  in,  legal 
tender,  i.e.  Dominion  notes  or 
gold,  when  presented  by  any 
other  bank.  This  daily  redemp- 
tion prevents  over-issue  and  is 
the  key  to  the  whole  problem  of 
keeping  notes  at  par  throughout 
the  country. 

Bank  notes  are  secured  by  a 
joint  lien  on  the  assets  of  the 
issuing  bank  and  by  a  'bank 
circulation  redemption  fund.' 
Each  bank  is  compelled  to  de- 
posit with  the  government  a 
sum  equal  to  5  per  cent,  of  its 
own  monthly  note  issue.  When  a 
bank  suspends  payment,  its 
notes  in  circulation  bear  interest 
at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  per 
annum  from  the  date  of  suspen- 
sion to  the  date  fixed  for  pay- 
ment. The  net  result  is  that 
bank  notes  are  practically  guar- 
anteed by  the  banks  at  large, 
while  the  interest-bearing  pro- 
vision prevents  the  notes  of  an 
insolvent  bank  from  being  dis- 
counted until  paid. 

The  summary  table  above 
shows  the  principal  items  on  the 
combined  balance  sheet  of  the 
chartered  banks  as  of  December 
31,  1929. 

Audit  and  Government  Inspec- 
tion.— A  peculiarity  of  the  Can- 
adian banking  system  is  the 
existence  and  operation  of  the 
Canadian  Banker's  Association. 
This  body,  incorporated  in  1900, 
acts  under  the  authority  of  the 


Dominion  Treasury  Board,  and 
besides  facilitating  and  encourag- 
ing cooperation  between  banks, 
has  legal  powers  of  supervision 
of  bank  note  issues  and  hence  the 
right  to  inspect  banks  so  far  as 
note  circulation  is  concerned. 
The  Association  also  supervises 
clearing  house  transactions,  and 
has  charge  of  the  appointment  of 
curators  to  conduct  the  affairs  of 
failed  banks.  Until  1924  there 
were  no  laws  for  the  inspection 
of  banks  by  government  bank 
examiners,  though  qualified  bank 
auditors  selected  by  shareholders 
and  approved  by  the  Minister  of 
Finance  were  appointed  to  super- 
vise their  affairs.  The  revision 
of  the  Bank  Act  in  1923  provided 
for  more  complete  monthly 
statements  to  be  published  and 
filed  with  the  Minister  of  Finance 
The  Minister  may  also  call  for 
special  returns  when  he  deems  it 
necessary. 

France. — The  laws  of  France 
are  singularly  free  from  pro- 
visions regarding  commercial 
banks.  Such  matters  as  organiza- 
tion, management,  reserves,  au- 
dits and  inspection,  which  com- 
monly exist  in  other  countries 
to  protect  depositors  and  share- 
holders, are  entirely  absent  except 
in  the  case  of  the  Bank  of  France 
and  certain  financial  organiza- 
tions in  the  field  of  agricultural 
credit.  Since  reports  are  not 
required  and  are  published  vol- 
untarily by  only  a  few  of  the 
larger  institutions  it  is  impos- 
sible to  obtain  a  comprehensive 
picture  of  the  financial  structure 
of  the  country. 

The  first  bank  to  issue  in 
France  was  the  'Banque  Gene- 
rale'  founded  by  the  Scotch 
banker,  John  Law  in  1716. 
This  enterprise  failed  in  1721  as  a 
result  of  the  disastrous  collapse 
of  the  'Mississippi  Bubble'  and 
banking  met  with  little  encour- 
agement until  the  time  of  the 
French  Revolution  when  other 
banks  of  issue  were  established, 
but  after  a  brief  life  were  forced 
out  of  existence.  In  1800  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte  established  the 
Bank  of  France  with  a  capital 
of  thirty  million  francs.  It  was 
given  the  right  of  note  issue  in 
1803.  Departmental  banks  were 
later  formed  with  note  issuing 
privileges  in  their  respective  de- 
partments, but  after  the  crisis 
of  1848  these  were  merged  with 
the  Bank  of  France  which  has 
since  enjoyed  the  exclusive  right 
of  note  issue  in  France. 

Banking  in  France  is  at  pres- 
ent, as  in  England  and  Germany, 
essentially  centralized  in  form. 
In  the  centre  is  the  Bank  of 
France,  exclusive  bank  of  issue, 
bank  of  discount  for  other  banks. 
Government  bank,  and  clearing 
house  for  the  bulk  of  the  coun- 
try's banking  transactions.  Next 
come    the    commercial  banks. 

Vol.  I.— 030 


Banking 


[565  G 


Banking 


headed  by  the  grandes  societes  de 
credit,  and  the  less  important 
but  nevertheless  vital  elements  of 


advances  to  the  state  have  made 
possible  the  financing  of  recent 
and  previous  wars. 


French  Banks  (Amounts  in  million  francs) 


icies 
ices 

jrren 

Bane 

inizec 

'^  '^  " 

o 

■^^ 

Year  orga 

Branches, 
and  loc 
in  Fran 

Dividend 

Capital 

Reserves 

Deposit  a 
Accoun 

Total  Ass 

Per 

Cent. 

1800 

661 

35 

182 

298 

19,509 

83,449 

Comptoir  National 

d'Es- 

compte  

1848 

471 

16 

250 

144 

9,104 

9,810 

Credit  Industriel  et 

Com- 

1859 

53 

16 

100 

70 

1,315 

1,549 

Credit  Lyonnais  

1863 

1,000 

20 

255 

227 

11,895 

13,316 

1864 

1,437 

17 

500 

105 

12,646 

13,941 

Banque  Nationale  de 

Creciit 

1913 

606 

13 

262 

136 

4,712 

5,472 

the  financial  system:  invest- 
ment banks,  la  haute  banque  and 
les  banques  d'affaires;  sayings 
banks,  la  Caisse  Nationale  d'Epar- 
qne  and  les  caisses  d'eparqne 
ordinaires;  mortgage  banks,  le 
Credit  Fonder;  agricultural  banks 
le  Credit  Agricole;  cooperative 
societies,  foreign  bank  branches, 
and  others. 

Bank  of  France. — Besides  a 
central  bank  with  19  offices  in 
Paris  and  its  suburbs,  there  are 
159  branches,  84  auxiliary  offices, 
and  399  connecting  offices  in 
France  (1930).  The  Bank  is 
owned  by  private  shareholders, 
and  is  under  a  dual  private  and 
state  management.  The  Presi- 
dent of  France  appoint^  a  gover- 
nor and  two  deputy-governors, 
while  the  general  assembly  of  the 
two  hundred  largest  shareholders 
elects  a  general  council  or  board 
of  fifteen  regents,  of  which  three 
are  government  treasury  officials, 
five  represent  manufacturers  and 
traders,  and  one  agriculture. 

Previous  to  the  stabilization 
of  the  franc  in  1928  there  was  no 
legal  specification  as  to  the 
amount  of  reserve  against  notes 
and  deposits.  Notes  were  con- 
vertible under  the  operation  of 
the  'limping  standard'  into  either 
gold  or  silver  at  the  option  of  the 
bank.  The  law  of  1928  provided 
for  the  redemption  of  notes  in 
gold  only,  and  for  reserve  against 
circulating  banknotes  and  de- 
mand liabilities  of  thirty-five  per 
cent,  gold  bullion  or  coin. 

Like  the  other  central  banks  of 
Europe  the  Bank  of  France  does 
a  large  commercial  discount  and 
government  security  business. 
It  not  only  discounts  paper 
owned  by  other  banks  but  buys 
paper  from  business  corpora- 
tions and  individuals,  providing 
that  it  has  three  signatures  or 
two  signatures  and  accepted 
collateral.  It  serves  as  fiscal 
agent  for  the  government  and 
manages  the  public  debt,  and  its 

Vol.  I.— 030 


The  large  credit  establish- 
ments or  deposit  banks  are 
highly  centralized  in  France  as 
in  England.  The  five  largest  of 
these  are  the  Credit  Lyonnais, 
Societe  Generale,  Comptoir  Na- 
tional d'Escompte,  and  Credit 
Industriel  et  Commercial.  The 
above  table  is  a  statement  of  the 
chief  items  of  interest  showing 
the  condition  of  these  banks  as  of 
December  31,  1928. 

The  operations  of  deposit 
banks  are  not  as  specialized  as 
in  England;  rather  they  carry  on 
diversified  business  in  commercial 
loans  and  security  financing.  To 
meet  long-term  industrial  re- 
quirements, many  large  banks 
have  organized  separate  sub- 
sidiaries. The  influence  of  the 
large  deposit  banks  spreads 
throughout  France  in  a  system  of 
branches  and  agencies  whose 
extent  is  shown  in  the  above 
table.  In  some  cases  these 
extend  into  French  colonies  and 
even  into  foreign  countries. 
While  it  is  known  that  the  pro- 
portion of  total  banking  re- 
sources of  the  country  repre- 
sented by  the  big  six  is  dominant 
no  definite  estimate  is  possible. 

In  contrast  to  the  varied  func- 
tions of  the  deposit  banks 
certain  groups  of  banks  of  a 
specialized  nature  exist.  In- 
vestment banks  —  both  joint- 
stock  and  private — play  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  launching  and 
long-term  financing  of  commer- 
cial and  industrial  enterprises. 
There  are  two  independent 
classes  of  savings  banks — or- 
dinary and  postal — having  more 
than  17  million  accounts  (1928). 
Other  banks  to  facilitate  agri- 
cultural reconstruction  and  hous- 
ing operations  have  been  es- 
tablished. 

Germany. — The  existence  of  a 
large  number  of  different  banking 
and  credit  institutions  perform- 
ing various  functions  make  the 
German   structure  complicated 


and  lacking  in  uniformity.  The 
reasons  for  this  are  partly  his- 
torical and  partly  to  be  accounted 
for  by  the  initiative  taken  by  the 
Government  in  instituting  social 
reforms. 

Prior  to  the  unification  of  the 
Empire  after  the  Franco- Prussian 
War  Germany  was  broken  up 
into  a  considerable  number  of 
independent  states  with  numer- 
ous local  banks  of  issue  and  other 
financial  institutions.  To  bring 
about  some  order  in  the  banking 
system  it  was  essential  to  estab- 
lish a  modern  central  bank  of 
deposit  and  issue.  Accordingly 
the  Reichsbank  was  established 
in  1875,  reconstituting  the  older 
Bank  of  Prussia  which  dated 
from  1765.  The  Reichsbank, 
though  not  exactly  modeled 
after  the  Bank  of  England  re- 
sembled it  in  many  respects. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  Bank  Act  of 
1844  in  England,  the  German 
Act  of  1875  provided  that  if  the 
note  issue  privilege  of  other  note 
issuing  banks  was  allowed  to 
lapse  it  should  be  transferred  to 
the  Reichsbank.  Of  the  thirty- 
three  b^nks  enjoying  note  issue 
privilege  in  1875  only  four  re- 
mained in  1914;  these  still  exist 
under  present  laws.  Like  the 
British  Act  of  1844,  the  German 
law  provided  for  a  fixed  fiduciary 
limit  of  authorized  issue,  known 
as  the  Kontingent,  originally 
amounting  to  two  hundred  fifty 
million  marks,  to  be  increased 
by  any  amounts  relinquished  by 
other  banks.  This  total  had  been 
raised  by  1913  to  five  hundred 
fifty  million  marks,  with  an  ex- 
tra allowance  of  two  hundred 
million  marks  at  the  end  of 
quarterly  periods  when  currency 
was  in  exceptional  demand.  For 
issues  beyond  these  amounts  the 
bank  had  to  have  mark  for  mark 
in  cash  (i.e.  gold  after  1909). 
In  order  to  avoid  the  awkward 
British  expedient  of  suspending 
the  Bank  Act,  issues  without 
metallic  cover  (that  is,  fiduciary 
circulation),  were  permitted  in 
times  of  emergency  on  the  pay- 
ment of  a  five  per  cent.  tax. 

Though  privately  owned,  the 
management  of  the  Bank  was  in 
part  governmental,  this  relation- 
ship being  modeled  upon  the 
system  which  had  developed  in 
France.  The  Chancellor  of  the 
Empire  was  made  president  of 
the  Bank;  the  other  members  of 
the  managing  board  (Direk- 
torium)  were  also  government 
appointees.  Representation  of 
the  general  assembly  of  stock- 
holders (Kuratorium)  was  fur- 
nished by  a  special  board 
(Central-Ausschuss)  in  charge  of 
routine  business  only. 

In  its  general  business  the 
Reichsbank  was  intended  to 
serve  as  a  bankers'  bank,  dealing 
with  other  institutions  primarily 
and  limiting  itself,  for  the  most 


Banking 


565  H 


Banking 


part,  to  very  short-term  loans 
made  on  the  basis  of  commercial 
paper  and  approved  securities. 

During  the  war  and  post-war 
periods  the  limitations  and  re- 
strictions upon  Reichsbank  ac- 
tivities were  relaxed  to  provide 
for  the  exigencies  of  government 
finances.  Reichsbank  notes  were 
given  legal  tender  power  and 
government  treasury  notes  were 
also  issued.  The  Bank  was 
allowed  to  issue  notes  on  the 
basis  of  government  paper  so 
that  the  amounts  which  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  did  not 
exceed  two  billion  marks  in- 
creased to  sums  reaching  extra- 
ordinary dimensions.  Repara- 
tions difficulties,  the  invasion  of 
the  Ruhr — political  problems 
both  external  and  internal — • 
finally  in  1923  brought  the 
Reichsbank  currency  to  a  point 
where  it  practically  ceased  to 
perform  the  functions  of  money. 
The  formation  of  the  Renten- 
bank  in  October  of  1923  afforded 
tentative  relief  by  providing  a 
stable  Rentenmark  currency 
based  on  general  mortgages  on 
landed  property.  Permanent 
stabilization  was  finally  effected 
as  the  result  of  the  operation  of 
the  so-called  Dawes  Plan,  which 
provided  for  the  liquidation  of 
the  Rentenbank  and  for  the 
establishment  of  the  new  Reichs- 
bank This  is  quite  similar  to  the 
old  institution  in  both  organiza- 
tion and  operation  except  that  it 
enjoys  almost  complete  inde- 
pendence from  the  state.  The 
outstanding  capital  (about  one 
hundred  twenty-five  million 
Reichsmarks  out  of  a  three 
hundred  million  Reichsmarks 
authorized)  is  privately  held. 
The  bank  is  managed  by  the 


political  control  to  insure  repara- 
tions payments.  Another  body 
called  the  Council  of  Stockhold- 
ers is  a  counterpart  of  the  former 
Central-Ausschuss.  The  Presi- 
dent of  the  Reichsbank  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  General  Board 
with  the  approval  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic;  he  acts  as 
chairman  of  the  general  manag- 
ing board  and  has  full  charge  of 
the  management  of  the  bank. 
Under  the  provisions  of  the 
Young  Plan  the  management  of 
the  bank  is  to  be  freed  from 
foreign  control. 

The  bank  has  one  head  office, 
17  main  offices,  84  branches,  344 
subordinate  branches,  8  agencies 
and  a  goods  depot,  some  500 
offices  in  all. 

Note  issue  provisions  of  the 
new  Reichsbank  are  adminis- 
tered by  a  Commissioner  of 
Note  Issue  elected  by  the 
General  Board  but  who  must  be 
a  foreigner  representing  the 
Allies.  Forty  per  cent,  gold  and 
foreign  exchange  (at  least  ^ 
gold)  must  be  held  against  out- 
standing notes  under  present 
requirements. 

The  powers  of  the  new  Reichs- 
bank are  quite  similar  to  those 
exercised  by  its  predecessor, 
namely,  it  continues  to  perform 
the  functions  of  a  commercial 
bankers'  bank,  to  issue  new 
Reichsmarks  (which  alone  pos- 
sess full  legal  tender  power), 
and  to  serve  as  the  dominant 
factor  in  the  money  market  in 
regulating  the  supply  of  credit  by 
discounting  commercial  paper 
and  granting  loans  on  collateral. 
Provision  is  made  for  building  up 
of  the  reserve  fund  by  allocating 
twenty  per  cent,  of  the  net 
annual  profits  so  long  as  the 


German  Banks  (In  millions  of  Reichsmarks) 


Deutsche 
Bank* 

Disconto- 
Gesell- 
schaft* 

Dresdener 
Bank 

Darmsta- 
dter  und 
National 
Bank 

Commerz- 
und 
Privat- 
bank** 

Assets: 

Cash  and  with  Reichsbank. . 

52 

47 

35 

46 

32 

Other  Bank  Deposits  

919 

559 

758 

705 

517 

Advances  

271 

218 

327 

241 

192 

Collateral  Loans  

162 

96 

109 

130 

152 

1289 

564 

864 

963 

784 

Liabilities: 

Capital  Stock  

150 

135 

100 

60 

82 

Surplus  

78 

51 

32 

55 

37 

2398 

1375 

1971 

1953 

1480 

*  Mergt;;!  in  Deceoiber,  1929. 
**Including  the  Mitteldeutsche  Creditbank. 

board  composed  entirely  of 
Germans  (the  old  Direktorium), 
but  which  is  supervised  by  a 
general  board  (replacing  the 
older  Kuratorium),  composed  of 
both  Germans  and  foreign  repre- 
sentatives, the  latter  being  in- 
cluded for  the  purpose  of  effecting 


reserve  is  less  than  twelve  per 
cent,  of  the  notes  outstanding. 
Shareholders  participate  in  pro- 
fits to  the  amount  of  eight  per 
cent,  dividends,  and  on  a  sliding 
scale  their  share  decreases  as  the 
profits  increase,  the  government 
receiving  the  remainder. 


In  addition  to  the  central 
bank  the  German  financial  struc- 
ture includes  a  large  number  of 
highly  diversified  public  and  pri- 
vate institutions.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  the  large 
commercial  banks,  Grossbanken, 
which,  like  the  deposit  banks  of 
England  and  France,  have  be- 
come highly  concentrated,  and 
though  not  so  numerous,  have 
many  branches.  The  four  big 
banks  (Deutsche  Bank^  Dis- 
conto  Gesellschaft,  Dresdener  Bank 
Darmstddter  und  National  Bank 
and  Commerz-und  Privathank) 
have  a  combined  capital  of  520 
million  Reichsmarks,  surplus  of 
269  million  Reichsmarks,  and 
total  resources  of  11,427  million 
Reichsmarks,  representing  about 
70  per  cent,  of  the  entire  as- 
sets of  all  incorporated  credit 
banks. 

The  table  on  this  page  gives 
a  summary  of  the  condition  of 
these  banks  at  the  end  of  1928. 

A  characteristic  feature  of  the 
German  financial  system  is  the 
use  of  the  bill  of  exchange 
(Wechsel)  in  the  transfer  of 
funds,  or  what  is  called  the  Giro- 
verkehr.  Generally  speaking 
three  types  of  transfer  are  ef- 
fected: (1)  small  payments 
through  the  post-office  (Posts- 
checkverkehr) ,  for  those  not 
having  bank  accounts;  (2)  Reichs- 
bank clearings,  which  consist 
chiefly  in  large  payments;  in- 
terurban  transactions  through 
the  several  hundred  Reichsbank 
branches  and  agencies;  (3)  inter- 
bank payments  through  the  dis- 
trict clearing  house,  transactions 
through  the  girozentrallen, — 
payments  made  by  those  who 
carry  bank  accounts.  The 
efficiency  and  perfection  of  this 
system  account  for  the  lack  of 
the  development  of  the  check  as 
we  find  it  in  England  and  Amer- 
ica. 

Bank  for  International  Settle- 
ment or  World  Bank. — Under  the 
Dawes  plan  special  mechanism 
was  provided  for  the  transfer  of 
reparations  payments.  These  were 
made  through  the  Reichsbank, 
where  they  were  deposited  to  the 
account  of  the  Agent  General. 
Disposition  of  this  account  was 
made  by  a  committee  of  five  men 
representing  the  Allies  and  known 
as  the  Transfer  Committee  of  the 
Reparations  Commission.  The 
Dawes  Plan  did  much  to  separate 
the  economic  from  the  political 
considerations  of  the  reparations 
problem  but  it  was  admittedly 
only  a  temporary  plan.  In  1929 
another  committee  of  experts  on 
reparations  finally  agreed  upon 
what  is  called  the  Young  Plan, 
which  has  more  definitely  solved 
the  whole  question  of  debts  and 
reparations.  One  of  the  objec- 
tives of  the  Young  Plan  was  to 
free    Germany    from  political 

Vol.  I.— 030 


Banking 


566 


Bankruptcy 


control,  and  in  the  realization  of 
the  purpose  lies  the  original  basis 
of  a  new  institution  known  as 
the  Bank  of  International  Settle- 
ments. This  bank  becomes  the 
trustee  of  the  creditor  accounts 
in  dealing  with  the  reparations 
annuities.  These  annuities  are 
represented  by  German  Govern- 
ment certificates  of  indebtedness 
similar  to  those  used  in  ordinary- 
commercial  practice.  These  are 
deposited  with  the  bank  and  as 
payments  upon  them  are  made 
by  Germany  the  proceeds  are 
forwarded  by  the  bank  to  creditor 
countries.  The  bank  may  create 
issuable  bonds  representing  the 
capitalization  of  that  part  of  the 
annuity  payments,  not  subject 
to  moratorium,  hence  called  the 
'unconditional'  part.  Proceeds 
from  such  bond  sales  are  to  be 
distributed  to  the  allied  creditors 
concerned.  This  process  is  known 
as  the  'mobilization'  of  reparation 
payments.  When  sold  to  in- 
dividual investors  the  debt  may 
be  said  to  have  become  'com- 
mercialized.' 

In  addition  to  these  functions 
as  trustee  or  agent  in  regard  to 
reparation  payments,  two  other 
objectives  are  defined  in  the 
statute:  'to  promote  the  coopera- 
tion of  central  banks,  and  to 
provide  additional  facilities  for 
international  financial  opera- 
tions.' These  ordinary  banking 
functions  are  rather  broad  on 
paper  but  will  naturally  be 
limited  by  the  funds  it  will  have 
at  its  disposal,  and  by  its  ability 
to  gain  the  consent  of  the  central 
bank  of  the  country  in  which 
such  operations  are  proposed. 
Though  it  is  not  permitted  to 
issue  notes  and  its  credit  powers 
are  limited,  it  promises  to  per- 
form a  valuable  purpose  in 
facilitating  cooperation  between 
central  banks,  and  in  eventually 
becoming  an  international  clear- 
ing house,  thus  eliminating  the 
necessity  of  shipping  gold  in  the 
settlement  of  international  trans- 
actions. 

The  Bank  of  International 
Settlement,  located  at  Basle, 
Switzerland,  commenced  busi- 
ness in  May  1930  with  capital 
equivalent  to  one  hundred  mil- 
lion dollars,  one-fourth  paid  in; 
shares  were  offered  for  public 
subscription  in  seven  countries. 
Provision  is  made  for  the  ac- 
cumulation of  adequate  reserve 
and  for  the  payment  of  dividends. 
Shareholders  receive  6  per  cent, 
cumulative  dividends  after  some 
reserve  is  provided  for  and  there- 
fore their  share  may  be  increased 
to  a  maximum  of  12  per  cent,  as 
amounts  alloted  to  general  and 
special  reserve  funds  grow.  The 
control  of  the  bank  is  vested  in 
the  board  of  directors  consisting 
of  fourteen  to  sixteen  members 
representing  the  central  banks  of 

Vol.  I. — 030 


the  seven  countries  to  which  the 
committee  of  experts  belonged, 
plus  no  more  than  nine  ad- 
ditional directors  elected  from 
lists  furnished  by  governors  of 
central  banks  in  other  participat- 
ing countries. 

Bibliography. — General.  Con- 
sult W.  F.  Mitchell's  The  Uses  of 
Bank  Funds  (1925);  H.  P.  Willis 
and  G.  W.  Edwards'  Banking 
and  Business  (1925);  R.  G.  Rod- 
key's  The  Banking  Processil926) ; 
R.  B.  Westerfield's  Banking 
Principles  and  Practice  (1927); 
L.  D.  Edie's  Money,  Bank  Credit, 
and  Prices  (1928);  R.  D.  Kil- 
borne's    Money    and  Hanking 

(1928)  ;  C.  H.  Kisch  and  W.  A. 
Elkin's  Central  Banks  (1928); 
C.  F.  Dunbar's  Theory  and  His- 
tory of  Banking  (5th  Ed.  1929,); 
H.  N.  Stronck's  Bank  Adminis- 
tration (1929);  H.  P.  Willis  and 
B.  H.  Beckhart's  Foreign  Bank- 
ing Systems  (1929);  G.  W.  Dow- 
rie's  American  Monetary  Banking 
Policies  (1930);  C.  Hazelwood's 
The  Bank  and  Its  Directors 
(1930);  F.  C.  James'  Money, 
Credit,  and  Banking  (1930). 

United  States  (See  also  refer- 
ences above)  Dewey  and  Chad- 
dock's  State  Banking  Before  the 
Civil  War;  O.  M.  W.  Sprague's 
History  of  Crises  Under  the 
National  Banking  System;  H.  L. 
Reed's  Development  of  Federal  Re- 
serve Policy  (1922);  H.  P.  Willis' 
Federal  Reserve  System  (1923);  E. 
A.  Goldenweiser's  Federal  Re- 
serve System  in  Operation  (1924); 
W.  O.  Scroggs'  Century  of  Ameri- 
can Banking  (1924);  W.  P.  G. 
Harding's  The  Formative  Period 
of  the  Federal  Reserve  System 
(1925);  F.  A.  Bradford's  Money 

(1929)  ;  L.  L.  Watkins'  Bankers 
Balances  (1929) ;  P.  M.  Warburg's 
Federal  Reserve  System;  Its  Origin 
and  Growth  (1930). 

England.  —  E.  Phillipovitch's 
History  of  the  Bank  of  England; 
A.  Andreades'  History  of  the 
Bank  of  England  (2d  Ed.,  1924); 
W.  Leaf's  Banking  (1926);  E. 
Sykes'  The  Amalgamation  Move- 
ment in  English  Banking  1825- 
192Jf  (1926);  L.  A.  Harr's 
Branch    Banking    in  England 

(1929)  ;  H.  W.  Greengrass'  The 
Discount     Market    in  London 

(1930)  . 

France. — Andre  Leisse's  Evo- 
lution of  Credit  and  Banks  in 
France  from  the  Founding  of  the 
Bank  of  France  to  the  Present 
Time  (1909);  H.  E.  Fisk's  French 
Public  Finance  (1910);  E.  Dulles' 
The  French  Franc  1911^-1928 
(1929). 

Germany.  —  K.  Bergmann's 
History  of  Reparations  (1927);  H. 
Schacht's  Stabilization  of  the 
Mark  (1927). 

Canada. — R,  M.  Breckinridge's 
The  History  of  Banking  in 
Canada;  J.  F.  Johnson's  The 
Canadian  Banking  System. 


Bank  Note,  a  promissory  note 
by  an  authorized  bank  of  issue 
payable  on  demand.  In  the 
United  States  the  lowest  note 
now  issued  is  for  $5;  in  England, 
for  £5. 

Bank  notes  are  manufactured 
in  such  a  way  as  to  render  their 
forgery  impossible,  or  at  least 
easy  of  detection.  This  is  usually 
effected  by  peculiarity  of  paper, 
design,  and  printing.  In  the 
United  States,  the  bank  notes  at 
present  in  circulation  are  manu- 
factured by  the  Government  Bu- 
reau of  Engraving  and  Printing. 
The  paper  is  made  by  a  private 
concern  under  a  patented  process, 
the  chief  ingredients  being  a  mix- 
ture of  linen  and  cotton  fibre, 
into  which  are  introduced  threads 
of  silk,  so  arranged  as  to  be  per- 
ceptible after  the  notes  are 
printed.  This  style  of  paper  is 
furnished  only  to  the  Govern- 
ment. Superior  skill  is  exer- 
cised in  engraving  the  plates, 
nearly  all  parts  of  them  being 
executed  by  the  geometrical 
lathe  and  the  ruling  engine,  the 
work  of  which  it  is  impossible 
to  imitate  successfully  by  hand. 
Notes  when  badly  worn  are  re- 
turned to  the  U.  S.  Treasury, 
other  notes  being  issued  in  their 
stead.   See  Paper  Money. 

Bank  of  North  America,  the 
first  banking  institution  of  a 
national  character  organized  in 
the  United  States,  was  incorpo- 
rated by  the  Continental  Con- 
gress in  1781,  and  $250,000  of 
its  $320,000  capital  stock  was 
subscribed  by  Congress.  It  was 
established  in  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1783-5  acted  under  a  Penn- 
sylvania charter,  the  right  of 
Congress  to  create  a  corporation 
having  been  questioned.  In  1787 
the  Pennsylvania  charter  was 
renewed,  and  thereafter  the  insti- 
tution long  existed  as  a  local 
institution.  For  several  years 
the  bank  rendered  service  of  con- 
siderable value  to  the  Confed- 
eration; but  its  relations  with 
the  general  government  virtuallj' 
ceased  after  1784. 

Bank  of  tlie  United  States. 
See  Banking:  United  States. 

Bank  Rate,  a  term  used  to 
denote  the  rate  of  discount 
charged  in  the  chief  financial 
centres  by  the  state  bank,  or  the 
leading  bank,  as  opposed  to  the 
rate  in  the  open  market. 

Bankruptcy,  a  state  of  insolv- 
ency ascertained  and  declared  in 
appropriate  judicial  proceedings. 
The  cardinal  principle  of  the  state 
of  bankruptcy  may  be  stated  as 
follows:  One  who  is  unable  to 
pay  his  debts  in  full  may  be 
discharged  therefrom  upon  giv- 
ing up  all  his  property  for  ratable 
distribution  among  his  credi- 
tors. 

Under  the  present  bankruptcy 
acts  in  the  United  States,  pro- 


Bankruptcy 


567 


Banks 


ceedings  in  bankruptcy  may  be 
begun  either  by  the  debtor  him- 
self, in  which  case  they  are  known 
as  voluntary  proceedings,  or  by 
the  creditors,  known  as  involun- 
tary proceedings.  In  either  event, 
the  case  is  begun  by  filing  a  peti- 
tion. When  filed  by  the  debtor, 
this  petition  must  state  his  inabil- 
ity to  meet  his  obligations  and  his 
willingness  to  surrender  all  his 
property  to  his  creditors.  When 
filed  by  the  creditors,  it  must 
show  that  the  debtor  therein 
named  has  committed  one  of  the 
Five  Acts  of  Bankruptcy.  These 
are: 

(1)  Conveying,  removing,  oral- 
lowing  to  be  removed  any  of  his 
property  with  intent  to  defraud 
any  of  his  creditors. 

(2)  Transferring,  while  insolv- 
ent, any  property  with  intent  to 
give  preference  to  any  individual 
creditor. 

(3)  Allowing  any  creditor  to 
obtain  preference  through  legal 
proceedings. 

(4)  Making  an  assignment  in 
favor  of  his  creditors. 

(5)  Admitting  in  writing  his  in- 
ability to  pay  his  debts,  and  his 
willingness  to  be  adjudged  bank- 
rupt. Insolvency  of  itself,  not  ad- 
mitted in  writing,  is  insufficient 
grounds  for  bankruptcy  proceed- 
ings. 

When  a  bankruptcy  proceedmg 
starts,  it  is  usual  for  the  United 
States  district  courts  to  entrust 
the  examination  of  the  matter  to 
a  referee.  He  hears  testimony, 
and  gives  his  report  on  the  situa- 
tion, stating  whether  the  insolv- 
ent person  should  be  discharged 
in  bankruptcy. 

Subject  to  approval  by  the 
court,  the  bankrupt  may  offer 
composition  of  his  debts  to  his 
creditors.  If  approved  by  a  ma- 
jority in  number  and  three- 
fourths  in  value  of  the  creditors, 
such  composition  may  receive  the 
sanction  of  the  court.  The  court 
can  withhold  its  sanction,  how- 
ever, on  grounds  entitling  it  to 
refuse  a  discharge.  In  default  of 
a  composition,  the  court  may 
adjudge  the  debtor  bankrupt, 
either  upon  a  resolution  of  the 
creditors  or  not,  and  the  creditors 
may  then  appoint  a  trustee  of  the 
estate. 

The  trustee  administers  the 
estate,  decides  on  proofs  of  debts, 
inquires  into  the  validity  of  sus- 
picious transactions,  realizes  the 
assets,  and  pays  dividends  there- 
from. The  bankrupt  must  give 
the  trustee  all  information,  and  he 
may  be  committed  to  prison  if  he 
appears  likely  to  abscond  or  tries 
to  conceal  his  goods  from  the 
trustee. 

At  any  time  after  adjudication, 
the  bankrupt  may  apply  for  his 
discharge;  but  it  may  be  refused, 
suspended,  or  granted  subject  to 


conditions,  if  the  bankrupt  (1) 
has  not  kept  proper  books  of  ac- 
count, (2)  has  traded  with  knowl- 
edge of  insolvency,  (3)  has  failed 
to  account  for  losses,  (4)  has  spec- 
ulated rashly  or  lived  extrava- 
gantly, (5)  has  given  undue  pref- 
erence to  creditors,  (6)  has  pre- 
viously been  bankrupt,  (7)  has 
been  fraudulent. 

At  the  time  of  the  formation  of 
the  United  States  Constitution  it 
was  judged  wise  to  give  Congress 
power  to  establish  uniform  laws 
on  the  subject  of  bankruptcy 
throughout  the  United  States. 
The  fact  that  a  bankrupt's  credi- 
tors and  debtors  might  readily  be 
in  different  States,  and  the  addi- 
tional fact  that,  were  the  subject 
left  to  the  States,  a  man  might  be 
a  bankrupt  in  one  State  and  dis- 
charged from  bankruptcy  in 
another,  made  it  necessary  that 
the  central  government  should 
have  the  means  of  dealing  with 
the  matter.  This  provision  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  (Article  i., 
Section  8),  however,  does  not 
prevent  the  States  from  legis- 
lating on  the  subject;  but  should 
any  State  provision  be  contrary 
to  the  Federal  bankruptcy  law,  it 
is  rendered  thereby  inoperative. 

The  first  national  bankruptcy 
law,  passed  by  Congress  in  1800, 
followed  closely  the  contempo- 
rary English  statutes.  Several 
other  acts  on  the  subject  were 
passed  and  afterward  repealed. 
From  1878  to  1898  there  was  no 
national  bankruptcy  act  in  exist- 
ence— a  fact  which  caused  an  im- 
mense amount  of  suffering  to  in- 
solvent debtors  wishing  to  start 
anew.  In  1898  the  present  statute, 
amended  slightly  in  1903,  came 
into  force.  See  Debt;  Insolv- 
ency. 

Consult  Remington's  A  Treat- 
ise on  the  Bankruptcy  Law  in  the 
United  States  (3  vols.,  1908-10); 
American  Bankruptcy  (edited  by 
W.  M.  Collier,  1899-1910); 
Cohen's  Unethical  Practices  in 
Bankruptcy  (1911). 

Bankruptcy,  Five  Acts  in. 
See  Bankruptcy. 

Banks.    See  Banking. 

Banks,  in  navigation,  are 
shelving  elevations  in  the  sea  or 
the  bed  of  a  river,  rising  to  or 
near  the  surface,  composed  of 
sand,  mud,  or  gravel.  When 
tolerably  smooth  at  the  top, 
they  constitute  shallows,  shoals, 
and  fiats;  but  when  rocky,  they 
become  reefs,  ridges,  keys,  etc. 
Some  sand  banks  shift  their  posi- 
tion by  reason  of  currents,  etc., 
and  are  specially  troublesome. 
The  most  famous  banks  are  those 
off  Newfoundland.  See  Sand 
Banks. 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph  (1744- 
1820),  British  naturalist,  was 
born  in  London,  England,  and 
was  educated  at  Harrow,  Eton, 


and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In 
1766  he  made  a  voyage  to  New- 
foundland, collecting  plants;  and 
from  1768  to  1771  he  accompanied 
Cook's  expedition  round  the 
world.  In  1772  he  visited  the 
Hebrides  and  Iceland,  whence  he 
brought  back  a  rich  treasure  of 
specimens  for  his  studies  in  natu- 
ral history.  Before  this  voyage, 
Staffa  was  hardly  known  beyond 
its  immediate  vicinity.  It  was 
carefully  examined  by  Banks,  and 
through  him  its  wonders  were 
made  known  to  the  public.  In 
1778  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  Royal  Society,  an  office  which 
he  held  for  forty-one  years;  in 
1781  he  was  created  a  baronet, 
and  in  1802  a  member  of  the 
French  Institute.  Banks  founded 
and  managed  the  African  Asso- 
ciation; and  the  colony  of  Botany 
Bay  owed  its  origin  mainly  to 
him.  Through  his  efforts  the 
breadfruit  tree  was  transferred 
from  Tahiti  to  the  West  Indies, 
and  the  mango  from  Bengal,  as 
well  as  many  of  the  fruits  of  Cey- 
lon and  Persia.  He  wrote :  A  Short 
Account  of  Blight,  Mildew,  and 
Rust  (1805);  Circumstances  Rel- 
ative to  Merino  Sheep  (1809) ;  and 
his  Journal  during  Cook's  first 
voyage  (edited  by  Hooker  in 
1896).  Consult  Marden's  Sir 
Joseph  Banks  (1909) ;  E.  Smith's 
Life  (1911). 

Banks,  Louis  Albert  (1855), 
American  clergyman,  was  born  in 
Corvallis,  Ore.  He  was  educated 
at  Philomath  College  and  Boston 
University,  and  in  1879  entered 
the  ministry.  He  has  been  pastor 
of  leading  churches  in  Boston, 
New  York,  Cleveland,  Denver, 
and  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  and  since 
1911  has  been  engaged  in  union 
evangelistic  service,  with  resi- 
dence at  Delaware,  Ohio.  He  has 
been  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Prohibition  Party,  and  was  the 
candidate  for  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1893.  He  is  a  volumi- 
nous author;  among  his  publica- 
tions are:  The  Peoples  Christ 
(1891);  Anecdotes  and  Morals 
(1894);  Christ  and  His  Friends 
(1896);  Paul  and  His  Friends 
(1896);  The  Fisherman  and  His 
Friends  (1897);  Hero  Tales  from 
Sacred  Story  (1897);  Heroic  Per- 
sonalities (1898);  John  and  His 
Friends  (1899);  David  and  His 
Friends  (1900) ;  Life  of  T.  DeWitt 
Talmage  (1902);  The  Healing  of 
Souls  (1902) ;  The  Religious  Life 
of  Famous  Americans  (1904) ;  The 
Great  Promises  of  the  Bible  (1905) ; 
Capital  Stories  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans (1905);  The  World's  Child- 
hood (1910);  The  Great  Themes  of 
the  Bible  (1911);  The  Sunday 
Night  Evangel  (1911). 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss 
(1816-94),  American  soldier  and 
legislator,  was  born  in  Waltham, 
Mass.    He  became  a  prominent 


Banks 


568 


Banquette 


lawyer  in  Massachusetts,  and  a 
leader  in  State  and  national  poli- 
tics, being  in  turn  a  Free  Soiler, 
a  Know  Nothing,  a  Republican, 
a  Democrat,  and  again  a  Repub- 
lican. He  was  a  member  of  the 
lower  house  of  the  State  legisla- 
ture (1849-53),  being  speaker  in 
1851-2;  chairman  of  the  State 
constitutional  convention  of  1853; 
Member  of  Congress  (1853-7). 
being  Speaker  in  1855-7;  and 
governor  of  Massachusetts  (1858- 
61).  During  the  Civil  War  he 
was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
of  the  officers  who  entered  the 
Federal  service  from  civil  life. 
He  became  a  major-general  of 
volunteers  in  May,  1861;  served 
in  1862  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
against  'Stonewall'  Jackson,  by 
whom  his  greatly  inferior  force 
was  defeated  at  Cedar  Mountain 
(Aug.  9,  1862);  was  placed  in 
command  of  New  Orleans  late  in 
1862;  captured  Port  Hudson  in 
July,  1863,  winning  thereby  the 
thanks  of  Congress;  and  in  1864 
commanded  the  unsuccessful  Red 
River  Expedition.  After  the  war 
he  was  again  a  Member  of  Con- 
gress (1865-73,  1875-7,  and 
1889-91),  and  U.  S.  marshal  for 
Massachusetts  (1879-88). 

Banks,  Thomas  (1735-1805), 
English  sculptor,  was  born  in 
Lambeth.  He  entered  the  Royal 
Academy  schools,  and  having 
gained  the  gold  medal  (1770), 
spent  some  years  (1772-9)  in 
Italy.  Proceeding  to  Russia 
(1781),  he  was  patronized  by 
Catherine  ii.,  who  bought  his 
Cupid  Catching  a  Butterfly  and 
Caractacus  before  Claudius.  In 
1782  he  returned  to  England, 
where,  in  1784,  he  exhibited  per- 
haps his  finest  work,  Achilles  En- 
raged, now  in  the  entrance  hall  at 
Burlington  House.  In  1785  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy.  The  monu- 
ments of  Sir  Eyre  Coote  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  and  of  Captains 
Burgess  and  Westcott  in  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  were  among 
his  works. 

Banksia,  a  genus  of  the  Aus- 
tralian order  Proteaceae,  named 
in  honor  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks 
(q.v.).  They  have  hard,  dry 
leaves,  generally  white  or  very 
pale  green  beneath,  and  present  a 
remarkable  appearance  from  the 
peculiar  arrangement  of  their 
branches,  which  bear  toward 
their  extremities  oblong  heads  of 
very  numerous  flowers.  The 
flowers  secrete  much  honey. 
They  are  abundant  in  all  parts  of 
Australia,  forming,  indeed,  a 
characteristic  feature  of  its  vege- 
tation, and  are  called  honey- 
suckle trees. 

Banksian  Cockatoo,  an  Aus- 
tralian cockatoo.  The  plumage  is 
black  or  brown,  flecked  with  red 
or  orange. 


Banks  Islands,  group,  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  in  14°  s.,  and  167° 
30'  E.  The  chief  are  Vanua  Lava 
and  Gawa  (Santa  Maria). 

Banks  Land,  an  island  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  part  of  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada.  It  was  discovered 
by  Parry  in  1819,  explored  by 
McClure  in  1850,  and  named  by 
him  Baring  Island.  It  is  sepa- 
rated by  McClure  or  Banks  Strait 
from  Melville  Island,  lying  to 
the  northwest,  and  by  Prince  of 
Wales  Strait  from  Prince  Albert 
Land,  lying  east. 

Banks  Peninsula,  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  South  Island,  New 
Zealand.  It  is  a  high  table  land 
with  extinct  volcanoes;  50  miles 
long  and  25  wide. 

Banks,  Savings.  See  Savings 
Banks. 

Bankura,  capital  of  Bankura 
district,  Bengal,  India,  on  the 
River  Dhalkisor.  It  is  a  healthy 
place,  with  trade  in  rice,  oil  seed, 
cotton,  and  silk.  Pop.  22,000. 
The  district  has  an  area  of  2,621 
square  miles  and  a  population  of 
1,200,000,  over  90  per  cent,  of 
whom  are  Hindus. 

Bann,  river,  province  Ulster, 
Ireland,  consisting  of  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Bann — the  former  (25 
miles  long)  rising  (1,467  feet)  in 
the  Mourne  Mountains  (County 
Down)  and  flowing  past  Bain- 
bridge  to  Lough  Neagh;  the  lat- 
ter (33  miles)  issuing  from  the 
northwest  corner  of  the  lough  and 
flowing  northwest  to  the  Atlantic, 
between  the  counties  of  Antrim 
and  Londonderry.  The  river  is 
navigable  to  Coleraine. 

Bannatyne  Club,  a  literary 
club  instituted  in  Edinburgh  in 
1823  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  with 
the  assistance  chiefly  of  David 
Laing  of  the  Signet  Library, 
Archibald  Constable,  and  Thomas 
Thomson.  Its  object  was  to  print 
rare  works  illustrative  of  Scottish 
history,  topography,  poetry,  and 
miscellaneous  literature.  The 
club  was  dissolved  in  1861,  hav- 
ing printed  116  works.  A  com- 
plete set  was  sold  in  1887  for 
$1,175,  and  one  in  1905  for  $695. 

Banner,  a  term  sometimes 
loosely  used  to  signify  any  mili- 
tary ensign  or  standard,  but  in  a 
more  strict  sense  denoting  a 
square  flag  charged  with  the  coat 
of  arms  of  the  owner.  See  Flag; 
Standards. 

Banneret,  a  higher  grade  of 
British  knighthood  bestowed  on 
the  field  of  battle  by  the  sovereign 
in  person  for  distinguished  cour- 
age. The  last  instance  of  its  be- 
stowal was  by  Charles  i.  on  Sir 
John  Smith  at  Edgehill  (1642). 
Knights-banneret  took  prece- 
dence before  the  younger  sons  of 
viscounts,  and  were  allowed  to 
bear  their  arms  with  supporters. 

Bannock  (Gaelic  bannach,  a 
cj^ke),   a  cake  of  home-m^d© 


bread,  common  in  Scotland  and 
the  north  of  England.  It  is  usu- 
ally composed  of  pease  meal  or  of 
pease  and  barley  meal  mixed; 
prepared  without  any  leaven,  it 
is  baked  on  a  girdle  or  griddle. 
When  made  of  mixed  meal  it  is 
often  called  a  mashlum  bannock. 

Bannockburn,  an  historic  vil- 
lage of  2,500  inhabitants,  3  miles 
southeast  of  Stirling,  on  the  Ban- 
nock Burn,  a  small  affluent  of  the 
Forth,  Scotland.  It  has  impor- 
tant woollen  manufactures,  espe- 
cially of  carpets  and  tartans.  The 
neighboring  villages  are  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  nails;  while 
coal  abounds  in  the  vicinity. 

In  the  famous  Battle  of  Ban- 
nockburn, fought  on  June  24, 
1314,  Robert  Bruce,  with  30,000 
Scots,  gained  a  signal  victory 
over  Edward  ii.,  with  100,000 
English,  and  secured  his  throne 
and  the  independence  of  Scot- 
land. The  'Bore  Stone,'  on  which 
Bruce  is  said  to  have  fixed  his 
standard  on  that  eventful  day,  is 
still  to  be  seen  on  an  eminence; 
and  near  it  is  a  flagstaff,  120  feet 
high,  erected  in  1870.  Not  far  off 
was  fought  the  Battle  of  Sauchie- 
burn.  See  Scotland;  Bruce. 

Banns  (German  bann,  order  or 
edict)  is  a  word  signifying  the 
announcement  of  an  intended 
marriage  made  in  the  presence 
of  a  congregation  assembled  for 
divine  worship.  The  system  of 
publishing  banns  is  found  in  the 
earliest  ages  of  the  Christian 
Church,  and  was  promulgated  in 
England  by  the  Council  of  Lon- 
don in  1200  a.d.  The  announce- 
ment is  a  summons  to  any  who 
may  be  interested  in  opposing 
the  marriage  to  state  their  objec- 
tions or  remain  silent  forever. 

The  statutory  rules  in  England 
on  the  matter  of  banns  are  con- 
tained in  the  Marriage  Act  of 
1823.  Publication  must  be  made 
on  three  several  (not  necessarily 
consecutive)  Sundays,  and  the 
marriage  must  take  place  within 
three  months  of  the  last  Sunday, 
otherwise  republication  will  be 
required.  Episcopal  license,  or  a 
registrar's  certificate,  are  alter- 
natives to  the  publication  of 
banns.  A  marriage  not  preceded 
by  any  of  these  is  declared  null 
and  void  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses whatsoever. 

In  the  United  States  generally, 
banns  have  been  superseded  by 
ordinary  marriage  license.  In 
some  States  not  even  the  latter  is 
required.  See  Marriage. 

Bannu,  or  Bunnu,  district. 
Punjab,  India,  traversed  by  the 
River  Indus.  Wheat,  barley, 
Indian  corn,  and  sugar  cane  are 
its  agricultural  products.  The 
chief  town  is  Edwardesabad. 
Area,  1,680  square  miles.  Pop. 
235,000. 

Bf^nquette,  in  fortification,  ^ 


Banshee 


569 


Baobab 


small  bank  at  the  foot  of  a  para- 
pet, from  which  the  defenders 
can  safely  fire  over  the  parapet. 

Ban'shee,  a  female  fairy  com- 
mon to  Celtic  myth,  but  more 
particularly  to  the  folklore  of 
Ireland  and  Western  Scotland. 
Her  mournful  wail  is  looked  upon 
as  a  herald  of  death. 

Banswara,  ban-swa'ra,  feuda- 
tory state  in  Rajputana,  India. 
It  covers  an  area  of  1,946  square 
miles,  much  of  it  jungle  land. 
The  chief  town  is  Banswara,  with 
a  population  (1921)  of  8,588. 
Pop.  of  state  (1921)  183,072. 

Ban'tam,  residency  of  Java, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  at  the  western 
extremity  of  the  island.  It  has 
an  area  of  3,053  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1920)  897,391,  principally 
Sundanese. 

Bantam  Fowl,  a  variety  of 
domestic  fowl  remarkable  for  its 
small  size.    See  Poultry. 

Bantayan,  ban-ta'yan,  pueb- 
lo, Philippine  Islands,  on  the 
southwest  coast  of  Bantayan 
Island,  in  the  province  of  Cebu; 
62  miles  north  of  Cebu.  The 
inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the 
collection  of  pearls,  mother-of- 
pearl,  and  tortoise  shell,  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  fine  cloth. 
There  is  a  leper  settlement  on  a 
small  island  off  the  coast.  Pop. 
(1918)  14,812. 

Ban'teng,  Malay  name  of 
Bos  sondaicus,  a  wild  ox  found  in 
the  East  Indian  Islands  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  similar  to  the 
Indian  gaur.  It  has  been  do- 
mesticated and  interbred  with 
Indian  humped  cattle,  making  . 
a  good  hybrid,  of  which  large 
herds  are  kept  by  the  Javanese. 

Ban'ting,  Frederick  Grant 
(1891-  ),  Canadian  physician, 
was  born  in  AUiston,  Ontario, 
Canada.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Victoria  College,  University  of 
Toronto,  and  was  graduated 
from  the  faculty  of  medicine  in 
the  latter  institution  in  1916. 
During  the  World  War  he  served 
for  four  years  with  the  Army 
Medical  Corps  of  the  Canadian 
Expeditionary  Forces,  being  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  captain.  He 
received  wounds  at  Cambrai  in 
1918,  and  was  subsequently 
decorated  with  the  Military 
Cross.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  engaged  in  private  practice 
and  acted  as  assistant  in  the 
department  of  physiology  in  the 
University  of  Western  Ontario. 
In  April,  1921,  he  returned  to 
Toronto  and  began  the  researches 
which,  with  the  collaboration 
of  Cliarles  Herbert  Best,  led  to 
the  discovery  of  Insulin  (see 
Diabetes).  In  1923  he  became 
the  first  incumbent  of  the  Bant- 
ing and  Best  chair  of  Medical 
Research  in  the  University  of 
Toronto,  established  by  the 
Province  of  Ontario.  Dr.  Bant- 
ing has  been  the  recipient  of 
several  medals  and  prizes,  nota- 
ble among  which  is  the  Nobel 


prize  in  Medicine  awarded  him 
(jointly  with  Prof.  J.  J.  R. 
Macleod),  in  1923. 

Banting  System,  a  method 
of  treating  corpulency  by  a 
restricted  diet,  proposed  by 
Harvey,  but  first  effectively 
practised  by  William  Banting 
(1797-1878)  of  Kensington.  It 
consists  especially  in  avoidance 
of  food  containing  much  saccha- 
rine, farinaceous,  or  oily  matter. 

Ban'tock,  Granville 
(1868-  ),  English  musician, 
was  born  in  London.  He  entered 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  in 
1889,  and  during  his  term  as  a 
student  produced  the  overture 
The  Fire  Worshippers,  an  Egyp- 
tian suite  de  ballet,  the  opera 
Ccedmer,  and  other  compositions. 
He  was  editor  and  proprietor  of 
The  New  Quarterly  Musical 
Review  (1893-6),  and  at  the  same 
time  acted  as  conductor  of  musi- 
cal comedies  and  other  light 
music  in  the  provinces,  making  a 
tour  of  the  world  in  1894-5. 
From  1897  to  1900,  he  was 
musical  director  of  The  Tower, 
New  Brighton.  He  became 
director  of  the  Birmingham  and 
Midland  Institute  School  of 
Music  in  1900  and  professor  of 
music  in  Birmingham  University 
in  1908.  He  visited  Canada  in 
1923  as  adjudicator  at  the  music 
festivals  held  in  five  of  the  prov- 
inces. Among  his  published 
compositions  are  Helena  Varia- 
tions (1899);  Dante  and  Beatrice 
(1902) ;  The  Witch  of  Atlas  (1904) ; 
Omar  Khayyam  (1906);  The 
Pierrot  of  the  Minute  (1909); 
Atalanta  in  Calydon  (1910);  The 
Great  God  Pan  (1913);  The 
Vanity  of  Vanities  (1913);  He- 
bridean  Symphony  (1920);  The 
Song  of  Songs  (1922);  The  Seal- 
Woman  (opera,  1924). 

Ban'try,  seaport  and  summer 
resort,  Ireland,  in  county  Cork; 
51  miles  southwest  of  Cork.  It 
is  picturesquely  situated  on 
Bantry  Bay  (20  miles  long  by  6 
broad).  There  are  manufactures 
of  Irish  friezes  and  tweeds.  Fish- 
ing, formerly  important,  is  now 
practically  abandoned.  The  bay 
was  the  scene  of  engagements 
between  the  French  and  British 
in  1689  and  1796.  Pop.  (1911) 
3,159. 

Ban'tu,  a  group  of  negro 
tribes  occupying  Central  and 
South  Africa,  possessing  a  com- 
mon language,  with  numerous 
dialectic  variations.  Though  the 
Bantu  tribes  now  differ  con- 
siderably in  their  physical  char- 
acteristics, the  indications  are 
that  they  once  constituted  a 
powerful  tribe  whose  original 
home  was  in  northern  and  eciua- 
torial  Africa.  They  are  practi- 
cally all  agriculturists  and  many 
of  them  have  a  knowledge  of 
metallurgy.  They  include  the 
Kaffirs  and  Zulus  (ciq.  v.),  the 
Bechuanas,  the  Dwala,  Bakunda, 
Basas,    Bakoris,    Adumas,  Ba- 


lumba,    Baluba,    Swahili,  Wa- 

kamba,  Ovambo,  and  many 
others.  The  Bantu  languages 
may  be  termed  the  lingua  franca 
of  inner  Africa.  They  are  re- 
markable for  their  regularity  of 
inflection,  their  euphony,  com- 
pass, flexibility,  and  power. 

Banville,  ban-vel',  Theodore 
Faullain  de  (1823-91),  French 
poet,  was  born  in  Moulins. 
When  a  mere  youth  he  published 
two  volumes  of  verse,  Les  Caria- 
tides  and  Les  Stalactites,  but  it 
was  not  until  the  appearance  of 
his  Odes  funambulesques  (1857) 
and  Nouvelles  odes  (1867)  that  he 
attracted  general  attention.  The 
Franco-German  War  moved  him 
to  a  more  impassioned  style  in 
his  Idylles  prussiennes,  and  he 
also  wrote  several  dramatic 
sketches,  including  Gringoire 
(1866)  and  Socrate  et  sa  femme 
(1885),  and  a  treatise  on  French 
versification.  Banville  has  a 
charmingly  light  and  fanciful 
touch  and  a  gift  of  rhythm. 

Ban'yan  Tree  (Ficus  bengha- 
lensis),  Indian  tree,  of  the  order 
Moracese,  so  called  because  it  is 
frequently  used  as  a  market- 
place by  the  Banians  or  Indian 
merchants.  It  is  a  species  of  fig 
tree,  bearing  large  heart-shaped 
leaves  and  small  red  fruit  about 
the  size  of  a  cherry.  As  the 
branches  spread  they  send  down 
aerial  roots  which  penetrate  the 
soil,  becoming  stems  or  trunks. 
In  this  way  one  tree,  in  course  of 
time,  may  form  a  large  number 
of  props  and  cover  an  enormous 
ground  space, 

Bauyumas,  ban'yob-mas',  or 
Banjoemas.  residency  of  Central 
Java,  Dutch  East  Indies.  Area, 
2,147  square  miles.  Pop.  (1920), 
1,767,529.  The  chief  town  is 
Banyumas,  on  the  river  Serajo; 
22  miles  from  the  south  coast. 
Pop.  (1920)  13,304. 

Banyuwangi,  ban'yob-wan'- 
ges,  town,  Java,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  on  the  east  coast.  It  was 
formerly  an  important  port  and 
was  the  capital  of  the  native 
kingdom  of  Balambangan.  Pop. 
about  18,000. 

Ba'obab,  also  called  Monkey 
Bread  and  Sour  Gourd  {Adan- 
sonia  digitala) ,  a  tree  of  the  or- 
der Malvaceae,  found  in  most 
parts  of  tropical  Africa,  and  in 
the  East  Indies.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  oldest  trees  in  the 
world,  with  a  trunk  often  more 
than  20  feet  in  diameter.  The 
bark  is  fibrous,  and  is  stripped 
off  for  making  ropes  and  clothes; 
it  is  used  also  as  a  febrifuge.  The 
leaves  are  dried  and  made  into  a 
powder  called  lalo,  which  is  used 
by  West  Africans  as  a  condiment, 
and  by  Europeans  as  a  medicine. 
The  large  white  flowers  have 
stalks  3  feet  long,  and  the  fruit, 
about  the  size  of  a  large  lemon, 
contains  seeds  embedded  in  an 
acid  pulp,  which  is  eaten  by  the 
natives. 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '24 


Bap  hornet 


570 


Baptism 


Baph'omet  (probably  a  cor- 
ruption of  Mahomet),  the  name 
given  to  the  mysterious  two- 
headed  idol  which  the  Templars 
were  said  to  worship  with  secret 
licentious  rites. 

Baptan'odon,  a  late  ichthyo- 
saurian,  which  in  the  Middle 
Jurassic  period  had  its  home  in 
the  rivers  of  Colorado  and 
Wyoming.  It  is  the  only  type 
of  the  aquatic  ichthyopterygian 
reptiles  found  in  America.  It 
was  fish-like  in  appearance, 
about  10  feet  long,  and  had  short, 
broad  paddles. 

Bap'tism,  a  rite  of  the 
Christian     church,  performed 


tered  to  Israelites  themselves,  as 
a  token  of  their  entrance  into  the 
new  Messianic  kingdom,  thus 
having  a  moral  and  spiritual  {cf. 
'unto  repentance,'  Matt.  iii.  11) 
rather  than  a  merely  legal  or 
ethnological  significance. 

The  distinctively  Christian 
rite  is  not  only  a  symbol  of  a 
moral  change  in  the  recipient, 
but  is  further  the  outward  ex- 
pression of  a  new  life  to  the 
individual  submitting  to  it,  and 
of  his  union  with  Christ,  which 
privileges  were  conferred  by  the 
gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  con- 
verts were  to  be  baptized  'into' 
the  name  of  the  Irimty;  and 


the  infants  of  Christian  parents 
for  baptism  hardly  seems  to  have 
arisen  in  New  Testament  times, 
the  converts  being  necessarily  of 
sufficient  age  to  make  profession 
of  their  faith.  It  is  held  by  some 
that  it  must  have  developed  very 
soon.  The  church,  proceeding  on 
the  analogy  of  circumcision,  and 
in  view  of  Christ's  declaration 
regarding  children  (Mark  x.  14), 
of  Paul's  statement  (1  Cor.  vii. 
14)  that  the  children  of  believers 
are  holy,  and  of  the  fact  that  in 
the  case  of  some  a  minimum  of 
preparation  had  been  deemed 
sufficient  by  the  apostles  (Acts 
xvi.  13  /.),  sanctioned  the  prac- 


(c)  Ewinu  Galloway,  N.  Y. 


Great  Banyan  Tree,  Calcutta,  India 
This  tree  covers  a  circle  1000  feet  in  diameter,  and  has  over  250  aerial  roots. 


either  by  sprinkling  the  candi- 
date with  water,  pouring  water 
upon  him  (affusion),  or  immers- 
ing him  in  water. 

Lustrations  as  purificatory  rites 
occur  in  all  forms  of  primitive 
religion  and  have  their  place  in 
that  of  the  Hebrews  as  described 
in  the  Old  Testament.  The 
immediate  origin  of  Christian 
baptism  would  appear  to  be  what 
is  called  'the  baptism  of  John' 
(Mark  xi.  30),  which  was  doubt- 
less suggested  by  Jewish  practices. 
The  distinctive  feature  of  'John's 
baptism'  was  that  it  was  adminis- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '21 


though  the  disciples  seem  at  first 
to  have  used  the  name  of  Jesus 
(or  Christ)  only  (Acts  ii.  38;  viii. 
16),  in  course  of  time  the  original 
mandate  came  to  be  more  liter- 
ally obeyed.  Deissmann  claims 
to  have  shown,  from  the  evidence 
of  recently-discovered  inscrip- 
tions, that  'name'  used  in  this 
manner  signifies  power,  dominion; 
vso  that  to  baptize  into  the  name 
of  any  one  means  to  place  in  the 
posscvssion  or  at  the  absolute  dis- 
posal of  the  same. 

(1.)  The  Baptism  of  Infants. 
The  question  of  the  eligibility  of 


tice,  which  soon  became  general. 
The  opponents  of  infant  baptism, 
however,  point  out  that  the 
practice  is  nowhere  commanded 
or  even  countenanced  in  Scrip- 
ture, that  Clirist's  commission 
(Matt,  xxviii.  19)  plainly  con- 
nects the  ceremony  with  teach- 
ing, and  that  the  apostles  always 
restricted  baptism  to  believers,  as 
the  symbol  of  a  conscious  change 
(Acts  x.  43,  48);  while  they 
repudiate  the  analogy  of  cir- 
cumcision in  view  of  the  essen- 
tial distinction  between  the 
Jewish  theocracy  as  an  earthly 


Baptistery 


571 


Baptistery 


kingdom  and  the  kingdom  'not  of 
this  world.'  Such  are  the  saHent 
points  in  the  controversy. 

(2)  The  Manner  of  Baptism^ — 
There  is  httle  doubt  that  the 
original  practice  was  immersion 
(Matt.  iii.  6,  ir>;  Acts  viii.  38), 
but  it  is  equally  undeniable  that 
sprinkling  or  affusion  was  some- 
times substituted  at  a  very  early 
period. 

(3)  Lay  Baptism. — Can  bap- 
tism be  properly  administered  by 
the  clergy  only?  or  is  it  equally 
valid  when  performed  (in  certain 
cases)  by  the  laity?  Scripture 
throws  no  decisive  light  on  the 
question.  It  has  generally  been 
held  that  baptism  by  duly  quali- 
fied ministers  is  desirable;  but  in 
cases  of  imminent  death,  when 
no  minister  was  at  hand,  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  rite  by  lay- 
men, or  even  by  women,  was 
deemed  perfectly  valid.  The  cus- 
tom had  its  rise,  of  course,  in  the 
belief  that  baptism  was  essen- 
tial to  salvation.  Lay  baptism 
was  formerly  permitted  in  the 
Church  of  England,  and  is  still  in 
the  Church  of  Rome.  In  the  Re- 
formed Churches  generally,  how- 
ever, where  the  necessity  of  bap- 
tism is  not  regarded  as  being  ab- 
solute, its  administration  is  usu- 
ally confined  to  the  regularly  or- 
dained ministry.  Among  Bap- 
tists authority  may  be  given  by 
the  local  church  to  persons  not 
ordained. 

(4)  Baptismal  Regeneration. — 
It  is  held  by  the  Church  of  Rome 
and  by  ritualistic  Anglicans  that 
baptism  confers  even  upon  in- 
fants an  'indelible'  character — 
i.e.,  actually  changes  the  standing 
of  the  person  baptized  before 
God.  Some  Protestants  admit 
that  the  act  removes  the  guilt  of 
original  sin,  but  regard  the 
cliange  of  character  as  something 
that  can  only  be  acquired  con- 
sciously and  apart  from  any 
necessary  connection  with  an 
external  ceremony  such  as  bap- 
tism. They  hold  that  the  act 
changes  the  relation  of  the  person 
to  the  church,  but  that,  either 
before  or  (as  in  the  case  of  in- 
fants) after,  the  privileges  sym- 
bolized by  baptism  are  to  be 
consciously  and  voluntarily  em- 
braced. Thus,  the  omission  of 
it,  as  in  the  case  of  a  child  dying 
shortly  after  birth,  is  not  consid- 
ered by  Protestants  to  involve 
any  detriment  to  the  eternal 
interests  of  the  individual. 

Consult  Wall's  History  of  Bap- 
tism; Hodges'  Baptism  Tested  by 
Scripture  and  History;  Hall's  In- 
fant Baptism;  Stone's  Holy  Bap- 
tism; articles  in  Smith's, 
Cheyne's,  and  Hastings'  Bible 
Dictionaries. 

Bap'tistery,  or  Baptistry,  the 
name  given  sometimes  to  a  sep- 
arate building,  sometimes  to  the 
portion  of  the  church  in  which 
the  ceremony  of  baptism  is  per- 


formed. Originally  Christian 
baptism  was  performed  at  the 
rivenside,  or  at  founts  where 
springs  of  water  flowed.  The 
first  built  baptisteries  were  not, 
as  now,  within  the  church,  but 
without,  and  often  in  places  re- 
mote from  it,  distinct  from  the 
church,  and  connected  with  it 
only  by  a  passage  or  cloister. 


diameter.  It  stands  '  detached 
from,  but  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
ity of  the  west  end  of  the  cathe- 
dral. It  is  built  of  black  and 
white  marble,  in  the  style  which 
Giotto  is  said  to  have  introduced, 
and  which  is  still  peculiar  to  Tus- 
cany. The  magnificent  bronze 
doors,  with  their  beautiful  bas- 
reliefs,  are  remarkable  features  of 


Famous  Italian  Baptisteries 
1.  Pisa:  Interior;  2  Exterior.    3.  Asti:  S  Pictro.   4.  Florence. 


Afterward  they  formed  a  con- 
structional part  of  the  church, 
toward  the  west  end.  There  are 
several  old  specimens  in  England 
— at  Norwich,  Lambeth,  Kent, 
and  Luton;  and  those  in  Italy 
at  Asti,  Novara,  Pisa,  and  Flor- 
ence are  well-known  examples  of 
Italian  church  architecture. 

The  celebrated  baptistery  of 
Florence  is  an  octagonal  struc- 
ture, measuring  about  100  feet  in 


this  famous  baptistery.  The 
most  celebrated  of  the  three 
doors  was  executed  by  Lorenzo 
Ghiberti,  the  earliest  being  the 
work  of  Andrea  of  Pisa.  Fifty 
years  were  required  for  their 
completion.  Next  in  importance, 
and  of  even  greater  size,  is  the 
baptistery  of  Pisa.  It  is  circular 
in  form,  the  diameter  measuring 
116  feet.  The  largest  baptistery 
ever  erected  is  supposed  to  have 

Vol.  L— Mar.  '26 


Baptists 


571  A 


Baptists 


been  that  of  St.  Sophia,  at  Con- 
stantinople, which  was  so  spa- 
cious as  to  have  served  on  one 
occasion  for  the  residence  of  the 
Emperor  BasiHcus.  Numerous 
examples  of  circular  baptisteries 
on  the  model  of  the  Italian  ones 
are  still  to  be  found  in  the  south 
of  France. 

Bap'tists,  a  denomination  of 
Christians,  so  named  because  of 


God;  faith  as  a  prerequisite  for 
entrance  into  the  Kingdom  of 
God;  the  supreme  headship  of 
Jesus  Christ  in  that  kingdom; 
and  the  freedom  and  responsibil- 
ity of  the  individual  Christian; 
but  they  have  among  them  many 
shades  of  belief.  The  great  body 
of  them  in  Great  Britain  and 
America  hold  the  doctrine  of 
Calvinism  in  a  modified  form — 


Famous  Baptisteries  in  English  Churches 


their  distinctive  views  regarding 
the  ordinance  of  baptism,  which 
they  administer  by  immersion  to 
believers  only. 

Doctrine  and  Worship. — The 
Baptists  hold  the  inspiration  and 
supreme  authority  of  the  Holy 
vScriptures  as  a  revelation  from 
God;  the  equal  deity  of  the  Son 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  unity 
of  the  Trinity;  the  direct  rela- 
tionship of  the  individual  soul  to 

Vol.  I.— Mar.  '26 


that  is  to  vsay,  they  maintain  the 
sufficiency  of  the  Atonement  for 
all  men;  the  limitation  which 
vsome  have  maintained  lies,  they 
consider,  in  its  application  to  the 
sinner  by  the  sovereign  grace  of 
God  through  faith.  At  the  pres- 
ent day,  however — especially  in 
Great  Britain — the  tendency  of 
thought  is  toward  the  recognition 
of  no  other  limitation  than  that 
which  results  from  the  exercise  of 


man's  free  will.  They  maintain 
the  necessity  of  regeneration  and 
holiness  of  life  as  essential  to 
true  religion,  and  that  'without 
holiness  no  man  shall  see  the 
Lord.'  They  have  ever  stood  for 
complete  Hberty  of  conscience, 
and  for  absolute  separation  of 
church  and  state.  They  acknowl- 
edge but  two  ordinances.  Bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Looking  upon  the  church  as  a 
completely  spiritual  institution, 
they  maintain  that  the  member- 
ship, and  therefore  the  ordinance 
of  baptism,  ought  to  be  confined 
to  believers  only — thus  excluding 
the  baptism  of  infants.  They 
hold  that  the  only  correct  mode 
of  administering  the  ordinance  is 
by  immersion,  asserting  that 
affusion  is  unscriptural,  obscures 
the  significance  of  the  rite,  and 
annuls  its  historical  testimony 
to  the  cardinal  facts  of  redemp- 
tion as  indicated,  for  example,  in 
Rom.  vi.  1-11  and  Col.  ii.  12. 

The  Baptists  are  divided  among 
themselves  regarding  communion 
— one  portion  receiving  consci- 
entious Paedobaptists  at  the 
Lord's  table;  the  other  refusing 
this  privilege  to  any  but  bap- 
tized believers.  The  former  are 
called  'open'  communionists;  the 
latter,  'strict'  communionists. 
Both  agree  in  regarding  the  Sup- 
per as  commemorative  only,  and 
in  no  sense  sacrificial. 

Organization. — The  form  of 
church  government  of  the  Bap- 
tists is  congregational.  They 
maintain  that  the  only  officers  of 
a  New  Testament  church  are 
pastors  (otherwise  called  elders 
and  bishops)  and  deacons;  that 
the  number  of  official  persons  in 
each  of  the  apostolic  churches 
cannot  be  ascertained  from  the 
record,  but  of  necessity  depended 
— and  always  must  depend — on 
circumstances;  that  each  church 
is  a  spiritual  democracy,  pos- 
sessed of  the  power  of  self-gov- 
ernment under  its  exalted  head, 
Jesus  Christ,  subject  to  no  foreign 
tribunal  or  court  of  review;  that 
discipline  is  to  be  exercised  in  the 
presence  and  with  the  consent 
of  the  members  of  the  church, 
and  parties  received  or  excluded 
at  their  voice. 

The  doctrine  of  congregational 
independence  is  held  to  render 
unnecessary  any  general  creed  or 
confession;  but  it  is  assumed  that 
all  ministers  and  members  of 
Baptist  churches  accept  the  prin- 
ciple of  liberty  of  conscience  and 
of  the  divine  authority  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

Baptist  associations  and  con- 
ventions exist,  to  which  most  of 
the  congregations  belong;  but 
these  unions  have  no  legislative 
or  judicial  functions,  and  exer- 
cise no  control  over  the  individual 
churches.  Their  purpose  is  the 
organization  of  aggressive  Chris- 


Baptists 


571  B 


Baptists 


tian  work  on  a  scale  wider  than 
that  of  the  individual  congrega- 
tion, as  well  as  mutual  support 
and  encouragement. 

These  organizations  include  the 
General  Convention  of  the  Bap- 
tists of  North  America,  the 
Northern  and  the  Southern  Bap- 
tist Conventions,  the  National 
Baptist  Convention  of  America, 
and  the  State  conventions,  in 
the  United  States;  the  Baptist 
Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land and  various  local  unions,  in 
the  United  Kingdom;  the  Canad- 
ian conventions;  and  the  Baptist 
World  Alliance,  which  was  or- 
ganized in  1905  to  meet  every 
five  years.  The  1923  meeting 
was  held  in  Stockholm,  and  To- 
ronto was  chosen  for  the  1928 
meeting. 

Statistics, — The  statistics  for 
Baptist  churches  in  the  United 
States  for  1923  are  shown  in  the 
following  table: 


In  1925  there  were  92,029 
Baptists  in  Central  and  South 
America,  1,615,024  in  Europe, 
295,770  in  Asia,  47,693  in  Africa, 
and  31,850  in  Australasia.  In 
the  same  year  Canadian  Baptists 
numbered  140,025,  with  1,295 
churches  and  841  ordained  min- 
isters. In  Great  Britain,  in 
1925,  there  were  3,106  churches, 
2,066  ordained  ministers,  more 
than  5,000  local  preachers,  and 
413,841  members. 

The  world  statistics  for  1925 
show:  ordained  ministers,  55,- 
380;  churches,  73,513;  members, 
10,098,614. 

Great  Britain. — The  modern 
Baptist  movement  dates  its 
origin  from  the  time  of  John 
Smyth  or  Smith,  who  in  1606  or 
1607,  with  a  small  body  of  Sep- 
aratists, fled  from  England  to 
Holland  to  escape  persecution. 
With  Thomas  Helwys  and  others, 
Smyth  formed  the  first  English 


The  Principal  Baptist  Bodies  in  the  United  States  (1923) 


Denominations 

Churches 

Ministers 

Members 

Baptists  (including  Seventh-Day  and  Free 

57,167 

47,510 

7,924,104 

Free  Will  Baptists  

1,007 

1,219 

78,546 

518 

589 

33,466 

401 

494 

21,521 

2,143 

1,292 

80,311 

254 

411 

22,097 

55 

50 

4,000 

506 

751 

25,403 

Total  

62,051 

52,316 

8,189,448 

'Figures  for  1925  are  58,157  churches;  47,861  ministers;  8,025,348  members. 


The  organized  missionary  and 
educational  work  of  American 
Baptists  is  carried  on  by  the 
American  Baptist  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Society,  the  American 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Society, 
the  American  Baptist  Publica- 
tion Society,  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation of  the  Northern  Baptist 
Convention  (succeedingthe  Amer- 
ican Baptist  Education  Society), 
the  Horrue  and  Foreign  Mission 
Boards  of  the  Southern  Conven- 
tion, the  Women's  Missionary 
Societies,  and  various  State 
organizations. 

In  1925  American  Baptists  had 
in  foreign  lands  6,154  churches, 
359,017  members,  4,438  Sunday 
schools,  and  216,922  Sunday 
school  scholars.  They  main- 
tained 3,000  home  mission  work- 
ers, and  aided  in  the  main- 
tenance of  131  home  mission 
schools. 

Baptist  educational  institu- 
tions in  the  United  States  in  1925 
included  16  theological  semina- 
ries, 74  universities  and  colleges, 
30  junior  colleges,  and  140  acade- 
mies, institutes,  seminaries,  and 
training  schools,  with  81,840  stu- 
dents. Their  property  was  val- 
ued at  .S93,852,700,  and  their 
total  endowment  was  $96,293,- 
280. 


Baptist  church  at  Amsterdam  in 
1611.  Their  declaration  of  faith 
stated  that  'every  church  is  to 
receive  in  all  their  members  by 
baptism  upon  the  confession  of 
their  faith  and  sins,  wrought  by 
the  preaching  of  the  gospel  ac- 
cording to  the  primitive  institu- 
tion and  practice;  that  baptism 
or  washing  with  water  is  the  out- 
ward manifestation  of  dying  unto 
sin  and  walking  in  newness  of 
life,  and  therefore  in  no  wise 
appertaineth  to  infants;  that  no 
church  ought  to  challenge  any 
prerogative  over  any  other,  and 
that  the  magistrate  is  not  to 
meddle  with  religion,  or  matters 
of  conscience,  nor  compel  men  to 
this  or  that  form  of  religion.' 

Smyth  died  in  Holland  in  the 
year  the  church  was  founded,  and 
in  1612  Helwys,  who  succeeded 
Smyth  in  the  leadership,  re- 
turned with  his  followers  to 
London,  where  they  organized 
the  first  Baptist  church  in  Eng- 
land. This  church,  and  others 
of  its  kind  which  soon  sprang  up, 
while  they  restricted  member- 
ship to  baptized  believers,  seem 
to  have  laid  no  emphasis  on  im- 
mersion till  later  in  their  history. 

In  1633  the  first  Particular  or 
Calvinistic  Baptist  church  was 
organized  by  a  group  of  Separat- 


ists, and  in  the  next  ten  years 
seven  such  churches  had  been 
established.  These  joined  in  is- 
suing a  Confession  of  Faith  in 
which  they  set  forth  the  Calvin- 
istic teaching  of  predestination, 
vigorously  emphasized  the  doc- 
trine of  complete  liberty  of  con- 
science, and  defined  baptism  as 
the  'dipping  or  plunging  of  the 
body  under  water.' 

During  the  succeeding  century 
both  General  and  Particular 
Baptists  were  torn  by  dissension, 
and  their  growth  was  slow.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  however,  they  came 
under  the  influence  of  the  general 
religious  awakening  that  fol- 
lowed the  Wesleyan  revival.  In 
1770  the  New  Connection  of 
General  Baptists  was  organized; 
in  1792  the  English  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Society  was  founded, 
through  the  influence  of  Andrew 
Fuller  and  William  Carey;  and 
from  that  time  the  growth  of  the 
English  denominations  was  rapid. 
In  1832  the  General  and  Par- 
ticular Baptists  united  for  mis- 
sionary and  educational  pur- 
poses in  the  Baptist  Union;  and 
in  1891  a  complete  amalgamation 
was  effected. 

United  States. — The  first  Bap- 
tist church  in  America  was 
founded  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  in 
1638,  by  Roger  Williams  (q.  v.), 
who  had  been  banished  from  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts  for  ad- 
vocating 'unsettling  and  danger- 
ous' views.  About  1644  a  sec- 
ond church  was  established  in 
Newport;  and  in  1655  the  First 
Baptist  Church  of  Boston  was 
organized.  In  1683  or  1684  Bap- 
tist refugees  from  New  England 
founded  the  first  church  in  the 
South,  near  Charleston,  S.  C; 
and  by  1740  there  were  Baptist 
churches  in  all  the  colonies. 

The  most  influential  group  of 
churches  was  in  the  vicinity  of 
Philadelphia,  which  in  1707  or- 
ganized the  Philadelphia  Associa- 
tion, to  which  the  churches  of 
the  middle  colonies,  as  well  as 
those  of  Virginia  and  South  Caro- 
lina, were  later  admitted.  In 
1742  this  association  adopted 
what  has  since  been  known  as 
the  Philadelphia  Confession,  an 
adaptation  of  the  Confession  of 
the  English  Particular  Baptists, 
strongly  Calvinistic  in  doctrine. 

From  the  period  of  the  Great 
Awakening  (1743)  the  Baptist 
church  in  America  experienced  a 
rapid  growth.  At  the  Revolution 
there  were  about  10,000  Bap- 
tists in  the  country;  in  1800, 
100,000;  and  in  1850,  815,000. 

In  1812  the  Baptist  Education 
Society  was  organized,  in  1814 
the  Foreign  Mission  Society,  in 
1824  the  Publication  Society, 
and  in  1832  the  Home  Mission 
Society. 

For  many  years  the.  Baptists 

Vol.  I. — Mar.  '26 


Baptists 

of  the  United  States  were  united 
in  missionary  enterprises;  but 
in  1845,  on  account  of  dissen- 
sions brought  about  by  the  slav- 
ery question,  the  Southern  Bap- 
tists withdrew  from  the  Ameri- 
can Baptist  Missionary  Union 
and  the  American  Baptist  Home 
Mission  Society,  and  formed  the 
Southern  Baptist  Convention. 
In  1880  the  negro  Baptists  with- 
drew from  co-operation  with 
their  white  brethren  in  mission- 
ary and  other  enterprises,  and 
formed  their  own  National  Bap- 
tist Convention.  The  German, 
Swedish,  Dano-Norwegian,  and 
other  foreign-speaking  Baptist 
churches  are  also  grouped  into 
conferences. 

Besides  the  Regular  Baptists, 
there  are  eleven  denominations 
in  the  United  States  that  hold 
essentially  Baptist  doctrines. 
These  are: 

The  Free  Baptists,  formerly 
known  as  Free  Will  Baptists, 
originated  in  New  Hampshire  in 
1780,  as  an  anti-Calvinistic, 
'open  communion'  body.  Their 
greatest  strength  has  been  in 
New  England  and  the  West,  their 
early  anti-slavery  sentiments 
having  prevented  their  estab- 
lishment in  the  South.  In  1911 
a  'Basis  of  Union'  was  adopted 
by  Free  and  Regular  Baptists, 
whereby  the  greater  part  of  the 
invested  funds  of  the  Free  Bap- 
tists, along  with  their  missionary 
and  publication  interests,  were 
transferred  to  the  Regular  Bap- 
tist societies.  Various  associa- 
tions and  local  churches  of  this 
denomination  have  also  united 
with  Regular  Baptist  Ixjdies,  and 
complete  union  seems  to  be  but  a 
matter  of  time. 

Free  Will  Baptists  or  Original 
Free  Will  Baptists  are  a  small 
body  in  several  of  the  Southern 
States  who  separated  from  the 
Regular  Baptists  when  these  for- 
mally adopted  the  Calvinistic 
faith,  about  1750.  Foot  wash- 
ing and  anointing  of  the  sick  with 
oil  arc  practised. 

General  Six  Principle  Baptists 
are  a  small  body,  represented 
only  in  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Pennsylvania.  Their 
first  church   was   organized  in 

1670.  Their  creed,  derived  from 
Heb.  vi.  2,  contains  the  six  prin- 
ciples stated  in  that  passage. 

Seventh  Day  Baptists  were 
known  in  England  as  early  as  the 
sixteenth  century;  in  the  United 
States  the  first  church  was 
founded  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  in 

1671.  Their  distinctive  doc- 
trine is  the  observance  of  Satur- 
day as  the  Sabbath.  They  are 
represented  in  24  States. 

General  Baptists  differ  but  lit- 
tle from  Regular  Baptists.  They 
hold  that  the  atonement  is  gen- 
eral, and  not  for  the  'elect'  alone. 
They  are  found  in  the  Middle 
West.  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee. 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '2G 


572 

The  Separate  Baptists  with- 
drew from  the  Regular  Baptist 
communion  at  the  time  of  the 
Whitefield  revival.  The  great 
majority  reunited  with  the  Reg- 
ular Baptists  over  a  century  ago; 
but  a  few  churches  in  Indiana 
still  retain  the  old  name.  Their 
doctrines  are  practically  those  of 
Free  Baptists. 

The  United  Baptists  were 
formed  by  the  union  of  certain 
Separate  and  Regular  Baptist 
churches  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  A  small 
number  in  the  South  have  re- 
sisted organization  under  the 
latter  name,  and  some  bodies  in 
full  fellowship  with  the  Regulars 
retain  the  name  United.  They 
are  moderately  Calvinistic,  and 
practise  foot  washing  and  close 
communion. 

The  Baptist  Church  of  Christ, 
found  only  in  the  South,  claims 
to  be  the  oldest  Baptist  organiza- 
tion. It  holds  to  a  general 
atonement  and  a  moderate  Cal- 
vinism, including  the  persever- 
ance of  the  saints.  Foot  wash- 
ing is  practised  as  an  ordinance. 

Primitive  Baptists,  known  also 
as  Old  School,  Regular,  Anti- 
Mission,  and  'Hard  Shell,'  origi- 
nated about  1835  in  the  South, 
where  they  have  their  greatest 
strength.  They  hold  to  a  supra- 
lapsarian  predestination.  They 
reject  the  agencies  of  Sunday 
school  and  missionary  and  Bible 
societies  as  institutions  unsanc- 
tioned by  Scripture.  They  prac- 
tise foot  washing  as  an  ordinance. 

Old  Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit  Pre- 
destinarian  Baptists  derive  their 
name  from  the  doctrine  that 
there  are  two  seeds,  one  of  evil 
and  one  of  good.  They  are  con- 
servatively Calvinistic  in  doc- 
trine, holding  to  absolute  pre- 
destination and  reprobation. 
Many  of  them  reject  a  paid  min- 
istry, and  agree  with  Primitive 
Baptists  in  their  attitude  toward 
missionary  and  educational  agen- 
cies. There  is  no  sectional  line 
in  their  distribution. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Ev- 
ans' Early  English  Baptists;  Ar- 
mitsge's  History  of  the  Baptists; 
Merriam's  History  of  American 
Baptist  Missions;  Newman's  His- 
tory of  the  Baptist  Churches  in  the 
United  States;  Vedder's  Short 
History  of  the  Baptists  (rev.  ed. 
1907)  and  The  Baptists;  Carlile's 
Story  of  the  English  Baptists 
(1905);  Jones'  A  Restatement  of 
Baptist  Principles  (1909);  Mc- 
Glothlin's  Baptist  Confessions  of 
Faith  (1911);  Carroll's  The  Re- 
ligious Forces  of  the  United  States 
(1912);  Christian's  A  History  of 
the  Baptists  (1922);  Horr's  The 
Baptist  Heritage  (1923);  Whit- 
ley's A  History  of  British  Baptists 
(1923) ;  Lyon's  Baptist  Fundamen- 
tals (1923) ;  The  American  Baptist 
Year  Book  (annual) ;  The  Baptist 
Handbook  (English  annual). 


Bar 

Baptist  Young  People's  Union 
of  America,  an  association  of 
young  people's  societies  in  Baptist 
churches  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  organized  in  Chi- 
cago in  1891,  with  the  object  of 
training  young  people  for  effec- 
tive Christian  living  and  service. 
Through  its  five  departments 
(Devotional  Life,  Stewardship, 
Evangelism,  Life  Work,  and 
City,  State  and  Associational 
Organization)  the  Union  seeks 
definitely  to  assist  the  local  soci- 
eties in  their  programmed  activ- 
ities. The  Union  holds  an  an- 
nual convention,  participates  in 
summer  assemblies  and  workers' 
institutes,  and  co-operates  with 
the  American  Baptist  Publica- 
tion Society  in  the  publication  of 
the  Young  People's  Leader,  a 
monthly  journal  of  methods  and 
helps. 

Bar,  Aramaic  for  'son';  a  com- 
mon constituent  of  Jewish  names 
— e.g.,  Bar-jesus,  Bartimfeus, 
Bartholomew. 

Bar,  in  heraldry,  one  of  the 
honorable  ordinaries.  It  differs 
from  the  fess  (q.  v.)  only  in  its 
size  {i.e.,  height),  which  is  but 


Bar  {Heraldry) 


one-fifth  of  the  field,  and  in  the 
fact  that  it  may  be  borne  in  any 
part  of  the  shield.  Its  diminu- 
tives are  the  closet,  which  is  half 
a  bar;  and  the  barrulet,  which  is 
half  a  closet.  Any  number  of 
bars,  not  exceeding  four,  may  be 
borne.  When  two  barrulets  are 
borne  in  close  proximity,  they 
are  blazoned  collectively — two 
bars-gemelles  {Fr.jumelle,  'twin'). 

Bar  sinister,  the  popular,  but 
erroneous,  term  for  the  'baton 
sinister,'  the  mark  of  illegitimacy. 
See  Heraldry. 

Bar,  in  music,  an  upright  line 
drawn  across  the  stave  to  regu- 
late the  accent  and  divide  the 
music  into  equal  portions  as  de- 
termined by  the  time  signature. 
Each  portion  is  termed  a  measure, 
but  is  sometimes  also  called  a 
bar.  A  double  bar,  consisting  of 
two  lines,  denotes  the  end  of  a 
complete  section  or  movement, 
or  the  introduction  of  a  change 
of  time  or  key. 

Bar,  in  hydrography,  is  a 
bank  of  sand,  silt,  etc.,  opposite 
the  mouth  of  a  river,  which  ob- 
structs or  bars  the  entrance  of 
vessels.  The  bar  is  formed 
where  the  rush  of  the  stream  is 
arrested  by  the  water  of  the  sea, 
as  the  mud  and  sand  suspended 
in  the  river  water  are  thus  al- 
lowed to  be  deposited.  It  is  in 
this  way  that  deltas  are  formed 


Bar 


573 


Bar  Associations 


at  the  mouths  of  rivers.  The 
navigation  of  many  streams  is 
kept  open  only  by  constant 
dredging  or  other  artificial  means. 
See  Sand  Banks;  Delta;  Dredg- 
ing. 

Bar,  in  law,  has  several  mean- 
ings. Thus,  it  is  the  term  used 
to  signify  an  enclosure  or  fixed 
place  in  a  court  of  justice  where 
lawyers  may  plead.  Again,  the 
dock,  or  enclosed  space  where 
persons  accused  of  felonies  and 
other  offences  stand  or  sit  during 
their  trial,  is  called  the  bar; 
hence  the  expression,  'prisoner  at 
the  bar.'  It  has  also  a  general 
meaning  in  legal  procedure,  sig- 
nifying something  by  way  of 
stoppage  or  prevention.  There 
is  also  a  Trial  at  Bar — that  is,  a 
trial  before  the  judges  of  a  par- 
ticular court,  who  sit  together 
for  that  purpose  in  Banc  (q.v.). 

In  particular,  bar  is  a  collec- 
tive term  for  all  those  members 
of  the  legal  profession  who  have 
the  right  to  appear  in  court  on 
behalf  of  suitors.  In  England 
this  is  limited  to  the  class  of 
advocates  or  barristers.  In  the 
United  States  it  usually  compre- 
hends all  practising  lawyers. 
See  Bar  Associations;  Lawyer; 
Barrister;  Advocate. 

Bar  (Rov),  fortified  town, 
Ukraine,  in  Podolia,  on  an  afflu- 
ent of  the  River  Bug;  50  miles 
north  of  Mohilev.  The  famous 
Confederation  of  Bar,  in  the  Po- 
lish Catholic  and  patriotic  inter- 
est, was  formed  here  (Feb.  9, 
1768).  Pop.  13,500,  more  than 
half  Jews. 

Barab'a,  a  steppe  of  Siberia, 
in  the  governments  of  Tomsk  and 
Tobolsk,  between  the  Rivers  Obi 
and  Irtish.  It  occupies  more 
than  50,000  square  miles,  covered 
with  salt  lakes  and  marshes.  The 
soil  is  a  deep  black  earth  but  most 
of  the  land  is  used  for  grazing. 
The  Russians  colonized  it  in  1767, 
and  have  cultivated  parts  of  it. 

Bara  Banl<i,  district,  India,  in 
the  United  Provinces,  consisting 
of  a  plain  watered  by  the  Gogra 
and  the  Gumti;  area,  1,759  square 
miles.  Wheat  and  rice  are 
grown;  coarse  cloth,  and  brass 
and  iron  vessels  are  the  chief 
manufactures.  Pop.  1,030,000. 
Bara  Banki  is  the  chief  town. 
Pop.  3,400. 

Barab'bas  ('son  of  the  father,' 
i.e.  'teacher'),  a  criminal,  either  a 
robber  or  house  breaker  or  an 
insurgent,  whose  release  was  de- 
manded from  Pilate  in  preference 
to  that  of  Jesus.  An  interesting 
reading  in  some  of  the  later  mss. 
of  Matthew,  and  in  the  Armenian 
and  other  versions,  gives  the  rob- 
ber's name  as  Jesus  Barabbas, 
which  would  then  form  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  name  Jesus  Christ 
in  Matt,  xxvii.  17;  but  it  may  be 
due  to  a  copyist's  error. 

Bar'aboo,  city,  Wisconsin, 
county  seat  of  Sauk  County,  on 


the  Baraboo  River,  and  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Rail- 
road; 37  miles  from  Madison. 
There  are  dairy  and  fruit-can- 
ning interests,  railroad  shops, 
saw  ^nd  planing  mills,  woollen 
mills  and  refrigerator  car  shops. 
In  the  vicinity  are  Devil's  Lake 
and  the  famous  Dells  of  the  Wis- 
consin River.  Pop.  (1910)  6,324; 
(1920)  5,538. 

Baraboo  River,  Wisconsin,  a 
tributary  of  the  Wisconsin,  which 
it  joins  near  Portage.  Its  length 
exceeds  90  miles. 

Barabra,  ba-ra'bra,  a  Nubian 
people  living  on  both  sides  of  the 
Nile  from  Wady  Haifa  to  Assuan 
(Egyptian  Sudan).  Most  of 
them  are  Mohammedans  and 
speak  Arabic. 

Baraco'a,  seaport,  Cuba,  in 
the  province  of  Santiago  on  the 
northeast  coast;  90  miles  north- 
east of  Santiago.  It  has  a  cir- 
cular land-locked  harbor  and  be- 
hind it  is  the  hill  known  as  the 
'Anvil  of  Baracoa,'  a  well  known 
landmark.  There  is  a  large 
trade  in  bananas,  cocoanuts,  and 
other  fruit.  Baracoa  is  the  old- 
est town  in  Cuba  (founded  1511), 
and  from  1512  to  1522  was  the 
capital  of  the  island.  The  port 
was  opened  to  foreign  commerce 
in  1826.     Pop.  6,000. 

Bara'da,  or  Barrada,  river 
in  Syria — probably  the  ancient 
Abana  (q.v.).  It  rises  in  Anti- 
Lebanon,  flows  southeast  to 
Damascus,  then  east,  and  loses 
itself  in  the  lake  of  Bahret-el- 
Ateibeh. 

Baraguay  d'Hilliers,  ba-ra- 
ga'de-ya,  Achille  ,  (1795-1878), 
French  general,  son  of  Louis 
Baraguay  d'Hilliers,  was  born  in 
Paris.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1812,  and  the  next  year  lost  his 
left  hand  at  the  Battle  of  Leip- 
zig. He  held  a  number  of  ap- 
pointments up  to  1854,  when  he 
received  the  command  of  the 
Baltic  expedition,  and  on  the 
capture  of  Bomarsund  he  was 
made  a  marshal.  In  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1859  he  distin- 
guished himself  at  Solferino,  and 
during  1870  he  was  for  a  brief 
time  commander  of  Paris. 

Baraguay  d'Hilliers,  Louis 
(1764-1813),  French  general,  was 
born  in  Paris.  He  received  an 
appointment  in  the  army  of  Italy 
from  Napoleon,  and  shared  all 
the  success  of  the  campaigns  of 
1796-7.  Made  a  general  of  divi- 
sion and  commandant  of  Venice, 
in  1798  he  accompanied  the  ex- 
pedition to  Egypt,  and  afterward 
successively  held  appointments 
on  the  Rhine,  in  the  Tyrol,  and 
in  Catalonia.  He  commanded  a 
division  in  the  Russian  campaign 
of  1812,  but  during  the  retreat 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  Na- 
poleon, and  died  at  Berlin  of 
grief  and  exhaustion. 

Baranov  Island,  ba-ra'nov,  or 
Sitka  Island,  one  of  the  islands 


in  the  Alexander  Archipelago, 
lying  off  the  southwest  coast  of 
Alaska;  lat.  57°  n.,  long.  135°  w.; 
100  miles  long  by  25  miles  wide. 
It  is  very  mountainous  (highest 
summit.  Mount  Edgecumbe,  8,- 
000  feet),  and  densely  wooded. 
Coal  is  found  in  many  places, 
gold  is  worked,  and  there  are  fur, 
fishing,  and  canning  interests. 
On  the  west  coast  of  the  island 
is  Sitka  (q.v.),  the  former  capital 
of  Alaska. 

Baranquilla.      See  Barran- 

QUILLA. 

Barante,  ba-rant',  Pierre 
almable  guillaume  prosper 
Brugiere,  Baron  de  (1782- 
1866),  French  historian  and  pub- 
lic official,  was  born  in  Riom  in 
Auvergne.  He  held  several  ad- 
ministrative and  diplomatic  ap- 
pointments, and  after  1819  sat  in 
the  Chamber  of  Peers  among  the 
moderate  Liberals.  On  the  fall 
of  the  monarchy  in  1848,  he  re- 
tired to  private  life.  His  pub- 
lished works  include  a  history  of 
French  literature  in  the  eight- 
eenth century,  and  of  the  Valois 
dukes  of  Burgundy  in  12  volumes, 
and  a  History  of  Joan  of  Arc. 
Consult  his  Souvenirs  (8  vols.). 

Bar'asat,  municipal  town  in 
the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Ben- 
gal, India;  14  miles  northeast  of 
Calcutta.    Pop.  (1921)  8,211. 

Bar  Associations,  voluntary 
organizations  of  lawyers  in  the 
United  States,  formed  to  main- 
tain the  dignity  and  influence  of 
the  legal  profession  of  the  city. 
State,  or  nation,  and  to  promote 
the  administration  of  justice,  as 
well  as  to  advance  the  profes- 
sional interests  of  the  members 
and  to  cultivate  cordial  relations 
among  them.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  associations, 
such  as  those  of  New  York  City, 
Philadelphia,  and  Chicago,  per- 
form in  large  measure  the  func- 
tions of  the  Inns  of  Court  and  the 
Incorporated  Law  Society  in 
England — i.e.,  maintaining  the 
honor  and  raising  the  standards 
of  the  bar,  and  securing  the  ele- 
vation of  fit  members  of  the  pro- 
fession to  the  bench.  The  fur- 
ther important  function  of  the 
English  societies,  that  of  regulat- 
ing admission  to  the  bar,  is  in  the 
United  States  vested  in  the  legis- 
latures of  the  several  States  or  in 
the  courts. 

Many  local  bar  associations 
maintain  excellent  law  libraries 
for  the  use  of  their  members, 
and  some  of  them  have  handsome 
and  convenient  buildings  which 
are  employed  for  social  as  well 
as  professional  purposes.  Their 
membership  is  usually  restricted 
to  the  better  class  of  attorneys, 
men  of  doubtful  character  or 
questionable  practice  or  asso- 
ciations being  rigorously  exclud- 
ed. The  Bar  Association  of  New 
York  City  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  influential  of  the  local 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Barataria 


574 


[Barbados  (gooseberry 


organizations  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  a  membership  of 
over  2,000,  and  maintains  com- 
mittees on  amendment  of  the 
law,  Federal  legislation,  law  re- 
form, judiciary,  and  grievances. 
Through  its  grievance  committee 
it  receives  and  investigates  com- 
plaints against  attorneys  and 
various  matters  involving  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice;  and  it  is  a 
powerful  influence  in  the  reform- 
ing of  practice  and  the  disbar- 
ment of  dishonest  attorneys. 

The  State  bar  associations 
usually  meet  annually  for  the 
discussion  of  topics  bearing  upon 
State  affairs  or  the  reform  of  the 
law,  which  are  submitted  in 
addresses  and  papers  by  mem- 
bers or  by  distinguished  lawyers 
invited  for  the  purpose.  These 
papers  and  discussions  are  after- 
ward published  in  book  form. 
Through  their  committees  these 
associations  have  rendered  im- 
portant public  service  by  raising 
the  standard  of  legal  education 
and  the  requirements  for  ad- 
mission to  the  bar  throughout 
the  United  States;  by  agitating 
the  revision  or  repeal  of  unwise 
and  obsolete  measures;  by  pre- 
venting careless  and  vicious  legis- 
lation; and  by  exercising  care 
and  watchfulness  over  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  law  by  con- 
stituted tribunals. 

The  American  Bar  Associa- 
tion, organized  in  1878,  is  com- 
posed of  the  State  bar  associa- 
tions, and  includes  most  of  the 
prominent  lawyers  of  the  coun- 
try. Its  principal  objects  are 
'to  promote  the  administration 
of  justice  and  uniformity  of  legis- 
lation throughout  the  Union,' 
and  to  'uphold  the  honor  of  the 
profession  of  the  law.'  Meetings 
are  held  annually  in  different 
cities.  The  membership  in  1927 
was  over  26,000. 

Barataria,  ba-ra-ta-re'a  (from 
Spanish  harato,  part  of  a  game- 
ster's winnings  given  'for  luck'  to 
bystanders),  the  name  given  to 
the  island  assigned  in  Don  Quix- 
ote to  Sancho  Panza  as  his  gov- 
ernment (see  Cervantes).  It  is 
also  applied  to  the  retreat  in  the 
delta  of  the  Mississippi,  40  miles 
south  of  New  Orleans,  of  a  band 
of  smugglers,  slavers,  and  pirates 
under  the  notorious  Jean  Lafitte 
(1780-1826). 

The  imaginary  kingdom  in 
Gilbert  and  Sullivan's  Gondoliers 
was  known  as  Barataria. 

Baratleri,  ba-rii-ti-a're,  Ores- 
TE  (1841-1901).  Italian  general, 
was  born  in  Condino,  the  Tyrol. 
He  served  with  Garibaldi  in 
Sicily  and  in  1891  was  appointed 
governor  of  Eritrea,  in  1894  de- 
feating the  Dervishes  at  Kassala. 
Then  after  routing  (189.'))  Ras 
Mangasha  he  took  possession  of 
Adigrat  and  Tigre,  but  was  hinr- 
self  disastrou.sly  defeated  at 
Adua  in  March,  1896.    He  de- 


fended his  conduct  in  his  Memoric 
d' Africa. 

Baratynski,  ba-ra-ten'ske, 
Yvgeni  Abramovitch  (1800- 
44),  Russian  poet,  was  born  in 
Tambov.  He  was  one  of  the 
corps  of  pages,  but  was  dismissed 
for  a  boyish  prank.  Subsequent- 
ly he  served  in  the  army  in  Fin- 
land, first  as  private,  then  as 
officer,  and  at  length  became 
famous  as  a  poet.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Pushkin,  whom  he 
greatly  admired  and  strove  to 
imitate.  His  work  has  an  ex- 
tremely melancholy  caste.  It 
includes  Twilight,  The  Last  Poet, 
Finland,  The  Skull,  and  The 
Gypsy,  perhaps  his  finest  work. 

Barava  or  Barawa,  town, 
East  Africa.    See  Brava. 

Barb,  the  tip  of  an  arrow  or  a 
fish  hook,  so  made  that  it  can 
with  difficulty  be  extracted  from 
a  wound. 

Barb,  a  distinct  variety  of  the 
Arabian  horse,  developed  among 
the  Moors  of  Barbary,  and  by 
them  introduced  into  Spain. 
Barbs  are  noted  for  speed  and 
endurance.  The  famous  'Godol- 
phin  Arabian'  (see  Horse)  was 
properly  a  barb. 

Barbacena,  bar-ba-sa 'na, 
town,  Brazil,  in  the  state  of  Min- 
as  Geraes,  at  an  altitude  of  3,500 
feet,  on  the  west  slope  of  the 
Sierra  de  Mantiqueira  or  Espin- 
haco;  130  miles  northwest  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  The  town  is  a  popu- 
lar resort.  The  principal  indus- 
try is  gold  mining.  Pop.  6,000. 

Barbaco'as,  town,  Colombia, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Bar- 
bacoas,  in  Narino  department,  on 
the  River  Telembi,  which  is  navi- 
gable by  steamers;  130  miles 
northeast  of  Quito,  Ecuador. 
Gold  is  found  in  the  district. 
Pop.  7,800. 

Barbados,  bar-ba'dos,  or 
BarbadoeSi,  the  most  easterly  is- 
land of  the  West  Indies,  lies  78 
miles  east  of  St.  Vincent,  in  lat. 
13°  4'  n.,  and  long.  59°  37'  w. 
Its  length  is  21  miles;  its  greatest 
breadth,  14K  miles;  and  its 
area,  166  square  miles,  or  106,470 
acres.  At  Bridgetown,  the  capi- 
ital,  is  the  open  roadstead  of 
Carlisle  Bay,  the  only  harlior, 
the  island  being  almost  encircled 
by  coral  reefs,  which  here  and 
there  extend  as  far  as  3  miles 
to  seaward.  Inside  these  reefs 
the  coast  presents  long  lines  of 
sandy  beach.  The  interior  is 
generally  hilly.  Mount  Hillaby, 
the  loftiest  summit,  rising  1,104 
feet  above  sea  level. 

The  climate  is  almost  ideal. 
The  temperature  varies  from  68° 
to  82°  F.  in  the  cool  or  dry  season, 
and  from  73°  to  88°  F.  in  the  hot, 
rainy  season  (June  to  Novem- 
ber) ;  there  is  a  constant  sea 
breeze.  The  average  rainfall  is 
57  inches.  Shocks  of  eartluiuake 
are  sometimes  felt,  and  thunder 
storms  are  frequent  and  severe. 


Hurricanes  have  caused  great 
loss  of  life  and  property  in  the 
past,  the  most  destructive  being 
those  of  1780,  1831,  and  1898. 
The  first  destroyed  4,326  persons, 
and  property  worth  $6,600,000; 
the  second,  1,591  persons,  and 
property  worth  over  $8,000,000. 

The  soil,  though  shallow,  is 
fertile,  and  about  100,000  acres 
are  under  cultivation.  Of  these, 
35,000  are  planted  annually  in 
sugar  cane.  Sea-island  cotton, 
tobacco,  coffee,  arrowroot,  and 
indigo  are  the  other  crops  of 
importance. 

The  value  of  the  foreign  trade 
of  Barbados  for  1927  was  £3,442.- 
928:  imports,  £2,155.167;  exports, 
exclusive  of  transshipments,  £l,- 
287,161.  The  principal  articles 
of  export,  with  their  values  for 
1926,  were  molasses,  £310.745; 
sugar,  £593,819;  raw  cotton, 
£40,623.  Bread  and  crackers, 
oleomargarine,  fresh  vegetables, 
and  bananas  are  also  exported. 
The  chief  imports  are  flour,  ice, 
manures,  fish,  cottons  (manufac- 
tured), machinery,  coal,  and 
lumber. 

Barbados  is  a  British  posses- 
sion. The  government  is  vested 
in  a  governor  appointed  by  the 
Crown,  an  executive  council,  a 
legislative  council  of  9  members, 
and  an  assembly  of  24  members 
elected  annually  by  popular  vote. 
The  revenue  for  1926-7  was 
£387,462;  expenditures,  £410,- 
535,  public  debt,  £591,000.  There 
are  28  miles  of  railroad  and  4,990 
miles  of  telephone  lines. 

The  population  in  1921  was 
156,312,  of  whom  the  great 
majority  are  colored.  Bridge- 
town (q.v.),  the  capital  and  larg- 
est city,  has  a  population  of 
13,846;  Speightstown,  the  next 
largest,  1,500. 

The  island  has  133  primary 
schools,  a  number  of  well-en- 
dowed seminaries  for  both  boys 
and  girls,  and  Codrington  Col- 
lege, affiliated  with  Durham 
University,  England.  It  was 
made  the  see  of  a  bishop  in  1824; 
the  bulk  of  the  population  belong 
to  the  Anglican  communion. 

Barbados  was  first  colonized  in 
1625  by  the  English,  who  have 
held  uninterrupted  posvsession. 
In  1663  it  was  assumed  by  the 
English  Crown.  See  West  In- 
dies. Consult  Schomburgk's 
History  of  Barbados;  Stark's  His- 
tory and  Guide  to  Barbados  and 
the  Caribbce  Islands;  Barbados 
Blue  Book  (annual). 

Barbados  Cherry,  the  fruit  of 
two  small  trees  of  the  order 
Malpighiacrcc,  natives  of  the 
West  Indies.  The  fruit  of  M. 
urens  is  small,  tliat  of  M.  glabra  is 
like  a  Mayduke  cherry.  Each 
fruit  contains  three  stones.  The 
leaves  of  M.  urens  have  stinging 
hairs  on  the  under  side. 

Barbados  Gooseberry  (C. 
pereskia),  an  agreeable  tasting 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Barbados  Leg 


575 


Barbarians 


yellow  West  Indian  fruit,  pro- 
duced by  a  species  of  Cactus. 
The  white  flowers  are  ornamental. 

Barbados  Leg,  another  name 
for  Elephantiasis. 

Barbara,  a  mnemonic  word 
used  in  formal  logic  to  denote  a 
syllogism  of  the  first  figure,  all  of 
whose  propositions  are  univer- 
sally affirmative. 

Barbara,  Saint,  a  saint  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  who 
suffered  martyrdom  at  Nicome- 
dia  in  Bithynia,  about  235  a.d. 
She  is  the  patron  saint  of  artiller- 


Romans.  An  important  period 
in  European  history  was  that  of 
the  barbarian  invasions  (395-527 
A.D.).  The  invasion  of  Greece  by 
the  Visigoths  under  Alaric  (396 
A.D.)  led  to  the  dismemberment 
of  the  western  half  of  the  empire. 
Britain  was  the  first  portion  to 
be  given  up,  and  about  the  same 
time  barbarian  hordes,  after 
making  their  way  through  Gaul, 
entered  Spain  in  409  a.d.  They 
were  a  mixed  band  of  Vandals, 
Suevians,  and  Alans.  The  Van- 
dals were  two  German  tribes — • 


been  founded  in  Spain,  with  Bar- 
cino  (Barcelona)  as  its  capital. 
The  Visigoths  added  to  their 
possessions,  till  in  490  a.d.  they 
reached  from  the  Loire  to  the 
Garonne. 

The  next  of  the  barbarian  in- 
vasions was  that  of  the  Franks, 
who  took  possession  of  the  great- 
er part  of  Visigothic  Gaul.  The 
Huns — Asiatic  nomads — are  the 
next  to  figure  as  invaders,  under 
Attila.  their  sway  extending 
from  the  Rhine  to  the  Volga,  and 
from  the  Danube  to  the  North 


@  Publishers  Photo  Service 
Bridgetown,  in  Barbados,  showing  Load  of  Sugar  Cane  and  Windmill  for  Grinding 


ists;  her  image  is  often  seen  on 
guns,  and  the  powder  magazine 
of  a  French  man-of-war  was 
formerly  called  a  Sainte-Barhe. 
Her  feast  is  on  December  4. 

Barbarians  ((ir.  barbaros),  a 
term  applied  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  to  all  foreigners — those 
who  could  not  speak  Greek,  in- 
cluding even  the  Romans,  until 
the  Greek  language  was  culti- 
vated by  the  latter,  when  the 
word  was  confined  to  the  Teu- 
tonic and  Scythian  races.  Before 
the  fall  of  the  empire  the  Romans 
applied  the  term  to  any  foreigner 
who  could  speak  neither  Latin 
nor  Greek.  It  was  in  Egypt 
a  term  both  of  dread  and  con- 
tumely, in  which  sense  it  may 
have  passed  to  the  Greeks  and 


the  Asdings  and  the  Silings;  the 
Suevians  were  Teutons,  and  the 
Alans  a  Caucasian  race.  They 
were  scarcely  settled  in  their 
Spanish  territories  when,  in  412 
A.D.,  the  \''isigoths  or  West  Goths 
swooped  down  on  them,  and  took 
Lusitania  from  the  Alans,  and 
Baetica  from  the  Silings,  who  in 
turn  were  driven  out  by  the 
Asdings. 

In  429  A.D.  Spain  was  aban- 
doned by  the  Vandals  and  the 
Alans,  who  crossed  to  Africa. 
The  Emperor  Ilonorius,  for  the 
services  of  the  Visigoths  in  vSpain, 
rewarded  them  with  two  large 
territories  in  Gaul,  consisting  of 
Aquitania  and  Toulouse,  which 
they  formed  into  the  second  Visi- 
gothic kingdom,  the  first  having 


Sea.  Defeated  by  the  confeder- 
ated German  tribes  at  Netad  in 
Pannonia  in  454  a.d.,  the  power 
of  the  Huns  was  destroyed,  and 
other  barbarians  took  possession 
of  their  territory — the  Gepidae,  a 
German  tribe,  seizing  Dacia  and 
Jazygia,  the  Ostrogoths  taking 
Pannonia,  the  rest  of  the  territory 
falling  into  the  hands  of  other 
German  peoples.  The  Alemanni 
settled  in  the  northern  part  of 
Rhaetia,  and  they  had  as  neigh- 
bors the  Tlniringians. 

Italy  also  suffered  from  the 
invasions  of  barbarians.  In  476 
the  Rugians  erected  a  German 
kingdom  in  Italy  under  Odova- 
car,  which  continued  till  the  Os- 
trogothic  kingdom  was  formed 
(489)    under   Theodoric,  whose 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Barbarossa 


576 


Barbauld 


rule  extended  from  Dalmatia  to 
the  Atlantic.  With  Odovacar 
and  Theodoric  establishing  their 
domination  in  Italy,  the  Western 
Roman  empire  may  be  said  to 
have  come  to  an  end,  though  the 
Eastern  empire  held  on  for  many 
centuries  afterward,  notwith- 
standing the  continual  invasions 
of  other  barbarians,  such  as  the 
Hungarians  and  the  Saracens. 

Barbarossa.  See  Frederick  i. 

Bar'ba  ros'sa  ('Red-beard'), 
HORUK  (c.  1473-1518)  and  Khair 
ED-DiN,  the  name  of  two  cele- 
brated Turkish  corsairs  of  the 
16th  century,  born  in  Mitylene, 
on  the  island  of  Lesbos.  Entering 
the  service  of  the  emir  of  Tunis, 
Horuk  became  commander  of  his 
fleet,  and  in  1515  made  himself 
master  of  Algiers.  He  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  the  Spanish 
general  Gomarez  near  Oran  in 
1518.  The  war  was  continued  by 
his  brother  Khair  ed-Din,  who, 
with  Turkish  aid,  seized  both 
Algiers  (1519)  and  Tunis  (1533). 
Although  routed  near  Tunis  by 
the  Emperor  Charles  v.  in  1535, 
he  maintained  himself  at  Algiers, 
and  in  the  following  year  was 
made  chief  admiral  of  the  Turk- 
ish fleet  by  Sultan  Solyman  ii. 
During  the  next  ten  years,  until 
his  own  death  in  1546,  he  was 
the  terror  of  the  Mediterranean, 
plundering  Port  Mahon  (Minor- 
ca), the  Ionian  Islands,  Dalma- 
tia, and  Nice,  and  defeating  the 
emperor's  fleet  in  the  Gulf  of 
Arta  (1538),  near  Crete  (1540), 
and  off  Algiers  (1541).   _  _ 

Barbaroux,  bar-ba-roo', 
Charles  Jean  Marie  (1767-94), 
Girondist  orator  and  revolution- 
ist, was  born  in  Marseilles,  where 
he  practised  as  an  advocate  until 
the  Revolution,  when  he  was  sent 
to  represent  his  native  town  in 
the  Legislative  Assembly  at 
Paris.  Here  he  attached  himself 
to  Brissot,  Vergniaud,  and  Gen- 
sonne,  the  most  influential  of  the 
Jacobins,  and  discussed  with  Ro- 
land the  possibility  of  a  southern 
republic.  He  led  the  Marseilles 
battalion  on  Aug.  10,  1792,  and 
was  a  Girondist  deputy  to  the 
Convention.  He  denounced 
Marat  and  Robespierre,  but  sus- 
tained the  appeal  to  the  people 
in  the  sentence  passed  on  the 
king.  In  consequence  he  was 
proscribed  as  a  royalist  (May  31, 
1793),  and  was  forced  to  flee  from 
Paris.  But  he  was  captured  and 
guillotined  at  Bordeaux  (June  25, 
1704). 

Barbary  Ape,  or  Magot  (Ma- 
cacus  inuus),  a  macaque,  remark- 
able in  that  it  is  the  only  tailless 
macaque,  and  that  it  is  found  on 
the  Rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  the 
opposite  shore  of  Africa,  while  its 
allies  are  confined  to  Asia.  It  is 
the  only  living  monkey  found 
native  in  Europe,  though  fossil 
monkeys  are  abundant  there.  It 
is  yellowish  brown  in  color,  and 


males  are  about  2K  feet  long.  At 
one  time  the  ape  population  at 
Gibraltar  was  reduced  to  four; 
but  the  numbers  were  success- 
fully reinforced  from  Africa,  and 
the  herd  is  now  carefully  pro- 


The  Barbary  Ape 
(The  only  native  European  monkey.) 


tected,  in  spite  of  the  destruction 
of  fruit  which  they  effect  in  gar- 
dens and  orchards. 

Barbary  Pirates.  See  Bar- 
bary States. 

Barbary  States,  an  extensive 
region  of  North  Africa,  stretch- 
ing from  Egypt  to  the  Atlantic, 
and  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
beyond  the  Great  Atlas,  and  com- 
prising the  countries  of  Morocco, 
Algeria,  Tunis,  Tripoli  and  Bar- 
ka.  It  was  variously  known  to 
the  ancients  as  Mauritania,  Nu- 
midia,  and  Africa  Propria.  Col- 
onized by  Mauri  (Moors),  Numid- 
ians,  and  Phoenicians,  it  reached 
its  zenith  under  the  Carthagini- 
ans, and  was  subject  to  the 
Romans  from  146  B.C.,  and  from 
them  it  was  taken  by  the  Vandals 
(429-533).  Then  for  a  little 
more  than  a  century  it  was  sub- 
ject in  part  to  Byzantium;  but 
during  the  7th  century  it  passed 
under  the  sway  of  the  Arabs. 
The  French  secured  possession  of 
it  in  the  second  quarter  of  the 
19th  century. 

Warfare  between  the  Christian 
powers  and  the  Barbary  States 
was  chronic  from  the  beginning  of 
the  15th  to  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century,  the  Barbary  States 
vseizing  trading  vessels  and  even 
smaller  war-vessels  on  the  high 
seas,  confiscating  all  property, 
and  reducing  to  slavery  and  hold- 
ing for  ransom  the  captives. 
Gradually  a  practice  obtained  of 
paying  tribute  for  immunity  to 
these  states,  vast  sums  in  the 
aggregate  being  expended  for  this 
purpose.  Until  the  American 
Revolution,  American  vessels 
were  thus  protected,  to  a  large 
extent,  by  tribute  paid  by  Great 
Britain;  but  after  American  in- 
dependence had  been  declared 
the  Barbary  pirates  attacked  and 
captured  American  vessels — and 
the  more  readily  because  of  the 
weakness  of  the  new  nation.  To 
some  extent,  however,  protection 


was  secured,  after  1778,  through 
France,  the  French  king  agreeing 
(in  the  treaty  of  amity  and  com- 
merce of  Feb.  6,  1778)  to  'pro- 
vide as  fully  and  efficaciously  as 
possible'  for  the  safety  'of  Ameri- 
can vessels  and  effects  against  all 
violence,  insult,  attacks,  or  dep- 
redations, on  the  part  of  the 
said  Princes  and  States  of  Bar- 
bary or  their  subjects.'  Captures 
of  American  vessels  were  still 
made,  however,  and  after  the 
Revolution  the  Uni*-ed  States  fol- 
lowed the  European  powers,  to 
some  extent,  in  paying  tribute 
and  in  ransoming  captives. 

Difficulties  nevertheless  con- 
tinued to  arise  in  spite  of  treaties 
with  Morocco  (1787),  Algiers 
(1795),  the  only  treaty  in  which 
the  United  States  formally  agreed 
to  pay  tribute ;TripoH  (1797),  and 
Tunis  (1797);  and  in  1801  Tripo- 
li, dissatisfied  with  the  treaty  of 
1797,  declared  war  against  the 
United  States.  The  war  lasted 
for  four  years,  during  which  the 
United  States  brought  Tripoli  to 
terms,  and  peace  was  negotiated 
in  June,  1805. 

During  the  War  of  1812  with 
Great  Britain  the  Barbary  States, 
and  particularly  Algiers,  took 
advantage  of  the  preoccupation 
of  the  United  States  to  commit 
depredations  upon  American 
shipping,  and  in  1815  the  United 
States  declared  war  against  Al- 
giers. Decatur  forced  the  dey  of 
Algiers  to  agree  in  the  same  year 
to  a  treaty  of  peace  relinquishing 
all  tribute  money;  and  also  ob- 
tained satisfaction  from  Tripoli 
and  Tunis.  The  dey  of  Algiers, 
however,  soon  repudiated  the 
treaty  of  1815,  and  in  December, 
1816,  was  forced  to  sign  another 
one  practically  identical  with  the 
first.  This  treaty  is  said  to  be 
much  the  most  advantageous 
that  had  ever  been  made  by  any 
Christian  nation  with  Algiers. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
European  powers  were  unable  in 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815), 
where  the  subject  was  discussed, 
to  agree  upon  any  plans  for  con- 
certed action  against  the  Barbary 
States,  the  individual  powers 
soon  followed  the  example  of  the 
United  States,  a  combined  Brit- 
ish and  Dutch  flejt  bombarding 
Algiers  and  almost  completely 
destroying  the  Algerine  navy  in 
1816,  and  piracy  by  the  Barbary 
States  was  finally  suppressed. 
Consult  G.  W.  Allen's*  Our  Navy 
and  the  Barbary  Corsairs. 

Barbastro,  bar-ba'str5,  town, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Huesca, 
on  the  Vero,  and  on  a  branch 
railway  from  Saragossa  to  Barce- 
lona; 27  miles  southeast  of  Hues- 
ca.   Pop.  (1920),  7,202. 

Bar'bauld,  Anna  Letitia 
(1743-1825),  English  author,  was 
born  in  Leicestershire.  In  1773 
she  published  her  first  volume  of 
poems.    In  1774  she  married  the 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Barbecue 


577 


Barbette 


Rev.  Rochemont  Barbauld,  with 
whom  she  kept  a  boarding  school 
for  twelve  years  at  Palgrave  in 
Suffolk.  She  edited  (1810)  the 
English  novelists  in  fifty  volumes, 
with  biographical  and  critical 
notices;  and  also  The  Female 
Speaker,  a  selection  of  English 
prose  and  verse  for  young  ladies. 
In  conjunction  with  her  brother, 
John  Aikin,  she  published  the 
series  entitled  Evenings  at  Home. 
Consult  Memoirs  by  Lucy  Aikin, 
Le  Breton,  and  G.  A.  Ellis;  also 
Thackeray- Ritchie's  Book  of 
Sibyls  and  Murch's  Mrs.  Barbauld 
and  her  Contemporaries. 

Barbecue,  bar'be-ku,  an  Amer- 
ican gathering  and  feast  which 
originated  in  the  Southern  States. 
The  feast  is  held  out  of  doors  and 
the  main  food  is  meat  roasted  or 
broiled  on  wooden  racks  laid 
over  trenches  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  origin  of  the  name  has 
been  assigned  to  the  Haytian 
barbacoa,  meaning  a  wooden 
grill,  and  to  the  French  barbe-a- 
queue,  'from  snout  to  tail.' 

Bar'bel,  a  general  name  applied 
to  the  numerous  species  of  a 
genus  (Barbus)  of  Cyprinoid 
fishes.  There  are  usually  four 
barbels  or  processes  on  the  upper 
jaw,  and  the  third  ray  of  the 
dorsal  fin  is  generally  elongated, 
ossified,  and  toothed.  The  Com- 
mon Barbel  of  Europe  {B.  vul- 
garis) may  reach  a  length  of  2 
feet  and,  like  its  near  ally  the 
carp,  buries  itself  in  mud  during 
winter.  The  diet  includes  refuse 
of  different  kinds,  and  the  flesh 
is  almost  inedible.  The  Mahsir 
iB.  tor)  of  India  and  Ceylon  may 
reach  a  length  of  6  feet.  Other 
species  occur  in  the  temperate 
and  tropical  regions  of  the  Old 
World. 

Bar'ber  (Lat.  barba,  'a  beard'), 
one  who  shaves  and  trims  the 
beard  and  cuts  the  hair.  The 
trade  of  barber  is  one  of  great 
antiquity.  Reference  is  made  to 
the  barber's  razor  in  the  Old 
Testament  (Ezek.  v.  1),  and  bar- 
bers were  known  in  Greece 
and  Rome,  where  their  shops 
were  favorite  meeting  places. 
At  one  time  the  barber  added  to 
his  duties  as  hair-dresser  that  of 
surgeon,  especially  in  simple 
cases  such  as  blood-letting.  The 
profession  of  barber-surgeon  was 
incorporated  in  England  by 
Edward  iv.  in  1461,  and  was 
united  with  the  surgeons  under 
Henry  viii.;  but  the  connection 
was  dissolved  by  George  ii.  in 
1745.  Barber-surgeons  existed  in 
France  as  a  corporation  from 
1371  to  the  Revolution.  The 
sign  of  the  barber  (a  pole  with 
spiral  bands  of  red,  and  a  pen- 
dent brass  basin  with  a  semi- 
circular opening  in  its  rim)  sym- 
bolizes the  old  function  of  the 
barber — blood-letting.  In  the 
United  States  barbers  are  highly 
unionized  to  control  hours  of 
labor,  wages,  and  prices. 


Barber,  John  Warner  (1798- 
1885),  American  compiler,  was 
born  in  Windsor,  Conn.  He  pub- 
lished Connecticut  Historical  Col- 
lections (1836;  2nd  ed.  1846),  one 
of  the  best  books  of  its  kind;  and 
Massachusetts  Historical  Collec- 
tions (1839);  and,  with  Henry 
Howe,  the  Historical  Collections 
of  New  York  (1841),  New  Jersey 
(1844),  and  Virginia  (1844). 

Barberini,  bar'ba-re'ne,  an 
Italian  family  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, of  Tuscan  origin,  whose 
greatness  dates  from  the  eleva- 
tion of  Maffeo  Barberini  (1568- 
1644)  to  the  papal  chair  as  Urban 
VIII.  in  1623  (see  Urban).  His 
brother  Carlo  and  two  of  his 
nephews,  Francesco  and  Antonio, 
became  cardinals,  and  Taddeo, 
another  nephew,  was  given  the 
principality  of  Palestrina.  The 
Romans  were  incensed  by  the 
growing  avarice  and  power  of  the 
family,  and  Urban's  successor. 
Pope  Innocent  x.,  charged  them 
with  maladministration  and  they 
were  forced  to  flee  to  France, 
where  Taddeo  died  (1647).  With 
his  death  the  family  became  ex- 
tinct in  the  male  line,  but  his 
daughter,  who  married  Prince 
Colonna  de  Sciarro,  transmitted 
her  name  to  her  husband  and 
daughter.  The  valuable  library 
collected  by  Francesco  Barberini 
was  sold  to  Pope  Leo  xiii.  in 
1902. 

Bar'berry,  shrubs  of  the  genus 
Berberis,  natural  order  Berberi- 
daceae.   They  are  hardy  shrubs. 


Common  Barberry 
Inflorescence,  single  flower,  pistil  and 
stamen,  and  fruit. 


native  to  both  temperate  zones, 
cultivated  chiefly  for  their  hand- 
some foliage.  B.  vulgaris,  the 
Common  or  European  Barberry, 


is  a  thorny  shrub  naturalized  in 
North  America,  which  in  early 
summer  bears  yellow,  many- 
flowered,  pendulous  racemes. 
The  scarlet  fruits  afford  a  bril- 
liant display  in  autumn.  Other 
species  are  B.  canadensis,  the 
American  Barberry,  with  smaller 
and  fewer  flowers;  the  orange- 
yellow  flowered  B.  Darwinii;  the 
graceful,  box-leaved,  yellow-flow- 
ered B.  buxifolia;  the  long-leaved 
B.  amurensis;  the  yellow-flowered 
B.  aristata,  with  bloom-covered 
berries  in  autumn;  the  low-grow- 
ing B.  Thunbergii,  with  lovely 
autumn  coloring  of  leaves  and 
scarlet  berries  lasting  until  Christ- 
mas. Members  of  the  genus 
Mahonia,  the  Ash-leaved  Bar- 
berry, are  now  included  in  the 
genus  Berberis. 

The  barberries  do  well  in  most 
garden  soils,  though  the  addition 
of  leaf-mould  and  peat  is  usually 
desirable.  Propagation  is  effected 
by  seeds,  sown  when  ripe  in 
autumn,  by  layering,  or  by  cut- 
tings taken  in  autumn  and 
placed  in  light  soil  under  glass. 
A  yellow  coloring  matter  used  in 
leather  manufacture  is  obtained 
from  the  roots.  A  fungus 
{Acidium  berberis)  which  attacks 
the  plants  has  been  proved  to  be 
a  stage  in  the  life  of  the  red  and 
black  rusts  of  cereals. 

Barber's  Itch,  or  Ringworm 
OF  THE  Beard.   See  Ringworm. 

Bar'berton,  city,  Ohio,  Sum- 
mit county,  on  the  Ohio  Canal, 
and  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
the  Akron,  Canton  and  Youngs- 
town,  the  Erie,  the  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  Akron  and  Barberton 
Belt  Railroads;  7  miles  south- 
west of  Akron.  Anna  Dean 
farm,  one  of  the  show  places  and 
finest  farms  in  the  United  States, 
is  located  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
city.  The  chief  industries  are  the 
manufactures  of  matches,  match 
machinery,  chemicals,  valves  and 
fittings,  boilers,  high  tension  in- 
sulators, sewer  pipe,  rubber  sun- 
dries, and  rubber  tires.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Federal  Census  for 
1919,  industrial  establishments 
number  32,  with  $33,880,212 
capital,  and  products  valued  at 
$27,713,226.  The  place  was 
settled  as  'New  Portage'  in  1815. 
Pop.  (1900)  4,354;  (1910)  9,410; 
(1920)  18,811. 

Bar'bet,  a  tropical  forest  bird 
of  the  sub-family  Capitonina.\ 
The  barbets  are  heavy  and  un- 
graceful, with  large,  swollen  bills 
and  bright  plumage. 

Barbette',  a  low,  fixed  armored 
breastwork  surrounding  and  pro- 
tecting the  turntable  on  which 
the  heavier  naval  guns  are 
mounted  as  well  as  certain  parts 
of  the  machinery  used  to  operate 
these  guns.  Above  the  barbette 
a  turret  or  gun-house,  supported 
on  the  turntal)k',  covers  and  pro- 
tects the  gun  crews  and  the  rear 
ends  of  the  guns. 

The  term  is  applied  in  military 

Vol.  I. — March  '24 


Barbey  d'Aurevilly 


578 


Barcelona 


fortification  to  an  earthen  terrace 
inside  the  parapet  of  a  rampart 
serving  as  a  platform  for  heavy 
guns,  and  having  such  an  eleva- 
tion that  the  guns  may  be  fired 
over  the  crest  of  the  parapet. 

Barbey  d'Aurevilly,  bar-ba'- 
do-r'-ve-ye',  Jules  (1808-89), 
French  author,  was  born  in  St.- 
Sauveur-le-Vicomte,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Manche.  His  nu- 
merous works  are  characterized 
by  a  paradoxical  boldness  of  ideas 
and  brilliancy  of  style.  The  best 
known  are  Une  vieille  tnaUresse 
(1851),  and  U Ensorcellee  (2  vols. 
1854),  both  novels;  the  critical 
studies,  Les  quarante  medaillons 
de  I' Academic  Franfaise  (1863), 
Les  romanciers  (1866),  Goethe  et 
Diderot  (1880),  and  Les  oeuvres 
et  les  hommes  du  XIX^  Siecle 
(12  vols.  1861-92). 

Bar'bican,  a  word  introduced 
during  the  Crusades  to  describe 
an  outwork  to  protect  the  en- 
trance to  a  castle  or  fortified 
town;  sometimes,  also,  an  out- 
post communicating  with  the 
town  or  castle,  and  commanding 
the  flank  of  a  besieging  force. 
Examples  of  the  former  can  still 
be  seen  at  Alnwick  and  Warwick 
castles,  and  examples  of  both  in 
Carcassonne,  France. 

Barbier,  biir-bya',  Antoine 
Alexandre  (1765-1825),  French 
bibliographer,  was  librarian  suc- 
cessively to  the  Commission  of 
the  Arts  and  Sciences  (1793).  the 
Directory  (1798),  Council  of 
State  (1803),  and  Napoleon 
(1807),  after  which  he  was  ad- 
ministrator of  crown  libraries 
under  the  Bourbons  until  1822. 
Of  his  publications,  the  most 
important  is  his  Dictionnaire  des 
anonymes  et  pseudonymes  (1806- 
08;  new  ed.  1872-9,  with  supple- 
ment 1889). 

Barbier,  Henri  Auguste 
(1805-82).  French  author,  of 
whose  numerous  works  only  one. 
a  collection  of  satires  called  Les 
iamhes  (1831).  stands  out  by  its 
literary  merit  and  its  scathing 
delineation  of  contemporary  mor- 
als and  manners. 

Barbier,  Paul  Jules  (1825- 
1901),  French  dramatic  writer, 
celebrated  chiefly  for  his  librettos 
for  operas  by  Meyerbeer,  Gou- 
nod, Thomas,  and  Masse.  Among 
his  plays  are  Jenny  I'Ouvriere 
(18.50),  La  loterie  du  mariage 
(1868),  and  Jeanne  d'Arc  (1873). 

Barbieri.  See  Guercino. 

Barbison,  biir-be-son',  or  Bar- 
bizon,  village.  France,  in  the 
department  of  Seine-et-Marne, 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  forest  of 
Fontainebleau.  Its  fame  is  due 
to  the  Barbison  School  (1840- 
75),  an  illustrious  group  of 
French  artists — Corot.  Millet. 
Diaz,  Rousseau.  Troyon.  Dau- 
bigny — and  their  followers,  who 
lived  and  worked  there.  Char- 
acterized by  a  reaction  against 
all  pedantry  and  false  romanti- 
cism, the  work  of  Millet  and 

Vol.  I. — March  '24 


Rousseau  especially  was  the  re- 
sult of  a  consistent  and  serious 
return  to  nature,  and  to  the 
most  sincere  and  immediate  im- 
pressions of  nature  and  life. 
Consult  Thomson's  Barbison 
School. 

Barbou,  bar-boo',  a  celebrated 
family  of  French  printers.  The 
edition  (in  italics)  of  Clement 
Marot  (Lyons.  1539),  the  Cicero, 
also  in  italics  (Limoges,  1580), 
and  a  charming  collection  of 
Latin  classics  in  76  12-mo  vol- 
umes (Paris,  1753  ff.)  are  among 
their  most  famous  work. 

Barbour,  bar'ber.  James  (1775- 
1842),  American  politician  and 
diplomat,  born  in  Orange  county, 
Va.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1794  and  practised  law  in 
Virginia;  was  a  member  for  six- 
teen years  of  the  Virginia  House 
of  Delegates  (1796-1812);  was 
governor  of  Virginia  (1812-14) 
during  the  War  of  1812;  and  was 
a  prominent  State's  Rights  mem- 
ber of  the  U.  S.  Senate  (1815-25). 
In  1825-8  he  was  Secretary  of 
War  in  John  Quincv  Adams' 
cabinet,  in  1828-9  was  U.  S. 
minister  to  Great  Britain,  and  in 
1839  presided  over  the  National 
Whig  Convention  at  Harrisburg, 
Pa.,  which  nominated  W.  H. 
Harrison  for  the  presidency. 

Barbour,  John  (?  1316-95), 
one  of  the  earliest  Scotch  poets, 
about  whose  life  little  is  known. 
He  became  archdeacon  of  Aber- 
deen in  1357  and  travelled 
through  England,  in  1357,  1365. 
and  1368.  In  1372  he  was  an 
auditor  of  exchequer  of  the  king's 
household.  His  fame  rests  on  his 
heroic  poem  The  Bruce,  com- 
pleted in  1375-6,  detailing,  in 
octosyllabic  verse,  the  fortunes 
and  adventures  of  Robert  and 
Bruce  and  his  companion,  Sir 
James  of  Douglas.  It  is  notable 
as  one  of  the  best  examples  of 
early  Scottish  literature.  The 
best  edition  is  that  of  Professor 
Skeat  for  the  Scottish  Text 
Society  (1894).  Other  works  at- 
tributed to  Barbour  are  frag- 
ments of  a  translation  of  The 
Siege  of  Troy  and  the  Legends  of 
the  Saints  (Scottish  Text  Society, 
ed.  Metcalfe.  1887-96).  and  The 
Buik  of  Alexander  (Bannatyne 
Club.  1831).  Consult  Irving's 
History  of  Scottish  Poetry. 

Barbou  X,  bar-bob',  Henri 
Martin  (1834-1910),  French 
lawyer  and  'Immortal',  was  born 
in  Chateauroux.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  Paris  in 
1859;  was  secretary  of  council  on 
marine  prizes  in  war  of  1870-71; 
successfully  defended  many  im- 
portant cases  at  law;  and  was 
counsel  for  Count  Ferdinand  de 
Lesscps  in  the  Panama  Canal 
scandal.  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1907. 

Barbuda,  bar-b(K)'da,  an  island 
in  the  Leeward  group,  British 
West  Indies,  25  miles  north  of 
Antigua,  ot  which  it  is  a  depen- 


dency. It  produces  sea  island 
cotton  and  has  a  sponge  industry. 

Barbusse,  bar-bobs',  Henri 
(1874-  ),  French  author,  was 
born  in  Asnieres.  He  became  a 
successful  journalist  in  Paris, 
served  as  a  common  soldier  in 
the  Great  War,  was  invalided  to 
the  rear,  and  wrote  a  scathing  in- 
dictment of  war,  entitled  Le  Feu, 
which  went  through  more  than 
two  hundred  editions  and  was 
translated  into  many  languages. 
Other  writings  include  Nous 
autres  (1918)  and  Clarte  (1919). 

Barca.  See  Barka. 

Barcarolle  (Ital.  barcaruolo,  'a 
boatman'),  bar'ka-rol',  a  name 
given  to  songs,  or  instrumental 
compositions  imitative  of  the 
songs,  which  originated  with  the 
gondoliers  of  Venice. 

Bar'cello'na,  city,  Sicily,  in  the 
province  of  Messina,  near  the 
northern  coast,  27  miles  south- 
west of  Messina.  It  has  silk  in- 
dustries and  sulphur  baths.  Pop. 
(1911)  26,172. 

Barcelona,  province  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Spain,  in 
the  centre  of  Catalonia,  with  an 
area  of  2,968  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  being 
traversed  by  branches  of  the 
Pyrennes  —  e.  g.  the  Sierra  del 
Cadi  (8,000  ft.)  in  the  north. 
Sierra  de  Monseny  (5,571  ft.), 
and  Montserrat  (4,058  ft.). 
The  coast  lands  are  fertile,  and 
agriculture  is  well  developed, 
even  in  the  mountainous  parts, 
the  chief  products  being  cereals, 
wine,  oil,  fruit  (especially  nuts), 
and  cork.  The  mountains  are 
rich  in  iron,  lead,  and  salt.  The 
chief  manufactured  products  are 
wool,  cotton,  lace,  silk,  cutlery, 
glass,  and  flour.  Pop.  (1920) 
1,349,282. 

Barcelona,  city  and  seaport, 
Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Barcelona,  on  the  Mediterranean 
Sea;  440  miles  northeast  of 
Madrid  by  rail.  It  is  the  chief 
industrial  and  commercial  city  of 
Spain,  and  the  second  in  size  in 
the  kingdom.  The  old  section 
contains  most  of  the  important 
buildings;  the  newer  part  con- 
sists of  suburbs,  with  attractive 
villas  and  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments. North  of  the  city  is  a 
fine  park.  The  principal  street, 
the  Rambla,  which  begins  at  the 
imposing  Columbus  monument 
near  the  harbor  and  ends  at 
Plaza  de  Cataluna,  is  a  favorite 
promenade.  Features  of  interest 
are  the  Gothic  cathedral  built 
1298-1448;  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Mar,  also  Gothic;  the 
university,  founded  in  1430;  the 
Palacio  de  Bellas  Artes;  and  sev- 
eral museums.  The  harbor  is 
wide  and  deep  and  is  continually 
being  extended.  In  mediaeval 
times  Barcelona  was  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  Mediterranean 
commerce.  Here  the  famous 
sea-laws,  known  as  the  'Con- 
sulate of  the  Sea,'  were  in  all  prob- 


BARCELONA.  SPAIN 

The  upper  picture  (from  Ewing  Gailoway)  shows  the  Columbus  Monument;  the  lower  (©  Publishers 
Photo  Service)  shows  the  harbor  with  the  Royal  Yacht  Club  (mosque-like  building),  in  the  distance. 
Vol.  I. — Page  579  Vol.  I. — March  '27 


Barcelona 


580 


Bard 


ability  promulgated  in  1279.  It 
is  in  connection  with  this  port, 
too,  that  we  find  the  first  mention 
of  marine  insurance.  In  1924, 
4,479  vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of 
about  3,000,000,  entered  the  port. 
The  total  trade  is  valued  at  an 
annual  average  of  178  million 
dollars,  of  which  nearly  half  is 
exports.    Pop.  (1924)  738,498. 

Barcelona  was  founded  by  the 
Phoenicians,  raieed  to  the  rank 
of  a  Roman  colony  by  Augustus, 
and  during  the  second  century 
became  a  place  of  considerable 
importance.  It  grew  and  flour- 
ished under  the  Visigoths,  being 
twice  temporarily  their  capital. 
After  874  it  was  the  seat  of  the 
Counts  of  Barcelona  and  rivalled 
Genoa  and  Venice  as  a  trading 
port,  but  in  the  15th  century 
its  prestige  began  to  decline.  In 
1640  it  revolted  from  Philip  iv., 
but  some  years  later  was  com-^ 
pelled  to  resume  allegiance  to 
Spain.  It  was  bombarded  and 
taken  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick 
(1714),  by  the  French  general, 
Duhesme  (1809),  and  again  by 
the  French,  after  a  long  siege,  in 
1823.  In  more  recent  times 
Barcelona  has  been  the  centre  of 
repeated  Carlist,  separatist,  and 
republican  movements  and  it  is 
now  the  headquarters  of  Spanish 
socialism. 

Barcelona,  city,  Venezuela, 
capital  of  the  state  of  Anzoate- 
gui,  is  situated  in  the  northern 
part,  near  the  coast;  175  miles 
east  of  Caracas.  Its  port.  Quan- 
ta, with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway,  lies  about  12  miles  to  the 
east,  and  has  an  excellent  harbor. 
The  town  is  fairly  modern  and 
well-kept  and  has  several  hand- 
some churches  and  a  theatre. 
Coal  is  found  in  the  vicinity,  and 
hides,  cattle,  and  coffee  are  ex- 
ported.   Pop.  (1920)  10,833. 

Barcelona  Nuts,  a  variety  of 
hazel  nut  or  filbert,  sometimes 
grown  in  the  United  States,  but 
usually  kiln-dried  and  imported 
from  Barcelona,  vSpain. 

Bar'clay,  Alexander  (?1475- 
1552),  poet  and  translator,  sup- 
posed, on  good  grounds,  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Scotland.  He 
was ed  ucated  in  England ,  where  he 
took  orders,  was  appointed  pries 
in  the  college  of  Ottery  St.  Mary 
later  became  a  'prest  and  monke 
of  Ely,'  and  subsequently  a  Fran- 
ciscan at  Canterbury.  His  fame 
rests  on  his  poem,  The  Shyp  of 
Folys  of  the  Worlde  (1509) 
printed  by  Pynson,  which  was 
partly  a  translation  and  part- 
ly an  imitation  of  Sebastian 
Brandt's  Narr ens chiff  (149^).  He 
wrote  also  The  Myrrour  of  Good 
Manners  and  some  Eclogues,  the 
first  pastoral  poems  that  ap- 
peared in  English  proper,  and 
translated  vSallust's_  Jugurlhine 
War  and  a  French  poem,  The 
Castle  of  Labour.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  The  Ship  of  Fools  is  that 
of  T.  H.  Jamieson  (2  vols.  1874), 

Vol.  I.— March  '27 


which  gives  a  full  account  of 
Barclay  and  his  works. 

Barclay,  John  (1582-1621), 
Scottish  satirist,  author  of  the 
Argenis,  was  born  in  Pont-a- 
Mousson,  the  son  of  a  French 
lady  of  distinguished  birth.  In 
1603  he  went  to  London,  in  1605 
removed  to  Paris,  where  he  mar- 
ried, and  the  following  year  re- 
turned to  London.  There  he 
lived  until  1616  when  he  went  to 
reside  in  Rome.  He  wrote  much 
in  Latin  verse,  satirizing  royal 
and  other  high  personages  of  his 
time.  The  Satyr  icon  (1603-5) 
was  his  first  effort;  the  Argenis 
(1621,  new  ed.  by  Waltz,  1891), 
his  masterpiece,  a  political  alle- 
gory, containing  allusions  to  the 
state  of  Europe,  was  published 
posthumously. 

Barclay,  John  (1734-98), 
Scottish  divine,  founder  of  the 
Scottish  sect  of  the  Bereans  (see 
Acts  xvii.  11),  otherwise  called 
Barclayites,  was  born  in  Muthill, 
the  vson  of  a  Perthshire  farmer. 
He  became  assistant  minister  of 
Fettercairn,  Kincardineshire 
(1763),  where  his  preaching  at- 
tracted large  audiences,  but  his 
heterodoxy  led  to  his  deposition 
by  the  church  courts,  and  he 
formed  a  congregation  of  his  own, 
which  grew  into  a  separate  sect. 
From  1773  until  his  death  he 
ministered  to  the  Berean  Chur  :h 
in  Edinburgh.  Consult  Memoir 
attached  to  his  Works  (1852). 

Barclay,  John  (1758-1826), 
Scottish  anatomist,  nephew  of 
John  Barclay  (1734-98),  was 
born  in  Perthshire.  He  prepared 
for  the  ministry  but  turned  to 
medicine  (m.d.  Edin.,  1796),  giv- 
ing special  attention  to  anatomy 
and  surgery,  on  which  he  lectured 
in  Edinburgh.  He  left  at  least 
two  sound  and  learned  works — 
Description  of  the  Arteries  of  the 
Human  Body  (1812),  and  Inquiry 
into  Opinions  Concerning  Life  and 
Organization  (1825).  His  collec- 
tion of  anatomical  subjects  now 
forms  the  Barcleian  Museum  in 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
Edinburgh.  Consult  Memoir  by 
Waterhouse. 

Barclay,  Robert  (1648-90), 
Scottish  Quaker  and  writer,  was 
born  in  Gordenstown,  Moray- 
shire. He  was  educated  at  Paris 
in  the  Scots  College,  of  which  his 
uncle  was  rector,  returned  to 
Scotland  in  1664,  and  soon  joined 
the  Society  of  Friends.  In  de- 
fence of  the  new  sect  he  wrote 
Truth  Cleared  from  Calumnies 
(1670);  Treatise  on  Universal 
Love  (1677),  and  Apology  for  the 
True  Christian  Divinity,  as  the 
same  is  held  forth  and  preached  by 
the  People  called  in  scorn  Quakers 
(1678),  works  which  ably  set 
forth  the  religious  doctrines  pe- 
culiar to  the  Quakers.  Barclay 
buffered  considerable  local  perse- 
cution in  Aberdeen,  where  he 
astonished  the  lieges  by  walking 
(1672)   through  the  streets  in 


sackcloth  and  ashes,  an  episode 
celebrated  in  verse  by  Whittier. 
He  took  part  in  founding  East 
New  Jersey  (1682)  as  a  Quaker 
settlement  and  was  appointed  its 
governor,  although  he  never  went 
to  America.  Consult  Lives  by 
J.  G.  Bevan  and  by  W.  Armi- 
stead. 

Barclay  de  Tolly,  bar-kla'd^- 
to-le',  Michael,  Prince  (1761- 
1818),  a  celebrated  Russian  gen- 
eral, was  a  descendant  of  a  branch 
of  the  same  Barclay  family  as 
that  to  which  Barclay  the  Quaker 
belonged,  which  had  settled  in 
Livonia.  He  took  part  in  the 
campaigns  against  Turkey 
(1788),  Sweden  (1790),  Poland 
(1792  and  1794),  France  (1807), 
and  Finland  (1808) ;  and  was  min- 
ister of  war  from  1810  to  1813. 
His  fame  as  a  general  rests  upon 
the  successful  part  he  took  in  the 
opposition  to  Napoleon's  advance 
into  Russia  in  1812.  He  led  the 
Russian  contingent  of  the  allies 
at  Leipzig  (1813)  and  at  Paris 
(1815). 

Bar-cochba,  bar-kok'ba,  Si- 
mon ('Son  of  the  Star' — Num. 
xxiv,  17),  leader  of  the  revolt  of 
the  Jews  against  the  Roman  dom- 
ination  during  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Hadrian  (132-135).  At 
first  Bar-cochba,  who  claimed  to 
be  the  Messiah,  was  successful, 
taking  Jerusalem  (132)  and  more 
than  a  thousand  towns  and  vil- 
lages from  the  Romans,  but  the 
revolt  was  crushed  by  Julius 
Severus,  Jerusalem  was  retaken, 
Bar-cochba  slain  and  his  army 
annihilated  at  Bether  (135). 

Barcoo.  See  Cooper's  Creek. 

Bard,  one  of  an  ancient  Celtic 
order,  whose  province  it  was  to 
celebrate  in  verse,  song,  and  play 
the  deeds  of  the  heroes.  They 
flourished  especially  in  Wales, 
and  mention  is  made  in  the  sixth 
century  of  the  Welsh  bards  Talie- 
sin,  Aneurin,  and  Llywarch;  but 
the  history  of  the  order  is  obscure 
until  the  tenth  century,  when  it 
was  reconstituted  by  King  Howel 
Dha.  In  course  of  time  it  became 
hereditary,  and  laws  were  enacted 
for  its  regulation  about  a.d.  1000. 
Edward  i.  is  somewhat  doubt- 
fully credited  with  the  hanging  of 
all  the  Welsh  bards,  because  he 
regarded  them  as  promoters  of 
sedition;  but  the  order  was  re- 
vived by  the  Tudors.  The  bards 
were  especially  active  in  recasting 
and  adding  to  the  Arthurian 
cycle. 

In  Ireland  bards  were  divided 
into  three  classes — those  who 
sang  of  war  and  religion,  those 
who  dealt  with  genealogy  and 
family  history,  and  those  who 
chanted  the  laws.  Many  dis- 
tricts in  the  Highlands  still  retain 
the  name  of  the  bard's  territory, 
and  the  second  title  of  the  Athole 
family,  'Tullibardine,'  is  taken 
from  the  lands  appropriated  to  a 
bard.  In  Wales  some  attempts  , 
have  been  made  towards  the  re- 


Bardesanes 


581 


Barfleur 


vival  of  bardism  by  means  of  the 
popular  Eisteddfod  (q.v.)- 

In  modern  usage  the  term  bard 
signifies  a  poet,  as  *he  'bard'  of 
Avon  (Shakespeare),  the  Ayr- 
shire 'bard'  (Burns). 

Consult  Eastcott's  Sketches  of 
the  Origin,  Progress,  and  Effects 
of  Musick,  with  an  Account  of  the 
Ancient  Bards  (1793);  Evans' 
Specimens  of  the  Ancient  Welsh 
Poetry  (1764);  Myvyrian  Archce- 
ology  of  Wales,  ed.  Jones,  Wil- 
liams, and  Owen;  Douglas  Hyde's 
Literary  History  of  Ireland  (1899). 

Bardesanes,  bar'de-sa'nez,  or 
Bar-Daisan  (154-222),  Syrian 
poet  and  theologian,  was  born  in 
Edessa,  Mesopotamia.  He  be- 
came a  Christian  and  when  Cara- 
calla  took  Edessa  (216-17),  fled 
to  Armenia,  where  he  spent  his 
time  in  writing  and  preaching. 
He  soon  returned  to  Edessa, 
however,  and  died  there.  Of  his 
writings  Eusebius  speaks  in  high 
terms,  but  it  is  difficult  to  assign 
his  exact  status  in  Gnosticism. 
He  is  thought  to  have  some  affin- 
ity with  Valentinianism  and  was 
certainly  influenced  by  Chaldean 
mythology.  He  spread  his  pe- 
culiar doctrines  concerning  the 
existence  of  Christ  and  of  evil  by 
means  of  some  150  hymns  which 
were  widely  used  until  the  fourth 
century. 

Bardowick,  bar'd5-vek,  town, 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Han- 
over; 5  miles  north  of  Liineburg. 
It  was  a  large  and  important 
trading  town  in  the  time  of  Char- 
lemagne, but  was  destroyed  by 
Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony, 
in  1189.    Pop.  (1920)  2,300. 

Bard  wan,  burd-wan',  or  Burd- 
WAN,  district,  Bengal,  India; 
area,  2,691  square  miles.  It  is 
flat,  and  watered  by  the  Bagira- 
thi  and  other  tributaries  of  the 
Hugh.  Rice  is  the  principal  agri- 
cultural product.  Gold,  silver, 
and  brass  wares,  silk  saris  and 
dhutis,  are  manufactured.  Rani- 
ganj,  a  subdivision,  has  impor- 
tant coal  mines.  Pop.  (1921) 
1,438,926.  The  Division  of  Bard- 
wan  has  an  area  of  13,850 
square  miles  and  a  population  of 
about  8,000,000. 

Bardwan,  or  Burdwan,  chief 
town,  district  of  Bardwan,  Ben- 
gal, India,  on  the  Damodar  Riv- 
er; 55  miles  northwest  of  Cal- 
cutta. It  has  a  fine  modern  hos- 
pital and  contains  the  palace  and 
gardens  of  the  maharajah  of 
Burdwan,  as  well  as  remains  of 
ancient  royal  tombs.  Pop.  (1921) 
34,616. 

Barebone's  Parliament 

(July  4  to  Dec.  12,  1653),  an 
assembly  summoned  by  Crom- 
well after  the  'Rump'  had  been 
expelled,  so  called  in  derision 
after  one  of  its  i)rominent  mem- 
bers, Praise-God  Barbon  or  Bare- 
bone,  a  leather-seller  of  Fleet 
Street.  It  consisted  of  140  mem- 
bers (129  for  England  and  Wales, 
5  for  Scotland,  and  6  for  Ireland). 


Although  the  butt  of  much  ridi- 
cule, the  parliament  included 
many  able  and  noteworthy  men 
and  enacted  several  wise  meas- 
ures. It  attempted  constitutional 
legislation  beyond  its  powers, 
however,  and  in  a  short  time  its 
members  resigned.  Consult  S.  R. 
Gardiner's  History  of  the  Com- 
monwealth and  Protectorate. 

Barege,  ba-razh',  a  gauze-like 
fabric  made  of  silk  and  worsted, 
or  of  cotton  and  worsted,  and 
used  for  women's  dresses.  Called 
in  France  crepe  de  Bareges,  after 
the  Pyrenean  watering-place  of 
that  name,  it  is  really  produced 
at  Bagneres-de-Bigorre,  16  miles 
distant. 

Bareges,  summer  health  resort 
(practically  uninhabited  in  win- 
ter), France,  in  the  department 
of  Hautes-Pyrenees;  25  miles 
south  of  Tarbes,  reached  by 
coach  from  Pierrefitte  (12  miles 
away).  Its  hot  sulphur  springs 
(89K°-113°  F.)  are  said  to  be 
efficacious  in  the  treatment  of 
skin  diseases  and  wounds.  It  is 
a  centre  for  the  ascent  of  various 
neighboring  peaks. 

Bareilly,  ba-ra'le,  the  chief 
town  of  the  Rohilkhand  Division, 
United  Provinces  of  Agra  and 
Oudh,  India;  150  miles  east  of 
Delhi.  It  is  the  site  of  a  Method- 
ist mission  station,  with  a  good 
theological  school,  hospital,  and 
normal  school,  has  several  fine 
bazaars  and  mosques,  and  was 
formerly  famous  for  its  splendid 
bamboo  palms  which  have  now 
almost  disappeared.  There  are 
manufactures  of  furniture,  car- 
riages, leather,  cotton  and  silk 
goods.  During  the  mutiny  of 
1857  Bareilly  was  the  scene  of  a 
brutal  massacre  of  Europeans. 
Pop.  (1921)  129,459. 

Barents,  ba'rents,  island  in 
the  Spitzbergen  group,  in  lat.  78° 
30'  N.  and  long.  20°  E.,  between 
Edge  Island  and  West  Spitzber- 
gen. It  is  named  after  Willem 
Barents,  the  Dutch  navigator. 
Its  area  is  1,000  square  miles;  its 
highest  point  1,998  feet. 

Barents,  Willem  (?-1597), 
Dutch  explorer,  was  born  in  the 
island  of  Terschelling.  In  1594 
he  sailed  from  Holland  in  search 
of  a  northeast  passage  to  China 
and  in  about  a  month  sighted  and 
explored  the  coast  of  Novaya 
Zemlya.  He  made  a  second  voy- 
age the  following  year  and  a  third 
in  1596,  during  which  he  discov- 
ered the  island  of  Spitzbergen. 
He  then  sailed  eastwards  to 
Novaya  Zemlya,  but  encountered 
such  heavy  ice  that  he  and  his 
companions  were  forced  to  win- 
ter in  Ice  Haven  on  the  east 
coast,  where  they  suffered  ex- 
treme hardship.  The  following 
summer  the  survivors  started  for 
the  mainland  but  during  the 
voyage  Barents  and  four  of  his 
companions  died.  In  1871  Cap- 
tain Carlsen  came  upon  interest- 
ing   relics    of    Barents'  winter 


quarters,  which  were  eventually 
removed  to  The  Hague. 

Barents  Sea,  a  division  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  between  Spitzber- 
gen and  Novaya  Zemlya.  The 
northern  part  is  often  filled  with 
ice,  but  the  southern  part  is 
usually  open.  That  part  border- 
ing the  Kola  peninsula  is  known 
as  the  Murman  Sea. 

Barere  de  Vieuzac,  ba-rar'de- 
vyu-zak',  Bertrand  (1755- 
1841),  French  journalist  and 
revolutionist,  called  by  Burke 
the  Anacreon  of  the  guillotine, 
was  a  native  of  Gascony.  He 
became  deputy  to  the  National 
Assembly  in  1789,  a  delegate 
from  the  Hautes-Pyrenees  to  the 
National  Convention  in  1792, 
and  a  member  of  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety.  He  voted  for 
the  king's  death  'without  appeal.' 
When  the  Jacobins  triumphed 
over  the  Girondists,  Barere  was 
the  first  to  propose  that  'terror 
should  be  the  order  of  the  day,' 
but  was  himself  impeached  and 
imprisoned  in  1795  in  the  Prisons 
de  Saintes,  where  he  began  to 
edit  his  Memoires.  He  escaped, 
and  eventually  took  refuge  in 
Belgium.  After  the  revolution  of 
1830  he  returned  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  again  elected  a  deputy  for 
his  department.  His  Memoires, 
in  4  volumes,  appeared  in  1842, 
and  an  English  translation  by 
Payne,  containing  a  long  'histori- 
cal notice'  of  Barere,  was  pub- 
lished in  1896. 

Baretta.   See  Biretta. 

Barettl,  ba-ret'te,  Giuseppe 
(1719-89),  Italian  poet  and  critic, 
was  born  in  Turin.  In  1751  he 
went  to  London,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1760,  teaching  and 
editing  various  publications.  He 
then  returned  to  Italy  and  there 
undertook  his  epoch-making 
Frusta  letteraria,  a  journal  of 
literary  criticism,  in  which  he 
sharply  combated  the  morbid 
spirit  of  his  time,  and  laid  down 
sound  principles  of  criticism.  It 
was  published  in  Venice  fron 
1763-5  in  33  numbers  and  was 
reprinted,  in  the  collection  Clas- 
sici  italiani  del  secolo  xviii.  (2 
vols..  1838-9).  The  attacks  to 
which  he  exposed  himself  by  this 
publication  compelled  him  to 
return  to  London,  where  he  be- 
came secretary  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  enjoying 
the  friendship  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
David  Garrick,  and  Lord  Charle- 
mont.  To  Englishmen  he  is  best 
known  as  the  author  of  a  Dic- 
tionary of  the  English  and  Italian 
Languages  (1760;  new  ed.  1873), 
long  a  standard  work  of  reference. 
Consult  his  Scritti  Scelti,  ed.,  with 
biography,  by  Custodi  (1822-3), 
Piccioni's  Studi  e  recherche  in- 
terno  a  G.  Baretti,  and  Garizio's 
G.  Baretti  e  i  suoi  tempi. 

Barfleur,  biir-flur'  (anc.  Baro- 
fluctum),  seaside  resort,  France, 
in  the  department  of  La  Manche, 
on  the  northern  coast,  15  miles 

Vol.  I.— March  '27 


Barfod 


S82 


Baring 


east  of  Cherbourg,  with  tidail 
harbor  at  Pointe  de  Barfleur,  the 
northeast  cape  of  the  Cotentin 
peninsula.  Here  Edward  the 
Confessor  embarked  in  1042  for 
England,  and  the  White  Ship  left 
the  port  in  1120  on  its  disastrous 
voyage.  It  was  also  the  scene  of 
a  battle  May  19,  1692,  between 
the  British  and  Dutch  allied 
fleets  and  the  French  fleet  under 
de  Tourville,  in  which  the  latter 
was  outnumbered,  but  escaped 
with  most  of  his  ships.  Pop. 
(1921)  1,116. 

Barfod,  bar'foth,  PovL  Fred- 
ERIK  (1811-96),  Danish  his- 
torian, was  born  in  Lyngby.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Constitu- 
tional Assembly  (1848-9),  and  in 
1866  became  assistant  in  the 
Royal  Library  in  Copenhagen. 
He  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the 
'Scandinavian  idea,'  or  close 
union  of  the  three  Scandinavian 
kingdoms.  His  chief  works  are 
FortcelUnger  af  Fcedrelandets  His- 
torie  (4th  ed.  1872-4),  and  Dan- 
marks  Historic,  131Q-1670  (6 
vols.,  1885-93). 

Barfrush.  See  Balfrush. 

Bargain  and  Sale,  a  mode  of 
conveying  lands  formerly  much 
employed  in  England  and  the 
United  States  but  now  obsolete. 
It  derived  its  name  from  the  form 
of  instrument  employed,  the  bar- 
gainor, or  person  intending  to 
convey  'bargaining'  or  agreeing 
to  transfer  the  land  to  the  'bar- 
gainee.' The  immediate  effect  of 
this  transaction,  if  based  on  a 
valuable  consideration,  was  to 
raise  a  use  or  trust  in  favor  of  the 
bargainee,  and  this  being  'exe- 
cuted' by  the  Statute  of  Uses 
(1535)  vested  in  him  the  com- 
plete title.  The  same  result  was 
reached  in  the  absence  of  a  con- 
vsideration  by  a  similar  mode  of 
conveyance  in  which  the  grantee 
was  a  blood  relation  of  the  grant- 
or. Conveyance  by  bargain  and 
sale  in  its  developed  form  of  lease 
and  release  continued  to  be  used 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  until 
superseded  by  modern  statutory 
forms  of  conveyance.  See  Con- 
veyancing; Grant;  Lease. 

Bargander.  See  Sheldrake. 

Barge,  flat-bottomed  boat  for 
carrying  freight  on  rivers  and 
canals,  or  for  loading  and  unload- 
ing ships  (lighters).  Canal  and 
river  barges  usually  have  living 
accommodations  for  the  captain 
and  his  family.  Moored  barges 
are  frequently  used  as  house- 
boats. The  long,  double-banked 
boats  used  by  flag-ofificers  in  the 
navy,  and  the  elegantly  ap- 
pointed state  craft  seen  in  Euro- 
pean water  pageants,  manned  by 
many  oarsmen,  are  also  known 
as  barges. 

Bargeboard,  or  Vergeboard, 
the  inclined  projecting  board 
placed  on  the  gable  end  of  a  house 
or  on  a  window  to  hide  the  hori- 
zontal timbers  of  the  roof,  and  to 
preserve  them  from  the  weather. 

Vol.  I.— March  '27 


It  has  been  used  from  the  13th 
and  14th  centuries;  ancient  speci- 
mens were  elaborately  carved  and 
fretted. 

Bar'ghest  or  Barguest,  in 
North  of  England  folklore,  a  dog- 
spirit  in  the  shape  of  a  huge  dog 
which  nightly  prowled  about  the 
streets  dragging  heavy  chains. 
His  appearance  was  considered  a 
sure  sign  of  death  or  misfortune. 

Bar'ham,  Richard  Harris 
(1788-1845),  British  humorist, 
author  of  the  Ingoldsby  Legends, 
was  born  in  Canterbury.  He 
took  orders  (1813),  and  in  1821 
was  appointed  a  minor  canon  of 
St.  Paul's,  later  becoming  a  priest 
in  ordinary  of  the  chapels  royal. 
The  Ingoldsby  Legends,  a  series 
of  comic  tales  in  verse,  were  pub- 
lished in  Bentley's  Miscellany, 
under  Dickens  (1837),  and  col- 
lectively (1840).  Barham's  other 
works  include  Baldwin  (1819), 
My  Cousin  Nicholas  (1834),  and 
many  contributions  to  the  Edin- 
burgh Review  and  Blackwood's. 
Consult  Biography  by  his  son. 

Bar  Harbor,  village,  Mount 
Desert  Island,  Maine,  in  Han- 
cock county,  can  be  reached  by 
the  Eastern  Steamship  Company 
and  the  Maine  Central  Railroad. 
It  is  a  fashionable  summer  resort. 
Pop.  c.  3,622.  See  also  Mount 
Desert. 

Bar-Hebraeus.  See  Abulfaraj. 

Bari,  ba're,  or  Bari  delle 
PuGLiE,  province  of  Southern 
Italy,  on  the  Adriatic  seacoast, 
forming  a  part  of  the  Apulian 
plain;  area  2,048  square  miles. 
The  chief  industries  are  fruit 
raising,  cattle  and  sheep  grazing, 
and  the  production  of  salt.  Pop. 
(1921)  952,511. 

Bari  (anc.  Barium),  seaport, 
Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Bari,  on  the  Adriatic;  70  miles 
northwest  of  Brindisi.  It  con- 
sists of  an  old  town  and  a  new 
town,  the  latter  larger  and  more 
important.  Features  of  interest 
are  the  cathedral  of  San  Sabino, 
with  paintings  by  Tintoretto  and 
Veronese;  the  castl;,  built  in 
1233-9,  now  in  ruins;  the  church 
of  San  Nicola,  and  the  Apulian 
Historical  Museum.  There  is 
trade  in  almonds,  wine,  olive  oil, 
fruit,  and  cotton. 

Bari  was  an  important  com- 
mercial centre  under  the  Roman 
Empire.  In  999  it  was  the  seat 
of  the  Byzantine  governor  and 
at  the  end  of  the  15th  century  it 
passed  to  the  House  of  Sforza. 
Since  1588  it  has  belonged  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Naples.  Pop.  (1924) 
120,807. 

Bari,  district,  Uganda,  Africa, 
in  the  northwestern  part,  be- 
tween the  Nile  and  the  Tu. 

Bari,  a  negro  tribe  living  on 
the  White  Nile,  near  Gondokoro. 
They  are  a  warlike  people — tall 
and  well  formed — and  difficult  to 
subdue.  Agriculture  and  cattle 
raising  are  their  chief  occupa- 
tions. 


Barie,  a  unit  of  pressure  equal 
to  75  centimeters  of  mercury,  or 
to  'one  atmosphere,'  and  corre- 
sponding to  the  pressure  of  one 
dyne  to  the  square  centimeter. 

Barili,  ba-re'le,  pueblo,  Vis- 
ayas,  Philippine  Islands,  in  the 
province  of  Cebu,  on  the  left 
bank  of  Barili  River,  2  miles  from 
the  southwest  coast,  and  on  the 
west  coast  wagon  road,  which  has 
been  continued  to  Aluguinsan. 
The  fisheries  are  important,  and 
there  is  some  trade  in  silk  fabrics, 
hemp,  pina-cloth,  and  cotton. 
Pop.  (1918)  33,481. 

Baril'Ia,  the  ash,  containing 
about  20  per  cent,  of  sodium  car- 
bonate, of  certain  plants  that 
grow  near  the  sea,  principally  in 
Spain.  Until  the  introduction  of 
the  Leblanc  soda  industry  the 
production  of  barilla  was  of  some 
importance.  Its  principal  use 
was  in  making  glass  and  soap, 
but  it  is  now  superseded  by  car- 
bonate of  soda,  made  from  com- 
mon salt. 

Bari  ma  River.  See  British 
Guiana. 

Baring,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
most  important  financial  houses 
in  Great  Britain.  The  house  of 
Baring  Brothers  &  Co.,  of  Lon- 
don, was  founded  in  1770  by 
Francis  and  John  Baring,  sons  of 
John  Baring,  a  German  who  set- 
tled in  England  early  in  the  18th 
century.  Sir  Francis  Baring 
(1740-1810)  was  an  active  poli- 
tician and  financier,  a  supporter 
and  friend  of  Pitt,  who  created 
him  a  baronet  (1793).  Alex- 
ander Baring  (1774-1848),  his 
second  son,  was  raised  (1835)  to 
the  peerage  as  Lord  Ashburton 
(q.v.).  Sir  Francis  Thornhill 
Baring  (1796-1866),  grandson 
of  Sir  Francis,  was  Liberal 
member  for  Portsmouth  from 
1826  to  1865.  He  was  succes- 
sively a  lord  of  the  Treasury 
(1830-4),  secretary  to  the  Treas- 
ury (1835-9),  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  (1839-41),  and  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  (1849-52). 
In  1866  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Baron  Northbrook. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Thomas  George,  first  Earl  of 
Northbrook  (1826-1904),  who 
was  viceroy '  of  India  (1872-6) 
and  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
(1880-5).  He  was  created  Earl 
of  Northbrook  (1876).  Thomas 
Baring  (1799-1873),  grandson 
of  Sir  Francis  and  uncle  of  the 
first  Earl  of  Northbrook,  was 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
(1852,  1858).  Edward  Charles 
Baring  (1828-97),  son  of  Henry 
Baring  and  grandson  of  Sir 
Francis  Baring,  was  created 
Baron  Revelstoke  (1885). 

In  1890  the  firm  became 
seriously  embarrassed,  but  by 
the  assistance  of  the  Bank  of 
England  and  other  banks  man- 
aged to  tide  over  the  crisis. 
Subseciuently  it  was  reorganized 
as  a  limited  company. 


Baring 


583 


Bark 


Baring,  Evelyn.  See  Cromer. 

Baring,  Maurice  (1874- 
),  British  journalist  and 
author,  was  born  in  London.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  en- 
tered the  diplomatic  service  in 
1898  and  was  employed  in  the 
Foreign  Office  in  1903-04.  From 
1904  to  1914  he  acted  as  special 
correspondent  for  the  Morning 
Post  and  the  Times  in  Man- 
churia, Russia,  Constantinople, 
and  the  Balkans.  He  was  at- 
tached to  the  Royal  Flying 
Corps,  British  Expeditionary 
Force,  being  demobilized  as  ma- 
jor in  1919.  He  is  a  Chevalier  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  His  publi- 
cations include  The  Black  Prince 
(1902);  Gaston  de  Foix  (1903); 
With  the  Russians  in  Manchuria 
(1905);  A  Year  in  Russia  (1907); 
The  Story  of  Forget-Me-Not  and 
Lily-of -the- Valley  (1909);  Dead 
Letters  (1910);  The  Grey  Stocking 
and  Other  Plays  (1912);  Letters 
from  the  Near  East  (1913);  An 
Outline  of  Russian  Literature 
(1914);  Poems  IQ14-17  (1918); 
Round  the  World  in  Any  Number 
of  Days  (1919);  The  Puppet  Show 
of  Memory  (1922);  His  Majesty's 
Embassy  (1923);  Punch  and  Judy 
and  Other  Essays  (1924). 

Baring-Gould,  Sabine  (1834- 
1924),  English  clergyman  and 
author,  was  born  in  Exeter.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge  and 
became  incumbent  of  Dalton, 
Thirsk,  in  1867,  rector  of  East 
Mersea,  Essex,  in  1871,  and  rec- 
tor of  Lew  Trenchard,  Devon,  in 
1881.  He  was  a  proUfic  writer,  and 
his  many  works  cover  a  wide 
range  of  subjects.  His  first  im- 
portant book  was  Curious  Myths 
of  the  Middle  Ages  (1866-7). 
This  was  followed  by  The 
Origin  and  Development  of  Re- 
ligious Belief  (1869-70),  and  by 
The  Lives  of  the  Saints,  a  labo- 
rious work  of  15  volumes  (1872-7; 
new  ed.  1897),  which  was  placed 
on  the  Roman  Index  Expurga- 
torius.  Of  his  novels,  Mehalah 
(1880),  Richard  Cable  (1888), 
Cheap  Jack  Zita  (1893),  and 
The  Broom  Squire  (1896)  are 
among  the  best.  He  wrote  several 
hymns,  including  the  popular 
'Onward!  Christian  soldiers'  and 
'Now  the  day  is  over,'  and  is  the 
author  of  the  fine  rendering  of 
Ingemann's  Danish  hymn, 
'Through  the  night  of  doubt  and 
sorrow.'  Other  works  include 
In  Troubadours'  Land  (1890); 
The  Tragedy  of  the  Ccesars  (1892); 
A  Book  of  Dartmoor  (1900);  The 
Church  Revival  (1914);  The  Evan- 
gelical Revival  (1920);  Early 
Reminiscences,    1834-64  (1923). 

Barlngo,  ba-rin'go,  lake  in 
the  district  of  Baringo,  British 
East  Africa,  its  western  shore 
nearly  touching  36°  e.,  and  its 
southernmost  i)oint  only  30' 
north  of  the  ecjuator.  It  lies 
more  than  3,300  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  and  is  18  miles 


long  from  north  to  south  and  10 
miles  broad.  It  has  no  outlet 
but  its  water  is  fresh,  and 
abounds  in  fish. 

Ba'rite,  a  mineral  consisting 
of  sulphate  of  barium  and 
known  also  as  'heavy  spar'  from 
its  high  specific  gravity  (4.5.), 
which  is  exceptional  for  a  min- 
eral without  metallic  lustre.  It 
crystallizes  in  the  outer  rhombic 
system  in  forms  of  great  diversity 
and  is  generally  white,  gray, 
pink,  or  brown,  but  the  crystals 
may  be  transparent  and  color- 
less. Its  hardness  varies  from  2.5 
to  3.5,  and  it  has  an  almost  per- 
fect cleavage.  One  of  the  com- 
monest of  veinstones,  it  usually 
accompanies  silica  and  ores  of 
lead.  Very  fine  specimens,  lining 
cavities,  are  obtained  at  Dufton 
in  Westmoreland  and  elsewhere 
in  England,  and  in  Hungary, 
Saxony,  and  Bohemia  and  in  the 
United  States  in  Northern  New 
York,  Arkansas,  Georgia,  and 
Tennessee.  Barite  occurs  not 
only  in  crystals  but  also,  more 
frequently,  in  fibrous,  granular, 
stalactitic  and  other  forms. 
It  is  used  as  a  source  of  barium 
preparations;  as  a  paint  when 
finely  ground,  alone  or  mixed 
with  white  lead;  and  occasion- 
ally as  an  ornamental  stone. 

Baritone,  the  male  voice  in- 
termediate between  the  bass  and 
the  tenor.  Its  compass  is  from 
about  A  on  the  first  space  of  the 
bass  clef  to  the  F  above  the 
stave.  The  quality  of  voice 
should  suggest  a  high  bass 
rather  than  a  low  tenor. 

Barium  (Ba.,  137.4),  a  metal- 
lic element  first  obtained  by  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  in  1808,  but 
found  only  in  combination, 
chiefly  in  heavy  spar  (sulphate) 
and  witherite  (carbonate).  The 
metal,  prepared  by  electrolysis, 
is  soft,  like  lead,  silver-white, 
and  of  specific  gravity  3.75.  It 
decomposes  water  energetically. 
Belonging  to  the  alkaline  earth 
group,  chemically  it  resembles 
calcium.  Barium  oxide,  baryta, 
is  obtained  by  strongly  heating 
the  nitrate,  carbonate,  or  hy- 
droxide. It  is  a  grayish-white, 
hygroscopic  powder,  infusible, 
strongly  alkaline  and  caustic, 
and  when  added  to  water  slakes 
like  lime,  forming  the  hydroxide, 
which  may  be  crystallized.  Ba- 
rium peroxide  (dioxide)  is  ob- 
tained by  heating  the  oxide  in  a 
current  of  air  at  750°  c.  If  the 
pressure  be  now  reduced,  the 
oxygen  absorbed  is  again  evolved 
(Brin  process  for  making  oxy- 
gen). The  peroxide,  when 
treated  with  water  and  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  in  slight  excess, 
yields  hydrogen  dioxide,  a  bleach- 
ing and  oxidizing  .solution.  Hy- 
drogen peroxide  (q.v.)  is  largely 
used  as  an  antiseptic. 

The  salts  of  barium  are  ordi- 
narily prepared  from  solutions 
of  barium  sulpliifle.  ol)taine(l  by 


lixiviating  the  black  ash  resulting 
from  heating  finely  ground  bary- 
tes  with  carbon.  Barite,  heavy 
spar,  or  barium  sulphate,  is 
the  most  common  ore  of  barium 
and  is  the  starting  point  of 
the  manufacture  of  most  of 
its  compounds.  Blanc  fixe 
is  precipitated  barium  sulphate 
prepared  by  adding  sodium 
sulphate  to  barium  sulphide 
solutions.  Barium  chloride 

is  prepared  by  adding  calcium 
chloride  to  the  coke-barite  mix- 
ture in  the  furnace,  or  by  dis- 
solving witherite  (barium  car- 
bonate) in  hydrochloric  acid. 
Barium  nitrate  and  chlorate  are 
used  largely  to  impart  a  green 
color  to  flames  in  pyrotechny. 
All  soluble  salts  of  barium  are 
poisonous.  The  antidote  for 
barium  poisoning  is  a  soluble 
sulphate.  The  insoluble  sulphate 
is  used  to  some  extent  in  x-ray 
diagnosis  of  abdominal  condi- 
tions, to  render  human  viscera 
opaque.  The  patient  ingests  a 
suspension  of  barium  sulphate, 
which  makes  it  possible  to  out- 
line the  stomach  and  intestines 
on  an  x-ray  plate. 

One  of  the  most  important 
commercial  compounds  of  bar- 
ium at  the  present  time  is  a 
precipitated  mixture  of  barium 
sulphate  and  zinc  sulphide 
formed  by  adding  a  solution  of 
zinc  sulphate  to  one  of  barium 
sulphide.  This  material,  litho- 
pone,  is  sold  under  a  variety 
of  trade  names  for  use  as  a 
pigment.  In  1925,  more  than 
three  hundred  million  pounds 
of  this  pigment  were  used  in  the 
United  States. 

The  principal  producers  of 
barium  minerals  are  Germany, 
Italy,  Spain,  Great  Britain, 
and  the  United  States.  In 
1925,  the  United  States  pro- 
duced 228,063  short  tons  of 
crude  barite. 

Bar-jesus,  nicknamed  Ely- 
mas,  a  Jewish  sorcerer  and  false 
prophet,  who  was  smitten  with 
blindness  for  withstanding  Paul 
when  he  preached  before  the  Ro- 
man proconsul,  Sergius  Paulus, 
at  Paphos  (Acts  xiii.  6-12). 

Bark,  a  term  which  is  often 
used  indiscriminately  but  which 


Bark 

a.  Outside  layer  or  epidermis,  h.  Fibrous  or 
bast  layer,  c.  Inside  or  cambium  layer. 


in  non-technical  usage  generally 
means  all  the  tissues  of  a  tree  or 
shrub  outside  the  cambium. 
Some  authorities  distinguish  be- 
tween the  'outer  bark'  or  dead 
tissues  made  up  of  periderm 
and   other   tissues,   and  'inner 

Vol.  I. — March  '27 


Barka 


583A 


Barker 


bark,'  the  living  phloem  tissues 
next  the  cambium.  The  outer 
portion  of  bark  consists  of 
epidermis  and  green  cortex, 
while  the  inner  portion  is  pale- 
colored  and  fibrous,  forming  the 
phloem  or  'bast'  region.  In  the 
first  or  second  year  of  growth  a 
cylinder  of  cells,  usually  in  the 
cortex,  but  sometimes  in  the 
epidermis,  becomes  an  outer 
cambium,  known  as  the  'cork 
cambium'  or  'phellogen.'  This 
shows  numerous  horizontal  chan- 
nels, composed  of  loosely  at- 
tached cells;  and  through  these 
paths,  called  lenticels,  air  and 
moisture  pass  out  and  in  during 
the  growing  season;  in  winter, 
however,  the  last-formed  autumn 
cells  in  the  innermost  layers  of 
the  lenticels  remain  firmly  at- 
tached, like  the  ordinary  cork 
cells,  and  render  the  passage 
impervious.  In  spring  these 
special  cells  again  separate, 
and  allow  the  lenticels  to  resume 
their  function.  As  tree  trunks 
grow  old  the  outer  cork  cells  die 
— indeed,  they  die  soon  after 
they  are  formed  by  the  phellogen; 
and  as  the  girth  increases  so  does 
the  pressure  on  the  bark;  the 
outer  cork,  therefore,  often 
cracks,  but  the  inner  layers 
having  greater  elasticity,  remain 
complete.  Each  tree  has  its 
peculiar  color  and  type  of  bark. 

The  cork  of  commerce  is 
derived  from  a  species  of  oak, 
Quercus  suher,  which  grows  ex- 
tensively in  Southern  Europe 
and  Northern  Africa.  The  trees 
are  stripped  every  eight  or  ten 
years,  and  each  successive  crop 
of  bark  is  better  than  the  pre- 
ceding one.  This  bark  and  that 
of  other  trees  is  rich  in  tannic 
acid,  and  is  employed  by  tanners 
in  the  preparation  of  leather 
from  rawhide.  It  is  utilized  also 
as  a  mordant  for  certain  dyes. 
The  bark  of  many  trees  other 
than  oak  contains  tannic  acid — ■ 
e.g.  that  of  acacias  and  willows. 
More  important  still  is  the  em- 
ployment of  the  bast  fibres  of 
various  plants  in  the  textile 
arts.  Thus  flax  (Linum),  hemp 
(Cannabis),  and  jute  (Corchorus) 
are  made  from  the  tough  flexible 
fibres  of  the  endophloeum,  or 
inner  bark,  of  the  plants  from 
which  they  are  derived.  With 
the  exception  of  cotton,  which  is 
produced  from  the  seed-hairs  of 
Gossypium,  all  the  vegetable 
fibres  used  in  the  textile  in- 
dustries are  derived  from  the 
bast  region. 

The  juices  found  in  the  lactif- 
erous vessels  of  the  middle  layer 
(mesophlceum)  of  the  bark  of 
many  trees  belonging  chiefly  to 
the  natural  orders  Euphorbiaceae 
and  Sapotacea;  are  largely  used 
in  the  making  of  india-rubber 
and  gutta-percha,  while  in  the 
lactiferous  vcvssels  of  other  plants 
numerous  gums,  pigments,  res- 
ins, balsams,  and  oils  are  found, 
Vol.  I. — March  '27 


many  of  them  possessing  great 
medicinal  value.  Cinchona  is 
still  known  as  'Jesuits'  bark,' 
having  been  brought  to  Europe 
from  Peru  by  Jesuit  mission- 
aries. Of  the  numerous  other 
drugs  obtained  from  the  cortical 
region  of  various  plants,  the 
following  are  in  most  common 
use:  hamamelis,  salicin,  quassia 
.quillaia,  eucalyptus,  copaiba, 
the  balsams  of  Peru  and  Tolu, 
myrrh,  tragacanth,  cascara,  cin- 
namon, cassia,  and  angostura. 

Barka,  or  Barca  (anc.  Cyren- 
aica),  formerly  a  Turkish  vilayet. 
North  Africa,  bounded  on  the 
east  by  Egypt  and  on  the  west 
by  Tripoli  and  the  Gulf  of  Sidra, 
and  extending  to  the  Libyan 
Desert  in  the  south.  By  the 
treaty  of  Ouchy  (1912)  it  was 
ceded  to  Italy  and  now  forms  a 
part  of  Italian  Libia.  It  is  for 
the  most  part  a  desert  plateau 
of  some  20,000  square  miles, 
loftiest  towards  the  sea,  and 
with  fertile  tracts  along  the 
north  and  east.  In  the  north 
and  west  pine,  olive,  and  date 
trees  grow  in  abundance.  The 
most  important  oases  are  Aujila 
and  Jalo.  Several  caravan 
routes  (ostrich  feathers  from 
Wadai  and  fruits  from  the 
interior)  cross  it  to  the  seaports 
of  Derna  and  Bengazi.  Sponge 
fishing  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast  is  an  important  industry. 
In  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies  this 
region  was  called  Pentapoli.;, 
from  the  five  large  Greek  cities 
of  Berenice  (now  Bengazi),  Ar- 
sinoe,  Barca,  Gyrene,  and  Apol- 
lonia.  Numerous  ruins  of  the 
same  period  are  scattered  all 
over  the  country.  The  popula- 
tion, which  is  largely  nomadic 
in  the  interior,  is  estimated  at 
about  300,000.  The  capital  is 
Bengazi. 

Bark  Beetles,  known  also  as 
Engraver  Beetles,  insects  be- 


Bark  Beetle  {much  enlarged) 


longing  to  the  family  Scolytida?, 
of  the  order  Coleoptera.  They 
are  exceedingly  destructive,  and 
in  spite  of  their  small  size  do 
much  damage.  All  attack 
wood,  on  which  they  live,  and 
which  may  be  completely  rid- 
dled by  their  burrows.  The 
larvae,  hatching  from  eggs  laid 
in  the  burrows,  excavate  radiat- 
ing tunnels  beneath  the  bark,  in 
some  cases  so  as  to  produce 
regular  figures.    At  the  end  of 


these  tunnels  they  pupate,  and 
ultimately  the  perfect  beetle 
bores  its  way  through  the  bark 
and  escapes.  Pine  forests  in 
particular  suffer  from  their  rav- 
ages. 

Barker,  Albert  Smith 
(1843-  ),  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  in  Hanson, 
Mass.  He  entered  the  United 
States  navy  in  1859,  and  during 
the  Civil  War  served  on  the 
steam  frigate  Mississippi  in 
the  operations  under  Farragut 
which  resulted  in  the  capture  of 
New  Orleans,  and  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  Monongahela  in 
operations  against  Port  Hudson 
and  in  the  engagement  below 
Donaldsonville.  He  became  a 
lieutenant-commander  in  1806, 
a  captain  in  1892,  and  a  rear- 
admiral  in  1899,  and  in  the  Span- 
ish-American War  (1898)  was  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Strategy. 
In  1898-9,  he  commanded  a 
squadron  in  the  Pacific,  in  1899- 
1900  was  commandant  of  the 
Norfolk  Navy  Yard,  in  1900- 
03  was  in  command  of  the 
New  York  Navy  Yard,  and  in 
1903-05  was  commander-in-chief 
of  the  North  Atlantic  fleet.  In 
1905  he  was  retired. 

Barker,  Edmund  Henry 
(1788-1839),  British  scholar, 
translator  of  the  classics,  was 
born  in  HoUym,  Yorkshire.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  after  his  mar- 
riage lived  at  Thetford  in 
Norfolk,  where  he  edited  many 
of  the  works  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  authors. 

Barker,  Harley  Granville 
(1877-  ),  British  author  and 
playwright,  was  born  in  London. 
He  began  his  career  as  an  actor, 
appearing  in  many  of  the  plays 
of  George  Bernard  Shaw,  whose 
influence  on  his  work  is  often 
evident.  In  1916  he  spent  a 
season  in  New  York  City  as 
producer  at  Wallack's  Theatre, 
where  he  met  with  great  success. 
He  is  thoroughly  modern  and  has 
helped,  at  least,  to  make  intellec- 
tual revolt  fashionable  and  re- 
spectable. Among  his  publica- 
tions are  The  Marrying  of  Ann 
Leels  (1901);  Prunella  (with  Lau- 
rence Hausman,  1906);  The  Voy- 
sey  Inheritance  (1907);  Waste 
(1907);  A  National  Theatre  (with 
William  Archer,  1907);  Madras 
House  (1910);  The  Morris  Dance 
(1916);  Souls  on  Fifth  (1916); 
The  Red  Cross  in  France  (1916); 
an  English  version  of  Guitry's 
Dehurau  (1921)]  The  Exemplary 
Theatre  (1922);  The  Secret  Life 
(1923). 

Barker,  Lewellys  Frank- 
lin (1867-  ),  American  phy- 
sician, was  born  in  Norwich, 
Ontario.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Toronto  and  at 
Johns  Hopkins  Univervsity,  and 
studied  in  Leipzig  and  Munich. 
He  went  to  the  United  States  in 
1891,   becoming  a  naturalized 


Barker 


583B 


Barley 


citizen  in  1918.  He  was  professor 
of  anatomy  at  the  University  of 
Chicago  (1900-05),  professor 
of  medicine  (1905-14),  professor 
of  chnical  medicine  (1914-22), 
and  professor  emeritus  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University.  His  pub- 
lished works  include  The  Nervous 
System  and  its  Constituent  Neu- 
rones (1899) ;  Clinical  Diagnosis 
of  Internal  Diseases  (3  vols. 
1916) ;  Blood  Pressure  (1924) ;  The 
Degenerative  Diseases;  their  Causes 
and  Prevention  (with  T.  P. 
Sprunt,  1925). 

Barker,  Robert  (1739-1806), 
Irish  artist,  was  born  in  Kells, 
county  Meath,  and  removed  to 
Edinburgh,  where  he  worked 
as  a  portrait  and  miniature 
painter.  He  is  said  to  be  the 
inventor  of  panoramas,  his  chief 
ones  being  those  of  Edinburgh 
(1789)  and  London  (1794),  the 
battles  of  Trafalgar  and  Aboukir, 
and  the  fleet  at  Spithead. 

Barker,  Thomas  (1769-1847), 
English  artist,  called  'Barker  of 
Bath,'  was  born  in  Monmouth- 
shire. He  was  entirely  self- 
taught  but  was  remarkably 
popular  and  successful.  His  best 
known  pictures  are  The  Wood- 
man (engraved  by  Bartolozzi) 
and  Old  Tom,  and  his  huge 
fresco.  The  Inroad  of  the  Turks 
upon  Scio. 

Barker,  Thomas  Jones  (1815- 
82),  English  historical  painter, 
son  of  Thomas  Barker  (q.v), 
was  born  in  Bath.  He  studied 
with  his  father  and  under 
Horace  Vernet  in  Paris,  where  he 
frequently  exhibited  at  the  Salon. 
On  his  return  to  England  he 
exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy. 
Among  his  more  important  pic- 
tures are  The  Bride  of  Death 
(1840) ;  The  Meeting  of  Wellington 
and  Blucher  (1851);  The  Relief  of 
Lucknow  (1860);  A  Riderless 
War-horse  at  the  Battle  of  Sedan 
(1873);  Balaklava — One  of  the 
Six  Hundred  (1874). 

Barker's  Mill,  the  simplest 
form  of  hydraulic  engine,  or 
prime  mover,  invented  by  one 
Dr.  Barker  in  the  late  vseven- 
teenth  century.  It  is  analogous 
to  the  aeolipile,  the  pressure  of  a 
head  of  water  being  UvSed  instead 
of  the  pressure  of  steam.  The 
water  is  conducted  into  the 
hollow  vertical  axle,  from  which 
two  or  more  horizontal  radial 
pipes  project,  with  their  ends 
bent  round  tangentially  in  the 
same  direction.  The  pressure 
of  the  escaping  water  upon  the 
bent  pipes  causes  the  machine  to 
rotate  in  the  opposite  direction. 

Barking,  town,  England,  in 
Essex,  a  northeastern  suburb 
of  London.  The  church  of  St. 
Margaret  is  noteworthy,  and  a 
few  ruins  of  Barking  Abbey, 
founded  about  670,  remain. 
Vegetable  and  fruit  raising  are 
carried  on,  and  there  are  manu- 
factures of  rubber,  chemicals, 
and  jute.    Pop.  (1921)  35,543. 


Barkla,  Charles  Glover 
(1877-  ),  British  physicist, 
was  born  in  Lancashire.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  and  be- 
came Oliver  Lodge  Fellow  at  the 
University  of  Liverpool  in  1902 
and  assistant  in  physics  in  1905. 
He  was  lecturer  in  advanced 
electricity  (1907)  and  professor 
of  physics  (1907-13)  in  the 
University  of  London,  and  in 
1913  became  professor  of  natu- 
ral philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  In  1917  he  re- 
ceived the  Nobel  Prize  in  physics. 
His  research  work  has  been 
mainly  connected  with  electric 
rays,  x-rays  and  secondary  rays. 

Barkly,  East,  district  and 
town,  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
province,  South  Africa;  so  named 
from  Sir  H.  Barkly,  governor 
(1870).  It  is  one  of  the  highest 
towns  in  the  province  and  has  a 
cool,  healthful  climate.  Pop. 
(1921)  993  (white). 

Barkly,  West,  town  and  dis- 
trict, Griqualand  West,  South 
Africa,  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Vaal  River;  25  miles  northwest 
of  Kimberley.  It  is  in  the  centre 
of  the  diamond  fields  and  until 
the  rise  of  Kimberley  was  the 
most  important  place  in  Griqua- 
land West.  Pop.  (1921)  400 
(white) . 

Barkur,  town.  East  Turk- 
estan, Central  Asia,  250  miles 
east  of  Urumtshi,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  spur  of  the 
Tian-Shan  Mountains.  It  owes 
its  importance  to  its  position  on 
one  of  the  main  roads  from 
Peking  via  Hami  (65  miles 
south)  to  Kulja.  It  comprises 
two  towns,  the  one  Manchu  and 
the  other  Chinese.  About  12 
miles  north  is  Lake  Barkul. 

Barlaam  and  Josaphat, 
bar'la-am,  jos'a-fat,  a  religious 
romance  which  emanated  from 
the  East  and  attained  great 
popularity  in  Europe,  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  relates  the  his- 
tory of  the  life  of  Josaphat,  son 
of  Abenner,  a  king  of  India,  who 
was  converted  to  the  Christian 
faith  by  Barlaam,  a  hermit  of 
Senaar.  The  story  is  simply  a 
Christianized  version  of  the 
legendary  history  oi  Buddha,  a 
fact  first  proved  by  Liebrecht  in 
1862.  The  Greek  translation  was 
originally  published  by  Bois- 
sonade  in  his  Anecdota,  vol.  iv. 
(1832).  There  are  versions  in 
nearly  all  European  languages 
and  in  Syriac,  Arabic,  Hebrew, 
and  Tagala. 

Barlad.  See  Berlad. 

Bar-le-Duc,  bar'k-dook,  or 
Bar-sur-Ornain,  town,  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of 
Meuse,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ornain;  127  miles  east  of  Paris. 
The  church  of  St.  Pierre  (15th 
century)  contains  the  tomb  of 
Rene  de  Chalon,  Prince  of 
Orange.  The  leading  industries 
are  fruit  preserving,  hosiery 
making,    mining,    and  cotton 


manufacture.  During  the  Great 
War  Bar-le-Duc  suffered  serious- 
ly from  air-raids.  It  is  the  birth- 
place of  Raymond  Poincare. 
Pop.  (1921)  16,261. 

Barlet'ta,  seaport  town,  Italy, 
on  the  Adriatic  coast,  102  miles 
northwest  of  Brindisi.  Features 
of  interest  are  a  12th  century 
church  before  which  stands  a 
colossal  bronze  statue  of  one  of 
the  Roman  emperors  (probably 
Heraclius) ,  which  was  discovered 
in  the  sea,  and  the  Cathedral 
(14th  century  Romanesque). 
Tartaric  acid  is  made,  salt  is 
prepared,  and  there  is  a  large 
trade  in  wine.  Pop.  (1921) 
49,942. 

Barley  (Hordeum  sativum), 
one   of    the    oldest  cultivated 


Barley 


1.  Four  rows.  2.  Two  rows.  3.  Side  view  of 
grain.  4.  Cross  section  of  graia  5.  Pearl 
barley. 

plants  known.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  originated  in  Western  Asia 
and  during  its  early  cultivation 
was  used  for  making  bread,  beer, 
and  feed  for  beasts.  It  was  grown 
by  the  early  colonists  of  the 
United  States  and  is  an  impor- 
tant crop  in  Russia,  Germany, 
Austria,  France,  and  Great 
Britain. 

The  barley  resembles  the 
wheat  plant,  but  differs  from 
it  in  the  structure  of  the  head, 
and  in  its  generally  lower  habit 
of  growth.  The  head  consists  of 
one-flowered  sessile  spikelcts  of 

Vol.  I.— March  '27 


Barleycorn 


584 


Barlowe 


which  three  are  borne  side  by 
side  on  each  joint  of  the  central 
stem,  or  rachis.  The  reproductive 
organs  comprise  three  stamens 
and  a  double  feathery  stigma. 
Before  blossoming,  these  organs 
are  enclosed  by  the  flowering 
glume  and  the  palea,  which  con- 
stitute the  hull  or  husk,  later  en- 
veloping the  ripened  kernel. 
With  the  hull  removed  the 
kernel  resembles  that  of  wheat 
in  form,  having,  like  it,  a  furrow 
on  the  side  opposite  the  germ. 
The  hull  constitutes  from  10 
to  25  per  cent,  of  the  grain. 
The  portion  of  the  kernel  sur- 
rounding the  germ,  known  as  the 
endosperm,  varies  in  texture  and 
color  from  nearly  white  to  glassy 
or  flinty.  Barley  contains  more 
starch  and  more  crude  fibre  than 
wheat.  The  straw  of  the  two 
plants  is  similar  in  composition. 
The  legal  weight  per  bushel  of  the 
grain  is  usually  48  lbs. 

There  are  two  well-defined 
types  of  barley — the  two-rowed 
and  the  six-rowed  type.  In  the 
two-rowed  type  only  the  middle 
spikelet  on  each  joint  of  the 
rachis  develops  a  grain,  while  in 
the  six-rowed  type  all  spikelets 
are  prolific.  In  the  so-called 
four-rowed  varieties  the  outer 
rows  of  grains  are  dovetailed 
so  that  only  four  rows  are  ap- 
parent. There  is  also  a  hull-less 
type  of  barley  in  which  the  hull 
does  not  adhere  to  the  kernel. 
Chevalier  is  a  common  two- 
rowed  variety,  Manshury  a  well- 
known  six-rowed  sort,  and 
Guy  Mayle  one  of  the  principal 
hull-less  barleys. 

Barley  has  a  wide  distribution. 
It  thrives  best  on  a  friable,  cal- 
careous, well-drained  loam  soil 
and  is  preferably  grown  after 
a  hoed  crop  like  corn.  Manure  is 
not  applied  directly  to  the 
crop,  but  commercial  fertilizers 
are  used  with  good  effect.  A 
fine  tilth  and  a  good  physical 
condition  of  the  soil  are  required 
for  proper  germination  and 
growth.  In  the  United  States 
and  Canada  and  many  parts  of 
Europe  the  seed  is  .sown  in  the 
spring,  but  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean barley  is  a  fall  crop  and 
in  some  of  the  Southern  States 
of  America  it  is  a  winter  crop. 
From  8  to  10  pecks  of  seed  are 
sown  per  acre  either  in  drills  or 
broadcast.  Drilling  is  said  to 
give  better  results.  The  crop 
matures  on  an  average  in  about 
eighty-five  days.  It  is  harvested 
when  quite  fully  ripe,  and  the 
work  is  done  rapidly  to  avoid 
exposure  to  rains.  The  sheaves 
are  stacked  when  dry  and  after 
having  gone  through  the  sweat 
are  threshed. 

Barley  is  used  principally  for 
malting,  breakfast  food  prepara- 
tions, flour,  and  for  feed.  It  is 
also  used  as  a  thickening  for 
soups  and  barley  water  is  often 
employed  in  the  care  and  treat- 

VOL.  I.— March  '27 


ment  of  infants  and  invalids. 
The  crop  is  grown  for  hay,  and 
the  straw  is  used  for  forage  and 
bedding.  From  30  to  40  bushels 
of  grain  per  acre  is  a  good  yield. 
The  average  yield  per  acre  in  the 
United  States  is  about  27  bushels. 

The  most  common  diseases  to 
which  barley  is  liable  are  loose 
smut  and  covered  smut.  The  for- 
mer is  caused  by  the  fungus 
Ustilago  nuda  and  may  be  con- 
trolled by  soaking  the  seed  in 
cold  water  for  about  four  hours, 
and  then  in  very  hot  water  for 
from  10  to  15  minutes.  Covered 
smut  is  caused  by  the  fungus 
Ustilago  hordei  and  is  similar  to 
the  bunt  of  wheat.  It  can  be 
controlled  by  the  use  of  formal- 
dehyde. 

Statistics. — In  1925  the  world 
production  of  barley  was  esti- 
mated at  1,689,000,000  bushels, 
of  which  about  335,000,000 
bushels  were  grown  in  North 
America,  about  921,000,000 
bushels  in  Europe,  and  about 
152,000,000  bushels  in  Asia.  In 
the  United  States  in  1925  the 
production  was  218,002,000  bush- 
els with  a  farm  value  of  $127,- 
653,000.  The  leading  States  are 
North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Cali- 
fornia, and  South  Dakota. 

Barleycorn,  an  old  British 
measure  of  length  =  >^  inch. 

Barlow,  Francis  Channing 
(1834-96),  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  He 
was  graduated  from  Harvard 
in  1855,  and  in  the  Civil  War 
was  a  prominent  officer  on 
the  Federal  side,  rising  from 
the  rank  of  private  (April 
19,  1861)  to  that  of  major- 
general  of  volunteers  (May 
25,  1865).  He  commanded 
a  brigade  at  Chancellorsville 
and  a  division  at  Gettysburg, 
and  in  the  final  campaign  of 
Grant  against  Lee,  during  which 
he  particularly  distinguished 
himself  at  Spottsylvania.  After 
the  war  he  was  a  prominent 
lawyer  in  New  York.  He  was 
one  of  the  organizers  of  the  Bar 
Association  of  New  York  City 
(1871),  and  as  attorney-general 
of  the  State  (1872-3)  was  en- 
gaged in  the  pro.secution  of  the 
members  of  the  'Tweed  Ring.' 

Barlow,  Henry  Clark  (1806- 
76),  English  writer  on  Dante, 
was  born  in  Newington  Butts, 
Surrey,  was  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh University,  and  in  1850 
published  Remarks  on  the  Reading 
of  the  59th  Verse  of  the  5th  Canto 
of  Dante's  Inferno.  He  later 
devoted  some  time  to  collating 
Dante  Mss.  on  the  Continent 
and  in  England,  and  from  1857 
to  1864  published  many  papers 
on  his  favorite  subject.  In  1864 
appeared  his  principal  work, 
Critical,  Historical  and  Philo- 
sophical Contributions  to  the 
Study  of  the  'Divina  Commedia,' 
and  the  following  year  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in,  and  wrote  a 


description  of,  the  sixth  Dante 
centenary  celebration  in  Flor- 
ence. He  endowed  a  course  of 
lectures  on  Dante  at  the  Uni- 
versity College,  London.  He 
also  published  Essays  on  Sym- 
bolism (1866). 

Barlow,  Jane  (1860-1917), 
Irish  novelist,  was  born  in  Cion- 
tarf  near  Dublin.  She  is  best 
known  as  a  sympathetic  inter- 
preter of  Irish  village  life.  Her 
writings  include  Bogland  Studies 
(1892);  Irish  Idylls  (1892);  Ker- 
rigan's Quality  (1893) ;  The  End  of 
Elfintown  (1894) ;  The  Battle  of  the 
Frogs  and  Mice  (1894);  Strangers 
at  Lisconnel  (1895);  Creel  of 
Irish  Stories  (1897);  From  ike 
East  unto  the  West  (1898);  From 
the  Land  of  the  Shamrock  (1900); 
Ghostbereft  (1902);  From  Beach 
and  Bog  Land  (1905) ;  Doings  and 
Dealings  (1912);  Between  Doubt- 
ing and  Daring  (1917). 

Barlow,  Joel  (1754-1812), 
American  poet  and  public  official, 
was  born  in  Redding,  Conn.,  and 
was  graduated  (1778)  from  Yale. 
He  was  a  chaplain  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary army,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  Hartford,  and  there 
published  a  paper,  becoming 
known  as  one  of  the  'Hartford 
wits.'  He  visited  France  (1788- 
91)  as  agent  of  a  land  company 
and  entered  French  politics  as  a 
Girondist;  then  went  to  England 
(1792),  and  because  of  his 
political  activities  was  obliged 
to  return  to  France,  where  ne 
wrote  his  most  popular  poem. 
Hasty  Pudding  (1792),  and  re- 
ceived rights  of  citizenship.  In 
1795  he  was  American  consul  at 
Algiers,  and  in  1811-12  was 
United  States  minister  to  France. 
He  joined  Napoleon  in  Russia, 
and  died  in  Poland  during  the 
disastrous  retreat.  His  writings 
include  The  Vision  of  Columbus 
(1787),  enlarged  (1807)  as  The 
Columbiad,  and  The  Conspiracy 
of  Kings  (1792).  Consult  Life 
by  Todd. 

Barlow,  William  Henry 
(1812-1902),  English  engineer, 
was  born  in  Woolwich.  He  was 
associated  with  the  building  of 
St.  Pancras  station,  London,  the 
Clifton  Suspension  Bridge  (1861), 
and  the  new  Tay  Bridge 
(1880-7),  and  advised  on  the 
plans  of  the  Forth  Bridge.  He 
was  influential  in  the  adoption 
of  mild  (Bessemer)  steel  in  the 
construction  of  bridges  and  ships. 

Barlowe,  or  Barlow,  Arthur 
(c.  1550 -c.  1620),  English  navi- 
gator. In  1584,  in  company  with 
Philip  Amidas  (or  Amadas), 
each  commanding  a  small  vessel, 
he  visited  the  coast  of  North 
America  for  the  purpose  of 
examining  the  country  and  se- 
lecting a  site  for  the  establish- 
ment of  Raleigh's  proposed 
colony.  His  report  led  Raleigh  to 
select  Roanoke  Island,  off"  the 
coast  of  North  Carolina.  Consult 
Hakluyt's  Principall  Voyages  


Barm 


585 


Barnard 


(1599-1600),  and  in  Payne's  Voy- 
ages of  the  Elizabethan  Seamen  to 
America  (1880). 

Barm,  or  Brewer's  Yeast. 
See  Yeast. 

Barmecides,  bar'mg-sidz,  a  rich 
and  influential  Persian  family 
who  came  to  power  under  the 
Abbaside  caliphs  of  ■  Bagdad. 
One  member,  Khalid-ibn-Ber- 
mek,  was  prime  minister  to  the 
first  two  Abbasides.  Khalid's 
son  Yahya  acted  as  tutor  and 
companion  to  Haroun  al-Raschid 
(q.v.),  and  after  Haroun's  ac- 
cession to  the  caliphate  (786)  be- 
came his  vizier,  with  unlimited 
power.  One  of  Yahya's  sons, 
Jaafar,  was  greatly  beloved  by 
Haroun  and  became  his  intimate 
companion  but,  in  spite  of  this, 
he  and  all  the  Barmecide  family 
were  put  to  death  (803),  without 
known  cause,  by  order  of  the 
caliph.  Jaafar's  virtues  and  his 
tragic  fate  are  a  popular  subject 
in  Persian  literature. 

The  expression  Feast  of  the 
Barmecides  comes  from  one  of 
the  tales  in  the  Arabian  Nights 
Entertainments  which  deals  with 
a  wholly  imaginary  banquet  set 
by  one  of  the  family  before  a 
beggar  named  Schacabac, 

Bar 'men,  city,  province  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Wupper, 
25  miles  northeast  of  Cologne 
and  adjacent  to  Elberfeld.  It  is 
a  pleasant,  clean  town,  the  seat 
of  extensive  manufactures  of  rib- 
bons, twine,  thread,  trimmings, 
buttons,  chemicals,  cottons,  and 
silks,  with  dye  works  (Turkey 
red)  and  calico-printing  works. 
Pop.  (1910)  169,214. 

Barn.    See  Farm  Buildings. 

Bar'nabas,  otherwise  Joses  or 
Joseph,  a  Levite,  born  in  Cyprus, 
and  one  of  Paul's  most  distin- 
guished fellow-workers.  He  comes 
before  us  in  Acts  iv.  36  as  one 
who  has  generously  surrendered 
to  the  apostles  the  money  he  had 
received  from  the  sale  of  a  field. 
He  afterward  introduces  Paul  to 
the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and  a 
little  later  joins  him  in  his  first 
missionary  journey.  When  about 
to  start  on  a  second  expedition, 
a  difference  arouse  between  the 
pair,  and  they  separated;  but 
they  were  ultimately  reconciled. 

Barnabas,  Epistle  of,  an  im- 
portant Christian  work  found  in 
some  early  Mss.  of  the  Bible,  and 
actually  accepted  as  genuine  by 
Origen  and  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria. Its  spurious  character  was 
generally  admitted  by  the  time 
of  Eusebius.  It  consists  of  two 
parts:  (1)  Chapters  1  to  17,  de- 
signed to  instruct  the  reader  in 
true  Christian  knowledge  (gno- 
sis), especially  as  regards  the  re- 
lation of  Christianity  to  the  Old 
Testament  dispensation;  and  (2) 
Chapters  18  to  21,  a  delineation 
of  the  'two  ways' — the  accept- 
ance or  rejection  of  the  Christian 
life.  The  latter  portion  of  the 
Vol.  I.— Mar. '23 


epistle  is  closely  related  to  the 
Didache,  and  Holtzmann  be- 
lieves both  to  be  redactions  of  a 
work  called  The  Two  Ways.  From 
a  literary  standpoint  the  epistle 
has  little  merit.  Harnack  dates 
the  epistle  about  130-131  a.d.; 
Lightfoot,  earlier  than  79  a.d. 

Bar'nabites,  a  religious  order, 
founded  in  Milan  in  1530,  under 
the  name  of  'Regular  Clerks  of 
St.  Paul,'  but  popularly  styled 
'Barnabites,'  from  St.  Barnabas, 
the  church  in  which  they  assem- 
bled. The  order  extended  from 
Italy  to  Germany,  France,  and 
Austria.  Expelled  in  1880  from 
France,  they  now  form  some 
twenty  colleges,  in  Italy,  Austria, 
and  Belgium. 

Bar'naby,  Sir  Nathaniel 
(1829-1915),  British  naval  archi- 
tect, was  born  in  Chatham,  and 
was  apprenticed  as  a  shipwright 
at  Sheerness  in  1843.  From 
1855  to  1885  he  was  employed  at 
the  Admiralty,  and  assisted  in 
the  designing  and  construction  of 
nearly  all  the  vessels  built  for  the 
British  navy  during  these  years. 
He  was  chief  naval  architect  and 
director  of  naval  construction, 
from  1870  to  1885,  and  was  the 
author  of  many  books  on  naval 
construction.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Institute  of 
Naval  Architects. 

Bar'nacle,  a  name  applied  gen- 
erally to  the  members  of  the  crus- 
tacean order  Cirripedia.  The 
Ship  or  Goose  Barnacle  (Lepas) 
consists  of  a  fleshy  stalk  attach- 
ing the  animal  to  floating  wood, 
and  a  series  of  five  white  calcare- 
ous shells  at  the  end  of  the  stalk, 
enclosing  six  pairs  of  branched 


Ship  Barnacle. 


appendages  (cirri).  By  means 
of  these  cirri  the  animal  filters 
from  the  water  the  minute  par- 
ticles on  which  it  feeds.  Except 
for  them,  it  shows  in  adult  life 
practically  no  definite  crustacean 
character;  but  the  study  of  de- 
velopment shows  that  it  must 
have  arisen  from  a  typically 
crustacean  stock.  In  the  United 
States  the  name  is  applied  popu- 
larly to  the  non-stalked  or  sessile 
sorts  ( Balanus) ,  which  cover  rocks, 


wharf-piles,  and  the  like,  between 
tidemarks  with  their  white  acorn- 
shaped  shells. 

Barnacle,  or  Bernicle  Goose 
(Branta  leucopsis),  an  Arctic  bird, 
'  gray  and  black  in  color,  with 
white  markings  and  black  bill 
and  feet,  about  25  inches  in 
length  and  weighing  about  five 
pounds.  It  migrates  southward 
during  winter  as  far  as  the  Med- 
iterranean and  the  Central  United 
States,  and  is  greatly  prized  by 
the  hunter.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  curious  tale  that 
these  birds  were  produced  from 
fir  timber  tossed  about  at  sea,  to 
which  they  were  at  first  attached 
like  eggs  (see  Barnacle). 

Bar'nard,  Lady  Anne,  nee 
Lindsay  (1750-1825),  author  of 
the  haWad  Auld  Robin  Gray.  She 
was  born  in  Fifeshire,  Scotland, 
and  spent  the  greater  part  of  her 
early  life  there.  In  1793  she  mar- 
ried Andrew  Barnard,  son  of  the 
bishop  of  Limerick  and  went  with 
him  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
where  he  held  a  colonial  secre- 
taryship. Upon  his  death,  in 
1807,  she  returned  to  London  to 
live.  Lady  Anne's  chief  claim 
to  fame  is  the  ballad,  Auld  Robin 
Gray  (1771),  whose  authorship 
was  unknown  until  she  confessed 
it  to  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  a  letter 
written  in  1823. 

Barnard,  Edward  Emerson 
(1857-  ),  American  astronomer, 
was  born  in  Nashville,  Tenn.  As 
a  boy  he  was  interested  in  pho- 
tography and  astronomy,  study- 
ing the  latter  by  himself  before 
entering  Vanderbilt  University, 
from  which  he  was  graduated  in 
1887.  From  1883  to  1887  he 
was  in  charge  of  the  observatory 
at  Vanderbilt;  from  1887  to  1895 
was  astronomer  at  the  Lick  Ob- 
servatory, Cal.;  and  after  that 
professor  of  practical  astronomy 
at  the  University  of  Chicago  and 
astronomer  at  the  Yerkes  Ob- 
servatory Williams  Bay,  Wis- 
consin. He  discovered  the  5th 
satellite  of  Jupiter  (1892)  and  16 
comets,  and  is  known  for  his  im- 
portant work  in  celestial  pho- 
tography. 

Barnard,  Fredrick  Augus- 
tus Porter  (1809-89),  American 
mathematician  and  educator, 
was  born  in  Sheffield,  Mass.  He 
was  graduated  from  Yale  in  1828 
and  taught  in  the  public  schools 
of  Hartford  and  in  the  Hartford 
Deaf  and  Dumb  Asylum.  From 
1837  to  1854  he  was  professor, 
first  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  and  later  of  chemis- 
try and  natural  history,  in  the 
University  of  Alabama.  He  was 
professor  of  mathematics,  as- 
tronomy, and  natural  history 
(1854-6),  and  president  and 
chancellor  (1856-61)  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Mississippi,  and  in 
1856  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
Church.  In  1864  he  was  elected 
president  of  Columbia  College, 


Barnard 


586 


Barnburners 


which  position  he  held  until  1888, 
when  he  resigned  because  of  ill 
health.  During  his  long  connec- 
tion with  Columbia  he  did  much 
for  its  advancement  and  im- 
provement, transforming  it  into 
one  of  the  great  universities  of 
the  country.  He  bequeathed  to 
it  the  bulk  of  his  property,  and 
Barnard  College  (q.v.)  is  named 
for  him.  He  was  one  of  the  in- 
corporators of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences;  U.  S.  com- 
missioner to  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tions of  1867  and  1878,  and  edi- 
tor-in-chief of  Johnson's  New 
Universal Encyclopcedia.  His  pub- 
lications include  Letters  on  Col- 
legiate Government  (1855);  His- 
tory of  the  United  States  Coast 
Survey  (1857);  Recent  Progress  in 
Science  (1869);  and  The  Metric 
System  (1871). 

Barnard,  George  Grey  (1863- 
),  American  sculptor,  was  born 
at  Bellefonte,  Pa.,  and  studied 
at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts, 
Paris,  1884-7.  He  exhibited  at 
the  Paris  Salon,  and  received 
gold  medals  at  the  Paris  exposi- 
tion of  1900,  the  Pan-American 
exposition  at  Buffalo,  1901,  and 
the  St.  Louis  Exposition,  1904. 
Among  his  works  are  Brotherly 
Love;  Two  Natures;  The  God  Pan 
(Central  Park,  New  York);  The 
Hewer;  Adam  and  Eve;  statues 
for  the  State  Capitol,  Harrisburg, 
Pennsylvania,  and  busts  of  lead- 
ing Americans.  He  made  his 
home  in  New  York  City  after 
1896.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
Sculpture  Society. 

Barnard,  Henry  (1811-1900), 
American  writer  on  education, 
was  born  in  Hartford,  Conn. 
He  was  graduated  (1830)  from 
Yale,  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
necticut Legislature  (1837-40), 
and  became  identified  with  school 
and  prison  reform.  After  serv- 
ing as  school  commissioner  of 
Rhode  Island  (1843-9),  he  was 
president  of  the  University  of 
Wisconsin  (1857-9)  and  of  St. 
John's  College,  Annapolis  (1865- 

6)  ;  and  first  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Education  (1867-70).  He  or- 
ganized the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, and  founded  (1855)  the 
American  Journal  of  Education, 
of  which  he  was  long  editor.  His 
numerous  papers  were  published 
in  1886  as  American  Library  of 
Schools  and  Education. 

Barnard,  John  Gross  (1815- 
82),  American  soldier,  was  born 
in  Sheffield,  Mass.  He  was 
graduated  from  West  Point  in 
1833,  was  assigned  to  the  engi- 
neer corps,  and  won  the  brevet  of 
major  in  the  Mexican  War  (1846- 

7)  .  In  1850-1  he  was  chief  of 
the  commission  which  surveyed 
the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  and 
in  1855-6  was  superintendent  of 
West  Point.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  was  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished military  engineers  in 
the   Federal   service.    He  was 

Vol.  I. — Mar.  '23 


commissioned  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  September,  1861; 
was  chief-engineer  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  under  General 
McClellan,  in  1862;  was  on  the 
staff  of  General  Grant  from 
June.  1864,  to  April,  1865;  arid 
was  brevetted  major-general  in 
the  volunteer  service  (1864)  and 
in  the  regular  service  (1865). 

Barnard  Castle,  market  town, 
county  Durham,  England,  situ- 
ated on  the  Tees;  15  miles  north- 
west of  Darlington.  It  has  a 
fine  town  hall  and  a  large  art 
museum.  The  manufacture  of 
fiax-thread  is  the  chief  industry. 
John  Baliol,  the  Scottish  king, 
was  a  native  of  the  place.  Pop. 
(1921)  4,737. 

Barnard  College,  New  York 
City,  the  undergraduate  college 
for  women  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity (q.v.),  founded  in  1889,  and 
named  for  F.  A.  P.  Barnard 
(q.v.),  president  of  Columbia, 
who  worked  for  many  years  to 
introduce  coeducation  into  that 
institution.  As  originally  or- 
ganized, the  college  was  affiliated 
with  the  university,  having  in- 
structors selected  from  the  teach- 
ing staff  there,  but  this  arrange- 
ment was  found  to  be  unsatis- 
factory, and  in  1900  the  college 
assumed  its  present  status,  where- 
by it  has  a  separate  corporate 
and  financial  organization  and 
separate  internal  administration 
under  a  dean  and  a  provost.  The 
president  of  Columbia,  however, 
is  also  the  president  of  Barnard, 
and  all  degrees  are  conferred  by 
Columbia.  Barnard  students  are 
allowed  to  register  in  certain 
graduate  courses  and  have  other 
privileges  of  the  university.  A 
liberal  course  of  instruction  leads 
to  the  degree  a.b. 

The  buildings  of  the  college 
occupy  a  site  on  Broadway  just 
west  of  Columbia,  and  include 
Milbank,  Brinckerhoff,  and  Fiske 
Halls,  erected  in  1896;  Brooks 
Hall,  the  main  residence  hall 
(1907);  and  Students'  Hall  (1917). 

For  recent  statistics  see  Table 
of  American  Colleges  and  Uni- 
versities under  College. 

Barnar'do,  Thomas  John 
(1845-1905),  English  philanthro- 
pist, was  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland. 
He  was  employed  for  a  time  in  a 
merchant's  office  but,  as  a  result 
of  a  religious  revival  in  Dublin, 
entered  London  Hospital  to  fit 
himself  for  missionary  service  in 
China.  He  decided  later  to  de- 
vote himself  to  work  among  the 
destitute  children  of  England, 
and  in  1867  opened  the  East  End 
Juvenile  Mission.  In  '1873  he 
founded  a  village  home  for  train- 
ing girls,  at  Ilford,  in  Essex,  and 
in  1879  established  the  first  of 
the  Dr.  Barnardo  Homes.  Other 
homes  and  workshops  followed; 
an  emigration  agency  for  the 
transportation  of  young  people 
to  Canada  was  organized;  and 


homes  for  incurables  and  cripples 
were  established  at  Berkdale, 
Harrowgate  and  Tunbridge  Wells. 
The  children  of  the  well-to-do 
were  enlisted  in  the  work  through 
the  formation,  in  1891,  of  the 
Young  Helpers'  League.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  over  60,000 
children  had  been  rescued  and 
helped. 

Barna'to,  Barnett  Isaacs 
(1852-97),  South  African  finan- 
cier, was  the  son  of  humble  Jew- 
ish parents  (Isaacs)  of  Aldgate, 
London.  In  1873  he  went  to 
South  Africa  as  a  conjurer  and 
entertainer,  assumed  the  name  of 
Barnato,  and  became  a  diamond 
dealer  at  Kimberley.  There  he 
built  up  a  great  business,  which, 
as  Barnato  Brothers  in  London 
(1880),  and  the  Barnato  Dia- 
mond Mining  Company  at  Kim- 
berley (1881),  rivalled  in  power 
and  enterprise  the  De  Beers 
group,  of  which  Cecil  Rhodes  was 
the  head.  In  1888  the  two  great 
companies  amalgamated.  Re- 
turning from  South  Africa  in  ill 
health  in  1897,  he  threw  himself 
overboard  from  the  liner  Scot. 

Barnaul,  bar-na-ool',  capital  of 
a  district  in  the  government  of 
Tomsk,  Siberia,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Upper  Ob;  238  miles  south- 
west of  Tomsk.  It  lies  in  a  dis- 
trict rich  in  lead,  copper,  iron, 
and  silver,  and  has  a  mineral 
museum  and  soda  factories.  Pop. 
30,000. 

Barnave,  bar'nav',  Antoine 
Pierre  Joseph  Marie  (1761- 
93),  French  revolutionist,  was 
born  in  Grenoble  and  represented 
his  native  city  in  the  Assembly 
(1789).  He  was  a  leader  of  the 
extreme  party  in  the  early  days 
of  the  Revolution  but  opposed 
personal  violence  toward  the 
king  and  the  royal  family,  and 
displayed  great  courtesy  to  them 
when  acting  as  commissioner  to 
lead  Louis  xvi.  back  from  Va- 
rennes  to  Paris.  His  growing  ad- 
vocacy of  moderate  measures  led 
to  his  being  suspected  of  royalist 
sentiments,  and  he  was  de- 
nounced to  the  Assembly,  and 
was  guillotined. 

Barnay,  bar'ni,  LUDWIG  (1842- 

),  German  actor,  was  born  at 
Budapest,  where  he  met  with  his 
first  great  success  in  1861.  He 
afterward  played  in  the  principal 
cities  of  Germany  and  Austria, 
notably  Mainz,  Weimar,  and 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  in 
1888  founded  in  Berlin  a  theatre 
of  his  own.  This  he  conducted 
until  1894,  when  he  retired  into 
private  life.  His  principal  char- 
acters were  Hamlet,  King  Lear, 
Othello,  William  Tell,  Wallen- 
stein,  and  Kean. 

Barnburners,  a  faction  of  the 
Democratic  Party  in  New  York 
State  (1844-52).  The  name, 
which  was  first  used  about  1844, 
originated  in  a  comparison  be- 
tween their  rigorous  demands  for 


Barnby 


587 


Barney 


reform  and  the  policy  of  a  Dutch- 
man who  set  fire  to  his  barn  to 
drive  out  the  rats.  They  exerted 
perhaps  a  determining  influence  in 
the  presidential  election  of  1848. 
Refusing  to  share  with  their  rivals, 
the  'Hunkers,'  the  representa- 
tion of  Nevsr  York  in  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention  of  1848, 
they  withdrew  from  the  conven- 
tion and  refused  to  support  Lewis 
Cass  nominated  by  it.  Subse- 
quently they  joined  with  the  Free 
Soilers  in  supporting  Van  Buren, 
and  by  withholding  their  votes 
from  the  Democratic  candidates 
brought  about,  indirectly,  the 
triumph  of  the  Whigs.  A  partial 
reconciliation  between  the  Barn- 
burners (then  called  'Softs')  and 
the  Hunkers  took  place  in  1852. 

Barnby,  Sir  Joseph  (1838-96), 
English  musician  and  composer, 
was  a  native  of  York.  Educated 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
he  held  the  following  offices:  or- 

§anist  of  St.  Andrew's,  Wells 
treet,  London  (1S62);  conductor 
of  Barnby's  choir  (1864-71);  con- 
ductor of  the  Albert  Hall  Roval 
Choral  Society  from  1871  till  his 
death;  precentor  and  director  of 
music  at  Eton  (1875V,  and  princi- 

Kal  of  the  Guildhall  School  of 
lusic  (1892).  He  was  knighted 
in  1892.  Composer  of  numerous 
hymn  tunes,  part  songs,  and  the 
oratorio  Rebekah  (1881). 

Barnegat  Bay,  Atlantic  coast 
of  Ocean  co..  New  Jersey.  Island 
Beach  and  Long  Beach  protect  it 
from  the  ocean.  Between  these  is 
Barnegat  Inlet,  at  the  mouth  of 
which  is  a  light-house.  Good 
fishing  and  an  abundance  of  wild 
fowl  make  the  bay  a  resort  for 
sportsmen.  Barnegat  City,  on 
Long  Beach,  is  a  summer  resort. 

Barnes,  par.,  Surrey,  England, 
on  L.  &  S.  W.  Ry.,  and  on  r.  bk.  of 
R.  Thames,  7  m.  s.w.  of  London. 
Area,  909  ac.  of  land  and  119  of 
water.    Pop.  (1911)  30.379. 

Barnes,  Albert  (1798-1870), 
American  theologian,  was  born 
at  Rome,  N.  Y.,  and  graduated 
(1820)  at  Hamilton  College.  He 
studied  theology  at  Princeton,  and 
was  pastor  of  the  First  Presby- 
terian Church  in  Philadelphia, 
1830-67.  During  this  period  his 
Notes  on  the  Scriptures  were  pub- 
lished and  obtained  an  enormous 
circulation.  He  was  tried  for 
heresy,  and  acquitted,  for  his 
annotations  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  but  was  advised  to  alter 
the  phraseology,  which  he  did. 
He  joined  the  new-school'  Pres- 
byterians at  the  time  of  the  sepa- 
ration. His  numerous  writings 
were  collected  and  published  as 
Theological  Works  (1872). 

Barnes,  Alfred  Smith  (1817- 
88),  American  publisher,  was  born 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  and 
worked  on  a  farm  and  in  a  shoe 
store  before  taking  employment 
(1831)  in  D.  F.  Robinson's  book- 


store at  Hartford.  In  1838  Mr. 
Barnes  entered  into  a  partnership 
with  Prof.  Charles  Davies  for  the 
publication  of  the  latter's  books, 
and  established  the  firm  of  A.  S. 
Barnes  &  Co.  at  Hartford.  Suc- 
cessful from  the  start,  it  removed 
to  Philadelphia,  1840,  and  to  New 
York,  1845,  where  it  afterward 
remained,  five  of  Mr.  Barnes's 
sons  eventually  entering  the  firm 
as  partners.  Mr.  Barnes  made 
his  home  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and 
was  a  liberal  benefactor  of  that 
city's  institutions,  and  of  mission- 
ary societies.  He  also  left  $45,000 
for  the  building  of  Barnes  Hall, 
the  Y.M.C.A.  building  at  Cornell 
University. 

Barnes,  Thomas  (1786-1841), 
English  journalist.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Christ's  Hospital  and  at 
Pembroke  College,  Cambridge. 
He  was  from  1817  till  his  death 
editor  of  the  Times,  which  under 
his  guidance  first  assumed  its 
commanc  ing  position  in  jovrnal- 
ism.  He  was  at  first  violently 
radical,  but  moderated  his  views 
with  advancing  years,  although 
he  was  a  vigorous  supporter  of 
the  Reform  Bill. 

Barnes,  William  (1800-86), 
English  poet  and  clergyman,  was 
born  at  Rushay,  near  Salisbury. 
His  first  volume — Orra:  a  Lap- 
land Tale — was  published  in  1822. 
He  became  master  of  a  school  at 
Mere  in  Wiltshire  in  1823,  re- 
turning to  Dorchester  in  1835.  He 
was  ordained  in  1847,  and  became 
curate  at  Whitcombe  in  1847,  and 
rector  of  Winterbourne  Came, 
near  Dorchester,  in  1862,  where 
he  died.  He  began  to  write  his 
Dorset  poems  in  1833,  publishing 
Poems  of  Rural  Life  in  the  Dorset 
Dialect  (1844),  Hwomely  Rhymes 
(1857).  and  a  third  volume  in  1863. 
A  combined  edition  was  published 
in  1879,  under  the  first  title.  He 
was  a  lyric  writer  of  a  high  order. 
In  his  verses,  which  are  homely 
and  tender,  and  full  of  the  joy  of 
life,  he  never  leaves  the  pleasant 
fields  of  his  native  Dorsetshire. 
See  his  Life  (1887)  by  his  daughter, 
Mrs.  Baxter  ('Leader  Scott'). 

Barnesville.  (1.)  Vil.,  Belmont 
CO.,  O.,  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  R.  R.  There  are  manufac- 
tures of  glass  and  car- wheels.  Pop. 
(1910)  4,233.  (3.)  Tn.,  Pike  co., 
Ga.,  on  the  Central  of  Georgia 
R.  R.  The  Gordon  Institute  is 
located  here,  and  there  are  car- 
riage factories.   Pop.  (1910)  3,068. 

Barnet,  High  IJarnet,  or 
Chipping  Barnet,  mrkt.  tn., 
Hertfordshire,  England,  11  m.  N. 
of  London,  on  G.  N.  Ry.  Here,  in 
1471,  Edward  of  York  defeated 
the  Lancastrians  under  Warwick. 
An  obelisk  marks  the  spot  where 
Warwick  made  his  last  stand. 
Pop.  (1911)  10,440. 
_  Barnott,  John  (1802-90),  Eng- 
lish musical  composer  and  singer, 
born  at  Bedford,  pupil  of  Arnold; 


composed  songs,  part  songs,  in- 
strumental music,  and  operas, 
including  The  Mountain  Sylph 
(1834)  and  Fair  Rosamond  (1837), 
and  an  oratorio,  The  Omnipres- 
ence of  the  Deity.  In  1844  he 
published  School  for  the  Voice. 

Barnett,  John  Francis 
(1837),  English  musical  composer, 
nephew  of  John  Barnett;  studied 
at  Royal  Academy  of  Music  and 
Leipzig,  and  became  professor  at 
the  Royal  College  of  Music  and 
the  Guildhall  School  of  Music, 
both  in  London.  He  has  written 
an  oratorio.  The  Raising  of  Laza- 
rus (1876),  produced  with  great 
success  at_  Birmingham;  The  An- 
cient Mariner  (1867),  Paradise  and 
the  Peri  (1870),  The  Lay  of  the 
Last  Minstrel  (1873),  The  Building 
of  the  Ship  (1880),  and  The  Wish- 
ing Bell  (1893),  mostly  cantatas 
composed  for  the  Birmingham, 
Liverpool,  and  Leeds  musical 
festivals. 
Barnett,  Samuel  Augustus 
1844),  canon  of  Bristol  (1893), 
ounder  and  first  warden  of  Toyn- 
bee  Hall,  Whitechapel  (1884), 
which  was  organized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  raising  the  moral  and  in- 
tellectual level  of  a  poorer  part  of 
London  through  the  personal  ex- 
ample of  university  men.  Author 
of  Practical  Socialism  (1893). 

Barneveldt,  Jan  van  Olden: 
(1547-1619),Dutchstatesman,was 
born  near  Utrecht.     After  taking 

Eart  in  an  embassy  to  England, 
e  became  advocate-general  of  the 

Erov.  of  Holland  (1585),  and  the 
ead  of  the  republican  party  in 
the  state  in  opposition  to  Maurice 
of  Nassau,  whose  designs  and  war- 
like policy  he  successfully  op- 
posed, concluding  (1609)  a  twelve 
vears'  truce  with  Spain.  Having 
been  appointed  'grand-pension- 
ary,' he  took  the  side  of  the  Ar- 
minians  against  Maurice's  support 
of  the  Gomarists,  who  were  fa- 
vored by  the  army,  the  clergy, 
and  the  people  of  Holland.  In 
1619,  after  the  condemnation  of 
the  Arminians  by  the  Synod  of 
Dort,  Barneveldt  was  convicted 
of  treason  and  beheaded.  See 
Motley's  Life  of  Barneveldt  (1874). 

Barney,  Joshua  (1759-1818), 
American  naval  officer,  born  at 
Baltimore,  Md.  During  the 
American  Revolution  he  served 
on  various  American  vessels,  in- 
cluding the  Hornet,  The  Wasp, 
the  Virginia,  and  the  Saratoga; 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1776;  was 
three  times  a  prisoner  in  the  hands 
of  the  British;  and  on  April  8, 
1782,  in  command  of  the  Hyder 
AH,  he  captured  the  British  sloop- 
of-war  General  Monk  off  Cape 
May.  He  carried  important 
despatches  to  Benjamin  Franklin, 
then  in  Paris  (1782);  was  in  the 
service  of  France  (1795-1800);  and 
during  the  War  of  1812  com- 
inanded,  as  captain,  the  Amer- 
ican flotilla  in  Chesapeake  Bay 


Barnfleld 


588 


Barometer 


(1814).  and  fought  in  the  battle 
of  Bladensburg,  near  Washington, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded. 
See  Mary  Barney  (ed.),  Bio- 
graphical Memoir  of  the  late 
Commodore  Joshua  Barney  (1832). 

Barnf  ield,  Richard (1574- 
1627),  English  poet,  born  at  Nor- 
bury,  Shropshire.  He  wrote  son- 
nets and  pastorals  in  the  Spen- 
serian manner.  His  best  verses, 
*As  it  fell  upon  a  day,'  were 
printed  as  Shakespeare's  in  The 
Passionate  Pilgrim  (1599).  He 
wrote  The  Affectionate  Shepherd 
(1594);  Cynthia  (1595);  The  Enco- 
mion  of  Lady  Pecunia,  with  Poems 
in  Divers  Humours,  etc.  (1598); 
Collected  Works,  ed.  A.  B.  Grosart 
(1876)  and  E.  Arber  (1882). 

Barnim,  a  district  in  Branden- 
burg, Prussia,  divided  into  Upper 
and  Lower  Barnim,  the  latter  con- 
taining Berlin. 

Barn  Owl.    See  OwL. 

Barnsley,  par.  and  munic.  bor. 
(incorporated  in  1869),  W.  Riding, 
Yorkshire,  on  R.  Dearne,  12  m.  n. 
of  Sheffield.  Coal  is  abundant 
in  the  vicinity,  and  the  town  has 
a  linen  and  paper  industry,  and 
manufactures  of  iron,  steel  and 
glass,  ready-made  clothing,  boots 
and  shoes,  bobbins,  etc.  It  is 
connected  with  Leeds  and  Wake- 
field by  the  Barnslej^  Canal,  and 
contains  a  fine  public  hall  and 
park.  Acreage  of  par.  2,386.  Pop. 
of  munic.  bor.  (1911)  50,623. 

Barnstable,  tn.^  Mass.,  co. 
seat  of  Barnstable  co.,  on  Barn- 
stable Bay  and  on  the  Middle- 
boro  and  Provincetown  branch 
of  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and 
Hartford  R.  R.  It  was  settled  in 
1639,  and  contains  12  villages, 
including  West  Barnstable,  Hy- 
annis  and  Osterville.  There  are 
large    fishery    interests.  Pop. 

(1910)  4.67<^. 

Barnstaple,  munic.  bor.  and 
seapt.  in  Devonshire,  England,  6 
m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Taw,  and  35  m.  N.w.  of  Exeter. 
There  are  manufactures  of  lace 
and  gloves,  and  large  cabinet 
works,  tanneries,  and  potteries 
('Barum  ware').  In  Elizabethan 
days  it  was  a  considerable  seaport, 
and  sent  ships  to  fight  the  Spanish 
Armada.  Its  broadcloth  manufac- 
ture, once  an  important  industry, 
has  now  died  out.  Area  of  par. 
1,361  ac.      Pop.  of  munic.  bor, 

(1911)  14,488. 

Barn  Swallow.    Sec  Swallow. 

Barnum,  Phineas  Taylor 
(1810-91),  American  showman 
was  born  at  Bethel,  Conn.,  and 
kept  store  with  more  or  less  suc- 
cess. His  first  venture  in  the  show 
business  was  the  exhibition  of  a 
colored  woman  said  to  be  167 
years  old.  He  ran  small  shows  in 
the  South,  and  established  Bar- 
num's  Museum  in  New  York, 
1841,  where  he  exhibited  'Gen. 
Tom  Thumb'  and  other  freaks  of 
nature.   He  made  a  large  fortune 


(1849-51)  as  manager  for  Jenny 
Lind.  He  settled  at  Bridgeport, 
Conn.,  and  lost  $1,000,000  by  a 
bankruptcy,  but  was  able  to  start 
again.  After  travelling  with  Tom 
Thumb  in  Europe,  he  again 
opened  his  Museum  (which  was 
burned  two  or  three  times),  and 
established,  1871,  his  'greatest 
show  on  earth,'  which  toured  the 
country  annually,  and  even  visited 
Europe.  Mr.  Barnum  served  in 
the  C^onn.  legislature,  and  made 
several  public  benefactions.  See 
his  Autobiography  (1854  and 
1888);  Humbugs  of  the  World 
(1865);  Struggles  and  Triumphs 
(1869);  Money-getting  (1883);  and 
Life  by  Benton  (1902). 

Barnwell,  Robert  Woodward 
(1801-82),  American  political 
leader,  born  in  Beaufort.  S.  C. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1821, 
practised  law  in  S.  C,  was  a  rep- 
resentative in  Congress  (1829-33), 
was  president  of  South  Carolina 
College  (1834-41  and  1866-73) 
and  was  a  member  of  the  U.  S., 
Senate  (1850-1).  In  Dec,  1860- 
Jan.,  1861,  after  the  secession  of 
S.  C,  he  was  one  of  the  three  com- 
missioners who  visited  Washing- 
ton on  behalf  of  S.  C,  'empow- 
ered to  treat  with  the  government 
of  the  United  States  for  the  deliv- 
ery of  the  forts,  magazines,  light- 
houses, and  other  real  estate  .  .  . 
within  the  limits  of  South  Caro- 
lina.' The  mission  came  to  noth- 
ing, and  Barnwell  was  subse- 
quently a  member  of  the  Provi- 
sional Congress  of  the  Confederate 
states  (1861-2)  and  of  the  Con- 
federate Senate  (1862-5). 

Barocchi.    See  Vignola. 

Baroche,  Pierre  Jules  (1802- 
70),  a  French  lawyer  and  politi- 
cian, who  allied  himself  with  the 
party  of  Napoleon  ill.,  and  was 
successively  Minister  of  the  In- 
terior (1850)  and  of  Foreign  Affairs 
(1851).  After  the  coup  d'etat  of 
1851  he  held  office  as  president  of 
the  Council  of  State.  In  1863  he 
was  Minister  of  Justice;  but  after 
Napoleon's  fall,  in  1870,  he  fled  to 
Jersey,  where  he  died. 

Baroda.  (1.)  State,  situated  in 
the  Gujarat  div.  of  Bombay,  India; 
is  one  of  the  three  large  Mahratta 
feudatories  of  the  British  Indian 
empire,  and  is  ruled  by  a  chief 
called  the  Gaekwar.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  dominion  is  concen- 
trated about  the  centre  of  Gujarat, 
but  strips  of  Baroda  territory  are 
scattered  over  adjacent  British 
districts,  and  intermingled  with  the 
lands  of  other  native  chiefs  in  Ka- 
thiawar.  Area,  8,570  sq.  m.  Pop. 
(1901)  1,950,927  (1,007,944  males, 
942,983  females).  (3.)  Capital  of 
the  feudatory  state  of  the  same 
name,  situated  250  m.  by  rail  N 
of  Bombay,  in  Gujarat,  Bombay, 
India.     Pop.  (1901)  103,782. 

Barograph.   See  Barometer. 

Barometer  (Gr.  'a  measure  of 
weight'),  an  instrument  for  deter- 


mining the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere. An  observation  by 
Galil  leo,  who  remarked  that  water 
would  not  rise  in  a  pump  more 
than  'eighteen  cubits,^  leci  to  the 
discovery,  in  1643,  of  air-pressure 
by  his  pupil  Torricelli.  His  classi- 
cal experiment  consisted  in  filling 
a  tube  about  three  feet  long,  and 
closed  at  one  end,  with  mercury. 
This  he  inverted,  immersing  its 
lower  end  into  a  basin  filled  half 
with  mercury  and  half  with  water. 
The  mercury  descended  in  the 
tube,  remaining  stationary  at  a 
height  of  thirty  inches,  a  vacant 
space  of  about  six  inches  being 


Green  Barometer ,  showing  Section 
of  the  Mercurial  Cisttrn. 


thus  left  at  the  top  of  the  tube, 
which  is  still  known  as  the  'Tor- 
ricellian vacuum.'  On  raising  the 
open  end  of  the  tube  above  the 
level  of  the  mercurv,  but  still 
under  the  surface  of  the  water, 
all  the  mercury  in  the  tube  rushed 
rapidly  out,  its  place  being  taken 
by  the  water,  which  completely 
filled  the  tube.  He  thus  concluded 
that  the  elevation  of  the  column 
of  liq^uid  which  will  stand  in  any 
tube  IS  determined  by  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  liquid  composing 
the  column  and  by  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  In  1648  Pascal 
of  Clermont  proved  the  accuracy 
of  Torricclli's  surmises  by  carry- 


Barometer 

ing  a  barometer  from  Clermont  to 
the  summit  of  the  Puy  de  Dome, 
the  mercury  falling  3.33  in.,  in- 
dicating a  height  of  3,458  ft.  As 
air  is  about  10,000  times  lighter 
than  mercury,  the  height  of  the 
atmosphere  should  be  10,000 
times  30  in.,  or  about  4.7  m.  As, 
however,  its  density  diminishes 
according  to  its  height,  the  actual 
elevation  of  the  gaseous  envelope 
surrounding  the  globe  is  much 
greater  than  4.7  m. 

In  the  construction  of  a  barom- 
eter much  care  has  to  be  taken 
that  pure  mercury,  of  sp.  gr. 
13.594,  is  employed.  This  is  in- 
troduced into  a  glass  tube  about 
34  in.  long,  and  the  mercury  is 
boiled  in  the  tube,  so  that  any  air 
and  moisture  may  be  got  rid  pf. 
The  tube,  which  in  first-class  in- 
struments is  of  large  bore,  stands 
vertically  in  a  cistern  of  mercury. 
The  height  of  the  mercurial  col- 
umn in  the  tube  above  the  level 
of  the  cistern  is  measured  by 
means  of  a  graduated  scale;  but 
if  great  accuracy  is  required,  a 
cathetometer  is  employed.  The 
glass  tube  is  fixed  in  a  frame  to 

Srotect  it  from  damage,  and  the 
ivisions  of  the  scale,  unless  the 
instrument  is  intended  for  use  on 
a  mountain,  vary  from  26  to  32 
in.  In  barometers  for  scientific 
purposes  the  scale  and  the  frame 
are  DOth  made  of  brass,  of  which 
metal  the  expansive  coefificient  is 
well  known.  It  is  thus  possible 
to  make  allowances  for  the  altera- 
tion by  heat  in  the  length  of  the 
scale,  which  has  to  be  taken  into 
account  in  the  reduction  of  baro- 
metric observations  to  a  fixed  tem- 

Eerature.  The  scales  of  wooden 
arometers  are  liable  to  serious 
alteration  in  length  and  shape, 
owing  to  changes  in  the  humidity 
of  the  air. 

In  the  construction  of  the  barom- 
eter several  difiiculties  have  to  be 
overcome.  It  will,  for  example, 
be  readily  understood  that  the 
level  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern 
varies  with  every  movement  of 
the  mercury.  If  it  rises,  mercury  is 
transferred  from  the  cistern  to  the 
tube,  and  the  level  of  the  cistern 
falls.  On  the  other  hand,  should 
the  reverse  process  take  place,  and 
mercury  flow  from  the  tube  to  the 
cistern,  the  level  of  the  mercury 
rises.  As  the  height  of  the  barom- 
eter is  calculated  from  the  level 
of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern,  a 
correction,  known  as  the  'error 
of  capacity,'  is  introduced.  An- 
other source  of  difiiculty  is  how 
to  cover  the  cistern  so  as  to  keep 
the  mercury  from  escaping,  and 
at  the  same  time  render  the  in- 
strument portable  without  affect- 
ing the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
on  the  mercurial  surface  contained 
in  the  cistern.  In  the  Fortin  barom- 
eter this  difficulty  is  eliminated 
by  making  the  bottom  of  the  cis- 
tern of  leather,  while  in  the  Kew 


589 

barometer  a  small  cavity  in  the 
roof  of  the  cistern  is  covered  with 
the  same  material.  The  two  ba- 
rometers specified  are  those  em- 
ployed for  scientific  observation, 
and  in  them  the  'capacity  correc- 
tion' referred  to  is  done  away  with. 
In  the  Fortin  barometer  (Fig.  1) 
a  modified  form  of  which  is  used 
by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  the 
starting-point  of  the  scale  is 
formed  by  an  ivory  pin,  which  is 
placed  in  the  cistern  of  mercury. 
When  a  reading  is  to  be  made,  the 
mercury  is  raised  or  lowered  by 
means  of  a  screw  until  its  surface 


just  touches  ^he  pin,  the  Icwer  end 
of  which  corresponds  with  the 
zero  of  the  scale.  The  Green 
pattern,  used  by  the  Weather 
Bureau  and  American  meteorolo- 
gists, has  the  advantage  of  porta- 
bility as  well  as  affording  the 
desired  accuracy.  By  means  of 
a  vernier  it  can  be  read  to  even 
thousandths  of  an  inch  and  the 
accompanying  sectional  diagram 
shows  its  construction.  In  Fig. 
2  an  ingenious  device  is  shown 
which  facilitates  the  adjustment 
of  the  ivory  point  and  its  image 
as  reflected  on  the  bright  sur- 
face of  the  mercury  below.  The 


Barometer 

Kew  barometer  (Fig.  3)  is  admir- 
ably suited  for  observations  on 
shipboard,  or  in  situations  where 
there  is  much  oscillation.  In 
order  to  check  the  irregular  oscil- 
lation of  the  mercury  due  to  the 
motion  of  the  ship,  a  tube  of  small, 
calibre  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  its^  length  is  employed. 
A  closed  cistern  is  used,  and  a 
scale  of  contracted  inches,  which 
are  shortened  from  the  upper  part 
of  the  tube  downwards  in  propor- 
tion to  the  relation  existmg  be- 
tween the  diameter  of  the  tube 
and    cistern.    In   this    v.-pv  the 


error  of  capacity  is  allowed  for. 
In  the  siphon  barometer  (Fig.  4) 
the  capacity  error  is  got  over  by 
dispensing  with  the  cistern  and 
using  a  U-shaped  tube,  in  which 
the  long  leg  is  closea  and  the 
short  leg  open.  The  ordinary 
wheel  barometer,  or  'weather- 
glassj'  is  of  this  description,  and 
was  invented  in  1665  by  Robert 
Hooke,  secretary  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.  In  this  in- 
strument a  float  attached  to  a 
silk  cord  rests  on  the  mercury  in 
the  open  leg  of  the  siphon,  the 
cord  Dcing  coiled  two  or  three 
times  round  a  fixed  pulley.  A 


Baronicttrs. 

1.  Fortin  Barometer.  2.  Lower  part  enlarged :  a,  Ivory  pin ;  b,  adjusting  screw. 
3.  Kew  Barometer,  i.  Siphon  Barometer. 


Barometer 

light  counterpoise  at  the  other  end 
keeps  the  cord  tight.  The  float 
rising  or  falling,  according  to  the 
motion  of  the  mercury  in  the  closed 
leg  of  the  tube,  causes  a  needle 
indicator  to  move  round  a  gradu- 
ated dial  on  which  the  height  of 
the  mercurial  column  is  engraved. 
As  mercury  expands  59^55 
of  its  bulk  for  every  degree  of 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  it  is 
necessary,  in  taking  observations 
of  scientific  accuracy,  to  apply  a 
correction  for  temperature.  A 
thermometer  is  thus  usually  at- 
tached to  the  barometer  in  such  a 
way  as  to  give  the  temperature  of 
the  barometer  tube  itself.  _  Tables 
have  been  prepared  showing  at  a 
glance  the  corrections  to  be  ap- 
plied for  the  varying  temperature 
of  the  mercurial  column,  tne  read- 
ings being  reduced  to  32°  F.  Those 
published  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  and^  the  U.  S.  Weather 
Bureau  are  available  for  American 
workers.  We  have  seen  that  the 
barometer  reads  lower  on  the  top 
of  a  hill  than  at  its  base,  so  that 
every  barometrical  observation 
has  to  be  reduced  to  mean  sea- 
level.  In  reducing  to  sea-level,  the 
temperature  of  the  air  and  the  ac- 
tual atmospheric  pressure  at  sea- 
level  have  to  be  allowed  for.  In 
pursuance  of  the  recommendation 
of  the  Meteorological  Conference 
(Munich,  Aug.,  1891),  a  firther 
correction,  known  as  the  'gravity 
correction,'  is  given  effect  to,  in 
order  to  allow  for  the  difference 
of  gravity  at  any  given  station 
from  that  at  lat.  45°. 

Barometrical  fluctuations  are 
of  two  kinds — regular  or  periodic, 
and  irregular  or  non-periodic.  Of 
the  regular  oscillations  the  most 
marked  is  the  diurnal  one,  which 
varies  from  a  maximum  of  0.150 
in.  in  the  tropics  to  barely  T^i'oir 
of  an  inch  in  polar  regions.^  The 
seasonal  swing  in  pressure  is  also 
well  marked  in  most  regions  of 
the  globe. 

Barographs,  or  self-registering 
barometers,  are  employed  to  give 
a  continuous  automatic  record  of 
pressure  fluctuations  on  a  revolv- 


Barograph,  or  Self-Registering 
Barometer. 


ing  drum  driven  by  clockwork. 
In  this  class  of^  instrument  the 
record  may  be  either  mechanical 
or  photographic,  the  latter  method 
being  the  more  reliable  owing  to 


590 

the  elimination  of  friction.  One 
of  the  best-known  forms  of  this  in- 
strument is  the  Richard  baro- 
graph, or  recording  aneroid.  See 
Aneroid*  also  works  on  meteor- 
ology ana  meteorological  instru- 
ments, such  as  the  treatises  by 
Cleveland  Abbe  (1887),  R.  H. 
Scott  (1883),  H.  C.  Russell  (1871), 
F.Waldo  (1893),  A.  Buchan  (1868), 
W.  M.  Davis  (1894),  and  J.  W. 
Moore  (1894),  and  especially  the 

Sublications  of  the  U.  S.  Weather 
ureau.  Of  the  latter,  Barometers, 
and  the  Measurement  of  Atmos- 
pheric Pressure  (1901),  by  Prof. 
C.  F.  Marvin,  will  be  found  very 
useful. 

Baron  (A.S.  *a  man'  ),  a  word 
which  has  come  to  mean  first  a 
'king's  man'  and  afterward  a 
I  noble.'  The  title  was  unknown 
in  Britain  prior  to  the  Norman 
conquest,  and  its  earliest  usage 
shows  that  it  was  applied  to  all 
the  feudatories  of  princes,  irre- 
spective of  other  titles  they  held, 
and  therefore  it  included  all  the 
nobility.  Feudatories  were,  in 
early  times,  of  two  classes — (1) 
barons  in  capite,  holding  their 
lands  from  the  king,  these  being 
the  greater  barons;  and  (2)  the 
lesser  barons,  who  held  their  lands 
from  the  great  vassals^  of  the 
king  by  military  tenure  in  capite. 
In  ■  Magna  Charta  this  distinc- 
tion is  observed.  By  the  time  of 
Edward  I.  only  the  greater  barons 
could  claim  to  be  summoned  to 
the  House  of  Lords;  the  sum- 
moning of  the  lesser  barons  fell 
into  desuetude.  The  creation  of 
barons  by  patent  dates  from  the 
time  of  Richard  II. — i.e.  the  year 
1387.  At  the  present  time  barons 
are  of  three  classes,  being  the 
lowest  rank  of  the  nobility  to  have 
a  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords— 
(1)  barons  by_  prescription,  their 
ancestors  having  sat  smce  an  un- 
known and  indefinite  date  in  the 
House  of  Lords;  (2)  barons  by 
patent,  the  dignity  being  granted 
to  them  and  their  heirs  under  the 
conditions  of  the  patent;  and  (3) 
barons  by  tenure,  who  hold  the 
title  as  annexed  to  land.  In  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  barons  have 
scats  in  the  House  of  Lords  only 
when  elected  as  representative 
peers  by  their  order.  A  baron's 
coronet  consists  of  a  gold  circlet 
with  six  pearls  set  _  on  it,  sur- 
rounding a  cap  of  crimson  velvet 
and  ermine. 

Baronet,  originally  a  title  given 
to  the  lesser  barons,  a  meaning 
now  obsolete,  is  a  title  of  heredi- 
tarr  rankj  in  degree  next  to  that 
of  baron,  mstituted  by  James  I.  in 
1611,  professedly  to  support  the 
English  and  Scottish  colonization 
of  Ulster.  Each  baronet  had  to 
pay  the  king  £l  ,080.  The  number 
was  limited  to  200,  but  this  limit 
was  soon  departed  from,_  and  the 
payment  annulled.  A  smilar  Irish 
order  was  instituted  by  James  in 


Barony 

1619,  and  a  Scottish  (the  so-called 
baronets  of  Nova  Scotia)  by 
Charles  I.  in  1625:  but  of  the 
latter  none  have  been  created 
since  the  Union  (1707;;  of  the 
former,  none  since  1801.  In  their 
stead  there  has  been  instituted 
the  baronetcy  of  the  United  King- 
dom or  of  Great  Britain.  The 
badge  of  the  order  is  the  'bloody 
hand  of  Ulster.'     A  baronet  has 

Erecedence  of  all  knights  except 
annerets,  knights  of  the  Garter, 
and  Privy  Councillors. 

Baronius,  C^sar  (1538-1607), 
controversial  historian  of  the_  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church;  born  in  S. 
Italy;  studied  under  St.  Philip 
Neri,  of  whose  congregation  of 
the^  Oratory  he  was  chosen  su- 
perior (1593);  appointed  cardinal 
(1596),  and  librarian  of  the  Vati- 
can (1597).  He  failed  to  attain 
the  papal  chair  in  1605  because 
of  Spanish  political  opposition. 
His  demonstration  of  the  histori- 
cal identity  of  the  Western  with 
the  primitive  Church  is  elaborated 
in  his  famous  Annates  Ecclesias- 
tici  a  Christo  Nato  ad  Annum 
H98  (12  vols.  1588-1607),  written 
in  reply  to  the  Protestant  Magde- 
burg Centuries.  Though  uncriti- 
cal, this  chronicle  is  still  of  value 
to  ecclesiastical  historians;  con- 
tinued by  Raynaldus  and  others 
to  1585,  the  Annals  now  extend 
to  nearly  40  vols,  (last  ed.  1864- 
83).  His  Martyrologium  Romanum 
(1586)  is  a  great  store  of  tradi- 
tion. See  Life  (Ital.)  by  Sarra 
(1862). 

Barons'  War,  The  (1263-7). 
See  England  —  History  (Henry 
III.). 

Barony,  in  England  strictly 
the  domain  of  a  baron,  but  also 
applied  to  the  tenure  by  which 
a  baron  held  of  his  superiorj  also 
military  or  other  *  honorable ' 
tenure.  Originally  every  peer  of 
superior  rank  had  also  a  barony 
annexed  to  his  other  titles,  but  the 
rule  is  not  now  universal.  Ba- 
ronies appertain  also  to  bishops, 
as  they  formerly  did  to  abbots, 
William  the  Conqueror  having 
converted  the  spiritual  tenure  by 
which  they  held  their  lands  under 
the  Saxon  rule  into  the  Norman 
or  feudal  tenure  by  barony.  In 
Scotland  barony  is  applied  to  a 
large  freehold  estate  or  manor, 
even  though  the  proprietor  is  a 
simple  commoner.  A  burgh  of 
barony  is  a  corporation  consisting 
of  the  inhabitants  of  a  determin- 
ate tract  of  territory  within  the 
barony  erected  by  the  king,  and 
subject  to  the  government  of 
magistrates.  Whatever  jurisdic- 
tion belongs  to  the  magistrates 
of  the  burgh,  the  superipr's  juris- 
diction is  cumulative  with  it.  A 
court  baron  is  the  necessary  court 
of  a  manor.  It  was  partly  ju- 
dicial and  partly  administrative. 
Other  manorial  courts  were  the 
customary  court  and  court-leet. 


Barony 


591 


Barramunda 


The  word  barony  is  used  in  Ire- 
land for  a  subdivision  of  a  county. 

Barony.    See  Glasgow. 

Baroque,  a  term  at  first  applied 
to  ill-shaped  pearls,  now  denotes 
fantastic,  bizarre,  and  ^  decadent 
forms  in  art,  and  even  in  nature. 
It  is  specially  used  in  connection 
with  an  arcHitectural  style,  a  de- 
generation of  the  Renaissance. 

Barosma,  a  genus  of  small 
evergreen  S.  African  shrubs  hav- 
ing a  strong  odor;  the  leaves  are 
used  in  medicine  as  a  diuretic, 
under  the  native  name  buchu. 

Barotac  Nuevo,  pueb.,  prov. 
of  Iloilo,  Panay,  Philippine 
Is.,  on  the  1.  bark  of  the  Jalaur 
R.,  16  m.  from  Iloilo.  The  race 
and  language  are  Visayan.  The 
roads  are  good,  connecting  Baro- 
tac Nuevo  with  other  towns. 
There  is  some  trade  in  sugar-cane, 
rice,  coffee,  cattle,  and  pina  cloth. 
Pop.  (1903)  9,904. 

Barotac  Viejo,  pueb.,  prov.  of 
Iloilo,  Panay,  Philippine  Is.,  on 
the  1.  bank  of  small  river  entering 
Iloilo  Strait,  30  m.  N.E.  of  Iloilo. 
Pop.  (1903)  5,339. 

Barotse  Land, or  North-west- 
ern Rhodesia,  a  region  in  the 
Upper  Zambezi,  British  C.  Africa. 
It  extends  from  23°  to  27°  E.,  and 
from  16°  S.  to  its  s.  boundary,  the 
Zambezi.  It  is  well  watered  and 
populous.  The  administrator  of 
N.  W.  Rhodesia  has  his  offi  ial 
residence  at  Lialui,  near  the  Zam- 
bezi, from  which  a  monthly  postal 
service  to  Buluwayo  has  been  es- 
tablished. The  inhabitants  are 
Bantus. 

Barque,  a  three-masted  ship, 
square-rigged  on  the  fore  and 
main  masts,  and  fore-and-aft  on 
the  mizzen.  A  Barquentine  dif- 
fers from  a  barque  in  being  only 
square-rigged  on  the  fore  mast. 

Barquisimeto,  tn.  and  episc. 
see,  cap.  of  the  state  of  Lara, 
Venezuela,  on  the  Barquisimeto 
R.,  170  m.  w.  of  Caracas.  It  is 
connected  by  rail  with  its  port, 
Tucacas,  100  m.  to  the  N.E.  Alt. 
1.840  ft.  It  contains  a  college. 
The  surrounding  district  is  rich  in 
agricultural  products  and  live- 
stock.   Pop.  (1900)  about  32,000. 

Barr,  Amelia  Edith  (1831), 
Anglo-American  author,  was  born 
(Huddleston)  at  Ulverston.  Lan- 
^  cashirc,  England,  and  studied  at 
-sN.  the  Glasgow  high  school.  She 
'  was  married  to  Robert  Barr,  the 
^  son  of  a  Scottish  clergyrnan,  1850, 
..and  came  to  America  with  him  in 
C  1854,  residing  in  Texas  until  his 
v^death  in  1867,  when  she  removed 
to  New  York,  and  thereafter  lived 
V    there  and  at  Cornwall,  N.  Y. 
£>Among  her  numerous  novels  are 
,%Jan  Vedder's  Wife  (1885),  A  Bow 
J^of  Orange  Ribbon  (1886),  Remem- 
V^er  Ihe  Alamo  (1888),  Trinity  Bells 
(1899),  and  Thyra  Varrick  (1903). 

Barr,  Robert  (1850-1912), 
noveHst,  was  born  in  Glasgow; 
educated  in  Toronto,  but  returned 


to  Engiand  in  1881.  Among  his 
works  are:  In  ihe  Midst  of  Alarms 
(1894;  new  ed.  1900);  A  Woman 
Intervenes  (1896);  The  Mutable 
Many  (1897);  The  Countess  Tekla 
(]  899);  The  Strong  Arm;  The  Un- 
changing East,  a  book  of  travels 
(1900);  The  Victors  (1901);  The 
Tempestuous  Petticoat  {19G5).  One 
cf  the  founders  of  the  Idler  maga- 
zire  (18C2). 

Barra.  (1.)  Small  tn.  4  m.  E.  of 
Naples,  and  midway  between  that 
city  and  Mt.  Vesuvius,  Italy;  a  sub- 
urban residence  of  Neapolitans. 
Pop.  (1901)  11,973.  (2.)  Island  and 
par.,  Inverness-shire,  Scotland, 
near  s.  extremity  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides.  Area  of  par.  22,212  ac. 
Pop.  (1901):  isl.  2,362;  par.  2,545. 
(3.)  State,  N.  side  and  near  mouth 
of  R.  Gambia^  W.  Africa,  N.  of 
British  Gambia.  It  is  fertile  but 
marshy.  The  chief  port  is  Albreda. 
Pop.  about  200,000. 

Barrackpur,  munic.  tn.,  dist. 
.of  the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Ben- 
gal, India,  15  m.  n.  of  Calcutta. 
The  natives  call  it '  Charnak,'  after 
Job  Charnock,  the  founder  of  Cal- 
cutta. Here  is  the  country  resi- 
dence of  the  viceroy  of  India.  It 
was  the  scene  of  sepoy  mutinies 
in  1824  and  1857.  Pop.  (1901): 
N.  Barrackpur,  12,600;  S.  Bar- 
rackpur, 19,307. 

Barracks,  permanent  shelters 
for  troops  in  contradistinction  to 
bivouacs,  camps  and  canton- 
ments, which  are  temporary  shel- 
ters. Until  comparatively  recent 
times  (1792  in  England)  troops 
were  generally  permanently  quar- 
tered or  billeted  on  the  citizens, 
as  they  still  are  during  the  short 
manoeuvre  period  in  some  conti- 
nental armies.  This  practice  was 
abandoned  because  it  was  bur- 
densome on  the  people  and  had  an 
injurious  effect  on  the  morals  of 
the  community  on  account  of  the 
dissolute  character  of  the  soldiery 
of  the  period.  Barracks  of  some 
sort  have  been  built  in  the  United 
States  at  fully  two-thirds  of  the 
almost  5,000  forts,  batteries,  sta- 
tions, etc.,  which  have  been  oc- 
cupied by  government  troops 
since  the  beginning  of  the  Repub- 
lic, and,  until  recent  years,  the 
only  consideration,  generally,  was 
the  local  usefulness  of  the  struc- 
ture. At  the  present  time  there  is 
a  permanent  system  of  construc- 
tion being  carried  out  in  all  army 
posts,  the  work  being  under  charge 
of  the  Quartermaster-General,  to 
whose  department  it_  pertains,  and 
who  has  a  Supervising  Architect, 
and  a  corps  of  assistant  architects 
and  draughtsmen  in  his  ofiice.  All 
construction  work  is  done  by  con- 
tract. The  Arn^y  Appropriation 
Bill  carries  a  large  item  for  'Bar- 
racks and  Quarters'  each  year, 
about  $12,000,000  being  expended 
for  this  purpose  (h  ring  the  fiscal 
year  1904-5.  After  the  imme- 
diate site  of  an  army  post  is  se- 


lected, the  greatest  care  is  taken  in 
locating  the  barracks  and  in  their 
construction.  First,  there  must  be 
good  elevation,  drainage,  water 
supply,  and  freedom  from  un- 
healthy environment.  Next,  there 
must  be  plenty  of  light  and  fresh 
air  in  the  builcling  itself.  The  rule 
of  the  departrnent  is  to  allow  800 
cubic  feet  of  air  space  per  man  in 
barracks,  and  2,000  cubic  feet  in 
hospitals,  with  a  ventilating  sys- 
tem to  supply  at  least  60,000  cubic 
feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour  to  a  room 
occupied  by  30  men.  The  latest 
building  is  generally  of  brick,  but 
sometimes  of  stone  or  wood,  built 
to  accommodate  one  company. 
It  consists  of  a  basement,  contain- 
ing store-rooms,  coal-bins,  a  com- 
plete heating  plant,  a  hot-water 
plant,  and  bath-rooms  and  lava- 
tories; a  main  or  first  floor  con- 
taining the  offices  (2  rooms),  a 
day-room  for  reading,  a  biUiard- 
room,  one  squad-room,  a  dining- 
room,  kitchen,  and  pantries;  a  sec- 
ond floor  with  three  small  rooms 
used  for  higher  non-commissioned 
officers,  tailor-shop,  barber-shop, 
etc.,  and  two  large  squad-rooms, 
each  occupied  by  about  40  men. 
There  are  porches  upstairs  and 
downstairs  the  length  of  the  build- 
ing in  front,  also  a  rear  porch  and 
kitchen  porch.  Each  man  is  fur- 
nished with  a  wall  locker  in  which 
to  keep  his  personal  effects,  and 
an  iron  bed  with  spring  mattress, 
hair  mattress,  pillow,  and  sheets. 
There  is  a  chair  for  each  two  men. 
In  the  dining-room  are  long  ta- 
bles, with  a  stool  for  each  man, 
and  all  the  mess  furniture  re- 
quired —  knife^  fork,  spoons, 
plates,  cup,  saucers,  etc.  The 
term  barracks  is  applied  to  sev- 
eral important  military  posts  in 
the  United  States  where  there 
are  no  fortifications,  the  principal 
ones  being  Washington  Barracks, 
Columbus  Barracks,  Plattsburg 
Barracks,  Jefferson  Barracks  (St. 
Louis,  Mo.),  Jackson  Barracks 
(New  Orleans,  La.),  etc.  Officers 
do  not  live  in  any  part  of  the  bar- 
racks in  the  U.  S.  service  as  is  the 
case  in  some  foreign  armies,  but 
in  separate  buildings  called  Quar- 
ters (q.  v.).  See  U.  S.  Army  Regu- 
lations. 

Barraconda.    See  Gambia. 

Barracuda,  or  Barracouta,  a 
tropical  fish  of  the  genus  Sphy- 
rocna,  related  to  the  mullets.  They 
are  large,  voracious  fishes,  dreaded 
by  bathers,  and  though  edible, 
have  at  times  poisonous  proper- 
tics.  The  name  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  Thyrsites  atun,  a  fish 
which  forms  an  important  article 
of  export  from  New  Zealand. 

Barra  3Ianza,  tn.,  on  r.  bk.  of 
the  Parahiba  do  Sul,  Brazil,  70 
m.  N.w.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Pop. 
12,000. 

Barramunda,  a  name  applied 
primarily  to  the  cxtraoruinary 
Australian    mudfish  Ceratodus, 


Barranquilla 


592 


Barrett 


but  used  in  Australia  in  a  loose 
sense  for  more  than  one  large  fish. 

Barranquilla,  orBARANQUlLLA, 
tn.,  Colombia,  Bolivar  dep. ;  stands 
at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
river  Magdalena,  which  is  not 
navigable  at  its  mouth.  It  is  the 
most  important  trade  centre  in 
Colombia.  It  is  in  communica- 
tion by  rail  v^^ith  the  seaport  Saba- 
nilla,  3  m.  to  the  w.    Pop.  40,000. 

Barrantes,  Vicente  (1829-98), 
Spanish  poet  and  publicist;  mem- 
ber of  the  Spanish  Academy  (1872) ; 
author  of  satiric  articles  (vi^hich 
brought  a  heavy  fine  on  him  for 
their  audacity),  philosophic  and 
political  verses — Narracjones  Ex- 
tramenas  (1872-3),  Cuentos  y  Ley- 
endas  {IS75) — and  novels.  He  also 
vi^rote  a  history  of  the  Philippine 
Isles,  Guerras  Pirdticas  de  Fili- 
pinas  (1878). 

Barraquete,  Alonzo  (d.  1561), 
Spanish  sculptor,  vi^ho  studied 
in  Florence  under  Michelangelo. 
On  his  return  to  Spain  he  exe- 
cuted commissions  for  Charles  V. 
at  Toledo,  Granada,  and  Valla- 
dolid.  His  bas-reliefs  in  the  Al- 
hambra.  The  Triumphs  of  Charles 
v.,  representing  the  emperor  as 
Hercules,  are  held  in  esteem. 
At  80  he  executed  the  tomb  of 
Cardinal  Tavera  in  the  Hospital  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist  at  Toledo. 
See  Leader  Scott's  Sculpture: 
Renaissance  and  Modern  (1886). 

Barras,  Paul  Franqois  Jean 

NlCOLAS,VlCOMTEDE  (1755-1829), 

who  played  a  conspicuous  part  in 
the  French  Revolution,  was  born 
at  Fos-Emphoux,  Var.  Officer  in 
the  Pondichery  regiment,  he  took 

fart  (1776-80)  in  the  campaign  in 
ndia.  Returned  by  Var  to  the 
States-general,  he  voted  for  the 
king's  immediate  execution.  As 
commander  of  the  army  besieging 
Toulon,  he  shared  the  responsi- 
bility for  the  cruel  measures  t- 
tending  the  reduction  of  that  city 
to  the  republic.  Again  in  Paris,  he 
arrested  Robespierre  at  the  Hotel 
de_  Ville.  Nominated  general-in- 
chief,  he,  or  rather  Bonaparte, 
whom  he  had  selected  as  general 
of  artillery,  crushed  the  insur- 
gents (Oct.  5,  1795).  Thereupon 
appointed  one  of  the  five  members 
of  the  Directory,  and  next  (1797) 
practical  dictator,  he  set  up 
ciuite  a  royal  establishment  at 
the  Luxembourg,  which  led  to  his 
overthrow  (Nov.  9,  1799).  Carlyle 
{French  Revolution,  bk.  i.  ch.  7) 
describes  him  well  as  'a  man  of 
heat  and  haste;  defective  in  ut- 
terance; defective  indeed  in  any- 
thing to  utter;  yet  not  without 
a  certain  rapidity  of  glance,  a 
certain  swift  transient  courage,' 
He  ultimately  settled  near  Mar- 
seilles, and  under  the  Bourbons 
lived  the  rest  of  his  life  in  Paris. 
His  Memoir es  (4  vols.)  were  pub- 
lished by  H.  Duruy  in  1895-6. 

Barratry.  In  maritime  law, 
any  fraudulent  act  of  the  captain 


or  crew  of  a  vessel  through  which 
the  owners  or  the  freighters  suffer 
loss  or  damage  to  ship  or  cargo. 
The  risk  of  loss  by  barratry  may 
be  covered  by  maritime  insurance. 
The  owner  of  a  ship  is  liable  for 
the  barratry  of  his  captain  or 
crew  unless  exempted  from  liabil- 
ity by  express  terms  in  the  bill  of 
lading  or  charter  party.  The 
offence  is  punishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonment,  and  is  now  gener- 
ally regulated  by  statute.  Com- 
mon Barratry.  The  common 
law  offence  of  habitually  stirring 
up  suits  and  quarrels  at  law.  It 
is  a  misdemeanor  punishable 
by  fine  and  imprisonment.  See 
Champerty;  Maintenance.  In 
old  Scots  law,  barratry  was  a  form 
of  simony,  consisting  of  the  pur- 
chase of  ecclesiastical  benefices 
from  Rome. 

Barre  {i-e.  'comrades'),  collect- 
ive name  of  numerous  S.  American 
aborigines  who  constitute  a  semi- 
independent  confederacy  about 
the  head- waters  of  the  Rio  Negro, 
an  affluent  of  the  Amazons,  and 
range  thence  across  the  Cassi- 
quiari  into  the  Upper  Orinoco 
basin.  They  comprise  eight  main 
groups — Barre  proper,  Manda- 
naca,  Guariguena,  Cunipusana, 
Pacimonari,  Yabahana,  Masaca, 
and  Tariana.  They  are  one  of 
the  few  progressive  nations  of  S. 
America,  and  since  about  1800 
their  speech  (a  stock  language 
radically  distinct  from  all  others) 
has  become  a  sort  of  lingua  franca 
throughout  an  extensive  region 
above  the  Orinoco  cataracts  and 
in  the  Brazilian  province  of  Ama- 
zonas.  The  Barre  retain  the 
old  tribal  organization,  reject  the 
preaching^  of  the  missionaries,  and 
carrjr  on  independent  commercial 
relations  with  settled  and  more 
civilized  neighbors  from  San 
Carlos  del  Rio  Negro. 

Barre.  (1.)  City,  Washington 
CO.,  Vt.,  on  the  Montpelier  and 
^White  River  branch  of  the  Cen- 
tral Vermont,  and  the  Montpelier 
and  Wells  River  R.  Rs.,  6  m.  from 
Montpeb'er.  It  was  settled  in 
1788.  Much  granite  is  distributed 
from  here.  Pop.  (1910)10,734. 
(2.)  Vil.,  Worcester  co.,  Mass.,  on 
the  Ware  River  branch  of  the 
Boston  and  Albany,  and  the  Bos- 
ton and  Maine  R.  Rs.  There  are 
lumber,  cotton  and  dairying  in- 
terests.   Pop.  (1910)  2,957. 

Barre,  Isaac  (1726-1802),  the 
son  of  a  French  refugee  in  Dub- 
lin, was  with  Wolfe  at  Quebec, 
where  he  was  wounded  (1759),  in 
consequence  of  which  he  ulti- 
mately (1790)  became  blind.  (He 
is  represented  in  West's  picture 
of  the  death  of  Wolfe.  (See 
plate  accompanying  Abraham, 
Heights  of.)  He  held  office 
under  Bute,  Pitt,  and  Shelburne, 
and  gained  the  favor  of  the  Amer- 
icans by  a  spirited  speech  against 
the  Stamp  Act  in  1765,  and  by  his 


subsequent  actions.  The  '  Sons  of 
Liberty  '  got  that  name  from  his 
use  of  the  phrase  in  a  speech. 
Barre  is  one  of  those  to  whom 
the  Letters  of  Junius  have  been 
ascribed. 

Barrel.  A  barrel  of  wine  or 
brandy  in  the  U.  S.  and  Great 
Britain  contains  31 1  gallons;  a 
barrel  of  flour,  196  lbs.;  a  barrel 
of  butter,  224  lbs.;  and  a  barrel 
of  pork  or  beef,  200  lbs.  But  the 
dry  barrel  is  not  a  legalized  meas- 
ure, and  quantities  should  be 
specified  in  pounds  or  bushels. 
For  manufacture  of  barrels,  see 
Coopering. 

Barrel  Organ,  a  portable 
mechanical  organ  played  by  a 
rotary  handle.  The  handle  turns 
a  wooden  cylinder  set  with  bras; 
pins,  which  raise  certain  trigger- 
shaped  keys,  and  so  open  the 
valves  to  the  pipes  of  the  instru- 
ment. The  date  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  first  barrel  organs  is  un- 
certain, but  in  Europe  at  one  time 
they  were  frequently  used  in  rural 
churches  and  chapels. 

Barrett,  Elizabeth.  See 
Browning. 

Barrett,  Lawrence  (1838-91), 
American  actor,  the  son  of  an 
Irish  mechanic,  was  born  at  Pater- 
son,  N.  J.,  and  gained  a  reputa- 
tion as  an  amateur  actor  while 
working  in  a  dry-goods  store. 
Self-taught,  he  was  permitted  to 
play  the  part  of  Murad  in  the 
French  Spy  in  1853;  and  in  1854 
he  joined  the  stock  company  of 
the  Grand  Opera  House  in  Pitts- 
burg. His  first  appearance  in 
New  York  was  in  The  Hunchback 
(1857),  and  the  same  year  he 
played  with  Edwin  Booth  for  the 
first  time,  in  the  same  city.  He 
was  leading  actor  of  the  Boston 
Museum  Company,  1858-60,  and 
filled  many  standard  parts.  He 
joined  the  28th  Mass.  regiment  at 
the  opening  of  the  Civil  War. 
Afterward  he  acted  with  the  three 
Booths  in  Jtilius  Ccesar  at  the 
Winter  Garden  in  New  York. 
After  the  war  he  began  playing  as 
a  star,  visiting  England  in  1867 
and  1868,  and  in  1869  began  a 
notable  double-star  presentation 
with  John  McCuUough  at  the 
latter's  theatre  in  San  Francisco. 
The  following  year  he  acted  with 
Booth  at  Booth's  Theatre,  New 
York,  and  produced  The  Man  of 
Airlee.  Their  greatest  perform- 
ance of  Julius  Caesar  occurred 
there  in  1871.  In  1878,  Mr. 
Barrett  produced  Howells's  Yor- 
ick's  Love  at  Cleveland,  O.  He 
played  again  in  London,  1884, 
and  from  1887  to  his  death  was  on 
tour  with  Booth  during  the  season. 
Author  of  Life  of  Edwin  Forrest 
(1881). 

Barrett,  Wilson  (1846-1904), 
English  actor,  novelist,  drama- 
tist, and  poet,  born  in  Essex.  He 
made  several  successful  Ameri- 
can tours  (1886,  1888,  1889,  1893, 


Barrhead 

1895,  1897),  became  manager  of 
the  Globe  Theatre,  London,  and 
produced  his  own  and  G.  R. 
Sims's  The  Golden  Ladder  and 
also  The  Lady  0}  Lyons.  In  1894 
he  produced  The  Manxman,  and 
early  in  1895  his  great  spectacular 
religious  drama,  The  Sign  of  the 
Cross,  appeared  with  great  success 
at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  then  at  the 
Lvric  Theatre,  London,  for  over 
five  hundred  nights.  In  1898  he 
paid  a  very  successful  visit  to 
Australia,  and  on  his  return  ap- 
peared again  at  the  Lyceum,  re- 
viving old  plays,  and  producing 
his  Man  and  his  Makers,  written 
in  collaboration  with  Louis  N. 
Parker.  He  dramatized  Sienkie- 
wicz's  Quo  Vadis?  (1900;  new  ed. 
1902),  and  also  wrote  several  novels. 

Barrhead,  par.  and  tn.  on  R. 
Leven,  Renfrewshire,  Scotland, 
9  m.  s.w.  of  Glasgow,  and  3^  m. 
S.E.  of  Paisley.  The  chief  indus- 
tries are  calico  printing,  shawl- 
weaving,  cotton  spinning  and 
bleaching,  and  engineering.  Pop. 
(1911)  11,387. 

Barrias,  Louis  Ernest  (1841- 
1905),  French  sculptor,  b.  Paris; 
gained  the  'prize  of  Rome'  (1865), 
and  had  exhibited  in  the  Salon  the 
Spinning  Girl  of  Me  gar  a  (1870), 
now  in  the  Luxembourg  Museum; 
The  Oath  of  Spartacus  (1871); 
Fortuna  and  Amor  (1872);  The 
First  Funeral — Adam  and  Eve 
with  Abel's  corpse  (1878),  a  bas- 
relief  of  great  artistic  value; 
Nature  Unveiling  (1899);  and 
several  monuments. 

Barricades,  obstructive  works 
thrown  up  in  haste  to  arrest  an 
enemy's  progress  through  a  street 
or  give  cover  to  the  besieged,  were 
used  by  the  city  of  Saguntum 
against  Hannibal.  At  the  siege  of 
Carthage  the  Romans  took  some 
six  days  to  surmount  the  barricades 
opposed  to  them.  In  the  wars  of 
the  League,  the  barricades  raised 
by  the  Parisians  compelled  the 
retirement  of  Henry  iii 's  troops 
(Mayl2,1588) — 'journee  des  barri- 
cades.' Another  'journee  des  bar- 
ricades' is  Aug.  26,  1648,  when,  in 
the  war  of  the  Fronde,  barricades 
were  erected  in  Paris  from  Notre 
Dame  to  within  a  pistol-shot  of 
the  Palais  Royal.  _  Other  historic 
barricades  of  Paris  are  those  of 
July  27-30,  1830,  when  Charles  x. 
was  dethroned,  and  of  June  23- 
26,  1848.  Although  Napoleon  ill. 
widened  and  macadamized  the 
streets  of  Paris,  barricades  were 
again  raised  in  the  insurrection 
of  1871. 

Barrie,  city,  cap.  of  Simcoe  co., 
Ontario.  Canada,  on  Lake  Sim- 
coe, ana  on  Grand  Trunk  R.  R, 
A  U,  S.  consular  agent  is  here 
stationed  and  there  are  extensive 
manufacturing  interests,  with  a 
considerable  output  of  leather, 
flour,  stoves,  woollen  eoods  and 
beer.    Pop.  (1011  )  6,428. 

Barrie,   James  Matthew 


593 

(1860),  Scottish  novelist  and 
dramatist,  was  born  at  Kirriemuir, 
Forfarshire ;  went  to  Nottingham  in 
1883  as  leader-writer  on  the  staff 
of  the  Nottingham  Journal;  then 
to  London,  where  he  wrote  ar- 
ticles for  the  St.  Jameses  Gazette, 
Speaker,  National  Observer,  Brit- 
ish Weekly  (as  'Gavin  Ogilvy'), 
etc.  His  first  notable  book  was 
Auld  Licht  Idylls  (1888).  This 
was  followed  by  A  Window  in 
Thrums  (1889)  and  My  Lady 
Nicotine  (1890).  The  Little  Min- 
ister (1891)  was  his  first  serious 
attempt  at  a  long  novel.  Mar- 
garet Ogilvy  (a  biography  of  his 
mother)  and  Sentimental  Tommy 
appeared  in  1896,  the  latter  being 
followed  by  a  sequel,  Tommy  and 
Grizel,  in  1900.  His  first  play. 
Walker,  London  (1892),  was  pro- 
duced by  Mr.  J.  L.  Toole.  It  was 
followed  hy  A  Jane  Annie  (1893), 
written  in  collaboration  with  Co- 


J.  M.  Barrie. 

{Photo  by  Barrand.) 


nan  Doyle.  The  Professor^ s  Love 
Story  was  produced  at  the  Garrick 
Theatre  (London)  in  1894,  fol- 
lowed at  the  Haymarket  (London) 
in  1897  by  The  Little  Minister,  an 
adaptation  of  his  novel,  played  very 
successfully  byMissMaudeAdams. 
The  W edding  Guest  was  produced 
at  the  Garrick  in  1900,  and  What 
Every  Woman  Knows  at  the  Duke 
of  York's  Theatre  in  1908.  Other 
dramatic  successes  have  been  The 
Admirable  Crichton,  played  in  the 
U.  S.  in  1904,  and  Little  Mary. 
For  Christmas,  1904,  he  produced 
a  children's  play,  Peter  Pan,  and 
later,  Alice  Sit-by-the-Fire  {1905). 
See  the  edition  of  his  Novels, 
Tales,  andSketchesinSvoh.O  897), 
and  IlammertPn's  /.  M.  Barrie 
and  his  Books  (1900). 

Barrierc,  Tiikodore  (1823- 
77),  French  dramatic  author,  born 
and  died  in  Paris.   He  wrote  over 


Barrington 

fifty  plays,  some  of  them  in  col- 
laboration with  other  authors; 
the  best  known  being  Les  Filles 
de  Marbre  (1853)  and  Les  Faux 
Bonhommes  (1856),  his  master- 
pieces. He  created  the  character 
of  the  raisonneur  {of.  his  Desge- 
nais),  who  is  now  found  in  many 
new  French  plays,  accompanying 
the  action  as  a  sort  of  moralizing 
chorus.  Other  well-known  plays 
by  him  are  a  clever  dramatization 
of  Murger's  La  Vie  de  Boheme 
(1851),  his  first  great  success, 
Cendrillon  (1858),  Le  Feu  an 
Couvent  (1859),  Les  Jocrisses  de 
V Amour,  and  Malheur  aux  Vain- 
cus  (1865). 

Barrier  Reef.  See  Great 
Barrier  Reef. 

Barrier  Treaty,  a  treaty  con- 
cluded in  1709  at  the  Hague  be- 
tween England  and  the  Nether- 
lands, by  which  the  Netherlands 
republic  obtained  the  right  to 
occupy  certain  fortified  places 
(Namur,  Tournai,  Menin,  Furnes, 
etc.)  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 
In  1715  a  similar  treaty  was 
concluded  between  the  Nether- 
lands and  Austria.  In  1830  these 
same  fortresses  became  part  of 
Belgium,  and  were  mostly  de- 
stroyed after  the  erection  of  the 
fortifications  of  Antwerp.  See 
Willequet's  Histoire  du  Systeme 
de  la  Barricre  (1847). 

Barrili,  Antonio  Giulio  (1836), 
Italian  writer,  was  born  at  Sa- 
vona.  After  taking  part  in  the 
military  campaigns  of  1859,  1866- 
67,  he  devoted  himself  entirely^  to 
literature,  eventually  becoming 
professor  of  Italian  literature  at 
the  university  of  Genoa.  He  has 
published  more  than  fifty  novels, 
of  which  the  early  ones  (simple 
tales  of  love,  told  in  an  admir- 
able style)  are  the  best — Santa 
Cecilia  (1866),  Come  un  Sogno 
(1875),  Val  d'Olivi  (1873),  L'Olmo 
e  I'Edera  (1877),  etc.  Several  of 
his  later  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English. 

Barrington,  tn.  and  seaport, 
Shciburne  co.,  Nova  Scotia,  on 
Barrington  Bay.  There  arc  large 
fishing  interests  and  ships  are 
built.  A  U.  S.  consular  agent  is 
stationed  here.  Pop.  (including 
the  suburb  Barrington  Passage)  c. 
1,800. 

Barrington,  Daines  (1729- 
1800).  English  lawyer  and  an- 
tiquary, remembered  chiefly  as 
the  correspondent  of  Gilbert 
White  of  Sclbourne.  To  Bar- 
rington, White  wrote  most  of  the 
letters  which  now  make  up  his 
famous  Natural  History  of  Sel- 
bourne,  the  preparation  of  which 
Barrington  is  said  to  have  strongly 
urged.  See  Nichols's  Literary 
Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury {1H12-15,  9  vols.). 

Barrington,  George  (1755-f. 
1840),  whose  proper  name  wa-, 
Waldron,  was  of  Irish  birth; 
early  became  a  professional  thief 


Barrington 

in  London,  and  in  1790  was  trans- 
ported to  Botany  Bay.  Released 
two  years  later,  he  rose  to  be  high 
constable  of  Paramatta,  N.  S.  W. 
A  versatile  author,  he  left  A 
Voyage  to  Botany  Bay  (1801)  and 
Histories  of  New  South  Wales 
(1802)  and  of  New  Holland  (1808). 
See  Life,  Times,  and  Adventures 
of  George  Barrington  (1820  ?).  The 
oft-quoted  line,  'We  left  our 
country  for  our  country's  good,' 
occurs  in  his  prologue  to  Young's 
tragedy.  The  Revenge. 

Barrington,  John  Shute 
(1678-1734),  son  of  a  London 
merchant,  was  called  to  the  bar 
(1699).  His  essay  on  Protestant 
Dissenters  (1704-5)  led  to  his 
being  commissioned  to  proceed 
to  Scotland,  where  he  gained  the 
Presbyterian  interest  in  favor 
of  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms. 
His  Dissuasive  from  Jacohitism 
(1713)  brought  him  the  favor  of 
George  I.  In  1720  he  was  made 
baron  and  viscount  in  Ireland. 
Twice  returned  to  Parliament 
for  Berwick-on-Tweed  (1715  and 
1722),  he  was  expelled  the  House 
(1723)  for  his  connection  with  the 
Harburg  lottery. 

Barrington,  Samuel  (1729- 
1800),  British  admiral,  son  of  the 
preceding,  served  under  Hawke  in 
the  Basque  Road  affair;  in  1760 
with  Hon.  J.  Byron  at  Louisburg 
in  Nova  Scotia;  and  in  1761  with 
Keppel  at  Belle  Isle.  In  1778  he 
became  commander-in-chief  in 
the  W.  Indies,  where  he  reduced 
St.  Lucia,  and  defeated  the  French 
under  D'Estaing.  In  the  action 
off  Grenada,  in  1779,  he  was  sec- 
ond in  command  to  Byron,  and  in 
1782  to  Lord  Howe  at  the  relief  of 
Gibraltar.  He  became  an  admiral 
in  1787. 

Barrios,  Justo  Rufino  (1835- 
85),  president  of  Guatemala,  rose 
to  the  supreme  military  com- 
mand under  the  administration 
of  President  Granados.  He  ob- 
tained the  _  presidency  in  1873, 
and  held  it  until  he  met  his 
death  in  the  war  with  Salvador, 
Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica. 

Barrister.  An  advocate  in  the 
higher  law  courts  of  England 
and  Ireland.  In  England  he 
must  be  called  by  one  of  the 
Inns  of  Court,  after  keeping 
generally  twelve  terms  at  the  inn 
by  eating  six  (or,  if  a  member 
of  a  university,  three)  dinners  a 
term,  passing  examinations  and 

Eaying  certain  fixed  fees.  The 
enchers  of  the  inn  may  refuse 
to  call  any  individual  to  the 
bar,  subject  to  an  appeal  to 
the  judges,  who  arc  visitors  of 
the  inn,  and  originally  had  the 
right  of  calling  to  the  bar.  ^  Bar- 
risters have  an  exclusive  right  of 
audience  in  the  High  Court  and 
Court  of  Appeal,  and  may  have 
the  same  right  in  quarter  sessions 
on  an  order  by  the  justices.  They 
have  a  right  to  conduct  their 


594 

client's  case,  including  a  right  to 
compromise  it,  and  are  not  liable 
for  mistakes  or  for  negligence. 
They  are  privileged  from  arrest 
on  their  way  to  and  from  the 
courts.  They  may  be  guilty  of 
contempt  of  court,  and  for  any 
misconduct  may  be  disbarred  by 
the  benches  of  their  inn.  They 
cannot  sue  for  their  fees,  even 
though  the  solicitor  has  received 
them;  and  they  are  not  liable  to 
return  their  fees,  even  though 
they  cannot  attend  a  case.  In 
litigious  business,  etiquette  re- 
quires that  a  barrister  should  be 
instructed  by  a  solicitor.  See 
Advocate,  the  Scottish  equiva- 
lent of  barrister :  Lawyer  ;  and 
King's  Counsel. 

Barron,  James  {c.  1768-1851), 
American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Va.  He  became  a  captain  in  the 
U.  S.  navy  in  1799  and  a  com- 
modore (then  a  courtesy  title) 
in  1806.  He  commanded  the 
Chesapeake  when  that  vessel  (un- 
prepared for  action)  was  fired 
upon  (in  time  of  peace),  June 
22,  1807,  by  the  British  ship 
Leopard,  and  Barron  was  forced 
to  surrender  three  of  his  crew, 
who,  the  British  officer  had  al- 
leged, were  British  deserters. 
Barron  was  court-martialed  for 
not  having  made  sufficient  re- 
sistance, and  was  suspended  for 
five  years,  never  afterward  holding 
any  responsible  command,  though 
in  1839  he  became  senior  officer 
of  the  navy.  In  1820,  at  Bladens- 
burg,  he  killed  Decatur  in  a  duel, 
and  was  himself  badly  wounded, 
Decatur  having  been  one  of  his 
severest  critics.  See  Chesapeake. 

Barros,  JOAO  DA  (1496-1570), 
Portuguese  historian,  called  the 
'Livy  of  Portugal.'  In  1522  he 
was  made  governor  of  the  colony 
of  Elmina  (Guinea),  W.  Africa, 
and  in  1532  treasurer  of  India. 
He  tried  to  found  a  colony  in 
Brazil  (1539),  but  failed.  Barros 
wrote  the  great  historical  work 
Asia  Portugueza  (1552-63, 3  vols.), 
the  discovery,  conquest,  and  deecs 
of  the  Portuguese  in  India.  It 
was  this  book_  which  inspired 
Camoens  to  write  his  great  poem 
Os  Luciadas. 

Barros-Arana,  Diego  (1824), 
Chilean  historian  and  geographer, 
born  at  Santiago;  has  published 
a  Hist,  of  Chilean  Independence 
(1854-8):  Htst.  of  the  War  of 
the  Pacific  (1881);  Hist,  of  Chile 
(12  vols.  1884-93). 

Barrot,  Camille  Hyacinthe 
ODlLON(1791-1873),Frenchstatcs- 
m^n,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
revolution  of  July,  1830,  and  was 
ORC  of  the  three  commissioners 
who  conducted  Charles  x.  to 
Cherbourg.  In  1840  he  supported 
Thiers,  but  subsequently  led  an 
active  opposition  against  Guizot 
and  the  conservatives,  and  was 
at  the  height  of  his  popularity 
during  the  reform  fever  of  1847. 


Barrow 

He  deplored  the  revolution  of 
1848,  however,  and  after  the  flight 
of  Louis  Philippe  supported  the 
claim  of  the  Count  of  Paris  to  the 
throne.  Under  Louis  Napoleon  he 
became  president  of  the  council; 
but  the  siege  of  Rome  made  him 
very  unpopular,  and  he  retired  in 
1851.  In  1870  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  Decentralization 
Committee,  and  in  1872  coun- 
cillor of  state  and  vice-president 
of  the  Council.  Barrot's  Me- 
moir es  Posthumes  (4  vols.  1875-6) 
attracted  great  attention. 

Barrow  (O.E.  beorh.  *a  little 
hill')  is  a  term  appliea  by  anti- 
quaries to  the  sepulchral  mounds 
which  are  so  numerous  in  the  Brit- 
ish Isles,  and  indeed  throughout 
a  great  part  of  the  world.  Some- 
times they  are  earthen  mounds^ 
sometimes  heaps  of  stones  or 
cairns;  and  in  the  latter  instances 
the  name  barp  (a  variant  of  beorh) 
is  usually  applied  to  them  in  the 
Outer  Hebrides.  Their  ground 
plan  is  in  most  cases  round,  al- 
though frequently  it  is  oval;  and 
in  height  and  extent  of  superficies 
they  vary  in  a  marked  degree. 
The  largest  specimen  in  England 
is  Silbury  Hill,  130  ft.  high.  'The 
manner  in  which  the  dead  have 
been  disposed^  within  them  dif- 
fers very  considerably,'  observes 
Canon  Greenwell,  speaking  of 
British  barrows.  '  Sometimes  the 
body,  whether  burnt  or  unburnt, 
has  been  placed  in  the  mound 
without  anything  to  protect  it 
from  the  surrounding  earth  or 
stones.  ^  Sometimes  it  has  been 
placed  in  a  small  box  of  stone, 
a  cist;  at  other  times  in  the 
hollowed  trunk  of  a  tree,  or  in 
a  grave  sunk  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground;  and,  when  a  burnt 
body,  often  in  an  urn,  whilst  in 
some  instances  the  mound  en- 
closes a  large  structure,  suggest- 
ive rather  of  an  abode  for  the 
living  than  of  a  resting-place 
for  the  dead.'  The  Vikings 
were  frequently  buried  in  their 
ships,  over  which  earth  was  piled 
up  till  a  barrow  was  formed. 
The  skulls  found  in  the  round 
barrows  of  Britain  are  usually 
brachyccphalic;  but  Dr.  Thur- 
nam's  'round  barrows,  round 
skulls;  long  barrows,  long  skulls' 
cannot  be  unreservedly  accepted. 
See  Nilsson's  Primitive  Inhabit' 
ants  of  Scandinavia  (Eng.  trans, 
by  Sir  J.  Lubbock,  1868),  Green- 
well's  British  Barrows  (1877), 
D all's  Cave  Relics  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands  (1878),  and  Satow's  An- 
cient Sepulchral  Mounds^  Japan 
(1880). 

Barrow.  (1.)  The  'Birgos  of 
PtolemV'  (Joyce),  riv.,  rises  N. 
side  of  the  Slieve  Bloom  Mts., 
Co.  Queen's,  Leinster,  Ireland; 
flows  generally  s.;  joins  the  Suir 
about  29  m.  from  the  sea,  to 
form,  as  its  estuary^  Waterford 
harbor.     Its  chief  tributaries  are 


Barrow 

the  Nore.  Blackwood,  and  Greese 
rivers.  Length,  119  m.  Area  of 
basin  (including  Suir),  3,555  sq.  m. 
NavigaWe  for  vessels  of  200  tons 
to  New  Ross,  and  for  barges  to 
Athy  (70  m.),  where  it  joins  the 
Grand  Canal.  (3.)  B.  Strait,  be- 
tween Lancaster  Sound  and  Mel- 
ville Sound,  Canada,  74°  N.,  90°  to 
100°  w.;  40  m.  broad.  So  named 
by  Captain  Parry  (1879),  after  Sir 
John  Barrow. 

Barrow,  Isaac  (1630-77),  Eng- 
lish mathematician  and  divine, 
born  in  London,  was  appointed 
(1660)  professor  of  Greek  at  Cam- 
bridge. Two  years  later  he  was 
nommated  to  the  chair  of  geom- 
etry at  Gresham  College,  London, 
and  subsequently  (1663)  became 
Lucasian  professor  of  mathemat- 
ics at  Cambridge.  This  chair, 
again,  in  1669  he  resigned  in  fa- 
vor of  his  pupil,  Isaac  Newton. 
He  was  appointed  master  of  Trin- 
ity College  in  1672,  and  then  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  famous 
Trinity  College  Library;  in  1675 
he  was  vice-chancellor  of  the  uni- 
versity. Barrow  was  a  man  of 
strong  character,  and  an  eloquent 
and  vigorous  preacher.  His  math e=^ 
matical  works  included  three  able 
treatises — Lectiones  OpticcB  (1674) 
Lectiones  Geometricce  (1670),  and 
Lectiones  Mathematicm  (1685). 
The  best  edition  of  the  English 
theological  works  was  that  by 
Napier  (9  vols.  1859),  with  a  me- 
moir by  Dr.  Whewell,  the  edi- 
tor in  1860  of  his  Latin  mathe- 
matical works.  See  Life  of  Bar- 
row (new  ed.  1859),  by  Abraham 
Hill. 

Barrow,  Sir  John  (1764-1848), 
English  patron  of  Arctic  explora- 
tion, was  a  poor,  self-taught  Lan- 
cashire boy.  As  secretary  to  Lord 
Macartney,  he  went  with  the  first 
British  embassy  to  China  in  1792; 
in  1797  was  employed  in  the 
settlement  of  affairs  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  of  which  colony 
he  subsequently  wrote  a  history. 
Lord  Mulgrave  appointed  him  in 
1804  second  secretary  of  the  Ad-, 
miralty,  a  post  which  he  held  for 
nearly  forty  years.  In  1835  he 
was  made  a  baronet.  He  was  a 
great  promoter  of  Arctic  discov- 
ery, and  the  chief  founder  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society(1830V 
Among  other  works,  he  wrote 
books  of  travel  in  China  (1804), 
Cochin-China  (1806),  and  S.  Africa 
(1801-3);  Lives  of  Macartney 
(1807),Howe  (1838),Anson(1839), 
and  Peter  the  Great  (new  ed. 
1883);  histories  of  modern  Arctic 
exploration  (1818  and  1846);  and 
an  autobiography  ^1847).  See  Life 
by  Staunton  (1852). 

Barrow-in-Furness,  munic. 
bor.,  pari,  bor.,  co.  bor.,  scapt., 
and  manufacturing  centre  on  the 
S.W.  tip  of  detached  portion  of 
Lancashire,  England.  Walney 
channel  affords  safe  anchorage 
for  vessels  drawing  21  ft.  of  water. 

Vol.  I.— 43. 


595 

Once  a  fishing  village.  Barrow  hag 
since  1847  made  extraordinary 
progress  owing  to  the  discovery  of 
pure  haematite  iron  ore  at  Park, 
in  the  neighborhood.  Furness 
Abbey  forms  a  picturesque  feature 
towards  the  N.  The  clocks  (280 
ac.  in  extent)  are  four  in  number — 
Devonshire,  Buccleuch,  Ramsden, 
and  Cavendish;    the  first  two 


8.  miLf:.')     ',n  '! 


opened  in  1867  and  1873  respect- 
ively. The  third  is  the  Anchor 
Liner  dock.  The  Cavendish  is  the 
timber  basin,  and  is  142  ac.  in 
extent.  Shipbuilding  forms  an  im- 
portant industry:  the  Naval  Con- 
struction and  Armament  Com- 

{)any  have  accommodation  for 
)uilding  fifteen  ships  at  a  time; 
the  Barrow  Shipbuilding  Com- 


Barrows 

pany  have  yards  in  Barrow  I., 
whence  came  the  City  of  Rome 
(8,453  tons)  in  1881,  and  H.M.S. 
Dominion  (16,350  tons)  in  1903. 
There  are  huge  steel  and  iron 
works  (Bessemer  steel  works  dat- 
ing from  1863),  engineering, shops, 
foundries,  jute  factories,  paper 
and  pulp  works,  etc.  The  imports 
include  general  merchandise,  cat- 


tie  (from  Belfast),  flour,  grain,  ore, 
timber,  petroleum  (Russian);  the 
exports,  iron  ore,  pig  iron,  steel 
rails,  etc.  The  total  trade  is  val- 
ued at  over  $10,000,000  annually 
of  which  over  $7,000,000  are  ex- 
ports. Pop.  (1847)  325;  (1911) 
63,775. 

Barrows,  Elijah  Porter 
(1807-88),  American  clergyman. 


Barrows 

was  born  at  Mansfield,  Conn.,  and 
graduated  (1826)  at  Yale.  He 
studied  for  the  ministry  and  in 
1835  was  made  pastor  of  the  first 
Free  Presbyterian  Church  in  New 
York.  He  was  professor  of  sacred 
literature  in  Western  Reserve  Col- 
lege, 1837-52,  in  1853  was  ap- 
pointed a  professor  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  and  in 
1872  at  Oberlin  College.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  theological 
works,  and  one  of  the  editors 
cf  the  American  Tract  Society's 
BiHe  Notes. 

Barrows,  John  Henry  (1847- 
1902),  American  clergyman,  was 
born  at  Medina,  Mich.,  and  grad- 
uated (1867)  at  Olivet  College. 
After  various  pastorates  he  ac- 
cepted the  charge  of  the  1st  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  Chicago,  1881- 
96,  in  the  latter  year  taking  the 
newly-founded  Christian  lecture- 
ship in  India,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  University  of  Chicago. 
During  his  residence  in  Chicago 
he  gained  a  great  reputation  as  a 
pulpit  orator.  He  was  President 
of  Oberlin  College,  1898-1902. 
Author  of  Life  of  Henry  Ward 
Beecher  (1893)  and  The  Christian 
Conquest  o}  Asia  (1899). 

Barrows,  Samuel  June  (1845), 
^  •  /  American  author,  was  born  in 
7(f(7  New  York,  and  graduated  (1875) 
at  the  Harvard  Divinity  School. 
/  J  jjg  pastor  of  the  1st  Unitar- 
ian Church  of  Dorchester,  Boston, 
Mass.,  1876-80;  editor  of  the 
Christian  Register,  1881-97;  and 
served  as  a  member  of  the  U.  S. 
Congress  from  Mass.,  1897-9. 
Author  of  The  Doom  of  the  Ma- 
jority of  Mankind  (1883),  Shay- 
backs  in  Camp  (1887),  Crimes  and 
Misdemeanors  in  the  United  States, 
and  other  books.  He  was  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  the  Prison 
Association  of  New  York  and 
was  considered  an  authority  on 
penology. 

Barrow  -  upon  -  Soar,  par., 
Leicestershire,  England,  3  m. 
s.E.  of  Loughborough,  and  10  m. 
N.  of  Leicester;  has  limestone 
quarries,  and  is  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  cement  and  ho- 
siery.   Pop.  (1911)  23,740. 

Barrulet,  in  heraldry,  a  dimin- 
utive bar,  generally  one-fourth  of 
a  bar  in  width. 

Barry,  in  heraldry,  is  the  term 
used  when  the  field  is  divided  by 
horizontal    lines    into    an  even 


Barry. 


number  of  equal  portions.  Barry 
of  sin  is  one  of  the  most  common 
of  parted  coats,  both  with  straight 


596 

and  compound  lines,  in  the  ar- 
mory of  all  countries,  and  is 
borne  by  many  great  houses. 
Barry-bendy  is  the  term  used 
when  a  field  is  divided  barwise  and 
bendwise  also,  the  tinctures  being 
countercharged.  Barry-pily  is  the 
name  given  to  the  field  when  it 
is  divided  by  long  narrow,  pile- 
shaped  indentations  lying  hori- 
zontally, or  barwise,  across  it. 

Barry,  seapt.,  Glamorgan,  S 
Wales,  7  m.  by  rail  s.w.  of  Cardiff. 
The  docks  (the  property  of  the 
Barry  Docks  and  Railway  Com- 
pany) were  opened  in  1889.  They 
are  114  ac.  in  extent,  and  have  ac- 
commodation for  the  largest  ves- 
sels afloat.  There  are  three  large 
graving  docks  of  modern  construc- 
tion. Pop.  (1891)  4,722;  (1911) 
33,767. 

Barry,  Alfred  (1826),  late 
bishop  of  Sydney  and  primate 
of  Australia  (1884-9),  second  son 
of  Sir  Charles  Barry,  architect, 
was  principal  of  Cheltenham  Col- 
lege (1862-8),  and  of  King's  Col- 
lege, London  (1871-81);  canon  of 
Worcester  ( 1 87 1-8 1 ),  dean  of  West- 
minster (1881-4),  and  assistant 
bishop  to  the  diocese  of  London 
(1897).  Published  Introduction 
to  O.  T.  (1850) ;  Boyle  Lectures 
(1876,  1877,  1878);  Christianity 
and  Socialism  (1891);  Bampton 
Lectures  (1892);  Hulsean  Lectures 
(1895).  His  Lije  of  his  father 
appeared  in  1867. 

Barry,SiRCHARLES,R.A.(1795- 
1860),  architect  of  the  Houses 
of  Parliament,  Westminster,  was 
born  at  Westminster,  and  in 
1820  commenced  practice  as  an 
architect  in  London.  He  was 
early  entrusted  with  some  nota- 
ble buildings,  including  King 
Edward  vi.'s  Grammar  School  at 
Birmingham,  and  the  Travellers' 
and  Reform  Clubs  in  Pall  Mall; 
and  in  1835  his  design  was  ac- 
cepted for  the  new  palace  of 
Westminster.  He  was  knighted 
by  Queen  Victoria  at  the  opening 
ceremony  in  1852.  He  died  in 
1860,  before  the  whole  building' 
was  completed,  and  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbcv.  See  Lije 
by  his  son,  Alfred  Barry  (1867). 
Barry,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  (1658- 
.  1713),  EngUsh  actress  who,  be- 
tween 1673  and  1709,  created  no 
fewer  than  one  hundred  charac- 
ters, both  in  tragedy  and  comedy, 
of  which  the  most  famous  were 
Belvidera,  in  Otway's  Venice 
Preserved;  Zara,  in  Congreve's 
The  Mourning  Bride;  and  Lady 
Brute,  in  Vanbrugh's  The  Pro- 
voked Wije.  Otway  concciyed  for 
her  a  hopeless  and  pathetic  pas- 
sion. See  Gibber's  Apology,  p. 
133  et  scq.  (1741)  and  BakePs 
English  Actors  from  Shakespeare 
to  Macready  (1879). 

Barry,  jAMEs(1741-1806),Trish 
artist,  a  native  of  Cork,  studied 
art  under  West  of  Dublin,  and 
also  as  a  protege  of  Burke  at 


Barry 

Paris  and  Rome.  He  was  elected 
R.A.  in  1773.  At  the  Academy 
he  was  appointed  (1782)  professor 
of  painting,  but  was  deprived  of 
his  office  in  1799  for  having  made 
false  accusations  against  several 
of  the  members.  The  mural 
paintings  for  the  room  of  the 
Society  of  Arts,  at  the  Adelphi. 
London,  form  his  best  work. 

Barry,  John  (1745-18C3), 
American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Tacumshane,  Co.  Wexford,  Ire- 
land. He  emigrated  to  Phila- 
delphia about  1760,  and  in  1776, 
during  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, was  placed,  by  the  Conti- 
nental Congress,  in  command  of 
the  Lexington.  He  subsequently 
commanded,  in  turn,  the  Effing- 
ham, the  Raleigh  (which  was  cap- 
tured 1778,  Barry  escaping),  and 
the  Alliance,  in  which  ne  carried 
Lafayette  to  France  in  1781. 
During  his  service  he  fought  a 
number  of  engagements,  and  won 
several  victories.  In  1794  he  be- 
came a  commodore  in  the  U.  S. 
navy.  See  M.  1.  J.  Griffin's  John 
Barry  (1903). 

Barry,  Sir  John  Wolfe(1836), 
English  engineer,  youngest  son  of 
Sir  Charles  Barry,  entered  the 
office  of  Sir  John  Hawkshaw,  leav- 
ing in  1867.  He  designed  the 
Blackfriars,  Kew,  and  Tower 
bridges  over  the  Thames,  and  con- 
structed the  Barry  docks,  docks 
at  Hull  and  Middlesborough,  and 
numerous  railways  in  England, 
Scotland,  India,  and  elsewhere. 
He  has  served  on  several  royal 
commissions,  including  that  on 
the  port  of  London.  He  has  writ- 
ten Railway  Appliances  (1874-92), 
Lectures  on  Railways  and  Locomo- 
tives (1882),  and  The  Tower 
Bridge  (1894). 

Barry,  Spranger  (1719-77), 
Irish  actor,  was  the  son  of  a 
Dublin  silversmith,  which  occupa- 
tion he  abandoned  for  the  stage. 
He  played  (1744)  in  Dublin  with 
imrhediate  success,  and  then  re- 
moved (1746)  to  London,  where 
he  became  tne  friend,  and  later 
the  rival,  of  David  Garrick.  '  Gar- 
rick,'  it  is  said,  'commanded  most 
applause,  Barry  most  tears.'  See 
Murphy's  Life  of  Garrick  (1801), 
and  Pollock's  Actors  and  Actresses 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  (1886). 

Barry,  William  Farquhar 
(1818-79),  American  soldier,  born 
in  New  York  city.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1838,  be- 
came a  brigadier-general  of  U.  S. 
volunteers  (Aug.,  1861),  soon  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and 
was  chief  of  artillery  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  under  Gen. 
McClellan  during  the  Peninsular 
Campaign  (1862),  and  under 
Gen.  W.  T.  Sherman  (1864-5) 
during  the  Georgia  campaign,  and 
the 'March  to  the  Sea' and  through 
the  Carolinas.  In  Sept.,  1864,  he 
was  brevetted  major-general  of 


Barry  Cornwall 


597 


Bartb^Iemf 


volunteers  for  his  services  in  the 
Atlanta  campaign,  and  in  March, 
1865,  major-general  in  the  regular 
army  for  his  services  during  the 
war. 

Barry  Cornwall.  See  Procter. 

Bar'rymore,  Ethel  (1879-  ), 
American  actress,  daughter  of 
Maurice  Barrymore  (q.v)  and 
niece  of  John  Drew  (q.v.),  was 
born  in  Philadelphia,  and  was 
educated  in  the  Convent  of 
Notre  Dame  in  that  city.  Her 
debut,  made  with  John  Drew's 
Company  in  1896,  was  followed 
by  a  season  in  London  as  Pris- 
cilla  in  Secret  Service.  She 
subsequently  played  leading  roles 
with  Henry  Irving,  and  starred 
in  Captain  Jinks  (1900),  Cousin 
Kate,  A  Doll's  House  (1905), 
Sunday  (1906),  Alice  Sit-by-the- 
Fire  (1906),  The  Second  Mrs. 
Tanqueray  (1925),  and  other 
well-known  plays.  She  married 
Russell  Griswold  Colt. 

Barrymore,  John  (1882-  ), 
American  actor  and  film  star, 
son  of  Maurice  Barrymore  (q.v.) 
and  nephew  of  John  Drew  (q.v.), 
was  born  in  Philadelphia.  His 
theatrical  debut,  as  Max  in 
Magda  (Chicago,  1903),  was 
followed  by  seasons  in  New  York, 
London,  and  Australia.  He 
played  Lord  Meadows  in  Tod- 
dles, Mac  in  A  Stubborn  Cinder- 
ella, and  Nathaniel  Duncan  in 
The  Fortune  Hunter,  and  starred 
in  Kick-In,  Galsworthy's  Justice, 
Tolstoy's  Redemption,  Richard 
III.,  and  The  Jest,  in  which  his 
brother  Lionel  Barrymore  ap- 
peared as  a  co-star.  In  1925  he 
went  to  London,  organized  his 
own  company,  played  Hamlet, 
and  was  accorded  high  acclaim 
during  a  long  season.  He  has 
been  seen  on  the  screen  in  Dr. 
Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde,  Beau 
Brummel,  The  Sea  Beast,  and 
Don  Juan.  Consult  his  Confes- 
sions of  an  Actor  (1926). 

Barrymore,  Lionel  (1878-  ), 
American  actor  and  film  star, 
son  of  Maurice  Barrymore  (q.v.) 
and  nephew  of  John  Drew  (q.v.). 
His  debut  (1893)  was  made  in 
The  Rivals,  in  which  his  grand- 
mother, Mrs.  John  Drew,  was 
appearing  as  Mrs.  Malaprop. 
With  her  he  appeared  also  in 
The  Road  to  Ruin.  Other  plays 
in  which  he  has  taken  leading 
parts  include:  Squire  Kate,  Cum- 
berland '6i,  Arizona,  The  Second 
in  Command,  The  Mummy  and 
the  Humming  Bird,  Pantaloon, 
The  Fires  of  Hate,  The  Still 
Small  Voice,  The  Jest,  in  which 
he  was  co-star  with  his  brother 
John,  and  others.  He  has 
achieved  marked  popularity  in 
motion  pictures. 

Barrymore,  Maurice  (1847- 
1905),  actor  and  dramatist, 
whose  real  name  was  Herbert 
Blythe,  was  born  in  India.  He 
was  graduated  from  Oxford, 
studied  for  the  India  civil  service, 


and  was  admitted  to  the  English 
bar,  but  adopted  the  stage  as  a 
profession.  In  1875  he  went  to 
the  United  States,  where  he 
made  his  debut  at  the  Boston 
Theatre  as  Ray  Trafford  in 
Under  the  Gaslight,  and  appeared, 
also,  as  Captain  Molyneaux  in  a 
revival  of  The  Shaughran.  The 
following  year  he  married  Geor- 
giana  Drew  (sister  of  John 
Drew),  who  often  acted  with 
him.  Barrymore  was  at  various 
times  leading  man  for  Modjeska, 
Fanny  Davenport,  Mrs.  Langtry, 
Olga  Nethersole,  Mrs.  Fiske, 
and  others.  He  was  an  actor  of 
more  than  common  ability, 
handsome  and  dashing,  with  a 
dominating  personality  that  won 
for  him  a  host  of  admirers.  He 
wrote  Nadjeska,  The  Robber  of 
the  Rhine,  and  other  plays. 

Bars-gemelles,  barz-jem'el,  or 
Bers-gemel,  in  heraldry,  twin 
bars  crossing  the  field,  and  so 
placed  that  the  parts  of  the  field 
above  and  below  them  are  greater 
than  the  part  between  them. 

Bar's!,  town,  India,  in  Shola- 
pur  district,  Bombay  Presidency; 
128  miles  east  of  Poona.  Pop. 
(1921)  22,074. 

Barsin^,  bar-si'ne,  the  daughter 
of  Artabazus,  and  wife  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  to  whom 
she  bore  a  son,  Heracles.  When 
the  son  was  fourteen  years  of  age, 
he  and  his  mother  were  secretly 
put  to  death  by  Cassander. 
Some  authorities  make  Barsine 
the  daughter  of  Darius  Codoman- 
nus,  and  still  others  claim  there 
were  two  women  of  the  name, 
one  a  Greek  and  one  a  Persian, 
and  that  both  were  married  to 
Alexander. 

Bart,  or  Barth,  Jean  (1650- 
1702),  French  corsair,  was  born 
in  Dunkirk.  Having  served  in 
the  Dutch  navy,  under  Ruyter, 
in  the  campaigns  of  1666  and 
1667  against  England,  he  entered 
the  service  of  France  (1672) 
and  became  captain  of  a  priva- 
teer (1686).  After  performing 
many  brilliant  exploits  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  off  the  Eng- 
lish coasts,  he  was  appointed  by 
Louis  XIV.  chief  of  a  squadron 
(1679),  having  p'-eviously  ob- 
tained letters  of  nobility  from 
the  king  for  having  captured  a 
Dutch  fleet  laden  with  corn. 

Bartas,  bar'ta',  Guillaume 
de  Salluste,  Sieur  du  (1544- 
90),  French  Huguenot  poet,  was 
born  in  Montfort.  He  was  a 
faithful  follower  of  Henry  of 
Navarre,  who  sent  him  on  va- 
rious missions,  notably  to  Scot- 
land and  England.  His  first 
poetic  attempt  was  an  epic, 
Judith,  written  in  1565  but  not 
published  until  1573.  This  was 
followed  in  1578  by  La  semaine,  a 
work  on  the  creation  which  went 
through  many  editions  and  was 
translated  into  several  languages. 
Bartas'  poetry  has  vigor  and  a 


certain  grandeur  but  is  frequently 
marred  by  the  grotesque. 

Bar'tels,  Adolf  (1862-  ),  Ger- 
man man  of  letters,  was  born  in 
Wesselburen,  Holstein.  He  be- 
came a  journalist  and  settled  in 
Berlin,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  poetry,  criticism,  and  the 
drama.  His  many  publications 
include  Dietrich  Sebrandt  (1899); 
Der  Bauer  in  der  deutschen  Ver- 
gangenheit  (1900);  Geschichte  der 
deutschen  Liter atur  (1901-2);  a 
biography  of  Jeremias  Gotthelf 
(1902);  Adolf  Stern  (1905);  Die 
Dithmarscher  (1908) ;  Die  deutsche 
Not  (1921);  Jiidische  Herkunft 
und  Liter aturwiss ens chaft  (192.5). 

Bartenstein,  bar'ten-stin,  town, 
East  Prussia,  on  the  Alle  River; 
32  miles  southeast  of  Konigs- 
berg.  It  is  a  manufacturing 
centre  and  has  a  large  grain  trade. 
Here  the  treaty  between  Russia 
and  Prussia  was  signed  in  1807. 
Pop.  7,300. 

Bart'fa  or  Bartfeld,  town, 
Czechoslovakia,  in  the  county  of 
Saros,  on  the  Tapola  River;  75 
miles  southeast  of  Cracow,  Po- 
land. In  the  vicinity  are  cele- 
brated mineral  springs.  Pop. 
6,500. 

Barth,  bart,  town  and  seaport, 
Prussia,  in  Pomerania,  on  the 
Bay  of  Barth;  20  miles  northwest 
of  Stralsund.  It  has  a  good 
harbor.  Leading  industries  are 
shipbuilding,  brewing,  and  the 
manufacture  of  leather  and  to- 
bacco. Pop.  (1920)  7,344. 

Barth,  Heinrich  (1821-65), 
German  traveller,  was  born  in 
Hamburg.  He  visited  Northern 
Africa  in  1845,  voyaged  up  the 
Nile,  explored  Arabia  and  the 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
later,  at  the  request  of  the 
British  government,  took  part 
in  the  expedition  for  the  explora- 
tion of  Central  Africa,  for  which 
he  set  out  in  1849,  with  James 
Richardson  and  Dr.  Overweg. 
After  nearly  six  years  in  Africa, 
during  which  both  his  com- 
panions perished,  Barth  returned 
to  Europe  in  1855.  In  1857  he 
published  his  Travels  and  Dis- 
coveries in  North  and  Central 
Africa  (5  vols.;  new  ed.  1890). 
In  1862  he  explored  Eastern 
Turkey.  He  also  wrote  Wander- 
ungen  durch  die  Kiistenldnder  des 
Mittelmeers  (1849),  Reise  von 
Trapezunt  nach  Skutari  (1860), 
and  other  works. 

Barth,  Jean.  See  Bart. 

Barthclemy,  bar-ta-l'-me'.  Au- 
gust Marseille  (1796-1867), 
French  poet,  was  born  in  Mar- 
seilles. After  the  Restoration  he 
settled  in  Paris,  where  he  soon 
attracted  attention  by  his  satiric 
attacks  on  the  Bourbons,  which 
at  length  caused  his  imprison- 
ment. Liberated  by  the  July 
Revolution,  he  allied  himself 
with  Louis  Phillipe,  defending 
his  change  of  politics  by  the  oft 
quoted  line:  L'homme  absurde  est 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Barth^lemy 


698 


BartlesTlUe 


celui  qui  ne  change  jamais.  His 
more  serious  work  includes  Na- 
poleon en  Egypte,  Fils  de  I'homme, 
and  L' Insurrection,  all  of  which 
were  produced  in  collaboration 
with  his  friend  and  compatriot, 
J.  P.  A.  Mery. 

Barthelemy,  Jean  Jacques 
(1716-95),  French  writer  and 
scholar,  was  born  in  Cassis,  in 
Provence.  In  1753  he  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  Royal 
Cabinet  of  Medals.  His  Voyage 
du  jeune  Anacharsis  en  Grece 
(4  vols.  1787),  which  occupied 
him  thirty  years,  attained  great 
popularity,  and  was  translated 
into  several  languages — into  Eng- 
lish by  W.  Beaumont  (5th  ed., 
in  6  vols.,  1817). 

Barthelemy  Saint  -  Hilaire, 
Jules  (1805-95),  French  states- 
man and  scholar,  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  Greek  and  Roman 
philosophy  in  the  College  de 
France  in  1838,  and  member  of 
the  Academy  in  1839.  He  en- 
tered the  Assembly  after  the 
revolution  of  1848,  was  impris- 
oned on  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2, 
1851,  and  on  his  release  resigned 
his  professorship,  in  which,  how- 
ever, he  was  reinstated  in  1862. 
In  1871  he  was  elected  to  the 
Assembly  at  Bordeaux,  and  gave 
consistent  support  to  Thiers, 
whose  secretary  he  became 
(1872-3).  He  was  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  Jules  Ferry's 
cabinet  (1880-81).  His  principal 
works  are  translations  of  Aris- 
totle (1839-44),  De  I'ecole  d'Alex- 
andrie  (1838),  Des  Vedas  (1854), 
Du  Bouddhisme  (1855),  Le  Boud- 
dha  et  sa  religion  (1866),  Ma- 
homet et  le  Cor  an  (1867),  Pensees 
de  Marc-Aurele  (1876),  L'Inde 
Anglaise  (1887),  La  philosophie 
dans  ses  rapports  avec  les  sciences 
et  la  religion  (1889),  and  Francois 
Bacon  (1890) .  Barthelemy  Saint- 
Hilaire  was  the  literary  executor 
of  Thiers  and  of  Victor  Cousin, 
whose  Life  he  wrote  (1895). 

Barthold,  bar'tolt,  Friedrich 
WiLHELM  (1799-1858),  German 
historian,  was  born  in  Berlin. 
On  the  publication  of  Der 
Romerzug  Konig  Heinrichs  von 
Liitzelburg  (1830-31),  his  greatest 
work,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Greifswald. 

Bartholdl,  bar-t5l-de',  Fred- 
eric AUGUSTE  (1834-1904), 
French  sculptor,  of  Italian  an- 
cestry, was  born  in  Colmar, 
Alsace.  He  was  commissioned  by 
the  French  government  to  exe- 
cute a  huge  statue  of  Liberty  for 
presentation  to  the  American 
government  in  commemoration 
of  the  centenary  of  its  inde- 
pendence. This  statue.  Liberty 
Enlightening  the  World,  was 
completed  in  1884,  and  in  1886 
was  erected  on  Bedloe's  Island 
in  New  York  Harbor  (see 
Liberty,  Statue  of;  New  York 
City).  Most  of  Bartholdi's 
other  works  were  of  a  quasi- 

VOL.  I. — Oct.  '26 


historical  or  patriotic  character — 
e.g..  The  Lion  of  Belfort  (1880),  a 
monument  to  Lafayette  in  New 
York  (1873),  another  to  Ver- 
cingetorix  at  Clermont-Ferrand 
(1902),  and  Helvetia  carrying 
Help  to  Strasshurg  (1895). 

Bartholdt,  bar-tolt',  Richard 
(1855-  ),  American  legislator 
and  editor,  was  born  in  Germany, 
and  went  to  the  United  States 
when  a  boy.  He  received  a 
classical  education,  learned  the 
printer's  trade,  and  later  en- 
gaged in  journalism,  becoming 
editor-in-chief  of  the  St.  Louis 
Tribune.  He  was  a  representa- 
tive (Rep.)  in  Congress  from 
1893  to  1915,  when  he  retired  to 
devote  himself  to  literary  pur- 
suits. He  was  widely  known  for 
his  activity  in  behalf  of  inter- 
national peace,  serving  as  presi- 
dent of  the  Arbitration  Group  in 
Congress,  which  he  founded,  and 
as  president  of  the  Interparlia- 
mentary Union  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  International  Arbitration. 

Bartholome,  bar-t5-la-ma', 
Paul  Albert  (1848-  ),  French 
painter  and  sculptor,  was  born 
in  Thiverval  (Seine-et-Oise).  He 
studied  painting  in  Geneva  under 
Menn  and  in  Paris  under 
Gerome,  and  between  1879  and 
1886  exhibited  at  the  Salon 
many  genre  pictures,  the  best 
being  The  Meal  of  the  Old 
People  at  the  Workhouse  (1880) 
and  Recreation  (1885).  After 
1886  he  devoted  himself  to 
sculpture,  and  may  be  said  to  be 
the  interpreter  in  stone  of 
human  despair.  His  master- 
piece. Monuments  to  the  Dead, 
was  bought  by  the  city  of  Paris 
in  1899  and  placed  at  the 
entrance  to  Pere-la-Chaise  ceme- 
tery. Other  works  of  note  are 
La  douleur,  Jeune  fille  pleurant, 
Adam  et  Eve  chassis  du  Paradis, 
and  Le  secret. 

Barthoromew  (son  of  Talmai), 
one  of  the  twelve  disciples  of 
Jesus,  frequently,  though  not 
conclusively,  identified  with  Na- 
thanael  (q.v.).  In  the  lists  of 
apostles  he  is  always  associated 
with  Philip.  The  later  accounts 
of  his  preaching  in  India,  Ar- 
menia, Egypt,  and  elsewhere, 
and  the  various  stories  of  his 
martyrdom,  are  wholly  un- 
founded. 

Bartholomew,  Edward  Shef- 
field (1822-58),  American  sculp- 
tor, was  born  in  Colchester, 
Conn.,  and  studied  at  Rome. 
His  most  famous  statues  are 
Blind  Homer  led  by  his  Daughter, 
Ganymede  and  the  Eagle,  and 
The  Repentant  Eve.  .  The  Wads- 
worth  Gallery,  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  has  a  large  collection  of 
his  works.  He  died  at  Naples. 

Bartholomew  Bayou,  a  river 
of  the  Southern  United  States, 
rising  in  Jefferson  county,  Arkan- 
sas, and  after  a  circuitous  course 
of  275  miles  discharging  into  the 


Ouachita  River,  La.  It  is  nav- 
igable for  most  of  its  length. 

Bartholomew  Fair,  an  English 
market  held  annually  from  1133 
in  West  Smithfield,  London,  on 
the  festival  of  St.  Bartholomew 
(Aug.  24,  old  style).  In  early 
times  it  was  the  principal  cloth 
fair  in  England — leather,  pewter, 
and  cattle  being  also  extensively 
sold.  Later  it  became  a  pleasure 
fair  of  diversified  character  and 
in  1855  was  abolished  as  a  nuis- 
ance, after  having  been  held 
since  1840  at  Islington. 

Bartholomew,  Massacre  of 
St.,  the  massacre  of  the  Hugue- 
nots which  began  in  Paris  on  St. 
Bartholomew's  Day,  Aug.  24, 
1572.  It  was  the  result  of  a 
feud  between  the  house  of  Guise 
and  the  Catholics  and  the  house 
of  Conde  and  the  Huguenots 
(Protestants),  and  is  generally 
admitted  to  have  been  performed 
at  the  instigation  of  Catharine 
de' Medici  (q.v.).  The  atrocities 
inaugurated  in  Paris  by  the 
murder  of  Coligny  and  Teligny 
extended  to  Orleans  (Aug.  27), 
Lyons  (Aug.  30),  and  Rouen 
(Sept.  17).  The  total  number  of 
those  massacred  is  stated  vari- 
ously at  from  2,000  to  100,000. 

Bartholomew's  (St.)  Hospital, 
a  royal  hospital  in  Smithfield, 
London,  founded  in  1123  by 
Rahere,  also  founder  and  prior 
of  the  adjoining  priory,  the 
church  of  which  is  now  known  as 
St.  Bartholomew  the  Great.  It 
was  made  a  sanctuary  by  Ed- 
ward II.,  but  both  hospital  and 
priory  were  dissolved  by  Henry 
VIII.,  who  refounded  the  hospital 
in  1547.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1729, 
and  now  has  more  than  750  beds. 
Attached  are  a  medical  school, 
founded  in  1843,  a  convalescent 
home  at  Swanley,  Kent,  and  an 
out-patient  and  casualty  depart- 
ment. 

Barthou,  bar  -  too',  Louis 
(1862-  ),  French  public  official, 
was  born  in  Oloron-Sainte-Marie. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Lycee  de 
Pau  and  in  1889  was  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He 
became  Minister  of  Public  Works 
in  1894,  and  between  1896  and 
1913  was  successively  Minister 
of  the  Interior,  of  Public  Works, 
and  of  Justice.  From  May  to 
December  1913  he  was  Premier. 
During  the  Great  War  he  was 
Minister  of  State  and  subse- 
quently was  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs  and  of  War.  In  1926  he 
was  made  Minister  of  Justice  in 
the  Poincare  ministry.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Academy  in  1918. 

Bar'tizan,  a  small  overhanging 
turret,  with  loopholes  and  em- 
brasures, projecting  from  an  angle 
of  tower  or  wall;  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  so-called  Scottish- 
baronial  style  of  architecture. 

Bar'tlesvllle,  city,  Oklahoma, 
county  seat  of  Washington 
county,  on  Little  Verdigris  River, 


Bartlett 


599 


BartoU 


and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe,  and  the  Missouri- 
Kansas-Texas  Railroads;  42  miles 
north  of  Tulsa.  It  has  an  Elks' 
Home,  Carnegie  library,  and 
city  and  county  buildings.  Silver 
Lake  is  a  feature  of  interest. 
The  city  is  the  centre  of  an 
important  oil  producing  area. 
Zinc  and  natural  gas  also  occur 
in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  (1910) 
6,181;  (1920)  14,417. 

Bart'lett,  Sir  Ellis  Ashmead 
(1849-1902),  British  politician, 
son  of  the  Rev.  Ellis  Bartlett,  of 
Plymouth,  Mass.,  was  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  He  was  called 
to  the  bar  (1877);  became  m.p. 
for  Eye  (1880),  and  for  Eccle- 
sall  Division,  Sheffield  (1885- 
1902);  served  as  civil  lord  of  the 
Admiralty  (1885-92),  and  was 
knighted  in  1892.  He  was  a 
Conservative  and  the  champion 
of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  in 
the  House  of  Commons.  In  1897 
he  was  captured  by  a  Greek 
warship  as  a  suspected  spy.  He 
published  in  the  same  year  The 
Battlefields  of  Thessaly. 

Bartlett,  Homer  Newton 
(1845-1920),  American  composer, 
was  born  in  Olive,  N.  Y.,  and 
studied  under  leading  masters. 
He  made  his  permanent  residence 
in  New  York  City,  where  he 
gave  instruction  on  the  organ, 
and  was  organist  of  the  Madison 
Avenue  Baptist  Church,  and 
president  of  the  Manuscript 
Society.  His  vocal  and  instru- 
mental compositions,  which  are 
numerous,  include  Concert  Polka, 
Toccata,  U Amour  (song),  and 
a  cantata,  The  Last  Chieftain. 

Bartlett,  John  (1829-1905), 
American  author,  was  born  in 
Plymouth,  Mass.  He  was  a  vol- 
unteer paymaster  in  the  U.  S. 
Navy  in  1862-3,  and  in  1865-89 
was  senior  member  of  a  well- 
known  Boston  publishing  house. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  Familiar 
Quotations  (1854),  an  admirable 
and  much-used  compilation  of 
selections  from  standard  prose 
and  poetry.  His  other  works  in- 
clude: New  Method  of  Chess 
Notation  (1857);  Shakespeare 
Phrase  Book  (1882);  Catalogue 
of  Books  on  Angling,  Including 
Ichthyology,  Pisciculture,  '  etc. 
(1882);  The  Shakespeare  Index, 
The  Complete  Concordance  to 
Shakespeare' s  Dramatic  Works 
(1894). 

Bartlett,  John  Russell  (1805- 
86),  American  author,  statesman, 
and  bibliographer,  was  born  in 
Providence,  R.  I.  He  was  en- 
gaged in  the  banking  business 
until  1837,  when  he  went  to  New 
York,  and  became  a  successful 
foreign  bookseller.  He  was  one 
of  the  commissioners  for  the  de- 
limitation of  the  Mexican  fron- 
tier (1850-53)  and  published  an 
interesting  Narrative  of  Explora- 
tions and  Incidents  in  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  California,  Sonora,  and 


Chihuahua  (1854).  From  1855  to 
1872  he  was  secretary  of  state  of 
Rhode  Island.  He  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  John  Carter 
Brown  Library  for  several  years, 
and  prepared  its  four-volume 
catalogue.  His  other  publica- 
tions include:  Records  of  the 
Colony  of  Rhode  Island  and  the 
Providence  Plantations  (10  vols., 
1856-65);  Progress  of  Ethnology 
(1848);  Dictionary  of  American- 
isms (1850;  4th  ed.  1877);  and 
Bibliotheca  Americana  (1865-71). 

Bartlett,  Josiah  (1729-95), 
American  political  leader,  was 
born  in  Amesbury,  Mass.,  and 
became  a  physician  in  New 
Hampshire.  Eagerly  espousing 
the  cause  of  the  colonists  in  the 
controversies  with  the  British 
government,  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  New  Hampshire 
Committee  of  Safety  (1775), 
and  of  the  Continental  Congress 
(1775-6),  serving  on  the  com- 
mittee which  drafted  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  and  signing 
the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
He  was  subsequently  chief  justice 
of  New  Hampshire  (1782-90), 
president  of  New  Hampshire 
(1790-2),  and  the  first  governor 
of  the  State  (1792-4)  after  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution 
of  1792. 

Bartlett,  Paul  Wayland 
(1865-1925),  American  sculptor, 
was  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn. 
He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  New  Haven  and 
Boston,  and  studied  at  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  Paris. 
In  his  early  career  he  dealt  mainly 
with  animal  subjects,  as  in  the 
Bohemian  Bear  Trainer,  now  in 
the  Metropolitan  Museum,  and 
the  Dying  Lion.  Other  important 
works  are  statues  of  Columbus 
and  Michelangelo  (in  the  Con- 
gressional Library,  Washington, 
D.C.),  the  equestrian  Lafayette, 
the  Ghost  Dancer  (in  the  Penn- 
sylvania Academy,  Philadelphia) ; 
figures  on  the  pediment  on  the 
National  House  of  Representa- 
tives, and  six  allegorical  figures 
for  the  New  York  Public  Library. 
The  equestrian  Lafayette  was 
duplicated  by  him  for  the  town  of 
Metz,  as  a  gift  from  the  Knights 
of  Columbus  of  America.  Bart- 
lett's  art  is  essentially  monu- 
mental, with  a  happy  balance 
between  the  austere  and  the  pic- 
turesque. He  was  a  member  of 
the  jury  of  awards  at  the  Paris 
Expositions  of  1889  and  1900, 
and  was  made  Chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  in  1895. 

Bartlett,  Robert  Abram 
(1875-  ),  American  explorer, 
was  born  in  Brigus,  Newfound- 
land. He  was  educated  at  St. 
John's  College,  Newfoundland, 
and  in  1905  passed  the  examina- 
tion for  'Master  of  British  Ships.' 
He  began  his  career  as  an  ex- 
plorer by  wintering  with  Peary 
(1897-8)    at    Cape  D'Urville. 


commanded  the  Roosevelt  in 
Peary's  expedition  to  the  North 
Pole  (1905-9),  and  in  1913-14 
was  in  command  of  the  Karluk 
in  the  Canadian  Government's 
Arctic  Expedition,  which  reached 
Wrangel  Island.  He  commanded 
the  third  Crocker  Land  Relief 
Expedition  in  1917  and  during 
the  Great  War  was  marine 
superintendent  of  Army  Trans- 
port Service  in  New  York.  He 
was  awarded  the  Chas.  P.  Daly 
medal  by  the  American  Geograph- 
ical Society.  He  is  the  author  of 
Last  Voyage  of  the  Karluk. 

Bartlett,  Samuel  Colcord 
(1817-98),  American  educator, 
was  born  in  Salisbury,  N.  H. 
He  was  graduated  (1836)  from 
Dartmouth  College,  studied  for 
the  Congregational  ministry,  and 
held  various  pastorates  and 
educational  positions  until  his 
appointment,  in  1858,  as  pro- 
fessor of  biblical  literature  in 
Chicago  Theological  Seminary. 
From  1877  to  1892  he  was  presi- 
dent of  Dartmouth  College.  The 
account  of  his  trip  across  the 
desert  of  El  Tih  in  1874,  taken 
with  the  object  of  comparing 
that  region  with  the  description 
in  the  Bible  narrative,  is  given 
in  From  Egypt  to  Palestine, 
Observations  of  a  Journey  (1879). 

Bartlett,  William  Francis 
(1840-76),  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Haverhill,  Mass.  He 
was  graduated  from  Harvard, 
and  during  the  Civil  War  served 
with  marked  ability  on  the 
Federal  side,  rising  from  the 
rank  of  private  to  that  of  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  (June 
20,  1864).  On  March  13,  1865, 
he  was  brevetted  major-general 
of  volunteers  for  'gallant  and 
meritorious  services  during  the 
war.'  He  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Petersburg  (July  30,  1864),  and 
was  confined  for  a  short  time  in 
Libby  Prison,  at  Richmond,  Va. 
He  was  especially  distinguished 
for  his  bravery  in  action,  it 
having  been  said  that  'in  every 
engagement  in  which  he  took 
part,  with  the  exception  of  his 
first  at  Balls  Bluff,  he  was 
wounded  within  an  hour  from 
the  time  the  first  gun  was  fired.' 

Bartlett,  William  Henry 
(1809-54),  English  artist  and 
author,  was  born  in  London  and 
was  apprenticed  to  an  architect. 
He  spent  his  life  chiefly  in  travel, 
making  drawings  of  scenes  in 
England,  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  in  Palestine,  and  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  The 
greater  number  were  published, 
with  letter-press  by  himself. 

Bar  toll,  bar'to-le,  Adolfo 
(1833-94),  Italian  Uterary  his- 
torian, was  born  in  Fivizzano 
and  held  the  professorship  of 
literary  history  at  the  Floren- 
tine Institute  of  Higher  Studies 
from  1874  until  his  death.  His 
principal  work  is  the  Storia  della 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '26 


Bartoll 


600 


Barton 


letteratura  italiana  (7  vols.  1878- 
89),  the  first  critical  history  of 
Italian  literature,  now  to  some 
extent  superseded  by  the  work 
of  Gaspary.  He  also  edited 
The  Voyages  of  Marco  Polo 
(1859),  dealt  with  the  evolution 
of  the  Renaissance  (1877),  and 
with  the  predecessors  of  Boc- 
caccio (1878),  and  in  1881 
published  Scenari  inediti  della 
commedia   delV  arte. 

BartoU,  or  Bartolo,  Taddeo 
(1363-1422),  Italian  painter,  was 
born  in  Siena  and  lived  succes- 
sively in  Perugia  and  Pisa.  His 
work  includes  a  picture  of  the 
Virgin  for  the  church  of  San 
Paolo  air  Orto,  Pisa,  and 
frescoes  depicting  the  life  of  the 
Virgin  in  the  cathedrals  of  Siena, 
Pisa,  Genoa  and  Perugia.  One 
of  his  earliest  works.  The  Virgin 
among  the  Saints  (1390),  is  now 
in  the  Louvre. 

Bartolini,  bar-to-le'ne,  Lor- 
enzo (1777-1850),  Italian  sculp- 
tor, was  born  in  Vornio,  near 
Florence,  and  in  1797  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  established  his 
reputation  with  the  bas-relief 
Cleobis  and  Biton.  He  was  a 
favorite  of  Napoleon,  of  whom 
he  executed  a  bust,  and  who 
entrusted  him  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  school  of  sculpture 
at  Carrara  in  1808.  Later  he 
was  professor  of  sculpture  in  the 
Academy  at  Florence.  Among 
his  many  works,  the  most  cele- 
brated are  the  group  of  Charity, 
Hercules  and  Lichas,  Faith  in 
God,  and  Pyrrhus  hurling  Asty- 
anax  from  the  Walls  of  Troy.  He 
also  executed  busts  of  Byron, 
Thiers,  and  Pius  ix. 

Bartolommeo  di  Pagholo  del 
Fattorino,  bar-t6-lom-ma'5,  Fra, 
known  also  as  Baccio  della 
Porta  (c.  1475-1517),  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  Florentine  artists, 
was  born  in  Soffignano,  a  village 
near  Prato,  the  son  of  a  mule- 
teer. He  studied  under  Cosimo 
Roselli  and  when  very  young 
set  up  a  studio  of  his  own. 
Inspired  by  the  preaching  of 
Savonarola,  he  publicly  burned 
his  studies  in  the  nude  and  after 
Savonarola's  martyrdom  entered 
the  convent  of  San  Domenico  as 
Fra  Bartolommeo  (1500).  After 
four  years,  during  which  he 
touched  neither  pencil  not  brush, 
he  was  persuaded  to  attempt  an 
altar  piece  for  the  chapel  in  the 
Badia,  the  result  being  the 
Vision  of  St.  Bernard,  now  in  the 
Belle  Arti  in  Florence.  About 
1506  he  formed  an  acquaintance 
with  Raphael  and  this  grew 
into  a  warm  friendship,  the  in- 
fluence of  which  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  works  of  both  artists.  In 
1510  Bartolommeo  set  up  a 
studio  with  his  life-long  friend, 
Albertinelli,  and  in  1514  he 
went  to  Rome,  where,  influenced 
by  the  work  of  Michelangelo, 
he  painted  the  large  pictures  of 

Vol.  I. — Oct.  '2G 


St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  both  of 
which  were  finished  by  other 
hands,  probably  Raphael's.  He 
returned  to  Florence  in  1515 
and  there  remained,  except  for 
short  visits,  until  his  death. 

Bartolommeo  left  a  great 
number  of  masterpieces  charac- 
terized by  deep  religious  feeling. 
His  work  shows  force  and  power, 
beauty  of  coloring,  and  masterly 
handling  of  composition.  His 
influence  upon  Italian  art  was 
fourfold:  he  preceded  Raphael 
in  a  scientific  system  of  compo- 
sition, based  on  principles  of 
strict  symmetry;  he  combined 
harmony  of  tone  with  brilliance 
of  color;  he  elaborated  his 
landscape  backgrounds  beyond 
the  practice  of  his  contempor- 
aries; he  was  the  inventor  of  the 
lay  figure.  Among  the  best  of  his 
numerous  paintings  are  a  Pieta, 
a  Resurrection,  and  Salvator 
Mundi  in  the  Pitti  Palace, 
Florence;  Last  Judgment,  painted 
for  Santa  Maria  Novella,  and 
Enthronement  of  the  Virgin, 
Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence;  portrait 
of  Savonarola,  Florence;  many 
frescoes  in  the  convent  of  San 
Marco;  and  The  Marriage  of  St. 
Catherine,  Louvre,  Paris.  Con- 
sult Scott's  Fra  Bartolommeo. 

Bartolozzi,  bar-to-lot'se,  Fran- 
cesco (1727-1815),  Italian  en- 
graver, son  of  a  goldsmith,  was 
born  in  Florence.  He  studied 
art  in  the  Florentine  Academy, 
giving  special  attention  to  an- 
atomy, and  in  1745  was  articled 
to  Joseph  Wagner,  an  historical 
engraver  in  Venice.  After  a  six 
years'  apprenticeship  he  removed 
to  Rome,  and  under  the  patron- 
age of  Cardinal  Bottari,  executed 
portrait  heads  for  a  new  edition 
of  Vasari's  Lives  of  the  Painters. 
In  1764  he  removed  to  England, 
where  he  spent  nearly  forty 
years  in  London,  first  as  engraver 
to  King  George  iiL,  and  later  as 
his  own  master.  From  1802 
until  his  death  he  was  head  of 
the  National  Academy  at  Lisbon. 

Bartolozzi  was  an  engraver  of 
high  merit,  but  his  work  is 
sometimes  marred  by  haste  and 
superficiality.  He  is  said  to  be 
the  inventor  of  the  *red-chalk 
manner  of  engraving,'  a  sort  of 
soft-ground  etching  which  be- 
came exceedingly  popular  in 
England.  Among  his  best 
productions  are  a  series  of 
etchings  of  Guercino's  drawings; 
Clytie  and  Silence,  after  Carracci; 
Madonna  del  Sacco,  after  Andrea 
del  Sarto,  and  Mater  Dolorosa, 
after  Dolci.  Consult  Tuer's 
Bartolozzi  and  his  Works;  Bailly's 
Bartolozzi. 

Bar'ton,  Andrew  (?-1511), 
Scottish  naval  commander  whose 
daring  and  skill  in  capturing 
richly  laden  Portuguese  ships, 
in  reprisal  for  plundering  his 
father's  merchant  vessels,  won 
for  him  the  favor  of  all  Scotland. 


In  1506  he  completely  cleared  the 
Scottish  coasts  of  Flemish  pi- 
rates, sending  the  king  three 
barrels  filled  with  their  heads. 
Two  years  later  he  aided  Den- 
mark against  Liibeck.  He  was 
killed  in  a  naval  encounter  with 
the  Englishmen  Sir  Thomas  and 
Sir  Edward  Howard,  which 
event  is  celebrated  in  the  old 
ballad  Sir  Andrew  Barton. 

Barton,  Bernard  (1784- 
1849),  known  as  the  'Quaker 
poet,'  was  a  native  of  Carlisle, 
England.  He  first  engaged  in 
trade,  but  afterward  became 
a  bank  clerk  at  Woodbridge, 
in  Suffolk,  where  he  worked  for 
forty  years.  His  poems  (1812, 
1818,  1820)  are  distinguished  by 
pious  sentiment,  pathos,  and  ten- 
derness. He  is  chiefly  known, 
however,  as  the  friend  of  Charles 
Lamb.  Consult  Letters  and  Poems 
edited  by  his  daughter,  with  a 
Memoir  by  Edward  FitzGerald. 

Barton,  Clara  (1821-1912), 
American  philanthropist,  was 
born  in  Oxford,  Massachusetts. 
After  teaching  for  eighteen  years, 
she  obtained  a  clerkship  in 
Washington  (1855),  but  resigned 
this  at  the  opening  of  the  Civil 
War  to  devote  herself  to  the 
care  of  sick  and  wdunded  soldiers. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  she  in- 
augurated and  carried  on  a 
systematic  search  for  missing 
men,  thus  gaining  a  national 
reputation.  She  worked  with  the 
International  Red  Cross  in  the 
Franco-German  War  (1870-71) 
and  by  her  efforts  established  and 
became  the  first  official  president 
(1881-1904)  of  the  American 
Red  Cross.  Besides  work  in  the 
Russian  famine  (1892)  and  fol- 
lowing the  Armenian  massacre 
(1896),  she  performed  field  duties 
in  the  Spanish-American  War 
(1898)  and  in  the  Boer  War 
(1899-1902),  as  well  as  super- 
intending other  relief  work  car- 
ried on  by  the  Red  Cross.  In 
1905,  when  the  National  First 
Aid  Association  of  America  was 
organized,  she  became  its  first 
president.  She  published  reports 
of  her  work  and  History  of  the 
Red  Cross  in  Peace  and  War 
(1898),  Story  of  the  Red  Cross 
(1904),  Story  of  My  Childhood 
(1907).  Consult,  also,  Lives  by 
Epler  and  by  Wm.  Barton. 

Barton,  Elizabeth  (1506-34), 
the  'Maid  of  Kent,'  was  a  tavern 
servant  at  Aldington  in  Kent. 
She  came  out  of  an  illness  in  a 
hysteric  condition,  and  under 
priestly  influence  announced  her- 
self (1525)  as  a  prophetess,  and 
delivered,  as  a  revelation,  the 
warning  that  should  Henry  vin. 
persist  in  carrying  out  his  divorce 
from  Catherine  of  Aragon,  he 
would  not  survive  that  act  seven 
months.  Events  falsified  her  pre- 
diction, she  confesvsed  the  impos- 
ture, and,  with  six  accom- 
plices, was  executed  at  Tyburn. 


Bartow 

Bartow,  tn.,  co.  seat  of  P«lk 
CO.,  Fla.,  on  the  Plant  System 
of  R.  Rs.  Here  are  located  the 
Summerlin  and  the  South  Flor- 
ida Military  Institutes.  There 
are  large  phosphate  mining  and 
orange- raising  interests.  Pop. 
(1910)  2,6G2. 

Bartram,  John  (1699-1777), 
American  botanist,  was  born  near 
Derby,  Pa.  He  founded  the  first 
botanical  garden  in  the  United 
States,  1728,  near  Philadelphia, 
and  made  many  journeys  to  unex- 
plored regions  of  North  America 
in  search  of  specimens.  He  pub- 
lished an  account  of  his  Observa- 
tions (1751)  on  a  visit  to  the  Lake 
Ontario  regions,  and  was  a  cor  e- 
spondent  of  foreign  botanists.  See 
Memoirs  of  John  Bartram,  by 
William  Bartram. 

Bartram,  WiLtiAM  (1 739- 
1823),  American  botanist,  son  of 
John  Bartram,  was  born  near 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  established 
himself  in  business  in  N.  C,  but 
soon  gave  this  up  to  accompany 
his  father  on  his  travels.  He  set- 
tled at  Philadelphia,  1771,  and 
was  subsequently  devoted  entirely 
to  botanical  and  ornithological 
studies.  An  account  of  his  travels 
is  given  in  Travels  throtigh  North 
and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  East 
and  West  Florida  (1791). 

Bartsch,  Karl  (1832-88),  Ger- 
manic and  Romance  scholar,  was 
custodian  of  the  Germanic  Mu- 
seum at  Nuremberg  (1855),  and 
then_  occupied  the  chair  of  Ger- 
manic and  Romance  philology  at 
Rostock  (1858)  and  at  Heidelberg 

(1871)  successively.  He  edited  a 
number  of  early  German  texts, 
and  wrote  several  treatises  on 
Germanic,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant is  the  Untersuchungen 
ilber  das  Nibelungenlied  (1865). 
In  Romance,  his  two  Provencal 
Chrestomathies  (4th  ed.  1882)  and 
the  similar  work  for  Old  French 
(5th  ed.  1884)  have  been  much 
used.  Indispensable  to  the  stu- 
dent of  Provencal  is  the  Grund- 
Hss  zur  Geschichte  der  prov.  Litt. 

(1872)  ;  As  a  translator  he  ren- 
aered  into  German,  among  other 
works,  Burns's  songs  and  ballads 
(1865),  Dante's  Commedia  in  the 
original  metre  (1876),  and  Old 
French  popular  songs  (1882).  His 
version  of  the  Nibelungenlied 
reached  a  second  edition  in  1880. 

Bartsia,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  order  Scrophulariaceae.  The 
rare  purplish  blue  bartsia  (B. 
alpina)  is  found  in  the  arctic 
regions  of  America.  These  plants, 
like  some  others  of  the  same  order, 
are  semi-parasitic  on  other  plants. 
Into  which  they  send  suckers. 

Barttclot,  Major  Edmund 
MuSGRAVE  (1859-1888).  English 
officer,  son  of  Sir  W.  Barttelot, 
distinguished  himself  in  Afghan- 
istan and  Egypt;  accompanied  H. 
M.  Stanley  on  the  expedition  for 
the  relief  of  Emin  Pasha,  and  is 


601 

supposed  to  have  been  murdered 
by  Manyema  carriers.  For  a 
defence  against  the  charges  of 
cruelty  brought  against  him  see 
the  Life  written  by  his  brother 
(1890). 

Baru,  a  fluffy,  cotton-like  fibre 
obtained  from  an  E.  Indian  sago 
palm ;  used  instead  of  feathers 
to  stuff  pillows,  and  as  a  substi- 
tute for  tow  in  calking  boats. 

Baruch  ('blessed'),  the  friend 
and  amanuensis  of  Jeremiah.  He 
shared  many  of  the  prophet's 
misfortunes,  notably  his  exile  in 
Egypt,  and  subsequently,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus  (Antiq.,  X.  ix.  7), 
in  Babylon.  Bunsen  erroneously 
identifies  Baruch  with  the  'great 
unknowa'  prophetic  writer  of 
Isa.  40-66.  See  Jer.  32,  36,  etc.; 
Cheyne's  Jeremiah:  his  Life  and 
Times  (1888) ;  and  the  two  follow- 
ing articles. 

Baruch,  a  book  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha, extant  in  Greek,  purport- 
ing to  have  been  written  in  the 
main  by  the  above.  It  falls  into 
four  parts — (1)  ch.  1:1-14,  a  his- 
torical introdviction,  quite  unre- 
Hable;  (2)  1:15-3:8,  confession 
and   prayer  of  the   captives  in 


Bartsia  alpina. 
1,  Pistil ;  2,  corolla  (opened)  and  stamens. 

Bab;j^lon,  probably  from  a  Hebrew 
original,  and  dating  from  the  3rd 
century  B.C.;  (3)  3:9-4:4,  a  eulogy 
of  wisdom,  addressed  to  the  exiles, 
from  about  70  A.D.;  and  (4)  4:9- 
5:9,  odes  celebrating  the  return 
from  captivity,  still  later.  These 
heterogeneous  elements  were 
joined  together  probably  towards 
the  close  of  the  1st  centurj'^  a.d. 


Baryton 

Attached  to  Uaruch  (as  ch.  6)  is 
the  Epistle  of  Jeremy.  See  Clif- 
ford's commentary  in  Speaker's 
Apocrypha  (1888). 

Baruch,  The  Apocalypse  of, 
a  remarkable  work,  made  known 
to  scholars  by  the  discovery  of  a 
Syriac  MS.  in  1866.  The  Syriac  is 
evidently  translated  from  the 
Greek,  and  the  Greek  was  prob- 
ably translated  from  ^  Hebrew. 
The  friend  of  Jeremiah  is  made  to 
speak  throughout  in  the  first  per- 
son, and  relates  the  divine  dis- 
closures made  to  him  in  Jerusa- 
lem. The  work  comes  from  four 
or  five  different  hands,  probably 
Pharisees,  and  assumed  its  present 
form  about  the  first  quarter  of 
the  2nd  Christian  century,  or  a 
little  earlier.  It  is  thus  contem- 
poraneous with  the  New  Testa- 
ment writings,  and  herein  lies  the 
value  of  the  book.  See  R.  H. 
Charles's  Apocalypse  of  Baruch 
1896),  and  W.  J.  Deane's  Pseud- 
epigrapha,  pp.  130-162  (1888). 

Barus,  Carl  Hazard  (1856-), 
American  physicist,  was  born  at 
Cincinnati,  O.,  and  was  educated 
at  Columbia  and  in  Germany. 
He  was  physicist  to  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey  in  1880-92, 
professor  of  meteorology  in  the 
U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  in  1892-93, 
and  physicist  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  in  1893-95,  when  he 
took  the  chair  of  physics  at  Brown 
University.  His  publications  in- 
c\\xde  Experiments  with  Ionized  Air 

1901)  ;  Structure  of  the  Nucleus 

1902)  ;  Nucleation  of  the  Atmos- 
phere (190G);  Condensation  Induced 
by  Nuclei  and  Ions  (1907-8). 

Barwood.   See  Camwood. 

Barye,  Antoine  Louis  (1795- 
1875),  one  of  the  greatest  of  French 
sculptors.  He  served  in  the  army 
from  1812  to  1814.  For  years 
he  fought  against  poverty  and 
opposition,  till  recognition  of  his 
talent  came  fron-'  the  U.  S.  through 
his  friend  Mr.  Walters,  whose  fine 
art  collection  at  Baltimore  con- 
tains many  of  his  be,t  bronzes, 
such  as  The  Orleans  Group,  The 
Hunt  of  the  Wild  Ox.  jiarye  was 
unexcelled  in  illustrating  groups 
of  animals  in  vigorous  action, 
the  best  example  being  his  Lion 
Struggling  witn  a  Snake  (1832). 
Another  notable  work  is  the 
Lion  Resting  (1847).  Both  are  in 
the  Tuileries.  Barye  also,  in  the 
specimens  on  the  fagade  of  the 
new  wing  of  the  Louvre  (War, 
Peace,  Force,  Order),  treated  the 
human  figure  in  heroic  sculpture 
with  equal  mastery.  See  Brown- 
ell's  French  Art  (1892);  Gruclle's 
Notes  on  the  Walters  Collection, 
Baltimore;  BrowncU's  French  Art 
(1892);  Ballu's  L'CEuvre  de  Barye 
(1890). 

Baryton,  or  ViOLA  Di  bardone 
a  stringed  instrument,  invented 
in  1700,  but  not  now  in  use,  some- 
what resembling  the  viola  da 
gamba.  Leopold  Mozart  eulogized 


Barytone 


602 


Baseball 


its  beauty  of  tone,  and  Haydn, 
who  tried  hard  to  learn  it,  left  175 
compositions  for  the  instrument. 

Barytone.    See  Baritone. 

Bas,  or  Batz,  a  small  island  in  the 
EngHsh  Channel,  2.^  miles  from  the 
coast  and  15  miles  northwest  of 
Morlaix,  in  the  department  of 
Finistere,  France.  It  has  a  light- 
house at  an  elevation  of  212  feet,  2 
forts,  and  4  batteries.  There  are 
3  lishing  villages.    Pop  1,200. 

Basalt,  certain  volcanic  or  erup- 
tive rocks  possess  a  micro-  or  crypto- 
crj'Stalline  structure,  consisting  of 
crystals  embedded  in  an  amorphous 
or  glassy  ground  mass.  This  struc- 
tural form  is  caused  by  rapid  cool- 
ing, since  complete  crystallization 
only  takes  place  through  very  slow 


State  University  (1893-5),  lecturer 
and    associate    professor  (1895- 

1900)  ,  professor  of  geology  since 
190(3  at  Bryn  M-wr  College.  She 
acted  as  gcologica.1  assistant  (189G- 

1901)  ,  and  assistant  geologist  since 
1901,  on  the  United  States  Survey. 
She  is  a  fellow  of  the  Geological 
Society  ot  America.  She  has  writ- 
ten numerous  bulletins  and  papers 
in  technical  journals,  and  collab- 
orated on  Geologic  Folios. 

Bascom,  John  (1827),  American 
educator,  was  born  in  Genoa,  N.  Y. 
He  graduated  (1849)  at  Williams, 
and  studied  theology  at  Andover. 
From  1855  to  1874  he  was  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  Williams;  president  of 
the  University  of  Wisconsin  from 
1874  to  1887,  when  he  resigned.  He 


cooling.  Mineralogically,  rocks  of  Vreturned  to  Williamstown,  and  gave 
this  group  consist  essentially  of  ^lectures  at  the  college  on  sociology 
some  form  of  feldspar,  with  liorn-  ^\and  political  science.  He  has  writ- 
blende  or  augite  and  quartz.  \ten  extensively  on  educational, 
According  to  the  relative  pre-  V^psychological,  and  theological  sub- 
ponderance  of  either  silicic  acid  or  ^jects,  some  of  his  books  being 
bases,  they  are  divided  into  two  sub- .^Po///zca/  Economy  (1853);  Science, 
groups — namely,  acidic  and  basic  ^Philosophy,  and  Religion  (1871); 
rocks.  In  the  latter  class  there  is  a  Growth  of  Nationality  in  the  United 
predominance  of  either  hornblende      States  (1899);  God  and  His  Good- 


or  augite  and  plagloclase,  with  a 
siUca  content  of"  40  to  5 J  per  cent, 
and  speci.ic  gravity  of  2.9  to  3.1. 
To  this  class  belongs  basaltic  rock. 
It  is  then  an  igneous  rock,  made  up 
of  augite  feldspar  (silicate  of  mag- 
nesium, calcium,  and  iron)  and 
■plagioclase  feldspar  (silicate  of  cal- 
cium and  sodium^  as  esseniial  con- 
stituents, with  certain  accessory 
minerals,  as  magnetite  (magnetic 
iron  ore),  ' ilmenite  (titanium  iron 
oxide),  and  oUvine  (silicate  of  mag- 
nesium and  iron).  Varieties  of  ba- 
salts distinguished  by  presence  of 
notable  quantities  of  certain  silicates 
are  olivine,  leucite,  and  nepheHne 
basalts. 

Basaltic  rocks  are  usually  black, 
dark  brown,  or  greenish  black, 
and  vary  from  a  fine-grained  to  a 
coarsely  crystalline  structure,  with 
a  tendency  to  cleave  into  hexagonal 
columns.  The  usual  type  is  of  fine 
grain,  and  black,  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  magnetite  and  augite,  in 
which  the  only  mineral  recognizable 
by  the  eye  is  the  olivine.  Basaltic 
rocks  are  abundant,  and  widely 
distributed  in  those  regions  which 
have  undergone  mure  recent  vol- 
canic disturbances— ii.g..  North  Ire- 
land, West  Scotlbi,nd,  Western 
United  States,  Iceland,  India, 
Africa,  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
A  feature  of  basalti/:  lava  flows  is 
their  columnar  jointing,  which  pro- 
duces the  characteristic  scenery 
of  the  Giant's  Causeway  and  Fin- 
gal's  Cave  in  Ireland. 

Bascom,  Florence,  American 
geologist,  daughter  of  John  Bas- 
com (q.v.),  was  born  in  Williams- 
town,  Mass.  She  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Wisconsin  (1882), 
and  pursued  post-graduate  work  at 
that  university  and  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins until  1893.  She  was  instructor 
in  geology  and  petrograjjhy  at  Ohio 


ness  (1901). 

Base,  in  chemistry,  includes  those 
hydroxides  of  metals  which  neutral- 
ize acids  by  partly  or  entirely  re- 
placing their  hydrogens,  thereby 
yielding  compounds  called  salts. 
When  soluble  in  water,  they  turn 
red  htmus  blue  and  possess  caustic 

Eroperties.  Bases  are  termed  mono- 
ydric,  dihydric,  or  trihydric  valent 
or  acidic,  according  to  the  number 
of  hydroxyl  groups  present.  See 
Acid;  Salts;  Solutions. 

Base,  in  heraldry,  is  the  lower 
portion  of  a  shield.  Charges  borne 
therein  are  blazoned  in  base,  and 
particularly  in  dexter  base,  middle 
base,  or  sinister  base,  according  as 
they  appear  to  the  right,  the  centre, 
or  the  left. 

Baseball,  a  field  game  so  uni- 
versally popular  in  the  United 
States  thai  it  is  called  "^the  National 
Game.'  It  is  claimed  to  have  had 
its  origin  in  the  'town  ball'  of  the 
New  England  States  of  the  thirties. 
This,  however,  was  played  on  a 
square  field,  instead  of  a  diamond, 
and  the  runs  were  made  around 
four  foot  posts  set  in  the  ground,  in- 
stead of  bases.  The  Washington 
Club  of  New  York,  organized  in 
1843,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to 
use  the  diamond,  and  its  game  was 
called  the  'New  York,'  as  distin- 
guished from  the  'Massachusetts 
game'  of  the  New  England  States. 
The  Knickerbocker  Baseball  Club, 
in  1845,  first  formulated  a  code  of 
rules,  and  the  first  match  game  was 
played  in  184G.  In  1850,  clubs 
were  organized  in  Boston  and  Phil- 
adelphia; in  1852,  the  Gotham  Club 
was  formed  in  New  York;  in  1854, 
the  Eagle  and  Empire;  and  in  185G, 
the  Baltics  and  Putnams.  In  1857 
a  convention  was  held,  at  which 
delegates  were  present  from  sixteen 
clubs.    In  1858  a  second  conven- 


tion was  held,  and  twenty-five  clubs 
were  represented.  The  National 
Association  of  Baseball  Players  was 
organized,  and  held  annual  con- 
ventions thereafter,  revising  the 
rules  from  time  to  time.  The  first 
gate-money  series  of  matches  was 
played  at  Flushing,  L.  I.,  in  1858, 
The  first  series  of  championship 
games  was  played  in  1858  and  1859 
at  the  Elysian  Field,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 

In  1800  the  Excelsior  Club  of 
Brooklyn  started  on  a  tour  through 
Western  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Maryland,  arousing  much  en- 
thusiasm along  the  route.  Baseball 
clubs  spiang  up  everywhere  in  the 
territory  visited. 

The  Civil  War  gave  baseball  a 
serious  setback,  but  with  the  close 
of  the  war  interest  revived;  and  at 
a  convention  which  assembled  in 
18G5,  delegates  from  thirty  clubs 
were  present.  Within  the  ranks  of 
the  players  a  class  of  trained  pro- 
fessionals presently  developed,  who 
were  greatlv  in  demand.  The  For- 
est City  Club  of  Rockford,  111., 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  em- 
ploy players  at  regular  salaries, 
although  the  Cincinnati  'Red 
Stockings,'  organized  in  18G8,  are 
generally  regarded  as  the  first  pro- 
fessional baseball  club.  In  18G9 
the  'Red  Stockings'  played  a  series 
of  09  games  without  mee'ting  defeat, 
throughout  the  country  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  In  1870  they 
continued  their  triumphal  tour  until 
at  the  thirtieth  game  they  were 
defeated  by  the  Atlantics  of 
Brooklyn.  Another  great  impulse 
was  thereby  given  to  baseball,  and 
teams  were  organized  throughout 
the  country.  Salaries  were  raised 
as  a  result  of  competition  to  secure 
the  star  players. 

In  the  seventies,  however,  base- 
ball fell  into  the  hands  of  gamblers, 
and  there  was  grave  danger  that  it 
would  lose  its  popularity.  In  an 
effort  at  prevention,  a  convention 
was  held  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  1876, 
at  which  stringent  rules  against 
bribing  of  players,  betting  by  them, 
etc.,  were  passed,  the  National 
League  of  Professional  Baseball 
Clubs  was  organized,  and  a  circuit 
of  eight  clubs  formed — Boston,  Chi- 
cago, Athletics  (representing  Phila- 
delphia), Mutuals  (representing 
Brooklyn),  Hartford,  St.  Louis, 
Cincinnati,  and  Louisville. 

In  1882  a  rival  league  was  or- 
ganized under  the  tide  of  the 
American  Association  of  Profes- 
sional Baseball  Clubs.  It  made  a 
strong  bid  for  popular  favor  by 
reducing  the  price  of  admission  to 
half  the  prevailing  rate.  Later  in 
the  same  year  the  National  League, 
the  American  Association,  and  the 
Northwestern  League  met  and 
adopted  a  tripartite  agreement 
which  was  afterward  extended  to  a 
national  agreement,  and  which  in- 
cluded all  the  reputable  organized 
clubs  that  desiretl  to  become  mem- 
bers.   The  principal  object  was  to 


Baseball  602  A  Baseball 


provide  a  central  government  for 
professional  baseball  players. 

In  1884  a  number  of  the  play- 
ers revolted  and  formed  the  Un- 
ion Association,  which  lasted  only 
one  year.  In  1890  there  was  an- 
other and  more  formidable  revolt 
when  the  Players'  League  was  or- 
ganized. The  new  league  was 
made  up  of  Boston,  Brooklyn, 
New  York,  Chicago,  Pittsburgh, 
Buffalo,  Philadelphia,  and  Cleve- 
land. The  league  went  through 
one  season,  and  Boston  won  the 
pennant.  Before  another  season 
began  the  National  League  per- 
suaded the  New  York  and  Brook- 
lyn clubs  to  sell  out,  and  the  new 
organization  went  to  pieces. 

In  1891  the  American  Associa- 
tion broke  away  from  the  na- 
tional agreement,  and  after  a 
season's  war  with  the  National 
League  gave  way  to  the  older 
organization  and  was  absorbed. 

The  National  League's  great- 
est fight  was  with  the  American 
League  in  1900-1902,  and  this 
resulted  in  the  latter  organization 
gaining  a  firm  footing  in  the 
baseball  world,  until  it  has  be- 
come as  great  a  power  in  base- 
ball as  the  older  organization. 
It  was  formed  in  1893,  under  the 
name  of  the  Western  League,  by 
Ban  Johnson.  After  two  years  of 
strife  the  war  was  settled  by  the 
famous  peace  treaty  made  at 
Cincinnati,  when  the  present 
National  Agreement  was  formu- 
lated. 

During  the  seasons  of  1914-15 
the  new  Federal  League  furnish- 
ed strong  opposition  to  the  Na- 
tional and  American  Leagues,  but 
was  eventually  consolidated  with 
the  older  organizations.  In  1920, 
^  as  the  result  of  certain  scandals 
arising  from  charges  of  alleged 
bribery  in  the  Chicago  American 
team.  Judge  Kenesaw  Landis 
(q.v.)  was  appointed  arbiter  in 
all  disputes  arising  in  baseball 
associations. 

At  the  Waldorf-Astoria,  in 
New  York  City,  on  Feb.  2,  1926, 
the  National  League  celebrated 
the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  its 
birthday  with  a  dinner  at  which 
many  prominent  guests  were 
present. 

In  addition  to  the  two  major 
leagues — the  American  and  the 
National — there  are  many  minor 
professional  leagues  throughout 
the  United  States  federated  in 
the  National  Association.  In 
1927  these  leagues  numbered  23, 
representing  146  cities  and  towns. 

College  baseball  came  into 
prominence  in  1879,  when  the 
clubs<  of  Harvard,  Princeton, 
Brown,  Amherst,  and  Dartmouth 
formed  the  Intercollegiate  Base- 
ball Association.  Yale  joined  in 
1880.  In  1887  Harvard,  Prince- 
ton, and  Yale  joined  with  Colum- 
bia to  form  the  Eastern  College 
League,  from  which  Columbia 
withdrew  in  1888.  Other  changes 


followed  until  there  is  now  no 
comprehensive  general  organiza- 
tion, though  many  match  games 
are  played  annually. 

Plan  of  Baseball  Field. — Base- 
ball is  played  with  bat  and  ball 
upon  a  level  field  on  which  is  laid 
out  the  diamond,  a  square  90  feet 
on  each  side,  set  cornerwise  to 
the  field.  At  each  corner  is  a 
base — the  one  at  which  the  bats- 
man stands  and  at  which  tha 
runs  are  scored  being  called  the 
home  plate.    Facing  the  field,  the 


base  at  the  right  of  home  plate 
is  first  base,  that  at  the  left  third 
base,  and  that  opposite  the  home 
plate  second  base.  The  following 
are  the  official  rules  for  laying 
out  the  baseball  field: 

'Diamond  or  Infield. — From  a 
point  A,  within  the  grounds,  pro- 
ject a  straight  line  out  into  the 
field,  and  at  a  point  b,  154  feet; 
from  point  a,  lay  off  lines  BC  and 
BD  at  right  angles  to  the  line  ab; 
then  with  b  as  a  centre,  and  63.- 
63945  feet  (roughly,  63  feet  7H 


National  League  Baseball  Record  (1910-1927). 


Year 

Winner 

Won 

Lost 

Per 
Cent 

Manager 

Champion 
Batsman 

Per 
Cent 

1910 

Chicago 

104 

50 

.676 

Chance 

Magee 

.331 

1911 

New  York 

99 

54 

.647 

McGraw 

Wagner 

.334 

1912 

New  York 

103 

48 

.682 

McGraw 

Zimmerman 

.372 

1913 

New  York 

101 

51 

.664 

McGraw 

Daubert 

.350 

1914 

Boston 

94 

59 

.615 

Stallings 

Daubert 

.329 

1915 

Philadelphia 

90 

62 

.592 

Moran 

Doyle 

.320 

1916 

Brooklyn 

94 

60 

.610 

Robinson 

Chase 

.339 

1917 

New  York 

98 

56 

.636 

McGraw 

Roush 

.341 

1918 

Chicago 

84 

45 

.651 

Mitchell 

Wheat 

.335 

1919 

Cincinnati 

96 

44 

.686 

Moran 

Cravath 

.321 

1920 

Brooklyn 

93 

61 

.604 

Robinson 

Hornsby 

.370 

1921 

New  York 

94 

56 

.614 

McGraw 

Hornsby 

.397 

1922 

New  York. 

93 

61 

.604 

McGraw 

Hornsby 

.401 

1923 

New  York 

95 

58 

.621 

McGraw 

Hornsby 

.384 

1924 

New  York 

93 

60 

.608 

McGraw 

Hornsby 

.424 

1925 

Pittsburgh 

95 

58 

.621 

McKechnie 

Hornsby 

.403 

1926 

St.  Louis 

85 

65 

.578 

Hornsby 

Hargrave 

.353 

1927 

Pittsburgh 

94 

60 

.610 

Bush 

P.  Waner 

.379 

American  League  Record  (1910-1927). 


Year 

Winner 

Won 

Lost 

Per 
Cent 

Manager 

Champion 
Batsman 

Per 
Cent 

1910 

Philadelphia 

102 

48 

.680 

Mack 

Cobb 

.385 

1911 

Philadelphia 

101 

50 

.669 

Mack 

Cobb 

.420 

1912 

Boston 

105 

47 

.691 

Stahl 

Cobb 

.410 

1913 

Philadelphia 

96 

57 

.627 

Mack 

Cobb 

.390 

1914 

Philadelphia 

99 

53 

.651 

Mack 

Cobb 

.368 

1915 

Boston 

101 

50 

.669 

Carrigan 

Cobb 

.370 

1916 

Boston 

91 

63 

.591 

Carrigan 

Speaker 

.386 

1917 

Chicago 

100 

54 

.649 

Rowland 

Cobb 

.383 

1918 

Boston 

75 

51 

.595 

Barrow 

Cobb 

.382 

1919 

Chicago 

88 

52 

.629 

Gleason 

Cobb 

.384 

1920 

Cleveland 

98 

56 

.636 

Speaker 

Sisler 

.409 

1921 

New  York 

98 

55 

.641 

Huggins 

Heilmann 

.394 

1922 

New  York 

94 

60 

.610 

Huggina 

Sisler 

.419 

1923 

New  York 

98 

54 

.645 

Huggins 

Heilmann 

.403 

1924 

Washington 

92 

62 

.597 

Harris 

Ruth 

.378 

1925 

Washington 

96 

55 

.636 

Harris 

Heilmann 

.393 

1926 

New  York 

91 

63 

.591 

Huggins 

Manush 

.380 

1927 

New  York 

110 

44 

.714 

Huggins 

Heilmann 

.396 

World's  Championship  Series  (1910-1927). 


Year  . 

Winners 

Games 
Won 

Losers 

Games 
Won 

1910  

Philadelphia  (A.  L.) 

4 

Chicago  (N.  L.) 

1 

1911  

Philadelphia  (A.  L.) 

4 

New  York  (N.  L.) 

2 

1912  

Boston  (A.  L.) 

4 

New  York  (N.  L.) 

3  tic 

1913  

Philadelphia  (A.  L.) 

4 

New  York  (N.  L.) 

1 

1914  

Boston  (N.  L.) 

4 

Philadelphia  (A.  L.) 

0 

1915  

Boston  (A.  L.) 

4 

Philadelphia  (N.  L.) 

1 

1916  

Boston  (A.  L.) 

4 

Brooklyn  (N.  L.) 

1 

1917  

Chicago  (A.  L.) 

4 

New  York  (N.  L.) 

2 

1918  

Boston  (A.  L.) 

4 

Chicago  (N.  L.) 

2 

1919  

Cincinnati  (N.  L.) 

5 

Chicago  (A.  L.) 

3 

1920  

Cleveland  (A.  L.) 

5 

Brooklyn  (N.  L.) 

2 

1921  

New  York  (N.  L.) 

5 

New  York  (A.  L.) 

3 

1922  

New  York  (N.  L.) 

4 

New  York  (A.  L.) 

0 

1923  

New  York  (A.  L.) 

4 

New  York  (N.  L.) 

2 

1924  

Washington  (A.  L.) 

4 

New  York  (N.  L.) 

3 

1925  

Pittsburgh  (N.  L.) 

4 

Washington  (A.  L.) 

3 

1926  

St.  Louis  (N.  L.) 

4 

New  York  (A.  L.) 

3 

1927  

New  York  (A.  L.) 

4 

Pittsburgh  (N.  L.) 

0 

Vol.  I.— March  '28 


Baseball 


602  B 


Baseball 


Major  League  Records  for  1927. 


American  League 

Club 

V  York  1 

ladelphia 

shington  1 

.roit  1 

cago 

veland 

Loius 

o 

c 

centage 

]3 

Ph 

Q 

\3 
O 

o 

1 
pq 

o 

1 

New  York  

14 

14 

14 

17 

12 

21 

18 

110 

44 

.714 

Philadelphia.  .  . 

8 

12 

13 

14 

12 

16 

16 

91 

63 

.591 

Washington  

8 

10 

11 

12 

14 

12 

18 

85 

.552 

8 

9 

11 

8 

15 

14 

17 

82 

71 

.536 

Chicago  

5 

8 

10 

13 

8 

15 

11 

70 

83 

.458 

Cleveland  

10 

10 

8 

7 

14 

10 

7 

66 

87 

.431 

1 

6 

10 

8 

7 

11 

16 

59 

94 

.386 

4 

G 

4 

5 

11 

15 

6 

51 

103 

.331 

Games  Lost. . 

44 

63 

69 

71 

83 

87 

94 

103 

National  League 


Club 

burgh  1 

"5 

York 

o 
1 

innati  1 

klyn 

o 

idelphia 

;ntage 

u 

o 

JS 

a 

So 

-J) 

a 
O 

o 

m 

1 
pq 

'i 

i 

2 

Ph 

Pittsburgh 

14 

11 

13 

14 

14 

13 

15 

94 

60 

.610 

8 

10 

12 

14 

14 

15 

19 

92 

61 

.601 

New  York  

11 

12 

12 

15 

12 

15 

15 

92 

62 

.597 

Chicago  

9 

9 

10 

14 

15 

15 

13 

85 

68 

.556 

8 

8 

7 

8 

10 

18 

16 

75 

78 

.490 

8 

8 

10 

7 

11 

10 

11 

65 

88 

.425 

Boston  

9 

7 

7 

7 

4 

12 

14 

60 

94 

.390 

Philadelphia .  . . 

7 

3 

7 

9 

6 

11 

8 

51 

103 

.331 

Games  Lost. . 

60 

61 

62 

68 

78 

88 

94 

103 

inches)  as  a  radius,  describe  arcs 
cutting  the  Hnes  ba  at  f  and  BC 
at  G,  BD  at  H,  and  be  at  i.  Draw 
lines  FG,  Gi,  IH,  and  hf,  each  90 
feet  in  length,  which  said  lines 


shall  be  the  containing  lines  of 
the  diamond  or  infield. 

'The  Catcher's  Lines. — With  F 
as  a  centre  and  10  feet  radius, 
describe  an  arc  cutting  line  fa  at 


z,  and  draw  lines  zj  and  ZK  at  right 
angles  to  fa,  and  continue  same 
out  from  FA  not  less  than  10  feet. 

"With  F  as  a  centre  and  90  feet 
radius  describe  an  arc  cutting  fa 
at  L  and  draw  lines  lm  and  lo  at 
right  angles  to  fa,  and  continue 
each  out  from  fl  not  less  than  90 
feet,  to  form  the  back-stop  line. 

'The  Foul  Lines. — From  the  in- 
tersection point  F  continue  the 
straight  lines  fg  and  fh  until  they 
intersect  the  lines  lo  and  lm,  and 
then  from  the  points  G  and  h  in 
the  opposite  direction  until  they 
reach  the  boundary  lines  of  the 
grounds. 

'The  Players'  Lines. — With  f 
as  centre  and  50  feet  radius,  de- 
scribe arcs  cutting  lines  fo  and 
FM  at  p  and  q;  then,  with  f  as 
centre  again  and  75  feet  radius, 
describe  arcs  cutting  fg  and  fh 
at  R  and  s;  then  from  the  points 
p,  Q,  R,  and  s  draw  lines  at  right 
angles  to  the  lines  fo,  fm,  fg,  and 
FH,  and  continue  same  until  they 
intersect  at  the  points  w  and  t. 

'The  Coachers'  Lines. — With  r 
and  s  as  centres,  and  15  feet  ra- 
dius, describe  arcs  cutting  the 
lines  RW  and  ST  at  x  and  y,  and 
from  the  points  x  and  Y  draw 
lines  parallel  with  lines  fg  and 
FH,  and  continue  same  out  to  the 
boundary  lines  of  the  ground. 

'The  Three-Foot  Line. — With  F 
as  a  centre  and  45  feet  radius, 
dcvscribe  an  arc  cutting  the  line 
fg  at  the  figure  one  (1),  and  from 
1  to  the  distance  of  3  feet  draw  a 
line  at  right  angles  to  fg,  and 
mark  point  2;  then  from  point  2 
draw  a  line  parallel  with  the  line 
FG  to  a  point  3  feet  beyond  the 
point  G,  marked  3;  then  from  the 
point  3  draw  a  line  at  right  angles 
to  line  2,  3,  back  to  and  inter- 
secting with  fg. 

'The  Batsman's  Lines. — On 
either  side  of  the  line  afb  describe 
a  rectangle  six  feet  long  and  four 
feet  wide  (marked  9  and  10,  re- 
spectively). The  longest  side  of 
each  rectangle  shall  be  parallel 
with  the  line  afb,  and  the  rect- 
angles shall  be  29  inches  apart  or 
14>2  inches  on  either  side  of  line 
afb.  The  middle  of  the  long  side 


Baseball 


603 


Bashan 


of  each  rectangle  shall  be  on  a 
line  with  the  middle  corners  of 
home  base. 

'The  Pitcher's  Plate. — ^From 
point  F  measure  along  line  fe  a 
distance  of  60  feet  6  inches  to 
point  4,  which  marks  the  front  of 
the  pitcher's  plate.  Draw  a  line 
5,  6,  passing  through  point  4  at 
right  angles  to  f4,  and  extending 
12  inches  on  either  side  of  line 
fb;  then  with  line  5,  6,  as  a  side, 
describe  a  rectangle  24  inches  by 
6  inches  in  which  shall  be  placed 
the  pitcher's  plate. 

'The  pitcher's  plate  shall  not 
be  more  than  15  inches  higher 
than  the  base  lines  or  the  home 
plate,  which  shall  be  level  with 
the  surface  of  the  field,  and  the 
slope  from  the  pitcher's  plate  to 
every  base  line  and  the  home 
plate  shall  be  gradual. 

'The  Bases. — Within  the  angle 
F,  describe  a  five-sided  figure, 
two  of  the  sides  of  which  shall 
coincide  with  the  lines  fg  and  fh 
to  the  extent  of  12  inches  each, 
thence  parallel  with  the  line  fb 
inches  to  the  points  u  and  v . 
a  straight  line  between  which,  17 
inches  long,  will  form  the  front 
of  the  home  base  or  plate. 

'Within  the  angles  at  G  and  H 
describe  squares,  whose'sides  are 
15  inches  in  length,  two  of  the 
sides  of  which  squares  shall  lie 
along  the  lines  fg  and  gi,  ih  and 
HF,  which  squares  shall  be  the  lo- 
cation of  the  first  and  third  bases 
respectively.  At  point  i,  the  in- 
tersection of  GI  and  HI,  describe 
a  square  15  inches  on  each  side, 
the  centre  of  which  is  directly 
over  point  i  and  whose  sides  are 
parallel  to  gi  and  hi.  This  shall 
locate  second  base.' 

How  to  Play  Baseball— The 
game  is  played  by  two  sides,  each 
consisting  of  nine  players.  A 
game  consists  of  nine  innings 
played  by  each  side;  an  inning  is 
completed  when  three  men  on 
the  batting  side  are  out.  If  the 
score  is  a  tie  at  the  end  of  nine 
innings,  play  is  continued  until 
one  side  has  scored  more  runs 
than  the  other  in  an  equal  num- 
ber of  innings.  The  batter  takes 
his  position  in  the  batsman's 
box  at  the  home  plate,  holding  a 
round  hardwood  bat  not  exceed- 
ing 2yi  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
thickest  part,  nor  42  inches  in 
length.  To  him  the  pitcher, 
standing  in  the  pitcher's  box,  de- 
livers a  ball  weighing  not  less 
than  5  nor  more  than  5}4  ounces, 
avoirdupois,  and  measuring  not 
less  than  9  nor  more  than  9}>i 
inches  in  circumference.  The 
batsman  must  strike  at  every 
fairly  delivered  ball  that  passes 
over  any  portion  of  the  home 
plate  not  lower  than  his  knee  nor 
higher  than  his  shoulder.  After 
three  failures  either  to  strike  at 
or  to  hit  such  ball,  the  batsman 
Vol.  1.— Mar.  *17 


is  out,  provided  the  third  ball  is 
caught  by  the  catcher  before  it 
touches  the  ground,  or  is  thrown 


'Curving  the  Ball.' 

to  first  base  before  the  batter 
reaches  there. 

The  batsman's  endeavor  is  to 
hit  the  ball  inside  the  foul  lines  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  enable  him 
to  make  the  circuit  of  the  bases 
in  a  variety  of  ways  provided  for 
by  the  rules.  After  making  a  suc- 
cessful hit,  or  when  he  has  been 
given  four  bad  balls,  or  has  been 
hit  by  the  pitcher,  the  batsman 
becomes  a  base  runner,  and  he 
scores  a  run  after  he  has  touched 
first,  second,  third,  and  home 
bases  in  succession  without  being 
put  out. 

In  the  present-day  game  a 
high  degree  of  skill  is  shown  in 
the  playing  of  the  individual 
members,  as  well  as  much  gen- 
eralship on  the  part  of  the  man- 
ager or  captain  who  directs  the 
team  as  a  whole.  To  muscular 
development  should  be  added 
qualities  of  courage,  daring,  and 
skill,  combined  with  perception 
and  judgment  gained  by  experi- 
ence. 

A  set  of  signals  are  generally 
used  to  enable  the  batsman  and 
the  base  runner  to  work  together, 
as  well  as  for  the  players  in  the 
field.  For  the  team  in  the  field 
the  signals  are  often  given  by  the 
catcher,  who  has  a  full  view  of  the 
field  at  all  times.  Base  running 
is  one  of  the  features  of  baseball, 
and  a  high  degree  of  skill  must 
be  displayed  by  the  player  who 
'steals'  a  base  in  an  emergency. 
Bunting  has  become  a  feature  of 
scientific  team  work,  the  bats- 
man often  sacrificing  his  own 
chances  of  getting  on  base  in 
order  to  forward  a  base  runner. 


'Stealing  a  Base.' 


Consult  Spalding's  America's 
National  Game  (1911);  Richter's 
History  and  Records  of  Baseball 
(1914);  Spalding's  Official  Base- 
ball Guide  (annual). 

Basedow,  hH'ze-dd,  Johann 
Bernhard  (1723-90),  German 
educational  reformer,  taught  for 


some  time  at  Soro  in  Denmark, 
and  was  professor  at  a  school  in 
Altona  in  1761-71.  His  ideas 
were  appreciated  by  Leopold  of 
Anhalt,  who  invited  him  to  Des- 
sau as  an  educational  expert, 
where  he  opened  his  Philanthrop- 
inum  in  1774,  closed  in  1793. 
Basedow  did  much  to  hasten  re- 
form in  the  educational  system  of 
Germany.  The  keynote  of  his 
system  was  'everything  accord- 
ing to  nature.'  The  most  import- 
ant of  his  numerous  works  are  the 
Methodenbuch  fiir  Vdter  und  Mat- 
ter (1770)  and  the  Elementarwerk 
(1774). 

Basedow's  Disease.  See  Goi- 
tre. 

Basel,  Switzerland.  See  Bale. 

Basel,  Council  of.  See  Bale, 
Council  of. 

Base  Line,  or  Base,  in  survey- 
ing, is  a  straight  line  measured  on 
the  ground,  from  the  two  ends  of 
which  angles  can  be  measured 
with  the  purpose  of  laying  out  a 
triangle  or  triangles,  thus  map- 
ping out  the  country  to  be  sur- 
veyed. See  Geodesy;  Survey- 
ing. 

Basel 'la,  a  tropical  genus  of 
Chenopodiaceae.  They  are  plants 
with  twining  stems,  in  common 
use  as  pot  herbs  in  the  East  In- 
dies, and  cultivated  in  China; 
also  sometimes  in  France  as  a 
substitute  for  spinach.  B.  rubra 
yields  a  rich  purple  dye.  The 
great  fleshy  root  of  B.  tuberosa,  a 
South  American  twiner,  is  edible. 

Base  of  Operations,  in  warfare, 
is  the  receiving  depot  where 
everything  required  for  prosecut- 
ing the  campaign  is  collected  and 
organized  before  being  forwarded 
to  the  front,  and  to  which  the 
sick  and  wounded  can  be  sent 
back  for  removal  to  their  homes 
when  opportunities  occur.  See 
Army  in  the  Field. 

Basey,  ba'sa,  pueblo,  Philip- 
pines, near  the  southernmost 
point  of  Samar  Island.  Pop.  14,- 
000. 

Bashahr,  a  Punjab  hill  state, 
on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Him- 
alayas, traversed  from  east  to 
west  by  the  Sutlej.  Area,  3,860 
square  miles.    Pop.  85,000. 

Ba'shan,  an  extensive  region 
of  ancient  Palestine  lying  to  the 
east  of  the  Upper  Jordan,  and 
divided  from  Gilead  on  the  south 
by  the  River  Hieromax  or  Yar- 
muk.  Og,  its  king,  having  been 
defeated  and  slain  by  the  Israel- 
ites (Num.  xxi.  33/.),  his  terri- 
tory was  assigned  to  the  half- 
tribe  of  Manasseh.  Bashan  (prop- 
erly The  Bashan — i.e.,  'rich earth') 
is  a  fertile  table  land,  broken  by 
volcanic  cones,  both  sporadic  and 
grouped,  and  furrowed  by  deep 
valleys,  some  2,000  feet  above 
sea  level.  It  was  famous  for  its 
oak  forests  (Ezek.  xxvii.  6)  and 
for  its  cattle — cf.  the  'bulls'  and 


Bashaw 


604 


BaslUdes 


the  'kine*  of  Bashan  (Ps.  xxii.  12; 
Amos  iv.  1). 

Bashaw.  See  Pasha. 

Bash 'ford,  James  Whitford 
(1849),  American  clergyman  and 
educator,  was  born  in  Fayette, 
Wis.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  University  of  Wisconsin 
(1873;  A.M.,  1876),  and  from  Bos- 
ton University  (ph.d.,  1881).  In 
1874  he  was  ordained  in  the  min- 
istry of  the  Methodist-Episcopal 
(^^  Church,  and  until  1889  was  pas- 
tor  of  churches  in  Boston  and 
I  Auburndale,  Mass.,  Portland, 
0^  Me.,  and  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  He  was 
\  president  of  Ohio  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity  from  1889  to  1904,  when 
^  he  became  a  bishop.  He  has  been 
^  especially  active  in  missionary 
^  and  relief  work  in  China.  His 
p  published  works  include:  Out- 
\  lines  of  the  Science  of  Religion 
^  (1891);  The  Awakening  of  China 
.'^(1906);  China  and  Methodism 
(1907);  God's  Missionary  Plan 
^for  the  World  (1907);  China — an 
Interpellation  (1916). 

Bashi-bazouks,  bash-i-ba-zobks', 
Turkish  irregular  troops,  who 
serve  without  uniform  or  direct 
pay,  are  usually  mounted,  and 
are  addicted  to  pillage.  They 
were  notorious  in  the  Bulgarian 
atrocities  of  1876. 

Bashkires,  bash-kerz',  or  Bash- 
kirs, people  inhabiting  the  Ural 
slopes  in  Russia;  Ural-Altaic  in 
origin,  Mohammedan  in  religion; 
partly  nomadic,  partly  settled; 
Tartars  in  habits  and  speech. 
Their  wealth  consists  chiefly  in 
horses;  from  the  milk  of  the  mares 
they  prepare  koumiss  (q.  v.). 
They  number  over  three-quarters 
of  a  million,  and  make  good 
horse  soldiers, 

Bashkirtseff,  bash-kert'sef, 
Marie  (1860-84),  Russian  painter, 
born  of  noble  family  near  Polta- 
va. After  making  the  tour  of 
Europe,  she  settled  at  Paris.  De- 
voting herself  from  1878  with  in- 
ordinate enthusiasm  to  art,  she 
exhibited  the  Umbrella  (1882), 
Jean  el  Jacques  (1883),  l^he  Meet- 
ing (1884),  now  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg. She  had  ^eal  genius, 
though  immature.  Her  Journal 
(1887),  translated  into  English 
(1890),  and  Further  Memoirs 
(1901),  reveal  the  inner  life  of  a 
profoundly  emotional,  egotistic, 
and  unbalanced  nature. 

Basidomycctes.  See  Fungi. 

Basil,  baz'il,  various  herba- 
ceous plants  of  the  order  Labia- 
tae.  Sweet  Basil  (Ocimum,  basili- 
cum)  is  a  native  of  India;  the 
whole  plant  is  fragrant  and  of  a 
sweet  taste,  the  young  leaves 
being  used  for  seavSoning  dishes, 
and  the  leafy  stems  cut  and  dried 
for  winter  UvSe.  Holy  Basil  (O. 
sanctum)  is  another  Indian  spe- 
cies. Bush  Basil  is  O.  minimum, 
and  is  cultivated  like  sweet  basil. 
Sweet  basil  occurs  in  the  old 
Vol.  I. — Mar.  '17 


story  of  Isabella  and  the  Pot  of 
Basil,  which  has  been  the  subject 
of  the  pen  of  Boccaccio  and  Keats, 
as  well  as  the  brush  of  several 
painters. 

BasU,  baz'il,  St.  (329-379),  sur- 
named  The  Great,  one  of  the  fa- 
thers of  the  Greek  Church,  born 
at  Caesarea,  of  which  he  became 
bishop  (370).  He  was  much 
involved  in  the  religious  con- 
troversies of  the  time,  an  in- 
sight into  which  is  afforded  by 
his  letters  to  Gregory .  Nazianzen 
(q.  v.),  with  whom  he  was  united 
in  tender  friendship.  He  reso- 
lutely opposed  Arianism.  Threat- 
ened by  Valens  with  exile  and 
death  if  he  did  not  open  the 
churches  to  the  Arians,  he  con- 
tinued inflexible.  To  him  is  also 
largely  due  the  triumph  of  mona- 
chism  over  the  hermit  life.  He 
embellished  Caesarea,  and  raised 
in  it  numerous  workshops  and 
schools.  The  works  he  has  left 
include  the  Hexameron,  Ascetics, 
Reading  of  Profane  Authors,  and 
365  Letters.  His  efforts  at  re- 
forming the  services  of  the  church 
were  embodied  in  the  liturgy 
which  bears  his  name,  and  is  still 
in  use  in  the  East.  There  is  a 
Benedictine  edition  of  his  works  in 
3  vols.,  a  complete  French  trans- 
lation of  his  works  in  12  vols,  by 
Roustan,  and  an  English  transla- 
tion in  Nicene  and  Post  Nicene 
Fathers. 

Basil,  two  Bji'zantine  emper- 
ors. (1.)  Basil  i.  (867-886), 
born  at  Adrianople,  assassinated 
Michael  iii.  and  seized  the  throne. 
He^was  founder  of  the  Macedon- 
ian dynasty,  and  his  reign  opens 
a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the 
Byzantine  empire.  (2.)  Basil 
II.  (957-1025),  Byzantine  emper- 
or, only  six  years  old  at  the  death 
of  his  father,  Romanus  ii.,  be- 
came emperor  in  976.  For  nearly 
thirty  years  (990-1018)  he  carried 
on  a  protracted  struggle  against 
Samuel,  king  of  Bulgaria.  He  con- 
verted to  Christianity  Vladimir,, 
prince  of  Kiev  (998). 

Bas'ilan,  or  Basilian,  island 
and  strait  in  Sulu  Archipelago, 
Philippines,  southwest  of  Min- 
danao. The  island  is  volcanic, 
has  a  healthy  climate,  and  the 
chief  industry  is  fishing.  It  has 
valuable  teak  forests.  Capital, 
Isabella.  Area,  304  square  miles. 
Pop.  8,000. 

BasU'ica  (Greek  basilike,  from 
basileus,  'a  king'),  in  ancient 
times  a  market  place,  exchange, 
and  place  "of  meeting  generally. 
Some  twenty  are  known  to  have 
existed  in  Rome,  and  latterly 
every  provincial  town  had  its 
basilica,  as  that  of  Pompeii, 
which  is  now  the  most  perfect  ex- 
ample, still  testifies.  The  earliest 
basilicas  were  entirely  open,  and 
were  surrounded  with  a  portico 
under  which  shelter  could  be  ob- 


tained; but  in  course  of  time  the 
basilica  became  an  oblong  hall, 
divided  by  rows  of  columns  into 
a  wide  central  nave  and  lower 
side  aisles,  over  which  there  was 
frequently  a  gallery.  Among  its 
other  uses,  the  basilica  contained 
an  apse,  in  which  the  praetor  con- 
ducted his  court  of  justice  (see 
Apse).  The  basilica  strongly 
influenced  the  form  of  the  earliest 
churches. 
_  The  usual  plan  of  these  Chris- 
tian basilicas  consisted  of  an  ob- 
long space,  divided  into  central 
nave  and  side  aisles  by  two  or  four 
rows,  of  columns,  preceded  at 
the  entrance  end  by  a  porch  or 
narthex  (to  which  alone  the  neo- 
phytes and  penitents  were  ad- 
mitted), and  terminated  at  the 
opposite  end  with  a  wall,  contain- 
ing in  the  centre  an  arch  which  led 
into  the  sanctuary,  out  of  which 
opened  the  apse,  with  the  bish- 
op's throne  in  the  centre,  raised 
some  steps  above  the  floor,  and 
the  seats  of  the  presbyters  and 
deacons  on  each  side. 

Basilica,  the  name  given  to  a 
legal  code  published  in  887  a.d. 
for  the  Byzantine  empire.  The 
title  is  apparently  a  contraction 
for  basilika  nomina  (royal  laws 
or  'constitutions'),  though  some 
have  supposed  it  to  be  derived 
from  the  name  of  the  Emperor 
Basil  I.,  in  whose  reign  the  com- 
pilation was  begun.  The  basilica 
is  to  a  large  extent  an  adaptation 
of  Justinian's  code  (see  Code), 
and  affords  great  help  in  the 
study  of  Roman  law. 

Basilicata,  ba-se'le-ka'ta  (the 
ancient  l-Mcania),compartimento, 
Southern  Italy,  coincident  with 
the  province  of  Potenza  (name 
used  since  1871),  stretching  from 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum 
northwest  through  the  middle  of 
Italy.  It  pastures  sheep  and  cat- 
tle, and  produces  grain,  wine, 
fruits,  olive  oil,  and  timber.  Chief 
town,  Potenza.  Area,  3,845  square 
miles.  Pop.  475,000, 

Basil'icon,  an  ointment  com- 
posed of  yellow  wax,  resin,  and 
olive  oil,  with  suet  and  turpen- 
tine added  for  basilicon  proper, 
black  pitch  for  Black  Basilicon, 
Burgundy  pitch  for  Yellow  Basili- 
con, and  verdigris  for  Green  Basil- 
icon. 

Basilides,  bas-i-li'dez,  founder 
of  the  Basilidian  sect  of  the  Gnos- 
tics, lived  under  the  Emperors  Tra- 
jan and  Hadrian  in  Alexandria, 
He  is  the  apostle  of  'the  Abraxas 
religion'  and  the  doctrine  of  'ema- 
nation.' From  the  Supreme  Power, 
Abraxas,  emanated  mind;  from 
mind,  the  word;  from  the  word, 
providence;  from  providence,  vir- 
tue and  wisdom;  from  these  two, 
principalities  and  powers;  and 
from  them,  an  infinity  of  angels 
— who,  in  turn,  created  the  heav- 
ens, 365  in  number.    It  is  from 


Basillkon  Dor  on 


605 


Basketball 


this  number  (365)  that  the  name 
Abraxas  is  formed,  as  its  letters, 
according  to  the  Greek  computa- 
tion,make  up  365.  The  later  Basi- 
lidians  became  more  and  more 
imbued  with  the  philosophy  of 
the  Stoics,  and  they  abandoned 
altogether  that  obedience  to  the 
moral  law  which  their  master 
strongly  inculcated.  Consult 
Schaff's  History  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

Basil'ikon  Dor'on,  a  work  on 
the  art  of  government,  written 
(1599)  by  James  vi.  of  Scotland 
for  his  son  Prince  Henry,  and 
memorable  as  containing  the 
king's  own  statement  of  the  doc- 
trine of  divine  right. 

Basilisk,  baz'i-lisk,  the  name 
given  by  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans to  a  fabulous  serpent-like 
monster  possessed  of  many  mar- 
vellous attributes,  its  glance  alone 
being  sufficient  to  kill,  and  its 
breath  being  the  concentration  of 
the  most  deadly  poisons.  It  has 
been  applied  by  zoologists  to  cer- 
tain American  tree  lizards  which, 
despite  their  hideous  appearance, 
are  both  harmless  and  edible.  In 
Basilicus  mitratus  the  head  is 
covered  by  a  scaly,  distensible 
cap,  the  so-called  helmet. 

Basin,  in  geology,  a  depression 
in  the  rocks  at  the  earth's  sur- 
face caused  by  differential  move- 
ments, by  folding,  or  by  erosion. 
When  extensive  faulting  has 
taken  place,  a  considerable  area 
may  be  brought  to  a  lower  level 
compared  with  its  previous  posi- 
tion, thus  producing  a  depression 
with  more  or  less  abrupt  walls. 
Rift  valleys  partake  of  this  char- 
acter and  are  well  illustrated  by 
the  great  rift  valley  of  Central 
Africa  in  which  lie  the  large 
lakes  of  Tanganyika,  Nyassa 
and  Albert  Nyanza.  Basins 
formed  by  folding  occur  in  moun- 
tainous regions  where  the  strata 
have  been  bent  by  compression 
into  synclines  and  troughs  (see 
Synchne).  The  coal-fields  of 
Pennsylvania  afford  examples  of 
this  type.  Erosional  basins  are 
those  produced  by  the  erosive 
action  of  water  or  ice  upon  the 
earth's  surface.  Most  river  basins 
have  been  formed  in  this  manner. 

Basin,  Great.  See  Great 
Basin. 

Basingstoke,  ba'zing-stok,  a 
market  town,  England,  in  Hamp- 
shire, on  the  Basingstoke  Canal; 
48  miles  southwest  of  London. 
The  parish  church  of  St.  Michael 
is  a  fine  Perpendicular  structure. 
The  ruins  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
Chapel  are  inclosed  in  an  in- 
teresting old  graveyard.  Cloth- 
ing, malt  liquors,  and  tools  are 
manufactured.  Pop.  (1921)  12,- 
718. 

Bas'kerville,  John  (1706-75), 
English  printer,  was  born  in 
Wolverley, Worcestershire.  When 
twenty  years  of  age,  he  settled  in 


Birmingham,  where  he  taught 
writing  and  bookkeeping  and 
later  engaged  in  a  highly  success- 
ful business  in  japanned  ware. 
About  1750  he  began  to  occupy 
himself  in  typefounding  and 
finally  produced  a  satisfactory 
letter  in  which  he  printed  an  edi- 
tion of  Virgil.  In  1758  he  was 
made  printer  to  the  University 


of  Cambridge  and  began  at  once 
to  prepare  editions  of  the  Bible 
and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
He  made  his  own  paper  and  pre- 
pared his  own  ink,  and  speci- 
mens of  his  work  are  now  of 
great  value.  Besides  the  works 
mentioned,  he  published  editions 
of  Milton,  Horace,  Sallust,  Lu- 


cretius, Terence,  and  other 
classics. 

Basketball,  a  game  invented 
in  1891  by  James  Naismith,  fol- 
lowing a  suggestion  from  Dr.  L, 
H.  Gulick  that  an  indoor  game 
might  properly  fill  in  the  time 
between  the  football  and  the 
baseball  seasons.  The  first 
printed    statement    about  the 


game  was  made  in  1892.  It 
was  originally  played  by  branches 
of  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  and  was  subse- 
quently taken  up  by  athletic 
clubs,  schools,  and  colleges. 

Basketball  is  played  on  any 
ground  or  floor  free  from  ob- 
structions with  3,500  square  feet 


Ground  Plan  of  Ulpian  Basilica  in  the  Forum  of  Trajan,  Rome 

A.  Main  Entrance  from  Forum.    B.  Entrance  from  Street.    C.  Trajan's  Column. 
D.  Greek  and  Latin  Libraries.    E.  Tribunal  for  the  Judges. 


Vol.  I.— Oct.  '25 


Basketball 


606 


Basking  Shark 


of  space.  The  ball  is  a  round 
rubber  bladder  covered  with 
leather,  measuring  not  more  than 
32  inches  or  less  than  30  inches 
in  circumference,  and  weighing 
not  less  than  18  nor  more  than 
21  ounces.  The  baskets  are 
hammock  nets  of  cord  suspended 
from  metal  rings  with  an  inside 
diameter  of  18  inches.  The  rings 
are  placed  10  feet  above  the 
ground  in  the  centre  of  the  short 
side  of  the  playing  floor,  and  the 
inside  rim  extends  six  inches 
from  a  rigid  supporting  surface, 
which,  if  not  a  wall  of  the  build- 
ing, must  be  a  special  background 
which  shall  measure  at  least  six 
feet  horizontally  and  four  feet 
vertically,  and  extend  not  less 
than  three  feet  above  the  top  of 
the  basket. 

The  playing  floor  is  approxi- 
mately 40  by  70  feet.  In  the 
middle  of  the  floor  is  a  circle,  two 
feet  in  radius.  Twenty  feet  from 
the  middle  of  each  basket,  at 
right  angles  to  the  back  line,  is 
the  centre  of  another  circle  with 
a  radius  of  6  feet;  at  right  angles 
from  the  back  Hne  to  the  circum- 
ference of  this  circle  two  parallel 
lines  are  drawn,  each  being  3  feet 
from  the  middle  of  the  basket, 
making  a  line  6  feet  wide  extend- 
ing out  into  the  floor.  In  the 
line-up  there  are  five  players  on 
each  side — centre,  right  and  left 
guards,  and  right  and  left  for- 
wards. Guards  are  opposed  to 
forwards,  and  centre  to  centre. 
The  officials  are  referee,  umpire, 
scorer,  and  timekeeper.  The 
game  consists  of  two  halves  of 
twenty  minutes  each,  with  a  rest 
of  ten  minutes  between. 

With  the  centres  standing  with 
both  feet  within  the  centre  circle, 
the  referee  puts  the  ball  in  play 
by  tossing  it  up  in  a  plane  at 
right  angles  to  the  side  lines  to  a 
greater  height  than  either  of  the 
centres  can  jump,  in  such  a  way 
that  it  will  drop  between  them. 
The  ball  may  be  batted  or  caught 
by  the  centre  men.  It  may  be 
advanced  in  any  direction  with 
one  or  both  hands  by  passing, 
dribbling,  or  shooting,  but  a 
player  may  not  run  with  it  nor 
kick  it.  Violation  of  any  of  the 
rules  constitutes  a  foul.  A  goal 
is  made  by  throwing  or  batting 
the  ball  into  the  basket  of  the 
opposing  side  and  counts  two 
points.  A  goal  from  a  foul  is  a 
free  throw  for  the  basket  at  a 
distance  of  not  less  than  15  feet, 
and  counts  one  point.  The  side 
having  the  highest  score  at  the 
end  of  the  game  is  the  winner. 
Certain  very  definite  rules  and 
regulations  govern  play,  and 
special  rules  for  women,  adopted 
in  1899,  off'er  some  modifications 
of  the  men's  game.  Consult 
Spalding's  Official  Basketball 
Guide,  published  yearly;  Ward- 
law  and  Morrison's  Basket  Ball. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '25 


Basket  Fish,  the  popular  nam? 
of  a  group  of  echinoderms  related 
to  the  star-fishes,  sea  urchins, 
sea  cucumbers,  and  other  species. 
Basket  fish  belong  to  the  class 
Ophiuroida,  which  also  includes 
the  brittle-stars,  but  they  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  peculiar  and 
elaborate  ramification  of  their 


Basket-Fish 

arms.  The  body,  which  is  five- 
sided,  is  2  or  3  inches  broad, 
while  the  arms  are  about  12 
inches  long.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  animal's  habit 
of  folding  its  branching  arms 
around  its  body  when  it  is 
threatened,  so  that  it  resembles  a 
basket.  It  is  found  chiefly  in 
tropical  waters. 

Baskets  and  Basket  Making, 
Baskets  are  vessels  made  of 
osiers,  reed,  raffia,  rush,  straw,  or 
hemp,  in  a  great  variety  of 
shapes  and  sizes,  and  put  to  a 
corresponding  variety  of  uses. 
Their  manufacture  is  one  of  the 
oldest  of  all  handicrafts.  The 
ancient  Israelites  used  baskets  in 
offering  sacrifice,  the  early  Brit- 
ons were  skilled  in  basketry,  and 
the  Chinese  and  Japanese  have 
for  centuries  produced  baskets 
of  great  beauty.  In  the  New 
World  the  American  Indians 
reached  a  high  degree  of  pro- 
ficiency. To-day  basketry  holds 
an  important  place  in  educational 
work.  It  is  taught  in  practically 
all  schools  where  manual  training 
has  been  introduced,  and  has 
proved  an  admirable  industry  for 
the  aged  and  disabled,  especially 
the  blind. 

For  ordinary  baskets  osiers  (q. 
V.) — the  cut  branches  of  certain 
willows — are  most  commonly 
used.  The  tools  needed  are  a 
knife,  bodkin,  shears,  and  pick- 
ing knife. 

The  dry  osiers  or  rods  are  first 
soaked  in  water  to  make  them 
pliable,  and  are  then  laid  out  in 
a  length  considerably  greater 
than  that  of  the  finished  work. 
They  are  ranged  in  pairs  on  a 
plank  or  on  the  floor,  parallel  to 
each  other,  at  close  intervals,  in 
the  direction  of  the  longer  di- 
ameter; this  furnishes  the  woof, 
for  basket-work  is,  in  fact,  a 
web.  These  parallel  rods  are 
then  crossed  at  right  angles  by 
two  of  the  larger  osiers,  with  the 
thick  ends  towards  the  workman, 
who  places  his  foot  upon  them, 


and  weaving  each  alternately 
over  and  under  the  parallel 
pieces  first  laid  down,  confines 
them  in  their  places.  The  whole 
now  forms  what  is  technically 
called  the  'slat'  or  slate,  which 
is  the  foundation  of  the  basket. 
The  long  end  of  one  of  the  two 
rods  is  now  taken  and  woven 
under  and  over  the  pairs  of 
short  ends  all  round  the  bottom, 
until  the  whole  is  woven  in.  A 
similar  process  is  applied  to  the 
other  rod,  and  additional  long 
osiers  are  woven  in  until  the 
bottom  is  of  the  desired  size. 

The  construction  of  the  rest  of 
the  basket  is  accomplished  by 
sharpening  the  large  ends  of  as 
many  long  and  stout  osiers  as 
may  be  necessary  to  form  the 
ribs  or  skeleton.  These  are 
forced  or  plaited  between  the 
rods  of  the  bottom,  from  the 
edge  towards  the  centre,  and  are 
turned  up  in  the  direction  of  the 
sides;  other  rods  are  woven  in 
and  out  between  them,  until  the 
basket  is  raised  to  the  requisite 
height.  The  brim  is  finished  by 
turning  down  the  perpendicular 
ends  of  the  ribs,  while  a  handle  is 
made  by  forcing  two  or  three 
osiers,  sharpened  at  the  ends, 
down  the  weaving  of  the  sides, 
close  together.  They  are  then 
pinned  fast,  about  two  inches 
from  the  edge.  After  the  osiers 
have  been  bound  or  plaited,  the 
basket  is  complete. 

Fancy  baskets  are  frequently 
made  of  raflia,  the  outer  covering 
of  the  Madagascar  palm,  a  light, 
tough  material  which  may  be 
used  in  its  natural  color  or  may 
be  dyed  in  many  beautiful 
shades.  Rush  is  used  for  bas- 
kets where  strength  and  dur- 
ability are  requisites,  as  for  scrap 
baskets  and  hampers. 

Among  basket  makers  the 
American  Indians  occupy  a  lead- 
ing place.  Basket  making  was 
once  a  common  industry  in  all 
tribes,  but  at  the  present  time  it 
is  confined  chiefly  to  the  Indians 
in  the  Southwest,  the  Pacific 
Coast,  and  Alaska,  where  it  is 
still  practised  in  its  primitive 
simplicity.  It  is  almost  entirely 
the  work  of  the  women,  whose 
skill  and  art  have  combined  to 
produce  articles  of  great  beauty. 
Much  legendary  lore  is  associated 
with  the  Indian  baskets,  notably 
the  baby  baskets  and  the  carry- 
ing baskets.  In  the  healing  cere- 
monies and  dances  of  the  Nava- 
hoes  and  the  Apaches  baskets 
have  a  distinct  place;  they  also 
figure  in  marriage  ceremonies, 
and  are  used  for  placing  food  at 
the  graves  of  the  dead. 

Consult  Okey's  Art  of  Basket 
Making;  White's  How  to  Make 
Baskets;  Gill's  Practical  Basketry 
(1916);  Collier's  Basket  Making 
(1920). 

Basking  Shark  (Selache  max- 


Basnage 


607 


Basques 


ima),  the  largest  shark  of  the 
Atlantic,  exceeds  thirty  feet  in 
kngth.  It  does  not  attack  man 
unless  molested,  but  feeds  on 
small  fishes.  The  liver  yields  oil, 
and  the  shark  is  hunted  on  this 


Basques  (Span.  Bascongados"), 
a  race  with  a  language  out  of 
relation  to  every  other  European 
language,  whose  habitat  is  now 
restricted  to  the  west  end  of  the 
Pyrenees,  including,  on  the  south 


Basking 


account.  The  common  name  re- 
fers to  the  fact  that  the  anima! 
•is  fond  of  lying  at  the  surface  of 
the  water,  with  the  upper  part  of 
the  back  exposed. 

Basnage,  Jacques  (1653-1725), 
French  Protestant  clergyman; 
born  at  Rouen,  where  he  became 
minister  of  the  Reformed  church. 
At  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  he  went  to  Rotterdam, 
where  he  was  chosen  (1691)  pastor 
of  the  Walloon  church;  and  in 
1709  he  was  transferred,  in  the 
same  capacity,  to  the  French 
church  at  The  Hague.  He  is 
one  of  the  best  of  the  church 
historians,  his  books  being  ac- 
cepted by  Catholics  and  Protes- 
tants alike.  He  published  His- 
toire  de  la  Religion  des  Eglises 
Reformecs  (1690;  much  enlarged 
in  1725),  Histoire  de  I'Eglise  de- 
puis  Jesus  Christ  jusqu' d  present 
(1699),  and  Histoire  des  Juifs 
depuis  Jesus  Christ  (1706).  See 
Mailhet's  /.  Basnage  (1881). 

Basoche,  or  Bazoche,  a  cor- 
poration of  clerks  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris,  to  which,  about 
1303,  Philip  the  Fair  granted 
special  privileges,  exempting  its 
members  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  common  law.  It  survived 
to  the  revolution.  See  Fabre's 
Etudes  Historiques  sur  les  Clercs 
de  la  Basoche  (1856). 

Basque  Road,  The  Action  in. 
The  French  fleet,  which  had  es- 
caped from  Brest,  was,  in  April, 
1809,  ranged  below  the  island  of 
Aix,  and  was  there  assailed  by 
Lord  Cochrane  with  a  British 
fleet.  The  boom  was  broken  by 
one  of  Cochr  ane's  fircships.  The 
French  began  hurriedly  to  get 
under  way,  and  panic  and  confu- 
sion arising  among  them,  all  but 
two  ran  aground.  The  vessels 
actually  destroyed  beyond  repair 
were  three  ships  of  the  line,  a  50- 


IDS  C 

un  ship  and  a  40-gun  frigate, 
lad  Cochrane  been  properly  sup- 

gorted  by  Gambier,  all  would 
ave  been  destroyed.  See  Coch- 
rane's  Autobiography  o}  a  Seaman 
(1890);  Chatterton's  Memorials  of 
Gambier  (1861). 


side,  the  Spanish  provinces  of 
Biscaya,  Guipuzcoa,  and  Alava, 
and  the  Pamplona  district  of 
Navarra;  on  the  north,  one-third 
of  Basses-Pyrenees.  A  language 
of  Basque  type  was  in  prehistoric 
times  common  to  the  inhabitants 
on  both  sides  of  the  Pyrenees. 
Euskaldunac,  Euskaldena,  and 
Euskara  are  the  native  names 
of  the  people,  country,  and  lan- 
guage respectively.  The  primi- 
tive Iberians  have  further,  ac- 
cording to  latest  ethnographic 
evidence,  to  be  grouped  with  the 
Ligurians  of  Italy,  whose  original 
home  is  traceable  to  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  Ligurians,  again, 
are,  from  evidence  of  craniology, 
archaeology,  etc.,  concluded  to 
have  been  prehistorically  settled 
in  the  valley  of  the  Po  and  Rhine- 
land.  The  Ligurians,  it  is  further 
held,  were  spread  over  all  Italy, 
as   also   Sardinia,  Corsica,  and 


bines  the  Iberians  and  Picts  in 
the  term  'Ibero-Pictish.'  Gabe- 
lenz  has  (1894)  compiled  780  ex- 
amples of  verbal  resemblance  and 
structural  correspondence  be- 
tween the  Basque  tongue  on  the 
north  and  the  Berber  tongue  on 
the  south  of  the  Mediterranean. 
There  seems  ground,  then,  for 
the  assumption  that  the  Basques 
are  descended  from  the  aborigmal 
race  of  Europe. 

The  Basque  language  belongs 
to  the  agglutinative  type,  modifi- 
cations of  meaning  and  grammati- 
cal relations  being  denoted,  not 
by  inflection  or  by  prepositions, 
but  by  adjunction  and  postfix. 
It  lacks  general  and  abstract  con- 
cepts. Basque  has  only  two  con- 
jugations— one  for  the  intransitive 
verb,  and  to  express  the  verb  to 
be;  the  other  for  the  transitive 
verb,  and  to  express  the  verb  to 
have.  To  the  European  the  enun- 
ciation is  about  as  hard  as  the 
grammar.  The  tongue  is  differ- 
entiated into  as  many  as  twenty- 
five  dialects  (L.  L.  Bonaparte), 
many  mutually  unintelligible. 

R.  Collignon,  after  most  search- 
ing investigations,  concludes  that 
the  physical  traits  of  the  Basques, 
out  of  all  relation  to  those  of  any 
other  type,  assign  them  indisput- 
ably to  the  Hamitic  branch  of  the 
whites,  N.  African  or  European 
(Afro-European).  _  According  to 
E.  Reclus,  'there  is  no  Basque 
type.'  Among  the  Basques  there 
are  two  forms  of  physique:  the 
one  tall,  fair,  ana  long-headed; 
the  other  short,  dark,  and  round- 
headed.  The  two  are  blended  in 
a  long  range  of  proportions,  yet, 
on  the  whole,  the  Basques  are 


The  Basque  Country. 


Sicily.  There  are  data  lending 
color  to  the  conclusion  that  be- 
yond the  Garonne  the  Iberians 
shared  community  of  race  with 
the  Pictoncs  and  the  British 
Picts.      Professor  J.  Rhys  com- 


rather  taller  than  the  average  of 
the  people  of  Spain.  The  pre- 
vailing type  has  the  forehead 
broad  ancl  square,  overhanging 
deeply -set  eyes;  cheek  bones 
rather  broad;   the  lower  half  of 


fiasQues 

the  face  narrowing  rapidly  to- 
wards the  pointed  chin.  The 
complexion  is  generally  fair;  the 
eyes  gray  or  blue;  with  blond 
hair,  high  -  ridged  nose,  upright 
figure,  square  shoulders,  strong 
Umbs.  The  Basques  are  further 
distinguished  by  their  vigor  and 
hardihood,  sobriety  and  industry, 
gai  ety,  proneness  to  sing,  dance, 
and  play  games,  by  their  frank- 
ness, hospitality,  pride,  love  of 
independence,  and  promptitude 
to  avenge  insult.  They  are  noted 
as  the  best  sailors  of  Spain.  Pe- 
culiar are  certain  usages,  such  as 
the  couvade,  the  wearing  of  the 
bc'ret  and  the  zinta  ^  (belt),  etc. 
The  Basque  dramas,  in  large  part 
survivals  of  the  morality  plays, 
still,  in  spite  of  cures,  are  yearly 
performed  and  witnessed  with 
great  enthusiasm  in  the  French 
cantons  of  Tardets  and  Mauleon. 
Peculiar  are  also  some  of  the  agri- 
cultural implements. 

On  the  seaboard  the  Bafjques 
are  engaged  in  commerce  and  fish- 
ing ;    inland,  in  agriculture  and 


pastoral  pursuits.  The  Basque 
Provinces  are  the  centre  of  the 
iron-mining  of  Spain. 

Pamplona  (Pompeiopolis)  tes- 
tifies to  the  foundation  of  this 
town  by  Pompeius  (74  B.C.).  The 
Romans  _did  not,  however,  suc- 
ceed in  imposing  their  language 
on  the  Basques.  Routed,  after  a 
long  and  obstinate  resistance,  by 
the  Visigoths  about  580,  a  portion 
of  the  Basques  sought  refuge  in 
Gascony.  About  920  the  Basque 
countries  were  consolidated  into 
the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  which 
was  ultimately  incorporated  in 
the  kingdom  of  Spain.  The 
Basques  still,  however,  retained 
their  jueros  or  assemblies,  one  in 
each  province,  safeguarding  their 
home  rule.  When,  in  1832,  the 
fueros  were  abolished  by  the 
Cortes,  the  Basques  offered  such 
stout  resistance  as  to  cause  their 
reinstatement.  In  the  insurrec- 
tions of  1833-7  and  1873-6  the 
Basques  fought  gallantly  for  Don 
Carlos,  grandfather  and  grand- 
son.    The  jueros  ended  with  the 


608 

year  1876.     They  still,  however, 

retain  a  certain  administrative 
autonomy  and  some  commercial 
privileges. 

The  literature  of  the  Basques  is 
of  very  narrow  compass.  A  few 
words  in  Basque  occur  in  L.  Mari- 
ne© Siculo's  Cosas  illustres  y  ex- 
cellenles  de  Espana  (1539).  The 
oldest  printed  relic  of  the  Basque 
tongue  dates  from  1545 — B.  De- 
chepare's  Lingua  Vasconum  Pri- 
mitice.  There  are  some  five 
hundred  volumes  in  the  Basque 
language,  nearly  all  translations 
from  Latin,  French,  and  Spanish. 
Other  Basque  books  betray  the 
French  or  Castilian  culture  of 
their  authors.  The  Basque  dra- 
mas— pastorales — are,  it  appears 
from  the  discoveries  of  Mr.  W. 
Webster,  editions  of  French 
chap-books.  The  Basque  tradi- 
tionary legends,  comprising  forty- 
seven  stories,  have  been  published 
(:i877)  by  Mr.  W.  Webster.  There 
is  a  collection  of  wider  range 
published  by  Vinson,  Le  Folk-lore 
du  Pays  Ba'sque  (1883).  Ignatius 


Bas-reliefs  from  the  Parthenon,  Athens. 


Bass 

Vinson's  Les  Basques  et  Ic  Pays 
Basque  (1882);  Mahn's  Denkmdler 
der  Baskischen  Sprache  (1857); 
Prince  L.  L.  Bonaparte's  La 
Langue  Basque  et  les  Langues 
Finnoises  (1862);  Inchauspe's  Le 
Peuple  Basque:  sa  Langue,  son 
Origine,  etc.  (1894);  A.H.Keane's 
Man,  Past  and  Present  (1899). 

Basra,  Bassora,  or  Bussorah, 
tn.  and  v'w.  pt.  on  the  Shat-el-Arab 
70  m.  from  Persian  Gulf,  Asiatic 
Turkey;  head  of  navigation  for 
steamers  drawing  nineteen  feet 
of  water.  River  steamers  ply 
between  this  port  and  Bagdad, 
200  m.  farther  N.  The  district 
around  is  marshy  and  unhealthy. 
The  exports  for  1900  exceeded 
$7,500,000,  the  bulk  of  which  was 
in  wool  and  dates.  Its  imports 
consist  of  silk,  woollen,  and  cot- 
ton goods.  Founded  in  632  by 
Caliph  Omar,  Basra  was  long 
one  of  the  most  important  cen- 
tres of  trade,  and  a  place  of  his- 
toric note  in  Arabic  literature. 
It  was  visited  by  Marco  Polo  in 
the  13th  century.    Pop.  18,000. 


Loyola  and  Francis  Xavier  were 
Basques. 

The  total  population  is  reck- 
oned at  about  610,000,  of  whom 
65,000  are  in  Bayonne,  60,000 
in  Mauleon,  150,000  in  Navarra, 
180,000  in  Guipuzcoa,  10,000  in 
Alava,  and  145,000  in  Biscay. 
Of  recent  years  there  has  been 
a  heavy  emigration,  especially  to 
the  Argentine  Republic,  Mexico, 
and  Cuba,  where  Basques  are 
counted  to  the  number  of  200,000. 

See  Michel's  Le  Pays  Basque: 
sa  Population,  sa  Langue  (1857); 
Garat  s  Origines  dcs  Basques  de 
France  et  d'Espagne  (1869);  J.  F, 
Blade's  Etudes  sur  1' Origine  des 
Basques  (1869);  Gabelentz's  Die 
Verwandtschaft  des  Baskischen 
mit  den  Berbers prachen  Nordafri- 
kas  (1894);  Geze's  *£>e  Quclques 
Rapports  entre  les  Langues  Ber- 
ber e  et  Basque'  in  Mem.  Soc. 
Archcol.  du  Midi  de  la  France; 
*La  Civilisation  Primitive  dans 
la  Sicilie  Orientale'  in  L'Anthro- 
pologie  (1897):  Cenac-Moncaut's 
Llist.  des Peuples Pyrenecns  (1874); 


Bas-relief  (Fr.  'low  relief),  or 
Basso-rilievo  (Ital.),  in  sculp- 
ture, a  form  of  relief  in  which  tne 
figures  or  objects  represented  are 
raised  upon  a  flat  surface  or 
background,  slightly  projecting, 
so  that  no  part  of  them  is  en- 
tirely detached  from  it.  When 
the_  figures  stand  out  half  of 
their  proportions,  the  term  used 
is  mezzo-rilievo  ('middle  relief); 
and  when  they  project  more  than 
half,  the  words  used  are  alto-ri- 
lievo  ('high  relief).  The  finest 
known  ^  example  of  bas-relief  is 
the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon, 
copied  in  the  design  of  the 
Atli  en£Eum  Club  in  London. 
Bas-reliefs  were  invented  by  the 
Egyptians,  and  their  use  in  sculp- 
ture extended  to  India,  Media, 
Persia,  Greece,  and  Rome.  See 
Sir  C.  Ea.stla.ke's  Basso-rilievo. 

Bass,  in  music,  is  the  lowest 
and  most  important  part  of  all 
harmony.  In  earlier  times  it  was 
common  to  write  the  bass  notes 
alone  of  a  composition,  and  place 
figures  to  indicate  the  construe- 


Bas» 


609 


Basset  Horn 


tion  of  each  chord:  this  was 
termed  a  'figured  bass.'  Bass  is 
also  the  name  given  to  the  lowest 
male  voice. 

Bass,  the  name  given  to  sever- 
al fishes,  both  fresh-water  and 
marine,  allied  to  the  perch.  In 
the  United  States  the  name  com- 
monly refers  to  the  two  closely- 
related  game  fishes  of  its  rivers 
and  lakes,  the  large-mouthed  and 
the  small-mouthed  black  bass  of 
tne  sunfish  family  (Centrar- 
chidae).  The  former  is  the  larg- 
er, often  10  pounds  in  weight, 
and  prefers  quiet  southerly  wa- 
ters, while  the  latter  is  more  ac- 
tive, abounds  in  clear,  rapid 
rivers  and  lakes,  and  has  spread 
widely  east  of  the  Alleghanies, 
since  the  opening  of  the  Erie  and 
other  canals.  Both  are  favorites 
of  the  angler,  taking  a  fly  as  well 
as  baited  hooks,  and  giving  as 
much  excitement  in  the  catching 
as  do  gamey  trout.  Both  are 
excellent  eating;  and  have  been 
extensively  cultivated  and  trans- 
planted by  methods  of  fish-cul- 
ture. Various  smaller  and  less 
attractive,  yet  interesting  species, 
as  the  grass  bass,  red-eye  bass, 
and  others,  abound  in  the  streams 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  salt-water  bass  include 
many  well  known  species  of  Ser- 
ranidae,  of  which  the  original 
'bass'  (Morone  lahrax)  of  the 
European  coast  is  a  typical  and 
valuable  example;  sometimes  at- 
taining a  length  of  21/2  feet.  In 
eastern  United  States  the  name 
belongs  primarily  to  the  striped 
bass  (Rocctis  lineatus),  a  hand- 
some fish,  caught  in  large  num- 
bers for  market,  and  also  a  favor- 
ite with  anglers,  when  it  enters 
the  bays  and  estuaries  in  spring 
to  spawn.  It  is  characterized  by 
the  series  of  dark  longitudinal 
lines  ornamenting  its  sides. 
Several  close  relatives  perma- 
nently inhabit  the  rivers  and 
land-locked  lakes  of  the  interior 
of  the  United  States,  one  of  which 
is  the  excellent  white  bass,  or 
white  perch,  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
The  term  'sea-bass'  is  applied  to 
various  other  active  and  gamey 
sea-fishes  as  the  weakfish  and 
drum  of  the  Eastern  coast,  and 
the  white  sea-bass  of  California, 
the  latter  a  near  relative  of  the 
Eastern  bluefish.  Consult  Hen- 
shall's  Book  of  the  Black  Bass. 

Bass,  Edward  (172G-1803), 
American  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop,  was  born  in  Dorchester, 
Mass.  He  was  graduated  (1744) 
from  Harvard  and  was  licensed 
to  preach  as  a  Congregationalist, 
but  went  to  England  in  17.52  and 
took  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
church.  On  his  return  he  be- 
came rector  of  the  church  at 
Newburyport,  Mass.  He  es- 
poused the  American  cause  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  and  was 
consecrated  first  bishop  of  the  re- 
organized church  in  Massachu- 


setts, 1797,  his  jurisdiction  soon 
being  extended  over  New  Hamp- 
shire and  Rhode  Island. 

Bass,  George  (d.  1812),  Eng- 
lish explorer,  was  a  native  of 
Asworthy,  Lincolnshire.  After 
qualifying  as  a  surgeon  in  Lon- 
don, he  was  appointed  to  H.M.S. 
Reliance,  in  which  he  served  on 
the  Australian  coast  v/ith  Flin- 
ders in  1795-1800.  The  strait 
between  Tasmania  and  Australia 
which  bears  his  name  and  also 
Flinders  Island  were  charted  by 
Flinders  and  Bass  in  1798. 

Bassandyne,  bas'san-din,  or 
Bassendyne,  Thomas  (d.  1577), 
printer  and  bookseller  at  the 
Nether  Bow,  Edinburgh,  who 
issued  the  first  Bible  printed  in 
Scotland.  He  commenced  with 
the  New  Testament,  which  bears 
his  imprint  on  the  title,  and  the 
date  157G;  while  the  Old  Testa- 
ment bears  the  name  of  Arbuth- 
not,  and  the  date  1579. 

Bassano,  bas-sa'no,  town,  Ita- 
ly, in  the  province  of  Vicenza,  on 
the  high  left  bank  of  the  Brenta; 
53  miles  northwest  of  Venice.  An 
old  covered  bridge  here  spans  the 
river  and  the  town  has  a  cathe- 
dral. There  are  manufactures  of 
straw  hats  and  silk,  and  the  vicin- 
ity produces  the  vine,  olives,  and 
asparagus.    Pop.  16,000. 

Bassano,  or  Jacopo  da  Ponte 
(1510-92),  Italian  painter,  called 
II  Bassano  from  his  birthplace. 
He  is  noted  as  the  first  Italian 
genre  painter  and  the  first  who 
treated  landscape  in  the  modern 
spirit.  In  his  Biblical  subjects 
he  introduced  episodes  of  con- 
temporary country  life;  his  color- 
ing is  of  fine  Venetian  quality;  his 
horizons  are  bathed  in  delicate 
gray  twilight.  His  best  work  is 
an  altar-piece  of  The  Nativity,  in 
Bassano.  Among  his  other  works 
are  Rest  during  Flight  (Ambrosian 
Library,  Milan);  Assumption  (S. 
Luigi,  Rome) ;  Presentation  (Pina- 
coteca,  Vicenza) ;  The  Good  Sa- 
maritan, once  belonging  to  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds;  two  portraits 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London; 
and  three  pictures  in  Edinburgh. 

Bass  Drum.    See  Drum. 

Basse,  or  Bas,  William  (d. 
1653),  English  poet,  was  the  au- 
thor of  numerous  poems  on  coun- 
try life.  He  lived  most  of  his 
life  near  Thame,  in  Oxfordshire, 
as  the  retainer  of  a  nobleman 
there.  He  is  chiefly  known  by 
his  Epitaph  on  Shakespeare 
(1633);  and  is  also  the  author  of 
Sword  and  Buckler  (1602)  and 
Urania  (1653),  though  this  latter 
has  been  assigned  to  a  second 
William  Basse. 

Bassein,  ba-san',  town,  India, 
in  Thana  district,  Bombay  Pres- 
idency; 28  miles  north  of  Bom- 
bay. It  contains  the  ruins  of  a 
Portuguese  fortress  and  of  many 
churches.    Pop.  (1921)  10,366. 

Bassein,  town,  British  Burma, 
in  Bassein  district,  on  the  Nga- 


wun  River;  90  miles  from  the  sea. 
It  has  a  large  trade  in  rice  and  is 
one  of  the  chief  ports  of  Burma. 
The  leading  industries  are  pottery 
making  and  umbrella  manufac- 
ture.    Pop.  (1921)  42,563. 

Basses- Alpes,  biis-zalp',  de- 
partment of  France,  in  the  south- 
eastern part,  on  the  west  slope  of 
the  Alps,  forming  the  Italian 
frontier  on  the  northeast;  area, 
2,697  square  miles.  The  whole 
department  is  drained  by  the 
Durance  River.  On  all  sides 
high  mountains  (reaching  10,000 
feet)  surround  it.  The  chief 
peaks  are  Chaine  du  Parpaillon 
in  the  north,  Mount  Pelat  in 
the  east.  Mount  des  Trois 
Eveches  in  the  south.  The  cli- 
mate is  severe,  except  in  the  lower 
valleys,  where  even  the  olive  tree 
grows.  Good  pastures  are  found, 
but  deforestation  has  spoiled 
large  tracts  of  mountains.  The 
natural  beauties  of  the  depart- 
ment attract  many  visitors. 
Digne  is  the  capital.  Pop.  (1921) 
91,882. 

Easses-Pyrenees,  bas-pe-ra- 
na',  the  most  southwesterly  de- 
partment of  France,  forming  the 
boundary  of  Spain  along  the 
ridge  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  facing  • 
the  Bay  of  Biscay  for  17  miles  be- 
tween the  Adour  and  the  Bidas- 
soa;  area,  2,977  square  miles. 
The  ridge  of  the  P^aenees  rises 
slowly  from  west  to  east;  the 
principal  peaks  are  Pic  du  Midi 
d'Ossau  (9,465  feet)  and  Pic  du 
Palais  (9,765  feet).  Some  twen- 
ty-six passes  lead  from  France  to 
Spain,  including  the  famous  Pass 
of  Roncevaux.  The  department 
has  about  the  same  limits  as  the 
former  province  of  Bearn,  but  the 
southwest  is  really  Pays  Basque. 
The  inhabitants,  Basques  and 
Bearnais,  have  for .  centuries 
kept  their  characteristic  customs, 
especially  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts. The  plain  of  Bearn  is  well 
cultivated.  Extensive  forests 
clothe  the  mountains,  and  the 
streams  yield  abundance  of  fish. 
There  are  copper  mines  and  stone 
quarries.  Pau,  the  capital,  and 
Biarritz  are  noted  health  resorts. 
Pop.  (1921)  402,981. 

Basse-Terrs,  biis-tar',  sea- 
port, and  capital  of  Guadeloupe, 
French  West  Indies,  on  the 
southwestern  coast.  It  has  a 
cathedral  dating  from  1694,  and 
contains  the  government  build- 
ings.   Pop.  (1921)  8,379. 

Basseterre,  seaport,  island  of 
St.  Christopher  (St.  Kitts),  Lee- 
ward Group,  West  Indies.  It  is 
the  capital  of  the  island  and  has  a 
centrally  located  botanical  gar- 
den. There  is  a  good  trade,  es- 
pecially in  sugar  and  salt.  Pop. 
(1921)  7,736. 

Basset  Horn  (Ital.  corno  di 
bassetto),  a  rich-toned  wind  in- 
strument, invented  in  Bavaria 
about  1770.  It  is  similar  to  and 
fingered   like   the  clarinet,  but 

Vol.  I. — March  '29 


Basset  Hound 

has  additional  low  keys  and  a 
prolonged  bore,  which  enable  it  to 
sound  the  octave  C,  this  being 
equivalent  to  F  below  the  bass 
clef,  as  the  instrument  is  tuned 
in  F. 

Basset  Hound,  a  breed  of  dog 
originating  in  France,  where  it  is 
used  in  hunting.  It  is  a  good 
tempered  dog  with  a  clear  and 
sweet  voice  and  is  a  splendid 
hunter.  It  has  a  long  body, 
heavy  head,  short  and  crooked 


Basset  Hound 


legs,  and  is  extremely  keen  of 
scent.  It  is  white  with  colored 
patches,  black,  tan,  or  brown.  A 
few  packs  are  kept  for  hare-hunt- 
ing in  England,  but  it  is  rarely 
seen  in  the  United  States. 

Bassett,  James  (1834-1906), 
American  missionary,  was  born 
near  Hamilton,  Canada.  He  was 
graduated  (1856)  from  Wabash 
College  and  studied  for  the  minis- 
try at  Lane  Theological  Semi- 
nary. He  served  as  chaplain  in 
the  Federal  volunteers  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  held  various  pas- 
torates until  he  became  a  mission- 
ary under  the  American  Board  in 
1871.  His  principal  services  were 
rendered  in  Turkey  and  Persia, 
and  he  was  instrumental  in  estab- 
lishing diplomatic  relations  be- 
tween Persia  and  the  United 
States.  He  is  the  author  of 
Hymns  in  Persian  (Teheran, 
1875),  Persia  the  Land  of  the 
Imams  (1886). 

Bassett,  John  Spencer  (1867- 
1928),  American  educator  and 
historian,  was  born  in  Tarboro, 
N.  C.  He  was  graduated  (1888) 
from  Trinity  College,  N.  C,  took 
his  Ph.D.  degree  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins and  served  as  professor  of 
history  at  Trinity  College  (1893- 
1906).  In  1906  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  Smith  College. 
He  was  the  first  editor  of  the 
South  Atlantic  Quarterly  from 
1902  to  1905  and  was  secretary  of 
the  American  Historical  Society 
from  1919  to  1928.  His  pub- 
lished works  include  Constitu- 
tional Beginnings  of  North  Caro- 
lina (1894),  a  series  of  papers  on 
slavery  in  the  colony  and  state  of 
North  Carolina;  The  Federalist 
System  (1905);  Life  of  Andrew 
Jackson  (1911);  A  Short  History 
of  the  United  States  (1913);  The 
Plain  Story  of  American  History 
(1915);    The   Middle   Group  of 

Vol.  I. — March  '29 


American  Historians  (1917);  The 
Lost  Fruits  of  Waterloo  (1918); 
Our  War  with  Germany  (1919); 
Expansion  and  Reform  (1926); 
The  League  of  Nations,  A  Chapter 
in  World  Politics  (1928);  Makers 
of  a  New  Nation  (volume  9  of  'The 
Pageant  of  America,'  1928).  He 
has  also  edited:  The  Writings  of 
Colonel  William  Byrd  of  Weslover 
in  Virginia  (1901);  Selections 
from  the  Federalist  (1921);  The 
Plantation  Overseer  as  Shown  in 
his  Letters  (1925),  and  other 
works. 

Bas'sia,  a  genus  of  tropical 
trees,  of  the  order  Sapotaceae, 
found  in  the  East  Indies  and 
Africa.  From  the  seeds  of  several 
species  a  vegetable  oil  much  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  soap  is 
obtained,  and  their  fleshy  flowers 
yield  an  intoxicating  spirit  when 
distilled.  Several  varieties  of  the 
Indian  butter-tree  yield  useful 
oils  known  as  butters  —  B.  bu- 
tyracea,  giving  ghee  butter;  and  B. 
lalifolia  and  longifolia,  mowra  or 
mahwa  butter.  These  substances 
are  used  partly  as  medicines  and 
food,  partly  for  making  candles 
and  soap.  From  the  bark,  leaves, 
and  oil  of  some  species  remedies 
for  rheumatism  and  skin  diseases 
are  extracted.  The  timber  is 
generally  of  excellent  quality. 

Basso mpierre,  ba-son-py-ar', 
Francois  de  (1579-1646),  mar- 
shal of  France  and  diplomat,  was 
born  in  Haroue  in  Lorraine.  As 
colonel  of  the  Swiss  Guards,  he 
served  against  the  Turks  in  1603, 
at  the  siege  of  Chateau  Porcien 
in  1617,  and  took  part  in  the 
sieges  of  Montpellier  (1622)  and 
La  Rochelle  (1628) .  He  was  sent 
on  diplomatic  missions  to  Spain 
(1621),  Switzerland  (1625),  and 
England  (1626),  but  having  in- 
curred the  suspicion  of  Richelieu, 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille 
from  1631  till  Richelieu's  death 
in  1642.  While  in  prison  he 
wrote  his  Journal  de  ma  vie  (1665; 
best  ed.  1870-77),  an  interesting 
review  of  the  years,  1598-1631. 

Bassoon',  an  important  or- 
chestral wood  wind  instrument, 
the  successor  to  the  bombard  of 
the  16th  century.  It  forms  the 
bass  of  the  whole  family  of  wood 
wind  instruments,  among  which 
it  occupies  a  position  similar  to 
that  of  the  'cello  among  the 
strings.  Like  the  oboe,  it  is 
played  with  a  double  reed,  which 
is  inserted  and  fixed  in  the  S- 
shaped  neck  of  the  instrument. 
The  compass  extends  from 


(to 


though  good  solo  players  can 
bring  out  higher  notes;  and  some 
bassoons  have  the  low  A,  which 
Wagner  has  frequently  used  in 
his  Ring  des  Nibelungen.  Its 
upper  notes  have  some  affinity 


Bastar 

with  those  of  the  English  horn 
and  the  'cello,  and  sustained  mel- 
odies in  this  part  of  the  register 
are  beautiful  and  expressive.  The 
lower  notes  are  somewhat  coarse. 
In  general,  the  tone  of  the  instru- 
ment is  telling  and  peculiar.  For 
the  production  of  grotesque  ef- 
fects it  is  especially  useful,  hav- 
ing indeed  been  called  'the  clown 
of  the  orchestra'  (Prout).  Haydn 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  to 
discover  this  quality  but  the 
most  familiar  example  of  the 
kind  is  in  the  march  in  Mendels- 
sohn's Midsummer  Night's  Dream 
music.  In  orchestral  scores  bas- 
soon parts  are  written  in  the  F 
and  C  clefs,  and  the  instrument 
is  generally  designated  by  its 
Italian  title,  fagotto,  a  name  ap- 
plied to  the  bassoon  from  its  re- 
semblance to  a  fagot. 

Bassora.    See  Basra. 

Bass  Rock,  volcanic  islet, 
Scotland,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  Haddingtonshire, 
3K  miles  northeast  of  North  Ber- 
wick, opposite  the  Tantallon 
Castle  of  Scott's  Marmion;  area, 
7  acres.  Its  culminating  point, 
on  the  north  side,  is  350  feet 
above  sea-level.  In  Covenant- 
ing times  (1671-94)  it  was  used  as 
a  state  prison.  There  is  a  light- 
house on  the  south  side  of  the 
rock  and  it  is  a  favorite  resort  of 
solan  geese. 

Bass  Strait,  the  channel  run- 
ning east  and  west  between  Tas- 
mania and  Victoria,  Australia. 
The  breadth  varies  from  80  to 
140  miles  but  navigation  is  inter- 
rupted by  many  islands  and  coral 
reefs.  It  was  named  after  Sur- 
geon George  Bass,  of  H.M.S.  Re- 
liance, who  discovered  it  in  1798. 

Basswood,  a  name  applied  to 
the  American  linden,  as  the  chief 
source  of  commercial  bast.  See 
Linden. 

Bast,  in  botany,  a  structural 
element  in  the  stem  of  dicotyle- 
dons and  gymnosperms.  In  most 
plants  long,  tough,  elastic  fibres 
form  part  of  the  bast,  and  it  is  on 
this  account  that  it  has  economic 
value.  The  linden  tree  (Tilia)  is 
specially  rich  in  these  fibres;  and 
when  the  bark  is  removed  the 
inner  portion,  or  bast,  is  sepa- 
rated, and  dried  to  form  Russian 
bass  or  bast  mats,  which  are  used 
by  gardeners.  Strands  of  linden 
bast  are  also  used  for  tying 
plants,  but  not  so  much  as  those 
of  Cuban  bast,  which  is  derived 
from  a  tree  of  the  mallow  order. 
Flax,  hemp,  and  jute  are  bast 
fibres  of  different  plants.  Liber,  a 
term  once  used  for  bast,  is  be- 
coming obsolete. 

Bastar,  native  state,  India,  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Central  Provinces;  area  13,062 
square  miles.  It  is  covered  with 
jungle,  and  more  than  half  the 
inhabitants  are  a  timid,  harmless 
race  of  aborigines  of  Gond  origin. 
Pop.  (1921)  464,137. 


Bastard 


611 


Bastille 


Bas'tard.  one  born  out  of  law- 
ful v/edlock;  an  illegitimate  child. 
By  the  common  law  of  England 
and  the  United  States  a  bastard  is 
nullius  filius,  i.e.  deprived  of  all 
the  advantages  of  consanguinity. 
He  cannot  therefore  inherit  real 
property  from  any  source  nor  can 
he  transmit  by  descent  to  col- 
lateral relations.  He  may,  how- 
ever, acquire  property  real  and 
personal  by  gift,  will  or  purchase, 
and  convey  or  devise  the  same, 
and  may  transmit  it  to  his  lineal 
descendants  as  heirs  or  personal 
representatives.  Bastardy  in- 
volves no  civil  or  political  dis- 
ability and  does  not  affect  the 
right  to  sue  and  be  sued  in  the 
courts,  to  exercise  the  elective 
franchise,  or  to  hold  office  in 
state  or  church.  A  bastard 
child  is  entitled  to  support  from 
the  mother  and  the  mother  or 
the  local  authorities  may  under 
modern  statutes  devolve  the 
charge  of  caring  for  the  child  up- 
on the  father.  The  peculiar  dis- 
ability of  the  bastard,  above 
described,  exists  also  in  jurisdic- 
tions which  owe  their  legal  prin- 
ciples to  the  Roman  law,  but  it 
may  there  be  cured  by  the  subse- 
quent marriage  of  the  parents. 
By  statute  in  many  of  the  Amer- 
ican States,  also,  the  subsequent 
intermarriage  of  the  parents  will 
render  a  bastard  legitimate,  but 
the  English  Parliament  has,  from 
the  Statute  of  Merton  (1235)  to 
the  present  time,  consistently  re- 
fused to  alter  the  common  law 
rule  on  the  subject.  In  a  few  of 
the  United  States,  moreover, 
statutes  have  been  enacted  per- 
mitting a  bastard  to  inherit  from 
the  mother  and  to  transmit  prop- 
erty to  the  mother  by  inheritance 
or  under  the  statutes  of  distribu- 
tion.   See  Illegitimacy. 

Bastard  Bar,  in  heraldry,  an 
obsolete  and  somewhat  mislead- 
ing designation  for  the  symbol 
of  illegitimacy.  The  figure  to 
which  this  term  is  applied  is 
properly  called  the  baton.  As  the 
har  proper  is  a  horizontal  and  not 


Bastard  Bar 


a  diagonal  figure,  it  can  be  neither 
dexter  nor  sinister,  so  that  a  bar 
sinister  is,  in  English  heraldry, 
an  impossibility.  The  size  {i.e. 
width)  of  the  baton  is  half  that 
of  the  scarp,  which  in  its  turn  is 
half  that  of  the  bend  sinister. 

Bastard  of  Orleans.  See 
DuNois,  Jean. 

Bastia,  bas-te'a,  town,  and 
capital  of  Corsica,  on  the  north- 
east shore,  100  miles  northeast  of 


Ajaccio.  There  is  an  ancient 
cathedral,  a  museum,  the  citadel, 
and  a  statue  of  Napoleon.  It 
has  a  poor  harbor,  but  there  is  a 
brisk  trade  in  fish,  fruit,  oil,  and 
marble.    Pop.  (1921)  31,939. 

Bastian,  bas'tyan,  Adolph 
(1826-1905),  German  ethnolo- 
gist, was  born  in  Bremen.  In 
1851  he  went  to  Australia  as  a 
ship's  surgeon,  and  during  the 
next  eight  years  travelled  over  a 
great  part  of  the  world.  He  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  Ethno- 
logical Museum,  Berlin,  in  1868, 
and  lecturer  on  ethnology  in  the 
university  there  in  1869.  In  con- 
junction with  Virchow  he  found- 
ed the  Zeitschrift  fiir  Ethnologie, 
the  organ  of  the  Berlin  Anthro- 
pological Society.  His  greatest 
work  is  Die  Volker  des  dsllichen 
Asien  (1866-71),  a  colossal  collec- 
tion of  facts  of  religious,  eth- 
nological, and  psychological  in- 
terest. His  other  works,  huge 
congeries  of  facts,  without  much 
attempt  at  order,  include  Der 
Mensch  in  der  Geschichte  (1860), 
Die  Kulturldnder  des  alien  Ameri- 
ka  (1878-89),  Der  Buddhismus  in 
seiner  Psychologie  (1882),  Reli- 
gions philosophische  Probleme 
(1884),  Indonesien  (1884-94), 
KuUurhistorische  Studien  (1900), 
Der  Menschheitsgedanke  durch 
Raum  und  Zeit  (1901),  and  some 
fifty  other  books. 

Bastian,  Henry  Charlton 
(1837-1915),  English  physician, 
was  born  in  Truro.  He  studied 
at  University  College,  London, 
and  was  professor  of  pathological 
anatomy  (1867-87)  and  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  (1887-95)  at 
that  institution.  He  was  an  au- 
thority on  the  pathology  of  the 
nervous  system,  and  was  also 
known  as  an  advocate  of  the 
theory  of  the  spontaneous  genera- 
tion of  life  among  the  lower  or- 
ganisms. His  publications  in- 
clude The  Modes  of  Origin  of 
Lowest  Organisms  (1871);  The 
Beginnings  of  Life  (1872) ;  Evolu^ 
tion  and  the  Origin  of  Life  (1874) ; 
Clinical  Lectures  on  the  Common 
Forms  of  Paralysis  from  Brain 
Disease  (1875);  The  Brain  as  an 
Organ  of  Mind  (1880);  Paralyses 
— Cerebral,  Bulbar,  and  Spinal 
(1886);  A  Treatise  on  Aphasia 
(1898);  Evolution  of  Life  (1907); 
Origin  of  Life  (1911). 

Bastiat,  bas-tya',  Frederic 
(1801-50),  French  political  econ- 
omist, was  born  in  Bayonne.  He 
took  a  lively  interest  in  the 
struggles  of  the  English  'Anti- 
Corn  Law  League,'  and  in  1844 
he  published  De  V influence  des 
tarifs  francais  et  anglais  sur 
Vavenir  des  deux  peuples.  He 
visited  England  in  1846,  and  on 
his  return  founded  at  Bordeaux 
the  first  free-trade  association  in 
France.  But  his  health  failing 
he  retired  to  Italy,  where  he  died. 
His  best  known  writings  are  Cob- 
den  et  la  ligue  (1845);  Sophismes 


economiques  (1847;  latest  Eng. 
trans.  1888) ;  Propriete  et  loi 
(1848) ;  Justice  etfraternile  (1848) ; 
Propriete  et  spoliation  (1850); 
L'etat  (1849);  Protectionisme  et 
communisme  (1849);  Gratuite  du 
credit  (1850).  Les  harmonies 
economiques  (1850;  10th  ed.  1893) 
was  translated  into  English  by 
Dr.  P.  J.  Stirling. 

Bastide,  bas-ted',  Jules 
(1800-79),  a  French  republican 
politician  and  author,  was  born  in 
Paris,  He  opposed  the  Orleans 
dynasty  by  sword  and  pen,  was 
condemned  to  death  in  1832,  but 
escaped  to  England.  After  his 
pardon,  in  1834,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  again  engaged  in  poli- 
tics, advocating  republicanism  in 
the  National  and  the  Revue  Na- 
tionale,  which  he  had  established. 
In  1848  he  acted  as  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  for  six  months. 
Among  his  works  are  Histoire  de 
V  assemblee  legislative  (1849);  His- 
toire des  guerres  religeuses  en 
France  (1859). 

Bastien-Lepage,  bas-tyan'le- 
pazh,  Jules  (1848-84),  French 
realistic  painter,  was  born  in 
Damvillers.  He  studied  at  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris, 
under  Cabanel  and  served  during 
the  war  (1870  -71)  as  a  franc-tireur 
under  the  painter  Castellani.  He 
loved  open-air  nature,  and  paint- 
ed the  rustic  life  of  his  childhood 
but  was  no  student  of  sunshine, 
preferring  gray  skies  and  quiet 
tones,  and  using  a  high  horizon 
line.  In  1879  he  went  to  London 
to  execute  the  portrait  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales  (1879) ;  and  seiz- 
ing the  opportunity  to  study 
London  street  life,  he  painted 
the  London  Bootblack,  a  London 
Flower-girl,  and  later  the  Thames 
at  London  (1882).  In  1881  he 
painted  The  Beggar,  one  of  his 
best  productions;  Love  in  the  Vil- 
lage in  1883,  and  The  Forge  in 
1884.  Other  works  are  La  petite 
communiante  (1875);  Les  foins 
(1878);  a  portrait  of  Sarah  Bern- 
hardt (1879).  His  influence  on 
modern  painting  was  far-reaching 
and  beneficial. 

Bastille,  bas-tel',  a  term  ap- 
plied in  the  Middle  Ages  to  a 
tower  or  bastion,  and  sometimes 
to  the  movable  wooden  tower 
otherwise  called  a  berfry.  In 
modern  times  the  word  has  the 
general  sense  of  a  prison;  but  this 
significance  is  derived  from  the 
great  and  dreaded  Bastille  of 
Paris,  in  which,  from  the  time  of 
Richelieu  onwards,  persons  ob- 
noxious to  those  in  high  place 
were  summarily  incarcerated  on 
the  strength  of  a  lettre  de  cachet. 
It  fell  before  the  fury  of  the  mob 
during  the  Revolution  in  1789. 
Although  in  its  later  days  more 
definitely  a  prison,  the  Bastille 
of  Paris  was  originally  a  fortress, 
built  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
14th  century  as  one  of  the  forti- 
fications of  Paris.    The  story  of 

Vol.  I. — March  '29 


Bastion 


612 


Batac 


its  downfall  is  told  in  Carlyle's 
French  Revolution  and  Dickens'  A 
Tale  of  Two  Cities. 

Bas'tion,  a  fortification  so  de- 
signed that  a  flanking  fire  could 
be  directed  along  every  rampart 
and  ditch  from  other  parts  of  the 
same  fort.  It  was  introduced  in 
the  16th  century  to  bring  a  cross- 
fire to  bear  on  the  attackers' 
artillery;  but  when  the  power  of 
guns  increased  so  that  they  could 


climate  is  good  and  the  soil  fer- 
tile, and  large  quantities  of  grain 
are  raised  and  herds  of  cattle  pas- 
tured. The  chief  products  are 
wool,  wheat,  and  Kaffir  corn,  and 
small  quantities  of  iron,  coal,  and 
copper  have  been  found.  The 
Basutos  are  practically  autono- 
mous, living  under  their  own 
chiefs  and  headman.  In  1868 
they  were  taken  under  British 
protection  by  Sir  P.  Wodehouse, 


1.  Skeleton  of  fruit  bat  (Pteropus  jubatus).  2.  Mouse-colored  bat  (V espcrtilio  muri- 
nus).  3.  Noctulo  (Vesperugo  noctula).  4.  Kalong  {Pteropus  adulis).  5.  Long-eared  bat 
{Plecotus  auritis).  6.  Hammerheaded  bat  {Hypsignatlius  monstrosus).  7.  Greater  horse- 
shoe bat  (Rhinolophus  ferrum-equinum).   8.  Geoffrey's  nyctophile  {Nidophilus  Geojfroyi). 


be  withdrawn  to  a  great  distance, 
a  cross-fire  was  no  longer  pos- 
sible, and  the  main  object  of  the 
bastion  disappeared.  See  Forti- 
fication. 

Basii'toland,  territory,  South 
Africa,  in  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
province;  area,  11,716  square 
miles.  The  whole  district  is 
mountainous,  and  the  Maluti 
ranges,  part  of  the  Drakenberg, 
occupy  most  of  the  district.  The 

Vol.  I. — March  '29 


and  annexed  to  the  Cape  Colony 
in  1871  by  Sir  H.  Barkly.  In 
April,  1880,  an  act  was  pavssed  to 
disarm  them,  but  the  Basutos, 
availing  themselves  of  the  natural 
ramparts  of  their  country,  such 
as  Thaba  Bossigo,  defended 
themselves  vigorously.  In  1884 
the  imperial  government  again 
took  the  Basutos  under  its  juris- 
diction. The  capital  is  Maseru. 
Pop.  (1921)  498,781. 


Basyle*  ba'sil,  in  chemistry, 
the  simple  or  compound  sub- 
stance which  forms  the  electro- 
positive constituent  of  a  salt. 

Bat,  a  small  furry  mammal  be- 
longing to  the  order  Chiroptera 
and  characterized  by  the  posses- 
sion of  the  power  of  true  flight, 
but  otherwise  nearly  related  to 
insectivores.  In  structure  the 
wing  differs  markedly  from  that 
of  a  bird,  being  formed  by  a  mem- 
brane stretched  over  the  greatly 
elongated  fingers,  arid  extending 
between  the  hind  limbs,  and  in 
some  cases  involving  the  tail. 
The  thumb,  short  and  clawed,  is 
outside  of  the  wing  membrane, 
and  is  used  for  holding  to  sur- 
faces, and  scrambling  about  the 
rocks  of  caves  in  which  bats 
mostly  dwell.  Though  the  brain 
is  not  highly  developed,  the 
senses  are  exceedingly  acute,  and 
specially  sensitive  outgrowths  of 
skin  are  often  present  on  the 
head,  forming  'nose-leaves.' 

Bats  are  widely  distributed 
over  the  surface  of  the  globe,  are 
nocturnal  in  habit,  and  are  di- 
vided, according  to  their  diet, 
into  two  sub-orders — (1)  Mega- 
chiroptera,  large  fruit-eating  bats, 
in  which  the  tail,  if  present,  is  not 
involved  in  the  membrane  con- 
necting the  hind  limbs.  This 
order  contains  the  fruit  bat  (q.v.) 
and  the  so-called  flying  foxes, 
with  their  various  species.  (2) 
Microchiroptera,  small  insect-eat- 
ing bats,  in  which  the  tail,  when 
present,  is  involved  in  the  mem- 
brane connecting  the  hind  limbs 
— e.g.  the  horse-shoe  bats  (Rhi- 
nolophus), the  pipistrelle  bats 
(Vesperugo),  the  common  bats 
( Vespertilio) ,  the  South  American 
vampire  bat  (Desmodus  rufus) 
and  many  other  species.  Of 
these,  the  Megachiroptera  are 
confined  to  the  warm  regions  of 
the  eastern  hemisphere,  while  the 
Microchiroptera  are  widely  dis- 
tributed  in   both  hemispheres. 

Bats  form  an  order  of  great 
interest  and  importance  to  the 
naturalist.  From  a  practical 
point  of  view  they  are  of  some 
economic  importance  so  far  as 
the  one  set  destroy  fruit  crops, 
and  the  others  make  up  for  this 
by  destroying  insects,  while  only 
a  very  few,  notably  the  vam- 
pire bat,  are  somewhat  more 
sanguinary.  See  also  Vampire 
Bat. 

Bataan,  bii-ta-an',  or  Rincon- 
ADA,  province,  Luzon,  Philippine 
Islands,  lying  west  of  the  Bay  of 
Manila;  area,  with  6  small  de- 
pendent islands,  480  square  miles. 
It  has  marble  quarries,  and  pro- 
duces rice,  sugar,  and  indigo. 
The  capital  is  Balanga.  Pop. 
(1918)  .58,340. 

Batac,  ba-tak',  pueblo,  Luzon 
Philippine  Islands,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Ilocos  Norte  situated  on 
the  main  road,  10  miles  south  of 
Laoag.   It  is  the  largest  town  in 


Batak 


613 


Bates 


the  province,  and  has  an  im- 
portant trade  in  rice,  cotton  cloth, 
tobacco,  and  sugar.  Pop.  (1918) 
23.986. 

Batak,  ba-tak',  or  Batta,  a 
tribe  of  Malays  found  chiefly 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sumatra, 
East  Indies.  They  are  probably 
one  of  the  oldest  divisions  of  the 
race  and  are  taller  and  more 
muscular  than  most  of  the 
Malays,  are  democratic  in  their 
institutions,  and  show  a  rela- 
tively high  civilization.  They 
have  maintained  themselves  in 
independence  of  the  Dutch.  At 
the  present  time  they  dwell  for 
the  most  part  on  the  plateau  of 
Toba  and  number  about  500,000. 

Batalha,  ba-tal'ya,  town,  Por- 
tugal, in  the  district  of  Leiria, 
6  miles  southwest  of  Leiria.  It 
has  a  famous  Dominican  monas- 
tery, built  to  commemorate  the 
victory  of  Aljubarrota  (1385).  In 
the  church  are  the  tombs  of  Kings 
John  I.  and  ii..  Edward,  Al- 
phonso  v.,  and  Prince  Henry  the 
Navigator.    Pop.  5,000. 

Batan,  ba-tan',  seaport,  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  on  the  north 
coast  of  Panay,  in  the  province 
of  Capiz;  17  miles  west  of  Capiz. 
It  has  an  anchorage  in  Batan 
Bay.    Pop.  (1918)  18,000. 

Batan  Islands  (Batanes),  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  Philippine 
Archipelago,  north  of  the  Ba- 
buyan group,  between  Bachi  and 
Balingtan  channels;  area,  81 
square  miles.  There  are  two 
clusters  in  the  group,  Ibayat, 
Diego,  and  the  Bachi  being  the 
northern,  and  Batan,  Sabtan, 
Ibugos,  and  Deques  forming  the 
southern.  There  are  several 
excellent  harbors  and  a  large 
coasting  trade.  Shell  fishing  is  an 
important  industry.  The  capital 
is  Santo  Domingo  de  Basco  on 
Batan  Island.  Pop.  (1918)  8,214 

Batang.    See  Battam. 

Batangas,  ba-tan 'gas,  prov- 
ince, Luzon,  Philippine  Islands; 
area  1,108  square  miles.  The 
chief  products  are  cacao,  coffee, 
and  rice;  manufactures  include 
cotton,  silk,  and  abaca.  Pop. 
(1918)  340,199. 

Batangas,  pueblo,  capital  of 
Batangas  province,  Luzon,  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  on  the  northwest 
shore  of  Batangas  Bay,  one  mile 
from  the  mouth  of  Batangas 
River.  It  has  several  fine  build- 
ings, including  government  house, 
city  hall  and  a  convent.  Pop. 
(1918)  41,089. 

Batatas.  See  Sweet  Potato. 
■  Bata'vi,  according  to  some  a 
Celtic,  but  more  probably  a  Ger- 
man tribe,  who  originally  in- 
habited the  'island  of  the  Rhine.' 
Eventually  they  became  merged 
with  the  Franks. 

Bata'via,  an  ancient  name  for 
Holland. 

Batavia,  province  of  Java, 
near  the  western  extremity;  area 
2,598  square  miles. 


Batavia,  city,  Java,  capital  of 
Dutch  East  Indies,  on  the  north 
coast  of  Java,  near  the  western 
end.  It  consists  of  an  unhealthy 
old  town  built  in  the  orthodox 
Dutch  style,  which  contains  the 
business  houses  and  factories  and 
is  mostly  inhabited  by  the 
natives  and  Chinese,  and  a  fairly 
healthy  upper  town  (Weltev- 
reden),  chiefly  residential,  in 
which  are  two  parks,  several 
handsome  squares,  and  the  chief 
buildings  of  interest — the  gover- 
nor general's  palace  (1828), 
museum  of  the  Batavian  Society 
of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  the 
library.  Batavia  is  the  principal 
trading  centre  of  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  the  East.  Its 
port  is  at  Tanjong  Priok,  6  miles 
to  the  northeast  where  new 
harbor  works  were  constructed 
in  1877-86.  The  chief  exports  are 
coffee,  tea,  opium,  copra,  quinine, 
rice  and  pepper.  The  principal 
imports  are  woven  fabrics.  Ba- 
tavia was  founded  by  the  Dutch 
in  1619,  and  from  1811  to  1816 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  British. 
It  has  often  suffered  an  excessive 
mortality  due  to  fever  and 
malaria.    Pop.  (1918)  235,697. 

Batavia,  city.  New  York, 
county  seat  of  Genesee  County, 
on  Tonawanda  Creek,  and  on  the 
Lehigh  Valley,  the  Erie,  and  the 
New  York  Central  Railroads; 
37  miles  northeast  of  Buffalo, 
and  32  miles  southwest  of 
Rochester.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  farm  implements, 
shoes,  and  paper  boxes,  and  it  is 
the  seat  of  the  State  Institute  for 
the  Blind.  Pop.  (1910)  11,613; 
(1920)  13,541; (1925)  15,628. 

Batavian  Republic,  the  name 
under  which  the  Netherlands 
were  known  from  1795  to  1806, 
following  the  invasion  by  the 
French  under  Pichegru. 

Batch'eller,  George  Sher- 
man (1837-1908),  American  dip- 
lomat and  jurist,  was  born  in 
Batchellerville,  N.  Y.,  and  was 
graduated  (1857)  from  Harvard 
Law  School.  He  practised  at 
Saratoga,  and  later  served 
through  the  Civil  War.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  New  York  State 
legislature  for  several  terms  and 
was  appointed  by  President 
Grant  (1875)  judge  of  the  Inter- 
national Tribunal  of  Egypt,  re- 
signing in  1885.  He  was  first  as- 
sistant secretary  of  the  treasury, 
1889-91,  United  States  minister 
to  Portugal,  1891,  and  held  other 
diplomatic  appointments  until  his 
reappointment  (1898)  to  the  In- 
ternational Tribunal.  In  1902 
he  was  appointed  to  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Appeal  of  that 
tribunal. 

Batchian.    See  Batjan. 

Bate,WiLLiAM  Brimage(1826- 
1905),  American  legislator,  was 
born  near  Castalian  Springs, 
Tenn.,  and  received  an  academic 
education.   After  various  experi- 


ences as  steamboat  clerk  on 
the  Mississippi,  as  private  in  the 
Mexican  War.  and  member  of  the 
Tennessee  legislature,  he  studied 
law,  and  was  attorney  general  for 
the  Nashville  district,  1854-60. 
He  served  in  the  Confederate 
army,  1861-5,  rising  from  private 
to  major  general.  After  the  war, 
he  resumed  the  practice  of  law  at 
Nashville,  was  governor  of  Ten- 
nessee, 1882-6,  and  was  U.  S. 
senator  from  Tennessee  from 
1887  until  his  death. 

Bate  man.  Sir  Frederic(1824- 
1904),  English  physician,  a  native 
of  Norfolk,  and  a  graduate  (1850) 
of  Aberdeen  University.  His 
chief  contributions  to  medical 
science  are  Aphasia,  and  the 
Localizaiion  of  Speech  (1870); 
Darwinism  tested  by  Language 
(1877);  and  The  Idiot:  his  Place 
in  Creation.  He  was  knighted 
in  1892. 

Bateman,  Kate  Josephine 
(1842-1917),  American  actress, 
was  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and 
after  achieving  considerable  suc- 
cess on  the  American  stage,  in 
1863  she  went  to  England.  Her 
chief  roles  in  which  she  met  with 
great  favor,  are  Leah  in  Deborah, 
Medea,  Lady  Macbeth,  and 
Queen  Mary. 

Bates,  Arlo  (1850-1918), 
American  author  was  born  in  East 
Machias,  Me.  He  was  graduated 
(1876)  from  Bowdoin  College, 
after  which  he  lived  in  Boston, 
Mass.  He  edited,  1878-9,  The 
Broadside,  a  civil  service  reform 
paper,  and  was  editor  of  the 
Boston  Sunday  Courier  from  1880 
until  his  appointment  (1893)  as 
professor  of  English  literature  at 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology.  His  published  works 
include  Patty's  Perversities  (1881) , 
The  Pagans  (1884),  A  Wheel  of 
Fire  (1885),  Berries  of  the  Brier, 
verse  (1886),  Sonnets  in  Shadow 
(1887),  The  Philistines  (1889), 
The  Puritans  (1899),  Talks  on 
Writing  English  (1897-1901), 
Talks  on'  Teaching  Literature 
(1906);  The  Intoxicated  Ghost 
(1908).  He  was  a  member  of  the 
National  Institute  of  Arts  and 
Letters. 

Bates,  Blanche  (1873-  ), 
American  actress,  was  born  in 
Portland,  Ore.  She  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools  of  San 
Francisco  and  first  appeared  on 
the  stage  in  that  city  in  1894. 
She  has  played  leading  parts  in 
various  comedies,  has  appeared 
in  Shakespearian  roles  and  has 
starred  in  such  productions  as 
The  Girl  of  the  Golden  West, 
Madam  Butterfly,  The  Darling 
of  the  Gods,  Under  Two  Flags 
and  others. 

Bates,  Charlotte  Fiske(1838- 
1916),  American  poet,  was  born 
in  New  York  City.  She  was 
educated  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
to  which  place  she  returned 
after  some  years  of  residence  in 

Vol.  I. — March  '28 


Bates 

New  York  City.  She  cooperated 
with  the  poet  Longfellow  in  com- 
piling Poems  of  Places;  published 
Risks  and  Other  Poems  (1879), 
and  edited  the  Cambridge  Book 
of  Poetry  and  Song  (1882). 

Bates,  Edward  (1793-1869). 
American  lawyer  and  political 
leader,  was  born  in  Belmont,  Va. 
He  removed  to  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in 
1814,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1817,  and  became  prominent  both 
at  the  bar  and  in  politics.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Missouri  Con- 
stitutional Convention  of  1820, 
U.  S.  district  attorney  for 
Missouri  (1821-6),  and  a  repre- 
sentative in  Congress  (1827-9). 
From  1861  to  1864,  during  the 
Civil  War,  he  was  attorney 
general  in  President  Lincoln's 
cabinet. 

Bates,  Henry  Walter  (1825- 
92),  English  naturalist,  was 
born  in  Leicester.  Trained  for 
commerce,  he  early  decided  to  de- 
vote his  life  to  the  study  of 
natural  science  and  from  1848  to 
1859  was  in  Brazil,  part  of  the 
time  with  his  friend  Alfred  Russel 
Wallace  (q.v.),  exploring  the 
Upper  Amazon  region,  and  mak- 
ing a  vast  and  valuable  collection 
of  specimens,  entomological  and 
botanical,  of  which  the  greater 
number  (8,000)  were  new  dis- 
coveries. Charles  Darwin  was 
indebted  to  him  for  a  wealth  of 
illustration  for  his  theory  of 
natural  selection.  His  Naturalist 
on  the  Amazon  an  exceedingly 
able  work,  appeared  in  1863,  and 
in  the  following  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  secretary  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  an 
office  which  he  held  till  his  death. 

Bates,  John  Coalter  (1842- 
1919),  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  S.  Charles  City,  Mo. 
He  was  educated  at  Washington 
University,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and 
served  on  the  Federal  side 
throughout  the  Civil  War.  He 
was  president  of  the  board  of 
officers  by  which  the  drill  and 
firing  regulations  of  the  U.  S. 
army  were  drawn  up,  and  was  a 
member  of  that  by  which  the 
Krag-Jorgensen  rifle  was  adopted. 
He  served  first  as  brigadier 
general  of  volunteers  and  later 
as  major  general  of  volunteers 
in  the  Spanish-American  War, 
took  part  in  the  Santiago  cam- 
paign, and  subsequently  was  in 
turn  commander  and  military- 
governor  of  the  Department  of 
Santa  Clara,  Cuba  (1899).  He 
then  served  in  the  Philippines, 
becoming  brigadier  general  in 
the  regular  service  (1901),  major 
general  (1902),  lieutenant  general 
and  chief-of -staff,  in  1906. 

Bates,  Katharine  Lee  (1859- 
),  American  author  and 
educator,  was  born  in  Falmouth, 
Mass.  She  was  graduated  (1880) 
from  Wellesley  College,  of  which 
she  was  assistant  professor  of 
English  literature  (1888-91),  pro- 

VoL.  L — March  '28 


fessor  (1891-1925),  becoming 
professor  emeritus  in  1925.  She 
is  the  author  of  The  College 
Beautiful,  and  Other  Poems  (1887) , 
Rose  and  Thorn,  fiction  (1889), 
The  English  Religious  Drama 
(1893),  American  Literature 
(1898),  Spanish  Highways  and 
Byways  (1900),  From  Gretna 
Greene  to  Land's  End  (1907); 
The  Story  of  Chaucer's  Canter- 
bury Tales  Re-told  for  Children 
(1909);  In  Sunny  Spain  (1913); 
Fairy  Gold  (1916);  Sigurd,  Our 
Golden  Collie,  and  Other  Com- 
rades of  the  Road  (1919);  Little 
Robin  Stay-Behind  and  Other 
Plays  in  Verse  for  Children 
(1923);  The  Pilgrim  Ship  (1926)  ; 
and  is  editor  of  numerous  edi- 
tions of  English  classics. 

Bates  College,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  at  Lewiston, 
Maine,  founded  in  1864,  an 
outgrowth  of  Maine  State  Sem- 
inary. It  is  an  important  educa- 
tional centre  for  the  State. 
Courses  of  study  are  those  of  the 
usual  undergraduate  rank  and 
lead  to  the  degrees  of  b.a.  and 
B.s.  There  is  an  attractive  cam- 
pus of  about  75  acres,  and  the 
buildings  include  the  chapel, 
Hathorn  Hall,  Hedge  Labo- 
ratory, Carnegie  Science  Hall, 
Chase  Hall,  Coram  Library, 
with  more  than  50,000  volumes. 
Rand  Hall,  a  building  for  the 
women  students,  and  the  gym- 
nasium, with  an  indoor  field  and 
two  locker  buildings.  The  college 
has  a  Summer  School  which 
specializes  in  secondary  school 
matters.  For  recent  statistics 
see  Table  under  the  heading 
College. 

Batesville,  city,  Arkansas, 
county  seat  of  Independence 
County,  on  the  White  River,  and 
on  the  Missouri  Pacific  Railroad; 
100  miles  northeast  of  Little 
Rock.  It  is  the  seat  of  Arkansas 
College  and  has  quarries  of 
marble,  sandstone  and  manga- 
nese ore.  Manufactures  include 
flour,  wagons  and  lumber  prod- 
ucts. Pop.  (1910)  3,399;  (1920) 
6,000. 

Batfisb,  any  of  the  several  spe- 
cies of  small  carnivorous  fishes  of 
the  family  Malthidae,  related  to 
the  anglers.  They  have  relatively 
big  and  broad  heads,  and  most  of 
the  time  rest  upon  the  seabottom 
supported  upon  their  leglike  pec- 
toral fins.  In  this  attitude  and 
with  their  rough  skins  and  brown 
colors  they  resemble  toads.  One 
or  more  of  the  great  American 
sting-rays  are  locally  called 
'batfish,'  in  reference  to  their 
dark,  expansive,  winglike  lateral 
fins. 

Bath,  city,  England,  in  Somer- 
setshire, beautifully  situated  on 
the  river  Avon;  1 1  miles  southeast 
of  Bristol.  The  Avon  and  the 
Kennet  canals  connect  it  with  the 
Thames.  It  is  a  favorite  summer 
resort  and  much  frequented  for  its 


Bath 

waters  for  which  from  early  times 
it  has  been  celebrated.  The 
Romans,  as  shown  by  excava- 
tions since  1875,  founded  a  city 
here,  to  which  they  gave  the 
name  of  Aquae  Solis,  and  in  the 
reign  of  Claudius,  erected  magnifi- 
cent baths..  The  Abbey  Church, 
built  in  1499,  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  vn.,  stands  on  the  site 
of  a  Roman  temple  dedicated  to 
Minerva,  and  is  sometimes  known 
as  the  'Lantern  of  England'  from 
its  many  large  windows.  The  hot 
springs  are  chalybeate  and  saline, 
and  the  daily  outflow  is  nearly 
500,000  gallons.  Pop.  (1920) 
68,669. 

Bath,  city,  Maine,  county 
seat  of  Sagadahoc  County,  situ- 
ated 12  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Kennebec  River,  here  crossed 
by  a  fine  railroad  bridge,  on 
the  Maine  Central  Railroad, 
and  lines  of  the  Augusta  and 
Bath  Steamboat  Company,  and 
the  Eastern  Steamship  Company. 
One  of  the  chief  ship-building 
towns,  it  has  large  interests  in 
the  manufacture  of  marine  en- 
gines. Other  industries  include 
cordage  works,  boiler-works,  iron 
foundries,  and  planing  mills.  Pop. 
(1910)  9,396;  (1920)  14,731. 

Bath,  city.  New  York,  county 
seat  of  Steuben  County,  on 
Cohocton  River,  and  on  the  Bath 
and  Hammondsport,  the  Erie, 
and  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna 
and  Western  Railroads;  75  miles 
southeast  of  Rochester.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  New  York  State 
Veterans'  Camp,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  knit  goods,  automo- 
biles, ladders,  harness,  churns, 
milking  machines  and  candies. 
Pop.  (1910)  3,884  (1920)  4,795. 

Bath,  Order  of  the,  a 
famous  order  in  English  history 
instituted  (or  revived)  by  George 
I.  in  1725.  Until  1815  it  con- 
sisted of  a  grand-master  and 


Badge  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath 


36  companions,  and  was  purely 
military.  In  1815  it  was  re- 
modelled and  made  to  consist 
of  three  classes.  (1.)  Knights 
Grand  Commanders  (g.  c.  b.). 
(2.)  KnightsCommanders(K.c.B.) . 
(3.)  Companions  (c.b.).  In  1847 
it  was  extended  by  the  admission 
of  civil  knights,  commanders,  and 
companions. 


fiathforick 

Bathbrick,  a  material  used  for 
polishing  or  scouring  metallic  ves- 
sels, knives,  etc.;  made  into  fri- 
able bricks  at  Bridgwater,  Eng- 
land, from  the  fine  s  liceous  sand 
found  in  the  river  Parret. 

Bathgate,  par.  and  tn.  in  Lin- 
lithgowshire, Scotland.  Coalmines 
and  parafifin  works  employ  most 
of  the  inhabitants.  Pop.  (1911) 
par.  17,659  ;  tn.  8,226. 

Batholith,  or  Batholite.  A 
large  irregular  rock  mass  of  ig- 
neous origin  that  cooled  at  con- 
siderable depth  from  the  surface, 
but  has  since  been  exposed  by 
erosion  of  the  overlying  strata. 
Their  deep-seated  formation  is 
indicated  by  their  coarse  texture 
and  homogeneous  structure.  They 
are  common  in  areas  of  Precam- 
br'an  crystalline  rocks. 

Bathometer.  See  Oceanog- 
raphy. 

Bathori,  name  of  an  old  aris- 
tocratic family  of  Transylvania, 
who  gave  to  that  province  several 
princes,  and  to  Poland  one  king. 
Stephen  (1533-86),  after  ruling 
Transylvania  for  four  years  (1571- 
75),  was  elected  king  of  Poland. 
— SiGlSMUND  (1573-1613)  became 
prince  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Stephen  (1586).  He  was  domi- 
nated by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  1596 
yielded  the  throne  of  Transylvania 
to  Rudolf  II.,  emperor  of  Austria, 
in  exchange  for  certain  posses- 
sions in  Silesia,  the  dignity  of 
cardinal,  and  a  life  pension. — 
Elizabeth  (d.  1614),  a  niece  of 
Stephen  Bathori,  king  of  Poland, 
was  reputed  to  be  a  werewolf, 
and  during  the  years  before  her 
imprisonment  in  the  fortress  of 
Csejte,  in  the  co.  of  Nyitra,  in 
1610,  was  said  to  have  caused 
many  young  girls  to  be  murdered 
in  her  dungeons,  that  she  might 
renew  her  youth  by  bathing  in 
their  blood.  See  Baring-Gould's 
Book  of  Werewolves  (1865). 

Bathos,  a  ridiculous  descent 
from  elevated  language  to  com- 
monplace or  absurdity,  or  a  ludi- 
crous want  of  correspondence  be- 
tween a  writer's  thought  and  his 
expression  of  it.  The  finest  speci- 
mens of  bathos  in  English  are  to 
be  found  in  the  British  Album, 
a  collection  of  poems  of  the 
Delia  Cruscan  group,  compiled  by 
Bell  in  1790  from  the  columns  of 
the  World  newspaper.  One  of 
these  reads — 

'  Disordered,  lost,  from  hill  to  plain 
I  rim, 

And  with  my  mind's  thick  gloom 
obscure  the  sun.' 

Dr.  Brewer  in  his  Dictionary  of 
Phrase  and  Fable  cites  the  fol- 
lowing well-known  lines: — 

'  And  thou,  Dalhousie,  the  great  god 
of  war. 

Lieutenant-general  to  the  Earl  of 
Mar.' 

Alexander  Pope  wrote  A  Trea- 
tise of  the  Bathos,  or  the  Art  oj 


615 

Sinking  in  Poetry;  and  Swift 
and  Arbuthnot  collaborated  on 
a  work  on  the  same  subject. 

Baths  and  Bathing.  The 
Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  Bud- 
dhists observe  bathing  as  a  rite; 
the  bath,  in  religious  ceremo- 
nial, has  always  been  first  in- 
culcated in  hot  climates,  where 
chiefly  it  is  of  sanitary  value. 
The  Pentateuch  and  the  Koran 
are  full  of  references  to  bathing. 
Both  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey 
speak  of  the  hot  bath,  ana  the 
Greeks  are  believed  to  have  been 
the  first 'people  to  use  hot  air  for 
bathing  purposes.  From  them 
the  Romans  adopted  the  hot  bath, 
having  previously  used  the  swim- 
ming bath  and  cold  bath  only. 
The  Roman  baths  were  popular 
lounges;  and  those  of  Hercula- 
neum  and  Pompeii,  besides  those 
built  by  Caracalla  in  Rome,  are 
examples  of  the  most  enduring 


workmanship  of  those  times.  The 
last  named  provided  accommoda- 
tion for  2,000  bathers. 

The  very  young  and  the  very 
old  cannot  bear  extremes  of  tem- 
perature, neither  can  these  who 
suffer  from  heart  disease  or  a 
tendency  to  apoplexy.  The  cold- 
water  bath  (temp.  65°  F.  and  less)  is 
suitable  for  regular  use  as  a  nerve 
tonic  and  stimulant  for  the  aver- 
age adult,_  but  only  for  a  few  min- 
utes at  a  time.  Cold  baths  of  long 
duration  are  used,  on  account  of 
their  depressing  effect,  to  lower 
high  temperature.  In  the  case  of 
weak  persons  the  water  should 
be  warm  (say  100°  F.)  at  starting, 
and  the  temperature  gradually 
lowered  by  adding  cold  water. 
Temperature  continues  to  fall 
after  the  long-continued  cold  bath 
is  ended,  so  that  patients  should 
always  be  removed  when  their 
temperature  has  dropjicd  to  100° 
F.    The  ccld   Lath  cleanses  no 


Bathshcba 

more  than  the  skin  surface.  The 
hot-water  bath  (temp,  above  10u° 
F.)  acts  upon  the  skin  and  the  cu- 
taneous nerves,  and  thereby  on 
deeper  structures.  The  special 
liability  to  chill  after  a  hot 
bath  should  be  prevented,  either 
by  finishing  with  a  cold  spray 
or  sponging,  to  restore  tone  to 
the  capillaries,  or  by  taking  the 
bath  immediately  before  bedtime. 
Water  that  cannot  be  comfort- 
ably endured  by  the  nurse's  elbow 
is  too  hot  for  any  infant.  Hot 
baths  are  useful  for  children 
in  convulsions,  mustard  being 
added  in  the  proportion  of  two 
tablespoonfuls  to  the  gallon,  and 
cold  water  being  poured  over  the 
head._ 

It  is  probable  that  the  good 
effect  attributed  to  many  of  the 
fashionable  spas  and  watering- 
places  is  due,  not  so  much  to  the 
medicinal  properties  of  the  bath, 

•\ 
I 


•i 


s 


except  in  the  case  of  skin  diseases, 
as  to  the  effect  of  the  same  waters 
used  internally,  as  they  generally 
are,  together  with  a  change  of  air 
and  scene,  and  a  saner  scheme  of 
feeding  and  exerc'se,  as  well  as 
the  temperature,  pressure,  and 
mechanical  stimulus  of  the  bath. 
The  Nauheim  baths  have  re- 
cently been  recommended  for 
acute  heart  disease. 

In  the  preparation  of  artificial 
baths,  salt  and  mustard  are  often 
added.  Sea  salt  is  used  for  its 
stimulating  effect  on  the  skin,  and 
mustard  is  effective  in  dilating  the 
skin  capillaries  in  order  to  relieve 
internal  congestion  or  to  reduce 
fever.  See  Baruch's  Principles 
and  Practice  of  Hydrotherapy 
(1900). 

Bathsheba  ('daughter  of  the 
oath'),  wife  of  Uriah  the  Hittite, 
afterward  of  David,  and  mother 
of  Solomon.  The  manner  of  her 
ailmission  into  the  royal  harem 


Bath — Remains  of  Roman  Bath  (55  B.C.). 


ROMAN  BATHS  AT  POMPEII  (RESTORED). 
1.  The  waiting-room.  2.  The  cold  plunge.  3.  The  court.  4.  The  hot  bath. 


Bathurst 


617 


Baton  Rouge 


(2  Sam.  xi.)  was  less  shameful, 
according  to  Oriental  ideas,  than 
it  appears  when  judged  by  mod- 
ern and  Western  standards;  and 
the  fact  that  even  in  its  time  and 
place  some  were  found  to  con- 
demn it  (2  Sam.  xii.  1-25)  is  one 
of  the  glories  of  Israel.  Bathsheba 
rose  to  great  power  (1  Kings  i.). 
Some  suppose  that  she  was  a 
granddaughter  of  Ahithophel  {cf. 
2  Sam.  xi.  3  with  xxiii.  34),  but 
it  is  hardly  justifiable  to  assume 
that  Ahithophel's  part  in  the 
rebellion  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xvi". 
20  ff.)  was  caused  by  David's 
conduct  with  Bathsheba.  Con- 
sult commentaries  on  2  Samuel. 

Batburst,  bath'urst,  town, 
Bathurst  county,  western  district 
of  New  South  Wales,  Australia,  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Macquarie 
River;  145  miles  by  rail  west  of 
Sydney.  It  is  situated  on  a 
tableland  (altitude  2,153  feet) 
in  the  midst  of  a  large,  fertile 
plain  west  of  the  Blue  Mountains. 
There  are  mines  of  gold  (both 
quartz  and  placer),  silver,  and 
copper,  and  quarries  of  slate,, 
granite,  and  marble  in  the  vicin- 
ity. The  principal  agricultural 
products  are  wheat,  barley,  to- 
bacco, and  fruit.  Industries  in- 
clude tanning,  brewing,  milling, 
and  manufactures  of  boots  and 
shoes,  railway  coaches,  and  brick. 
Pop.  (1911)  8,575. 

Batburst,  capital  of  the  colony 
and  protectorate  of  Gambia, 
West  Africa,  is  located  on  the 
island  of  St.  Mary,  on  the  tidal 
River  Gambia.  It  is  connected 
by  an  iron  bridge  with  British 
Kommbo  and  Cape  St.  Mary, 
the  resort  during  the  unhealthy 
rainy  season.  The  exports  in- 
clude ground-nuts,  wax,  hides, 
rice,  tobacco,  gum,  rubber,  palm 
kernels,  and  some  indigo,  amount- 
ing to  about  $1,550,000  annually. 
Pop.  9,000. 

Batburst,  district  and  town 
on  the  southeast  coast  of  Cape 
Colony,  South  Africa.  The  dis- 
trict is  a  fruit-growing  section 
(oranges,  lemons,  etc.),  and  pro- 
duces also  oats,  barley,  mealies, 
and  tobacco.  Milch  cattle  and 
ostriches  are  raised,  and  butter  is 
manufactured.  Pop.  12,000,  of 
which  2, .500  are  white.  The  chief 
town  is  Port  Alfred  (pop.  1,600). 

BaAhurst,  town,  county  seat  of 
Gloucester  county.  New  Bruns- 
wick, Canada,  on  Nepisiguit  or 
Bathurst  Bay,  and  the  Inter- 
colonial Railway;  175  miles 
northeast  of  St.  John.  It  is  a 
port  of  entry  and  a  banking 
town,  and  has  large  salmon  fish- 
eries. It  is  a  growing  summer  re- 
sort.   Pop.  (1911)  5,248. 

Bathurst,  Earl,  a  British  title 
created  in  1772.  Allen  Bath- 
urst, first  earl  (1684-1775), 
English  statesman,  was  born  in 
London,  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  became  a  memT 
bar  of  Parliament  in  1705.  In 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '19. 


1711  he  was  created  Baron  Bath- 
urst of  Battlesden.  In  1742  he 
became  a  privy  councillor,  and  in 
1772  Earl  Bathurst.  He  was  a 
generous  patron  of  literature — a 
friend  of  Swift,  Addison,  Pope, 
Sterne,  and  others. — Henry,  sec- 
ond earl  (1714-94),  son  of  the 
first  earl,  was  educated  at  Baliol 
College,  Oxford.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  in  1735,  was  Lord 
High  Chancellor  (1771-8),  and 
became  earl  in  1775.  In  1779  he 
was  appointed  lord  president  of 
the  council. — Henry,  third  earl 
(1762-1834),  son  of  the  second 
earl,  was  elected  to  Parliament 
in  1783,  and  became  earl  in  1794. 
He  was  Secretary  for  War,  and 
for  the  Colonies  (1812-27)  and 
lord  president  of  the  council 
(1828-30). 

Bathurst  Inlet,  an  arm  of 
Coronation  Gulf,  Northern  Can- 
ada; 300  miles  northeast  of  Great 
Slave  Lake. 

Bathurst  Island,  one  of  the 
•Parry  Islands  (q.  v.)  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  north  of  North  America. 

Bathurst  Island,  mountainous 
island  off  the  northern  coast  of 
Australia.  It  measures  about  30 
miles  in  length  and  is  heavily 
wooded. 

Batbybius,  ba-thib'i-us,  a  name 
given  by  Huxley  to  a  supposed 
protoplasmic  organism  found  in 
some  deep-sea  ooze  which  had 
been  preserved  '  with  alcohol. 
Eventually  it  was  shown  that  the 
substance  was  merely  a  precipi- 
tate of  fiocculent  sulphate  of 
lime,  thrown  down  from  the  sea 
water  by  the  alcohol. 

Bathym'eter,  Bathymetry,  the 
instrument  for,  and  the  art  of 
measurement  of  depth  in  the  sea. 
See  Ocean. 

Baticaloa.  See  Batticaloa. 
BatignoUes,  ba-te-nyol',  for- 
merly a  town  in  the  suburbs  of 
Paris;  now  forming  part  of  the 
seventeenth  arrondissement,  in 
the  extreme  northwestern  part  of 
the  city. 

Batik,  ba-tek',  or  Battik,  a 
process  for  coloring  textiles,  in 
which  the  patterns  are  impressed 
on  the  fabric  by  waxing  them 
over  and  dyeing  the  unwaxed 
parts.  It  is  used  for  cotton  stuffs 
in  India  and  the  East  Indies,  and 
for  silks  and  velvets  in  Europe. 

Batiste,  ba-test',  properly  a 
fabric  of  very  fine  and  closely 
woven  linen.  The  name  is  ap- 
plied also  to  a  fine  cotton  fabric 
which  shows  the  same  peculiar 
texture  as  linen  batiste. 

Batjan,  bat-yan',  Bachian,  or 
Batshian,  one  of  the  Molucca 
Islands,  Dutch  East  Indies,  lies 
west  of  the  southern  peninsula 
of  Jilolo  (Halmahera),  the  largest 
of  the  group.  It  has  an  area  of 
about  900  square  miles,  is  moun- 
tainous (reaching  7,200  feet), 
very  fertile,  and  has  large  sub- 
tropical forests  yielding  precious 
gums.    It  is  sparsely  inhabited 


along  the  coast.  There  is  some 
coal  of  poor  quality,  and  gold  and 
copper  have  been  found.  The 
products  are  spice  (principally 
cloves),  rice,  sago,  and  cocoanuts. 
Pop.  13,500,  mostly  Alfuras. 

Bat'ley,  municipal  borough  in 
the  West  Riding,  Yorkshire, 
England,  8  miles  southwest  of 
Leeds.  There  are  numerous  fac- 
tories making  shoddy,  heavy 
woollen  cloths,  and  druggets. 
Pop.  (1911)  36,395. 

Bat'man,  a  term  used  in  the 
British  army,  originated  in  hat,  a 
pack-saddle,  but  is  now  applied 
to  an  officer's  servant. 

Batna,  bat'na,  fortified  town, 
Algeria,  62  miles  southwest  of 
Constantine,  on  the  railway  to 
Biskra,  at  the  base  of  the  Aures 
Mountains.  To  the  southwest 
are  the  great  Roman  remains  of 
Lambessa.   Pop.  (1911)  8.890. 

Baton,  bat'on  or  ba-ton',  the 
stick  with  which  the  conductor 
of  a  choir  or  orchestra  beats  the 
time.  It  is  usually  made  of  ma- 
plewood,  is  21  or  22  inches  in 
length,  and  tapers  from  three- 
fourths  to  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  baton  did 
not  come  into  general  use  till  the 
third  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Up  to  that  time,  the 
principal  violinist  usually  marked 
the  time  with  his  bow  or  foot. 
Spohr  was  the  first  to  employ  the 
conducting  stick  in  England  at  a 
philharmonic  concert  in  1820. 
The  staves  of  field-marshals  and 
drum-majors  are  also  called 
batons. 

Baton,  Batton,  Baston,  or 
Battoon,  in  heraldry,  the  mark 
of  illegitimacy,  commonly  called 
the  bastard  bar.    See  Bend. 

Baton  Rouge,  bat'on  roozh, 
city,  Louisiana,  capital  of  the 
State,  and  a  port  of  entry,  on  the 
Mississippi  River,  and  on  the 
Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Valley, 
the  New  Orleans,  Texas,  and 
Mexico,  and  the  Louisiana  and 
Texas  Railroads,  and  on  the  hne 
of  the  Louisiana  Railway  and 
Navigation  Company,  all  con- 
nected by  interchange  track;  130 
miles  above  New  Orleans  by 
river  and  80  miles  by  rail.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Louisiana  State 
University  and  Agricultural  and 
Mechanical  College,  Southern 
University,  which  is  the  State 
college  for  the  negro,  and  several 
other  institutions  of  learning,  in- 
cluding educational  institutions 
for  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind 
under  State  management.  The 
State  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  State  prison,  and  a  na- 
tional cemetery  are  also  located 
here.  There  are  large  manufac- 
tures of  cotton-seed  products, 
mixed  stock  feed,  artificial  ice, 
lumber,  and  bricks,  and  consider- 
able shipping  interests.  Cotton, 
sugar  and  fruit  plantations  are 
located  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
city. 


Batoum 


618 


Battery 


Baton  Rouge  was  one  of  the 
first  French  settlements  in  Louis- 
iana. In  1779  it  was  taken  from 
the  British  by  the  Spaniards. 
Here,  in  1862,  the  Federals  under 
Gen.  Thomas  Williams  defeated 
the  Confederates  under  Gen.  J. 
C.  Breckenridge.  Commission 
government  was  adopted  in  1913, 
Pop.  (1900)  11,269;  (1910) 
14,897;  (1918,  est.)  23,000. 

Batoum.    See  Batum. 

Batrachia.    See  Amphibia. 

Batrachomyomachia,  bat'ra- 
ko-ml'o-ma'ki-a  (Greek,  'The 
Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  the 
Mice'),  a  mock-heroic  poem,  in 
hexameters,  erroneously  ascribed 
to  Homer,  but  more  probably  the 
work  of  the  Carian  Pigres,  broth- 
er of  Queen  Artemisia. 

Batshian.    See  Batjan. 

Batta,  Battak.   See  Batak. 

Battal'ion,  in  the  U.  S.  Army, 
an  organization  of  two  or  more 
(generally  four)  companies  in  the 
Infantry,  Engineers,  and  Signal 
Corps,  and  of  two  or  more  bat- 
teries in  the  Field  Artillery.  Two 
batteries  of  Heavy  Field  Artil- 
lery and  three  of  Light  usually 
constitute  a  battalion.  In  the 
Coast  Artillery  two  or  more  com- 
panies are  usually  organized  into 
provisional  battalions  for  other 
than  Coast  Artillery  formations. 
The  exact  strength  of  a  battalion 
is  subject  to  change  with  changes 
in  equipment  and  the  conditions 
under  which  an  army  is  operat- 
ing. At  present  (1919)  the  total 
strength  of  a  battalion  in  various 
arms  of  the  service  is  as  follows: 
Infantry,  26  officers  and  1,000 
men;  machine-gun  battalion  of  2 
companies,  motorized,  15  officers 
and  369  men;  machine-gun  bat- 
talion of  4  companies,  27  officers 
and  730  men;  light  artillery,  17 
officers  and  582  men;  heavy  field 
artillery,  12  officers  and  410  men; 
field  signal  battalion,  14  officers 
and  459  men;  engineer  battalion, 
20  officers  and  750  men;  trench 
mortar  battalion,  26  officers  and 
740  men. 

The  infantry  battalion  is  a  tac- 
tical unit  only  unless  detached 
from  the  regiment,  in  which  case 
it  becomes  an  administrative 
unit  as  well.  It  is  commanded 
by  a  major,  assisted  by  a  bat- 
talion adjutant  and  a  battalion 
sergeant  major.  There  are  three 
battalions  to  a  regiment  of  in- 
fantry. 

In  foreign  armies  the  battalion 
is  the  usual  administrative  and 
tactical  unit.  Each  battalion  of 
British  infantry  has  a  war 
strength  of  about  1,000  men,  and 
is  commanded  by  a  lieutenant 
colonel,  assisted  by  an  adjutant. 
On  the  Continent  a  battalion 
consists  generally  of  four  com- 
panies, and  there  are  three  or 
four  battalions  to  a  regiment,  the 
strength  of  a  regiment  varying 
from  1,000  to  1,500  men.  See 
Company;  Regiment. 
Vol.  I.— Mar. '  19. 


Battam,  bat-tam',  or  Batang, 
island,  Dutch  East  Indies,  in  the 
Riau  Archipelago,  20  miles  south 
of  Singapore.  It  is  fertile  and 
well  wooded,  and  produces  cate- 
chu. Its  chief  harbor  is  Bulang 
Bay.    Area,  160  square  miles. 

Battenberg,  bat  '  t^n  -  berK, 
town,  province  of  Hesse-Nassau, 
Prussia,  on  the  Eder,  16  miles 
northwest  of  Marburg.  It  gives 
its  title  to  the  Princes  of  Batten- 
berg (q.  v.).    Pop.  (1910)  990. 

Battenberg,  a  title  conferred, 
with  the  added  distinction  of 
'serene  highness,'  in  1851  on 
Countess  von  Hauke,  daughter 
of  a  Polish  general  of  artillery 
and  a  morganatic  wife  of  Prince 
Alexander  of  Hesse.  She  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  princess  in 
1858.  Of  her  four  children. 
Princes  of  Battenberg,  Louis 
Alexander  (q.  v.)  became  a 
British  admiral;  Alexander  Jo- 
seph was  the  first  Prince  of  Bul- 
garia (see  Alexander  i.)  ;  Henry 
(1858-96)  married  Princess  Bea- 
trice, youngest  daughter  of  Queen 
Victoria,  in  1885,  and  died  at  sea 
while  returning  from  an  expedi- 
tion to  West  Africa.  Their 
daughter,  Victoria  Eugenie 
(1887),  married  Alfonso  xiii., 
king  of  Spain,  in  1906. 

Bat'tens,  commercially  a  form 
of  squared  timber  from  1  to  4 
inches  thick,  about  7  inches  wide, 
and  of  any  length.  In  common 
usage  the  term  is  applied  to  flat 
strips  of  lumber,  as  cleats,  fur- 
ring strips,  and  the  like.  On 
shipboard  battens  are  the  strips 
of  wood  nailed  to  the  deck  to 
hold  down  the  tarpaulin  cover  of 
a  hatch. 

Batter,  a  backward  slope  in  the 
face  of  a  retaining  wall,  to  make 
the  plumb-line  from  the  top  fall 
within  the  base.  It  is  a  common 
construction  in  railway  work, 
dams,  etc.,  and  in  some  archi- 
tectural designs. 

Battering  Ram,  an  ancient  and 
effective  engine  of  war,  used  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  in 


1 

2 

Battering  Ram. 


mediaeval  times,  for  making 
breaches  in  the  walls  of  cities  and 
forts.  It  consisted  of  a  beam  of 
wood,  sometimes  120  feet  long 


and  sometimes  2  feet  in  diam- 
eter, with  a  ponderous  mass  of 
iron  or  bronze — weighing  a  ton 
in  some  instances — at  the  head. 
The  ram  was  driven  against  the 
wall  by  the  soldiers  who  carried 
it,  or  it  was  suspended  horizon- 
tally by  ropes  from  a  framework 
which  carried  a  protecting  roof  or 
was  mounted  on  wheels.  The 
wall  was  rammed  by  swinging  the 
beam  against  it,  and  the  blows 
were  timed  so  that  the  wall  would 
rock  rhythmically,  thus  aiding 
in  its  disintegration. 

Bat'tersea,  borough  of  Lon- 
don, England,  bordering  the 
south  bank  of  the  Thames,  be- 
tween the  Albert  and  Victoria 
bridges,  noted  for  its  park  of  199 
acres.  The  special  feature  of  the 
park  is  the  sub-tropical  garden 
(about  4  acres).  The  district  is 
mainly  a  residence  quarter  for 
artisans,  and  the  Shaftesbury 
Park  estate  (40  acres)  has  been 
laid  out  in  workingmen's  homes. 

Battery,  the  criminal  offence 
of  inflicting  violence  upon  an- 
other person,  is  the  consumma- 
tion of  an  assault;  but  there  may 
be  assault  which  does  not  involve 
actual  violence,  and  which  does 
not,  therefore,  amount  to  bat- 
tery. Both  offences  are  punish- 
able civilly  by  action  for  damages 
as  well  as  by  criminal  prosecu- 
tion.   See  Assault. 

Battery,  a  military  term  of 
various  meanings.  A  battery  of 
Field  Artillery  is  the  smallest 
administrative  and  tactical  unit 
of  that  branch  of  the  service,  a 
light-artillery  (3-inch  gun)  bat- 
tery having  5  officers  and  194 
men;  a  heavy  artillery  (240  mm. 
gun)  battery,  5  officers  and  179 
men.  The  term  generally  em- 
braces both  personnel  and  mate- 
riel. The  latter  includes  4  guns 
or  howitzers,  and,  in  addition, 
12  caissons,  16  limbers,  a  bat- 
tery wagon,  a  store  wagon,  a 
store  limber,  and  a  forge  lim- 
ber, the  caissons  and  limbers 
being  2-wheeled  vehicles  for  car- 
rying ammunition  and  accesso- 
ries. Two  batteries  of  heavy  and 
three  of  light  Field  Artillery  usu- 
ally make  up  a  battalion  (q.  v.). 
See  Field  Artillery. 

In  Coast  Artillery  the  term  re- 
fers to  the  cannon  (whatever 
their  number)  in  position  for 
service;  to  the  structure  (of 
v^^hatever  kind)  erected  for  the 
emplacing,  protecting,  and  serv- 
ing of  the  cannon;  and,  in  a 
larger  sense,  to  the  complete  es- 
tablishment, consisting  of  one  or 
more  companies  of  artillery,  the 
guns,  emplacement,  stations  for 
range  finding,  etc.  The  personnel 
of  the  coast  artillery  is  called  a 
company,  not  a  battery.  It  con- 
sists of  112  officers  and  men. 
Sea-coast  batteries  consist  of  one 
or  more  guns  mounted  and  ready 
for  service,  and  in  the  United 
States  are  named  after  deceased 


Battery,  Electric  Primary 


619 


Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice 


officers  or  others  who  have  gained 
distinction  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  consideration  be- 
ing given  to  geographical  loca- 
tion of  batteries  in  the  selection 
of  names. 

A  light  battery  has  horses  only 
for  the  guns  and  wagons,  while 
in  horse  artillery  the  men  are 
mounted. 

Artillery  batteries  are  usually 
designated  according  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  or  manner  in 
which  they  are  employed.  For 
example,  a  Barbette  battery  fires 
over  a  parapet  having  its  guns 
mounted  en  barbette;  a  Blinded 
'  battery  is  protected  by  bomb- 
proof defences;  a  Breaching  bat- 
tery is  intended  to  breach  the 
walls  of  the  hostile  defences;  a 
Counter  battery  is  to  operate 
against  guns  attacking  a  breach- 
ing battery;  a  Mortar  battery 
consists  of  mortars  (eight  in  the 
U.  S.  service) ;  a  Mountain  bat- 
tery consists  of  guns  which  may 
be  taken  apart  for  transport  to 
elevated  positions;  a  Water  bat- 
tery is  near  and  only  slightly 
above  high  water;  and  so  on. 

In  naval  parlance  all  the  guns 
of  a  ship  are  called  its  battery; 
the  guns  on  the  starboard  side 
are  styled  the  starboard  battery; 
on  the  port  side,  the  port  battery; 
or  guns  of  the  same  size,  or  class, 
are  grouped,  as  the  six-inch  bat- 
tery, or  the  rapid-fire  battery. 

See  Artillery;  Coast  De- 
fence; Fortification;  Guns. 

Battery,  Electric  Primary.  See 
Cell,  Voltaic. 

Battery,  Electric  Secondary 
(Storage  Battery).  See  Ac- 
cumulator, Electric. 

Battery,  Floating.  See  Float- 
ing Battery. 

Battery  Park  (The  Battery), 
a  park  in  New  York  City,  of  21 
acres,  at  tne  extreme  southern 
end  of  Manhattan  Island.  Here, 
early  in  tne  history  of  the  city, 
a  platform  was  erected  on  the 
rocks  jutting  out  of  the  water  to 
support  a  battery  that  would 
command  both  rivers.  A  fort 
known  as  Castle  Clinton  was 
subsequently  erected  on  the  site 
(1807-11),  and  was  afterward 
modified  into  Castle  Garden, 
which  later  became  the  Aquarium. 
See  New  York  City. 

Batteux,  bii-tu',  Charles 
(1713-80),  abbe,  professor  in  the 
College  de  France  (1741)),  and 
member  of  the  French  Academy 
(i/6l),  is  known  for  his  treatise 
Oil  the  Beaux  Arts  (1746),  his 
Principes  de  la  Litterature  (6 
vols.,  1774-7),  his  edition  of  Les 
Quatres  Poetiques  d'Aristote, 
d' Horace,  de  Vida,  de  Despreaux 
(2  vols.,  1771),  and  his  transla- 
tion of  Horace  (17.'iO,  1768,  1805). 
He  was  one  of  the  ablest  of  the 
French  academic  critics. 

Batthyanyi,  bot'ya-iiye,  one  of 
the  oldest  families  in  Hungary, 
from  which  sprang  several  prom- 


inent military  leader"  and  states- 
men. Francis,  Balthazar,  and 
Karl  were  warriors  of  note. — 
Count  Casimir  Batthyanyi 
(1807-54)  was  Minister  of  For- 
eign Affairs  in  Hungary  in  1849. 
After  the  defeat  of  Vilagos  he 
fled,  and  remained  in  Turkish 
territory  till  1851,  going  thence  to 
France,  where  he  died. — Count 
Louis  Batthyanyi  (1809-49) 
was  appointed  president  of  the 
new  Hungarian  ministry  in 
March,  1848.  He  resigned  in 
September.  Civil  war  followed, 
and  his  party  was  vanquished. 
He  was  executed  by  the  Aus- 
trians  in  1849,  under  a  sentence 
of  martial  law  commonly  re- 
garded as  unjust. 

Battiadse,  ba-ti'a  de,  a  dynasty 
of  eight  kings,  who  reigned  at 
Cyrene  from  about  630  to  450 
B.C.    See  Cyrene. 

Batticaloa,  ba-tl-ka-l5'a,  town, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Ceylon.  It  is  located  on  an 
island,  and  has  a  good  harbor. 
It  is  surrounded  by  plantations 
producing  rice  and  cocoanuts, 
and  has  an  active  trade.  Pop. 
11,000. 

Battle.  vSee  Strategy  and 
Tactics;  Battles,  Famous. 

Battle,  market  town,  Sussex, 
England,  7  miles  northwest  of 
Hastings.  Here  in  1067  William 
the  Conqueror  founded  Battle 
Abbey,  in  commemoration  of  his 
victory  in  the  Battle  of  Hastings 
(q.  V.)  at  Senlac.  The  High  Al- 
tar is  reputed  to  have  stood  on 
the  spot  where  the  body  of  Har- 
old was  found.  After  the  Ref- 
ormation Henry  viii.  presented 
the  Abbey  to  Sir  Anthony 
Browne,  his  Master  of  the  Horse, 
who  used  it  as  a  dwelling.  The 
ruins  are  now  shown  to  visitors. 

Battle  Above  the  Clouds,  a 
name  popularly  given  to  that 
part  of  the  Battle  of  Chattanooga 
which  resulted  (Nov.  24.  1863)  in 
the  capture  of  Lookout  Moun- 
tain by  the  Federals  under  the 
immediate  command  of  General 
Hooker,  who  charged  up  the 
mountain  through  a  heavy  mist. 
See  Chattanooga. 

Battle  Axe,  weapon  of  warfare 
used  from  primitive  times  down 
to  the  era  of  gunpowder,  consist- 
ing of  an  axe  blade,  diversely 
shaped,  and  a  handle  of  varying 
length.  When  the  latter  is  long 
and  ends  in  a  spear,  pike,  or  hook, 
and  has  a  pick  or  spike  opposite 
to  the  blade  of  the  axe,  it  is  called 
a  pole-axe  or  halbert  (q.  v.).  The 
earliest  battle  axes  had  stone 
heads  (celts),  and  these  were  suc- 
ceeded by  bronze  blades.  Among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  the 
battle  axe  had  either  one  broad 
cutting  edge  or  was  bipennate, 
the  latter  being  pre-eminently 
the  weapon  of  war.  The  French 
battle  axe  of  the  Middle  Ages 
was  ako  bipennate,  with  convex 


cutting  edges.  The  Francisca 
and  Danish  axes  had  but  one 
blade  of  this  kind,  sometimes 
extended  behind  into  a  spike. 

Battle  Creek,  city,  Michigan, 
Calhoun  county,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  Battle  Creek  and  the 
Kalamazoo  River,  on  the  Michi- 
gan Central,  the  Grand  Trunk 
Western,  and  the  Detroit,  To- 
ledo and  Milwaukee  Railroads; 
120  miles  west  of  Detroit,  and 
45  miles  from  Lansing.  It  has 
a  number  of  fine  civic  buildings 
and  parks,  and  one  of  the  largest 
sanatoriums  in  the  world.  The 
Roosevelt  American  Legion  Hos- 
pital and  the  Federal  Bureau 
Neuro-Psychiatric  Hospital  are 
located  at  Camp  Custer  just  out- 
side the  city. 

Battle  Creek  is  an  active  in- 
dustrial centre,  manufacturing 
cereals,  health  foods  and  drinks, 
spaghetti,  macaroni,  vermicelli, 
agricultural  implements,  motors, 
automobile  accessories,  pumps, 
aluminum  ware,  stoves,  brass 
goods,  mattresses,  artificial  flow- 
ers, ovens,  corsets,  bread  wrap- 
ping machines,  dog  food,  electric 
signs,  printing  presses,  ink,  paper 
cartons,  fibre  shipping  cases, 
wire-bound  boxes,  registers,  steel 
and  wire  specialties,  mail  and 
delivery  wagons,  soft  drinks, 
candy,  and  dolls.  According  to 
the  Federal  Census  of  Manufac- 
tures for  1919,  industrial  estab- 
lishments number  118,  with  a 
capital  of  S38,863,882,  and  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $56,140,000.  The 
commission  form  of  government 
was  adopted  in  1913.  Pop, 
(1900)  18,563;  (1910)  25,257; 
(1920)  36,164. 

Battle  Cruiser.  See  Battle- 
ship; Cruiser. 

Battledore  and  Shuttlecock, 
a  child's  game  played  with  small 
racquets  and  a  piece  of  cork  stud- 
ded with  feathers  so  as  to  keep  it 
upright  while  falling,  after  being 
struck  into  the  air. 

Battleford,  town,  Canada, 
province  of  Saskatchewan,  situ- 
ated at  the  junction  of  the  Battle 
and  North  Saskatchewan  Rivers 
and  on  the  Canadian  Northern 
Railway,  in  the  centre  of  a  fine 
farming  country.  It  was  in- 
vested by  Indians  during  the 
Northwest  rebellion  in  1885,  and 
was  relieved  by  Colonel  Otter, 
Pop.  (1911)  1,335,  (1921)  1,229. 

Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic. 
See  Howe,  Julia  Ward. 

Battlement,  a  mediaeval  defence 
consisting  of  a  parapet  erected 
round  the  top  of  a  fortified  build- 
ing, and  broken  into  alternate 
high  and  lower  parts.  The  rising 
parts  of  the  wall,  termed  cops  or 
merlons,  served  as  shelters  to  the 
soldiers,  who  fired  through  the 
openings,  styled  crenelles,  or 
through  loopholes  pierced  in  the 
merlons. 

Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice. 
See  Batrachomyomachia. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Battle  of  the  Spurs  620 


Battle  of  the  Spurs,  a  name 
given  to  the  victory  of  the  Flem- 
ish over  the  French  at  Courtrai 
(q.  V.)  in  1.302,  because  of  the 
large  numbers  of  spurs  gathered 
on  the  field  of  battle.  The  name 
has  also  been  applied  to  the 
victory  of  Henry  viii.  and  Maxi- 
milian over  the  French  at  Guine- 
gate  (q.  v.)  in  1.513. 

Battles,  Famous.  Battles  have 
become  historically  famous  not 
alone  because  of  the  size  of  the 
armies  engaged,  or  the  dispro- 
portion between  the  forces,  but 


See  also  separate  articles — e.g., 
AusTERLiTZ,  Gettysburg,  Ma- 
nila Bay,  Saratoga,  Water- 
loo, Marne,  Ypres. 

Consult  Valentine's  Sea  Fights 
and  Land  Battles;  Creasy's  De- 
cisive Battles  of  the  World — with 
Speed's  supplement;  Harbottle's 
Dictionary  of  Battles;  Hitch- 
cock's Decisive  Battles  of  America. 

Battleship,  a  naval  vessel  of  the 
most  powerful  type,  one  fit  to  be 
placed  in  the  line  of  battle  of  the 
main  fighting  force  of  a  fleet. 
Such  a  ship  must  have  strong 


Famous  Land  Battles. 


Battle. 

Date. 

490  B.C. 

Syracuse  

413  B.C. 

Arbclti 

331  B  c 

Metaurus  

207  B^c." 

42  B.C. 

Chalons  

451 

533 

Tours  

732 

Hastings  

1066 

Orleans  

1429 

Berestecko  

1653 

Blenheim  

1704 

Pultowa  

1709 

1777 

1792 

1805 

1806 

1807 

1813 

Waterloo  

1815 

Gettysburg  

1863 

Koniggratz  

1866 

Sedan  

1870 

Modder  River  

1899 

1905 

1914,  1918 

1914,  1915 

Verdun  

1916 

Amiens  

1918 

Cambrai-St.  Quentin. . 

1918 

Armageddon  

1918 

Victors. 


Vanquished. 


Athenians,  11,000  

Syracusans  

Macedonians,  47,000  

Romans,  50,000  

Triumvirs,  100,000  

Romans  and  Visigoths.  . 

Romans,  100,000  

Franks  

Normans  

French  

Poles,  100,000  

English  and  Allies  

Russians,  70,000  

Americans  

French  

French  

French,  100,000  

French,  80,000  

Austrians,  300,000  

English  and  All-ies  

Federals,  75,000  

Prussians,  200,000  

Germans,  200,000  

British,  10,000  

Japanese,  370,000  

Allies  

Allies  

Allies  

Allies  

Allies  


Persians,  100,000 
-Athenians 
Persians,  150,000 
Carthaginians,  47,000 
Republicans,  100,000 
Huns 

Vandals,  160,000 


English 
English 

Wallachians,  300,000 
French 

Swedes,  24,000 

British 

Prussians 

Russians  and  Austrians 
Prussians,  70,000 
Russians,  70,000 
French,  150,000 
French 

Confederates,  75,000 
Austrians,  200,000 
French,  150,000 
Boers,  9,000 
Russians,  350,000 
Central  Powers 
Central  Powers 
Central  Powers 
Central  Powers 
Central  Powers 
Central  Powers 


Famous  Naval  Battles 


Battle. 

Date. 

Salamis  

480  B.C. 

31  B.C. 

Lepanto  

1571 

Armada  

1588 

Goodwin  Sands  

1639 

Dungeness  

1652 
1666 

The  Downs  

1692 

1798 

1805 

1813 

1862 

1864 

1866 
1894 

Yaiu  River  

Manila  Bay  

1898 

1898 

1905 

Falkland  Islands  

1914 

1916 

Victors. 


Greeks,  370 
Romans,  250 

Spanish,  250  vessels  

English,  197  vessels  

Dutch,  110  vessels  

English,  52  vessels  

Dutch  

Dutch-English,  96  ships, 

English,  14  ships  

English,  31  ships  

Americans,  9  vessels.  .  . , 

Federal,  Monitor  

Federal,  14  vessels  

Austrian,  26  vessels  

Japanese,  12  ships  

Americans,  6  ships  , 

Americans,  5  ships  

Japanese,  29  ships  

British  , 


Vanquished. 


Persians,  1,000  vessels 
Egyptians,  460  vessels 
Turks,  270  vessels 
Spanish,  130  vessels 
Spanish,  67  vessels 
Dutch,  98  vesuels 
English 

French,  111  ships 
Frencn,  17  ships 
French,  40  ships 
English,  6  vessels 
Confederate,  Merrimac 
Confederate  forts 
Italian,  9  vessels 
Cninese,  10  ships 
Spanish,  11  ships 
Spanish,  6  ships 
Russians,  30  ships 
Germans 


sometimes  becau.se  of  the  ex- 
hibition of  a  high  order  of  strat- 
egy or  sublime  bravery  on  the 
part  of  a  leader  or  an  entire 
army,  and  often  for  the  resulting 
effects  of  the  battle  upon  the 
world's  history.  In  the  accom- 
panying tables  are  recorded  some 
of  the  memorable  world's  battles 
on  land  and  sea. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


powers  of  offence  and  defence, 
and  as  high  a  speed  as  possible 
without  sacrifice  of  these  powers. 

During  the  sailing-ship  era  the 
fighting  ships  carried  guns  on 
three  or  more  decks,  and  were 
styled  line-of-battle  ships  or 
ships  of  the  line.  Ships  of  the 
line  having  guns  on  two  covered 
and  one  open  deck  ('two-deck- 


Battleship 

ers')  were  often  called  'seventy- 
fours,'  as  this  was  the  nominal 
complement  of  guns;  similarly, 
'three-deckers'  were  called  '90- 
gun  ships'  and  'four-deckers', 
'120-gun  ships.'  'Razees'  were 
'seventy-fours'  with  the  light 
upper  works  and  guns  removed; 
frigates  had  but  one  covered  gun 
deck  and  one  uncovered;  cor- 
vettes were  razeed  frigates. 

The  first  steam  man-of-war 
was  the  Demologos  or  Fulton  (the 
first),  designed  by  Fulton  and 
launched  at  New  York  in  1814. 
She  had  oak  sides  nearly  five  feet 
thick  and  carried  the  heaviest 
guns  of  her  day.  She  was  a  true 
battleship;  and  had  she  been 
completed  three  years  earlier, 
the  history  of  naval  develop- 
ment might  have  been  far  dif- 
ferent. A  lack  of  appreciation 
of  her  true  powers,  a  magnifica- 
tion of  her  defects,  and  Congres- 
sional economy  put  her  in  retire- 
ment. 

It  was  many  years  before  other 
steam  battleships  appeared.  Pad- 
dle-wheels with  their  exposed  ma- 
chinery were  deemed  inadmissi- 
ble, and  it  was  not  until  Ericsson 
developed  a  practicable  screw 
propeller  that  it  became  com- 
mon for  the  heaviest  war  vessels 
to  be  propelled  by  steam.  The 
first  screw-propelled  war  steamer 
was  the  U.  S.  S.  Princeton,  built 
in  1842.  The  screw  propeller 
permitted  all  the  propelling  ma- 
chinery and  boilers  to  be  placed 
below  the  water  line,  where  they 
were  well  protected.  After  this 
date  nearly  all  new  naval  vessels, 
large  and  small,  were  given  screw 
propulsion,  and  many  of  the  old 
ships  of  the  line  were  fitted  with 
screws.  But  the  death-knell  of 
this  type  of  vessel  had  been 
sounded  by  the  invention  of  the 
shell  gun  for  firing  explosive 
shells.  Some  form  of  protection 
against  such  formidable  missiles 
was  felt  to  be  imperative.  To 
armor  the  great  high  sides  of  the 
old  vessels  was  considered  im- 
practicable, so  that  the  first  sea- 
going armor-clad,  the  French 
Gloire,  carried  guns  on  but  one 
covered  and  one  open  deck,  and 
was  therefore  styled  a  frigate. 

To  make  up  for  the  power  lost 
by  the  reduction  in  number,  the 
guns  were  increased  in  size;  and 
to  give  greater  penetration,  they 
were  rifled  so  that  the  heavier 
elongated  projectiles  could  be 
used  in  place  of  the  spherical. 
Even  before  the  completion  of 
La  Gloire,  which  took  place  in 
1859,  Ericsson  had  presented  the 
design  of  a  turret  vessel  to  the 
French  government,  and  Cap- 
tain Cowles  had  done  the  same  in 
England.  EriCvSson's  ideas  took 
shape  in  the  Monitor,  and  Cowles 
designed  and  built  the  Danish 
ship  Rolf  Krake.  The  latter  pos- 
sessed excellent  seagoing  quali- 
ties, and  was  a  most  successful 


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Battleship 


ship  for  her  day.  The  single- 
turret  Monitor  was  followed  by 
vessels  carrying  two,  three,  and 
four  turrets — in  many  cases 
mounted  high  enough  above 
water  to  give  fairly  good  sea- 
going qualities. 

Though  these  ships,  which 
were  built  in  the  sixties  and  in- 
spired by  the  Monitor,  greatly 
resembled  the  Dreadnought  type 
of  the  present  day,  for  reasons 
too  numerous  to  mention  here 
they  were  not  adopted  as  the 
best  type  of  their  time.  They 
were  followed  by  a  multiplicity 
of  types — central  battery  ships, 
broadside  ships,  and  turret  ships 


The  unprotected  ends  invited 
attack  from  secondary  calibre 
(three-  to  six-inch)  guns.  These 
were  added  (1880-90) — first  with 
no  protection  except  gun  shields, 
afterward  with  casemates.  The 
increase  in  number  of  these  guns 
and  the  development  of  the 
rapid-fire  gun  brought  about 
another  change  (189O-1900).  The 
chance  of  penetration  by  a  large 
gun  was  accepted ;  the  armor  was 
decreased  in  thickness  and  spread 
over  a  larger  surface,  which  in- 
cluded a  complete  water-line 
belt  and  nearly  complete  side 
armor  amidships. 

The  greater  part  of  most  bat- 


main  battery  guns  was  univer- 
sally accepted  as  twelve-inch. 
By  1905  the  calibre  of  interme- 
diate battery  guns  had  reached 
ten  inches.  At  the  same  time 
it  was  realized  that  the  difficulty 
of  fire  control  of  a  mixed  battery 
would  be  greatly  reduced,  the 
battle  range  greatly  increased, 
and  the  ship's  battle  efficiency 
improved  if  all  the  large  guns 
were  of  the  same  calibre.  The 
result  was  the  all-big-gun  battle- 
ship of  the  present  day,  the  first 
of  which  was  the  celebrated 
British  Dreadnought,  which  has 
given  her  name  to  the  type.  The 
American  Michigan  was  actually 


U.  S.  Battleship  Pennsylvania,  built  at  Newport  News,  commissioned  June  12,  1916 
Length  (overall)  608  feet.   Breadth  97  feet  M  inch.    Mean  draft  28  feet  10  inches.    Displacement  (normal)  31,400  tons, 


21.05  knots.  Oil-burning.  Armament:  Guns,  turret  12  14-inch;  secondary  14  5-inch;  anti-aircraft 
torpedo  tubes,  submerged,  2  21-inch. 


Speed 

3-inch;  saluting  4  S-pounders; 


— which  finally  developed  (1875- 
80)  into  a  sea-going  armor-clad 
with  two  turrets,  one  forward 
and  one  aft,  each  carrying  two 
large  guns.  Other  guns  were 
mounted,  but  they  were  small — 
mostly  machine  guns. 

The  increase  in  the  calibre  of 
the  main  battery  guns  naturally 
led  to  thicker  armor.  As  the 
whole  side  could  not  be  protected 
with  armor  of  this  thickness,  the 
area  was  reduced.  The  bow  and 
stern  were  left  unprotected,  and 
the  armor  concentrated  in  a 
central  citadel,  extending  from 
five  or  six  feet  below  water  to 
three  or  four  feet  above  it,  and 
reaching  far  enough  forward  and 
aft  to  include  the  foundations  of 
the  turrets  and  the  magazines  as 
well  as  to  cover  the  machinery. 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  "29 


tleships  became  invulnerable 
against  the  attack  of  the  rapid- 
fire  guns  of  the  secondary  bat- 
tery, and  increase  in  gun  calibre 
was  demanded,  causing  the  adop- 
tion of  guns  intermediate  in  size 
to  those  in  the  secondary  and 
main  batteries.  The  Oregon  class 
was  the.  first  in  which  this  idea 
was  realized;  she  mounted  eight- 
inch  guns  by  pairs  in  four  side 
turrets,  besides  her  secondary 
battery  and  main  battery  of  two 
thirteen-inch  turrets  fore  and 
aft;  but  the  innovation  was  not 
generally  accepted  either  in 
America  or  abroad  for  more  than 
a  decade.  The  increase  in  power 
of  the  intermediate  battery  was 
coincident  with  the  general  and 
rapid  improvement  in  accuracy 
of  gun-fire.    The  best  size  of 


the  first  all-big-gun  battleship 
projected,  but  was  laid  down 
after  the  Dreadnought. 

The  arrangement  of  the  tur- 
rets on  the  Michigan,  for  her 
smaller  tonnage,  gave  her  greater 
efficiency  over  the  five  turret 
Dreadnought.  This  was  obtained 
by  placing  all  guns  on  the  centre 
line  and  raising  the  second  and 
third  turrets  so  that  they  could 
fire  over  the  first  and  fourth 
respectively.  In  subsequent  ships 
the  turrets  were  increased  to  six. 
but  the  present  day  tendency  is 
to  reduce  their  number.  The 
advantages  of  greater  calibre 
(increa.sed  battle  range,  greater 
accuracy,  greater  destructive 
power)  became  so  apparent  that 
the  great  naval  powers  are  now 
building  ships  to  carry  sixteen- 


Battleship 


620  A2 


Battleship 


inch  guns.  The  Washington 
Arms  Treaty  (see  Limitation  of 
Armaments)  limited  the  caHbre 
of  naval  guns  to  sixteen  inches 
and  a  ship's  tonnage  to  35,000. 

The  accompanying  plates  will 
clearly  show  the  arrangement  of 


other  sacrifice,  a  large  proportion 
of  the  latest  designs  have  some 
turrets  mounting  three  guns  each. 

Coincident  with  the  produc- 
tion of  the  Dreadnought,  another 
important  step  was  taken — the 
development  of  the  battle  cruiser. 


tery  of  four-inch,  five-inch,  or 
six-inch  guns;  but  these  are  for 
torpedo  and  aircraft  defence 
only,  and  are  not  expected  to  do 
much  in  a  capital  ship  action, 
most  of  which  would  take  place 
at  distances  beyond  their  range. 


Plates  Showing  Disposition  of  Heavy  Guns  and  Turrets  in  Present  Day  All-Big-Gun  Battleships  a,:d  Battle 

Cruisers. 

(A  black  dot  in  the  centre  of  a  turret  indicates  that  the  turret  is  sufficiently  elevated  to  allow  its  guns  to  fire  over  the  adjacent  turret). 

1.  United  States:  Colorado,  Maryland,  West  Virginia,  16-in.  guns;  Britain:  Royal  Oak.  Royal  Sovereign,  Resolution,  Ramillies, 
Revenge,  Queen  Elizabeth.  Warspite,  Valiant,  Barham,  Malaya,  Hood,  Tiger,  15-in.  guns;  Japan:  Kongo,  Hi-Yei,  Haruna,  Kirishima, 
14-in  guns;  Nagato.  Mutzu,  16-in.  guns.  2.  United  States:  Florida  and  Utah,  12-in.  guns.  3.  United  States:  Arkansas,  Wyoming, 
12-in.  guns.  .Japan:  Isc,  Hyuga,  14-in.  guns.  4.  United  States:  New  York.  Texas,  14-in.  guns;  Britain:  Benbow,  Emperor  of  India,  Iron 
Duke,  Marlborough,  1.3.5-in.  guns;  Chile:  Almirante  Latorre,  14-in.  guns;  France:  Bretagne,  Lorraine,  Provence,  13.4-in.  guns.  5.  United 
States:  Nevada  and  Oklahoma,  14-in.  guns.  6.  United  States:  Pennsylvania,  Arizona,  .New  Mexico,  Mississippi,  Idaho,  California, 
Teimessee,  14-in.  guns.  7.  Russia:  Gangut,  Poltava,  Marat  fex-Petropavlovsk),  Paris-commune  (ex-Sevastopol),  General  Alexieff,  12-in. 
guns.  Italy:  Dante  Alighieri,  12-in.  guns.  8.  Britain:  Nelson  and  Rodney,  16-in.  guns.  9.  Spain:  Alfonso  XIII,  Jaime  I,  12-in.  guns. 
10.  Argentina:  Moreno  and  Rivadavia,  12-in.  guns.  Brazil:  Minas  Geraes  and  Sao  Paulo,  12-in.  guns.  11.  France:  Courbet,  Jean  Bart, 
Paris,  12-in.  guns.  12.  Italy:  Cavour,  Cesare,  Duilio,  Doria,  12-in.  guns.  13.  Japan:  Fuso  and  Yamashiro,  14-in.  guns.  14.  Britain: 
Repulse  and  Renown,  15-in.  guns. 


guns  on  typical  ships  built  or 
building.  The  American  'cen- 
tre-line' system  has  become  well- 
nigh  universal,  few  vessels  begun 
in  1911  having  turrets  otherwise 
placed.  In  order  first  to  con- 
centrate the  battery  and  improve 
the  bow  and  stern  fire  without 


This  is  also  an  all-h'g-gun  ship. 
Of  the  same  displacement  ton- 
nage as  the  battleship,  she  car- 
ries fewer  heavy  guns  and  less 
thickness  of  armor,  but  has  six  to 
ten  knots  greater  speed.  Both 
the  battleship  and  the  battle 
cruiser  carry  a  secondary  bat- 


It  is  believed  that  the  death 
knell  of  the  battle  cruiser  has 
been  sounded  by  the  Arms 
Treaty,  for  it  limits  the  number 
of  capital  ships  (battleships  and 
battle  cruisers)  and  the  tendency 
is  to  build  slightly  speedier  bat- 
tleships with  their  better  pro- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '29 


Battleship 


620  B 


Battle,  Trial  by 


tection  against  bombing  by  air- 
craft and  torpedoes. 

The  treaty  of  Washington 
(1922)  hmited  capital  ships 
(battleships  and  battle  cruisers) 
in  a  ratio  of  5,  5,  3,  1.75,  1.75, 
respectively,  for  the  British  Em- 
pire; the  United  States;  Japan; 
France  and  Italy.  Great  Britain 
was  permitted  to  build  two  new 
battleships,  the  Nelson  and  the 
Rodney,  which  were  laid  down  in 
1922  and  completed  in  1927. 
The  accompanying  tables  show 
the  capital  ship  strength  of  the 
five  great  naval  powers  after  com- 
pliance with  the  provisions  of  the 
Washington  treaty. 

Comparison  of  the  British 
Rodney,  the  Japanese  Mutsu,  and 
the  American  Colorado,  shows 
the  most  modern  ideas  in  battle- 
ship construction.  Their  lead- 
ing characteristics  are:  Rodney, 
33,900  tons  displacement;  23 
knots  speed;  nine  16-inch  guns  in 
three  turrets,  all  forward  on  the 
ship's  centre  line;  and  another 
innovation  in  the  secondary 
battery  which  comprises  twelve 
6-inch  guns  mounted  in  six  tur- 
rets; Mutsu,  33,800  tons;  23 
knots;  eight  16-inch  and  twenty 
5.5-inch  guns;  and  the  Colorado, 
32,600  tons;  21  knots;  eight  16- 
inch  and  twelve  5-inch  guns. 

Other  Navies. — The  Argen- 
tine has  two  battleships,  Moreno 
and  Rivadavia,  28,000  tons  each, 
twelve  12-inch  guns,  23  knots 
speed,  built  in  the  United  States 
and  completed  in  1915.  Brazil 
has  two  battleships.  Minus  Geraes 
and  Sao  Paulo,  20,000  tons  each, 
twelve  12-inch  guns,  21  knots 
speed,  built  in  England  and  com- 
pleted in  1910.  Chile  has  one 
battleship,  Almirante  Latorre, 
28,000  tons,  23  knots,  ten  14-inch 
guns,  built  in  England,  where  she 
was  completed  in  1915  and  used 
by  the  British  during  the  War. 
Turkey  has  one  battle  cruiser, 
Sultan  Selim,  formerly  the  Ger- 
man Goeben,  which  had  a  remark- 
able record  during  the  War, 
23,000  tons,  ten  11-inch  guns,  28 
knots,  completed  in  1912.  Spain 
has  two  battleships,  Alfonso  XI 1 1 
and  Jaime  I,  16,000  tons,  eight 
12-inch  guns,  20  knots,  com- 
pleted in  1915.  Germany  sur- 
rendered all  her  first-class  battle- 
ships under  the  terms  of  the 
Armistice  of  November  11,  1918, 
and  these  vessels  were  subse- 
quently sunk.  The  treaty  of 
Versailles  permitted  her  to  retain 
eight  old  battleships,  six  in  com- 
mission and  two  in  reserve,  which 
could  be  replaced  by  new  vessels 
when  they  had  reached  the  age 
limit  of  twenty  years,  the  new 
vessels  not  to  be  larger  than 
10,000  metric  tons.  Germany  is 
now  building  one  replacement 
ship,  10,000  tons,  28  knots,  six 
11-inch  guns,  which  will  be  com- 
pleted in   1930  or   1931.  This 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '29 


ship  is  probably  the  most  in- 
teresting naval  development  since 
the  war.  (See  under  Navies.) 
Russia  has  four  battleships  in  the 
Baltic,  24,000  tons  each,  23  knots, 
twelve  12-inch  guns,  which  were 
completed  for  the  Imperial  Navy 
in  1914  and  in  1915.  They  are 
said  to  have  had  a  complete  refit 
in  the  last  two  years,  but  their 
present  condition  is  doubtful  as 
regards  fighting  efficiency.  There 
is  another  ship  of  this  class  in  the 
harbor  of  Bizerte,  Tunisia,  which 
the  French  have  thus  far  refused 
to  turn  over  to  the  Soviet  Gov- 
ernment. 


Battle,  Trial  by,  the  settle- 
ment of  a  dispute  by  personal 
combat  in  accordance  with  law. 
This  mode  of  deciding  controver- 
sies held  high  favor  in  Western 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  was  established  in  England 
under  William  the  Conqueror.  It 
gradually  took  the  place  of  trial 
by  ordeal,  and  was  itself  slowly 
supplanted  by  the  modern  trial 
by  jury.  It  was  a  regular  part  of 
the  judicial  procedure  of  the 
time,  and  was  elaborately  regu- 
lated by  law.  Originally  it  was 
applicable  in  both  civil  and  crim- 
inal cases,  but  later  it  was  re- 


Capital  Ship  Strength  of  the  Naval  Powers  under  the  Washington 
Treaty  of  ig22  (continued  on  page  620  D.) 


British  Empire 


Name 


Battleships: 
Benbow  . 
Iron  Duke  . 
Marlborough 
Emperor  of 
India 

Queen  Eliza 
beth     .  . 

Warspite 

Barbara  . 

Malaya  . 

Valiant  . 

Revenge  . 

Resolution 

Royal  Sover- 
eign s 

Royal  Oak 
Ramillies 
Nelson  . 
Rodney  . 
Battle  cruisers 
Tiger  . 
Renown  . 
Repulse  . 
Hood  . 


Total  (20) 


Com- 
pleted 


1914 
1914 
1914 

1914 

1915 
1915 
1915 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1916 

1916 
1916 
1917 
1927 
1927 

1914 
1916 
1916 
1920 


Displace- 
ment 
(tons) 


25,000 
25,000 
25.000 

25,000 

27,500 
27,500 
27,500 
27,500 
27,500 
25,750 
25,750 

25,750 
25,750 
25,750 
33,500 
33,900 

28,500 
26,500 
26,500 
41,200 


556,350 


Speed 


Battery 


Main 


10-13.5"/45 
10-13.5"/45 
10-13.5"/45 

ia-13.5'745 

8-15"/42 
8-15'742 
8-15"/42 
8-15"/42 
8-15"/42 
8-15"/42 
8-15"/42 

8-15"/42 
8-15'742 

8-  15"/42 

9-  16'745 
9-16'745 

8-13.5'745 
6-15'742 
6-15'742 
8-15'742 


Secondary 


12-6'745 
12-6'745 
12-6' 745 

12-6'745 

12-6'745 
12-6'745 
12-6'745 
12-6'745 
12-6'745 
14-6'745 
14-6'745 

14-6'745 
14- 6' 745 

14-  6'745 
12-6'750 
12-6'750 

12-6'745 

15-  4'744 
15-4'744 
12-5.5'750 


United  States 


Name 


Battleships: 
Florida   .  . 
Utah  .    .  . 
Wyoming 
Arkansas 
New  York 
Texas     .  . 
Nevada  . 
Oklahoma  . 
Pennsylvania 
Arizona  .  . 
Mississippi  . 
New  Mexico 
Idaho 

Tennessee  . 
California 
Maryland  . 
West  Virginia 
Colorado 

Total  (18)  . 


Com- 
pleted 


1911 
1911 
1912 
1912 
1914 
1914 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 
1920 
1921 
1921 
1923 
1923 


Displace- 
ment 
(tons) 


21,825 
21,825 
26,000 
26,000 
27,000 
27,000 
27,.500 
27,500 
31.400 
31,400 
32,000 
32.000 
32,000 
32..300 
32,300 
32.600 
32,600 
32,600 


.')25.8.50 


22.1 
21.0 
21.2 
21.0 
21.5 
21  0 
20.5 
20.6 
21.0 
21.0 
21.1 
21.1 
21.3 
21  0 
21.5 
21.1 
21.0 
21.0 


Battery 


Main 


10-12'745 
10-12'745 
12-12'750 
12-i2'750 
10-14'745 
10  14'745 
10-14'745 
10-14'745 
12-14'745 
12-14'745 
12-14'750 
12-14'750 
12-14'750 
12-14'750 
12-14'750 
8-16'745 
8-16'745 
8-16'745 


Secondary 


12-5'751 
12-5'751 
16-.V751 
16-5'751 
16-5'751 
16-5'751 
12-5'751 
12-5'751 
14-.5'751 
14-5'75l 
12-5'751 
12-5'751 
12-5'751 
12-5'751 
12-5'751 
12-5'751 
12-5'751 
12-5'751 


Battonya 


620  D 


Bauang 


Capital  Ship  Strength  of  the  Naval  Powers  under  the  Washington 
Treaty  of  /^)22— Continued 


Japan 

Com- 
pleted 

Displace- 

Battery 

Tor- 

Name 

ment 
(tons) 

Speed 

Main 

Secondary 

Anti- 
aircraft 

pedo 
tubes 

Battleships: 
Fuso  . 

Yamashiro  . 
Ise     .    .  . 
Hyijga  . 
Nagato  . 
Mutsu 
Battle  cruisers: 
Kongo 
Hiyei 

Haruna  .  . 
Kirishima 

1915 
1917 
1917 
1918 
1920 
1921 

1913 
1914 
1915 
1915 

30,600 
30,600 
31,260 
31,260 
33,800 
33.800 

27,500 
27.500 
27,500 
27,500 



22.5 

22.5 

23 

23 

23 

23 

27.5 
27.5 
27.5 
27.5 

12-14"/45 
12-14"/45 
12-14"/45 
]2-14"/45 
8-16"/45 
8-16"/45 

8-14"/45 
8-14"/45 
8-14"/45 
8-14"/45 

16-6"/50 

16-6"/50 

20-5.5"/50 

20-5.5'750 

2O-5.5'750 

20-5.5'750 

16-6'750 
16-6'750 
16-6'750 
16-6'750 

6-  3" 
4-3" 
4-3" 
4-3" 

7-  3" 
4-3" 

4-3" 
4-3" 
4-3" 
4-3" 

6 
6 
6 
6 
8 
8 

8 
8 
8 
8 

Total  (10) 

301,320 

France 


Com- 
pleted 

Displace- 

Battery 

Tor- 

Name 

ment 
(tons) 

Speed 

Main 

Secondary 

Anti- 
aircraft 

pedo 
tubes 

attleships: 
Voltaire  . 

Diderot  . 

Condorcet  . 

Courbet  .  . 
Jean  Bart 
Paris  . 
Bretagne 
Provence 
Lorraine  . 

1911 

1911 

1911 

1913 
1913 
1914 
1915 
1916 
1916 

18,592 

18,592 

18,592 

23,130 
23,130 
23.130 
23,130 
23,130 
23,130 

20.6 

19.8 

19.7 

20.8 
22 

21.4 
20.5 
21.5 
21.4 

/  4-11.8"/45 

\  12-9.4" 

(  4-11.8"/45 

\  12-9.4" 

/  4-11.8"/45 

1*12-9.4" 
12-11.8"/45 
12-11.8'745 
12-11.8"/45 
10-13.4"/45 
10-13.4"/45 
10-13.4"/45 

}l2-3" 
} 12-3" 

|l2-3" 

22-5.5"/55 
22-5.5"/55 
22-5.5"/55 
18-5.5'755 
18-5.5"/55 
18-5.5"/55 

2-3" 

2-3" 

2-3" 

4-3" 
4-3" 
4-3" 
4-3" 
4-3" 
4-3" 

2 

2 

2 

4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 

Italy 

Com- 
pleted 

Displace- 

Battery 

Tor- 

Name 

ment 
(tons) 

Speed 

Main 

Secondary 

Anti- 
aircraft 

pedo 
tubes 

Battleships: 
Dante  Alighi- 

eri    .    .  . 
GiulioCeasare 
Conte  di 

Cavour  . 
Caio  Duilio 
Andrea  Doria 

1912 
1914 

1915 
1915 
1915 

19,244 
22,725 

22,027 
22,632 
22.592 

22.8 
21.5 

21.5 
21.3 
21 

12-  12"/46 

13-  12"/46 

13-12"/46 
13-12"/46 
13-12"/46 

20-4.7"/50 
18-4.7"/50 

18-4.7"/50 

18-6"/45 

16-6"/45 

6-3" 
6-3" 

6-3" 
6-3" 
6-3" 

2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

Total  (5)  . 

109,220 

stricted  to  appeals  of  felony  in 
criminal  cases,  and  to  the  trial 
of  title  to  land  by  writ  of  right. 
The  demonstrated  superiority  of 
the  ordinary  procedure  of  the 
law  courts  caused  the  process  of 
trial  by  battle  to  fall  into  disuse, 
but  in  England  it  was  invoked  in 
an  appeal  of  felony  as  late  as 
1818.  It  was  abolished  by  act 
of  Parliament  in  1819.  Trial  by 
battle  was  never  employed  in  the 
United  States. 

Battonya,  bot't5-nyo,  market 
town,  Hungary,  25  miles  north- 

VoL.  I.— Oct.  '29 


east  of  Mako.  The  chief  indus- 
tries are  cattle  raising,  the  cul- 
ture of  tobacco  and  the  vine,  and 
the  manufacture  of  wine.  Pop. 
15,000. 

Battue,  bat'tu  (French  battre, 
'to  beat'),  a  method  of  killing 
game  (chiefly  pheasants  and 
hares),  practised  in  Europe,  in 
which  the  birds  or  animals  are 
driven  forward  to  a  point  where 
sportsmen  are  stationed  to  shoot 
them  down,  the  driving  being 
accomplished  by  beating  the 
bushes. 


Batu  Khan,  ba-to()'kan  (d. 
1256),  Mongol  chief,  grandson  of 
Jcnghiz  Khan,  led  the  Mongol 
hordes  who  devastated  Russia, 
Poland,  and  Hungary  in  1237-42. 

Batum,  ba-toom',  province, 
republic  of  Georgia,  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  with 
an  area  of  2,693  square  miles.  It 
is  mainly  agricultural,  but  is  also 
rich  in  minerals.  Coal  is  found 
near  the  coast,  and  copper,  man- 
ganese and  antimony  in  the 
mountain  section.  Mining  is 
undeveloped,  owing  to  lack  of 
transportation.  The  mountain 
forests  produce  large  quantities 
of  walnut  and  boxwood.  Cotton 
is  grown  in  the  valley  region  of 
the  Kura  River;  tea  and  all  kinds 
of  fruits  are  cultivated,  and  silk 
is  produced.  Petroleum,  carpets 
and  rugs,  grain  and  flour,  and 
silk  are  the  chief  exports.  Pop. 
164,300. 

Batum,  or  Batoum,  a  strong- 
ly fortified  town  and  por.t  in  the 
province  of  Batum,  Georgia,  on 
the  southeast  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea.  The  cHmate  is  mild,  and 
oranges  and  lemons  are  grown. 
Batum  is  an  important  point  for 
the  export  of  oil  from  Transcau- 
casia, being  the  terminus  of  the 
railway  (558  miles)  from  Baku 
and  Tiflis  through  Poti,  and  of 
the  pipe  line  from  Baku.  Man- 
ganese ore  and  some  wheat,  wool, 
and  timber  are  also  shipped. 
Batum  was  a  free  port  until  1886, 
when  it  passed  into  the  control  of 
Russia,  on  the  stipulation  that  it 
should  remain  free  to  commerce 
and  not  be  made  a  naval  station. 
In  1921,  by  an  agreement  of  the 
Caucasus  States,  it  was  again 
made  a  free  port.    Pop.  46,000. 

Batwa,  bat'wa,  an  African 
pigmy  tribe,  with  primitive  man- 
ners and  customs,  dwelling  on 
the  outskirts  of  Ndombe,  Central 
Africa,  under  the  protection  of 
the  Balunda.  The  average  height 
of  the  men  is  four  feet  and  four 
inches,  of  the  women  about  four 
feet.  The  Batwa  are  a  light 
chocolate  brown  in  color,  their 
hair  is  brown,  woolly,  and  kinky, 
and  their  hands  and  feet  are 
small  and  well  shaped.  They 
are  exceedingly  strong  and  have 
remarkable  powers  of  endurance. 
They  are  expert  hunters  and  their 
knowledge  of  the  habits  of  wild 
animals  is  wonderful.  They  use 
the  bruised  root  of  a  species  of 
Euphorabia  to  poison  the  barb 
of  their  arrows.  Their  house- 
hold furniture  consists  of  a  bed 
of  sticks  woven  together,  earthen 
pots,  baskets,  nets  and  fish  traps 
of  bamboo.  They  are  monog- 
amous, and  kind  to  their  children. 

Bauang,  bou'ang,  or  Bauan,  a 
municipality  of  the  province  of 
Batangas,  Luzon,  Philippine  Is- 
lands; 5  miles  northwest  of  Ba- 
tangas. It  is  connected  with 
Manila  (54  miles  north)  by  rail. 


Bauang 


620  E 


Bauhln 


It  is  in  a  rich  agricultural  section 
for  sub-tropical  products.  The 
manufactures  are  principally  hats 
and  mats  of  palm  fibre.  Pop. 
(1918)  27,729. 

Bauang,  or  Bauan,  town  and 
pueblo  of  La  Union  province, 
Luzon,  PhiUppine  Islands;  6 
miles  south  of  Fernando.  Pop. 
(1918)  12,952. 

Bauble,  a  kind  of  staff  or  scep- 
tre carried  by  the  court  jesters 
of  the  middle  ages.  Later  the 
name  was  given  to  a  toy  used  in 
public  merry-making,  consisting 
of  a  fool's  head  at  one  end  of  a 
stick  and  a  bladder  at  the  other, 
with  which  to  belabor  the  crowd. 

Bauchi,  a  province  in  Northern 
Nigeria,  British  West  Africa, 
with  an  area  of  about  21,000 
square  miles.  Formerly  under 
the  rule  of  the  Fulani,  it  \vas 
taken  possession  of  by  a  British 
expedition  in  1902.  In  1904 
the  province  was  organized  on 
the  same  basis  as  the  other 
provinces  of  Nigeria.  The  great 
plateau  of  Bauchi  rises  to  a 
height  of  4,000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  in  the  southwestern 
part  to  6,000  feet.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  and  the  climate  cool  and 
healthful.     Pop.  1,000.000. 

Baucis.  See  Philemon  and 
Baucis. 

Baudelaire,bo-d'-lar',  Charles 
Pierre  (1821-67),  French  poet, 
was  born  in  Paris.  He  began  his 
literary  career  as  an  art  critic, 
and  later  became  editor  of  a 
short-lived  conservative  journal. 
He  translated  Poe's  tales  in  1856- 
8,  and  under  the  inspiration  of 
De  Quincey's  Confessions  of  an 
Opium  Eater,  he  published,  in 
1861,  Les  Paradis  Artificiels,. 
describing  the  sensations  of  an 
eater  of  hashish.  In  1857  his 
volume  of  verse,  Les  Fleurs  du 
Mai,  gained  notoriety  by  being 
made  the  subject  of  a  criminal 
prosecution  against  his  publishers 
for  offence  against  public  morals. 
Baudelaire  is  seen  at  his  best  in 
Petits  Poemes  en  Prose,  and  a 
collection  of  clever  critical  essays 
entitled  UArt  Romantique.  He 
also  wrote  Theophile  Gautier 
(1859)  and  Richard  Wagner  et 
Tannhduser  a  Paris  (1861). 
Souvenirs  Correspondences,  etc., 
were  published  in  1872,  after  his 
death.  Consult  his  CEuvres  Com- 
pletes; Asselineau's  Charles  Baude- 
laire; James'  French  Poets  and 
Novelists. 

Baudln,  bo-dan'.  Charles 
(1784-1854),  French  admiral, 
was  born  in  Sedan.  He  captured 
St.  Jean  d'UUoa  (1838).  com- 
manded in  the  Mediterranean 
(1848-49),  and  was  made  admiral 
in  1854. 

Baudlssin,  bou'dis-sin,  Wolf 
Heinrich,  Count  von  (1789- 
1878),  German  translator,  was 
for  some  years  in  the  diplomatic 
service  of  Denmark.  He  settled 
in  Dresden  in  1827,  assisted  Tieck 


in  his  translation  of  Shakespeare, 
and  published  German  versions 
of  Ben  Jonson  (1836)  and  other 
English  dramatists;  of  Moliere 
(1865-7),  Coppee  (1874),  and 
Gozzi  and  Goldoni  (1877),  be- 
sides modernized  versions  of 
poems  by  Hartmann  von  der  Aue 
(1845)  and  Wirnt  von  Graven- 
berg  (1848). 

Baudrick.    See  Baldric. 

Baudrillart,  bo'dre'yar,  Henri 
Joseph  Leon  (1821-94),  French 
political  economist,  son  of 
Jacques  Baudrillart,  was  born  in 
Paris.  He  taught  at  the  College 
de  France  (1866)  and  the  school 
of  the  Ponts  et  Chaussees  (1881), 
and  was  editor  of  the  Journal 
des  Economistcs  (1855)  and  of  the 
Constitutionel  (1868).  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  Histoire  du 
Luxe  (1878-80);  Manuel  d'Eco-, 
nomie  Politique  (1857);  Rapports 
de  la  Morale  et  de  VEconomie 
Politique  (1860). 

Baudrillart,  Jacques  Joseph 
(1774-1832),  French  authority 
on  forestry  and  arboriculture. 
He  wrote  Dictionnaire  de  I'Ame- 
nagement  des  Forets  (1821),  and 
Traite  generale  des  Eaux  et  Forets 
(1821-34). 

Baudry,bo-dre',  Paul  Jacques 
AiME  (1828-86),  French  painter 
and  pupil  of  DrolHng.  His  imag- 
inative mural  decorations  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  Cour  de  Cassation 
(1881),  Chantilly  (1883),  and  in 
the  foyer  of  the  Grand  Opera, 
Paris  (1864-74).  La  Perle  et  la 
Vague  (1863)  is  an  exquisite 
piece  of  nude  painting.  His  Sup- 
plice  d'une  Vestale  (1857)  is  at 
Lille,  and  his  Fortune  et  la  Jeune 
Enfant  (1853)  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg. Consult  Van  Dyke's 
Modern  French  Masters. 

Bauer,  bou'er,  Bruno  (1809- 
82),  German  theological  and  polit- 
ical critic,  was  born  in  Eisenberg, 
Saxe-Altenberg.  As  professor  at 
Bonn  he  published  critical  works 
on  the  Gospel  of  John  (1840)  and 
the  Synoptic  Gospels  (1841-2), 
in  which  he  stigmatized  the  evan- 
gelical sources  as  mere  fabri- 
cations. In  consequence,  the 
Prussian  government  dismissed 
him  from  his  chair,  and  thence- 
forth Bauer  played  the  role  of  a 
theological  Ishmaelite.  In  his 
Kritik  der  paulinischen  Briefe 
(1850-2)  he  denies  the  authen- 
ticity of  all  the  epistles  of  Paul. 

Bauer,  Caroline  (1807-78), 
a  German  actress  who  in  1829. 
in  London,  contracted  a  morgan- 
atic marriage  with  Prince  Leo- 
pold of  Coburg,  afterward  king 
of  the  Belgians.  A  separation 
following  in  1830,  she  returned 
to  the  stage,  from  which  she 
finally  retired  in  1844,  on  her 
marriage  with  the  Polish  count 
Ladislas  of  Broel- Plater. 

Bauer,  Georg.  See  Agricola. 

Bauer,  Harold  (1873-  ), 
English  pianist,  was  born  near 
London,  of  a  German  father  and 


an  English  mother.  He  began 
his  career  as  a  violinist,  but  in 
1892  he  gave  up  the  violin  for 
the  piano.  He  studied  for  a 
time  under  Paderewski,  made 
his  debut  in  Paris  in  1893,  and 
toured  Russia.  He  afterward 
gave  concerts  in  the  leading 
cities  of  Europe,  South  America, 
and  the  United  States,  where  he 
acquired  a  reputation  both  as  a 
soloist  and  a  teacher.  He  has 
edited  and  revised  some  valuable 
piano  music. 

Bauer,  Louis  Agricola 
(1865-  ),  American  mathemat- 
ician and  physicist,  was  born 
in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  was 
educated  at  the  University  of 
Cincinnati  and  at  the  University 
of  Berlin.  He  was  astronomical 
and  magnetic  computer  for  the 
U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur- 
vey (1887-1892),  and  became 
docent  in  mathematical  phys- 
ics in  the  University  of  Chicago 
in  1895.  From  1897  to  1899 
he  was  assistant  professor  of 
mathematics  and  mathemati- 
cal physics  in  the  University 
of  Cincinnati;  from  1899  to 
1906  chief  of  the  division  of 
Terrestrial  Magnetism  of  the 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey;  and 
after  1904  director  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Terrestrial  Magnetism 
of  the  Carnegie  Institution.  He 
is  editor  of  Terrestrial  Magnetism 
and  Atmospheric  Electricity,  and 
a  contributor  to  the  scientific 
press  on  physics,  terrestrial  mag- 
netism, and  kindred  subjects.  He 
was  the  Halley  lecturer  on  terres- 
trial magnetism  at  the  University 
of  Oxford,  England,  in  1913. 

Bauernfeld,  bou'ern- felt, 
Eduard  von  (1802-90),  Austrian 
dramatist  and  poet,  served  in  the 
Austrian  civil  service,  but  retired 
in  1848.  He  is  best  known  as  the 
author  of  light  comedies  of  Vien- 
nese life,  such  as  Leichtsinn  und 
Liebe  (1831) ;  Bekenntnisse{1834)  ; 
Biirgerlich  und  Romantisch(l835) ; 
Grossjdhrig  (1846);  Der  katego- 
rische  Imperativ  (1851);  Aus  der 
Gesellschaft  (1866);  Moderne  Ju- 
gend  (1868) ;  though  he  also  wrote 
poems  and  novels.  His  Gesam- 
melte  Schriften  were  issued  in 
twelve  volumes  in  1871-2. 

Bauge',  bo-zha',  town,  depart- 
ment Maine-et-Loire,  France,  22 
miles  northeast  of  Angers.  It  is 
built  on  a  plateau  overlooking  a 
narrow  valley,  and  has  a  castle 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  built  by 
Rene  d'Anjou.  Industries  in- 
clude woollen  weaving,  and  the 
manufacture  of  canvas,  clogs,  oil, 
and  horn  utensils..  There  is  trade 
in  fruit,  oil,  pork,  and  wood.  The 
English,  under  the  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence, were  defeated  here  by  the 
French  in  1421.  Pop.  (1911) 
3.235. 

Bauhin,  bo-ah',  Kaspar(1550- 
1624),  Swiss  botanist,  the  first 
to   adopt   orderly   methods  of 
diagnosing    the    characters  of 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Bauhinia 


620  F 


Bauxite 


plants.  He  was  careful  to  dis- 
tinguish genus  and  species,  and 
anticipated  the  binary  nomen- 
clature of  Linnaeus.  His  great 
work  of  forty  years  was  the  Pi- 
nax,  in  which  he  recorded  all 
species  of  plants  known  to  him, 
and  their  synonyms  as  given  by 
his  predecessors. 

Bauhinia,  bo-hin'i-a,  (named 
after  the  Swiss  botanists  Kaspar 
and  John  Bauhin),  a  genus  of 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
species  of  tropical  plants  of  the 
order  Leguminosse,  many  of 
which  are  lianas  with  flattened, 
twisted  wooden  stems  which 
reach  the  tops  of  the  highest 
trees.  Ropes  are  made  from  the 
fibres  of  the  inner  bark  of  some 
Indian  species. 

Baum,  boum,  Lyman  Frank 
(1856-1919),  American  author, 
was  born  in  Chittenango,  N.  Y. 
He  was  educated  in  Syracuse, 
entered  the  newspaper  field  in 
1880,  and  edited  papers  in  Aber- 
deen S.  D.  (1888-90)  and  Chicago 
(1897-1902).  His  chief  claim  to 
fame  rests  on  his  musical  extra- 
vaganza. The  Wizard  of  Oz. 
Other  works  are  Mother  Goose  in 
Prose  (1897-1902);  the  Cande- 
labra's Glare  (1898) ;  Father  Goose 
— His  Book  (1899);  The  Life  and 
Adventures  of  Santa  Glaus  (1902); 
The  Marvelous  Land  of  Oz  (1904); 
Baums  Fairy  Tales  (1908);  The 
Scarecrow  of  Oz  (1915);  Babes  in 
Birdland  (1917);  The  Tin  Wood- 
man of  Oz  (1918).  and  other 
stories  for  children. 

Baumann,  bou'man,  Oskar 
(1864-99),  Austrian  geographer 
and  traveller,  was  born  in  Vienna. 
In  1885  he  accompanied  Oskar 
Lenz  in  his  exploration  of  the 
Congo  as  far  as  the  Stanley  Falls; 
in  1886  he  explored  the  island  of 
Fernando  Po,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea;  in  1890,  Usambara  and 
the  adjoining  territories  on  the 
mainland;  and  in  1893-5,  the 
Victoria  Nyanza.  His  works  in- 
clude :  Fernando  Poo  und  die  Bube 
(1887);  Usambara  und  seine 
Nachbargebiete  (1891);  Durch 
Massailand  zur  Nilquelle  (1894); 
Der  Sansibar-Archipel  (1896-9); 
Afrikanische  Skizzen  (1900). 

Baumbacli,  boum'biik,  Ru- 
dolph (1840-1905),  German 
poet,  born  in  Kranichfeld.  He 
wrote  numerous  poetic  tales, 
amongwhich  are  the  epic  7Jalarog 
(1877);  Lieder  eines  fahrenden 
Gesellen  (1878-80);  Spielmann- 
slieder  (1881),  and  various 
Mdrchen  (1881  to  1896). 

Baume,  bo'ma',  Antoine 
(1728-1804),  French  practical 
chemist.  He  was  a  professor  of 
chemistry  and  pharmacy  in  Paris, 
and  conducted  a  large  laboratory 
for  the  preparation  of  drugs  and 
chemicals.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  many  valuable  industrial  chem- 
ical processes,  and  devised  the 
Baume  system  of  graduating  hy- 
drometers, now  widely  used. 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


Baume  Hydrometer,  the  name 
applied  to  two  forms  of  hydro- 
meter (q.  v.),  one  for  liquids 
heavier  than  water,  and  the 
other  for  liquids  lighter  than 
water.  For  the  first,  the  zero 
point  on  the  scale  is  fixed  by 
marking  the  level  at  which  the 
instrument  floats  in  distilled 
water.  A  solution  is  then  made 
of  15  parts  of  pure  sodium 
chloride  in  85  parts  of  water. 
The  level  at  which  the  hydro- 
meter floats  in  this  is  marked  15, 
the  space  between  this  point  and 
zero  is  divided  into  15  equal  de- 
grees, and  this  graduation  is  ex- 
tended downward  on  the  tube. 

For  liquids  lighter  than  water, 
the  zero  point  is  fixed  by  the 
level  in  a  solution  of  10  parts  of 
sodium  chloride  in  90  parts  of 
water;  the  level  on  the  instru- 
ment in  distilled  water  is  marked 
10,  and  the  space  from  zero  di- 
vided into  10  equal  degrees,  the 
graduation  being  extended  up- 
ward on  the  tube.  See  Hydro- 
meter. 

Baumgarten,  boum'gar-tm, 
Alexander  Gottlieb  (1714-62), 
German  philosopher,  was  born 
in  Berlin.  He  studied  at  Halle, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder  in  1740.  His  Aesthetica  is 
an  elaboration  of  the  system  of 
Wolff  as  modified  by  Leibniz. 
His  other  principal  works  are 
Metaphysica  (1739) ;  Ethica  Phil- 
osophica  (1740);  Jus  Naturce 
(1765);  Philosophia  Generalis 
(1770).  _ 

Baumgarten-Crusius,  kroo'zi- 
dbs,  Ludwig  Friedrich  Otto 
(1788-1843),  German  theologian, 
was  born  in  Merseberg.  He 
studied  theology  and  philosophy 
at  Leipzig,  and  in  1817  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  at 
Jena.  He  showed  himself  to  be 
a  learned  historian  of  dogma  in 
his  Kompendium  der  Christlichen 
Dogmenges  chichte  (1840-6). 
Among  his  other  works  are  Lehr- 
buch  der  Christlichen  Sittenlehre 
(1826);  Grundzuge  der  biblischen 
Theologie  (1828);  Lehrbuch  der 
Dogmengeschichte  (1832)._ 

Baumgartner,  boum'gart-ner, 
Andreas  Freiherr  von  (1793- 
1865),  Austrian  natural  philoso- 
pher, was  born  in  Friedberg,  Bo- 
hemia. He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna,  where  he  was 
professor  of  physics  from  1823 
to  1833.  He  was  subsequently 
director  of  the  imperial  porcelain 
factories  and  then  of  the  Austrian 
tobacco  factories;  was  head 
director  of  railway  construction 
(1847);  in  1848  he  became  min- 
ister of  public  works,  and  in  1851 
of  finance.  In  1855  he  was  made 
president  of  the  Austrian  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  having  served 
for  many  years  as  vice-president. 
The  Zeitschrift  fiir  Physik  was 
founded  by  him  (1826-37). 
Among  his  works  are  Mechanik 


in  ihrer  Anwendung  auf  Kiinste 
und  Gewerbe  (1824)  and  Natur- 
lehre  (1823). 

Baur,  hour,  Ferdinand  Chris- 
tian (1792-1860),  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  in  Stuttgart.  In 
1817  he  was  appointed  to  a  pro- 
fessorship in  the  theological 
seminary  at  Blaubeuren.  Strong- 
ly influenced  by  Schleiermacher's 
writings,  he  wrote  Symbolics  and 
Mythology  (3  vols.,  1824-5),  in 
which  the  principles  of  modern 
religious  philosophy  are  made  to 
elucidate  the  history  of  ancient 
religions.  This  work  led  to  his 
appointment  as  professor  of  his- 
torical theology  in  Tubingen 
(1826),  where  he  labored  assidu- 
ously till  his  death.  The  rest  of 
his  writings,  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  early  church  history,- 
were  dominated  by  the  postulates 
of  Hegel's  philosophy.  Of  Paul's 
Epistles  he  accepted  as  genuine 
only  Romans,  Galatians,  and 
those  to  the  Corinthians,  pro- 
nouncing the  canonical  Gospels 
to  be  late  productions.  Among 
his  works  are  Die  christliche 
Gnosis  oder  die  christliche  Re- 
ligions philosophie  (1835);  Die 
christliche  Lehre  von  der  Versohn- 
ung  (1838);  Die  christliche  Lehre 
von  der  Dreieinigkeit  (1841-3); 
Paulus,  der  Apostel  Jesu  Christi 
(1845);  Lehrbuch  der  christlichen 
Dogmengeschichte  (1847);  Krit- 
ische  Untersuchungen  iiber  die 
kanonischen  Evangelien,  ihr  Ver- 
haltniss  zu  einander,  ihren  Urs- 
prung  und  Charakter  (1847);  Das 
Maskusevangelium  nach  seinim 
Ursprung  und  Charakter  (1851). 
Consult  Pfieiderer's  Theological 
Development  in  Germany;  Bruce 's 
F.  C.  Bauer. 

Bautain,  bo-tah',  Louis  Eu- 
gene Marie  (1796-1867),  French 
theologian,  was  born  in  Paris. 
He  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy as  Strassburg  (1816), 
took  orders  (1828),  and  in  1838 
was  appointed  dean  of  the  faculty 
of  letters  in  Strassburg.  He  be- 
came vicar-general  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Paris  in  1849,  and  pro- 
fessor of  moral  theology  in  Paris 
in  1854.  His  many  works  include 
Psychologic  experimeniale  (1839); 
Philosophie  morale  (1842);  La 
morale  de  Vevangile  (1855). 

Bautzen,  bout's<m,  walled 
town.  Saxony,  capital  of  Upper 
Lusatia  (Lausitz),  35  miles  east 
of  Dresden.  It  is  built  upon  a 
height  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Spree,  and  dates  back  to  928. 
Interesting  features  are  a  ca- 
thedral of  the  fifteenth  century, 
now  used  for  government  offices, 
the  public  library,  town  hall, 
and  Church  of  St.  Peter  (1441- 
64).  Hosiery,  gloves,  cloth, 
paper,  and  machinery  are  manu- 
factured. Here,  on  May  20  and 
21,  1813,  Napoleon  defeated  the 
allied  Prussians  and  Russians. 
Pop.  (1919)  34,993. 

Bauxite,   bok'sit,  an  earthy 


Bavaria 


621 


Bavaria 


mineral,  grayish  white  to  red  in 
color,  an  impure  aluminum  hy- 
droxide. It  is  found  at  Baux, 
near  Aries,  in  France,  in  Styria 
and  Carinthia,  in  Italy,  in 
county  Antrim,  Ireland,  in  South 
America,  and  in  the  United 
States  (Arkansas,  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama, Tennessee),  It  occurs 
massive  or  often  in  pockets, 
generally  regarded  as  the  remains 
of  hot  springs,  or  as  concretion- 
ary grains  scattered  through 
compact  limestone,  and  is  the 
principal  source  of  aluminum. 
It  is  used  also  in  the  manufacture 
of  alums  and  the  abrasive  alun- 
dum,  and  is  mixed  with  clay  in 
the  manufacture  of  firebrick  and 
other  refractories,  and  to  line 
crucibles  in  steel  production. 

The  output  of  bauxite  in  the 
United  States  for  the  year  1921 
was  139,550  tons,  valued  at 
$889,800,  a  marked  decrease  as 
compared  with  1920,  when  521,- 
308  tons  were  produced,  valued 
at  $3,247,345. 

Bava'ria,  or  Bayern,  former 
kingdom  of  the  German  Empire 
declared  a  republic  in  1918,  con- 
sists of  two  detached  portions, 
with  a  strip  of  foreign  territory 
(Baden  and  Hesse)  between. 
The  smaller  part,  known  as  the 
Palatinate  (2,372  square  miles), 
lies  west  of  the  Rhine.  The 
larger  part  (28,190  square  miles), 
comprising  the  provinces  of  Up- 
per, Middle,  and  Lower  Fran- 
conia.  Upper  Palatinate,  Upper 
and  Lower  Bavaria,  Swabia  and 
Coburg  lies  next  to  the  Austrian 
Tyrol. 

South  of  the  Danube,  Bavaria 
consists  of  a  plateau  backed  by 
the  northern  foothills  of  the  Sals- 
burger,  Algauer,  and  the  Bava- 
rian Alps,  crowned  by  the  Zug- 
spitze  (9,725  feet),  the  highest 
summit  in  Germany.  On  the 
northern  side  there  are  two  pla- 
teau regions,  with  the  Bavarian 
Forest,  the  Bohemian  Forest, 
and  Fichtelgebirge  to  the  east, 
the  Franconian  and  Thuringian 
Forests  to  the  north,  and  the 
Rhon  Mountains,  Spessart,  and 
Odenwald  to  the  northwest;  and 
in  the  south  the  Swabian  Jura. 
The  Main  is  the  chief  river  in 
the  northern  region  (the  Fran- 
conias),  and  is  connected  with 
the  Danube  (the  chief  waterway 
»of  the  south  and  centre)  by  the 
Ludwig  Canal.  In  the  detached 
Palatinate  the  Haardt  Moun- 
tains are  the  most  prominent,  and 
the  Rhine  is  the  principal  river. 

Bavaria  is  foremost  among  the 
German  states  in  agriculture. 
Upper  or  Southern  Bavaria, 
which  is  drained  by  the  Iller, 
Lech,  Isar,  and  Inn,  furnishes 
good  pasturage,  and  about  half 
the  area  is  under  cultivation. 
Wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  potatoes 
are  the  chief  crops,  and  barley 
and  hops  are  important  for  local 
consumption  in  the  brewing  in- 


dustry of  the  country.  Wine  is 
produced  in  the  vicinity  of  Wurz- 
burg  and  in  the  Palatinate — the 
50,000  acres  devoted  to  its  pro- 
duction yielding  nearly  11,000,- 
000  gallons.  •  Fruit  is  a  valuable 
crop  in  various  districts,  and 
cattle  breeding  is  of  great  im- 
portance. 

Forests  cover  nearly  one-third 
of  the  total  area,  principally  in 
Upper  and  Lower  Bavaria  and 
the  Palatinate.  They  are  well 
stocked  with  game,  including 
deer,  chamois,  and  wild  boars. 

The  minerals  include  coal  (Am- 
berg,  Kissingen,  Steben,  Munich, 
and  the  Palatinate),  iron,  and 
salt  (Reichenhall,  Berchtesgaden, 
Traunstein,  and  Rosenheim) ; 
graphite,  quicksilver,  lithographic 
stones  (Solnhofen),  lead,  and  cop- 
per are  also  extracted.  Kissin- 
gen, Berchtesgaden,  and  Rei- 
chenhall have  mineral  springs. 

The  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  automobiles  and 
locomotives  (Munich  and  Nu- 
remberg), machinery,  musical  in- 
struments, gold  and  silver  wares, 
glass,  leather,  porcelain  (Upper 
Franconia),  cottons,  linens,  silks, 
chemicals  and  dyes,  pencils,  and 
toys  (Augsburg  and  Fiirth). 
Brewing  is  an  important  indus- 
try, the  busiest  centres  being 
Munich,  Erlangen,  Kulmbach, 
and  Nuremberg.  The  coopera- 
tive idea  has  been  successfully 
developed  in  Bavaria. 

The  population  numbers  7, 140,- 
340  (1919).  More  than  70  per 
cent,  are  Roman  Catholics,  and 
about  28  per  cent.  Protestants. 
There  are  two  Roman  Catholic 
archbishoprics  and  six  bishoprics. 

Bavaria  has  three  universities 
— at  Munich,  Wiirzburg,  and 
Erlangen — and  a  technical  high 
school  at  Munich.  The  chief 
towns  are  Munich  (the  capital), 
Augsburg,  Nuremberg,  Wiirz- 
burg, Ludwigshafen,  Fiirth, 
Kaiserslautern,  Ratisbon,  Bam- 
berg, Hof,  Pirmasens,  Bayreuth, 
and  Erlangen.  Education,  gen- 
erally, is  free  and  compulsory. 

Formerly  a  hereditary  and  con- 
stitutional monarchy,  Bavaria, 
on  Nov.  22,  1918,  was  declared  a 
republic,  and  the  Free  State  of 
Bavaria  was  established  by  the 
constitution  of  August  1919. 
Legislative  power  is  centred  in 
the  Diet,  which  consists  of  one 
Chamber  elected  for  four  years 
with  one  member  for  every  40,- 
000  inhabitants.  Suffrage  is  di- 
rect and  equal.  There  is  a  cab- 
inet of  8  members. 

History. — Baiern,  or  Boiaria, 
land  of  the  Boii,  overrun  by 
Rome  of  the  early  empire,  was 
divided  into  three  provinces — 
Rhaetia  (Tyrol),  Vindelicia  (be- 
tween Iller  and  Inn),  and  Nori- 
cum,  west  of  these — Augsburg 
and  Salzburg  being  chief  towns, 
and  Ratisbon  and  Passau  fron- 
tier forts.    On  the  break-up  of 


the  Roman  power,  the  country, 
occupied  by  the  Teutonic  tribe 
of  Baguwarians  (Bavarians)  at 
the  close  of  the  fifth  century, 
was  ruled  by  dukes,  first  elective, 
then  hereditary.  After  a  strug- 
gle of  two  hundred  years,  Ba- 
varia, absorbed  by  the  Franks, 
was  ruled  by  Charlemagne,  who 
left  his  descendants  as  margraves 
(788-900)  to  hold  the  marches 
against  Hun  and  Bohemian. 

The  title  of  duke  was  restored 
(920)  for  services  rendered  to  the 
Empire,  and  Bavaria  helped  the 
Emperor  Otto  i.  to  defeat  the 
Huns  at  Augsburg.  In  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  there  were  constant 
quarrels  between  duke  and  em- 
peror; and  the  towns,  which  were 
either  imperial  or  free  (Augs- 
burg, Nuremberg),  ecclesiastical 
(Bamberg),  or  ruled  by  princes 
(Baireuth),  rose  into  importance 
through  the  transit  of  Italian 
trade  northward,  and  again  de- 
clined owing  to  the  development 
of  sea-borne  commerce.  During 
the  same  period  the  boundaries 
of  Bavaria  underwent  constant 
change. 

In  1180  Frederick  Barbarossa 
conferred  the  duchy  on  Otto, 
Count  of  Wittelsbach,  founder  of 
the  present  royal  house.  Maxi- 
milian I.  (1598-1623)  was  made 
elector,  and  received  the  north- 
ern half  of  Bavaria,  owing  to 
Tilly's  victory  over  the  Elector 
Palatine.  The  French  defeat  of 
Blenheim  (1704)  was  shared  by 
Bavaria,  but  after  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  (1713)  the  elector  was  re- 
instated in  his  dominions.  There- 
after Bavaria  oscillated  between 
the  French  and  German  alliance, 
being  invaded  (1796)  by  Moreau, 
who  occupied  Munich;  siding 
with  Napoleon  i.,  who  created 
Maximilian  Joseph  I.  a  king 
(1805-6);  and  subsequently,  se- 
cured in  her  new  dignity  by  the 
allies,  helping  to  overthrow  her 
benefactor  (1813). 

In  1818  (May  26)  Maximilian 
I.  granted  his  country  a  consti- 
tution, abolished  serfdom,  and 
established  religious  liberty. 
Louis  I.  (1825-48)  restored  the 
cathedrals  of  Bamberg  and  Re- 
gensburg,  built  a  national  Wal- 
halla,  adorned  Munich  with  pal- 
aces and  art  galleries,  obtained 
the  crown  of  the  Hellenes  for  his 
son  Otho,  and  resigned  (1848), 
having  further  enlarged  the  con- 
stitution. To  Maximilian  ii. 
(1848-64),  patron  of  arts  and 
commerce,  succeeded  Louis  ii., 
who,  siding  with  Austria,  shared 
her  defeat  by  Prussia  (1866);  but 
in  1870  the  Bavarian  army  aided 
Prussia  against  France.  In  No- 
vember, 1870,  a  treaty  was 
signed  by  which  Bavaria  became 
a  part  of  the  new  German  Em- 
pire. Louis,  being  adjudged  in- 
sane and  placed  under  restraint, 
committed  suicide  (1886).  His 
brother  Otho,  who  succeeded,  was 
Vol.  I.— Oct.  '23 


pavarian  Alps 


622 


Bayard 


also  insane  and  an  uncle,  Prince 
Luitpold  acted  as  regent.  On 
his  death,  in  1912,  his  son  Prince 
Ludwig  Leopold  succeeded  him, 
and  in  1913  accepted  the  crown 
as  Leopold  iii.  In  November 
1918  the  dynasty  was  deposed, 
and  Bavaria  was  declared  a  re- 
public. vSee  Germany.  Consult 
Gotz'  Georgraphisch-historisches 
Handhuch  von  Bayern;  Bronner's 
Bayrisches  Land  und  Volk;  Riez- 
ler's  Geschichte  Bayerns  (4  vols.) ; 
Baedeker's  Southern  Germany. 

Bavarian  Alps.    See  Alps. 

Ba'viad,  The,  a  satire  (1794) 
by  William  Gifford,  which,  along 
with  the  McBviad  (1795),  attacked 
the  insipid  and  nonsensical  poet- 
ry of  the  Delia  Cruscans.  It 
was  so  called  from  the  two  in- 
ferior poets,  Bavius  and  Maevius, 
mentioned  by  Virgil  in  his  Third 
Eclogue  (v.  90). 

Bawbee',  a  small  Scotch  coin, 
first  issued  in  1542,  in  value 
about  three  halfpence.  The  name 
is  now  applied  in  Scotland  to  the 
English  halfpenny.  When  used  in 
the  plural  it  expresses  money  in 
general. 

Bawian,  or  Bawean,  populous 
island  of  Dutch  East  Indies,  ofT 
the  north  coast  of  Java,  in  the 
Java  Sea.  It  produces  rice,  etc. 
It  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  hot 
springs  abound.  The  capital  is 
Sengka  Pura.  Pop.  of  island, 
33,000. 

Baxar,  buk'sur,  or  Buxar, 
municipal  town,  Bengal,  India,  in 
Shahabad  district,  on  the  Ganges 
River;  65  miles  northeast  of  Be- 
nares. It  was  the  scene  of  the 
defeat,  in  1764,  of  the  last  inde- 
pendent nawab  of  Murshidabad 
— a  victory  which  completed  the 
conquest  of  Lower  Bengal  by  the 
British.  It  is  esteemed  a  sacred 
place.    Pop.  50,000. 

Bax'ter,  James  Phinney  (1831- 
1921),  American  historian,  was 
born  in  Gorham,  Me.  He  be- 
came a  successful  merchant  and 
manfacturer  in  Portland,  Me.,  of 
which  city  he  was  six  times 
mayor  (1893-7,  1904-6).  He 
gave  to  Portland  its  public 
library  (1888)  and  made  a  similar 
gift  to  Gorham  (1907).  The  fam- 
ily mansion  he  presented  to  Gor- 
ham for  a  museum.  He  was 
known  chiefly  as  a  writer  on 
early  New  England  history, 
among  his  numerous  publica- 
tions being  The  Trelawney  Papers 
(1884);  George  Cleve  and  His 
Times  (1885);  The  British  Inva- 
sion from  the  North  (1887);  Sir 
Ferdinando  Gorges  and  His  Prov- 
ince of  Maine  (2  vols.,  1890); 
The  Pioneers  of  New  France  in 
New  England  (1894);  The  Voy- 
ages of  Jacques  Cartier  (1906); 
The  Greatest  of  Literary  Problems 
(Shakesperian  controversy,  191 5) . 
He  also  edited  24  volumes  of  the 
Documentary  History  of  Maine. 

Baxter,  Richard  (1615-91), 
English    nonconformist  divine. 

Vol.  L— Oct.  '23 


was  a  native  of  Shropshire,  and 
chiefly  self-taught.  Entering 
the  church  in  1637,  he  acted,  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  English  Civil 
War,  as  chaplain  to  one  of  the 
Parliamentary  regiments.  When 
in  ill  health,  and  'in  continual 
expectation  of  death,'  he  wrote 
the  first  part  of  his  famous  work. 
The  Saints'  Everlasting  Rest, 
which  was  published  in  1650. 
Recovering  his  health,  he  labored 
with  great  effect  for  fourteen 
years  in  Kidderminster. 

On  the  Restoration,  Baxter, 
although  he  had  greatly  modified 
his  views  in  the  direction  of 
Presbyterianism,  was  appointed 
one  of  Charles  ii.'s  chaplains, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Savoy  Conference.  He  declined 
the  bishopric  of  Hereford;  was 
driven  out  of  the  church  by  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  of  1662;  and 
settled  at  Acton,  in  Middlesex, 
until  the  Act  of  Indulgence  in 
1672  left  him  free  to  go  to  Lon- 
don. In  1685  he  was  tried  for 
alleged  sedition  by  the  brutal 
Judge  Jeffreys,  who  sentenced 
him  to  fine  and  imprisonment. 
After  eighteen  months  spent  in 
prison  he  was  released. 

Baxter  was  an  able,  earnest, 
and  eloquent  writer  and  preacher. 
Among  his  writings  may  be  men- 
tioned    The    Reformed  Pastor 

(1656)  ,  Call  to  the  Unconverted 

(1657)  ,  and  Now  or  Never  (1663). 
The  main  authority  for  Baxter's 
life  is  his  autobiography,  entitled 
Reliquice  BaxteriancB  (1696) .  Con- 
sult Lives  by  Bishop  Hall,  Cal- 
amy,  Orme,  Boyle,  and  Davies. 

Baxte'rians,  a  name  applied  to 
the  followers  of  Richard  Baxter 
(q.  v.),  prominent  among  whom 
were  Isaac  Watts  and  Philip 
Dodridge. 

Bay  (French  bais,  'berry'),  a 
name  originally  applied  to  the 
fruit  of  certain  plants,  and  then 
to  the  plants  themselves.  The 
Sweet  Bay  Tree  (Laurus  nobilis) 
of  Southern  Europe  is  the  true 
laurel  of  the  Romans,  the 
Daphne  of  the  Greeks,  the  vic- 
tor's laurel  and  poet's  laurel  of 
romance.  The  long-pointed, 
lance-shaped  leaves  have  many 
culinary  uses,  on  account  of 
their  aromatic  properties;  but 
as  they  contain  prussic  acid, 
they  must  be  UvSed  with  care. 
The  bay  tree  bears  inconspicuous 
yellow  flowers  in  spring,  followed 
by   purple   berries   in  autumn. 

Other  bays  are  the  California 
Bay  Tree  {Umbellularia  cali- 
fornica);  the  Sweet  Bay  of  Amer- 
ica (Magnolia  glauca)  or  Swamp 
Magnolia  (see  Magnolia);  the 
Red  Bay  (Persea  carolinensis) 
and  Loblolly  Bay  (Gordonia 
lasianthus)  of  the  Southern 
States;  and  the  Rose  Bays 
(Rhododendron  catawbiense  and 
R.  lapponicum).  The  Cherry 
Laurel  (Prunus  laurocerasus)  is 
sometimes  called  Bay  Laurel, 


Baya.    See  Weaver  Bird. 

Bayaderes,  ba-ya-derz',  a  name 
given  by  Europeans  to  a  class 
of  women  in  India  who  follow 
the  profession  of  dancing.  They 
are  divided  into  two  classes — the 
devddasi,  who  are  connected  with 
the  great  temples  of  South  and 
West  India,  and  the  nautchis,  the 
'dancing  girls'  of  Anglo-Indian 
literature,  who  travel  about  the 
country,  in  bands,  for  hire.  The 
first  rank  of  the  devddasi  are 
exclusively  of  the  Vaisya  caste. 
The  nautchis  are  recruited  from 
the  low-caste  natives,  or  are 
slave  girls.  (See  Nautch  Girls.) 

Bayamo,  ba-ya'mo,  town, 
Cuba,  in  Oriente  province,  on 
the  Bayamo  River;  25  miles  east 
of  Manzanillo.  It  is  in  a  rich 
agricultural  region,  and  there 
are  valuable  deposits  of  man- 
ganese, copper,  iron,  and  gold 
in  the  vicinity.  Bayamo  was 
founded  in  1514  and  was  the 
scene  of  uprisings  in  the  revolu- 
tions of  1868  and  1895.  It  is 
the  birthplace  of  Tomas  Palma, 
Cuba's  first  president.  Pop. 
5,000. 


Sweet  Bay  or  Laurel. 
Leaves,  flowers  (male  and  female) ,  and  fruit.  ^ 


Bayamon,  ba'ya-mon',  town, 
Porto  Rico,  in  the  province  of 
San  Juan,  on  the  American  Rail- 
road; 10  miles  southwest  of  San 
Juan.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic 
church,  an  Episcopal  mission, 
and  a  good  school  system.  To- 
bacco, match,  brick  and  ice 
factories  and  sugar  mills  are  the 
leading  industrial  establishments. 
Nearby  are  the  ruins  of  the  oldest 
Spanish  vsettlement  in  Porto 
Rico.    Pop.  10.000.  . 

Bayard,  ba'<?rd,  the  name  of 
several  famous  horses  of  legend 


Bayard 


623 


Bayeux 


and  story — e.g.  the  horse  of  the 
Four  Sons  of  Aymon  (see  Ay- 
mon)  ;  the  horse  of  Fitzjames,  in 
Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake;  and 
under  the  ItaUan  form  of  Bayar- 
do,  in  Tasso's  Rinaldo.  The 
name  has  come  to  be  appHed 
to  any  swift  and  spirited  horse. 

Bayard,  James  AsHETON  (1767- 
1815),  American  lawyer  and 
poHtical  leader,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  (now  Princeton  Univer- 
sity) in  1784,  became  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Delaware  bpr,  and 
Avas  a  Federalist  representative 
in  Congress  (1797-1803),  having, 
as  such,  an  important  share  in 
securing  the  election  of  Jefferson 
rather  than  that  of  Burr  in  1801. 
From  1805  to  1813  he  was  a 
member  of  the  U.  S.  vSenate, 
opposing  the  War  of  1812,  and 
in  1814  he  was  one  of  the  nego- 
tiators, on  the  part  of  the  United 
States,  of  the  Treaty  of  Ghent. 

Bayard,  Pierre  du  Terrail, 
Chevalier  de  (1476-1524),  'the 
knight  without  fear  and  without 
reproach,'  the  most  chivalrous 
hero  of  the  middle  ages — strong 
yet  tender,  fearless  and  true, 
simple,  humane,  and  magnani- 
mous. He  first  won  distinction 
at  the  battle  of  Fornuovo  in  1495, 
when  he  received  his  knight- 
hood. He  next  fought  succes- 
sively against  the  Spaniards 
(1503),  winning  great  fame  at 
the  bridge  of  Garigliano  and  at 
Venosa;  against  the  Genoese 
(1507);  and  against  the  Vene- 
tians, especially  at  Agnadello 
(1509)  and  Brescia  (1512).  In 
the  war  with  Henry  viii.  of 
England  he  was  taken  prisoner, 
but  was  released.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Francis  i.,  in  1515,  he 
was  created  governor  of  Dau- 
phiny.  In  one  expedition  he 
made  Prosper  Colonna  a  pris- 
oner; and  at  Marignano  (151.5), 
fighting  against  the  Milanese,  he 
gained  such  a  victory  for  Francis 
that  the  young  king  himself 
asked  for  and  received  the  honor 
of  knighthood  at  his  hands.  In 
1521,  when  Charles  v.  besieged 
Mezieres  with  a  large  army.  Bay- 
ard defended  the  place  against 
all  assaults,  and  compelled  the 
enemy  to  retire.  While  defend- 
ing the  passage  of  the  Sesia, 
April  30,  1524,  in  another  contest 
between  France  and  Milan  Bay- 
ard was  mortally  wounded.  His 
Life,  written  by  his  'loyal 
servant,'  Jacques  de  Mailles 
(1489-1524),  was  translated  into 
English,  by  Sara  Coleridge, 
Kindersley,  and  L.  Larchey. 
Other  Lives  are  those  by  Sym- 
phorien  Champier  and  Terre- 
basse. 

Bayard,  Thomas  Francis 
(1828-98),  American  statesman, 
was  born  in  Wilmington,  Del. 
He  was  privately  educated,  be- 
gan the  practice  of  law  in  his 


native  city  in  1851,  and  in  1853 
was  appointed  U.  S.  district  at- 
torney of  Delaware.  He  was 
elected  in  1869  as  a  Democrat  to 
succeed  his  father,  James  A. 
Bayard,  in  the  U.  S.  Senate,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1875  and  1881. 
In  1876-77  he  was  one  of  the 
Electoral  Commission  which  ad- 
judged the  majority  of  electoral 
votes,  and  the  presidency,  in 
favor  of  Rutherford  B.  Hayes, 
voting  with  the  minority;  and  in 
1881  he  was  president  pro  tern. 
of  the  Senate.  His  name  was 
brought  before  the  Democratic 
National  Convention  as  a  presi- 
dential candidate  in  1880  and 
1884,  and  he  became  Secretary 
of  State  in  President  Cleveland's 
cabinet  in  1885.  As  first  Amer- 
ican Ambassador  to  Great  Brit- 
ain (1893-97),  he  did  much  to 
foster  friendliness  between  the 
two  countries.  Throughout  his 
public  career  he  was  a  moderate 
and  cautious,  though  firm,  states- 
man, faithful  in  the  main  to  the 
traditions  of  his  party,  but  main- 
taining his  independence  when  a 
sense  of  duty  demanded  it.  Al- 
though in  the  early  part  of  his 
public  career  strongly  opposed  to 
secession,  he  was  against  coercing 
the  Southern  States,  and  took 
no  part  in  the  Civil  War.  An 
urbane  and  skilful  negotiator,  he 
dealt  ably,  while  Secretary  of 
State,  with  the  Bering  Sea  con- 
troversy and  other  important 
questions,  and  was  the  leading 
U.  S.  member  of  the  Anglo- 
American  Commission  which  con- 
cluded in  1888  a  treaty  concern- 
ing the  vexing  Canadian  fisheries 
question — a  treaty  which  the  U. 
S.  Senate  refused  to  ratify.  Har- 
vard, Oxford,  and  Cambridge 
Universities  conferred  honorary 
degrees  upon  him.  Consult  Spen- 
cer's Public  Life  and  Services  of 
Thomas  F.  Bayard. 

Bayazid.    See  Bajazet. 

Bayazid,  ba'y^^-zed,  or  Baya- 
ZET,  fortified  town,  Armenia,  150 
miles  southeast  of  Erzerum,  on 
the  caravan  road  between  Er- 
zerum and  Tabriz.  It  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Russians  in  Novem- 
ber 1914.    Pop.  4,000. 

Baybay,  bi'bl,  pueblo,  Leyte, 
Philippine  Islands,  on  the  west 
coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pag- 
bangauan  River;  35  miles  south- 
west of  Tacloban.  it  has  a  good 
harbor  and  a  large  trade  in  hemp. 
Pop.  (1918)  36,917. 

Bayberry,  Candleberry,  or 
Wax  Myrtle  (Myrica),  a  genus 
of  hardy  shrubs  belonging  to  the 
family  Myricaea?.  They  bear 
deciduous  or  evergreen  oblong 
leaves,  and  inconspicuous  flow- 
ers, followed  by  gray  or  red 
fruits.  The  bark  is  astringent 
and  is  used  medicinally  and  for 
tanning.  M.  carolinensis,  also 
known  as  the  waxberry,  is  the 
best  known  species.  It  is  com- 
mon to  New  York  and  the  At- 


lantic coast,  growing  to  a  height 
of  about  eight  feet.  The  bark 
and  leaves,  when  crushed,  are 
delightfully  aromatic.  The  fruit 
or  berries  are  covered  with  a 
coating  of  greenish  wax,  which  is 
often  collected  by  boiling  the 
berries,  and  made  into  candles 
which  give  a  pleasant  odor  while 
burning.  A  scented  soap  is  also 
made  from  bayberry  tallow.  M. 
rubra  is  found  in  Japan  and  China 
and  is  cultivated  for  its  fruit. 
The  berries  have  a  pleasant  acid 
taste  and  the  fresh  juice  is  an 
agreeable  beverage.  M.  acris 
grows  in  the  West  Indies  and  is 
the  source  of  bay  rum,  an  aro- 
matic liquid  obtained  by  distill- 
ing rum  with  its  leaves,  or  by 
mixing  various  oils,  such  as  oil  of 
myrica,  oil  of  orange  peel,  or  oil 
of  pimenta  with  alcohol.  Bay 
rum  is  used  as  a  perfume  and  a 
cosmetic. 

Bay  City,  city,  Michigan, 
county  seat  of  Bay  county,  on 
the  Saginaw  River,  near  its 
mouth,  and  on  the  Detroit, 
Bay  City  and  Western,  the 
Detroit  and  Mackinac,  the 
Grand  Trunk  Western  Line,  the 
Michigan  Central,  and  the  Pere 
Marquette  Railroads;  13  miles 
north  of  Saginaw.  There  are 
trade  in  lumber,  fish,  and  salt, 
and  manufactures  of  automobile 
bodies  and  knit  goods.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Federal  Census  of 
Manufactures  for  1919  industrial 
establishments  number  108,  with 
$21,878,831  capital,  and  products 
valued  at  $28,214,525.  There 
are  also  beet-sugar  and  coal  in- 
terests. West  Bay  City  was 
consolidated  with  Bay  City  in 
1905.  Pop.  (1900)  27,628;  (1910) 
45,166;  (1920)  47,554. 

Bay  City,  town,  Texas,  county 
seat  of  Metagorda  county,  on  the 
Colorado  River  and  on  the  Gulf 
Coast  Lines,  the  Gulf,  Colorado 
and  Santa  Fe,  and  Southern  Pa- 
cific Railroads;  85  miles  south- 
west of  Houston.  Pop.  (1910) 
3,156;  (1920)  3,454. 

Bayer,  hVer,  Johann  (1572- 
1625),  (German  astronomer,  was 
a  native  of  Bavaria.  His  Ura- 
nomclria  (1603),  in  51  sheets,  was 
at  that  date  the  most  complete 
chart  of  the  heavens.  It  was  he 
who  introduced  Greek  and  Ro- 
man letters  into  astronomic 
nomenclature. 

Bayern.    See  Bavaria. 

Bayeux,  ba-yu'  (anc.  Bajo- 
casses),  town  and  episcopal  see, 
France,  in  the  department  of 
Calvados;  7  miles  from  the  sea 
and  18  miles  northwest  of  Caen. 
The  Cathedral  of  Bayeux,  with 
parts  dating  from  the  11th  cen- 
tury, is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
buildings  of  Normandy.  The 
small  museum  in  the  public 
library  contains  the  celebrated 
Bayeux  tapestry  (q.  v.).  Lace 
making,  the  manufacture  of  pot- 
tery, and  cattle  raising  are  the 
Vol.  L— Oct.  '23 


Bayeux  Tapestry 


624 


Bayljr 


leading  industries.  The  town 
was  taken  by  Edward  iii.  in  1346, 
by  Henry  v.  in  1417,  and  by 
Dunois  in  1450, 

Bayeux  Tapestry,  an  ancient 
piece  of  embroidery  preserved  in 
the  public  library  in  Bayeux, 
France,  depicting  the  invasion 
and  conquest  of  England  by 
William  the  Conqueror.  It  was 
formerly  quite  generally  regarded 
as  the  work  of  Queen  Matilda 
and  her  ladies,  but  more  recent 
research  leads  to  the  belief  that 
while  it  is  undoubtedly  the  work 
of  contemporaries,  it  was  prob- 
ably done  by  women  at  the  order 
of  Bishop  Odo.  The  tapestry 
consists  of  a  piece  of  linen,  now 
brown  with  age,  about  230  feet 
long  and  20  inches  wide,  em- 
broidered in  colored  wools.  The 
part  occupied  by  the  historical 
scenes  is  about  13  inches  wide 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  narrow 
border  depicting  incidents  from 
.^sop's  Fables,  sporting  scenes, 
and  grotesque  animals.  The 
historical  scenes  number  seventy- 
two,  and  over  each  is  a  short 
description  in  Latin. 

The  value  of  the  tapestry  as  a 
record  of  the  costumes,  manners, 
and  history  of  the  time  is  enor- 
mous. It  is  first  mentioned  in 
1476,  in  an  inventory  of  the 
goods  belonging  to  the  cathedral 
of  Bayeux,  but  though  annually 
exhibited  in  the  church  for  eight 
days  at  the  feast  of  St.  John,  it 
was  practically  unknown  beyond 
the  town  till  1724,  when  a  de- 
scription, based  on  a  drawing  of 
a  part  of  the  work,  was  presented 
to  the  Academie  des  Inscriptions 
by  M.  Lancelot.  The  discovery 
of  the  tapestry  itself  was  due 
to  Bernard  de  Montfaucon,  who 
published  representations  of  it 
in  his  Monuments  de  la  Mo- 
narchie  Francaise  (1729-33).  Con- 
sult F.  R.  Fowke's  The  Bayeux 
Tapestry;  J.  C.  Bruce's  The 
Bayeux  Tapestry  Elucidated; 
Jules  Comte's  La  Tapisserie  de 
Bayeux;  Vetusta  Monumenta 
(1819),  vol.  vi.,  illustrated  by 
beautifully  colored  drawings  by 
C.  Stothard;  Archceologia,  vols, 
xvii.-xix;  Belloc's  The  Book  of 
the  Bayeux  Tapestry  (1914). 

Bay  Islands,  a  group  in  the 
Bay  of  Honduras,  to  the  north  of 
Honduras,  ceded  by  Great  Brit- 
ain to  Honduras  in  1859.  The 
trade  is  principally  in  bananas 
and  cocoanuts.    Pop.  5,000. 

Bayle,  bel,  Pierre  (1647- 
1706),  French  philosopher  and 
critic,  son  of  a  Calvinist  preacher, 
was  born  in  Carla,  department 
Ariege.  He  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  in  1669  but  returned 
to  Protestantism  in  1670  and 
withdrew  to  Geneva  to  escape 
threatened  persecution  by  the 
Catholics.  After  teaching  there 
for  a  time,  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Sedan  in  1675,  and 

Vol.  I.-— Oct.  23* 


to  the  chair  of  philosophy  and 
history  at  Rotterdam  in  1681. 
In  1682  he  published  his  famous 
Pensees  diverses  sur  la  comete, 
and  in  1684  his  Critique  generale 
de  I'histoire  du  Calvinisme  de  M. 
Maimbourg,  which  wag  severely 
criticised  by  his  colleague  Jurieu. 
In  1684  he  began  the  publication 
of  the  Nouvelles  de  la  Republique 
des  Lettres,  a  journal  of  literary 
criticism,  successfully  carried  on 
until  1698,  and  continued  after 
his  death  until  1720.  On  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
Bayle  wrote  his  Commentaire 
philosophique  sur  ces  paroles  de 
Jesus-Christ:  Contrains-les  d'en- 
trer,'  also  attacked  by  Jurieu 
as  unorthodox;  and,  after  a  pro- 
longed controversy,  he  was  de- 
posed (1693)  from  his  professor- 
ship. He  then  applied  himself 
to  the  completion  of  the  Diction- 
naire  historique  et  critique  (1696), 
his  masterpiece,  which  shows  to 
perfection  his  extensive  infor- 
mation, fluency  of  style,  and 
sceptical  spirit.  This  work,  con- 
demned by  his  adversaries  and 
censured  by  the  Rotterdam  con- 
sistory, met  with  widespread 
success,  and  exercised  a  consid- 
erable influence  upon  the  narrow 
dogmatism  of  the  Reformed 
churches. 

Bay'Iey,  James  Roosevelt 
(1814-77),  American  Roman 
Catholic  prelate,  was  born  in 
New  York  Citv,  and  was  gradu- 
ated (1835)  from  Trinity  College, 
Hartford.  He  studied  for  the 
Episcopal  ministry,  and  was 
rector  of  the  church  in  Harlem, 
N.  Y.  in  1840-1.  His  views 
changing,  he  was  received  into 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  at 
Rome  in  1842,  and  after  study  in 
Paris,  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
1844  by  Bishop  Hughes,  whose 
private  secretary  he  became  in 
1846,  and  whose  plans  for  the 
advancement  of  the  Catholic 
church  in  America  he  did  much 
to  further.  He  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Newark,  N.  J., in  1853, 
and  in  1872  was  translated  to  the 
archiepiscopal  see  of  Baltimore. 
As  apostolic  delegate,  he  imposed 
the  biretta  on  Cardinal  Mc- 
Closkey,  1875.  He  published  A 
Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  on  the  Island  of  New 
York  (1853). 

Bayley,  Richard  (1745-1801), 
American  physician,  was  born  in 
Fairfield,  Conn.,  and  began  prac- 
tice in  New  York  in  1772,  giving 
special  attention  to  croup  during 
the  early  period  of  his  career.  He 
studied  in  England  in  1775-6, 
and  returned  to  America  as  sur- 
geon in  the  English  army;  re- 
signed this  position,  practised  in 
New  York,  and  in  1792  was  ap- 
pointed first  professor  of  anat- 
omy in  Columbia  College.  As 
health  officer  of  the  port  of  New 
York  he  secured  the  passage  of 
proper    quarantine  regulations 


and  made  valuable  investigations 
as  to  the  nature  of  vellow  fever. 

Bay'Iiss,  Sir  Wyke  (1835- 
1906),  English  painter  and  au- 
thor, was  born  in  Madeley,  Sa- 
lop, and  studied  at  the  Royal 
Academy.  His  paintings  of  great 
European  cathedrals  include  La 
SainteChapelle(im5);St.  Mark's, 
Venice  (1880);  Vespers  in  St. 
Peter's,  Rome  (1888);  The  Golden 
Duomo,  Pisa  (1892).  He  wrote 
The  Witness  of  Art  (1876);  The 
Higher  Life  in  Art  (1879);  The 
Enchanted  Island  (1888);  Rex 
Regum:  a  Painter's  Study  of  the 
Likeness  of  Christ  (1898) ;  ' Five 
Great  Painters  of  the  Victorian 
Era  (1902);  Seven  Angels  of  the 
Renaissance  (1905). 

Bay'lor,  Frances  Courtenay 
(1848-  ),  American  author,  was 
born  in  Fayette ville,  Ark.,  trav- 
elled considerably  in  Europe, 
after  1876  was  a  resident  of  Win- 
chester, Va.,  and  Savannah,  Ga. 
She  was  married  in  1896  to 
George  Sherman  Barnum.  Her 
published  works  include  On  Both 
Sides,    an    international  novel 

(1886)  ,  Behind  the  Blue  Ridge 

(1887)  ,  Juan  and  Juanita  (1897), 
A  Georgian  Bzingalow  (1900),  and 
other  works  of  fiction. 

Baylor,  Robert  Emmett  Bled- 
soe (1793-1874),  American  jur- 
ist, was  born  in  Lincoln  county, 
Kentucky.  He  studied  law, 
served  in  the  War  of  1812,  prac- 
tised in  Kentucky,  and  later  re- 
moved to  Alabama,  where  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  legisla- 
ture, and  was  elected  member  of 
Congress  from  that  State  (1829- 
31).  Emigrating  to  Texas,  he 
was  there  made  a  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  and  was  active  in 
the  movement  for  annexation, 
after  which  he  was  again  ap- 
pointed a  judge,  serving  for 
twenty-five  years.  Baylor  Uni- 
versity (q.  V.)  is  named  in  his 
honor. 

Baylor  University,  a  co-educa- 
tional institution  under  Baptist 
control  at  Waco  and  Dallas, 
Texas,  founded  in  1845.  The 
college  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
Schools  of  Education  and  Com- 
merce, and  the  Department  of 
Law  are  at  Waco.  The  Colleges 
of  Medicine  and  Dentistry,  and 
the  Schools  of  Nursing  and  Phar- 
macy are  located  at  Dallas.  For 
recent  statistics,  see  College. 

Bayly,  Ada  Ellen.  See  Ly- 
ALL,  Edna. 

Bayly,  Thomas  Haynes  (1797- 
1839),  English  lyrical  poet  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Bath.  He  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  pieces  for  the  stage  and 
several  novels,  but  his  fame  rests 
entirely  on  his  songs,  vsome  of 
which,  such  as  The  Soldier's  Tear, 
We  Met — 'twas  in  a  Crowd,  and 
She  wore  a  Wreath  of  Roses,  are 
still  popular.  A  Memoir  by  his 
widow  is  prefixed  to  his  Ballads 
and  other  Poems  (1844). 


Bayaderes 

laurel  of  the  Romans,  the  fiapKhe 
of  the  Greeks,  the  victor's  laurel 
and  poet's  laurel  of  romance. 
The  long,  pointed,  lance-shaped 
leaves  have  many  culinary  uses, 
on  account  of  their  aromatic  prop- 
erties; but  as  they  contain  prussic 
acid,  they  must  be  used  with  care. 
The  bay  tree  bears  inconspicuous 
yellow  flowers  in  spring,  and  these 
are  followed  by  purple  berries 
in  autumn.  Propagation  may  be 
effected  by  means  of  seeds  or  cut- 
tings. In  order  to  obtain  good 
bushes,  the  leading  shoots  of  the 
young  plants  should  be  shortened 
in  spring  during  the  first  few 
years.  The  bay  tree  of  California 
IS  Umbellularia  Californica.  The 
cherry  laurel  {Primus  laurocera- 
sus),  wrongly  named  bay  laurel, 
Red  bay  (Persea  carolinensis), 
Rose  bay  (Rhododendron),  loblolly 
bay  {Gordonia  lasianthus),  and 
Sweet  bay  {Magnolia  glauca), 
are  all  found  in  the  southern 
states. 

Bayaderes,  a  class  of  women 
in  India  who  follow  the  profes- 
sion of  dancers  or  pantomimic 
artistes.  They  are  divided  into 
two  great  classes — the  devddasi^ 
themselves  of  two  divisions,  who 
are  more  or  less  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  worship  of  the 
Hindu  deities;  and  the  nautchis, 
the  'dancing  girls'  of  Anglo-In- 
dian literature,  who  are  not  at- 
tached to  a  temple,  but  travel 
about  the  country,  in  bands,  for 
hire.  The  first  rank  of  the  for- 
mer are  exclusively  of  the  Vaisya 
caste ;  the  latter  are  recruited 
from  the  low-caste  natives,  or 
are  slave-girls. 

Bayard,  common  name  for  sev- 
eral famous  horses  of  legend  and 
story — e.g.  in  the  story  of  the 
Four  Sons  oj  Aymon;  the  horse  of 
Fitzjames,  in  Scott's  Lady  of  the 
Lake;  and  under  the  Italian  form 
of  Bayardo,  in  Tasso's  Rinaldo. 
It  is  also  the  name  of  a  horse  in 
a  legend  current  in  many  parts  of 
England,  the  horse  being  famous 
for  a  prodigious  leap. 

Bayard,  James  Asheton  (1767- 
1815),  American  lawyer  and  politi- 
cal leader,  born  at  Philadelphia, 
Pa.  He  graduated  at  the  College 
of  New  Jersey  (now  Princeton 
University)  in  1784,  became  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Delaware  bar, 
and  was  a  Federalist  representa- 
tive in  Congress  (1797-1803), 
having,  as  such,  an  important 
share  in  securing  the  election  of 
Jefferson  rather  thari  tnat  of  Burr 
in  1801.  From  1805  to  1813  he 
was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate, 
opposing  the  War  of  1812,  and  in 
1814  he  was  one  of  the  negotiators, 
on  the  part  of  the  U.  S.,  of  the 
Treaty  of  Ghent. 

Bayard,  Pierre  du  Terr  ail, 
Chevalier  de  (1476-1524),  'the 
knight  without  fear  and  without 
reproach,'  was  the  most  chivalrous 
hero  of  the  middle  ages— strong 


m 

yet  tender,  fearless  and  true, 
simple,  humane,  and  magnani- 
mous. He  first  won  distinction 
at  the  battle  of  Fornuoyo  in  1495, 
when  he  received  his  knight- 
hood. He  next  fought  succes- 
sively against  the  Spaniards 
(1503),  winning  great  fame  at  the 
bridge  of_  Garigliano  and  at  Ve- 
nosa;  against  the  Genoese  (1507): 
and  against  the  Venetians,  espe- 
cially at  Agnadello  (1509)  and 
Brescia  (1512).  In  the  war  with 
Henry  viii.  of  England  he  was 
taken  prisoner,  but  was  released. 
On  the  accession  of  Francis  I.,  in 
1515,  he  was  created  governor  of 
Dauphiny.  In  one  expedition  he 
made  Prosper  Colonna  a  prisoner; 
and  at  Marignano  (1515),  fighting 
against  the  Milanese,  he  gained 
such  a  victory  for  Francis  that 
the  young  king  himself  asked  for 
and  received  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood at  the  hands  of  Bayard.  In 
1521,  when  Charles  V.  besieged 
Mezieres  with  a  large  army.  Bay- 
ard defended  the  place  against 
all  assaults,  and  compelled  the 
enemy  to  retire.  While  defend- 
ing the  passage  of  the  Sesia, 
April  30,  1524,  in  another  contest 
between  France  and  Milan,  Bay- 
ard was  mortally  wounded.  His 
Life  was  written  by  his  secretary, 
Jeffrey,  in  1527,  and  by  Terre- 
basse  (5th  ed.  1871).  The  for- 
mer has  been  translated  into 
English,  by  Sara  Coleridge '(1825), 
Kindersley  (1848),  and  L.  Larchey 
(1883). 

Bayard,  Thomas  Francis 
(1828-98),  an  American  states- 
man, was  born  at  Wilmington, 
Del.  He  was  privately  educated, 
began  the  practice  of  law  in  his 
native  city  in  1851,  and  in  1853 
was  appointed  U.  S.  district  at- 
torney of  Del.  In  1869  he  was 
elected  as  a  Democrat  to  suc- 
ceed his  father,  James  A.  Bayard, 
in  the  U.  S.  Senate,  and  was  re- 
elected in  1875  and  1881.  In 
1876-77  he  was  one  of  the  Elec- 
toral Commission  which  adjudged 
the  majority  ^  of  electoral  votes, 
and  the  presidency,  in  favor  of 
Hon.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  vot- 
ing with  the  minority;  and  in 
1881  he  was  president  pro  tern, 
of  the  Senate.  His  name  was 
brought  before  the  Democratic 
National  Convention  as  a  presi- 
dential candidate  in  1880  and 
1884,  and  he  became  Secretary 
of  State  in  President  Cleveland's 
cabinet  in  1885.  As  first  Amer- 
ican Ambassador  to  Great  Britain 
(1893-97),  he  did  much  to  foster 
friendliness  between  the  two 
countries.  Throughout  his  pub- 
lic career  Mr.  Bayard  was  a 
moderate  and  cautious,  though 
firm,  statesman,  faithful  in  the 
main  to  thetraditions  of  his  party, 
but  maintaining  his  independence 
when  a  sense  of  duty  demanded 
it.  Although  in  the  early  part 
of  his  public  career  strongly  op- 


Ba^^ei 

posed  to  secession,  he  was  against 
coercing  the  southern  states,  and 
took  no  part  in  the  Civil  War. 
An  urbane  and  skilful  negotiator, 
he  dealt  ably,  while  Secretary  of 
State,  with  the  Bering  Sea  con- 
troversy and  other  important 
questions,  and  was  the  leading 
U.  S.  member  of  the  Anglo- 
American  Commission  which 
concluded  in  1888  a  treaty  con- 
cerning the  vexing  Canadian  fish- 
eries question — a  treaty  which  the 
U.  S.  Senate  refused  to  ratify. 
Harvard,  Oxford,  and  Cambridge 
Universities  conferred  honorary 
degrees  upon  him.  See  Spencer's 
Public  Life  and  Services  of 
Thomas  F.  Bayard  (1880). 

Bayazid,  or  Bayazet,  fort,  tn., 
Armenia,  Asia  Minor,  near  Persian 
frontier,  150  m.  s.E.  of  Erzerum, 
on  the  caravan  road  between  Er- 
zerum and  Tabriz.  Pop.  2,000; 
of  dist.  52,500.  See  also  Bajazet. 

Baybay,  pueb.  on  w.  coast  of 
Leyte  I.,  and  prov.,  Philippines, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Pagbangauan 
R.,  35  m.  s.W.  of  Tacloban.  It  has 
a  good  harbor  and  a  large  trade 
in  hemp.   Pop.  (1903)  22,990. 

Bayberry  (1 .)  {Myrica  acris),  a 
plant  belonging  to  the  myrtle 
order.  In  the  W.  Indies  it  is  the 
source  of  bay  rum,  an  aromatic 
liquid  obtained  by  distilling  rum 
with  the  leaves  of  this  plant,  or 
by  mixing  various  oils,  as  the  oil 
of  myrica,  of  orange  peel,  or  of 
pimenta,  with  alcohol.  It  is  used 
as  a  cosmetic  and  perfume.  (2.) 
The  waxberry  {Myrica  Carolinen- 
sis) is  also  called  bayberry.  It  is  a 
shrub,  reaching  8  ft.  in  height,  and 
common  in  sandy  soils,  especially 
near  sea-beaches.  It  has  a  smooth 
gray  bark,  and  oblanceolate  or 
obovate  coriaceous  leaves,  which 
are  aromatic  when  crushed.  The 
flowers  are  in  aments,  and  the 
pistillate  are  short  and  oblong, 
succeeded  by  close  clusters  of 
hard  drupes.  These  are  globose, 
rough,  and  gray  in  color,  on  ac- 
count of  their  thick  coating  of 
wax.  These  berries  were  formerly 
much  used  for  candles,  yielding  a 
greenish  wax,  which,  although 
rather  brittle,  was  very  fragrant, 
especially  when  the  candle  was 
extinguished. 

Bay  City,  city,  Michigan, 
CO.  seat  of  Bay  co.,  on  the  Saginaw 
R.J  near  its  mouth,  and  on  the 
Michigan  Central,  the  Bay  City 
Division  of  the  Pere  Marquette 
and  the  Bay  City  Belt  Line  R.  Rs., 
13  m.  from  Saginaw.  Its  principal 
trade  is  in  lumber,  fish,  and  salt, 
and  its  manufactures  are  of  con- 
siderable importance.  There  are 
beet-sugar  and  coal  interests. 
West  Bay  City  was  consolidated 
with  it  in  1905.  Pop.  (1910) 
45,166. 

Bayer,  Johann  (1572-1625). 
German  astronomer,  a  native  of 
Bavaria.  He  introduced  the 
Greek  and  Roman  letters  into 


624 


Bayly 


astronomic  nomenclature.  His 
Uranometn'a  (1603),  in  51  sheets, 
'vas  at  that  date  the  most  com- 
plete chart  of  the  heavens. 

Bayern.    See  Bavaria. 

Bayeux  (anc.  Bajocasses),  dist. 
tn.  and  seat  of  a  bishop,  dep.  Cal- 
vados, France^  7  m.  from  the  sea, 
18  m.  w.N.w.  of  Caen.  The  cathe- 
dral of  Bayeux,  with  parts  dating 
from  the  11th  century,  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  buildings  of 
Normandy.  The  small  museum 
contains  the  celebrated  tapestry 
of  Bayeux  (see  below).  There  are 
industries  of  lace,  china,  earthen- 
ware, etc.  The  town  was  burned 
by  Normans,  English,  or  French 
in  1106,  1356,  1450,  1503.  Pop. 
(1901)  7,806. 

Bayeux  Tapestry.  This 
unique  piece  of  handiwork,  de- 
scribed in  1743  {PalcEOgraph- 
ica  Britannica)  as  '  the  noblest 
monument  of  English  antiquity 
abroad,'  represents  scenes  con- 
nected with  the  _  conquest  of 
England  by  William  of  Nor- 
mandy, culminating  in  the 
battle  of  Hastings.  It  is  em- 
broidered on  a  piece  of  linen  207 
ft.  long  and  20  in.  wide,  the  part 
occupied  by  the  historical  scenes 
having  a  breadth  of  about  13  in., 
with  a  narrow  ornamented  margin 
en  each  side.  The  scenes  number 
in  all  seventy-two,  and  over  each 
is  a  short  description  in  Latin. 
The  first  historical  mention  of 
the  tapestry  is  in  1369,  in  an 
inventory  of  the  goods  belong- 
ing to  the  cathedral  of  Bayeux. 
Although  annually  exhibited  in 
the  church  for  eight  days  at  the 
feast  of  St.  John,  it  was  practically 
unknown  beyond  the  town  till 
1724,  when  a  description,  based 
on  a  drawing  of  a  part  of  the  work, 
was  presented  to  the  Academic 
des  Inscriptions  by  M.  Lancelot. 
The  discovery  of  the  tapestry  itself 
was  due  to  Bernard  de  Montfau- 
con,  who  published  representa- 
tions of  it  in  his  Monuviims 
la  Monarchic  Fran<;aise  (1729- 
33).  See  F.  R.  Fowke,  The  Ba- 
yeux Tapestry  (1898);  Rev,  J. 
C.  Bruce,  The  Bayeux  Tapestry 
Elucidated  (1885);  Jules  Com  to. 
La  Tapisserie  de  Bayeux,  with 
photogravures  (1879)'  Vetusta 
Monumenta  (1819),  vol.  vi.  (con- 
tains beautifully  colored  draw- 
ings by  C.  Stothard);  ArchcBo- 
iegia,  vols,  xvii.-xix. 

Bay  Islands,  a  group  in  the 
B.  of  Honduras,  to  the  N.  of  Hon- 
duras, ceded  by  Great  Britain  to 
Plonduras  in  1859.  The  trade  is 
principally  in  bananas  and  cocoa- 
nuts  with  New  Orleans  and  New 
York.    Pop.  5,000. 

Bayle,  Pierre  (1647-1706), 
French  philosopher  and  critic,  the 
son  of  a  Calvinistic  preacher,  was 
born  at  Carlat,  Languedoc ;  he 
withdrew  to  Geneva  to  escape 
threatened  prosecution  by  the 
Catholics.      In  1676  he  was  ap- 


pointed to  the  chair  of  philosophy 
at  the  University  of  Sedan,  and 
in  1681  to  the  chair  of  philosophy 
and  history  at  Rotterdam.  Here 
he  published  (1682)  his  famous 
Pen  sees  Diverses  sur  la  Comete, 
and  in  1684  his  Critique  Gcnerale 
de  VHistoire  du  Calvinisme  de  M. 
Maimboiirg;  the  latter  was  se- 
verely criticised  by  his  colleague 
Jurieu.  In  1684  he  began  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Nouvelles  de  la 
Rtpublique  des  Lettres,  a  journal 
of  literary  criticism,  successfully 
carried  on  until  1698,  and  con- 
tinued after  his  death  to  1720. 
On  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes,  Bayle  wrote  his  Com- 
mentaire  Philosophique  sur  ces 
Paroles  de  Jesus-Christ:  ^  Con- 
trains-les  dentrer'  also  attacked 
by  Jurieu  as  unorthodox;  and, 
after  a  prolonged  controversy, 
Bayle  was  deposed  (1693)  from 
his  professorship.  He  then  ap- 
plied himself  to  the  completion 
of  the  Dictionnaire  Historique  et 
Critique  (1696),  his  masterpiece, 
which  shows  to  perfection  his  ex- 
tensive information,  fluency  of 
style,  and  sceptical  spirit.  _  This 
work,  condemned  bv  his  ad- 
versaries and  censured  by  the  Rot- 
terdam consistory,  met  with  wide- 
spread success,  and  exercised 
considerable  influence  upon  the 
narrow  dogmatism  of  the  Reformed 
churches.  His  CEuvres  Diverses 
were  published  at  The  Hague 
(1725-31).  See  Lives  bv  Desmai- 
zeaux  (1730)  and  Feuertach  (2nd 
ed.  1848),  and  Damiron's  Philo- 
sophie  en  France  au  X  VII^  Siecle 
(1846). 

B  a  y  1  e  y ,  James  Roosevelt 
(1814-77),  American  R.  C.  prel- 
ate, was  born  in  New  York  city, 
and  graduated  (1835)  at  Trinity 
College,  Hartford.  He  studied 
for  the  Episcopal  ministry,  and 
was  rector  of  the  church  in  Har- 
lem, N.  Y.,  1840-1.^  His  views 
changing,  he  was  received  into  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  at  Rome 
in  1842,  and  after  study  in  Paris, 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1844 
by  Bishop  Hughes,  whose  private 
secretary  he  became  in  1846,  and 
whose  plans  for  the  advancement 
of  the  Catholic  church  in  America 
he  did  much  to  further.  He  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Newark, 
N.  J.,  1853,  and  reorganized  the 
diocese  completely.  In  1872  he 
was  translated  to  the  archiepis- 
copal  see  of  Baltimore.  As  apos- 
tolic delegate,  he  imnosed  the 
beretta  on  Cardinal  McCloskey, 
1875.  Author  of  A  Sketch  of 
the  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  on  the  Island  of  Nezu 
York  (1853). 

Bayley, Richard  (1745-1801), 
American  physician,  was  born  at 
Fairfield,  Conn.,  and  began  prac- 
tice in  New  York,  1772.  In  the 
early  period  of  his  career  he  gave 
special  attention  to  croup.  He 
studied  in  England  1775-6,  and 


came  to  America  as  surgeon  in  the 
English  army:  resigned  this  posi- 
tion, practised  in  New  York,  and 
in  1792  was  appointed  first  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  in  Columbia 
College.  As  health  officer  of  the 
port  of  New  York  he  secured  the 
passage  of  proper  quarantine  regu- 
lations, and  he  made  valuable  in- 
vestigations as  to  the  nature  of 
yellow  fever. 

Bayliss,  Sir  Wyke  (1835- 
1906),  Eng.  painter  and  author, 
born  at  Madeley,  Salop,  and  stud- 
ied at  the  Royal  Academy.  His 

Saintings  of  great  European  cathe- 
rals  include  La  Sainte  Chapelle 
(1865);  St.  Mark's,  Venice  f  1880}; 
Vespers  in  St.  Peter's,  Rome  (1888); 
The  Golden  Duomo  and  Pisa 
(1892).  He  has  written  The  Wit- 
ness of  Art  (1876),  The  Higher 
Life  in  Art  (1879),  The  Enchanted 
Island  (1888),  Bind  . Rex  Regum:  a 
Painter's  Study  of  the  Likeness  of 
Christ  (1898). 

Baylor,  Frances  Courtenav 
(1848-),  American  author,  was 
born  at  Fayetteville  Ark.,  and 
travelled  considerably  in  Europe, 
and  after  1876  was  a  resident  of 
Winchester,  Va.,  and  Savannah, 
Ga.;  was  married  1896,  to  George 
Sherman  Barnum,  author  of  On 
Both  Sides,  an  international  novel 

(1886)  ,  Behind  the  Blue  Ridge 

(1887)  ,  Juan  and  Juanita  (1897). 
A  Georgian  Bungalow  (1900),  and 
other  works  of  fiction. 

Baylor,  Robert  Emmett 
Bludsoe  (1793-1874),  American 
jurist,  was  born  in  Lincoln  co., 
Ky,,  and  studied  for  the  law: 
served  in  the  War  of  1812,  and 
afterward  practised  in  Kentucky. 
He  removed  to  Alabama,  where  he 
became  a  member  of  the  legisla- 
ture, and  was  member  of  Congress 
from  that  state,  1829-31.  Emi- 
grating to  Texas,  he  was  there 
made  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  and  was  active  in  the  move- 
ment for  annexation,  after  which 
he  was  again  appointed  a  judge 
and  served  for  twenty-five  years. 
Baylor  University  and  a  county 
of  Texas  are  named  for  him. 

Baylor  University,  a  coedu- 
cational institution  under  Baptist 
control  at  Waco,  Texas,  founded 
in  1845.  In  1905  its  faculty  num- 
bered 45,  and  the  students  1,130. 
The  library  contained  15,000 
volumes,  and  the  university  had 
productive  funds  of  $114,000, 
with  an  income  of  $60,000. 

Bayly,  Thomas  Haynes  (1797- 
1839).  £.ngHsh  lyrical  poet  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  a  native  of 
Bath;  wrote  a  number  of  pieces  for 
the  stage  and  several  novels;  but 
his  fame  rests  entirely  on  his 
bongs,  some  of  which,  such  as  The 
Soldier's  Tear,  We  Met — 'twas  in 
a  Crowd,  and  She  wore  a  Wreath 
of  Roses,  are  still  popular.  A 
Memoir  by  his  widow  is  prefixed 
to  his  Ballads  and  other  Poems 
(1844). 


Baynes 


626 


Bazaine 


Baynes,  Thomas  Spencer 
(1823-87),  English  man  of  let- 
ters, was  born  in  Wellington, 
Somerset.  He  was  a  pupil,  at 
Edinburgh  University,  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton,  and  served  as 
his  class  assistant  from  1851 
to  1855.  In  1857  he  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  was  assistant  edi- 
tor of  the  Daily  News  until  1863. 
From  1864  till  his  death  he  filled 
the  chair  of  logic,  rhetoric,  and 
metaphysics  in  St.  Andrews  Uni- 
versity. In  1873  he  was  ap- 
pointed editor  of  the  ninth  edi- 
tion of  the  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nica,  to  which  he  contributed  a 
notable  article  on  Shakespeare, 
reprinted  in  his  volume,  Shakes- 
peare Studies  (1894).  Baynes 
translated  the  Port  Royal  Logic 
(1851),  and  wrote  an  essay  on 
The  New  Analytic  of  Logical 
Forms  (1852). 

Bay  of  Islands,  a  deep  harbor, 
11  miles  across,  sheltered  by  nu- 
merous islands,  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  the  North  Island  of  New 
Zealand ;  also  a  bay  on  the  west 
coast  of  Newfoundland. 

Bayombong,  ba  -  yom  -  bong', 
pueblo,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Nueva  Vizcaya,  island  of  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands.  It  is  situated 
on  the  main  highway,  and  left 
bank  of  the  Magat  River,  about 
the  centre  of  the  province  and  in 
a  fertile  valley,  134  miles  from 
Manila.  There  is  some  trade  in 
rice.    Pop.  (1918)  5,627. 

Bayonet,  a  short  sword,  the 
blade  of  which  is  twelve  to  four- 
teen inches  long,  which  fits  on  to 
the  muzzle  of  the  rifle,  and  which 
is  given  to  the  foot  soldier  as  a 
weapon  for  use  in  hand-to-hand 
fighting.  The  old  sword  bayonet 
was  considerably  longer,  was  tri- 
angular in  section,  and  tapered 
decidedly  towards  the  point. 
The  bayonet  is  very  useful  in  en- 
abling infantry  to  resist  the  at- 
tack of  cavalry,  when  rushing  the 
enemy's  position  in  the  final 
stages  of  the  assault,  and  in  night 
fighting.  When  not  fixed  on  the 
rifle,  it  is  carried  in  a  scabbard 
attached  to  the  left  side  of  the 
soldier's  belt.  Various  forms  of 
rod  bayonets  have  been  tried, 
also  combinations  of  bayonet  and 
intrenching  tools;  but  the  usual 
form  is  that  described  above.  A 
great  many  theoretical  experts 
had  pronounced  the  bayonet  an 
obsolete  arm,  its  death  knell  hav- 
ing been  sounded  by  the  long 
range,  flat  trajectory  and  deadly 
accuracy  of  the  modern  rifle. 
During  the  course  of  the  World 
War,  however,  it  was  considered 
as  important  that  a  man  be  as 
efficient  in  bayonet  fighting  as  in 
musketry,  the  increased  use  of 
machine  guns  having  made  the 
rifle  of  less  and  less  value. 

Bayonne,  ba  -  yon',  fortified 
town  and  episcopal  see,  depart- 
ment Basses-Pyrenees,  France, 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Adour  and  the  Nive;  4  miles 
Vol.  I.— Mar.  '23 


from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  125 
miles  southwest  of  Bordeaux.  It 
is  divided  by  the  rivers  into  two 
parts  and  is  connected  by  bridge 
with  St.  Esprit,  a  separate  town 
until  1857,  now  a  suburb.  Fea- 
tures of  interest  are  the  Cathe- 
dral, a  13th  century  building  with 
some  good  stained  glass;  the 
citadel,  on  an  eminence  in  St. 
Esprit,  commanding  the  harbor; 
the  town  hall,  public  library,  ar- 
senal and  military  hospital.  Ba- 
yonne has  a  safe  and  commodious 
harbor  and  there  is  a  large 
trade  with  Spain  and  South 
America.  Shipbuilding,  distil- 
ling, and  manufactures  of  choco- 
late, soap,  leather  and  pottery, 
are  carried  on,  and  it  is  famous 
for  its  hams.   Pop.  (1911)  27,886. 

Bayonne,  city,  Hudson  county. 
New  Jersey,  is  situated  at  the  end 
of  a  peninsula  between  New  York 
Harbor  and  Newark  Bay,  on  the 
Central  of  New  Jersey,  the  East 
New  Jersey,  the  Lehigh  Valley, 
and  the  Pennsylvania  Railroads. 
It  is  an  important  manufacturing 
city  and  contains  the  largest 
plants  of  the  American  Radiator 
Company  and  the  Standard  Oil 
Company.  There  are  also  large 
coal-shipping  interests  as  well  as 
refining  and  smelting  works,  man- 
ufactures of  chemicals,  structural 
iron,  motor  boats,  paints,  silk, 
and  wire.  Bayonne  was  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1869  and  re- 
chartered  in  1872.  Pop.  (1900)  32,- 
722;  (1910)  55,545;  (1920)  76,754. 

Bayonne  Decree,  a  decree  is- 
sued by  Napoleon  at  Bayonne, 
April  17,  1808,  ordering  the  seiz- 
ure and  condemnation  of  all 
American  vessels  which  should 
enter  the  ports  of  France,  Spain, 
Italy  or  the  Hanse  towns.  The 
justification  of  this  act  was  that 
American  vessels  had  been  pro- 
hibited by  the  Embargo  Act  of 
Dec.  22,  1807,  from  sailing  from 
American  to  foreign  ports. 

Bayou,  bl'oo,  a  name  applied 
in  the  Southern  United  States  to 
a  stream,  tidal  channel,  or  canal 
connecting  other  streams  or  riv- 
ers, and  not  fed  by  natural 
springs. 

Bayou  State,  popular  name  for 
Mississippi  (q.  v.). 

Bay  Psalm  Book,  the  earliest 
version  of  the  Psalms  printed  and 
published  in  New  England  (Cam- 
bridge, 1640),  and  the  first  book 
printed  in  the  English  colonies  in 
America.  It  was  produced  by 
Richard  Mather,  Thomas  Welde, 
and  John  Eliot,  and  was  printed 
by  Stephen  Daye. 

Bayreuth,  bi'roit,  or  Baireuth, 
town,  Bavaria,  district  of  Upper 
Franconia,  is  situated  on  the  Red 
Main;  about  50  miles  northeast 
of  Nuremberg.  It  is  especially 
celebrated  for  its  Festival  Thea- 
tre, built  through  the  efforts  of 
Wagner  (q.v.).  Other  noteworthy 
buildings  are  the  old  palace,  be- 
gun in  1454  and  rebuilt  in  1758, 
now  occupied  by  public  offices; 


the  palace  containing  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Historical  Society; 
the  opera  house,  decorated  in 
Italian  style;  and  the  houses  oc- 
cupied by  Wagner  and  Jean  Paul 
Richter.  Wagner,  Richter,  and 
Liszt  are  buried  here.  Cotton, 
woollens,  tobacco,  leather,  and 
porcelain  are  manufactured.  Pop. 

(1919)  33,128. 

Bay  Bum.   See  Bayberry. 

Bay  Shore,  village.  New  York, 
Suffolk  county,  on  Great  South 
Bay  and  the  Long  Island  Rail- 
road. It  is  a  summer  resort. 
Pop.  (1920)  4,080. 

Bay  State,  popular  name  for 
the  State  of  Massachusetts  (q.  v.) . 

Bay  St.  Louis,  city,  Missis- 
sippi, county  seat  of  Hancock 
county,  on  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville  Railroad;  about  100 
miles  southwest  of  Mobile,  Ala. 
It  has  large  fishing  and  canning 
interests.    Pop.    (1910)  3,388; 

(1920)  3,033. 

Bay  Window,  a  term  used  for 
a  window  which  projects  beyond 
the  line  of  the  front  of  a  house, 
generally  constructed  in  the  form 
either  of  a  semi-hexagon  or  a 
semi-octagon,  and  first  used  gen- 
erally in  late  Gothic  architecture. 
Strictly  speaking,  a  bay  window 
rises  from  the  ground  or  base- 
ment of  a  house,  an  oriel  window 
is  supported  by  means  of  a 
bracket  or  corbel,  and  a  bow 
window  is  a  segment  of  an  arch; 
but  the  three  words  are  practi- 
cally synonymous. 

Baza,  ba'tha,  town,  Spain, 
province  of  Granada;  53  miles 
northeast  of  Granada.  The  re- 
mains of  a  Moorish  castle,  the 
Alcazaba,  and  the  collegiate 
church  of  San  Maximo  are  the 
chief  points  of  interest.  There 
are  mineral  springs  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, and  mines  of  quicksil- 
ver and  lead,  which  are  little 
worked;  manufactures  of  pot- 
tery, leather  and  flour  are  carried 
on.    Pop.  (1910)  15,964. 

Bazaar',  a  Persian  word  desig- 
nating in  the  East  a  market- 
place, where  people  also  gather 
together  to  hear  the  news  and 
discuss  politics;  in  general  a 
street,  or  series  of  streets,  occu- 
pied with  dusky  shops. 

Bazaine,  ba  zan',  Francois 
ACHILLE,  (1811-88),  marshal  of 
France,  saw  service  in  Algeria, 
Spain,  Morocco,  and  the  Crimea. 
In  the  Italian  war  of  1859 he  com- 
manded a  division,  and  in  1863  he 
commanded  the  Mexican  expedi- 
tion. In  1870  Bazaine  was  en- 
trusted with  the  3rd  Army  Corps, 
lying  near  Metz.  After  the 
battles  of  Worth  and  Spichern 
he  commanded  the  main  French 
armies,  and  on  Aug.  14,  1870, 
began  a  retreat  from  Metz.  De- 
feated at  Vionville,  Mars-la-Tour, 
and  Gravelotte,  he  threw  his  army 
into  Metz,  and  was  at  once  be- 
sieged by  PrinceFrederick  C  harles. 
Foiled  in  his  efforts  to  break  the 
lines  of  investment,  he  capita- 


Bazalgette 


627 


Beacon 


lated  (October  27),  and  laid  down 
his  arms,  3  marshals  and  over 
6,000  officers  and  170,000  men  be- 
coming prisoners  of  war.  De- 
nounced as  a  traitor  by  the  voice 
of  the  nation,  he  was  degraded 
by  a  court-martial  in  1873  and 
sentenced  to  death.  The  sen- 
tence was  commuted,  however, 
to  twenty  years'  imprisonment, 
and  in  August,  1874,  Bazaine 
escaped  from  his  prison  on  the  He 
Sainte-Marguerite,  and  reached 
Madrid.  There  he  died  fourteen 
years  later. 

Bazalgette,  Sir  Joseph  Wil- 
liam (1819-91),  English  civil 
engineer,  of  French  extraction, 
was  born  in  Enfield,  started  in 
business  as  a  consulting  engineer 
in  1842,  and  was  on  the  staff  of 
the  metropolitan  commission  of 
sewers  (1849-55).  He  was  sub- 
sequently engineer  (1855-89)  to 
the  newly-constituted  Metropoli- 
tan Board  of  Works,  and  under 
his  guidance  were  carried  through 
a  general  sewage  scheme  for 
London  (1858-88),  in  which 
nearly  90  miles  of  sewers  were 
constructed,  and  the  Victoria 
Albert  and  Chelsea  sections  of 
the  Thames  Embankment  (1862- 
74). 

Bazan,  Emilia  Pardo.  See 
Pardo  Bazan. 

Bazard,  ba-zar',  St.  Amand 
(1791-1832),  French  revolution- 
ary and  socialist,  was  born  in 
Paris.  He  early  entered  the 
National  Guard  and  took  part  in 
the  defence  of  Paris  in  1815.  He 
was  the  founder  of  a  secret  so- 
ciety (Amis  de  la  Verite)  on  the 
model  of  the  Carbonari  societies 
of  Italy,  but  its  premature  and 
unsuccessful  outbreak  at  Belfort 
forced  him  to  go  into  hiding.  In 
1825  he  became  a  convert  to  the 
teachings  of  Saint-Simon,  and 
soon  shared  with  Enfantin  the 
leadership  of  the  movement.  In 
1828  he  delivered  a  series  of  lec- 
tures, afterward  published  as  the 
first  volume  of  L' Exposition  de 
la  doctrine  de  St.  Simon  (1828- 
30),  the  second  volume  of  which 
was  written  by  Enfantin.  Their 
objects  were  defined  in  the  little 
work  Religion  Sainl-Simonienne 
(1830).  In  1831  the  two  leaders 
quarrelled,  and  Bazard  withdrew 
from  the  society. 

Bazardjik,  ba-ziir-jek',  or  Do- 
BRic,  town,  Roumania,  on  a  trib- 
utary of  the  Danube;  100  miles 
southeast  of  Bucharest.  Pop. 
(1920)  19,452. 

Bazigars,  ba-ze-giirz',  a  no- 
madic tribe  vscattered  over  India, 
mostly  Mohammedan.  They  are 
jugglers  and  acrobats,  and  in 
customs,  features,  and  language 
resemble  gypsies. 

Bazin,  ba-ziin',  Rene  Fran- 
cois (1853-  ),  French  novelist, 
an  upholder  of  conservatism,  was 
born  in  Angers.  He  studied  law 
and  in  1878  became  professor  of 
law  in  Angers  University.  His 
numerous  publications  include: 


Stephanette  (1884) ;  Humble  amour 
(1894);  De  toiite  son  dme  (1897); 
L'Ame  alsacienne  (1903);  La 
barrier  e  (1909);  Davidee  Birot 
(1912);  Aujourd'hui  et  demain 
(1916);  Charles  de  Foucauld 
(1923).  The  Italians  of  Today 
is  a  translation  from  his  work  on 
modern  Italy.  He  has  also 
written  several  books  of  travel. 
Bazzi,    Gianantonio.  See 

SODOMA. 

Bdellium,  del'i-um,  a  name 
given  to  several  myrrh-like  gum- 
resins  of  various  origin,  formerly 
used  in  pharmaceutical  practice. 
The  name  occurs  twice  in  the  Old 
Testament  (Gen.  ii.  12  and  Num. 
xi.  7),  where  it  probably  denotes 
a  gem. 

B  each.  Amy  M  arcy  (1867-  ) , 
American  pianist  and  composer, 
was  born  (Cheney)  in  Henniker, 
N.  H.  She  showed  musical 
talent  at  an  early  age  and  studied 
the  piano  and  harmony  under 
leading  masters,  beginning  to 
play  in  public  in  1883.  In  1885 
she  was  married  to  Dr.  H.  H.  A. 
Beach  of  Boston,  after  which  she 
devoted  herself  principally  to 
composition.  Among  her  works 
are  Mass  in  E  flat  (1892);  The 
Rose  of  Avontown,  a  cantata; 
Gaelic  Symphony;  Sylvania,  a 
wedding  cantata;  and  many 
songs  and  piano  compositions. 

Beach,  Sir  Michael  Edward 
Hicks.    See  Hicks-Beach. 

Beach,  Moses  Yale  (1800- 
68),  American  inventor  and  pub- 
lisher, was  born  in  Wallingford, 
Conn.  Following  an  apprentice- 
ship, he  set  up  in  business  as  a 
cabinet  maker,  but  was  not  suc- 
cessful. Later  he  invented  a 
machine  for  cutting  rags,  still  in 
use  in  paper-mills.  Having  gone 
to  New  York  City  in  1835,  he 
acquired  an  interest  in  and  later 
became  sole  proprietor  of  the 
New  York  Sun.  He  was  a  peace 
commissioner  in  the  Mexican 
War. 

Beach,  Rex  (Ellingwood) 
(1877-  ),  American  author,  was 
born  in  Atwood,  Mich.  He 
studied  law  in  Chicago,  but  de- 
voted himself  to  writing  novels 
of  adventure.  His  publications 
include  Pardners  (1905);  The 
Spoilers  (1906);  The  Barrier 
(1907);  The  Silver  Horde  (1909); 
The  Net  (1912);  The  Auction 
Block  (1914);  The  Crimson  Gar- 
denia (1916);  The  Wings  of 
Chance  (1918);  Oh  Shoot!  (1921); 
Flowing  Gold  (1922);  Big  Brother 
(1923). 

Beach,  Thomas  Miller.  See 
Le  Caron,  Henri. 

Beaches,  Raised,  horizontal 
terraces  of  varying  width,  some 
distance  above  the  present  sea- 
shore, which  were  evidently 
beaches  at  some  earlier  time. 
They  may  consist  of  naked  rock, 
but  are  more  frequently  covered 
with  sand  and  gravel;  and  when 
overgrown  with  grass  or  trees, 
may  form  so  slight  a  feature  of  the 


scenery  as  to  escape  the  casual 
observer.  Such  old,  grass-grown 
beaches  can  be  traced  for  miles 
along  the  shores  of  Scotland,  in 
places  narrow  and  almost  de- 
stroyed, but  here  and  there  ex- 
panding into  broad  level  terraces. 
Similar  beaches  are  known  in  the 
north  of  England,  in  Norway,  on 
the  coast  of  Maine  and  Cali- 
fornia, and  in  many  other  places. 

Beach  Fleas,  minute  amphi- 
pod  crustaceans  which  dwell  be- 
tween tide-marks, and  congregate 
in  the  rows  of  damp  sea-wrack 
which  lie  just  above  the  surf-line 
on  most  beaches.  They  are  great 
scavengers  and  consume  large 
quantities  of  waste  matter,  and, 
in  turn,  furnish  an  abundance  of 
food  to  shore  birds  and  to 
many  lesser  creatures. 

Beach  Grass.  See  Ammo- 
phila. 

Beach  Pea.   See  Lathyrus. 

Beach  Plum  (Prunus  mariti- 
ma),  a  species  of  plum  found  on 
the  eastern  beaches  of  the  United 
States.  The  fruit,  a  dark  red- 
dish purple,  is  sweet  and  juicy. 

Beach'y  Head,  cape  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Sussex,  Eng- 
land, 3  miles  west  of  East- 
bourne, forming  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  South  Downs, 
the  chalk  cliffs  here  rising  to  a 
perpendicular  height  of  564  feet. 
On  the  west  cliff— Belle  Toute — 
a  lighthouse  visible  for  23  miles 
was  erected  in  1831.  The  Battle 
of  Beachy  Head,  in  which  an 
Anglo-Dutch  fleet  under  Admiral 
Arthur,  Earl  of  Torrington,  was 
defeated  by  a  French  fleet  under 
Comte  de  Tourville,  was  fought 
near  this  point,  June  30,  1690. 

Beacon,  a  signal  or  indicator. 
In  the  tenth  century  Anglo- 
Saxon  poem  of  Beowuf,  'beacon' 
is  used  with  the  meaning  of  'en- 


Ancient  Beacon 


sign'  or  'standard';  but  by  the 
fourteenth  century  it  had  begun 
to  develop  its  more  special  mean- 
ing of  'fire-signal';  for  an  Act  of 
Edward  m.  (c.  1340)  ordains  that 

Vol.  I.— Oct.  '25 


Beacon 


628 


BeacoDsfleld 


beacons  'should  be  high  stand- 
ards with  their  pitch-pots.'  By 
this  is  indicated  the  cresset  or 
fire-basket, _  which  was  not  only 
carried  by'  soldiers,  watchmen, 
and  servants  at  the  top  of  poles, 
but  was  frequently  fixed  on  the 
ramparts  of  mediaeval  castles,  and 
to  the  inner  walls  of  baronial 
halls,  or  suspended  from  the 
vaulted  roof,  for  *  purposes  of 
illumination.  It  was  also  fixed 
at  the  outer  end  of  a  harbor  wall, 
to  guide  incoming  boats  at  night. 
Fire-signals  known  as  beacons 
were  erected  in  a  long  chain  from 
Cornwall  to  the  Cheviots,  to 


announce  the  advent  of  the  Span- 
ish Armada,  and  similar  beacons 
were  scattered  all  over  the  British 
Isles  in  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  as  a  precaution 
against  the  threatened  French  in- 
vasion. For  beacons  in  the 
modern  sense  of  marks  for  navi- 
gation on  coasts,  in  rivers,  and 
in  harbors  or  bays,  see  Buoy. 

Beacon,  town.  New  York,  in 
Dutchess  county,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  HudvSon  River,  oppo- 
site Newburgh,  and  on  the  Cen- 
tral New  England  and  the  New 
York  Central  Railroads;  59  miles 
north  of  New  York  City.  It 
was  formed  in  1913  by  the  consol- 
idation of  Matteawan  and  Fish- 
kill-on-Hudson.  It  has  excellent 
shipping  facilities.  Beacon  was 
the  first  city  in  New  York  State 

Vol.  I— Oct.  '25 


to  adopt  the  commission  form  of 
government.  Pop.  (1910)  10,- 
629;  (1920)  10,996. 

Beacon  Hill,  a  hill  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  near  the  Common,  on 
which  stands  the  State  House. 
On  this  hill,  in  early  colonial 
times,  a  beacon  signalled  the 
approach  of  hostile  Indians. 

Beaconsfield,  be'kunz-feld, 
market  town  and  parish,  Eng- 
land, in  Buckinghamshire,  23 
miles  northwest  of  London. 
Edmund  Burke  lived  here,  and  is 
buried  in  the  parish  church. 
Pop.  (1921)  3,642. 

Beaconsfield,  town.  Cape 


Colony,  Africa,  2  miles  southwest 
of  Kimberley,  with  which  it  was 
united  in  1912.  It  is  the  home 
of  many  of  the  diamond  mine 
workers.    Pop.  (1918)  20,304. 

Beaconsfield,  Benjamin  Dis- 
raeli, Earl  of  (1804-81),  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  novelist,  the 
second  of  the  four  children  of 
Isaac  Disraeli,  was  born  in 
London.  He  was  received  into 
the  Jewish  Church,  but  was  bap- 
tized when  his  father  and  mother 
became  members  of  the  Church 
of  England  in  1817.  He  was 
privately  educated  under  his 
lather's  careful  supervision.  At 
seventeen  he  entered  a  solicitor's 
office,  with  a  view  to  the  bar, 
but  soon  turned  his  attention  to 
literature,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one  (1826)  he  published 


his  first  (semi-autobiographical) 
novel,  Vivian  Grey,  which  proved 
the  book  of  the  season.  He  pub- 
lished the  second  part  of  Vivian, 
which  was  somewhat  disappoint- 
ing, in  1827,  and  followed  this 
with  three  brilliant  satires — Ixion 
in  Heaven,  The  Infernal  Mar- 
riage, and  Popanilla,  the  last  a 
skit  on  the  British  constitution, 
— in  1828,  and  The  Young  Duke 
in  1831.  A  second  autobiograph- 
ical novel,  Contarini  Fleming, 
appeared  in  1832,  Alroy  in  1833, 
and  The  Rise  of  Iskander  in  1834. 
The  Revolutionary  Epic,  pub- 
lished in  1834,  proved  to  him 
that  he  was  not  a  poet,  and  he 
decided  to  enter  politics. 

Affecting  extreme  foppery  in 
dress,  he  started  as  a  Radical, 
attempted  to  enter  Parliament 
from  High  Wycombe,  ^nd  was 
rejected.  As  a  Tory  candidate 
for  Taunton  he  came  into  colli- 
sion with  O'Connell,  and  more 
notoriety  was  the  result.  The 
London  Times  published  his 
Letters  of  Runnymeade,  attacking 
the  Whig  leaders  in  the  style  of 
Junius;  and  to  the  1837  Parlia- 
ment he  was  easily  returned  for 
Maidstone,  as  the  colleague  of 
Wyndham  Lewis,  whose  widow 
he  married  in  the  following  year. 

In  1841  he  took  his  seat  for 
Shrewsbury,  which  in  1847  he  ex- 
changed for  Buckinghamshire. 
Having  associated  himself  with 
some  of  the  younger  Tories — 
Young  England — Disraeli  had 
meantime  written  several  more 
novels,  embodying  the  views  of 
this  group  on  the  salvation  of 
England  by  the  aristocracy.  Hen- 
rietta Temple  and  Venetia  (1837) 
were  followed  by  the  political 
Coningsby  (1844),  Sybil  (1845), 
and  Tancred  (1847).  When  Peel 
abandoned  protection  in  1846, 
Disraeli,  by  a  series  of  fierce 
attacks  on  his  old  chief,  made 
himself  the  leader  of  the  Tories, 
with  a  nominal  chief  in  Lord 
George  Bentinck,  whose  Life 
he  wrote  in  1852.  For  a  quarter 
of  a  century  he  led  the  Con- 
servatives in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, 'educating,'  in  his  own 
phrase,  the  men  who  slowly  and 
reluctantly  submitted  to  his  in- 
dispensable dominance.  He  was 
three  times  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  (1852,  1858-9,  and 
1806),  and  was  prime  minister  in 
1868  and  1874-80.  The  Reform 
Act  of  1867  was  chiefly  due  to 
his  influence.  When,  in  1874,  he 
became  exceedingly  powerful,  he 
showed  that  imperialism  and  a 
spirited  foreign  policy  had  taken 
the  place  in  his  heart  of  the 
earlier  enthusiasm  for  social  re- 
form, and  though  he  had  in  1872 
protested  against  the  Liberals' 
neglect  of  the  colonies,  he 
did  nothing  to  bind  the  empire 
together.  In  1876  he  made 
Queen  Victoria  Empress  of 
India,  bought  the  Suez  Canal 
shares,    and    became    Earl  of 


Benjamin  Disraeli,  Earl  of  Beaconsfield,  1867 
{Portrait  in  possession  of  Maj.  Coningsby  Disraeli.) 


Beadle 

Beaconsfield;  and  in  1878  he  loos- 
ened the  grasp  of  Russia  on  the 
throat  of  Turkey,  and  brought 
back  'peace  with  honor'  from 
the  Berlin  Congress.  His  great- 
est novel,  Lothair,  was  published 
in  1870;  his  last,  Endymion,  in 
1880.  He  was  buried  at  Hughen- 
den,  leaving  directions  that  his 
I.ije  should  be  written  by  Lord 
Rowton.  Disraeli  was  one  of  the 
greatest  of  British  parliamenta- 
rians, but  the  time  has  not  come 
for  an  appreciation  of  him  as  a 
politician.  His  novels  are  unique. 
No  one  has  portrayed  with  such 
fidelity  the  English'  aristocracy  at 
its  best)  or  the  inner  life  of  poli- 
tics. An  unfinished  ^  Novel,  by 
him,  commenced  serial  issue  in 
the  London  Times  on  Jan.  20, 
1905.  See  Sir  T.  Martin's  Life  of 
the  Prince  Consort  (1880),  and  Life 
of  Lord  Lyndhurst  (1883);  Greville 
Memoirs  (1875);  Croker  Papers 
(2nd  ed.  1885);  T.  P.  O'Connor's 
Lord  Beaconsfield  (6th  ed.  1884); 
Sketch  by  Georg  Brandes  (Eng. 
ed.  1880) ;  and  Biographies  by  T. 
E.  Kebbel  (1888),  J.  A.  Froude 
(1890),  Harold  Gorst  (1897),  Sir 
W.  Eraser  (1891),  Wilfrid  Mey- 
nell  (1903),  and  Walter  Sichel 
(1904). 

Beadle,  a  functionary,  bearing 
a  mace  or  a  wand  of  office,  who 
precedes  civic  or  ecclesiastical 
dignitaries.  The  English  parish 
beadle  is  practically  a  constable. 

Beads.  Beads  were  among  the 
earliest  ornaments:  they,  have 
been  found  in  Egyptian  tombs; 
glass  beads,  used  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians for  trade,  are  still  treas- 
ured by  African  chiefs;  and  at 
the  present  day  beads  are  a  com- 
mon medium  of  exchange  with 
uncivilized  tribes.  In  making 
glass  beads,  a  mass  of  glass  is 
blown  into  a  bulb,  and  this  is 
drawn  out  into  a  long  tube.  This 
tube  is  cut  into  pieces  about  one 
foot  long,  and  these,  after  being 
annealed,  are  cut  into  beads.  The 
beads  are  then  placed  in  a  rotat- 
ing drum,  with  charcoal  and  plas- 
ter, and  heated  over  a  furnace. 
By  the  rubbing  together  in  the 
drum  the  pieces  of  soft  glass  re- 
ceive a  round  shape,  the  charcoal 
and  plaster  preventing  them  from 
sticking  together. 

Beagle,  in  appearance  a  mini- 
ature foxhound,  is  the  smallest 
dog  used  for  hunting  purposes. 
It  would  appear  to  be  of  ancient 
origin,  for  a  pair  are  mentioned 
at  the  time  cf  Queen  Elizabeth. 
The  present-day  beagle  varies  in 
height  from  10  to  16  in.  It  pos- 
sesses an  extraordinarily  keen 
scent,  acute  intelligence,  and  ad- 
mirable perseverance.  A  pack  in 
full  cry  run  so  closely  that  thev 
might  sometimes  be  covered  with 
a  sneet,  and  they  give  a  sonorous 
music  quite  amazing  for  so  small 
a  beast.  These  handsome  little 
dogs  are  rare  in  America,  being 


629 


seen  at  shows  and  occasionally 
found  at  the  hunt  clubs. 


Beagle. 


Beagle,  the  British  sloop  on 
which  Charles  Darwin,  as  natur- 
alist, made  his  famous  voyage 
(1831-6)., 

Beak,  in  birds.    See  Bill. 

Beaker,  a  thin  cylindrical  or 
conical  vessel  made  of  glass,  used 
in  chemical  operations  to  heat 
liquids,  collect  precipitates,  etc. 

Beal,  Samuel  (1825-89),  Eng- 
lish Oriental  scholar,  studied  at 
Cambridge,  went  through  the 
China  War  as  a  na^/y  chaplain,  and 
ultimately  became  professor  of 
Chinese  at  University  College, 
London.  Among  his  works,  in 
which  he  brought  to  light  much 
valuable  information  on  the  his- 
tory of  early  Buddhism,  are:  The 
Catena  of  Buddhist  Scriptures 
from  the  Chinese  (1872),  The  Ro- 
mantic Legend  of  Buddha  (1876), 
Texts  from  the  Buddhist  Canon, 
Dhammapada  (1878),  a  Life  of 
Buddha,  and  a  Life  of  Hienen- 
Tsiang  (1888). 

Beal,  William  James  (1833), 
American  botanist,  was  born  at 
Adrian,  Mich.,  and  graduated 
(1859)  at  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan. After  studying  at  Lawrence 
Scientific  School,  Harvard,  and 
lioldirg  a  professorship  of  botany 
at  the  University  of  Chicago,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  botany  at 
the  Michigan  Agricultural  College, 
1870.  Member  and  officer  of  sev- 
eral scientific  societies.  Author  of 
The  New  Botany  (1881)  and 
Grasses  of  North  America  (2  vols. 
1886-96). 

Bcale,  Lionel  Smith  (1828- 
1906),  Eng.  physiologist,  born 
in  London  ;  studied  at  King's 
College,  where  he  became  pro- 
fessor successively  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  (1853),  pathology, 
and  medicine,  retiring  in  1896. 
Among  his  works  are:  The 
Microscope  in  its  Application 
to  Practical  Medicine  (4th  ed. 
1878)  ;  How  to  work  with  the 
Microscope  (ill.  ed.  1861);  Proto- 
plasm, or  Life,  Force,  and  Mat- 
ter (1870);  and  Vitality  and 
Natural  Science  (1900). 

Beale,  Robert  (1541-1601), 


Bean 

English  diplomatist  and  anti- 
quary, was  engaged  by  Eliza- 
beth in  negotiations  with  conti- 
nental princes,  and  with  the 
Queen  of  Scots  (1581-4)  at  Shef- 
field. He  was  present  at  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
and  carried  (1586)  to  Fotheringay 
the  warrant  for  the  execution  of 
Mary.  He  has  left  an  account 
of  both  events.  He  was  m.p.  for 
Totnes(1572),Dorchester  (1585-6, 
1588),  and  Lostwithiel  (1592),  and 
served  under  Leicester  in  tne  at- 
tempt to  reUeve  Sluj^s  (1587).  See 
Strype's  Annals,  iii.  (1709);  his 
Whitgift{niS),a.ndParker{l7l\). 

Beam,  White  {Pyrus  aria),  a 
tree  about  30  ft.  nigh,  belonging 
to  the  pear  genus  of  Rosaceae 
which  is  found  in  Europe  and 
Asia.  The  leaves  are  elliptical, 
with  serrate  edges,  and  either 
whole  or  cut  into  lobes;  the  under 
surface  is  white  with  downy  hairs. 
The  flowers  resemble  those  of  the 
rowan;  the  fruit  is  like  an  enlarged 
haw  or  min'.ature  apple,  and  is 
slightly  acid  and  astringent.  It  is 
sometimes  mistaken  for  that  of  the 
service  tree.  The  wood  is  yellow- 
ish white,  hard,  close-grained,  and 
takes  on  a  high  polish;  it  is  very 
suitable  for  turnmg. 

Beam.  See  Shipbuilding; 
Building. 

Bean.  A  name  properly  given 
to  the  kidney-shaped  seed  of  cer- 
tain leguminous  plants;  also  ap- 
plied to  the  whole  plant  and  seed 
pods  and  used  in  combinations 
to  designate  the  seed  of  certain 
other  plants.  The  bean  of  earliest 
agricultural  importance  is  the 
horse,  tick,  or  broad  bean,  Vicia 
faha.  This  bean  is  largely  grown 
in  Europe  both  in  the  field  as  a 
stock  food,  and  in  the  garden  as  a 
table  vegetable.  It  is  sometimes 
grown  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
United  States  and  in  Canada  as  a 
stock  food;  but  generally  does  not 
succeed  well  in  this  country  on  ac- 
count of  the  hot  summers. 

The  bean  commonly  grown  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  is 
of  American  origin  and  belongs  to 
the  genus  Phaseolus.  The  com- 
mon kidney  bean  or  haricot,  P. 
vulgaris,  comprises  the  field  and 
the  garden  string  or  snap  beans, 
both  dwarf  and  climbing,  and 
makes  up  the  bulk  of  the  bean 
crop  of  the  country.  Field  beans 
belong  to  the  bush  types  and  ar* 
grown  for  the  dry  shelled  beans 
used  in  cooking.  A  few  garden 
varieties  are  also  grown  for  the 
dry  shelled  beans  but  primarily 
for  the  tender  edible  pods.  The 
climbing  sorts  are  usually  grown 
as  green  string  or  snap  beans. 

Of  the  climbing  types  of  beans 
the  Limas,  P.  Lunatus,  are  most 
popular,  the  broad,  flat,  shelled 
seed  being  used  either  dry  or  green 
for  the  table.  The  Limas  are  ex- 
tensively grown  in  California  and 
the  dwarf  forms  throughout  the 


Bean 

eastern  states.  The  scarlet  run- 
ner bean,  P.  multifiorus,  is  used 
primarily  as  an  ornamental  vine, 
though  the  seeds  are  edible  as 
shelled  beans. 

Both  green  beans  and  the  dried 
seed  are  superior  to  most  other 
vegetables  in  nutritive  value.  Dry 
shelled  beans  of  the  navy  type 
contain  on  the  average  22.5  per 
cent,  protein,  1 .8  per  cent,  fat,  59.6 
per  cent,  carbohydrates,  3.5  per 
cent,  ash,  and  12.6  per  cent,  water. 

Kidney,  lima,  and  scarlet  run- 
ner beans  are  all  very  sensitive  to 
frost  and  can  be  planted  only  after 
settled  weather  comes  in  spring. 
Field  beans  require  for  their  best 
growth  a  clay  or  gravelly  loam 
soil.     They  are  usually  planted 


Snap  or  Edible  Podded  Kidney 
Bean  (Phaseolus  vulgaris). 

either  in  hills  or  in  drills  in  rows  3 
ft.  apart.  Garden  beans  require  a 
much  richer  soil  than  field  beans, 
and  will  stand  heavy  fertilizing. 
Of  the  bush  varieties  grown  for 
snap  or  string  beans  the  most 
popular  of  the  green  podded  gar- 
den sorts  are  Early  Valentine, 
Stringless,  Early  Mohawk,  and 
Refugee;  of  the  yellow  podded 
varieties  Black  Wax,  Golden  Wax, 
Kidney  Wax  and  White  Wax. 
Pole  beans  are  planted  1  to  2 


Lima  Bean  {Phaseolus  lunatus). 

inches  deep  in  hills  spaced  about 
4  ft.  apart  each  way,  with  4  to  5 
beans  in  a  hill.  Horse  or  broad 
beans  when  grown  as  a  field  crop 
do  best  on  a  stiff  clay  loam.  They 
are  planted  in  drills  18  to  24  inches 
apart,  using  6  or  8  pecks  of  seed 


630 

per  acre.  The  grouna  dry  beans 
are  fed  to  all  animals.  The  whole 
plants  are  used  for  forage  and 
silage.  These  beans  are  quite 
hardy,  and  can  therefore  be 
planted  much  earlier  in  the  season 
than  the  kidney  beans. 

One  of  the  more  serious  diseases 
of  beans  is  anthracnose,  which  at- 
tacks the  pods,  forming  dark-col- 
ored pits  resulting  in  greatly  de- 
creased yields.  The  disease  can 
be  checked  by  spraying^  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  when  it  first 
makes  its  appearance  on  the 
leaves.  Lima  oean  mildew  is  con- 
trolled in  the  same  manner.  The 
bean  weevil  Bruchus  ohtectus,  a 
nearly  black  insect  about  -J-  of  an 
inch  long,  is  a  serious  enemy  of 
the  stored,  seed.  It  is  controlled 
by  fumigating  with  carbon  bisul- 
phid  in  an  air-tight  room.  For  list 
of  varieties  of  beans  grown  in  the 
United  States,  see  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Bureau  Plant  Industry  Bui. 
21.  For  European  varieties  and 
cultural  methods,  see  The  Vege- 
table Garden  by  Messrs.  Vilmarin- 
Andrieux  (1888). 

Bean  Tree,  a  name  given  to 
various  trees  because  of  the  simi- 
larity of  their  fruit  to  a  bean.  In 
the  United  States  and  W.  Indies 
there  are  four  or  five  species  so 
named,  of  which  the  best  known 
are  the  Cafalpa  bignoniodes,  more 
usually  known  as  Indian-bean 
tree,  and  the  Jamaican  Erythrina 
corallodendron.  The  wood  of  the 
Catalpa  is  a  hard,  useful  timber, 
the  bark  has  tonic  and  antiseptic 
properties,  but  the  honey  made 
from  the  handsome  *  trumpet 
flowers  '  is  poisonous.  In  Aus- 
tralia, the  Moreton  Bay  chestnut, 
Castanospermutn  australe,  is  called 
the  bean  tree. 

Bears  form  a  well  defined 
group  (family  Ursidas)  of  car- 
nivores most  nearly  related  to  the 
canine  branch,  both  the  dogs 
and  the  bears  tracing  their  an- 
cestry to  the  same  source  (Am- 
phicyon)  in  the  Miocene  Age. 
The  development  of  the  group 
was  very  slow,  however,  and 
bears  may  be  considered  the 
most  modern  of  the  Carnivora. 
Their  big,  clumsy  looking  forms, 
coarse,  shaggy  coats,  short  tail, 
and  plantigrade,  naked-soled  feet 
(a  primitive  relic),  giving  them  a 
comparatively  slow  and  awkward 
gait,  make  all  bears  externally 
peculiar  and  easily  recognizable 
at  a  glance,  and  it  is  in  the 
skull  and  teeth  that  they  differ 
most  from  other  carnivores. 
The  teeth  are  like  those  of  dogs, 
but  are  relatively  larger  ana 
blunter — that  is  more  adapted  to 
crushing  miscellaneous  soft  food 
than  to  piercing  and  cutting  flesh; 
the  molars  are  flat-crowned  grind- 
ers. Another  notable  feature  is 
the  length  and  strength  of  the 
claws,  by  means  of  which  these 
animals  are  able  to  apply  effective- 


ly  an  enormous  strength  to  digging 
into  the  concealed  places  where 
they  find  much  of  their  food;  and 
to  climb  trees,  despite  their  great 
weight — an    ability    highly  im- 

Eortant    to    them.    Almost  all 
ears  dwell  in  forested  regions 
exclusively. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  kinds 
fairly  distinct  are  these:  Polar 
or  ice  bear  (JJrsus  maritimus)  a 
denizen  of  the  Arctic  regions 
alone,  altogether  yellowish  white 
in  color,  elongated  in  form,  espe- 
cially as  to  the  neck  and  head,  and 
deriving  its  food  almost  wholly 
from  the  sea,  in  which  it  is  an 
expert  swimmer,  and  subsisting 

gnncipally  on  fish.  The  brown 
ear  (£/.  arctos)  ranges  throughout 
northern  Europe  and  Asia  (except 
Japan),  and  exhibits  many  varie- 
ties, of  which  the  most  southern 
and  smallest  are  the  Syrian  and 
Atlas  Mountains  bears;  and  by 
some  this  race  is  thought  to  in- 
clude the  great  brown-coated 
bears  of  Alaska,  and  the  big  bears 
found  on  the  Barren  Grounds  of 
northeastern  British  America. 
This  species  contains  the  biggest, 
heaviest  specimens  known.  Al- 
lied to  them  are  the  broad-headed 
brown  or  hoary  grizzly  bears  of 
western  America  (JJ .  horribilis), 
with  which  should  perhaps  be 
included  the  Barren-Grounds 
bears,  and  which  range  from 
Arizona  to  Alaska;  they  nearly 
equal  in  average  bulk  the  Asian 
brown  bears.  Distinct  from  these 
by  their  smaller  size,  black  or 
brownish-black  color,  flattened, 
pointed  heads  and  yellowish  noses, 
are  the  American  black  bears 
{U.  americanus),  originally  dis- 
tributed over  nearly  all  the  forested 
area  of  N.  America,  and  still 
inhabiting  the  less  thickly  settled 
districts.  South  America  has  a 
single  species — the  small  spectacled 
bear  of  the  higher  Andes,  by 
some  naturalists  placed  in  a 
separate  genus  as  Tremarctos 
ornatus;  it  is  blackish,  with  yel- 
lowish circles  about  the  eyes.  In 
the  Himalayan  region,  northern 
China  and  Japan,  are  found  the 
Asian  black  bears  {U.  tibetanus 
and  perhaps  other  species)  which 
are  very  similar  to  the  American, 
but  have  the  breast  marked  with 
a  crescentic  patch  of  white  or 
yellow.  Tibet  also  has  another 
supposedly  distinct  species  in  the 

f)arty-colored  bear  {if.  pruinosus), 
ittle  known.  In  the  Malayan 
islands  occurs  the  quaint  little 
arboreal  sun  bear  {U .  malayanus); 
and  in  the  St.  Elias  Alps  of  Alaska 
another  small  gray-coated  species, 
rare  and  limited  in  range,  known 
as  the  glacier  bear  {U .  midden- 
dorffi).  Lastly  is  to  be  mentioned 
the  very  distinct  sloth  or  honey 
bear  {Mclursus  labiatus)  of  India 
and  Ceylon,  a  rather  small  jungle- 
keeping  species,  characterized  by 
its  long,  upturned  flexible  snout 


Bear-baiting 

and  extremely  long,  protrusile 
tongue.  It  is  shaggy  and  black, 
with  a  yellowish  chevronlike  mark 
on  the  breast,  and  although  it 
feeds  almost  wholly  on  insects 
(mainly  ants  and  the  nests  and 
honey  stores  of  bees)  is  one  of  the 
most  savage  and  formidable  of  its 
race. 

In  general  habits  bears  (ex- 
cepting the  white  polar  species) 
are  much  alike.  Most  of  them 
are  adepts  at  climbing,  and 
owing  to  the  mobile  plantigrade 
hind  limbs,  which  are  longer  than 
the  fore  limbs,  are  capable  of 
standing  upright  and  using  the 
fore  limbs  as  hands  in  obtaining 
and  holding  food,  as  weapons  in 
fighting,  etc.,  with  great  clever- 
ness and  strength.  Yet  the  popu- 
lar notion  that  they  try  to  over- 
come antagonists  by  hugging  them 
to  death  is  erroneous;  seizing  and 
biting  with  the  teeth  is  the  natural 
and  most  effective  method  of 
fighting. 

Though  all  bears  live  to  some 
extent,  on  vegetable  food,  all  are 
predatory,  digging  out  the  small 
burrowing  mammals,  striking 
down  wild  game,  and  the  smaller 
kinds  of  farm  stock,  as  calves, 
pigs  and  colts,  and  catching  fish  in 
the  spring. 

Bears  of  northern  regions  pass 
the  winter  in  a  hibernating  sleep, 
the  profundity  and  continuance 
of  which  varies  with  the  species 
and  the  weather.  The  females 
are  more  regular  and  retiring  in 
this  respect  than  the  males,  for 
it  is  during  this  winter  retreat 
that  the  cubs,  usually  two,  are 
born. 

.  This  formidable  animal,  a  noc- 
turnal prowler  in  dark  forests  and 
calling  for  the  greatest  prowess  in 
its  conqueror,  naturally  appealed 
to  the  imaginations  of  primitive 
peoples,  and  has  figured  largely 
since  prehistoric  times  in  Old 
World  fables  and  folk-lore,  where 
it  has  been  given  the  character  of 
a  sort  of  good-natured  demon  of 
fearful  strength  and  uncertain 
temper,  but  easily  cajoled.  It 
also  takes  a  prominent  place  in 
the  myths  and  theology  of  our 
Indians,  becoming  a  clan  totem 
in  almost  every  tribe. 

For  the  American  bears  see 
Hornaday's  American  Natural 
History  (1904),  IngersoU's  Life  of 
Animals:  the  Mammals  (1906), 
and  such  general  works  as  those 
of  Audubon,  Merriam,  the  Stand- 
ard Natural  History,  etc.;  for 
those  of  the  Old  World  see  the 
Royal  Natural  History  (1893), 
Baker's  Wild  Beasts  and  their 
Ways  (1898),  and  the  writings 
of  other  sportsmen  and  natu- 
ralists. 

Bear  (Constellation),  See 
Ursa. 

Bear-baiting.  The  baiting  of 
bears  with  dogs  was  a  favorite 
sport  of  the  Romans,  who  im- 


631 

ported  bears  from  Britain,  Syria, 
and  elsewhere  for  the  purpose; 
and  until  recent  times  it  was  com- 
mon all  over  Europe.  It  existed 
in  England  as  early  as  the  12th 
century,  and  was,  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  a  popular  and  fashion- 
able amusement.  A  noted  centre 
in  London  was  Paris  Gardens,  on 
the  Bankside  in  Southwark.  In 
the  17th  century  it  was  repressed 
by  the  Puritans,  and  was  finally 
prohibited  by  law  in  1835. 

Bearberry  (Arcfostaphylos),  a 
genus  of  the  heath  order  (Eri- 
caceae), found  chiefly  in  America. 
A.  uva-ursi  is  common  in  sandy 


Bearberry  {Arctostaphylos  uva- 
ursi). 

Stamen,  section  of  ovary,  and  cluster  of 
fruit. 


soils:  its  small,  leathery,  dark 
green,  obovate  leaves  are  ever- 
green; the  plant  has  a  low,  dense, 
trailing  habit-  the  flowers  are  pink, 
or  white,  and.  appear  in  May;  the 
fruit  is  red,  about  the  size  of  a 
huckleberry.  In  some  regions  it 
is  eaten  by  bears  and  game  birds. 
Its  foliage  is  a  favorite  material 
for  smoking  tobacco  among  the 
American  Indians,  being  widely 
known  as  kinnikinnik.  Even  after 
the  introduction  of  Nicotiana,_  the 
bearberry  leaves  were  often  mixed 
with  the  new  kind  of  tobacco. 

Beard.    See  Hair. 

Beard,  George  Miller(1839- 
83),  American  physician,  born  in 
Montville,  Conn.,  and  graduated 
(1862)  at  Yale.  He  was  assist- 
ant surgeon  (1863-4)  in  the  navy 
during  the  Civil  War;  on  its  con- 
clusion he  began  (1866)  practice  in 
New  York,  and  devoted  himself 
especially  to  nervous  diseases,  on 
which  (1868)  he  was  appointed  lec- 
turer at  the  University  of  New 
York.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
to  make  use  of  electricity  as  a 
tonic  in  nervous  diseases  and  in 
the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the 
skin.  He  also  gave  much  atten- 
tion to  animal  magnetism  and  kin- 
dred manifestations.  His  works 
treat   of  American  Nervousness 

1881)  ,    The   Study   of  Trance 

1882)  ,  and  Nervous  Exhaustion 
1890). 

Beard,  ^  James  Henry  (1814- 
93),  American  painter,  was  ])orn  in 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  was  taken  as  a 


Beardslee 

child  to  Ohio,  where,  at  Cincin- 
nati, he  was  engaged  in  portrait 
ainting  for  many  years.  He  ex- 
ibited  his  California  Emigrants 
at  the  National  Academy  in  1846, 
and  was  given  honorary  member- 
ship (1848).  He  removed  to  New 
York,  1870,  and  became  full 
member  of  Academy,  1872.  His 
later  work  was  principally  animal 
painting.  Some  pieces  are  Peep 
at  Growing  Danger  (1871),  Don 
Quixote  and  Sancho  Panza  (1878), 
and  Detected  Poachers  (1884). 

Beard,  Richard  (1799-1880), 
American  educator,  was  born  in 
Sumner  co.,  Tenn.,  and  gradu- 
ated (1832)  at  Cumberland  Uni- 
versity, Tenn.,  at  which  he  was 
professor  of  languages,  1832-8, 
and  president,  1843-54.  He  re- 
signed in  the  latter  year  to  take 
the  professorship  of  systematic 
theology  in  the  newly-founded 
theological  school  at  Lebanon, 
Tenn.,  of  which  he  was  prac- 
tically the  head  for  twenty-five 
years.  Author  of  Systematic 
Theology  (1870)  and  Why  Am  I  a 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  ^  (1874). 

Beard,  Thomas  Francis 
('Frank')  (1842-1905),  Amer. 
artist,  son  of  James  Henry  Beard, 
born  in  Cincinnati,  O,,  and  was  a 
special  artist  for  Harper  &  Broth- 
ers during  the  Civil  War.  He 
afterward  devoted  himself  to  illus- 
trating and  lecturing,  being  the 
originator  of  the  well-known 
'Chalk  Talks.*  He  was  for  a 
time  professor  of  aesthetics  at 
Syracuse  University,  and  lectured 
for  many  years  at  Chautauqua. 
Author  of  The  Blackboard  in  the 
Sunday  School  (1880). 

Beard,  William  Holbrook 
(1825-1900),  American  painter, 
brother  of  James  Henry  Beard, 
was  born  in  Painesville,  O.,  and 
studied  _  portrait  painting.  After 
continuing  his  studies  in  Europe, 
he  established  himself  in  New 
York  (I860)  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Academy,  1862. 
His  humorous  and  human-like 
animal  pictures  were  familiar  to 
New  Yorkers  for  many  years. 
His  Humor  in  Animals,  sketches, 
was  published  in  1885.  Move- 
ment; or.  Action  in  Art  appeared 
in  1900. 

Beard  Moss,  a  lichen  (Usnea 
harbata)  which  hangs  like  tangled 
tresses  of  hair  from  the  branches 
of  trees  in  various  countries  of  the 
temperate  regions. 

Beardslee,  Lester  Anthony 
(1836-1903),  American  naval  offi- 
cer, born  at  Little  Falls,  N.  Y. 
He  became  a  midshipman  in  the 
U.  S.  navy  in  1850;  accompanied 
Com.  M.  C.  Perry  on  his  famous 
Japan  expedition  of  1853;  gradu- 
ated at  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy 
(1856),  and  during  the  Civil  War, 
as  lieutenant-commander  (1862), 
took  part  in  the  attacks  on  the  forts 
in  Charleston  harbor  (S.  C),  and 
served  on  the  steam-sloop  Wachu- 


Beardsley 


Beattle 


sett  when  that  vessel  captured  the 
Confederate  steam-sloop  Florida 
(Oct.  7,  1864),  in  the  harbor  of 
Bahia,  Brazil.  In  1879-80  he 
commanded  the  Jamestown  in 
Alaskan  waters,  discovering  and 
naming  Glacier  Bay;  in  1895  he 
became  a  rear-admiral;  in  1894-7 
commanded  the  U.  S.  Pacific 
Squadron,  and_  in  1898  retired 
from  active  service. 

Beardsley,  Aubrey  Vincent, 
(1872-98),  English  artist,  was  born 
in  1872  at  Brighton.  His  drawings 
in  black  and  white  for  the  Pall 
Mall  Magazine  and  the  Pall  Mall 
Budget  first  attracted  public 
attention.  His  illustrations  in 
Messrs.  Dent's  edition  of  La 
Morte  d' Arthur,  published  1893, 
mav  be  said  to  nave  given  him 
a  definite  reputation.  When  the 
Yellow  Book  was  started  in  1894, 
he  was  appointed  art  editor,  and 
was  next  associated  with  Ar- 
thur Symons  in  the  production 
of  the  short-lived  Savoy.  Illus- 
trations, or  decorative  designs, 
for  Oscar  Wilde's  Salome,  for 
The  Rape  of  the  Lock,  for  Ma- 
demoiselle de  Maupin,  and  for 
Pierrot  of  the  Minute,  followed; 
and  when  Beardsley  died  from 
consumption,  at  Mentone,  he  had 
iust  completed  a  series  of  initials 
for  an  edition  of  Volpone.  His 
work  had  much  influence  on  con- 
temporary art  in  general. 

Beardsley,  Eben  Edwards 
(1808-91),  American  clerg3rman, 
was  born  at  Stepney,  Conn.,  and 
graduated  at  Trinity.  He  was 
ordained.  1835,  and  was  rector  of 
St.  Peters  Church  and  rector  and 
principal  of  Cheshire  Episcopal 
Academy  at  Cheshire,  Conn., 
until  he  became  rector  of  St. 
Thomas's  Church,  New  Haven,  in 
1848.  He  wrote  History  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  Connecticut 
(1865). 

Beardstown,  city,  Cass  co..  111., 
on  the  Illinois  R.,  and  on  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy 
and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Southwestern  R.  Rs.,  46  m.  from 
Springfield.  It  was  settled  in 
1832.  There  are  car-shops,  coop- 
erage works,  ice-packing,  and  a 
large  output  of  beer,  lumber,  and 
flour.   Pop.  (1910)  6,107. 

Bear  Flag  War.  See  Fr^;- 
mont,  John  Charles. 

Bearing.  To  builders  the  bear- 
ing of  a  piece  of  timber  means  the 
unsupported  part  between  two 
fixed  extremities  or  supports, 
which  are  likewise  callecl  bear- 
ings. The  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  distance  or  length  of  the 
beam  beyond  the  line  or  face  of 
support,  or  extent'  of  the  beam 
surface  which  actually  lies  on,  or 
is  supported  by,  the  wall,  which 
latter  becomes  then  the  'bearing 
wall'  or  'partition.*  The  sup- 
ported wall,  if  built  in  the  same 
direction,  is  said  to  have  a  'solid 
l)earing';  if  built  in  £l  transverse 


direction,  as  in  the  case  ot  sills, 
a  'false  bearing,'  or  as  many  false 
bearings  as  there  are  intervals  be- 
low the  wall  or  partition.  In  ap- 
plied'mechanics  a  bearing  is  the 
support  of  a  moving  part  of  a  ma- 
chme.  Bearings  have  a  double 
part  to  play:  they  not  only  furnish 
a  support,  but  permit  the  part  of 
the  machine  supported  to  per- 
form the  motion  or  motions  re- 
quired of  it.  Such  motions  are 
either  turning  or  sliding.  To  re- 
duce frictional  losses,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  destruction  of  the  mov- 
ing surfaces,  special  forms  of 
bearings  have  been  designed. 
(See  Friction;  Ball  Bearings.) 
In  nautical  language,  bearing  con- 
notes the  position  of  any  object 
with  regard  to  the  observer's  ship 
as  determined  by  compass,  while 
in  surveying  the  direction  of  a 
given  line  with  respect  to  the 
meridian  or  other  determined  line 
is  also  known  by  this  term. 

Bear  Lake,  Great,  lake.  See 
Great  Bear  Lake. 

Bear  Lake,  lake  in  Rich  co., 
Utah,  extending  into  Idaho,  20  m. 
long,  by  7  m.  in  width,  noted  for 
its  beauty. 

Bear  River  of  the  western 
U.  S.,  trib.  of  Great  Salt  Lake; 
rises  on  the  northern  slope  of 
the  Uinta  Mts.  in  Utah,  flows 
through  parts  of  Wyoming  and 
Idaho,  discharging  into  Great 
Salt  Lake,  Utah.  Its  course  of 
c.  450  m.  is  extremely  circuitous, 
and  it  is  not  navigable.  It  runs 
through  a  region  of  mineral 
sprirgs. 

Bear's  Breech.  See  Acanthus. 

Bear's  Foot.  See  Hellebore. 

Beas  (the  Hyphasis  of  the 
Greeks;  Sans.  Vipasa),  one  of  the 
five  rivers  of  the  Punjab,  rises  in 
the  Himalaya  Mts._,  ana  after  a 
course  of  290  m.  joins  the  Sutlej, 
35  m.  S.E.  of  Amritsar. 

Beat,  in  music.  (1.)  A  name  for- 
merly given  to  certain  graces  or 
ornaments.  (3.)  The  wavy  effect 
produced  when  two  notes,^  which 
are  nearly  but  not  quite  in  uni- 
son, are  sounded  simultaneously. 

Beatenberg,  St.  See  St. 
Beatenberg. 

Beath  (Gael,  'birch  tree'),  part 
of  S.W.  Fifeshire,  Scotland:  con- 
tains the  mining  villages  of  Hill  of 
Beath,  Cowdenbeath,  Kelty  (part 
of),  Oakfield,  and  Lassodie.  Area 
of  par.  6,343  ac.  Coal  is  exten- 
sively worked.  Pop.  (1901)  15,- 
812. 

Beaton, David,Cardinal(1494- 
1546),  primate  of  Scotland.  At 
the  University  of  Paris  he  becam  > 
intimate  with  the  Scottish  regent, 
the  Duke  of  Albany,  who  in  1519 
appointed  him  resident  for  Scot- 
land at  the  French  court.  In  1525 
Beaton  became  abbot  of  Ar- 
broath; in  1528,  lord  privy  seal; 
in  1638  he  was  created  a  cardi- 
nal; and  in  1539  he  succeeded  his 
uncle,  James  Beaton,  as  arch- 


bishop of  St.  Andrews.  On  the 
death  of  James  v.,  in  1542,  he 

sought  to  seize  the  infant  queen 
of  Scots,  and  to  obtain  the  re- 
gency by  m.eans  of  a  forged 
will;  but  the  scheme  failed,  and 
he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned. 
After  his  release,  he  became,  in 
1543,  chancellor  of  Scotland. 
He  now-  persecuted  the  Protes- 
tants with  great  cruelty  and  rig- 
or. Among  his  victims  was  the 
famous  preacher  George  Wishart. 
His  rule  became  intolerable,  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him,  and  he  was  assassinated 
at  St.  Andrews  on  May  29, 
1546.  See  Burton's  Hist,  of 
Scot.;  Knox's  Hist.;  the  IconO' 
graphia  Scotica;  G.  Cook's  Hist, 
of  the  Reformation  in  Scot.  (2nd 
ed.  1819);  Tytler's  Original  Letters 
(1839);  and  Cardinal  Beaton, 
Priest  and  Politician,  by  John 
Herkless  (1891). 

Beatrice,  city,  co.  seat  of  Gage 
CO.,  Neb.,  on  the  Big  Blue  R.,  and 
on  the  Burlington  and  Missouri 
River,  the  Union  Pacific,  and  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific 
R.  Rs.  It  was  settled  in  1859  and 
has  large  manufactures  of  flour, 
bricks,  and  jack  -  screws.  The 
State  Institute  for  Feeble-Minded 
Youth  is  located  here,  and  there  is 
a  public  library.  Pop.(  1910)  9,356. 

Beatrice,  the  angelic  woman 
who  was  the  heroine  of  Dante's 
Vita  Nuova,  of  his  Divina  Corn- 
media,  and  of  his  whole  life.  It 
has  been  supposed  by  some  that 
she  was  a  purely  symbolic  figure; 
but  it  is  now  certain  that  the  ob- 

i'ect  of  his  adoration  was  an  actual 
Beatrice,  a  Florentine  lady,  daugh- 
ter of  one  Folco  Portinari,  who 
became  the  wife  of  a  certain 
Simone  de'  Bardi.  After  her  un- 
timely death  in  1290,  Dante  mar- 
ried (1291)  Gemma  de'  Donati. 

Beatrice,  Princess.  See  Bat- 
tenberg.  Princess  Henry  of. 

Beattie,  James  (1735-1803), 
Scottish  poet  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Laurencekirk,  Kin- 
cardine; died  at  Aberdeen,  where 
he  was  ('1760)  professor  of  moral 

Shilosopny  in  Marischal  College, 
[c  published  a  volume  of  miscel- 
laneous poems  in  1 761 ,  and  in  1 765 
a  poem,  The  Judgment  of  Paris. 
His  once  celebrated  Essay  on 
Truth  (1770),  for  which  he  re- 
ceived a  pension  of  £200  a  vear 
from  George  III.,  was  a  refuta- 
tion of  Hume's  scepticism;  but 
its  main  contents  had  been  an- 
ticipated by  Reid's  Inquiry  (1764). 
In  1771  he  published  the  first  book 
of  The  Minstrel,  or  the  Progress 
of  Genius,  the  work  on  which  his 
fame  rests;  the  second  book  ap- 
peared in  1774.  Written  in  the 
Spenserian  stanza,  it  abounds  in 
beautiful  descriptive  passages, 
and  is  notable  for  the  liarmonj 
of  its  versification.  Among  his 
other  works  were  a  Dissertation 
on  Poetry  and  Music  (1776),  £vf 


Beatty 


633 


Beaumarchais 


ences  of  the  Christian  Religion 
(1786),  and  Elements  of  Moral 
Science  (1790-93).  Consult  his 
Life  by  Sir  W.  Forbes  and  the 
edition  of  his  poems  by  Alexan* 
der  Dyce  for  the  Aldine  Series. 

Beatty,  Sir  David  (1871-  )} 
British  naval  officer,  was  born  in 
Borodale,  Wexford  county,  Ire- 
land. He  entered  the  British 
navy  in  1884  and  was  promoted 
through  the  various  ranks  (Com- 
mander, 1898;  Rear  Admiral, 
1910;  Vice  Admiral,  1915;  Ad- 
miral, 1919)  to  Admiral  of  the 
Fleet  in  1919.  He  served  in  the 
Soudan  in  1896-98,  in  China  in 
1900,  and  in  the  Great  War 
(1914-18).  He  was  Naval  Secre- 
tary to  the  Lord  of  the  Admir- 
alty in  1912;  commanded  the 
First  Battle  Cruiser  Squadron 
in  1912—16;  was  in  command  of 
the  Grand  Fleet  in  1916-19,  and 
became  First  Sea  Lord  in  1919. 
He  participated  in  the  Battle  of 
the  Bight  of  Heligoland  (q.  v.), 
Aug.  28,  1914;  in  the  action  in 
the  North  Sea  off  the  Dogger 
Bank,  January,  1915;  and  in  the 
Battle  of  Jutland  (see  Jutland 
Bank,  Battle  of),  May  31  to 
June  1,  1916;  and  received  the 
stirrender  of  the  German  fleet 
in  the  Forth,  November,  1918. 
He  was  one  of  the  British  repre- 
sentatives at  the  Disarmament 
Conference  in  Washington,  No- 
vember, 1921.  He  was  knighted 
in  1914. 

Beau  Bruirmiell.    See  Brum- 

MELL,  G.  B. 

Beauchamp,  bo-shan',  Al- 
PHONSE  DE  (1767-1832),  French 
historian,  was  born  in  Monaco, 
and  died  in  Paris.  At  seventeen 
years  of  age  he  took  service  with 
the  king  of  Sardinia;  but  in  1792 
he  refused  to  fight  against 
France,  and  after  a  short  im- 
prisonment proceeded  to  Paris, 
where  he  obtained  employment 
in  the  ofhce  of  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety,  and  a  little  later 
in  that  of  the  minister  of  police. 
The  publication  of  his  Histoire  de 
la  Vendee  et  des  Chouans  in  1806 
cost  him  his  ofhce  and  banish- 
ment to  Rheims,  from  which  he 
was  recalled  five  years  later.  He 
also  compiled  numerous  bio- 
graphical sketches  {e.g.,  Moreau 
in  1814  and  Louis  XVIII  in 
1824). 

Beauchamp,  Richard  de. 
See  Warwick. 

Beauchamp,  William  Mar- 
tin (1830-  ),  American  clergy- 
man and  ethnologist,  was  born  in 
Coldenham,  New  York.  He  held 
charges  at  Northville,  N.  Y. 
(1863-65),  Baldwinsville,  N.  Y. 
(1865-1900),  and  was  for  thirty- 
eight  years  examining  chaplain 
for  Central  New  York  (1884- 
1922).  He  made  an  extensive 
study  of  the  Iroquois  tribes,  and 
of  New  York  Indian  antiquities. 
Among  his  works  are:  The  Iro- 
quois Trail  (1892) ;  Indian  Names 
Vol.  !  —March  '22 


in  New  York  (1893);  Aboriginal 
Chipped  Stone  Implements  of  New 
York  (1897);  Aboriginal  Occupa- 
tion of  New  York,  (1900);  Bone 
and  Horn  Articles  Used  by  the 
New  York  Indians  {1^02)  ;  History 
of  the  New  York  Iroquois  (1905), 

Beauclerk,  b5'klark,  Topham 
(1739-80),  great-grandson  of 
Charles  ii.  and  Nell  Gwynne, 
remembered  chiefly  for  his  friend- 
ship with  Samuel  Johnson.  Con- 
sult Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson. 

Beaufort,  bo'furt,  town  and 
summer  resort.  North  Carolina, 
county  seat  of  Carteret  county, 
on  the  southeastern  coast,  at  the 
mouth  of  Newport  River  and  on 
the  Norfolk  Southern  Railroad; 
145  miles  southeast  of  Raleigh. 
It  has  a  fine  harbor,  on  the  shore 
of  which  is  Fort  Macon,  and  is 
of  ccr^siderable  commercial  im- 
portance, with  a  large  output  of 
fish-oil.  Pop.  (1910)  2,483; 
(1920)  2,968. 

Beaufort,  bu'furt,  town.  South 
Carolina,  county  seat  of  Beaufort 
county,  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  State,  on  the  coast,  near 
the  mouth  or  the  Beaufort  River, 
and  on  the  Charleston  and  West 
Carolina  Railway.  Its  principal 
industries  are  truck  farming,  the 
manufacture  of  baskets,  barrels, 
and  ice,  and  stock  raising.  It 
was  founded  in  1711.  Pop. 
(1910)  2,486;    (1920)  2,831. 

Beaufort,  bo'furt  or  bu'furt 
Henry  (1377-1447),  English  car- 
dinal, natural  son  of  John  of 
Gaunt  by  Catherine,  widow  of 
Sir  Hugh  Swynford,  studied  at 
Oxford  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln in  1398  and  bishop  of  Win- 
chester in  1405,  and  v/as  made 
cardinal  by  Pope  Martin  v.  in 
1426.  He  was  thrice  chancellor 
(1403-04,  1413,  1424-26),  and, 
while  strongly  opposed  to  Henry 
v.'s  proposition  to  raise  money 
from  the  clergy  for  carrying  on 
the  war  against  France,  neverthe- 
less loaned  the  monarch  large 
sums  out  of  his  private  purse.  In 
1427  he  fell  under  papal  displeas- 
ure. In  1431  he  conducted  the 
yoimg  king,  Herirs''  vi.,  to  France, 
to  be  crowned  in  Paris  as  king  of 
France  and  England.  He  died 
at  Winchester  within  seven 
weeks  of  the  murder  of  his  great 
political  rival,  the  duke  of 
Gloucester;  but  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  he  had  a  hand  in  that 
murder. 

Beauharnais,bo-ar-na',  Alex- 
andre   ViCOMTE    DE  (1760-94), 

French  general,  father  of  the 
Marquis  de  Beauharnais,  was 
born  in  Martinique,  and  mar- 
ried, in  1779,  Josephine  Tascher 
de  la  Pagerie,  afterward  wife  of 
Napoleon  i.  After  serving  under 
Rochambeau  in  the  American 
Revolution,  he  returned  to 
France,  embraced  republican 
principles,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  nobles  to  join  the  Third 


Estate.  He  became  secretary  to 
the  Assembly,  and  afterward  to 
the  military  committee;  and  was 
president  of  the  Assembly  when 
Louis  XVI.  fled  from  the  capital 
(June  21,  1791).  In  May,  1793, 
he  succeeded  Custine  as  general- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine. 
The  decree  for  the  exclusion  of 
the  nobility  from  military  em- 
ployment led  to  his  retirement; 
and  shortly  afterward  he  was  ac- 
cused before  the  revolutionary 
tribunal  of  having  contributed 
to  the  loss  of  Mayence,  and  was 
condemned  and  executed  on  the 
same  day. 

Beauharnais,  Eugene,  Mar- 
quis de  (1781-1824),  better 
known  as  Prince  Eugene,  the  son 
of  Alexandre  Beauharnais  and 
Josephine,  afterward  consort  of 
Napoleon,  was  born  in  Paris. 
Entering  the  army,  he  accom- 
panied Napoleon  to  Egypt,  and 
became  general  of  brigade  in 
1804.  In  the  following  year 
he  received  the  title  of  prince, 
and  was  appointed  viceroy  of 
Italy.  On  Jan.  16,  1806,  he 
married  the  Princess  Royal  of 
Bavaria,  and  immediately  after 
was  formally  adopted  by  Bona- 
parte as  his  son.  During  the  war 
with  Austria,  in  1809,  he  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
of  Italy,  and  shared  in  the  honors 
of  Wagram.  In  the  later  wars  of 
Napoleon  he  took  an  active 
share,  especially  in  the  campaigns 
of  1812-13.  Disappointed  of  the 
crown  of  Italy,  he  retired,  after 
the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  to 
Bavaria,  and  died  in  Munich. 
Consult  Baron  Darnay's  Notices 

Hisloriques  sur  le  Prince 

Eugene;  Du  Casse'^  Memoires  et 
Correspondance  du  Prince  Eugene 
(10  vols.). 

Beaumarchais,  bo'mar-sha', 
DE  (1732-99),  French  dramatist 
and  politician,  was  born  in  Paris, 
Pierre  Augustin  Car  on,  son  of  a 
watchmaker.  Having  a  certain 
talent  for  music,  he  was  engaged 
to  teach  the  harp  to  the  daugh- 
ters of  Louis  XV.,  and  shortly 
thereafter  married  the  wealthy 
widow  of  a  court  official,  where- 
upon he  assumed  the  title  de 
Beaumarchais,  by  which  he  was 
thenceforward  known.  During 
this  period  he  wrote  his  first 
plays,  Eugenie  (1767)  and  Les 
Deux  Amis  (1770),  neither  of 
which  attained  much  success. 
His  next  work,  Memoires  du 
Sieur  Beaumarchais  par  lui- 
meme,  appeared  in  1774,  after  the 
death  of  his  friend  and  bene- 
factor, the  financier  Duverney, 
and  the  imfavorable  conclusion 
of  a  lawsuit  with  the  latter's  heir, 
Count  Lablache.  This  work 
combined  the  bitterest  satire 
with  the  keenest  logic,  and  did 
much  toward  stirring  up  the  dis- 
content leading  to  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  same  brilliant  satire 
burns  in  the  two  famous  come- 


Beaumont 


684 


Beaux 


dies,  Le  Barbier  de  Seville  (1772) 
and  Le  Mariage  de  Figaro  (1776), 
which,  produced  in  1784,  met 
with  an  unprecedented  success. 

During  the  American  Revolu- 
tion Beaumarchais  sent  to  the 
colonies  a  fleet  bearing  arms  and 
ammunition  and  was  also  in- 
fluential in  winning  French  recog- 
nition of  the  American  cause. 
In  later  years  most  of  his  fortune 
was  spent  in  vain  attempts  to 
gain  from  the  United  States  re- 
imbursement for  the  aid  which 
he  had  furnished.  In  the  trou- 
bles of  the  French  Revolution 
the  last  of  his  fortune  was  lost 
and,  suspected  of  an  attempt  to 
sell  arms  in  Holland  to  the 
enemies  of  the  Republic,  he  was 
forced  to  flee  to  Hamburg,  where 
he  experienced  real  poverty. 
Upon  his  return  to  Paris  he  pub- 
lished La  Mere  coupable  (1792) 
and  Ales  six  epoques  (1793),  an 
account  of  his  sufferings  in  tem- 
porary exile.  His  Theatre  has 
been  edited  by  Saint- Marc  Girar- 
din  (1861)  and  by  de  HeylU  and 
Marescot  (1868-72);  his  CEuvres 
Computes  by  Moland  (1874)  and 
Fournier  (1875).  Consult  Beau- 
marchais et  son  temps  by  Lomenie 
and  Lives  by  Lintilhac  and 
Gudin. 

Beaumont,  bo-mont',  city, 
Texas,  county  seat  of  Jefferson 
county,  on  the  Neches  River, 
near  its  mouth,  and  on  the  Texas 
und  New  Orleans,  the  Sabine  and 
East  Houston,  and  the  Gulf, 
Beaumont  and  Kansas  City 
Railroads;  about  80  miles  north- 
east of  Houston.  The  city  forms 
the  terminal  of  the  Beaumont 
and  Port  Arthur  ship  channel, 
which  carries  most  of  the  lumber 
from  the  rich  pine  regions  of 
Eastern  Texas  and  Western 
Louisiana,  as  well  as  the  entire 
sulphur  output  of  Loiiisiana. 
It  is  one  of  the  world's  greatest 
oil-reflning  centres,  the  bulk  of 
the  petroleum  from  Oklahoma, 
Kansas,  and  Texas  being  run 
through  its  refineries.  According 
to  the  Federal  Census  of  Manu- 
factures for  1919  industrial  es- 
tablishments numbered  70,  with 
$65,731,000  capital,  and  prodiicts 
valued  at  $52,975,000.  Pop. 
(1910)  20,640;  (1920)  40,422. 

Beaumont,  Eon  de.  See 
Eon  de  Beaumont. 

Beaumont,  bo'mont,  Francis 
(1584-1616),  English  dramatist, 
son  of  Francis  Beaumont,  a 
judge,  and  younger  brother  of 
Sir  John  Beaumont,  was  born  in 
Grace- Dieu,  Leicestershire.  From 
Broadgates  Hall  (now  Pembroke 
College),  Oxford,  he  went  (1600) 
to  the  Inner  Temple.  He  first 
appeared  as  a  poet  in  1602,  al- 
though it  is  not  clear  that  the 
ascription  to  him  of  the  O  vidian 
narrative  poem,  Salmacis  and 
Hermaphrodite,  which  appeared 
in  that  year,  is  correct.  His 
close  literary  and  personal  rela- 
VoL.  I.— March  '22 


tion  with  John  Fletcher  began 
about  1607,  and  he  probably  had 
a  share,  often  a  large  one,  in 
about  half  a  dozen  of  the  plays 
generally  included  in  editions  of 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher.  In  1613 
he  wrote  the  masque  produced 
jointly  by  the  Inner  Temple  and 
Gray's  Inn,  on  the  marriage  of 
the  Princess  Elizabeth  with  the 
Elector  Palatine.  About  the 
same  time  he  married  Ursula 
Isley,  and  thereafter  wrote  little 
for  the  stage.  He  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  For  a 
classificatioa  of  the  plays  credited 
to  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  on 
the  basis  of  authorship,  see 
Fletcher,  John.  Consult  also 
G.  C.  Macaulay's  Francis  Beau- 
mont and  A.  W.  Ward's  English 
Dramatic  Literature. 

Beaumont,  Sir  George  How- 
land  (175.3-1827),  English  con- 
noisseur, patron  of  art  and  land- 
scape painter,  encouraged  and 
befriended  many  of  the  poets  and 
artists  of  his  time,  including 
Coleridge,  H  a  y  d  o  n  ,  Jackson, 
Wilkie,  Landseer,  and  the  sculp- 
tor Gibson.  The  formation  of 
the  National  Gallery  is  largely 
owing  to  his  efforts,  and  to  it  in 
1826  he  presented  sixteen  pic- 
tures from  his  own  collection. 

Beaumont,  bo-m6n',  Jean 
Baptiste  Elie  de  (1798-1874), 
French  geologist,  was  born  in 
Canon  (Calvados).  He  became 
professor  of  geology  in  the  Ecole 
des  Mines  in  1829  and  in  the 
College  de  France  in  1832,  and 
in  1856  was  made  perpetual 
secretary  of  the  Academic  des 
Sciences,  Paris.  With  Pierre 
Dufrenoy  he  published  the  great 
Carte  Geologique  de  France  (1840; 
2nd  ed.  1855),  begun  in  1825. 

Beaumont,  bo'mont,  William 
(1785-1853),  American  physi- 
cian, was  born  in  Lebanon, 
Conn.,  and  became  a  surgeon  in 
the  U.  S.  army.  When  stationed 
at  Mackinac,  Mich.,  1822,  he 
had  under  his  treatment  Alexis 
St.  Martin,  who  had  received  a 
shot  wound  in  the  stomach.  The 
patient  recovered,  but  an  orifice 
in  the  stomach  remained  open, 
so  that  the  doctor  was  enabled  to 
observe  the  processes  of  digestion 
and  to  obtain  the  first  specimen 
of  human  gastric  juice  ever  ex- 
amined. His  observations,  pub- 
lished in  1833,  soon  became 
recognized  as  one  of  the  classics 
of  physiology. 

Beaumontague,  bo-mon'ta-gu, 
is  a  composition  of  iron  borings, 
brimstone,  pitch,  sal-ammoniac, 
rosin,  and  beeswax,  which  is  used 
to  fill  up  cracks  and  flaws  in  an 
iron  casting,  to  give  an  appear- 
ance of  solidity. 

Beau  Nash.  See  Nash,  Rich- 
ard. 

Beaune,  bon,  town,  depart- 
ment of  Cote  d'Or,  France;  23 
miles  south  of  Dijon.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  the  wines  of  the  dis- 


trict, and  gives  its  name  to  a  well- 
known  Burgundy.  There  is  also 
trade  in  vinegar,  corn,  and  cattle. 
Pop.  14,000. 

Beauregard,  b5'rc-gard ;  Fr. 
b5-r-gar',  Pierre  Gustave 
TouTANT  (1818-93),  Confederate 
general,  was  born  in  New  Or- 
leans. He  was  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1838,  served  in  the 
Engineer  Corps  during  the  Mexi- 
can War  (1846-48),  and  at  its 
close  was  charged  with  the  super- 
vision of  fortifications  and  har- 
bors on  the  Gulf  coast.  He  was 
superintendent  of  West  Point 
from  November,  1860,  until 
February,  1861,  when  he  re- 
signed, became  a  brigadier-gen- 
eral in  the  Confederate  army, 
and  was  entrusted  with  the  de- 
fence of  Charleston,  in  which 
capacity  he  bombarded  and 
forced  the  surrender  of  Fort 
Sumter  (q.  v.).  He  commanded 
the  Confederates  in  the  battle  of 
Bull  Run  (Jttly  21,  1861),  where 
he  defeated  General  McDowell, 
and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
general.  At  Shiloh  he  took  com- 
mand upon  the  death  of  Gen.  A. 
S.  Johnston  (April,  1862).  Beau- 
regard afterward  defended 
Charleston  against  Admirals 
Dahlgren  and  Diipont,  and  in 
1864  he  resisted  at  Petersburg 
Grant's  movement  on  Richmond. 
He  gained  a  victory  at  Drury's 
Bluff,  and  in  1865  joined  Gen.  J. 
Johnston,  and  with  him  sur- 
rendered to  General  vSherman 
(April  26).  In  1865-70  he  was 
resident  of  the  New  Orleans, 
Jackson,  and  Mississippi  Rail- 
road, and  ^or  several  years  was 
associated  with  the  Louisiana 
State  Lottery  as  its  manager. 
He  was  the  author  of  Principles 
and  Maxims  of  the  Art  of  War 
(1863),  and  Report  of  the  Defence 
of  Charleston  (1864).  Consult 
Roman's  Military  Operations  of 
General  Beauregard. 

Beauvais,  bo-va',  capital  of 
the  department  of  Oise,  France, 
on  the  River  Therain;  55  miles 
northwest  of  Paris.  The  lofty 
cathedral  of  St.  Pierre  begun  in 
1247,  and  never  completed,  is 
one  of  the  finest  examples  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  France. 
The  tapestry  factory,  founded  in 
1664,  belongs  to  the  State. 
Cloths,  rugs  and  carpets,  gold 
and  silver  lace,  buttons,  and 
brushes  are  also  manufactured. 
Pop.  (1911)19.841. 

Beaux,  bo,  Cecilia,  American 
artist,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  and  studied  with  William 
Sartain  and  in  Paris.  She  ex- 
hibited at  the  Paris  Expositions 
of  1890  and  1900,  and  at  the 
latter  received  a  gold  medal. 
She  also  received  medals  at 
other  expositions  and  at  ex- 
hibitions in  Philadelphia  New 
York,  Pittsbtirgh,  and  Chicago, 
and  in  1902  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Academy. 


Beaver 


635 


Beaver  Falls 


She  has  devoted  herself  to  portrait 
and  figure  painting. 

Beaver  (Castor  fiber),  a  large 
rodent  of  which  there  are  two 
species  or  varieties,  one  occurring 
in  Northern  and  Eastern  Europe 
and  in  Northern  and  Western 
Asia,  and  the  other  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  North  America.  The 
two  species  are  so  similar  that  by 
many  naturalists  the  American 
beaver  is  considered  merely  a 
variety  of  the  European  species. 
The  animal  is  from  two  to  two 
and  a  half  feet  long,  exclusive  of 
the  tail,  and  has  short,  soft, 
thick  fur  of  a  reddish-brown  color 
which  has  great  commercial 
value.  The  tail  is  characteristic, 
oval  and  flattened  horizontally 
and  covered  with  a  scaly  skin. 
It  serves  as  a  rudder  in  swim- 
ming. The  head  is  large  and 
rounded,  with  small  ears  which 
can  be  laid  back  and  closed. 
The  limbs  are  short,  with  sharp 
clawed  toes,  those  of  the  hind 
feet  being  webbed  for  use  in 
swimming.  The  front  teeth  are 
strong  and  sharp  and  the  muscles 
of  the  jaw  massive  and  powerful. 
Near  the  anus  lie  two  glands 
which  secrete  a  fatty  substance 
known  as  castoreum,  which  is 
used  in  medicine.  The  beaver  is 
nocturnal  and  aquatic  in  its 
habits.  Owing  to  the  value  of 
its  fur  the  species  is  rapidly  be- 
coming extinct,  particularly  in 
Europe  and  Asia. 

The  great  interest  in  the  bea- 
vers lies  in  the  ingenuity  which 
they  manifest  in  the  construction 
of  their  hotises  or  'lodges,'  and  in 
the  building  of  dams  where  the 
water  in  the  vicinity  of  their 
dwellings  tends  to  become  so 
shallow  as  to  impede  their 
movements.  These  structures 
are,  in  America,  produced  by  the 
joint  activity  of  the  members  of 
a  colony;  but  in  Europe  the  few 
remaining  beavers  are  mostly 
solitary,  and  do  not  build  to  the 
same  extent  as  their  transatlantic 
allies.  The  diet  consists  of  the 
leaves  and  bark  of  trees,  especi- 
ally-willow  and  poplar,  and  it  is 
these  trees  which  are  by  prefer- 
ence used  in  building.  In  felling 
trees,  the  incisor  teeth  are  the 
instruments  used,  and  the  beav- 
ers have  been  known  to  bite 
through  trees  feet  in  diam- 
eter. The  dwelling  is  excavated 
in  the  banks  of  streams,  and  often 
has  an  entrance  passage  made  of 
interlacing  brushwood.  In  addi- 
tion, Canadian  beavers  construct 
'  lodges '  in  the  middle  of  expanses 
of  shallow  water,  consisting  of 
tree-trunks,  turf,  and  other  ma- 
terials, and  containing  large 
dwelling  chambers.  Sticks  with 
the  bark  on,  which  serves  for  food 
in  winter,  are  stored  near  the 
home  at  the  bottom  of  the  pond, 
whence  they  may  be  brought 
from  time  to  time  into  the  house, 
and  the  bark  eaten.  Consult 
Vol.  I.— March  '22 


Martin's  Castorologia;  Morgan's 
American  Beaver;  Mills'  In 
Beaver  World;  Hornaday's  Amer- 
ican Natural  History. 


Beaver,  borough,  Pennsyl- 
vania, county  seat  of  Beaver 
county,  is  situated  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Ohio  and  Beaver 
Rivers,  on  the  Pennsylvania  and 
the  Pittsburgh  and  Lake  Erie 
Railroads.  It  is  the  seat  of  Bea- 
ver College.  Pop.  (1910)  3,456; 
(1920)  4,135. 

Beaver,  James  Addams  (1837- 
1914),  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Millerstown,  Pa.  He 
was  graduated  (1856)  from  Jef- 
ferson College,  Pa.,  became  a 
member  of  the  bar,  served  in  the 
Union  forces  during  the  Civil 
War  v/ith  distinction,  estab- 
lished the  Bellefonte  nail  works 
soon  afterward,  and  was  governor 
of  Pennsylvania  (1887-91),  show- 
ing great  ability  in  his  manage- 


ment of  relief  work  at  the  time  of 
the  Johnstown  flood.  He  became 
a  judge  of  the  superior  court  of 
Pennsylvania  for  the  term  1896- 


1906  and  was  reappointed  in  the 
latter  year. 

Beaver  Dam,  city.  Dodge 
county,  Wisconsin,  at  the  outlet 
of  Beaver  Lake,  on  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  and  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Rail- 
roads; 63  miles  northwest  of 
Milwaukee.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Wayland  Academy  and  has  iron 
works,  canneries,  and  manu- 
factures of  machinery,  textiles, 
shoes,  boxes,  knit  goods,  storage 
batteries,  and  flour.  Pop.  (1910) 
6,758;  (1920)  7,992. 

Beaver  Falls,  borough,  Beaver 
county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Beaver  River,  near  its  junction 
with  the  Ohio,  and  on  the 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Pittsburgh 
and  Lake  Erie  Railroads;  31 


Beavers  constructing  a  Dam. 


Beaver  Islands 


636 


Beckerath 


miles  from  Pittsburgh.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Geneva  College  (1848). 
There  are  extensive  manufactur- 
ing interests  including  a  foundry, 
and  manufactures  of  crank 
shafts,  glass,  oil-well  drillers, 
steam  shovels,  saws,  tubing,  and 
axes.  Pop.  (1910)  12,191;  (1920) 
12,802. 

Beaver  Islands,  a  group  of 
islands,  named  for  the  largest, 
in  Lake  Michigan,  Manitou 
county,  Michigan;  40  miles  from 
the  Straits  of  Mackinac.  There 
are  several  lighthouses. 

Beaver  State,  popular  name 
of  Oregon  (q.  v.). 

Beaver  Tree,  a  name  some- 
times applied  to  the  sweet  bay  or 
swamp  magnolia.  See  Mag- 
nolia. 

Bebee'ru,  or  Beberine.  See 
Greenheart. 

Bebel,  Ferdinand  August 
(1840-1913),  German  Socialist 
writer  and  political  leader,  was 
born  in  Cologne.  At  first  a 
Liberal,  he  was  converted  to 
Socialism  and  became  so  zealous 
in  its  advocacy  that  he  was  im- 
prisoned (1872)  for  two  years  on 
a  charge  of  high  treason.  He 
was  a  member  oi  the  Reichstag 
from  1871,  and  with  Dr.  Karl 
Liebknecht  and  Paul  Singer 
founded  the  Socialist  Democratic 
party,  of  which  he  was  for  many 
years  the  leader.  He  was  again 
imprisoned  in  1886.  He  had  an 
immense  influence  over  the  4,- 
000,000  members  of  his  party  and 
was  regarded  by  the  government 
as  a  dangerous  enemy  of  the 
nation.  lie  wrote:  Die  Frau  imd 
der  Socialismus,  his  most  widely 
read  book;  Unscre  Ziele;  Der 
deuische  Bauernkrieg;  Christen- 
tum  und  Socialismus;  Charles 
Fournier;  Aus  mienem  Lehen,  and 
other  works. 

Bee  Abbey,  bek'ab'i,  in  the 
department  of  Eure,  Normandy, 
13  miles  northeast  of  Bernay,  a 
Benedictine  abbey  founded  by 
Hellouin  in  1034,  became  one  of 
the  most  noted  seats  of  learning 
in  the  west  of  Europe  in  the 
11th  century.  Lanfranc  and 
Anselm  (qq.v.)  were  both  priors 
here. 

Beccaria,  bek-ka-re^a,  Cesare 
BoNESANA,  Marquis  de  (173.5- 
93),  Italian  jurist  and  economist, 
was  born  in  Milan,  and  spent 
practically  the  whole  of  his  life 
in  his  native  city.  His  first  pub- 
lished work  was  an  essay  on  the 
coinage  of  Milan,  in  1762;  but 
the  work  on  which  his  fame  rests 
is  the  Treatise  on  Crimes  and 
Punishments,  which  appeared  in 
1764.  It  is  a  protest  against 
the  nameless  barbarities  which 
disgraced  the  criminal  codes  of 
the  day,  and  an  advocacy  of  rea- 
soned and  merciful  treatment  of 
offenders.  It  undoubtedly  had 
a  great  influence  on  Bentham, 
and  through  him  on  the  world; 
though  its  influence  was  also  di- 
VoL.  I.—March  '22 


rect.  The  cavillings  of  his  ene- 
mies were  silenced  by  his  ax)point- 
ment  in  1768  as  professor  of  po- 
litical economy  at  the  Academy 
in  Milan. 

Beche  de  Mer,  bash  de  mar 
(Port.),  or  Trepang  (Malay),, 
known  also  as  the  Sea  Cucum- 
ber, a  holothurian  or  sea  slug, 
much  used,  when  dried,  as  an 


Beche  de  Mer. 


article  of  food  in  China.  The 
animals,  of  which  there  are 
several  varieties,  are  obtained  off 
the  coasts  of  Northern  Au.stralia 
and  from  the  East  Indies,  Burma, 
the  South  Sea  Islands,  Indo- 
China,  Straits  Settlements,  New 
Guinea,  and  the  tropical  Pacific 
islands.  They  are  from  six  to 
fifteen  inches  long,  and  resemble 
a  cuciimber  in  shape.  Having 
been  cured  by  boiling,  cleaning, 
and  drying,  they  are  much  used 
for  preparing  soups  and  similar 
dishes. 

Becher,  hech'ev,  Johann 
Joachim  (1635-82),  chemist,  was 
born  in  Spires,  Germany.  He  ac- 
quired an  extensive  knowledge  of 
medicine,  physics,  and  chemistry, 
and  became  professor  at  Mainz, 
subsequently  living  in  Vienna, 
Munich,  Wiirzburg,  Haarlem, 
and  finally  London.  His  Phy- 
sica  Subterranea  (1669)  was  the 
first  attempt  made  to  bring 
physics  and  chemistry  into  close 
relation.  He  began  to  construct 
a  theory  of  chemistry,  and  in- 
vestigated the  process  of  com- 
bustion. In  this  and  his  other 
work  (including  Institutiones 
Chemic(P.,  1662)  lies  the  first  germ 
of  Stahl's  phlogistic  theory. 

Bechuanaland,  bech-oo-a'na- 
land  or  bek-u-an'a,  or  the  land  of 
the  Bechuanas,  a  region  lying 
north  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  the  south  of  Africa,  and  includ- 
ing British  Bechuanaland  and 
the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate. 

British  Bechuanaland,  with 
an  area  of  .51,524  square  miles, 
extends  north  to  the  Molopo 
River.  It  has  an  average  eleva- 
tion of  4,000  feet,  is  mostly  pas- 
toral and  has  a  dry,  healthful 
climate  and  a  fertile  soil.  It  was 
annexed  by  Great  Britain  in  1885 
and  in  1895  was  transferred  to 
Cape  Colony.  Pop.  (1911)  99,- 
553,  of  whom  14,917  are  whites. 
The  chief  towns  are  Maf eking, 
noted  for  its  siege  in  the  Boer 
War,  Vryburg,  Kuruman,  and 
Taungs. 

Bechuanaland  Protectorate 
extends  from  British  Bechuana- 
land northward  .to  the  Zambesi 
River  and  from  Matabeleland 


and  the  Transvaal  on  the  east, 
westward  to  Southwest  Africa. 
It  has  an  area  of  about  275,000 
square  miles,  forming  part  of  a 
great  plateau.  The  most  im- 
portant tribes  are  the  Bamang- 
wato,  the  Bakhatla,  the  Bak- 
wena,  the  Bangwaketse,  the  Bam- 
alete,  and  the  Batawana.  Each 
tribe  is  ruled  by  its  chief  under  the 
supervision  of  a  resident  com- 
missioner, with  headquarters  in 
Maf  eking.  The  natives  are  en- 
gaged chiefly  in  catcle  breeding 
and  farming.  Education  is  pro- 
vided, with  government  assist- 
ance, in  schools  maintained  by 
the  London  Missionary  Society, 
Dutch  Reformed  Church,  and 
other  agencies.  The  population 
numbers  about  125,000.  Two 
short-lived  Boer  republics,  Stella- 
land  and  Goshen,  were  formed 
here  (1882-84);  and  here  at 
one  time  lived  David  Livingstone 
(q.  v.).  The  Kalahari  Desert 
(see  Kalahari)  lies  partially 
within  Bechuanaland. 

Becke,  George  Louis  (1848- 
1913),  Australian  novelist,  was  a 
native  of  New  South  Wales. 
While  trading  in  the  South  Seas 
(1870-93)  he  acquired  the  ex- 
perience which  he  later  turned  to 
good  account  in  his  stories  of  ad- 
venture. These  include  Bv  Reef 
and  Palm  (1893);  The  Ebbing  of 
the  Tide  (1896);  Pacific  Tales 
(1897);  The  South  Sea  Pearler 
(1900);  By  Rock  and  Pool 
Breachley  Black  Sheep  (1902); 
The  Jelasco  Brig  (1902);  Tom 
Gerrard  (1904);  The  Adventures 
of  Louis  Blake  (1909). 

Beckenham,  town,  Kent, 
England,  7  miles  southeast  of 
London,  of  which  it  is  a  resi- 
dential suburb.  Pop.  (1911) 
31,693. 

Becker,  Karl  Ferdinand 
(1775-1849),  German  philologist, 
was  born  in  the  old  electorate  of 
Treves.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Gottingen,  and 
from  1823  was  head  of  an  educa- 
tional institute  at  Offenbach. 
His  view  that  principles  of  com- 
parative philology  might  be  ar- 
rived at  by  deduction  enjoyed 
much  vogue  till  superseded  by 
Grimm's   epoch-making  works. 

Becker,  Wiliielm  Adolf 
(1796-1846),  German  classical 
scholar,  was  born  in  Dresden, 
and  was  educated  at  Leipzig, 
where  he  became  professor  of 
archaeology  in  1837.  His  Callus 
(1838)  and  Charicles  (1840),  both 
of  which  have  been  translated 
into  English,  are  brilliant  imagin- 
ative studies  of  the  social  life  of 
ancient  Rome  and  Greece,  re- 
spectively. These,  and  his  Hand- 
buck  der  Romischen  Alter thiimer 
(1843-46),  a  forerunner  of 
Mommsen's  Romisches  Staats- 
recht,  were  his  chief  productions. 

Beckerath,  Hermann  von 
(1801-70),  German  politician. 
Having  founded  (1838)  a  success- 


DEATH  OF  BECKET. 
{After  the  Painting  by  Cross  in  Canterbury  Cathedral.) 


Beckct 


Bed 


&arnett  (in  his  1893  edition  of, 
Vathek)  to  be  fabulous.  He  sat  as 
M.p.  for  Wells  (1784-90),  and  for 
Hindon  (1806-20).  In  1796  he  re- 
tired to  Fonthill,  where  he  squan- 
dered his  fortune  on  extravagant 
building  operations.  Eventu- 
ally, in  1822,  he  was  compelled 
to  sell  the  Fonthill  estate  and 
remove  to  Bath,  where  he  died. 
His  other  works  are:  Memoirs  of 
Extraordinary  Painters  (1777); 
Modern  Novel  Writing  (under 
pseudonym  'Lady  Harriet  Mar- 
low,'  1796);  Azemia  (under  pseu- 
donym 'Jacquetta  Agneta  Mari- 
ana Jenks,'  1798);  Italy  (1834); 
Recollections  of  an  Excursion 
(1835).  His  Life,  by  Cyrus  Red- 
ding (1859),  is  inaccurate. 

Beckmann,  Johann  (1739- 
1811),  German  naturalist  and 
economist,  for  nearly  forty  years 
(from  1770)  professor  of  rural 
economy  and  commercial  science 
at  Gottmgen.  Chiefly  known  for 
his  History  of  Inventions  (5  vols. 
Leipzig,  1780  -  1805  ;  London, 
1814).  See  Exner's  /.  Beckmann 
(1878). 

Beckwith,  James  Carroll 
He  was  now  as  ascetic  as  he  had  i  (1852),  American  painter,  was 
formerly  been  luxurious;  and  he,  ^born  at  Hannibal,  Mo.,  and  stud- 
the  former  devoted  servant  of  the  (Kied  under  Carolus  Duran  and 
king,  became  the  champion  of  the  >?^Yvon  at  Paris.  He  made  his 
rights  of  the  church.  Becket  re- home  in  New  York  after  1878, 
tired  for  a  time  to  France,  but  X^and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
maintained  his  indomitable  an-  ^National  Academy  in  1894,  He 
tagonism  to  the  king,  going  so  ^received  numerous  medals  at  ex- 
far  as  to  threaten  to  excommuni-  '  \Jiibitions  and  world's  fairs.  He 
Gate  the  English  bishops  who  had  <Nwas  occupied  principally  with 
submitted.  He  returned  (1170)  to    ^portrait  painting  and  genre  work. 


ful  bank,  he  was  returned  (1848) 
to  the  national  assembly,  where 
he  strenuously  supported  the 
cause  of  Prussia's  hegemony.  To 
the  Prussian  policy  of  German 
unity  he  was  afso  a  zealous  ad- 
herent. From  1849  a  member  of 
the  Prussian  second  chamber,  he 
did  his  best  to  save  constitutional 
liberty  against  reaction.  His  last 
public  act  was  his  successful  de- 
fence at  Munich  of  Prussia's  com- 
mercial policy.  See  Kopstadt, 
H.  V.  Beckcrath  (1874\ 

Beckct,  or  A  Becket,  Thomas 
(1118-70),  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, canonized  (1173)  as  a  saint. 
After  receiving  a  varied  training 
in  law  and  theology,  he  entered 
(about  1142)  the  service  of  Theo- 
bald, Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  took  minor  orders.  He  early 
showed  zeal  on  behalf  of  Henry 
of  Anjou,  who  in  1155  appointed 
Becket  his  chancellor.  In  this 
position  he  lived  sumptuously, 
and  maintained  an  establishment 
which  outshone  that  of  the  king. 
In  1162  Henry  li.  took  the  mo- 
mentous step  of  having  Becket 
created  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 


(1170) 

England,  to  find  himself  the  idol 
of  the  people,  and  continued  to 
champion  popular  rights  and  ec- 
clesiastical privileges  until  his 
assassination  by  four  of  Henry's 
knights  while  at  the  altar, 
Dec.  29,  1170.  In  1220  Becket's 
bones  were  enshrined  in  a  chapel 
of  the  cathedral,  where  they  long 
formed  a  favorite  object  of  pil- 
grimage, as  described  in  Chaucer's 
Canterbury  Tales  (1383).  See  the 
Lives  of  Becket  by  Canon  Morris 
and  Canon  Robertson;  Hook's 
Lives  of  the  Archbishops;  Free- 
man's Historical  Essays;  Froude's 
Essays;  and  Lord  Tennyson's 
play,  Becket,  in  which  Sir  Henry 
Irvmg  filled  the  title  role. 

Bcckford,  William  (1759- 
1844),  author  of  Vathek,  was  born 
at  Fonthill,  Wiltshire.  After  a 
private  education,  he  made  the 
'grand  tour'  on  the  Continent. 
His  letters  relating  to  his  travels 
were  published  anonymously  in 
1783  as  Dreams,  Waking  Thoughts, 
and  Incidents.  His  famous  Ori- 
ental romance  Vathek  was  pub- 
lished in  French  in  1782,  and  an 
English  version  surreptitiously 
in  London  (in  1784)  by  Beck- 
ford's  friend.  Rev.  S.  Henley. 
"?he  story,  fostered  by  Beckford, 

hat  Vathek  wa^  written  at  a 
single  sitting  cf  three  days  and 

^wo  nights,  has  been  shown  by  Dr. 


Becque,  Henri  Francois 
(1837-99),  French  dramatist,  was 
a  Parisian  by  birth.  His  earliest 
dramatic  effort  was  an  operatic 
libretto,  Sardanapale,  in  1867. 
During  the  next  year  his  first 
play,  UEnfant  Prodigue,  was 
produced,  and  met  with  some 
success,  owing  to  the  vigor  of 
its  dialogue.  He  followed  this 
with  Michel  Pauper  in  1870, 
U Enlevement  in  1871;  in  1878, 
with  La  Navette;  by  Les  Hon- 
netes  Femmes  in  1880,  and  Les 
Corbeaux  in  1882.  The  latter 
play  met  with  a  stormy  recep- 
tion, and  was  severely  criticised 
for  its  uncompromising  real- 
ism. The  author's  bitter  and 
forcible  style  gained  him  the  name 
of  founder  of  '/e  theatre  cruel;' 
and  was  again  exemplified  in  La 
Parisienne  (1885).  He  also  wrote 
Querelles  Littcraires  (1886)  and 
Souvenirs  d'un  Auteur  Drama- 
iique  (1895).  His  Thedtre  Complet 
appeared  in  1898. 

Bccqucr,  Gustavo  Adolfo 
(1836-70),  Spanish  man  of  letters, 
was  a  wayward  genius  of  the  ro- 
mantic period,  greatly  influenced 
by  Heine  and  Byron.  His  pic- 
turesque prose  legends,  though 
morbid,  are  very  fine,  and  his 
verse  is  in  many  instances  ex- 
quisite in  its  peculiar  way.  See 
bis  Obras^  ed.  Correa  (5th  ed. 


1898);  Garcia  Blanco's  Lit.  Es- 
panola  en  el  Siglo  XIX  (1891-4); 
Hubbard's  Hist,  de  la  Lit.  Con- 
temp,  en  Espagne  (1874). 

Becquercl,  Antoine  Cesar 
(1788-1878),  French  physicist, was 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-Loing;  be- 
came inspector  of  the  Ecole  Pcly- 
technique,  and,  working  with  Am- 
pere, Biot,  and  other  scientists, 
made  important  discoveries  in  the 
electric  conductivity  of  metals,  in 
magnetism,  and  in  electro-chem- 
istry. In  1829  he  was  admitted 
a  member  of  the  Academic  des 
Sciences. — His  son,  Alexandre 
Edmond  (1820-91),  worked  in  col- 
laboration with  his  father.  In 
1851  he  received  the  cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  and  in  1852  was 
appointed  professor  of  physics. 
His  principal  work,  dealing  with 
the  theory  of  light,  is  La  Lumiere: 
ses  Causes  et  ses  Effets  (1867-8). — 
His  son,  Antoine  Henri  (1852- 
1908),  followed  in  the  footsteps  of 
his  father  and  grandfather;  was 
educated  at  the  Ecole  Polytech- 
nique;  became  an  engineer;  and 
was  best  known  as  the  discoverer 
of  the  emanations  from  phospho- 
rescent and  fluorescent  substances 
subsequently  known  as  Becque- 
rel  rays. 

Becquercl  Rays.  See  Radio- 
activity. 

Becse,  0-.    See  Obecse. 

Bccskerek,  Nagy,  tn.,  co.  To- 
rontal,  Hungarv,  on  1.  bk.  of  Bega, 
and  connected  by  Bega  Canal  with 
Temesvar,  45  m.  N.E.  Trades 
in  corn  and  cattle.  Pop.  (1900) 
25,953. 

Bective  Abbey.    See  Trim. 

Bed.  Originally  a  bed  was  the 
skin  of  an  animal  laid  on  the  floor, 
and  afterward  it  consisted  of 
bags  filled  with  rushes,  leaves,  or 
straw,  like  the  modern  palliasse, 
but  not  upholstered  or  squared 
with  modern  neatness.  We 
have  very  full  information  rela- 
tive to  the  beds  and  bedding  in 
use  by  the  Romans.  In  the  ear- 
lier times  of  the  republic  they 
had  beds  of  the  same  kind  as 
those  used  by  the  Greeks.  They 
borrowed  from  Asia  those  larger 
carved  bedsteads,  gilt  and  plated 
with  ivory,  whereon  were  piled 
cushions  of  wool  and  featners, 
with  counterpanes  of  furs  and 
other  rich  materials.  The  Roman 
customs  were  handed  down  to  the 
Gauls  and  to  the  Franks.  With 
the  irruptions  of  the  Saxons  and 
Danes  into  Britain,  there  was  a 
relapse  into  the  semi-barbarism 
of  tne  earlier  times  previous  to 
the  Roman  invasion.  Illumi- 
nated mss.  preserve  specimens 
of  Anglo-Saxon  beds,  some  of 
which  had  testers  and  foot- 
boards; some  had  posts,  with  a 
canopy  resembling  the  roof  of  a 
house;  while  some  had  solid  cor- 
nices all  round,  and  large,  thick 
hanging  curtains  attached  to  big 
rings.   A  bed  of  this  sort  is  repre- 


Bed 


fieddafc 


sented  on  the  frieze  of  Edward 
the  Confessor's  chapel  at  West- 
minster. The  illustrations  of  beds 
and  bedding  in  the  time  of  the 
Normans  and  afterward  do  not 
differ  essentially  from  those  of  the 
later  Anglo-Saxon  times.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  ill.  we  find  a  bed  of 
rather  modern  appearance,  with 
a  tester  and  curtains.  In  the  15th 
century  large  square-post  bed- 
steads came  into  fashion  in  Eng- 
land. Another  common  bed  of 
the  period  was  the  truckle  or 
trundle  bed.  This  was  a  double 
bed,  a  smaller  bed  running  un- 
derneath the  larger  one,  which 
was  drawn  out  for  use  at  night. 
In  the  English  universities  the 
master  of  arts  had  his  pupil  to 
sleep  in  his  truckle  bed,  and  at 
an  earlier  period  it  was  the 
place  of  the  valet  de  chamhre. 
Paul  Hentzner,  in  his  visit  to 
Windsor  Castle  in  1598,  noticed 
particularly  the  beds  belonging 
to  former  princes  as  measuring 
eleven  feet  square,  covered  with 
quilts  shining  with  gold  and  silver. 
Queen  Elizabeth's  bed,  however, 
he  says,  was  not  so  large  as  the 
others.  The  Great  Bed  of  Ware, 
referred  to  by  Shakespeare,  and 
now  in  Rye  House,  is  a  oed  twelve 
feet  square,  and  capable  of  accorn- 
modating  a  dozen  sleepers.  It  is 
assigned  by  tradition  to  Warwick 
the  Kingmaker. 

With  the  decline  of  massive 
furniture  the  dimensions  of  the 
bed  were  gradually  reduced,  and 
this  was  accompanied  by  sim- 
plicity of  design.  More  recently 
increased  attention  has  been  paid 
to  cleanliness  and  sanitary  re- 
quirements, so  that  metallic  beds 
are  now  preferred  by  people  of 
all  classes.  There  are  also  vari- 
ous forms  of  folding  and  portable 
beds,  but  these  are  not  generally 
approved,  on  the  ground  that  suf- 
ficient opportunity  is  not  afiforded 
for  airing  the  bedclothes  when 
not  in  use. 

Among  Eastern  nations  the  bed 
is  often  nothing  but  a  carpet,  the 
bedclothes  consisting  of  a  rug  or 
plaid.  Even  in  very  cold  coun- 
tries, such  as  Russia,  the  beds  are 
closely  allied  to  the  Eastern  car- 
pet, the  houses  being  kept  so 
warm  by  stoves  that  much  bed 
covering  is  no  more  required  in 
^  winter  than  during  the  heats  of 
summer. 

Bed,  Geological.  One  or 
more  layers  of  a  stratified  sedi- 
mentary rock  possessing  a  homo- 
geneous character.  See  Stra- 
tum. 

Bed-bug,  a  small,  repulsive, 
ill-smelling,  reddish  bug  {Cimex 
lectularius),  one  of  a  group  of 
plant  and  animal  sucking  'cone- 
nosed'  bugs,  some  of  which  are 
large  and  formidable.  It  is  prob- 
ably a  native  of  the  Orient,  but 
has  for  centuries  been  known  as 
a  human  parasite,  and  a  pest  in 


houses  all  over  the  civilized  world, 
especially  about  beds,  where  it 
will  multiply  swiftly  if  neglected. 
Its  smallness  and  flatness  enable 
it  to  creep  through  crack-like 
openings,  and  hide  in  crevices  of 
the  walls,  under  loose  wall-paper, 
between  floor-boards,  about  the 
joints  of  beds  and  in  similar  cran- 
nies, where  the  eggs  are  laid  and 


bug  is  provided  with  a  lancet-like 
beak  for  piercing  the  skin,  making 
an  aperture  through  which  blood 
is  pumped  up.  Few  animals  ex- 
cept man  are  affected  (among 
them  bats,  which  also  have  a 
smaller  similar  parasite  of  their 
own)  because  their  skins  are  too 
thick,  and  in  the  absence  of  blood 
the  bug  may  take  nourishment 


Ancient  Types  of  Bed. 


the  young  speedily  hatch  out. 
Hence  old  houses  and  furniture 
once  infested,  are  most  difficult  to 
free  from  .he  nest;  but  vigilance 
and  a  faithful  -ipplication  of  boil- 
ing water,  ke.osene,  or  diluted 
corrosive  suljlimatCj  the  moment 
the  first  intruder  is  discovered, 
will  prevent  these  bugs  obtaining 
a  foothold  in  well-constructed 
houses.    The  mouth  of  the  bed- 


from  plant-juices,  while  the  fast- 
ing powers  of  those  habituated  to 
houses  is  almost  unlimited.  See 
Howard,  Insect  Book  (1901). 

Bedchamber,  Lords  and 
Ladies  of  the.  See  House- 
hold, King's  or  Queen's. 

B  e  d  d  a  r  d  ,  Frank  Evers 
(1858),  Englishzoologist  and  biolo 
gist,  naturalist  to  the  Challenger 
expedition  (1882-4),  prosector  to 


Beddoes 

the  Zoological  Society  (1884),  and 
sometime  lecturer  on  biology  at 
Guy's  Hospital,  London.  Chief 
works:  Animal  Coloration  fl892); 
Text-book  of  Zoogeography  (1895); 
Structure  and  Classification  of 
Birds  (1898). 

Beddoes,  Thomas  Lovell 
(1803-49),  English  poet,  first  at- 
tracted attention  by  the  publica- 
tion of  The  Bride's  Tragedy  (1822), 
a  play  directly  inspired  by  the 
influence  of  Webster  and  Tour- 
Aeur,  the  only  work  published  by 
himself.  He  studied  and  prac- 
tised medicine  on  the  Continent; 
but  his  violent  democratic  sym- 
pathies led  to  frequent  changes 
of  residence.  His  principal  work. 
Death's  Jest-Book,  or  the  Fool's 
Tragedy,  was  published  (1850) 
by  his  friend  T.  F.  Kelsall,  fol- 
lowed next  year  by  a  volume  of 
Poems  by  the  Late  Thomas  Lov- 
ell Beddoes,  ^  with  Memoir.  See 
also  Memoir  prefixed  to  E. 
Gosse's  ed.  of  Beddoes's  Poetical 
Works  (1890),  and  Beddoes's  Cor- 
respondence (ed.  Gosse,  1894). 

Bede,  or  B^da,  The  Vener- 
able (c.  673-736),  *a  servant  of 
God,  and  priest  of  the  monastery 
of  the  blessed  apostles  Peter  and 
Paul,  which  is  at  Wearmouth 
and  Jarrow.'  Although  the  most 
learned  man  of  his  age,  he  never 
left  Jarrow,  but  had  correspond- 
ents all  over  England  and  in 
several  parts  of  the  Continent. 
The  extent  of  Bede's  learning 
was  surpassed  only  by  the  nobility 
of  his  character;  he  was  also  open- 
minded  and  liberal  to  a  quite  ex- 
traordinary degree.  His  genius 
was  encyclopaedic  rather  than 
original.  In  some  forty-five  works 
he  gathered  together  all  the  world 
then  knew  of  physics,  music, 
philosophy,  grammar,  rhetoric, 
arithmetic,  medicine.  They  may 
be  classified  as  (a)  grammatical; 

(b)  scientific — he  was  the  first  his- 
torian to  arrange  his  material  by 
the  years  from  the  Incarnation; 

(c)  historical  and  biographical; 
(a)  theological — chiefly  commen- 
taries, made  up  largely  of  alle- 
gorical exegesis.  His  great  work 
is  the  Historia  Ecclesiastica  Cen- 
tis  Anglorum.  For  Bede's  com- 
plete works,  see  Dr.  Giles's  edition 
m  12  vols.  (1843-4),  and  the  indis- 
pensable Migne  (Patrologice  Cur- 
sus  Computus,  xc.-xcv.,  1844). 
The  West  Saxon  vernacular  _  of 
Historia  Ecclesiastica,  containing 
the  beautiful  story  of  Caedmon, 
has  been  edited  by  Miller  for 
the  Early  English  Text  Society. 
The  standard  edition  of  the  Latin 
text  is  Plummer's  (1896).  For  life 
and  criticism,  see  Morley's  Eng. 
Writers,  vol.  ii.,  and  Stopford 
Brooke's  Eng.  Lit.  to  the  Norman 
Conquest  (1898). 

Bedell,  Frederick  (1868), 
American  physicist,  was  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  graduated 
(1890)  at  Yale.    After  a  scientific 


640 

course  at  Cornell,  he  was  assistant 
professor  of  physics  there  1893- 
1904,  full  professor  1904-06,  then 
professor  of  applied  electricity,  in 
which  department  he  conducted 
valuable  investigations  as  to  alter- 
nating currents. 

Bedell,  William  (1571-1642), 
bishop  of  Kiimore  and  Ardagh, 
was  chaplain  to  the  British  em- 
bassy at'Venice  (1607-11),  where 
he  was  intimate  with  Fra  Paolo 
Sarpi,  then  defying  the  papacy. 
Appointed  provost  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin  (1627),  and 
bishop  (1629),  Bedell  devoted 
himself  to  the  redress  of  ecclesi- 
astical abuses.  The  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  Irish  was  com- 
pleted under  his  supervision.  See 
Life  and  Death  of  Bishop  Bedell, 
bv  his  son,  ed.  for  the  Camden 
Society  (1872)  by  Jones. 

Bedford.  (1.)  Pari,  and  munic. 
bor.  and  mrkt.  tn.,  Bedfordshire, 
England,  on  the  Ouse,  48  m.  (Mid- 
land _  Ry.)  /rom  London.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  Bunyan 
Meeting-house  (1850),  on  the  site 
of  the  chapel  in  which  John 
Bunyan  preached;  the  Howard 
Chapel,  named  after  the  philan- 
thropist ;  new  law  courts,  town 
hall,  corn  exchange,  and  county 
jail,  which  replaces  that  in  which 
Bunyan  was  confined.  There  are 
bronze  statues  to  Bunyan  and 
Howard.  The  Harpur  Trust  (Sir 
William  Harpur,  1556)  adminis- 
ters the  grammar  school  and  a 
group  of  other  schools  at  an  an- 
nual cost  of  about  $70,000.  Straw- 
plaiting  is  an  important  industry, 
and  engine  and  agricultural  im- 
plement works,  notably  the  Bri- 
tannia Iron  Works,  give  employ- 
ment to  manv  of  the  people.  The 
town  has  also  a  large  trade  in 
grain.  Pop.  (1911)39,185.  El- 
STOW  (' Helen's  Stow'),  vil.  1  m.  s. 
of  Bedford,  is  notable  as  the  birth- 
place of  Bunyan  (1628).  (3.)  Vil. 
and  popular  summer  resort,  Hali- 
fax CO.,  Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  10 
m.  jfrqm  Halifax.  Pop.  c.  1,500. 
(3.)  City,  Ind.,  co.  seat  of  Law- 
rence CO.,  on  the  Evansville  and 
Richmona,  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio,  Southwestern,  and  the  Chi- 
cago, Indianapolis  and  Louisville 
R.  Rs.  It  is  a  distributing  point 
for  building  stone  from  neighbor- 
ing quarries  and  there  are  exten- 
sive railrcad  shops.  Pop.  (1910) 
8,716.  (4.)  Borough,  Pa.,  CO.  seat  of 
Bedford  co.,  on  the  Pennsylvania 
R.  R.  Bedford  Springs,  with  chaly- 
beate waters,  attract  many  visitors. 
It  has  many  historic  associations, 
having  been  settled  c.  1756.  There 
are  some  manufacturing  interests. 
Pop.  (1910)  2,235. 

Bedford,  John  of  Lancaster, 
Duke  of  (1389-1435),  third  son 
of  Henry  IV.  by  his  first  wife. 
Mary  of  Bohun.  He  was  created 
Duks  of  Bedford  (1414)  by  his 
brother,  Henry  v.  After  Henry's 
death,  in  1422,  he  became  re- 


Bedloe's  Island 

gent  of  England ;  and  in  the 
struggle  for  tne  French  crown 
which  followed  the  death  of 
Charles  vi.,  he  commanded  the 
English  army  in  France,  pro- 
claimed Henry  vi.,  a  chilci  of 
nine  months,  at  Paris,  and  de- 
feated the  French  at  Verneuil 
(Aug.  17,  1424).  His  success  was 
checked  by  the  rise  of  Joan  of 
Arc,  and  the  desertions  of  the 
dukes  of  Brittany  and  Bur- 
gundy. He  died  at  Rouen.  (See 
The  Wars  of  the  English  in, 
France,  and  Blondel's  De  Re- 
ductione  Normannics,  1449-50, 
both  published  by  the  Master  of 
the  Rolls;  Stubbs's  Const.  Hist., 
vol.  iii.,  1866.)  The  title  was  also 
conferred  by  Henry  vil.  on  his 
uncle,  Jasper  Tudor.  Earl  of 
Pembroke  (  ?1431-95),  in  October, 
1485.  On  the  fall  of  the  Lan- 
castrians in  1470  he  fled  with  his 
young  nephew  to  Brittany,  and 
returned  with  him  to  London  in 
1485,  when  Henry  was  crowned. 

Bedford  City,  tn.,  Va.,  co. 
seat  of  Bedford  co.,  on  Norfolk 
and  Western  R.  R.  It  has  several 
educational  institutions,  including 
the  Belmont  Female  Institute,  the 
Randolph-Macon  Academy,  and 
the  Union  Co-operative  School,  and 
manufactures  tobacco  and  woollen 
goods.    Pop.  (1910)  2,508. 

Bedfordshire,  inland  co.,  S. 
Midlands,  England,  36  m.  in 
length  by  21  m.  broad.  The  county 
is  drained  chiefly  by  the  Great 
Ouse,  with  its  tributary  the  Ivel. 
Limestone,  coprolites  (for  phos- 
phate), fuller's  earth,  and  brick 
clay  are  the  principal  minerals. 
Market-gardening  is  important. 
Manufactures  are  limited.  The 
chief  towns  are  Bedford,  Biggles- 
wade, Leighton  Buzzard,  Dun- 
stable and  Luton.  Area,  466  sq. 
m.    Pop.  (1911)  194,625. 

Bedivere,  Sir,  the  earliest 
knight  of  Arthur's  Round  Table, 
survived  the  great  battle  with 
Mordred,  and  nursed  the  king 
until  he  was  borne  away  to 
Avilon. 

Bedlam  (corruption  of  'Bethle- 
hem'), Hospital  of  St.  Mary's  of 
Bethlehem  at  Bishopsgate,  Lon- 
don, was  originally  founded  in 
1247  as  a  priory,  but  afterward 
used  as  a  lunatic  asylum.  It  was 
transferred  to  Moor'fields  in  1676, 
and  it  is  to  this  place  that  Ho- 
garth's picture  and  Pepys's_ state- 
ments refer.  Since  1815  it  has 
been  situated  at  St.  George's 
Fields,  Lambeth. 

Bedlington  Terrier.  See  Ter- 
rier. 

Bedloe's  Island,  or  Liberty 
Island,  in  New  York  Harbor,  1^ 
m.  s.w.  of  the  Battery.  It  is  the 
property  of  the  U.  S.,  and  Fort 
Wood  is  situated  here.  On  it 
stands  the  famous  Bartholdi  sta- 
tue of  Liberty  Enlightening  the 
World,  presented  by  France  to 
the  United  States. 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION  TO 
NELSON'S  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


I.   EXPLANATORY  NOTE. 

In  the  vocabulary  of  this  Appendix  the  correct  pro- 
nunciation is  indicated  of  all  titles  which  present  any 
difficulty  in  that  respect.  Titles  are  omitted  when  the 
pronunciation  is  indicated  by  the  spelling  (as  abatement, 
Adams,  Aiken,  Bates,  etc.),  or  by  connection  with  titles 
given  in  the  Appendix. 

A  simple  system  of  respelling  is  adopted  based  upon 
the  usual  values  of  the  vowels  and  consonants  in  English; 
and  such  diacritical  marks  a*  are  used  are  those  in  gen- 
eral use  in  school  textbooks.  The  values  of  the  symbols 
used  are  given  in  the  accompanying  Key,  witli  explana- 
tions of  the  way  to  pronounce  correctly  the  few  foreign 
sounds  which  are  not  fairly  well  represented  by  English 
sounds.  Except  as  otherwise  noted  in  the  Key,  the  let- 
ters used  in  respelling  are  to  be  given  their  ordinary  Eng- 
lish values.  Further  information  as  to  the  values  of  the 
letters  in  the  alphabets  of  foreign  languages  will  be  found 
In  the  article  on  PRONUNCIATION  in  the  Encyclopaedia. 

II.  KEY. 

3  as  in  fate,  rebate. 

a  as  in  care,  mare,  or  as  at  in  fair,  or  as  e  In  there. 

a  (unmarked)  as  in  fat,  am. 

a  as  in  arm,  father. 

a  as  in  ask. 

a  as  in  America. 

e  as  in  me,  evade. 

e  (unmarked)  as  in  met,  end. 

e  as  in  moment,  maker. 

I  as  in  ice,  mine. 

1  (unmarked)  as  in  fit,  it. 

0  as  in  old,  over,  obey. 

o  (unmarked)  as  in  odd,  not. 

6  as  in  nor,  or  as  a  in  fall, 
oi  as  in  boil,  noise, 
ob  as  in  boot,  fool,  or  as  u  in  rude, 
oo  as  in  book,  or  as  u  in  fullj  put. 

a  as  in  mule,  unite. 


u  (unmarked)  as  in  but,  up. 

u  as  in  turn,  burn,  or  as  e  in  her,  or  as  t  in  fir; 

also  for  French  eu  and  for  German  o, 
fl  for  French  u  and  German  ti.    This  sound  may 
be  imitated  by  pronouncing  e  as  in  Eng- 
lish me  and  at  the  same  time  firmly  round- 
ing the  lips  as  for  pronouncing  oo  in  fool, 
y  as  in  yet. 
ch  as  in  church. 

Ch  as  in  German  ich.  This  is  the  front  palatal 
continuant,  and  is  pronounced  with  the 
blade  of  the  tongue  raised  almost  to  the 
hard  palate,  producing  a  sound  resembling 
a  strong  pronunciation  of  the  h  in  hew, 
or  the  sound  of  k  in  key  pronounced  with- 
out complete  stoppage  of  the  breath, 
g  as  in  <!0,.  girl. 

E  as  in  hit;  also  for  Spanish  g  before  e  and  i, 
and  for  other  foreign  sounds  which  are 
similar  strong  guttural  fricatives. 
Iiw  as  wh  in  when. 
K  as  ch  in  Scotch  loch,  and  German  ach,  or  as  g  in 
German  tag,  schlag  This  is  the  back  pal- 
atal, or  guttural,  continuant,  and  is  pro- 
nounced with  the  tongue  raised  almost  to 
the  palate,  producing  a  sound  somewhat 
resembling  that  made  in  clearing  the 
throat. 

ft  is  used  to  indicate  a  nasal  pronunciation  of 
the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  French  bon. 
The  nasal  vowels  are  pronounced  some- 
what as  if  blended  with  the  sound  of  ng  in 
song,  pronounced  without  the  complete 
closure  for  the  g. 

th  as  in  thick,  though. 

TH  as  in  then,  thus. 

zh  as  z  in  azure,  or  as  s  in  measure. 

An  apostrophe  ['],  when  used,  denotes  an  almost 
complete  elision  of  the  vowel  which  it  re- 
places or  indicates  a  syiiabic  consonant,  as 
in  ta'k'n  (taken),  spaz'm  (spasm). 


Volume  I. — A^achen  to  Becskerek. 


Aachen,  aK'en. 

Aalborg,  dVhorch. 
Aalesund,  6'le-sun 
Aali  Pasha,  a'ls  pa-sha'. 
Aalst,  alst. 
Aar,  ar. 
Aarau,  a'Du. 
Aarestrup,  O're-strobp. 
Aargau,  ur'gou. 
Aarhus,  or'hobs, 
Aasen,  o'sen. 
Aasvar,  os'var. 
Ababdeh,  a-bab'de. 
Abaca,  a-ba-ka.' 
Abaco,  a'ba-ko. 
Abakansk,  a-ba-kiinsk'. 
Abalone.  ab  a  lo'ne. 


Abancay,  a-ban-ki'. 
Abaucourt,  a-ban-kobr'. 
Abano,  a-ba'no. 
Abattoir,  a-ba-twar'. 
Abauj  -Torna,  o'bo  o6-y' 

tor'no. 
Abauzit,  a-bo-ze'. 
Abbadie,  a-ba-de'. 
Abbas  Mirza,  ab'bas  mer'- 

za. 

Abbate,  ab-ba'te. 
Abbates  milites,  ab'o-tSz 

mil'i-tez. 
Abbazia,  ab-ba-tsS'ii. 
Abbe,  ti-ba'. 
Abbeville,  ab-vSL 


Abbiategrasso,  ab-bi-a- 

ta-grAs'sD. 

Abd-el-Kader.abd-el- 

ka'der. 
Abdera,  ab-de'ra. 
Abdomen,  ab-do'men. 
Abdul-Aziz,  abd'o^ol 

a-zez'. 

Abdul-Hamid,  iibd'ool  ha- 
med'. 

Abdul-Kadir,  abd-ool-ka'- 
der. 

Abdullah-el-Teishi  es 
Sayyid,  abd'do- lii-el- 
ta'shi  es  sa-yed'. 

Abdul-Latif  al*£agdadi, 

641 


abd'obl-la-tef'aJ-bag  da', 
di. 

Abdul  -  M  e  d  j  i  d,  abd'doi- 

me-jed'. 
Abdur-Rahman,  abd'dor- 

riih-man'. 
Abeel,  a-hSY. 
Abel,  Eng.  ab'd;  Ger.&naex^ 
Abelard,    a-ba-lar';  Eng. 

nh'e-VArd. 
Abelin,  a-b'lah', 
Abenakis,  a-be-na'kiz. 
Abencerrages,  a-ben'se- 

ra-jez;  Span,  a-ben-the- 

rii'hes. 

Abeokuta,  a-be-o-kob'to. 


APt>ENDIX  OP  PRONtJNCIATIOK. 


Abercrombie,  ab'«r-krum. 
bl. 

Aberdare,  ab-er-dar'. 
Aberdeen,  ab-er-den'. 
Abergavenny,  ab-er-gen'i 

or  ab-er-ga-ven'i. 
Abernethy,  ab'ei-ns-thi. 
Aberystwyth,  ab-er-ist'- 

with. 

Abiathar,  o-bi'a-thar. 
Abioh,  Which. 
Abies,  a'bi-gz. 
Abijah,  a-bi'ja. 
Abilene,  ab'i-lg'ne;tn.U.S. 

ab'i-len. 
Abimelech,  a-bim'^-lek. 
Abiogenesis,  ab-i-o-jen'g- 

sis. 

Abipones,  a-be-pO'nas. 
Abishai,  a-bish'a-I. 
Abitibi,a-bi-tib'i. 
Abkhasia,  ab-ka'shi-a. 
Ablaut,  ap'lout. 
Abo,  O'boo  or  O'boo. 
Abo-Bjorneborg,  byur-ne- 

bor'y'. 
Abomey,  a-bo-ma'. 
Aboukir,  a-bob-ker'. 
Abousambul,  a-b<5D-sam- 

bdbl'. 
About,  a-boo'. 
Abra,  a'bra. 

Abranchiata,  a-brang-ki- 
a'ta. 

Abrantes,  a-bran'tes. 
Abravanel,  a-bra-va-nel'. 
Abraxas,  ab-rak'sas. 
Abrolhos,  a-brol'yos. 
Abruzzi,  a-broo'tsi. 
Abruzzi  Molise,  a-brob'tsi 

mo'le-za, 
Absconce,  ab-skons'. 
Absinthe,  ab'sinth;  Fr.  ab- 

sant'. 

Abstemii,  ab-ste'mi-l. 
Abt,  apt. 
Abu,  a' boo. 

Abu  Abdalla,  a'boo  ab- 

dal'la. 
Abu  Bekr,  a'boo  bek'r. 
Abu    Hamid,    a'boo  ha- 

mgd'. 

Abu  Klea,  a'boQ  kla'a. 
Abul  Ghazi  Bahadur,  a'- 

bTbl  ga'zg  ba-hd'do6r. 
Abulug,  a-bod'loog. 
Abulfaraj,  a-bo6l-fa'raj. 
Abulfeda,  ii-bool-fed'a. 
Abu  Nuvas,  a'boo  noo'- 

was. 
Aburi,  a-bo?)'ri. 
Abyad,  ab'yad. 
Abydos,  a-bi'dos, 
Abyssinia,  ab-i-sin'i-a. 
Acadia,  o-ka'di-a. 
Acajete,  a-ka-ha'te. 
Acajutla,  a-ka-hoot'ia. 
Acalephae,  ak-a-l6'i-5. 
A.camapichtli,  a-ka-ma- 


Acapulco,  a-kii-pool'kO. 
Acarnania,  ak-ar-na'ni-a. 
Acarus.  ak'a-rus. 
Accault,  a-ko'. 
Acci^ccatura,  at-chak-ka- 
tdo'ra. 

Acciajuoli,  at-cha-yo'le. 
Accra,  ak'ra. 

Accrescimento,  ak-kresh- 

i-men'to. 
Aceldama,  a-sel'da-ma. 
Acephalous,  a-sef'-a-lus. 
Acerra,  a-cher'ra. 
Acetamide,  as-et-am'id  or 

-am'id. 
Acetanilide,  as-et-an'il-id. 
Acetic,  a-set'ik  or  -se'tik. 
Acetone,  as'i-ton. 
Acetyl,  as'i-til. 
Acetylene,  a-set'i-lgn. 
Achaei,  a-ke'i. 
Achaemenians,  ak-i-me'- 

ni-ans. 
Achaia,  a-ka'ya. 
Achamoth,  ak'-a-moth  or 

-moth. 
Achard,  arshar'. 
Achates,  a-ka'tez. 
Ache,  a-sha'. 
Achelous,  ak-el-5'us. 
Achenbach,  aK'en-baK. 
Achene,  a-ken'. 
Achensee,  aK'en-za. 
Achenwall,  aK'en-val. 
Acheron,  ak'e-ron. 
Acheval,  a-sli'val', 
Achill,  ak'il. 
Achillas,  a-kil'as. 
Achillea,  ak-i-le'a. 
Achilles,  a-kil'es. 
Achilles  Tatius,  ta'shi-as. 
Achillini,  a-kil-ls'ng. 
Achish,  a'kish. 
Achitophel,  a-kit'O-fel. 
Achmet,  aic'raet. 
Achondroplasia,  a-kon- 

dr0-pl5'zhi-a  0/"  -zi-a. 
Achray,  aK-ra'. 
Achroite,  ak'rO-lt. 
Achromatic,  ak-ro-mat  ik. 
Achsah,  ak'sa. 
Acidimetry,  as-i-dim'i-tri. 
Aci  Reale,  a'che  ra-a'la. 
Acis,  a'sis. 

Ackermann,  ak'er-man. 
Aclinic,  a-klin'ik. 
Acoemetae,  a-sem'e-t5. 
Acollas,  a-ko-la'. 
Acolytes,  ak'o-iits. 
Acoma,  fl-ko'ma. 
Aconcagua,  a-kon-ka'gwii. 
Acosta,  ii-kOs'ta. 
Acoustics,  a-k(>bs'tiks  or 

-kons'tiks, 
Acquaviva,  ak-wa-vS'va. 
Acqui,  ak'kwe. 
Acre,  ii'k^r  or  a'ker. 
Acri,  ii'krO. 


Acroceraunian,  ak-ro-si8' 

ro'ni-an. 
Acrolein,  a-kro'le-in. 
Acrophony,  a-krof'o-ni. 
Acropolis,  a-krop'o-lis. 
Actaeon,  ak-te'on. 
Acte  additionelle,  akta- 

de-syO-nel'. 
Actian,  ak'shi-an. 
Actiniaria,  ak-tin-i  a'ri-a. 
Actinograph,  ak-tin'o- 

graf. 

Actinometer,  ak-ti-nom' 
e-ter. 

Actinomycosis,  ak-tin-o- 

ml-ko'sis. 
Actium,  ak'shi-um. 
Acupressure,  ak'fl-presh- 

oor. 
Ada,  od'o. 

Adabazar,  a-da-ba-zar'. 
Adagio,  a-da'jo. 
Adalbert,  ad'al-bert. 
Adalia,  a-da'li-a. 
Adam,  E'.ad'am;  i^r.a-daii'; 

Oer.  a'dara. 
Adamawa,  a-da -ma'wa. 
Adamnan,  ad'am-nan. 
Adana,  a-da'na. 
Adanson,  a-dan-sdn'. 
Adar,  a'dar. 
Adda,  ad'da. 
Adelaer,  a'de-iar. 
Adeler,  ad'el-er. 
Adelsberg,  a'dels-berc^. 
Adelung,  a'de-l^ong. 
Aden,  ii'den  of  e'den. 
Adenalgia,  ad-i-nal'ji-a. 
Adenitis,  ad-i-ni'tis. 
Adenoid,  ad'i-noid, 
Aderno,  a-der'no. 
Adersbach,  a'ders-baK. 
Adiabatic,  ad-i-a-bat'ik. 
Adiaphora,  ad-i-af 'o-ra. 
Adige,  a'di-ja. 
Adi  Granth,  a'di  granth, 
Adipocere,  ad-i-po-eer'. 
Adirondacks,  ad  i-ron'- 
daks. 

Adis  Abeba,  a'dis  a-ba'ba. 
Adler,  ad'kr. 
Ad  libitum,  ad  libl-tum. 
Admetus,  ad-me'tns. 
Admirable  Crichton,  kn'- 
tun. 

Admiralty  droits,  drwS. 
Adobe,  a-do'ba. 
Adonai,  a-dr/nl  or  ad-0 
na'I. 

Adonijah,  ad-o-nl'ja 
Adonis,  a-do'nis. 
Adour,  a-door'. 
Adra,  ii'dra. 
Adrastus,  ad-ras'tus. 
Adria,  a'dri-a. 
Adrian,  a'dri-an. 
Adrianople,  ad  ri-an-O'p'I. 
Adriatic,  ad-ri-at'ic  or  a'- 

dri-. 
Adua,  ii'dwa. 


'  Adularia,  ad-fl  la'rl-a. 

Adulis,  a-dli-lg';  Lat.  n 
du'lis. 

AduUam,  a-duram. 

Ad  valorem,  ad  va-lo'rem. 

Advowson,  ad-vou'z'n. 

Adye,  a'di. 

Adytum,  ad'i-tum. 

^acus,  e'a-kus. 

Aeby,  a'bi. 

-ffidiles,  e'dilz. 

^dui,  ed'a-I. 

.ffietes,  S-e'tgs. 
^gades,  g'ga-dez. 
iEgean,  s-j§'an. 
^geus,  e'jUs. 
iEgilops,  e'ji-lops. 
^gina,  e-jl'na. 
^gir,  a'jir. 
^girite,  e'ji-nt. 
iEgis,  e'jis. 
^gisthus,  S-jis'tbus. 
JEgium,  e'ji-um. 
JEgle,  e'glg  or  egHg. 
JEgospotami,  e-gos-pot'a. 
mi. 

.ffigrotat,  e-gro'tat. 
JEgyptus,  e-jip'tus. 
.ffilfgar,  alf'gar. 
.ffilfred,  al'fred. 
ailfric,  al'frik. 
.Slia  Capitolina,  5'Ii-a 

kap-i-to-lI'n«. 
.ffilianus,  S-li.a'nus. 
.ffilius,  e'li-u8. 
^Ua,  al'Ia. 
.ffinaria,  e-na'ri-a. 
.Eneas,  e-ne'as. 
.ffineid,  S-ne'id, 
jEolian,  e-o'li-an. 
JEolipile,  s-ol'i-pil. 
.ffiolotropy,  e-o-Jot'ro-pl. 
JEolus,  e'o-lus. 
.Slon,  e'on. 
.ffipinus,  S-pI'nus. 
.ffipyornis,  g-pl-or'nis. 
iElqui,  e'kwT. 
.ffirarium,  e-ra'ri-um. 
Aerated,  a'^r-a'ted. 
Aerial,  a-S'ri-al. 
Aeroclinoscope,  a-^r-o-klr- 

nO-skop. 
Aerolites,  a'er-o-lits. 
Aeroscope,  a'er-o-skop. 
Aerostatic,  a-^r-o-stat'ik. 
Aerotherapeutics,  a'«r-o- 

ther-a-pa'tiks. 
Aerschot,  ar'sKot. 
Aeschi,  esh'i. 
JEschines,  es'ki-nSz. 
.ffischylus,  es'ki-lus. 
JEsculapius,  es-kfl-la'pi- 

us. 

.ffisculus,  es'ktl-lus. 
.9)sir,  a'sir  orfi'sir. 
-ffisop,  e't^op. 
.ffilsopus,  e-so'pns. 
.Esthesiometer,  es-the-sl- 


APPENDIX  OP  PRONUNCIATION. 


643 


JEstheticism,  es-thet'i- 
siz'm. 

Estivation,  es-ti-va'shun. 
Etheling,  ath'el-ing. 
JBthionema,  e-thi-o-ne'- 
ma. 

Ethrioscope,  e'thri-o- 
skOp. 

Etiology,  e-ti-ol'o-ji. 
Aetion,  a-g'shi-on. 
Etolia,  e-to'li-a. 
Afanasiev,  a-fa-na'sief. 
Afar,  ii'far. 
Afer,  a'f^r. 

Affettuoso,  af-fet-twO'so. 
Aflfre,  af'r'. 
Aflfry,  a-fre'. 

Afghanistan,  af-gan-is- 
tiin'. 

Afium-Kara-Hissar,  a-fi- 

oom'-ka-ra'-his-sar'. 
Africander,  af-ri-kan'der. 
Afridis,  a-fre'diz. 
Afrit,  a-fret'. 

Afzelius,  af-ze'li-us;  Swed. 

af-tse'li-oos. 
Agades,  ag'a-dez. 
Agama,  ag'a-ma. 
Agamemnon,  ag-a-mera'- 

iion. 

Agamidae,  a-gain'i-de. 
Agana,  a-ga'nya. 
Agapae,  ag'a-pe. 
Agapanthus,  ag-a-pan'- 

thus. 

Agapemone,  ag-a-pem'o- 
ne. 

Agapetae,  ag-a-pe'te. 
Agapetus,  ag-a-pe'tus. 
Agar,  a-gur'. 
Agar-agar,  a'ger-a'ger. 
Agardh,  a'gard. 
Agaric,  ag'a-rik  or  o-gar'- 
ik. 

Agassiz,  ag'a-si;  F.,  A-ga- 
se'. 

Agatha,  ag'a-tha. 
Agatharchides,  ag-a- 

thar'ki-dez. 
Agathias,  a-ga'thi-as. 
Agathocles,  a-gath'O-klez. 
Agathon,  ag'a-thon. 
Agave,  a-g5've. 
Agde,  sgd. 
Agen,  a-zhafi'. 
Agence  Havas,  a-zhans'  a- 

va'. 

Agesilaus,  a-jes-i-ia'us. 
Aggtelek,  og'tel-ek. 
Aghrim,  6'grim 
Agincourti  a-zhan-koor'  ; 

E.  aj'in-kOrt 
Agio,  aj'i-5. 
Agira,  a-je'ra. 
Agis,  a'jis. 

Aglaophon,  a-gla'o-fon. 
Agnadello,  a-nya-dello. 
Agnano,  a-nya'no. 
Agnates,  ag'nata. 


Agnesi,  a-nya'z5. 
Agnus  Dei,  ag'nus  de'i. 
Agnone,  a-nyO'na. 
Agonic,  a-gon'ik. 
Agora,  ag'o-ra. 
Agoraphobia,  ag-o-ra-fo' 

bi-a. 
Agoult,  a-goo'. 
Agouti,  a-goo'ti. 
Agra,  a'gra. 
Agram,  a'gram,  og'rom. 
Agramonte^  a-gra-mOn'ta, 
Agrapha,  a-grafa. 
Agraphia,  a-graf 'i-a. 
Agricola,  «-grik'o-la, 
Agrigentum,  ag-ri-jen'- 

tum. 

Agrippina,  ag-ri-pT'na. 
Agrimony,  ag'ri-mo-ni. 
Agrippa,  a-grip'a. 
Aguadilla,  a-gwa-del'yii. 
Aguado,  a-gwa'do. 
Aguardiente,  a-gwar-di- 
en'te. 

Aguas  Calientes,  a'gwas 

ka-Ii-en'tas. 
Aguesseau,  a-ge-so'. 
Aguilar,  a-ge-lar'. 
Aguilar  de  la  Frontera, 

a-ge-lar 'de  la  fron-ta'ra. 
Aguilas,  a'ge-las. 
Aguilera,  a-ge  la'ra. 
Aguinaldo,  a-ge-nal'do. 
Aguirre,  a-gei-'ra. 
Aguja,  a-goo'ha. 
Agulhas,  a-gool'yas. 
Agusan,  a-gob'san. 
Agustina,  a-goos-te'na. 
Ahab,  a'hab. 

Ahasuerus,  a-haz-u-e'rus. 
Ahaziah,  a-ha-zi'a. 
Ahimelech,  a-him'e-lek. 
Ahithopel,  a-hith'o-fel, 
Ahlqvist,  al'kvist. 
Ahlwardt,  al'vart. 
Ahmed,  a'med. 
Ahmedabad,  a-med-a- 
bad'. 

Ahmednagar,  a-med-Dug'- 

ur. 
Ahn,  an. 
Ahrens,  a'rens. 
Ahriman,  a'ri-man. 
Ahwaz,  a-waz'. 
Aicard,  a-kar'. 
Aidan,  a'dan. 
Aide,  a-e-da'. 
Aide-de-camp,  ad'dikan'. 
Aidin,  T-den'. 
Aiguesmortes,  ag-mort'. 
Aiguille,  a  gwel'. 
Aiguillette,  a-gwi-let'. 
Aigun,  T'gcMu. 
Aikawa,  T-ka'wa. 
Ailanthus,  a-Ian'thus. 
Ailly,  ft-yS'. 

Ailsa  Craig,  al'sa  krag'. 
Aimak,  i-miik'. 
Aimard,  a-inar'. 


Ain,  an. 

Ainhum,  an'hum. 
Ainmiller,  in'mil-er. 
Ainos,  I'noz. 
Ain-Tab,  In-tab'. 
Air,  a-er'. 
Airdrie,  ar'dre. 
Aire-sur-Lys,  ar-siir-les'. 
Aisle,  11. 
Aisne,  an. 
Aisse,  a-e-sa'. 
Aistulf,  is'tdblf. 
Aivalik,  I'va-lek. 
Aivazovski,  i-va-zof'ski. 
Aix,  aks. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  aks  (or 

as)  la  sha-per. 
Aix-les-Bains,  -la-ban'. 
Ajaccio,  a-yat'c  ho. 
Ajalon,  aj'a-lon. 
Ajax.  a'jaks. 
Ajmere,  uj-mer'. 
Ajowan,  aj'Jo-an. 
Ajurnoca,  a-zhoor-no'ka. 
Akashi,  a'ka  she. 
Akee  fruit,  a-ke'. 
Akershus,  ak'ers-hfis. 
Akhaltsikh,  a-Kal-tseK'. 
Ak-Hissar,  ak-his-sar'. 
Akhlat,  aiv-lat'. 
Akhmim,  aiv-mem'. 
Akhtirka,  aK-ter'ka. 
Akiba,  a-ke'ba. 
Akita,  a'ke-ta. 
Akka,  ak'ka. 

Akmolinsk,  ak-mo-lyen?k'. 
Aksaiskaya,  ak-si-ska'ya. 
Akshehr,  ak-she'hV.' 
Ak-su,  ak-soo'. 
Akyab,  ak-yab'. 
Alabama,  al-a-ba'ma. 
Alabat,  a-la-bat'. 
Alacoque,  a-la-kok'. 
Alacranes,  a-la-kra'nas. 
Alai  (Mountains),  a-ir. 
Alais,  a-ia'. 
Alajuela,  a-la-hwa'la. 
Ala-kul,  a-la-kool'. 
Alaman,  a-la-miin'. 
Alameda,  a-la-ma'da. 
Alamo,  a'la-mo. 
Alamos,  a'Ul-mOs. 
Aland  (Islands),  o'lan  or 

6'lan. 
Alar  con,  a-liir-kOn'. 
Alarcon  y  Mendoza,  a-lar- 

kfm'  e  men-dO'tha. 
Alaric,  al'a-rik. 
Alashehr,  a-la-she'h'r. 
Alassio,  a-Uls'se-u. 
Ala-tau,  a-la-tou'. 
Alatri,  a-la'tr5. 
Alatyr,  a-la-t6r'. 
Alausi,  ii-lou-ss'. 
Alava,  a'la-va, 
Albacete,  al-bli-tha'te. 
Albani,  iil-ba'nc. 
Albania,  al  -ba'ni-a. 
Al-Battani,  al-bat-ta'ne. 


Albaugh,  al'bS. 
Albay,  ai-oi'. 
Albedo,  al-be'do. 
Alberoni,  al  be-ro'ng. 
Albert,  Fr.  al-bar' ;  G.  al'- 
bert. 

Albi,  ai-be'. 

Albigenses,  al-bi-jen's5z. 
Albion,  al'bi-un. 
Alboni,  al-bo'ne. 
Albornoz,  al-bor-notb'. 
Albox,  al-boh'. 
Albrecht,  al'brecAt. 
Albret,  al-bre'. 
Albrizzi,  al-brgt'tse. 
Albuera,  al-bwa'ra, 
Albula  al'boo-la. 
Albumin,  al-bti'min. 
Albuminuria,  al-bu-mi- 

nu'ri-a. 
Albufiol,  iil-boo-nynl'. 
Albuquerque,  al-boo-ker'- 

ka. 

Alcaeus,  al-se'us. 

Alcala  de  Guadaira,  al-ka- 

la'  da  gwa-dl'ra. 
Alcala  de  Henares,  al-ka- 

la'  da  a-na'ras. 
Alcala  de  los  Gazules,  al- 

ka-la'  da  los  ga-thoo'las. 
Alcala  la  Real,  al  ka-la'  la 

ra-al'. 
Alcalde,  al-kal'da. 
Alcaiiiz,  iil-kan-yeth'. 
Alcantara,  al-kan'ta-ra. 
Alcaraz,  al-ka-rath'. 
Alcaudete,  al-kou-da'ta. 
Alcazar,  al-kath'ar. 
Alcazar  de  San  Juan,  al- 

kath'ilr  da  siin  hwan', 
Alcedo  y  Herrera,  al-tha'- 

dO  e  er-ra'ra. 
Alchemilla,  al-ke-mil'a. 
Alciati,  al-cha'te. 
Alcibiades,  al-si-bi'a-dez. 
Alcides,  al  si'dez. 
Alcinous,  al-sin'o-us. 
Alciphron,  al'si-fron. 
Alcira,  iil-the'ra. 
Alcmaeon,  alk-me'on. 
Alcmaeonidae,  alk-me-on'- 

i-de. 

Alcman,  alk'man. 
Alcobaca,  al-ko-ba'sa. 
Alcofribas  Nasier,  al-ko- 

fre-bii'  nii-sya'. 
Alcoholometry,  al-ko-hol- 

om'i-tri. 
Alcoy,  al-koi'. 
Alcuin,  al'kwin. 
Alcyonaria,  al-si-n-na'ri-a. 
Alcyone,  al-sro-nC. 
Aldborough,  old'bur-or 

colloq.  o'bro. 
Aldebaran,  al-dcb'a-ran. 
Aldegrever,  al'de-gra-ver. 
Aldehyde,  al 'de-hid. 
Alden,  ol  den. 
Aldershot,  Ol'der-sbot. 


644 


APPENDIX  OF  PROxVUNCIATlON. 


Aldhelm,  ald'helm. 
Aldiborontiphosco- 

phornio,  al-di-bo-ron'ti- 

fos-ko-for'ni-o. 
Aldine,  al'dm  or  ol'dln. 
Aldobrandini,  al  do  bran- 

de'ne. 

Aldrich,  dl'drich  or  61'drij. 
Aldringer,  alt'ring-er. 
Aldrovandi,  al-dro-van'de. 
Aleardi,  a-la-ar'de. 
Aleatory,  a'le  a-to-ri. 
,  Alegrete,  a-la-gra'ta. 
Aleman,  al'e-man;  F.  al- 

man';  Span,  a-le-rnan'. 
Alemanni,  al-e-man'i. 
Alembert,  a-lah-bar'. 
Alemtejo,  a-lau-ta'zhoo. 
Alencon,  a-lah-sOn'. 
Aleshki,  ii-lesh'ks. 
Alesia,  a-le'shi-o. 
Alessi,  a-les'se. 
Aleurone,  a-lu'ron. 
Aleutian  (Islands),  a-lu'- 

shi  an. 
Alexandri,  a-leks-an'dre. 
Alexandrovsk  Grushev- 

ski,  a-leks-an'drof 8k 

groo-shef'ske. 
Alexei,  a-leks-a', 
Alexeief,  a-leks-a'yef, 
Alfa,  al'fa. 
Alfalfa,  al-fal'fa. 
Alfieri,  al-fi-a're. 
Alfreton,  6rfer-tun;  colloq. 

6f'er-tun. 
Algae,  al'je. 
Algarotti,  al-ga-rot'te. 
Algarve,  al-gar'va. 
Algeciras,  al-ha-the'ras. 
Algemesi,  al-ha  ma-se'. 
Algeria,  al-je'ri-a. 
Alghero,  al  ga'ro. 
Algiers,  al  jerz'. 
Algoa,  al-go'a. 
Algonquins,  al-gon'kinz. 
Alguazil,  al-gwa-thel'. 
Alias,  a'li-as. 
Ali  Bey,  a'le  ba. 
Alibi,  al'i-bl. 
Alicante,  a-li-kan'ta. 
Aligarh,  a-li-giir'. 
Alima,  a-le'ma. 
I  Ali  Pasha,  a'le  pa-sha', 
I  Aliscans,  a  les  kan'. 
Alizarin,  a  liz'a-rin. 
Aljubarrota,  al-zhoo-bar- 

rO'ta. 
Alkali,  al'ka-ll. 
Alkalimetry,  al-ka-lim'-i- 
tri. 

Al-Kindi,  al-kin'di. 
Alkmaar,  alk-mar'. 
Allahabad,  al'la-ha-bad'. 
AUantoin,  a-lan'to-in. 
AUantois,  a-lan'to-is. 
Allegheny,  al'i-ga-ni. 
Allegretto,  al-ln-gret'to. 
Allegri,  ai-ia'gre. 


Allegro,  al-ia'gro. 
AUeine,  al'en. 
Allemande,  al-i-mand'. 
AUeppi,  a-lep'i. 
AUerion,  al-le'ri-on. 
AUeyn,  al'en  or  al'in. 
Allgemeine  Zeitung,  al- 

gfi-mi'ne  tsl'totmg. 
Allier,  a-lya'. 
Alloa,  al'o-a. 
AUobroges,  a-lob'ro-jez. 
Allodial,  a-lo'di-al. 
Allogamy,  a-Jog'o-ml 
Allopathy,  a-lop'a-thi. 
Allori,  al-lo'rg 
Allotropy,  a-lot'rO-pi. 
Allowav,  al'o-wa. 
AUyl,  al'il. 
Alma,  al'raa. 
Almada,  al  ma'da. 
Almaden,  Sp  al-ma-dan'; 

U.  S.  al-ma-den'. 
Almagest,  al'ma-jest. 
Almagra,  al-ma'gm. 
Al-mamun,  al-ma-mJon'. 
Almansa,  al-man'sa. 
Al-Mansur,  al-man-soor'. 
Alma-Tadema,  al-ma-ta'- 

de-ma. 
Almeida,  al-ma'i-da. 
Almeida-Garrett,  al-ma'- 

i-da-gar-ret', 
Almeirim,  al-ma-ren'. 
Almelo,  al-ma-lo'. 
Almendralejo,  al-men-dra- 

la'ho. 
Almeria,  al-ma-re'a. 
Almiqui,  iil-me'ke. 
Almodovar  del  Campo,  al- 

mo-dO'var  del  kam'pO. 
Almogia,  ai-mo-he'a. 
Almohades,  al'mo-hadz. 
Almond,  ii'mund. 
Almonte,  al-m5n't5. 
Almora,  al-mo'ra. 
Almoravides,    al  -  mo' m- 

vTdz. 

Almqvist,  alm'kvist. 
Alnwick,  an'ik. 
Aloe,  al'o. 
Aloidae,  al-o-l'de. 
Alopecia,  al-o-pe'shi-a  or 

-si-a. 
Alora,  a'lo-ra. 
Alpes  Maritimes,  alp  ma- 

re-tem'. 
Alpha  and  Omega,  a) 'fa 

O-me'ga  or  O'mi-ga. 
Alphand,  al-fan'. 
Alpheus,  al-fe'us. 
Alpini,  iil-pe'ne. 
Alpujarras,  al-poo-har'ras. 
Alruna,  al-roo'na. 
Alsace  -  Lorraine,  al-sae'- 

lor-an'  or  al-zas', 
Alsatia,  al-sa'shi-a. 
Al  segno,  al  ea'nyo. 
Alsen,  al'nen. 
Alsop,  61 'sup. 
Alster,  al'ster. 


Altai,  al-ti'. 
Altamaha,  61-ta-ma-h6'. 
Alt  mura,  al-ta-mob'ni. 
Altazimuth,  alt-az'i-muth. 
Altdorf,  alt'doif. 
Altdorfer,  ait'dorf-er. 
Alten,  al'ten. 
Altena,  al'te-nii. 
Altenburg,  al'ten-bobrcA. 
Altenstein,  al'ten-shtin. 
Alter  Ego,  al'ter  e'go. 
Altmiihl,  alt'miil. 
Alt-ofen,  alt-o'fen. 
Alton,  61'tnn. 
Altona,  al'to-na. 
Alto  relievo,al'to-re-lya'vo 
Altdtting,  alt-et'ing. 
Altranstadt,  alt'ran-stet. 
Altrincham,  Ol'tring-am. 
Altstatten,  alt'stet-en. 
Altwasser,  alt'vas-er. 
Alt-Zabrze,  alt'zab'zhe. 
Aluminium,  al-u-min'i- 
um. 

Alvarado,  al-va-ra'do. 
Alvarez  de  Cienfuegos,al' 

va-reih  da  thi-en-fwa'gOs. 
Alvary,  al-va're, 
Alvensleben,  al'vens-la- 

ben. 

Alvin,  al-van'. 
Alvinczy,  al-vin'tse. 
Alwar,  ul'vur. 
Alxinger,  alks'ing-er. 
Alyattes,  al-i-at'ez. 
Alypius,  al-ip'i-us. 
Alzey,  al'tsi. 
Alzog,  al'tsOK. 
Amadeo,  a-ma-da'O. 
Amador  de  los  Rios,  a-ma- 

dur'  de  los  re'os. 
Amadou,  am'a-doo. 
Amager,  a'ma-ger. 
Amalekites,  am'a-lek-lts. 
Amalfi,  a-mal'fe. 
Amalia,  a-ma'le-a. 
Amalthaea,  am-al-the'a. 
Aman,  a-man'. 
Amaragosa,  a'ma-ra-go'- 

eha. 

Amarapura,  um-a-ra-poo' 
ru. 

Amari,  a-ma're. 
Amaryllidaceae,  am-a-ril- 

i-da'se-e. 
Amasia,  a-ma'se-a. 
Amasis,  a-ma'sis. 
Amati,  ii-ma'te. 
Amatitlan,  a-ma-ts-tlan'. 
Amaurosis,  am-O-ro'sis. 
Amazonas,  a-ma-zo'nas. 
Ambala,  um-biil'a. 
Ambato,  iim-bii'to. 
Amberg,  iim'berc//,. 
Ambergris,  am'ber-gres. 
Amblyopia,  am-bli-o'pi-a. 
Amblyopsis,  am-bli-op'sis. 
Amblystoma,  am-blis'to- 

in^f. 

Amboise,  jin-bwaz'. 


Ambriz,  am-bresh'. 
Amelia(tn.Italy)  a-ma'le-a. 
Amelie-les-Bains,  a-ma- 

le'la-ban'. 
Amelot  de  la  Houssaye, 

iiin-lO'  de  la  oo-sa'. 
Amentace8e,am-en-ta'se-e. 
Amerigo,  a-ma-re'go. 
Amerling,  a'm^r-ling. 
Amersfoort,  a'mers-fort.  . 
Amhara,  am-ha'ra. 
Amharic,  am-ha'rik. 
Amice,  am'is. 
Amicis,  a-me'ches. 
Amicus  Curiae,  a-mi'kus 

ku'ri-e. 
Amides,  am'idz  or -idz. 
Amidogen,  a-mid'o-jen. 
Amiel,  a-mg-el'. 
Amiens,   a-mi-an';  Eng. 

am'i-enz. 
Amines,  am'inz  or  a-m5nz'. 
Amirante,  am-i-rant'. 
Amistad,  a-ms-stad'. 
Ammianus  Marcellinus, 

am-i-a'nu8  mar-ce-ll'- 

nus. 

Ammoniacum,  am-o-ni'- 

a-kum. 

Amnesia,  ara-ne'zi-a  or 

-si-a. 
Amoeba,  a-me'ba. 
Amoebean,  am-e-bg'an. 
Amontillado,  a-mon-til- 

ya'-do. 
Amor,  a'mor. 
Amorites,  am'or-its. 
Ampere,  am-par'  or  an-par'. 
Amphiaraus,  am-fi-a-ra'us. 
Amphibole^,  am'fi  bolz. 
Amphibrach,  am'fi-brak. 
Amphictyonic,  am-fik-ti- 

on'ik. 

Amphimacer,am  fim'a-ser. 
Amphion,  am-fi'on. 
Amphipolis,  am-fip'o-lis. 
Amphisbaenidae,  am-fis- 

be'ni-de. 
Amphitherium,am  fi-the'- 

ri-um. 

Amphitrite,  am-fi-trl'ts. 
Amphora,  am'fo  ra. 
Amraoti,  um-ra-wut'i. 
Amritsar,  nm-rit'eur. 
Amru,  itm'roo. 
Amsler,  iims'Ier. 
Amstelodamum,  am-etel- 

0-da'miiin. 
Amu  Daria,  a-moo'dar'ya. 
Amur,  a-m(5br'.^ 
Amurath,  a-moo-rat'. 
Amyclae,  a-mi'klg. 
Amygdalaceae,  a-mig-da- 

la'sG-e. 
Amyot,  a-mS-o'. 
Amyraut,  a  me-ro'. 
Anabasis,  a-nab'a-si>? 
Anabolism,  a  nab'o-liz  m. 
Anacharsis,  an-a-kar'sie. 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


Anachronism,  an-ak'ro- 
niz'm 

Anacoluthon,  an-a-ko  lu'- 
thon. 

Anacreon,  «-nak're-on. 
Anadyomene,  an-a-di-om'- 

e-iie. 
Anadjn:*,  ii-na-der'. 
Anagni,  a-na'nye. 
Anagoge,  an-a-go'je. 
Anaheim,  a'na-him. 
Anahuac,  a-na'wak. 
Anakim,  an'a-kim. 
Anamosa,  an-a-mo't»a. 
Ananchytes,  an-ang-ki'- 

tez. 

Ananyev,  a-njin'yef. 
Anapa,  a-na'pa. 
Anapaest,  an'a-pest. 
Anastasius,  an-as-ta'shi-ns. 
Anastomosis,  a-nas-to- 

mo'sis. 
Anatolia,  an-a  to'li-a. 
Anaxagoras,  an-ax-ag'o- 

ras. 

Anaxarchus,  an-aks-ar'- 
kus. 

Anaximander,  a-naks-i- 

man'd^r. 
Anaximenes,  an-aks-im'- 

e-nez. 
Ancachs,  an-kachs'. 
Ancelot,  ans-lo'. 
Ancenis,  an-s'ne'. 
Anchises,  an-ki'sez. 
Anchitherium,  an-ki-the'- 

ri-um. 
Anchovy,  an-cho'vi. 
Ancillon,  an-se-y6n'. 
Ancylopoda,  an-si-lop'f5- 

da. 

Ancona,  an-ko'na. 

Ancre,  afi'kr'. 

Ancren  Riwle,  ang'kren 

rool  0?'  ang'kren  roo'le. 
Andaliisia,an-da-lo(i'shi-a. 
Andante,  an  dan'ta. 
Andaqui,  an-da'ke. 
Andenne,  an-den'.  _ 
Anderlues,  an-der-loos'. 
Andermatt,  an'dtr-mat. 
Andes,  an'dez. 
Andijan,  an-di-zhan'. 
Andkhui,  and-Kw'e. 
Andocides,  an-dos'i-dez. 
Andorra,  iin-dor'ra. 
Andrassy,  on'drii-she. 
Andrea,  an-dra'a. 
Andreae,  an-dre'e. 
Andreini,  an-dra-e'ne. 
Andreossy,  afi-dra-O-sC. 
Andria,  an'drg-a. 
Andrieux,  afi-drc-u'. 
Androclus,  an'drrj-klus. 
Andromache,  an-drom'a- 

kG. 

Andromeda,an-drom'e-da. 
Andronicus,  an-dro-ni'kus 
or  an-dron'i-ku3. 


Andujar,  ;in-d(Il)'har. 
AnelectrotoDUS,  an-e-lek- 

trot'O-nus. 
Anemone,  a-nem'o-nc. 
Aneurin,  an'u-rin. 
Angeln,  iin'geln. 
Angelo,  uu'je-lo;  ItAuVje-lo. 
Angelus,  an'je-lus. 
Angermanland,  ang'er- 

m  an- land. 
Angermunde,    o  n  g '  ^  r  - 

m'Ton-de. 
Angers,  an-zha'. 
Angevine,  an'je-vin  or  an'- 

je-wln. 
Angilbert,  an-zhel-bar', 
Angiolieri,  an-jo-lya're. 
Angola,  an-go'la.^ 
Angouleme,  an-guo-lem'. 
Angra  do  Heroismo,  ang'- 

gra  do  a-ro-es'mo. 
Angra  Poqueiia,  pa- 

ka'nyii. 
Anguilla,  ang-gwil'a. 
Anguisciola,  ang-gwe'sho- 

lii. 

Angwantibo,  ang-gwan- 

te'l)o. 
Anhalt,  an'halt. 
Ani,  a'ne. 

Animuccia,  a-ne-mobt'cha. 

Anio,  a'ne-O. 

Anion,  an'i-on. 

Anjer,  iin'yer. 

A  n  j  0  u ,  an'j  K) ;  Fr.  an- 

zhoo'. 
Anklam,  an'kliim. 
Ankober,  jin-ko'ber. 
Ankole,  an-ko'le. 
Ankylosis,  an-ki-lo'sis. 
Annaberg,  an'nii-berc/i. 
Anna  Comnena,  kom-ne'- 

na. 

Anna  Ivanovna,  an'a 

e-vii'nov-na. 
Annam,  a-nam'. 
Annapolis,  a-nap'o-lis. 
Annates,  an'-  ats. 
Annatto,  a-nat'to. 
Annecy,  an-se'. 
Annonay,  a-no-na'. 
Annunzio,  a-nobn'tsi-O. 
Anopheles,  a-nof'e-lez. 
Anoplotherium,  an-op-lo- 

the'ri-um. 
Anquetil  -  Duperron,  iln- 

k'-iel'du-pa-roh'. 
Ansbach,  iins'baK. 
Anseres,  aii'8<?r-ez, 
Ansgar,  ans'giir. 
Antaeus,  an-te'us. 
Antalcidas,  an-tal'si-das. 
Antananarivo,  an-ta-nii'- 

nii-rcl'vo. 
Antennae,  an-ten'e. 
Antequera,  an-ta-ka'rii. 
Antherozoid,  an-ther-o- 

zO'id. 


Anthraquinone,  an-thra- 

kwi'nOn. 
Anthropoid,  an'thro-poid. 
Anthropology,  an  -  thro  - 

pol'O -ji. 
Anthropometric,  an-thro- 

pO-mei'rik. 
Anthropomorphism,  an- 

thrO-pO-m6r'fiz"ni. 
Anthropophagi,  an-thro- 

pof'a-jl. 
Antibes,  an-teb'. 
Anticline,  an'ti-kliu. 
Anticyra,  an-tis'i-m. 
Antietam,  an-te'tam. 
Antigo,  an'ti-go. 
Antigone,  an-tig'o-ne. 
Antigonus,  an-tig'o-nus. 
Antigua,  iin-te'gwa. 
Antilegomena,  an-ti-le- 

gom'e-na. 
Antilles,  an-til'lez. 
Antilochus,  an-til'o-kus. 
Antimachus,  an-tim'a- 

kus. 

Antinori,  an-ti-no're. 
Antinous,  an-tin'o-us. 
Antiochus,  an-tl'o-kus. 
Antioquia,  an-te-o'ki-a. 
Antipater,  an-tip'a-ter. 
Antipatris,  an-tip'a-tris. 
Antiphlogistics,  an-ti-flo- 

jis'tiks. 
Antiphon,  an'ti-fon. 
Antiphony,  an-til'o-ni. 
Antipodes,  an-tip'o-dez. 
Antique,  iin-ie'ka. 
Antirrhinum,  an-ti-rl'- 

num. 

Antisana,  an-te-sa'nii. 
Antisialagogue,  an-ti-sl- 

al'O-gog. 
Antispast,  an'ti-spast, 
Antisthenes,  an-tis'the- 

nez. 

Antistrophe,  an-tis'tro-fe. 
Antithesis,  an-tith'e-sis. 
Antivari,  an-te'va-re. 
Antofagasta,  an-to-fa- 

giis'ta. 
Antoine,  iifi-twan'. 
Antokolsky,  an-io-kol'ske. 
Antomarchi,  an-to-miir'- 

ke. 

Antonelli,  an-to-nel'lo. 
Antongil,  iin-ton-zhel', 
Antoninus,  an-to-ni'nus. 
Antraigues,  iifi-trag'. 
Anubis,  a-nu'bis. 
Anura,  an-u'ra. 
Anuradhapura,  a-noo-riid- 

hii-ptJu'ra. 
Anwari,  iin-wii're. 
Anzengruber,  iin'tsen- 

gr(Kj-b6r. 
Anzin,  iin-zan'. 
Anzio,  iin'tsi-o. 
Aoki,  ii'o-ke. 
Aorist,  a'O-rist. 


645 

Aorta,  a-6r'ta. 
Aosta,  a-os'ta. 
Apaches,  a-pa'cha. 
Apaffi,  o'po-fi. 
Apalachicola,  a-pa-lach- 

i-ko'la. 
Aparri,  ii-pa're. 
Apatin,  op'o-tin. 
Apeldoorn,  a'pel-dom. 
Apelles,  a-pcl'los. 
Apennines,  ap'e-nlnz. 
Apenrade,  a-pen-ra'dg. 
Aphasia,  a-fa'zhi-a. 
Aphelion,  a-fe'li-on. 
Aphis,  a'fis. 
Aphorism,  af'o-riz'm. 
Aphrodite,  af-ro-di'te. 
Aphthae,  af'the. 
Apia,  a'pe-a. 
Apicius,  a-pish'i-us. 
Apnoea,  ap-ne'a. 
Apocatastasis,  ap-o-ka- 

tas'-ta-sis. 
Apocrenic,  ap-o-kren'ik. 
Apocrypha,  a-pok'ri-fa. 
Apolda,  a-pol'da. 
ApoUinaris,  a-pol-i-na'ris. 
ApoUodorus,  a-pol-o-do'- 

rus. 

Apollonia,  ap-ol-o'ni-a. 
Apollyon,  a  pol'i-on  or  a- 

pol'yun. 
Apologue,  ap'o-log. 
Aponeurosis,  ap-o-nu-ro'- 

sis. 

Apophysis,  a-pof'i-sis. 
Aposiopesis,  ap-O-sl-O-pe'- 
sis. 

Apospory,  a-pos'pO-ri. 
Aposteriori,  a  pos-ie-ri-o'- 
ri. 

Apostrophe,  a-pos'tro-fe. 
Apothegm,  ap'O-them. 
Apotheosis,  ap-o-the'O-sis. 
Appalachian,  ap-a-la'-chi- 
an. 

Appendicitis,  a-pen-di-si'- 
tis. 

Appenzell,  a-pen-tseF. 
Appert,  ii-par'. 
Appiani,  ap-pi-a'ne, 
Appoggiatura,  ap-pod-jii- 
tuu'rii. 

Appomattox,  ap-o- 

mat'uks. 
Apponyi,  op'po-nyi. 
Apraxin,  ji-prak'sin. 
Apriori,  a  pri-o'ri. 
Apse,  aps. 

Apsheron,  iip-sha-ron'. 
Apsides,  ap'si-dez, 
Apteryx,  ap'te-riks. 
Apuleius,  ap-u-le'yus. 
Apulia,  a-pu'li-a. 
Apure,  ji-poo'ra. 
Apurimac,  a-poo-rS'miik. 
Aqua  Tofana,  a'kwii  to-fil'- 
na. 

Aqueous,  ri'kwe-us. 
Aquila,  ak'wi-la. 


646 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION". 


Aquila  degli  Abruzzi,  a'- 

kvve-lil  da'lye  a-broot's5. 
Aquileia,  a-kwe-la'yii. 
Aquinas,  a-kwi'nas. 
Aquitania,  ak-wi-ta'ni-a. 
Arabi,  ii-ni'be. 
Arabia,  a-ra'bi-a. 
Aracaju,  a-ra-kii-zhoo'. 
Aracati,  a-ra-ka-te'. 
Araceae,  a-nVse-e. 
Aracbnida,  a-rak'ni-da. 
Arad,  or'od. 
Arafat,  a-ra-fat'. 
Arafura,  a-ra-fdo  ra. 
Arago,  a'ra-gO  ;  F.  ar-a- 

go'. 

Aragon,  ar'a-<?on ;  Span. 

a-ra-gOn'. 
Aragona,  a-ra-gO'na. 
Aragonite,  a-rag'o-nit. 
Araguaya,  li-ra-gwa-ya'. 
Arakan,  a-ra-kan'. 
Aral,  ar'al. 

Aranjuez,  a-ran-hweth'. 
Aransas,  a-ran'eas. 
Arany,  o'ro-ni. 
Arapahoes,  a-rap'a-hoz. 
Arapaima,  ar-a-pi'ma. 
Ararat,  ar'a-rat. 
Aras,  a-ras' 

Araucanians,  ar-o-ka'ni- 
anz. 

Arauco,  a-rou'ko. 
Araujo  e  Azevedo,  a-rou'- 

zhoo  a  a-ze-va'do. 
Araure,  a-rou'ra. 
Aravali,  ar-a-vul'e. 
Arawaks,  a'ra-waks. 
Arayat,  a-n'at. 
Arbaces,  ar-ba'sez. 
Arbela,  ar-be'la. 
Arbois  de  Jubainville,  ar- 

bwa'  de  zhii  -bafi-vel', 
Arbroath,  ar-bruTH'. 
Arbugs,  ar-boo-as'. 
Arbuthnot,  ar'buth-not  or 

ar-buth'not. 
Arbutus,  ar'btl-tus  or  iir- 

bu'  tus. 
Arcachon,  ar-ka-sh6i\'. 
Arcadia,  ar-ka'di-a. 
Arcesilaus,  ar-ses-i-la'us. 
Archaean,  ar-ke'an. 
Archaeology,  ar-ks-ol'o-ji. 
Archaeopteryx,  ar-ke-op'- 

Archangel,  ark-an'jel. 
Archegoniata,  ar-kc-go- 

iii-a'ta. 
Archegosaurus,  ar-ki-go- 

86'ru8. 
Archelaus,  lir-ke-la'us. 
Archenholz,  ar'cAen-hOlts. 
Archidamus,  iir-ki-da'- 

mus. 

Archilochus,  ar-kiro-kus. 
Archimedes,  iir-ki-mc'dez. 
Archivolt,  ar'ki-volt. 
Archon,  ar'kon. 


Arcis-sur-Aube,  ar-se-sii- 

rob'. 
Arcole,  iir'  ko-la. 
Arcon,  ar-s6n'. 
Arcos  de  la  Frontera,  ar'- 

kos  da  lil  frOn-ta'rii. 
Arcot,  iir-kot'. 
Arctinus,  ark-ti'nus. 
Arcturus,  ark-tu'rus. 
Arcus  senilis,  iir'kus  se- 

ni'lis. 

Ardashir,  ar-da-sher'. 
Ardebil,  ar-de-bel'. 
Ardeche,  ar-desh'. 
Ardennes,  ar-den'. 
Arditi,  ar-de'te. 
Ardrossan,  ar-dros'an. 
Are,  a're. 

Arecibo,  a-ra-se'bo  or  a-ra- 

the'bO. 
Arendal,  a'ren-dal. 
Arenicola,  iir-e-nik'o-la. 
Arens,  a'rens. 
Arentz,  a'rens. 
Areopagus,  ar-e-op'a-gus. 
Arequipa,  a-ra-ke'pa. 
Ares,  a'rez. 
Aretaeus,  ar-e-te'us. 
Aretino,  a-re-te'no. 
Arezzo,  a-rei'tso. 
Argali,  ar'ga-li. 
Argao,  ar-ga'o, 
Argemone,  ar-je-mo'ne. 
Argensola,  ar-han-so'la. 
Argenson,  ar-zhan-son'. 
Argentan,  ar-zhan-tan'. 
Argenteuil,  ar-zhan-tu'y'. 
Argentiere,  iir-zhan-tyar'. 
Argile  Plastique,  ar-zhel' 

pla-i?tek'. 
Argot,  iir-go'. 
Arguelles,  ar-gal'yas. 
Argun,  ar-g(K)n'. 
Argyll,  iir-gTl'. 
Argyropulos,  ar-gi-ro- 

poo'los. 
Aria,  a'  ri-ii  or  a'rl-a. 
Ariadne,  ar-i-ad'ne. 
Ariano  di  Puglia,  a-re-a'- 

110  de  pool'ya. 
Arica,  a-rG'kil. 
Arichat,  a-re-sbat'. 
Ariege,  ii-re-ezh.'. 
Ariel,  a'ri-el. 
Aries,  a'ri-ez. 
Ariosto,  ar-yos'to  or  ar-i- 

os'to. 
Arista,  a-res'ta. 
Aristides,  ar-is-ti'dez. 
Aristobulus.  a-ris-to-bfl'- 

lus. 

Aristophanes,  ar-is-tof- 
a-iiGz. 

Aristotle,  ar'is-tot'l. 

Arius,  a'ri-us  or  a-rl'ne. 

Arizona,  ar-i-zo'na. 

Arkansas,  ai-'kan-^C  (riv- 
er and  state);  ar-kan-zas 
(city). 


Aries,  arl. 

Armada,  iir-ma'da  or  ,  iir- 
nia'da. 

Armageddon,  iir-ma-ged' 
don. 

Armagh,  ar-mil'. 
Armagnac,  ar-nia-nyak- 
Armand,  ar-man'. 
Armatoles,  ar'ma-tolz. 
Armenia,  ar-me'ni-a. 
Armentieres,  ar-mah-tyar 
Armes  Parlants,  arm  par- 

liint'. 
Ar-mida.  ar-nie'dii. 
Arminius,  ar-mhi'i-us. 
Armistice,  ar'mis-tis. 
Arnaboldi,  ar-na-boi'd5. 
Arnaud,  ar-no'. 
Arnault,  ar-nO'. 
Arnaut,  ar-no'. 
Arndt,  iirnt. 
Arne,  am, 
Arno,  iir'no. 

Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  ar  . 

nol'fo  de  kiim'byO. 
Arnould,  ar-nob'. 
Arnprior,  arn-prl'er. 
Arnsberg,  ams'bere^. 
Arokszallas,  or'ok-sal-ash. 
Arolsen,  a'rol-sen. 
Arouet,  il-rdo-a'. 
Arpeggio,  ar-pej'o. 
Arqua  Petrarca,  ar-kwa' 

pa-tiiir'ka. 
Arquebuse,  iir'kwe-bus. 
Arracacha,  ar-ra-ka'cha. 
Arras,  iir-ras'. 
Arrebo,  ar're-bo. 
Arretium,  a-re'shi-um, 
Arrhenius,  a-re'ni-us. 
Arriaza  y  Superviela,  iir- 

re-ii'tha  e  sob-per-vya'Ja. 
Arrondissement,  a-ron- 

des-miin'. 
Arroyo  Molinos,  ar-ro'yo 

mo-lG'nfjs. 
Arsaces,  ilr'sa-sgz  or  ar-sS' 

sez. 

Ars  an  der  Mosel,   ar  iin 

der  mO-zcl. 
Arsinoe,  iir-sin'o-e. 
Artaxata,  ar-taks'a-ta. 
Artaxerxes,  ar-taks-urks'- 

ez. 

Artel,  ar-tyel'. 
Artemidorous,  ar-tem-i- 

do'-nis. 
Artemis,  ar'ti-mis. 
Artemisia,  ar-ti-mish'i-a. 
Artesian,  ar-ts'zhan. 
Arthropoda,  iir-throp'o-da 
Artificer,  ar-tif'i-srr. 
Artiodactyla,  iir-ti-o-dak' 

ti-lrt. 
Artois,  iir-twa'. 
Artvin,  art-vOn'. 
Arundel,  ar'un-del. 
Aruwimi,  a-rob-we'mcj. 
Arum,  a'rum. 
Arzamas,  ar-za-nias. 


Arzeu,  ar-ze-oo'. 
Asaba,  li-sa'ba. 
AsafcBtida,  as-fi-fet'J-da, 
A^^ama-yama,  a-sa'ma-ya 
md. 

Asaph,  a'saf. 
Asaphus,  as'a-fus. 
Asarum,  as'a-rum. 
Asbjornsen,  as-byurn'sen. 
Asboth,  o!?h'bot, 
Asch,  iish. 

AschafFenburg,  a-sha'- 

fen-htXivch. 
Ascham,  as'kam. 
Aschersleben,  ash-ers-la'- 

hen. 

Ascites,  a-pi'tez. 
Asclepiadaceae,  as-klg-pi, 

a-da'se-e. 
Asclepiades,  as-kle-pi'a, 

dez. 

Ascoli,  as'k(-)-le. 
Ascoli  Piceno,  pe-cha'no. 
Ascoli  Satriano,  sa-trg-a'- 
no. 

Ascomyctes,  ae-ko-mi-se' 
tez. 

Asellio,  a-sel'yo. 
Ashanti,  a-shan'te  or  a- 

shan'te. 
Ashburton,  ash'bur-tun. 
Ashby  de  la  Zouch,  zooch. 
Ashehoh,  ii-zhe-ho'. 
Ashikaga,  a-shi-ka'ga. 
Ashraf,  ash-raf. 
Ashuelot,  ash'we-lot. 
Askew,  as'ku, 
Askja,  ask'ya. 
Asnieres,  as-nyar'. 
Asoca,  a-so'ka. 
Aspasia,  as-pa'shi-a. 
Asperges,  as-pfir'jgz. 
Aspergillum,  as-per-jil'- 

um. 

Asphyxia,  as-fiks'i-a. 
Aspidistra,  as-pi-dis'tra. 
Aspiroz,  iis-pe'rcth. 
Aspromonte,  iis-pro-mon'- 
la. 

Asquith,  as'kwith. 
Assai  (Palm\  a-sr. 
Assam,  a-s^am'. 
Assaye,  ii-si'. 
Assegai,  as'i-ga. 
Assen,  iis'^n. 
Asser,  as'er, 
Assiento,  as-syen'to, 
Assignats,  ii-se-nya',  as'- 

ig-nats. 
Assiniboia,  as-pin-i-boi'a. 
Assiniboin,  as-sin'i-boin. 
Assisi,  a8-!<r'ze. 
Assiut,  as-><i-(K)t'. 

Assmannshausen,  ae- 

miins-hou'zen. 
Assoilzie,  a-soil'ys. 
Assollant,  il-f^O-lan'. 
Assouan,  as-ewan'. 
Assur,  ae'soor. 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


647 


Assur-bani-pal,  as'eoor- 

bii  ne-pjil'. 
Astarte,  as-tar'te. 
Asterophyllites,  as-ter-o- 

fil'Its. 
Asti,  as'tg. 
Astle,  a's'l. 
Astrabad,  as-tra  bad'. 
Astraea,  as-tre'a. 
Astragalus,  as-trag'a-lus. 
Astrocaryum,  as-tro-kar'- 

i-um. 

Astrolabe,  as'tro-lab. 
Astruc,  as-triik'. 
Astyag-es,  as-tra-jez. 
Asuncion,  a-i*oon-the-On'. 
Asymptotes,  as'im-tots. 
Asyndeton,  a-sin'de-ton, 
Atacamite,  a-tak'a-mit. 
Atahualpa,  a-ta-wal'pa. 
Ataulf,  at'olf 
Atbara,  iit-bii'ra. 
Atchafalaya  Bayou,  ach- 

a-fa-\l'a  Woo. 
Atchison,  ach'i-sun. 
Ateliers  Nationaux,  a-t'- 

lya'  na-syo-nO'. 
Ath,  at. 

Athaliah,  ath-a-ll'a. 
Athanaric,  a-tlian'a-rik, 
Athelney,  alh'el-ni. 
Athena,  a-tlie'na. 
Athenaeum,  ath-e-ne'um. 
Athenagoras,  ath-e-nag'O- 
ras. 

Athlone,  ath-lon'. 
Athol,  ath'ol. 
Athor,  a'thor, 
Athos,  ath'os. 
Atitlan,  a-te-tlan'. 
Atlixco,  at-les'ko. 
Atmolysis,  at-inori-sis. 
Atrato,  ii-tia'to. 
Atrebates,  a-treb'a-tez. 
Atreus,  a'timis. 
Atri,  a'tre. 
Atriplex,  at'ri-plex. 
Atropatene,  at-ro-pa-te'- 
ne. 

Atsuta,  at'so6-ta. 
Attache  (military),  a-ta- 

shil' 

Atterbom,  at'er-bnm. 
Atticism,  at'i-ciz'm. 
Atticus  Herodes,  at'i-kus 

hS-ro'dez. 
Atys,  at'is. 
Aubagne,  O-ban'y'. 
Anbanel,  o-ba-nel'. 
Aube,  ob. 
Aubenas,  Ob-nii'. 
Auber,  o-bar'. 
Aubergine,  O-bar-zhCn'. 
Aubervilliers,  o-bar-ve- 

ya'. 

Aubignac,  u-bc-nyak'. 
Aubin,  o-baiV. 
Aubrey,  o'bri. 
Aubry,  O-brO', 


Aubry  de  Montdidier,  de 

moh-de-dya'. 
Aubusson,  o-bii-son'. 
Aucassin  et  Nicolette,  o- 

ka-san'  a  ne-ko-let'. 
Auch,  osh. 
Auchenia,  6-ks'ni-a. 
Auchmuty,  ok'mu-ti, 
Auchterarder,  oK-ter-ar'- 

der. 
Aude,  od. 
Audebert,  od-bar'. 
Audenarde,  o-d'-nard'. 
Audhumla,  ond-hn  m'la. 
Audiffret-Pasquier,  o-de- 

fra'-pns-kya'. 
Audouin,  o-clo^)-ari'. 
Audran,  o-dran'. 
Audubon,  o'doT^-bun. 
Aue,  ou'e. 

Auenbrugger,  ou'en- 

broog-er. 
Auer,  ou'er. 
Auerbach,  ou'er-baK. 
Auersperg,  ou'ers-perch. 
Auerstadt,  auVr-stat. 
Auffrecht,  ouf'recAt. 
Augarten,  an'giir-ten. 
Augean,  Q-jB'an. 
Augereau,  ozh-ro'. 
Aughrim,  6'giim. 
Augier,  o-zhia'. 
Augsburg,  ouKs'biTorch. 
Augustenburg,  ou-gobs'_ 

ten-bob cb. 
Augusti,  ou-goop'ta. 
Augustine,  6'gus-tln. 
Aulie-Ata,  ou'lia-a'ta 
Aumale,  o-mal'. 
Aune,  On. 
Auray,  o-nV. 
Aurelianu,  O-ra-le-an'. 
Aures,  o-ra'. 
Aurich,  ou'iicA. 
Auriga,  o-ri'ga. 
Aurigny,  o-re-nye'. 
Aurillac,  o-re-yak'. 
Aurispa,  ou-re'spa. 
Aurlandsfjord,  our'lans- 

fyord. 

Aurora  Borealis,  6-ro'ra 

bO-re-a'li,s. 
Aurungabad,  Q-rung-ga- 

bad'. 

Aurungzebe,  o-rung-zeb'. 
Ausgleich,  ous'glic//. 
Aussig,  ou'sie/i. 
Austerlitz,  ous'ter-lits. 
Austremoine,o-8tr'mwaA'. 
Auteuil,  o-tu'y\ 
Authon,  r)-ton'. 
Autoclave,  o'to-klav. 
Autocles,  O'to-klcz. 
Auto  da  Fe,  o'to  da-fa'. 
Autodidactus,  u-to-di- 

dak'tus. 
Autolycus,  0-tol'i-ku8. 
Automobile,  O-to-mo'bil. 
Autrefois  Acquit,  o-tr'- 

fvvji'a-k^'. 


Autun,  0-tun', 
Auvergne,  o-varn'y\ 
Auwers,  ou'vers. 
Auxerre,  O-sar'. 
Auxonne,  o-son'. 
Auzout,  o-zoo'. 
Avatar,  av-a-tar'. 
Avatcha,  a-va'cha. 
Aveiro,  a-va'e-ru. 
Avellaneda,  a-val-ya-na'- 
da. 

Avellino,  a-vel-le'nO. 
Ave  Maria,  a'va  ma-re'a. 
Avempace,  ii'vam-pa'tha. 
Avenarius,  av-e-na'ri-us, 

Ger.  a-fa-na're-obs. 
Averrho6s,  a-ver'ro-ez. 
Aversa,  ii-ver'sa. 
Aveyron,  a-va-roh'. 
Avianus,  a-vi-a'nus. 
Avicebron,  a-ve-tha-bron'. 
Avicenna,  av-i-sen'na. 
Avienus,  a-vi-e'niis. 
Avigliano,  a-ve-lya'nO. 
Avignon,  a-ve-nyoii'. 
Avila  y  Zuiiiga,  a've-la  e 

ihOib'nye-ga. 
Aviles,  a-ve-las'. 
Avispoort,  a'ves-port. 
Aviz,  a'vez'. 

Avizandum,  av-i-zan'dum. 
Avranches,  a-vransh'. 
Awaji,  a'wa-je. 
Awomori,  ii'wo-nio're. 
Ax-les-Thermes,  aks'-la- 

tarm'. 
Axolotl,  aks'O-lot'l. 
Axum,  ak-soom'. 
Ayacucho,  a'ya-koo'cho. 
Ayala,  a-ya'la. 
Ayamonte,  a-ya-mon'ta. 
Ayesha,a'e-shao?  a-yesh'a. 
Aylesford,  alz'lurd. 
Ayllon,  i-lyon'. 
Aylmer,  al'mer. 
Ayrer,  I'rer. 

Ayuntamiento,a-yot)u-ta- 

myan'tO.  _ 
Ayuthia,  a-yoo'ihi'a. 
Azeglio,  il-dza'lyo. 
Azevedo,  a-za-va'do. 
Azores,  a-zorz'. 
Azov,  a'zof  or  a-zof. 
Azpeitia,  iith-pa'e-tia. 
Azuaga,  a-thoo-a'ga. 
Azul,  a-thool'. 
Azuni,  iid-zoo'ne. 
Azymites,  az'i-mlts. 

Baader,  ba'der. 
Baal,  ba'nl  or  bal. 
BaallDeck,  bal'bek. 
Baasha,  ba'a-sha. 
Babel-Mandeb,  bab'el- 

niiin'dcb. 
Baber,  ba'ber. 
Babeuf,  bii-buf. 
Babi  and  Babiism,  ba'be, 

bii'be-iz'm. 


Babuyanes,  ba-boo-ya'- 
nas. 

Bacarra,  ba-kar'ra. 
Bacau,  ba-kou'. 
Baccarat,  ba-kar-rS.'. 
Bacchae,  bak'5. 
Bacchante,  ba-kan'tS, 
Bacchylides,  ba-kil'i-dez, 
Bacciochi,  bat-cho'ke. 
Baccio  dellaPorta,bat'cho 

del'Ja  pOr'ta. 
Bach,  biiK. 
Bache,  bach. 
Bachtold,  bec/i'tolt. 
Bacillus,  ba-sil'us. 
Backhuysen,  bak'hoi-zen, 
Bacsanyi,  bo'chan-ye 
Bacs  -Bodrog,  bacb-bo'- 

drug. 

Bacteriology,  bak-te-ri- 

ol'O-ji. 
Badajoz,  ba-da-hoth'. 
Badakhshan,  ba-dak- 

shan'. 

Badalona,  ba-da-lo'-ni. 
Badeau,  ba-do'. 
Baden,  ba'den. 
Baden-Powell,  ba'den- 
po'd. 

Badenweiler,  ba-den-vl'- 
ler. 

Badghiz,  bad-gez'. 
Badia  y  Lablich,  ba-dc'a  e 

la-blecb'. 
Badoc,  ba-dok'. 
Badrinath,  ba-dre-nat'. 
Baedeker,  ba'de-ker, 
Biaena,  ba-a'na. 
Baensch,  bensh. 
Baer,  bar, 
Baeyer,  ba'yer. 
Baez,  ba'a?. 
Baeza,  ba-a'tha. 
Bagehot,  baj'ut. 
Baghelkhand,  bag-el- 

Kuud'. 
Bagheria,  bii-ga-re'a. 
Baghirmi,  ba-ger'me. 
Bagimont's,  baj'i-monts. 
Bagnacavallo,  ba-nya-ka- 

val'yo. 
Bagneres.  ba-nyar'. 
Bagni,  ba'nye. 
Bagno,  ba'nyO. 
Bagratidae,  ba-grat'i-de. 
Bagration,  ba-gra-te-on'. 
Baguet,  ba-get'. 
Bahawalpur,  ba-ha'wuJ- 

piK)r'. 
Bahia,  ba-e'a. 
Bahia  Honda,  On'da. 
Bahr,  biir. 
Bahraich,  ba-rich'. 
Bahrdt,  bart. 
Bahrein,  ba-ran'. 
Baiae,  bi'G. 

Baidyabati,  bid-ya-ba'tS. 
Baikal,  bT-kal'. 
Bailen,  bi-laji'. 


648 


APPENDIX  OF  PiiUNUJ^CIATION. 


Baillairge,  ba-yarzh. 
Bailleul,  ba-yul'. 
Baillot,  ba-yo'. 
Bairaktar,  bi-rak-tiir'. 
Bairam,  bi-ram' or  bi'ram. 
Baireuth,  bi'roit. 
Baja,  bo'yo. 
Bajmok,  boi'mOk, 
Bajocco,  ba-yok'ko. 
Bajus,  ba'jus. 
Bajza,  boi'zo. 
Bakacs,  bo'koch. 
Bakargang,  ba-kur-gunj'. 
Bakel,  bii-kel'. 
Bakhchi-Sarai,  bak'che- 

ea-rl'. 
Baku,  ba-koo'.  _ 
Bakunin,  ba-koon'yen  . 
Balafre,  ba-la-fra'. 
Balaghat,  ba-la-got'. 
Balaguer,  ba-la-gar'. 
Balakirev,  ba-la'ker-yef. 
Balaklava,  ba-la-kla'va. 
Balanophoraceae,  bal'an- 

O-fo-ra'se-e. 
Balaoan,  ba-la'o-an. 
Balasinor,  ba-la-si-nor'. 
Balasor,  bal-a-sur'. 
Balaton,  bol'o-trm, 
Balayan,  ba-lii'yan. 
Balbi,  bal'be. 
Balboa,  bal-bo'a. 
Balcescu,  bal-chesh'. 
Baldachin,  bal'da-kin. 
Balder,  bai'der.  _ 
Baldung,  bal'doong. 
Bale,  bal. 

Balearic,  bal-e-Sr'ik. 
Balestier,  bal-es-ter'. 
Balfrush,  bal-froosh'. 
Bali,  ba'le. 

Balikesri,  ba-le-kes-rS'. 
Balinag,  bii-le-nag'. 
Baliol,  ba'li-ul  or  bal'yul. 
Balkan,  bal-kau'  or  bCl'- 
kan. 

Balkhash,  bal-kash'.' 
Ballachulish,   bal-a-h  "o'- 
lish. 

Ballagi,  bol'lo-ge. 
Ballanche,  ba-lansh'. 
Ballantrae,  bal-  an-tra'. 
Ballet,  ba-la'  or  bal'et. 
Ballston  Spa,  bol'stun  spii. 
Balmaceda,bal-ma-sa'da. 
Balmaz  Ujvaros,  bol'moz 

()o-y'-va'rosh. 
Balmoral,  bal-mor'al. 
Baluchistan,  ba-loo-chis- 

tiin'. 

Balzac,  bal-zak'. 
Balzico,  bill-tse'ko. 
Bamberg,  biim'berch. 
Bamian,  t)a-m("-an'. 
Banat,   biin'at ;    Ger.  ba- 
il ilt'. 

Bandiera,  ban-di-a'ril. 
Baner,  bii-nar'. 
Banffy,  biiii'fe. 
Bange,  biinzh. 


Bangued,  ban-gaxH'. 
iJangkok,  bang-kok'. 
Eaaia,  bun'ya. 
Banjaiuka.  ban-yii-lob'ka. 
Banjermassing,  ban-yer- 

mas'iii. 
Baobab,  ba'o-bab. 
Bapaume,  ba-pom'. 
Baptanodon,  bap-tan'o- 

don. 

Barabas,  ba-rab'as. 
Barabra,  bii-ra'bra. 
Baraguay  d'Hilliers,  ba- 
•    ra-ga'  de-ya'. 
Barahona  de  Soto,  ba-rii- 

o'na  da  feo'tO. 
Baranof,  ba-ra'nof. 
Barante,  ba-riint'. 
Baratario,  ba-ra-ta-re'o. 
Baratieri,  bii-ra-ti  a're. 
Baratynski,  ba-ra-ten'i«ke, 
Barbacena,  bar-ba-sa'na. 
Barbados,  bar-ba'dos. 
Barbaroux,  biir-ba-roo'. 
Barbecue,  bar'be-ku. 
Barbey  d'Aurevilly,  bar- 

ba'  do-r'-ve-ye'. 
Barbier,  b;ir-bya'. 
Barbison,  Barbizon,  bar- 

be--on'. 
Barbou,  bar-bob'. 
Barby,  bar'bg. 
Barcarolle,  bar'ka-rol. 
Barclay  de  Tolly,  biir-kli' 

d^  to-le'. 
Bareges,  ba-razh'. 
Bareilly,  ba-ra'le. 
Barents,  ba'rents. 
Barere  de  Vieuzac,  bii-rar' 

de  vyu-zak'. 
Barfleur,  biir-flur. 
Barfod,  bai'foih. 
Bari,  im're. 
Barili,  ba-ie'le. 
Baring,  ba'ring  or  bar'ing. 
Barite,  ba'rit. 
Barium,  ba'ri-um. 
Barmesides,  bar'me-sidz. 
Barnaul,  biir-na-dbl'. 
Barnay,  bitr'ni. 
Baroche,  ba-rcsh'. 
Baro^ac  Nuevo,  ba-ro'tak 

notj-a'vo. 
Barotse,  ba-rot'se. 
Barquisimeto,  b:ir-ke-se- 

ma'to. 

Barrackpur ,  bar-rak-poor'. 
Barranquilla,  bii-ran-kgr- 
yii- 

Barrantes,  bii-ran'tas. 
Barraquete,  bil-ra-ka'ta. 
Barras,  ba-ras'  [final  s  pro- 

iioniiced  here] . 
Barre,  V.  S.  f./i.,  bar'rO. 
Barre,  ba-ra'. 
Barrias,  ba-re-as' 
Barros,  biir'rOs. 
Barrot,  ba-rr/. 
Bars,  borsli. 

Bars  gemelles,  bilrz  jem'- 
d. 


Barsine,  bar-si'iie. 

Bar  -  sur  -  Aube,  bar'su- 

rOb'. 
Barth,  biirt. 

Barthelemy,  bar-ta-l'-me'. 

Barthez,  uar-tas'  [final  z 
pronounced  here]. 

Barthold,  i)ar'tolt. 

Bartholdi,  i^r.  bar-tol-de'; 
Ger.  bar-tol'de. 

Bartholome,  bar  -  to  -  la- 
ma'. 

Bartoli,  bar'to-le. 
Bartolommeo,  bar-to-lom- 
ma'O. 

Bartolozzi,  bar-to-lot'se. 
Baruch,  ba'ruk. 
Barye,  ba-re'. 
Barytes,  ba-ri'tez. 
Basedow,  ba'z^;-do. 
Bashi-bazouks,  bash-i-ba- 
zooks'. 

BashkirtsefF,  bash-kert'- 
sef. 

Basil,   (the  plant)  baz'il; 

(the  emperor)  ba'sil  or 

ba'zil;  i^r.  ba-zel'. 
Basile,  bii-se'la. 
Basilides,  bas-i-lT'dez. 
Basnage,  ba-nazh'. 
Basoche,    Bazoche,  ba- 

zosh'. 
Basques,  bask?. 
Bassanio,  bas-sii'ne-o. 
Bassano,  bas-sa'no. 
Bassein,  ba-san'. 
Basses-Alpes,  ba«-za]p'. 
Basses-Pyrenees,  bas-pe- 

ra-na'. 
Basse-Terre,  bas-tar'. 
Bassompierre,  ba-s6n- 
Py  ar'. 

Bastia,  bas-te'a. 
Bastian,   bas'tyan  ;  Ger. 

bas'te-an. 
Bastiat,  bas-tya'. 
Bastide,  bas-ted'. 
Bastien-Lepage,  bas- 

tyah'le-pazh'. 
Bastille,  bas-tel'. 
Basyle,  ba'sil. 
Bataan,  ba-ta-an', 
Bathori,  bii'to-re. 
Bathos,  i>a'thos. 
Bathybius,  ba-thib'i-up, 
BatignoUes,  ba-te-nyol'. 
Batjan,  bat-yan'. 
Batrachomyomachia, 
bat'ra-ko-ml'O-ma'ki-a. 
Batteux,  ba-tu'. 
Batthyanyi,  bot'ya-nyS. 
Battiadae,  ba-ti'o-de. 
Batum,  ba-toT)m'. 
Bauang,  bon'iing. 
Baudelaire,  bn-d'-lar'. 
Baudin,  bo-dan'. 
Baudisson,  bo-dC-son'. 
Baudry,  bn-dre'. 
Bauer,  bou'er. 
Bauge,  bo-zba'. 


Bauhin,  bo-aft'. 
Bauhinia,  bo-hin'i-a. 
Baumann,  bou'man. 
BaumOd-ch,  boum'baK. 
Baumgarten  -  CrusiuSj 

bourn'  gar  -  ten  -  krCTo'  zi- 

oos. 

Baumgartner,  boum'gart- 
uer. 

Bautain,  bo-tan'. 
Bautzen,  bout'stn. 
Bauxite,  bok'sit. 
Baxar,  buk'sur. 
Bayaderes,  ba-ya-dgrz'. 
Bayard,  ba'erd,  hVerd ;  Fr. 

ba-yar'. 
Bayeux,  ba-yu'. 
Bayombong,     ba  -  yom  - 

bong', 
Bayonne,  ba-yon'. 
Bayou,  bi'oo. 
Baza,  tn.  Sp.  ba'tha. 
Bazaine,  ba-zan', 
Bazardjik,  ba-zar-jek'. 
Bazeilles,  ba-za'y'. 
Bazigars,  ba-ze-garz'. 
Bdellium,  del'i-um. 
Beaconsfield,bs''kunz-feld. 
Beam,  ba-arn'. 
Beas,  be'as. 
Beaucaire,  bo-kar'. 
Beauce,  bos. 

Beauchamp  (Alphonse), 

bu-shan'. 
Beauchamp  (William 

Martin),  bech'am. 
Beauclerk,  bo'klark. 
Beaufort,  tn.  li.  C.  bo'- 

furt;  tn.  S.  C.  bu'furt; 

man'^s  name  bo'furt,  bfl'- 

furt;  Fr.  bO-fAr'. 
Beaugency,  bo-zhan-se' 
Beauharnais,  bo-ar-na'. 
Beaujolais,  bo-zho-la'. 
Beaulieu,  bo-lyu', 
Beaumarchais,  bo-mar- 

eha'. 

Beaumaris,  bo-ma'ris, 
Beaumont,  bo-mont';  Fr. 

bo-moh'. 
Beaune,  bon. 
Beauregard,    bo're-gard ; 

Fr.  bo-r'-gar'. 
Beauvais,  bo-va'. 
Beaux,  bo. 
Bebel,  ba'bel. 
Bee  Abbey,  bek'  ab'i. 
Beccafico,  bek-ka-f6'ko. 
Beccaria,  bek-ka-re'a. 
Becerra,  ba-ther'ni. 
Beche  de  mer,  bash  df 

mar'. 

Becher,  hecU'er.  ^ 
Bechuanaland,  bech-oo-a' 
na-land,  or  bek-u-an'a. 
Beckerath,  bek'6;-rat. 
Becque,  bek. 
Becquer,  ba-kar'. 
Becquerel,  bek-rel'. 
Becskerek,  bech'ke-rek 


